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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 3, Slice 6 + "Bent, James" to "Bibirine" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 9, 2010 [EBook #34612] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A couple of typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME III SLICE VI<br /><br /> +Bent, James to Bibirine</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BENT, JAMES THEODORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BERRYER, ANTOINE PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BERSERKER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BENTHAM, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BERT, PAUL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BENTHAM, JEREMY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BERTANI, AGOSTINO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BERTAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM GEORGE FREDERICK CAVENDISH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BERTAUT, JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BENTIVOGLIO, GIOVANNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BERTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BENTIVOGLIO, GUIDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BERTHELOT, MARCELLIN PIERRE EUGÈNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BENTLEY, RICHARD</a> (English scholar)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BENTLEY, RICHARD</a> (British publisher)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BENTON, THOMAS HART</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BERTHON, EDWARD LYON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BENTON HARBOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BERTHOUD, FERDINAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BENUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BERTILLON, LOUIS ADOLPHE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BEN VENUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BERTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BENZALDEHYDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BERTINORO, OBADIAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BENZENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BERTINORO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BENZIDINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BERTOLD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BENZOIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BERTOLD VON REGENSBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BENZOIN</a> (ketone-alcohol)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BERTRAM, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BENZOIN</a> (balsamic resin)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BERTRAND, HENRI GRATIEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BENZOPHENONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BERTRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BENZYL ALCOHOL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BÉRULLE, PIERRE DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BEOTHUK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BERVIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BEÖTHY, ÖDÖN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">BERWICK, JAMES FITZJAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BEOWULF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">BERWICKSHIRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BEQUEST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">BERWICK-UPON-TWEED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BÉRAIN, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">BERYL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BÉRANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">BERYLLIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BERAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">BERYLLONITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BÉRARD, JOSEPH FRÉDÉRIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">BERZELIUS, JÖNS JAKOB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BERAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">BES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BERAUN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">BESANÇON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BERBER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">BESANT, SIR WALTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BERBERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">BESENVAL DE BRONSTATT, PIERRE VICTOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BERBERINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">BESKOW, BERNHARD VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BERBERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">BESNARD, PAUL ALBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BERCEUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">BESOM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BERCHEM, NICOLAAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">BESSARABIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BERCHTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">BESSARION, JOHANNES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BERCHTESGADEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">BESSBOROUGH, EARLS OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BERCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">BESSÈGES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BERDICHEV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BERDYANSK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">BESSEL FUNCTION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BEREA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">BESSEMER, SIR HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BEREKHIAH NAQDAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">BESSEMER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BERENGARIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">BESSIÈRES, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BÉRENGER, ALPHONSE MARIE MARCELLIN THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">BESSUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BERENICE</a> (princesses)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">BEST, WILLIAM THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BERENICE</a> (seaport of Egypt)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">BESTIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BERESFORD, LORD CHARLES WILLIAM DE LA POER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, ALEXIUS PETROVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BERESFORD, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, MIKHAIL PETROVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BERESFORD, WILLIAM CARR BERESFORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">BET and BETTING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BEREZINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">BETAÏNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BEREZOV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">BETEL NUT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BEREZOVSK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">BETHANY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">BETHEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BERGAMASK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">BÉTHENCOURT, JEAN DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BERGAMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">BETHESDA</a> (Jerusalem)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BERGAMOT, OIL OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">BETHESDA</a> (Wales)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BERGEDORF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">BETH-HORON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BERGEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">BETHLEHEM</a> (Palestine)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BERGEN-OP-ZOOM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">BETHLEHEM</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BERGERAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">BETHLEHEMITES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BERGHAUS, HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">BETHLEN, GABRIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BERGK, THEODOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">BETHNAL GREEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BERGLER, STEPHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">BÉTHUNE</a> {family)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BERGMAN, TORBERN OLOF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">BÉTHUNE, CONON DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BERGSCHRUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">BÉTHUNE</a> (town of France)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BERGUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">BETROTHAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BERHAMPUR</a> (Bengal, India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">BETTERMENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BERHAMPUR</a> (Madras, India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">BETTERTON, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BERI-BERI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">BETTIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BERING, VITUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">BETTINELLI, SAVERIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BERING ISLAND, SEA and STRAIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">BETTWS Y COED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BERING SEA ARBITRATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">BETTY, WILLIAM HENRY WEST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BERIOT, CHARLES AUGUSTE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">BETUL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BERJA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">BETWA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BERKA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">BEUDANT, FRANÇOIS SULPICE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BERKELEY</a> (English family)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">BEUGNOT, JACQUES CLAUDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BERKELEY, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">BEULÉ, CHARLES ERNEST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BERKELEY, MILES JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">BEURNONVILLE, PIERRE DE RUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">BEUST, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BERKELEY</a> (California, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">BEUTHEN</a> (Niederbeuthen)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BERKELEY</a> (town of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">BEUTHEN</a> (Oberbeuthen)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BERKHAMPSTEAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">BEVEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BERKSHIRE, THOMAS HOWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">BEVERLEY, WILLIAM ROXBY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BERKSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">BEVERLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BÊRLAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">BEVERLY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BERLICHINGEN, GOETZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">BEVIS OF HAMPTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BERLIN, ISAIAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">BEWDLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BERLIN</a> (German city)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">BEWICK, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BERLIN</a> (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">BEXHILL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BERLIN</a> (Ontario, Canada)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">BEXLEY, NICHOLAS VANSITTART</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BERLIN</a> (carriage)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">BEXLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BERLIOZ, HECTOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">BEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BERM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">BEYBAZAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BERMONDSEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">BEYLE, MARIE HENRI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BERMUDAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">BEYRICH, HEINRICH ERNST VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BERMUDEZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">BEYSCHLAG, WILLIBALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BERN</a> (Swiss canton)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">BEZA, THEODORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BERN</a> (Swiss city)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">BEZANT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BERNARD, SAINT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">BEZANTÉE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BERNARD OF CHARTRES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">BEZBORODKO, ALEKSANDER ANDREEVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BERNARD, CHARLES DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">BEZEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BERNARD, CLAUDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">BÉZIQUE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BERNARD, JACQUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">BEZWADA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">BHAGALPUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BERNARD, SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar243">BHAMO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BERNARD, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar244">BHANDARA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BERNARDIN OF SIENA, ST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar245">BHANG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BERNAUER, AGNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar246">BHARAHAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BERNAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar247">BHARAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BERNAYS, JAKOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar248">BHARATPUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BERNBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar249">BHATGÁON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BERNERS, JOHN BOURCHIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar250">BHATTIANA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BERNERS, JULIANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar251">BHAU DAJI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BERNHARD OF SAXE-WEIMAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar252">BHAUNAGAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BERNHARDT, SARAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar253">BHEESTY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BERNHARDY, GOTTFRIED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar254">BHERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BERNI, FRANCESCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar255">BHILS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BERNICIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar256">BHIMA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BERNICIAN SERIES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar257">BHIWANI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar258">BHOPAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BERNIS, FRANÇOIS JOACHIM DE PIERRE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar259">BHOPAWAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BERNKASTEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar260">BHOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BERNOULLI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar261">BHUJ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BERNSTEIN, AARON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar262">BHUTAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BERNSTORFF, ANDREAS PETER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar263">BIANCHINI, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BERNSTORFF, CHRISTIAN GÜNTHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar264">BIARRITZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BERNSTORFF, JOHANN HARTWIG ERNST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar265">BIAS</a> (Sage of Greece)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BEROSSUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar266">BIAS</a> (something oblique)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BERRY, CHARLES ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar267">BIBACULUS, MARCUS FURIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BERRY, CHARLES FERDINAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar268">BIBER, HEINRICH JOHANN FRANZ VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BERRY, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar269">BIBERACH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar270">BIBIRINE</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BENT, JAMES THEODORE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1852-1897), English traveller, +was the son of James Bent of Baildon House, near Leeds, Yorkshire, +where he was born on the 30th of March 1852. He was +educated at Repton school and Wadham College, Oxford, where +he graduated in 1875. In 1877 he married Mabel, daughter of +R.W. Hall-Dare of Newtownbarry, Co. Wexford, and she became +his companion in all his travels. He went abroad every year and +became thoroughly acquainted with Italy and Greece. In 1879 +he published a book on the republic of San Marino, entitled <i>A +Freak of Freedom</i>, and was made a citizen of San Marino; in the +following year appeared <i>Genoa: How the Republic Rose and +Fell</i>, and in 1881 a <i>Life of Giuseppe Garibaldi</i>. He spent considerable +time in the Aegean archipelago, of which he wrote in +<i>The Cyclades: or Life among the Insular Greeks</i> (1885). From +this period Bent devoted himself particularly to archaeological +research. The years 1885-1888 were given up to investigations +in Asia Minor, his discoveries and conclusions being communicated +to the <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i> and other magazines +and reviews. In 1889 he undertook excavations in the Bahrein +Islands of the Persian Gulf, and found evidence that they had +been a primitive home of the Phoenician race. After an expedition +in 1890 to Cilicia Trachea, where he obtained a valuable collection +of inscriptions, Bent spent a year in South Africa, with the object, +by investigation of some of the ruins in Mashonaland, of throwing +light on the vexed question of their origin and on the early history +of East Africa. He made the first detailed examination of the +Great Zimbabwe. Bent described his work in <i>The Ruined Cities +of Mashonaland</i> (1892). In 1893 he investigated the ruins of +Axum and other places in the north of Abyssinia, partially made +known before by the researches of Henry Salt and others, and <i>The +Sacred City of the Ethiopians</i> (1893) gave an account of this +expedition. Bent now visited at considerable risk the almost +unknown Hadramut country (1893-1894), and during this and +later journeys in southern Arabia he studied the ancient history +of the country, its physical features and actual condition. On +the Dhafar coast in 1894-1895 he visited ruins which he identified +with the Abyssapolis of the frankincense merchants. In 1895-1896 +he examined part of the African coast of the Red Sea, +finding there the ruins of a very ancient gold-mine and traces of +what he considered Sabean influence. While on another journey +in South Arabia (1896-1897), Bent was seized with malarial fever, +and died in London on the 5th of May 1897, a few days after his +return. Mrs Bent, who had contributed by her skill as a photographer +and in other ways to the success of her husband’s +journeys, published in 1900 <i>Southern Arabia, Soudan and Sakotra</i>, +in which were given the results of their last expedition into that +region. The conclusions at which Bent arrived as to the Semitic +origin of the ruins in Mashonaland have not been accepted by +archaeologists, but the value of his pioneer work is undeniable +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zimbabwe</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENT.<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> 1. (From “to bend”), primarily the result of bending; +hence any inclination from the straight, as in curved objects like +a hook or a bow; this survives in the modern phrase “to follow +one’s own bent,” <i>i.e.</i> to pursue a certain course in a direction +deviating from the normal, as also in such phrases as Chaucer’s +“Downward on a hill under a bent,” indicating a hollow or +declivity in the general configuration of the land. From the +bending of a bow comes the idea of tension, as in Hamlet, “they +fool me to the top of my bent,” <i>i.e.</i> to the utmost of my capacity. +2. (From the O. Eng. <i>beonet</i>, a coarse, rushy grass growing in wet +places; cf. the Ger. <i>Binse</i>, a reed), the name (“bent” or +“bennet”) popularly applied to several kinds of grass and +surviving in the form “bent-grass.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENTHAM, GEORGE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1800-1884), English botanist, was +born at Stoke near Portsmouth on the 22nd of September 1800. +His father, Sir Samuel Bentham (1757-1831), was the only +brother of Jeremy Bentham, the publicist, and of scarcely +inferior ability though in a different direction. Devoting himself +in early life to the study of naval architecture, Sir Samuel went +to Russia to visit the naval establishments in the Baltic and +Black Seas. He was induced to enter the service of the empress +Catherine II., built a flotilla of gunboats and defeated the Turkish +fleet. For this he was made, in addition to other honours, +colonel of a cavalry regiment. On the death of the empress he +returned to England to be employed by the admiralty, and was +sent (1805-1807) again to Russia to superintend the building +of some ships for the British navy. He attained the rank, under +the admiralty, of inspector-general of naval works. He introduced +a multitude of improvements in naval organization, and +it was largely through his recommendation that M.I. Brunel’s +block-making machinery was installed at Portsmouth.</p> + +<p>George Bentham had neither a school nor a college education, +but early acquired the power of giving sustained and concentrated +attention to any subject that occupied him—one essential +condition of the success he attained as perhaps the greatest +systematic botanist of the 19th century. Another was his +remarkable linguistic aptitude. At the age of six to seven he +could converse in French, German and Russian, and he learnt +Swedish during a short residence in Sweden when little older. +At the close of the war with France, the Benthams made a long +tour through that country, staying two years at Montauban, +where Bentham studied Hebrew and mathematics in the +Protestant Theological School. They eventually settled in the +neighbourhood of Montpellier where Sir Samuel purchased a +large estate.</p> + +<p>The mode in which George Bentham was attracted to the +botanical studies which became the occupation of his life is +noteworthy; it was through the applicability to them of the +logical methods which he had imbibed from his uncle’s writings, +and not from any special attraction to natural history pursuits. +While studying at Angoulême a copy of A.P. de Candolle’s +<i>Flore française</i> fell into his hands and he was struck with the +analytical tables for identifying plants. He immediately proceeded +to test their use on the first that presented itself. The +result was successful and he continued to apply it to every plant +he came across. A visit to London in 1823 brought him into contact +with the brilliant circle of English botanists. In 1826, at the +pressing invitation of his uncle, he agreed to act as his secretary, +at the same time entering at Lincoln’s Inn and reading for the +bar. He was called in due time and in 1832 held his first and +last brief. The same year Jeremy Bentham died, leaving his +property to his nephew. His father’s inheritance had fallen to +him the previous year. He was now in a position of modest +independence, and able to pursue undistractedly his favourite +studies. For a time these were divided between botany, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span> +jurisprudence and logic, in addition to editing his father’s professional +papers. Bentham’s first publication was his <i>Catalogue des +plantes indigènes des Pyrénées et du Bas Languedoc</i> (Paris, 1826), +the result of a careful exploration of the Pyrenees in company +with G.A. Walker Arnott (1799-1868), afterwards professor of +botany in the university of Glasgow. It is interesting to notice +that in it Bentham adopted the principle from which he never +deviated, of citing nothing at second-hand. This was followed +by articles on various legal subjects: on codification, in which +he disagreed with his uncle, on the laws affecting larceny and +on the law of real property. But the most remarkable production +of this period was the <i>Outline of a New System of Logic, with a +Critical Examination of Dr Whately’s Elements of Logic</i> (1827). +In this the principle of the quantification of the predicate was +first explicitly stated. This Stanley Jevons declared to be +“undoubtedly the most fruitful discovery made in abstract +logical science since the time of Aristotle.” Before sixty copies +had been sold the publisher became bankrupt and the stock +went for wastepaper. The book passed into oblivion, and it was +not till 1873 that Bentham’s claims to priority were finally +vindicated against those of Sir William Hamilton by Herbert +Spencer. In 1836 he published his <i>Labiatarum genera et species</i>. +In preparing this work he visited, between 1830-1834, every +European herbarium, several more than once. The following +winter was passed in Vienna, where he produced his <i>Commentationes +de Leguminosarum generibus</i>, published in the annals of +the Vienna Museum. In 1842 he removed to Pontrilas in Herefordshire. +His chief occupation for some succeeding years was +his contributions to the <i>Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni +Vegetabilis</i>, which was being carried on by his friend, A.P. +deCandolle. In all these dealt with some 4730 species.</p> + +<p>In 1854 he found the maintenance of a herbarium and library +too great a tax on his means. He therefore offered them to the +government on the understanding that they should form the +foundation of such necessary aids to research in the Royal +Botanic Gardens at Kew. At the same time he contemplated +the abandonment of botanical work. Fortunately, he yielded +to the persuasion of Sir William Hooker, John Lindley and other +scientific friends. In 1855 he took up his residence in London, +and worked at Kew for five days a week, with a brief summer +holiday, from this time onwards till the end of his life. As his +friend Asa Gray wrote: “With such methodical habits, with +freedom from professional or administrative functions, which +consume the time of most botanists, with steady devotion to his +chosen work, and with nearly all authentic material and needful +appliances at hand or within reach, it is not so surprising that +he should have undertaken and have so well accomplished such +a vast amount of work, and he has the crowning merit and happy +fortune of having completed all that he undertook.” The +government, in 1857, sanctioned a scheme for the preparation +of a series of Floras or descriptions in the English language +of the indigenous plants of British colonies and possessions. +Bentham began with the <i>Flora Hongkongensis</i> in 1861, which +was the first comprehensive work on any part of the little-known +flora of China. This was followed by the <i>Flora Australiensis</i>, +in seven volumes (1863-1878), the first flora of any large continental +area that had ever been finished. His greatest work +was the <i>Genera Plantarum</i>, begun in 1862, and concluded in +1883 in collaboration with Sir Joseph Hooker, “the greater +portion being,” as Sir Joseph Hooker tells us, “the product of +Bentham’s indefatigable industry.” As age gradually impaired +his bodily powers, he seemed at last only to live for the completion +of this monumental work.</p> + +<p>When the last revise of the last sheet was returned to the +printer, the stimulus was withdrawn, and his powers seemed +suddenly to fail him. He began a brief autobiography, but the +pen with which he had written his two greatest works broke in +his hand in the middle of a page. He accepted the omen, laid +aside the unfinished manuscript and patiently awaited the not +distant end. He died on the both of September 1884, within a +fortnight of his 84th birthday.</p> + +<p>The scientific world received the <i>Genera Plantarum</i> with as +unanimous an assent as was accorded to the <i>Species Plantarum</i> +of Linnaeus. Bentham possessed, as Professor Daniel Oliver +remarked, “an insight of so special a character as to deserve the +name of genius, into the relative value of characters for practical +systematic work, and as a consequence of this, a sure sifting of +essentials from non-essentials in each respective grade.” His +preparation for his crowning work had been practically lifelong. +There are few parts of the world upon the botany of which he +did not touch. In the sequence and arrangement of the great +families of flowering plants, different views from those of +Bentham may be adopted. But Bentham paved the way by an +intimate and exact statement of the structural facts and their +accurate relationship, which is not likely to be improved. +In method and style, in descriptive work, Bentham was a +supreme master. This, to quote Professor Oliver again, is +“manifest not only in its terseness, aptness and precision, but +especially in the judicious selection of diagnostic marks, and +in the instinctive estimate of probable range in variation, +which long experience and innate genius for such work could +alone inspire.”</p> +<div class="author">(W. T. T.-D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENTHAM, JEREMY<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1748-1832), English philosopher and +jurist, was born on the 15th of February 1748 in Red Lion Street, +Houndsditch, London, in which neighbourhood his grandfather +and father successively carried on business as attorneys. His +father, who was a wealthy man and possessed at any rate a +smattering of Greek, Latin and French, was thought to have +demeaned himself by marrying the daughter of an Andover +tradesman, who afterwards retired to a country house near +Reading, where young Jeremy spent many happy days. The +boy’s talents justified the ambitious hopes which his parents +entertained of his future. When three years old he read eagerly +such works as Rapin’s <i>History</i> and began the study of Latin. +A year or two later he learnt to play the violin and to speak +French. At Westminster school he obtained a reputation for +Greek and Latin verse writing; and he was only thirteen when +he was matriculated at Queen’s College, Oxford, where his most +important acquisition seems to have been a thorough acquaintance +with Sanderson’s logic. He became a B.A. in 1763, and in +the same year entered at Lincoln’s Inn, and took his seat as a +student in the queen’s bench, where he listened with rapture to +the judgments of Lord Mansfield. He managed also to hear +Blackstone’s lectures at Oxford, but says that he immediately +detected the fallacies which underlay the rounded periods of the +future judge.</p> + +<p>Bentham’s family connexions would naturally have given him +a fair start at the bar, but this was not the career for which he +was preparing himself. He spent his time in making chemical +experiments and in speculating upon legal abuses, rather than in +reading Coke upon Littleton and the Reports. On being called +to the bar he “found a cause or two at nurse for him, which he +did his best to put to death,” to the bitter disappointment of his +father, who had confidently looked forward to seeing him upon +the woolsack. The first fruits of Bentham’s studies, the <i>Fragment +on Government</i>, appeared in 1776. This masterly attack upon +Blackstone’s praises of the English constitution was variously +attributed to Lord Mansfield, Lord Camden and Lord Ashburton. +One important result of its publication was that, in 1781, Lord +Shelburne (afterwards first marquess of Lansdowne) called upon +its author in his chambers at Lincoln’s Inn. Henceforth +Bentham was a frequent guest at Bowood, where he saw the best +society and where he met Miss Caroline Fox (daughter of the +second Lord Holland), to whom he afterwards made a proposal +of marriage. In 1785 Bentham started, by way of Italy and +Constantinople, on a visit to his brother, Samuel Bentham, a +naval engineer, holding the rank of colonel in the Russian +service; and it was in Russia that he wrote his <i>Defence of Usury</i>. +Disappointed after his return to England in 1788 in the hope +which he had entertained, through a misapprehension of something +said by Lord Lansdowne, of taking a personal part in the +legislation of his country, he settled down to the yet higher task +of discovering and teaching the principles upon which all sound +legislation must proceed. The great work, upon which he had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span> +been engaged for many years, the <i>Principles of Morals and +Legislation</i>, was published in 1789. His fame spread widely and +rapidly. He was made a French citizen in 1792; and his advice +was respectfully received in most of the states of Europe and +America, with many of the leading men of which he maintained an +active correspondence. In 1817 he became a bencher of Lincoln’s +Inn. His ambition was to be allowed to prepare a code of laws +for his own or some foreign country. During nearly a quarter +of a century he was engaged in negotiations with the government +for the erection of a “Panopticon,” for the central inspection +of convicts; a plan suggested to him by a building designed by +his brother Samuel, for the better supervision of his Russian +shipwrights. This scheme, which it was alleged would render +transportation unnecessary, was eventually abandoned, and +Bentham received in 1813, in pursuance of an act of parliament, +£23,000 by way of compensation. It was at a later period of his +life that he propounded schemes for cutting canals through the +isthmus of Suez and the isthmus of Panama. In 1823 he established +the <i>Westminster Review</i>. Emboldened perhaps by the +windfall of 1813, Bentham in the following year took a lease of +Ford Abbey, a fine mansion with a deer-park, in Dorsetshire; +but in 1818 returned to the house in Queen’s Square Place which +he had occupied since the death of his father in 1792. It was +there that he died on the 6th of June 1832 in his eighty-fifth year. +In accordance with his directions, his body was dissected in the +presence of his friends, and the skeleton is still preserved in +University College, London.</p> + +<p>Bentham’s life was a happy one of its kind. His constitution, +weakly in childhood, strengthened with advancing years so as +to allow him to get through an incredible amount of sedentary +labour, while he retained to the last the fresh and cheerful +temperament of a boy. An ample inherited fortune permitted +him to pursue his studies undistracted by the necessity for +earning a livelihood, and to maximize the results of his time and +labour by the employment of amanuenses and secretaries. He +was able to gather around him a group of congenial friends and +pupils, such as the Mills, the Austins and Bowring, with whom +he could discuss the problems upon which he was engaged, and +by whom several of his books were practically rewritten from +the mass of rough though orderly memoranda which the master +had himself prepared. Thus, for instance, was the <i>Rationale of +Judicial Evidence</i> written out by J.S. Mill and the <i>Book of +Fallacies</i> by Bingham. The services which Dumont rendered in +recasting as well as translating the works of Bentham were still +more important.</p> + +<p>The popular notion that Bentham was a morose visionary is +far removed from fact. It is true that he looked upon general +society as a waste of time and that he disliked poetry as +“misrepresentation”; but he intensely enjoyed conversation, gave +good dinners and delighted in music, in country sights and in +making others happy. These features of Bentham’s character +are illustrated in the graphic account given by the American +minister, Richard Rush, of an evening spent at his London house +in the summer of the year 1818. “If Mr Bentham’s character +is peculiar,” he says, “so is his place of residence. It was a +kind of blind-alley, the end of which widened into a small, +neat courtyard. There by itself stands Mr Bentham’s house. +Shrubbery graced its area and flowers its window-sills. It was +like an oasis in the desert. Its name is the Hermitage. Mr +Bentham received me with the simplicity of a philosopher. I +should have taken him for seventy or upwards. Everything +inside the house was orderly. The furniture seemed to have +been unmoved since the days of his fathers, for I learned that it +was a patrimony. A parlour, library and dining-room made up +the suite of apartments. In each was a piano, the eccentric +master of the whole being fond of music as the recreation of his +literary hours. It is a unique, romantic-like homestead. Walking +with him into the garden, I found it dark with the shade of +ancient trees. They formed a barrier against all intrusion. +The company was small but choice. Mr Brougham; Sir +Samuel Romilly; Mr Mill, author of the well-known work on +India; M. Dumont, the learned Genevan, once the associate of +Mirabeau, were all who sat down to table. Mr Bentham did not +talk much. He had a benevolence of manner suited to the +philanthropy of his mind. He seemed to be thinking only of +the convenience and pleasure of his guests, not as a rule of +artificial breeding as from Chesterfield or Madame Genlis, but +from innate feeling. Bold as are his opinions in his works, here +he was wholly unobtrusive of theories that might not have +commended the assent of all present. When he did converse +it was in simple language, a contrast to his later writings, where +an involved style and the use of new or universal words are +drawbacks upon the speculations of a genius original and profound, +but with the faults of solitude. Yet some of his earlier +productions are distinguished by classical terseness.”—(<i>Residence +at the Court of London</i>, p. 286.) Bentham’s love of flowers and +music, of green foliage and shaded walks, comes clearly out in +this pleasant picture of his home life and social surroundings.</p> + +<p>Whether or no he can be said to have founded a school, his +doctrines have become so far part of the common thought of the +time, that there is hardly an educated man who does not accept +as too clear for argument truths which were invisible till Bentham +pointed them out. His sensitively honourable nature, which +in early life had caused him to shrink from asserting his belief +in Thirty-nine articles of faith which he had not examined, was +shocked by the enormous abuses which confronted him on +commencing the study of the law. He rebelled at hearing the +system under which they flourished described as the perfection +of human reason. But he was no merely destructive critic. He +was determined to find a solid foundation for both morality and +law, and to raise upon it an edifice, no stone of which should be +laid except in accordance with the deductions of the severest +logic. This foundation is “the greatest happiness of the greatest +number,” a formula adopted from Priestly or perhaps first from +Beccaria. The phrase may, however, be found in writers of an +earlier date than these, <i>e.g.</i> in Hutcheson’s <i>Enquiry</i>, +published in 1725. The pursuit of such happiness is taught by the +“utilitarian” philosophy, an expression used by Bentham himself +in 1802, and therefore not invented by J.S. Mill, as he supposed, +in 1823. In order to ascertain what modes of action are most +conducive to the end in view, and what motives are best fitted +to produce them, Bentham was led to construct marvellously +exhaustive, though somewhat mechanical, tables of motives. +With all their elaboration, these tables are, however, defective, +as omitting some of the highest and most influential springs of +action. But most of Bentham’s conclusions may be accepted +without any formal profession of the utilitarian theory of morals. +They are, indeed, merely the application of a rigorous common +sense to the facts of society. That the proximate ends at which +Bentham aimed are desirable hardly any one would deny, +though the feasibility of the means by which he proposes to +attain them may often be questioned, and much of the new +nomenclature in which he thought fit to clothe his doctrines +may be rejected as unnecessary. To be judged fairly, Bentham +must be judged as a teacher of the principles of legislation. With +the principles of private morals he really deals only so far as is +necessary to enable the reader to appreciate the impulses which +have to be controlled by law.</p> + +<p>As a teacher of legislation he inquires of all institutions whether +their utility justifies their existence. If not, he is prepared to +suggest a new form of institution by which the needful service +may be rendered. While thus engaged no topic is too large for +his mental grasp, none too small for his notice; and, what is still +rarer, every topic is seen in its due relation to the rest. English +institutions had never before been thus comprehensively and +dispassionately surveyed. Such improvements as had been +necessitated were mere makeshifts, often made by stealth. The +rude symmetry of the feudal system had been long ago destroyed +by partial and unskilful adaptations to modern commercial life, +effected at various dates and in accordance with various theories. +The time had come for deliberate reconstruction, for inquiring +whether the existence of many admitted evils was, as it was said +to be, unavoidable; for proving that the needs of society may be +classified and provided for by contrivances which shall not clash +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span> +with one another because all shall be parts of a consistent whole. +This task Bentham undertook, and he brought to it a mind absolutely +free from professional or class feeling, or any other species +of prejudice. He mapped out the whole subject, dividing and +subdividing it in accordance with the principle of “dichotomy.” +Having reached his ultimate subdivisions he subjects each to the +most thorough and ingenious discussion. His earlier writings +exhibit a lively and easy style, which gives place in his later +treatises to sentences which are awkward from their effort after +unattainable accuracy, and from the newly-invented technical +nomenclature in which they are expressed. Many of Bentham’s +phrases, such as “international,” “utilitarian,” “codification,” +are valuable additions to our language; but the majority of them, +especially those of Greek derivation, have taken no root in it. +His neology is one among many instances of his contempt for the +past and his wish to be clear of all association with it. His was, +indeed, a typically logical, as opposed to a historical, mind. +For the history of institutions which, thanks largely to the +writings of Sir Henry Maine, has become a new and interesting +branch of science, Bentham cared nothing. Had he possessed +such a knowledge of Roman law as is now not uncommon in +England, he must doubtless have taken a different view of many +subjects. The logical and historical methods can, however, +seldom be combined without confusion; and it is perhaps +fortunate that Bentham devoted his long life to showing how +much may be done by pursuing the former method exclusively. +His writings have been and remain a storehouse of instruction +for statesmen, an armoury for legal reformers. “Pillé par tout +le monde,” as Talleyrand said of him, “il est toujours riche.” +To trace the results of his teaching in England alone would be to +write a history of the legislation of half a century. Upon the +whole administrative machinery of government, upon criminal +law and upon procedure, both criminal and civil, his influence +has been most salutary; and the great legal revolution which in +1873 purported to accomplish the fusion of law and equity is not +obscurely traceable to the same source. Those of Bentham’s +suggestions which have hitherto been carried out have affected +the matter or contents of the law. The hopes which have been +from time to time entertained, that his suggestions for the +improvement of its form and expression were about to receive +the attention which they deserved, have hitherto been +disappointed. The services rendered by Bentham to the world +would not, however, be exhausted even by the practical adoption +of every one of his recommendations. There are no limits to the +good results of his introduction of a true method of reasoning into +the moral and political sciences.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bentham’s <i>Works</i>, together with an Introduction by J. Hill +Burton, selections from his correspondence and a biography, were +published by Dr Bowring, in eleven closely printed volumes (1838-1843). +This edition does not include the <i>Deontology</i>, which, much +rewritten, had been published by Bowring in 1834. Translations +of the <i>Works</i> or of separate treatises have appeared in most +European languages. Large masses of Bentham’s MSS., mostly +unpublished, are preserved at University College, London (see +T. Whittaker’s <i>Report</i>, 1892, on these MSS., as newly +catalogued and reclassified by him in 155 parcels); +also in the British Museum (see E. Nys, <i>Études de droit +international et de droit politique</i>, 1901, pp. 291-333). +See farther on the life and writings of Bentham: +J.H. Burton, <i>Benthamiana</i> (1843); +R. von Mohl, <i>Geschichte und Literatur der Staatswissenschaften</i>, +bk. iii. (1858), pp. 595-635; +R.K. Wilson, <i>History of Modern English Law</i> (1875), pp. 133-170; +J.S. Mill, <i>Dissertations</i> (1859), vol. i. pp. 330-392; +L. Stephen, <i>The English Utilitarians</i> (1900), vol. i.; +<i>A Fragment on Government</i>, edited by F.C. Montague (1891); +<i>The Law Quarterly Review</i> (1895), two articles on Bentham’s influence in Spain; +A.V. Dicey, <i>Law and Opinion in England</i> (1905), pp. 125-209; +C.M. Atkinson, <i>Jeremy Bentham</i> (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. E. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1774-1839), governor-general +of India, was the second son of the 3rd duke of Portland and was +born on the 14th of September 1774. He entered the army, rose +to the rank of lieutenant-colonel and was present at Marengo. +In 1803 he was nominated governor of Madras, where he +quarrelled with the chief justice, Sir Henry Gwillim, and several +members of his council. The sepoy mutiny at Vellore in 1807 led +to his recall. His name was considered at this time for the +post of governor-general, but Lord Minto was selected instead; +and it was not until twenty years later that he succeeded Lord +Amherst in that office. His governor-generalship (1827-1835) +was notable for many reforms, chief among which were the +suppression of the Thugs (<i>q.v.</i>), the abolition of suttee, and the +making of the English language the basis of education in India. +It was on this last subject that Lord Macaulay’s famous minute +was written. Lord William’s administration was essentially +peaceful, but progressive and successful. He died at Paris on +the 17th of June 1839.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Demetrius C. Boulger, <i>Lord William Bentinck</i>, in the +“Rulers of India” series (1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM GEORGE FREDERICK CAVENDISH,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> +better known as <span class="sc">Lord George Bentinck</span> (1802-1848), +British politician, was the second surviving son of the +fourth duke of Portland, by Henrietta, sister of Viscountess +Canning, and was born on the 27th of February 1802. He was +educated at home until he obtained his commission as cornet in +the 10th hussars at the age of seventeen. He practically retired +from the army in 1822 and acted for some time as private +secretary to his uncle George Canning. In 1828 he succeeded +his uncle Lord William Bentinck as member for Lynn-Regis, and +continued to represent that constituency during the remaining +twenty years of his life. His failures as a speaker in parliament +seem to have discouraged him from the attempt to acquire +reputation as a politician, and till within three years of his death +he was little known out of the sporting world. As one of the +leaders on “the turf,” however, he was distinguished by that +integrity, judgment and indomitable determination which, +when brought to bear upon weightier matters, quickly gave him +a position of first-rate importance in the political world. On his +first entrance into parliament he belonged to the moderate Whig +party, and voted in favour of Catholic emancipation, as also for +the Reform Bill, though he opposed some of its principal details. +Soon after, however, he joined the ranks of the opposition, with +whom he sided up to the important era of 1846. When, in that year, +Sir Robert Peel openly declared in favour of free trade, the +advocates of the corn-laws, then without a leader, after several +ineffectual attempts at organization, discovered that Lord George +Bentinck was the only man of position and family (for Disraeli’s +time was not yet come) around whom the several sections of the +opposition could be brought to rally. His sudden elevation took +the public by surprise; but he soon gave convincing evidence of +powers so formidable that the Protectionist party under his +leadership was at once stiffened into real importance. Towards +Peel, in particular, his hostility was uncompromising. Believing, +as he himself expressed it, that that statesman and his colleagues +had “hounded to the death his illustrious relative” Canning, he +combined with his political opposition a degree of personal +animosity that gave additional force to his invective. On +entering on his new position, he at once abandoned his connexion +with the turf, disposed of his magnificent stud and devoted his +whole energies to the laborious duties of a parliamentary leader. +Apart from the question of the corn-laws, however, his politics +were decidedly independent. In opposition to the rest of his +party, he supported the bill for removing the Jewish disabilities, +and was favourable to the scheme for the payment of the Roman +Catholic clergy in Ireland by the landowners. The result was +that on December 23rd, 1847, he wrote a letter resigning the +Protectionist leadership, though he still remained active in politics. +But his positive abilities as a constructive statesman were not to +be tested, for he died suddenly at Welbeck on the 21st of September 1848. +It was to be left to Disraeli to bring the Conservative +party into power, with Protection outside its programme.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Lord George Bentinck: a Political Biography</i> (1851), by +B. Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENTIVOGLIO, GIOVANNI<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1443-1508), tyrant of Bologna, +descended from a powerful family which exercised great influence +in Bologna during the 15th century, was born after the murder +of his father, then chief magistrate of the commune. In 1462 +Giovanni contrived to make himself master of the city, although +it was nominally a fief of the church under a papal legate. He +ruled with a stern sway for nearly half a century, but the +brilliance of his court, his encouragement of the fine arts and his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span> +decoration of the city with sumptuous edifices, to some extent +compensated the Bolognese for the loss of their liberty. Cesare +Borgia (<i>q.v.</i>) contemplated the subjugation of Bologna in 1500, +when he was crushing the various despots of Romagna, but +Bentivoglio was saved for the moment by French intervention. +In 1502 he took part in the conspiracy against Cesare, but, when +the latter obtained French assistance, he abandoned his +fellow-conspirators and helped Borgia to overcome them. During +the brief pontificate of Pius III., who succeeded Alexander VI. +in 1503, Bentivoglio enjoyed a respite, but the new pope, +Julius II., was determined to reduce all the former papal states +to obedience. Having won Louis XII. of France to his side, +he led an army against Bologna, excommunicated Bentivoglio +and forced him to abandon the city (November 1506). The +deposed tyrant took refuge with the French, whom he trusted +more than the pope, and died at Milan in 1508.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—P. Litta, <i>Le Famiglie celebri Italiane</i>, vol, iii. +(Milan, 1834); P. Villari, <i>Machiavelli</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1892); +M. Creighton, <i>History of the Papacy</i> (London, 1897); +A. von Reumont, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i>, vol. iii. (Berlin, 1868).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENTIVOGLIO, GUIDO<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1579-1644), Italian cardinal, statesman +and historian, was born at Ferrara in 1579. After studying +at Padua, he went to reside at Rome, and was received with +great favour by Pope Clement VIII., who made him his private +chamberlain. The next pope, Paul V., created him archbishop +of Rhodes in 1607, and appointed him as nuncio to Flanders and +afterwards to France; on his return to Rome in 1621 he was +created cardinal and entrusted by Louis XIII. with the +management of French affairs at the papal court. He became the +intimate friend of Pope Urban VIII., who appointed him to the +suburban see of Palestrina in 1691. An able writer and skilful +diplomatist, Bentivoglio was marked out as Urban’s successor, +but he died suddenly on the 7th of September 1644 at the opening +of the conclave. Bentivoglio’s principal works are:—<i>Della +Guerra di Fiandria</i> (best edition, Cologne, 1633-1639), translated +into English by Henry, earl of Monmouth (London, 1654); +<i>Relazioni di G. Bentivoglio in tempo delle sue Nunziature di +Fiandria e di Francia</i> (Cologne, 1630); +<i>Lettere diplomatiche di Guido Bentivoglio</i> (Brussels, 1631, +frequently reprinted, best edition by L. Scarabelli, 2 vols., Turin, 1852). +The complete edition of his works was published at Venice in 1668 in 4to. +A selection of his letters has been adopted as a classic in the Italian +schools.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENTLEY, RICHARD<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1662-1742), English scholar and +critic, was born at Oulton near Wakefield, Yorkshire, on the +27th of January 1662. His grandfather had suffered in person +and estate in the royalist cause, and the family were in +consequence in reduced circumstances. Bentley’s mother, the +daughter of a stonemason in Oulton, was a woman of excellent +understanding and some education, as she was able to give her +son his first lessons in Latin. From the grammar school of +Wakefield Richard Bentley passed to St John’s College, Cambridge, +being admitted subsizar in 1676. He afterwards obtained +a scholarship and took the degree of B.A. in 1680 (M.A. 1683). +He never succeeded to a fellowship, being appointed by his +college, before he was twenty-one, headmaster of Spalding +grammar school. In this post he did not remain long, being +selected by Dr Edward Stillingfleet, dean of St Paul’s, to be +domestic tutor to his son. This appointment introduced Bentley +at once to the society of the most eminent men of the day, +threw open to him the best private library in England, and +brought him into familiar intercourse with Dean Stillingfleet, +a man of sound understanding, who had not shrunk from exploring +some of the more solid and abstruse parts of ancient learning. +The six years which he passed in Stillingfleet’s family were +employed, with the restless energy characteristic of the man, in +exhausting the remains of the Greek and Latin writers, and +laying up those stores of knowledge upon which he afterwards +drew as circumstances required.</p> + +<p>In 1689 Stillingfleet became bishop of Worcester, and Bentley’s +pupil went to reside at Oxford in Wadham College, accompanied +by his tutor. Bentley’s introductions and his own merits +placed him at once on a footing of intimacy with the most +distinguished scholars in the university, Dr John Mill, Humphrey +Hody, Edward Bernard. Here he revelled in the MS. treasures +of the Bodleian, Corpus and other college libraries. He projected +and occupied himself with collections for vast literary schemes. +Among these are specially mentioned a <i>corpus</i> of the +fragments of the Greek poets and an edition of the Greek +lexicographers. But his first publication was in connexion with +a writer of much inferior note. The Oxford (Sheldonian) press +was about to bring out an edition (the <i>editio princeps</i>) from the +unique MS. in the Bodleian of the Greek <i>Chronicle</i> (a universal +history down to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 560) of John of Antioch (date uncertain, +between 600 and 1000), called John Malalas or “John the Rhetor”; +and the editor, Dr John Mill, principal of St Edmund Hall, +had requested Bentley to look through the sheets and +make any remarks on the text. This originated Bentley’s +<i>Epistola ad Millium</i>, which occupies less than one hundred pages +at the end of the Oxford <i>Malalas</i> (1691). This short tractate at +once placed Bentley at the head of all living English scholars. +The ease with which, by a stroke of the pen, he restores passages +which had been left in hopeless corruption by the editors of the +<i>Chronicle</i>, the certainty of the emendation and the command +over the relevant material, are in a style totally different from +the careful and laborious learning of Hody, Mill or E. Chilmead. +To the small circle of classical students (lacking the great critical +dictionaries of modern times) it was at once apparent that there +had arisen in England a critic whose attainments were not to be +measured by the ordinary academical standard, but whom these +few pages had sufficed to place by the side of the great Grecians +of a former age. Unfortunately this mastery over critical science +was accompanied by a tone of self-assertion and presumptuous +confidence which not only checked admiration, but +was calculated to rouse enmity. Dr Monk, indeed, Bentley’s +biographer, charged him (in his first edition, 1830) with an +indecorum of which he was not guilty. “In one place,” writes +Dr Monk, “he accosts Dr Mill as <span class="grk" title="o Ioannidion">ὦ Ἰωαννιδίον</span> (Johnny), +an indecorum which neither the familiarity of friendship, nor the +licence of a dead language, can justify towards the dignified head +of a house.” But the object of Bentley’s apostrophe was not his +correspondent Dr Mill, but his author John Malalas, whom in +another place he playfully appeals to as “Syrisce.” From this +publication, however, dates the origin of those mixed feelings +of admiration and repugnance which Bentley throughout his +career continued to excite among his contemporaries.</p> + +<p>In 1690 Bentley had taken deacon’s orders in the Church. In +1692 he was nominated first Boyle lecturer, a nomination which +was repeated in 1694. He was offered the appointment a third +time in 1695 but declined it, being by that time involved in too +many other undertakings. In the first series of lectures +(“A Confutation of Atheism”) he endeavours to present the Newtonian +physics in a popular form, and to frame them (especially +in opposition to Hobbes) into a proof of the existence of an +intelligent Creator. He had some correspondence with Newton, +then living in Trinity College, on the subject. The second series, +preached in 1694, has not been published and is believed to be +lost. Andrew Kippis, the editor of the <i>Biographia Britannica</i>, +mentions MS. copies of them as in existence. Scarcely was +Bentley in priest’s orders before he was preferred to a prebendal +stall in Worcester cathedral. In 1693 the keepership of the +royal library becoming vacant, great efforts were made by his +friends to obtain the place for Bentley, but through court +interest the post was given to Mr Thynne. An arrangement, +however, was made, by which the new librarian resigned in favour +of Bentley, on condition that he received an annuity of £130 +for life out of the salary, which only amounted to £200. To +these preferments were added in 1695 a royal chaplaincy and +the living of Hartlebury. In the same year Bentley was elected +a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1696 proceeded to the +degree of D.D. The recognition of continental scholars came +in the shape of a dedication, by Graevius, prefixed to a +dissertation of Albert Rubens, <i>De Vita Flavii Mallii Theodori</i>, +published at Utrecht in 1694.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span></p> + +<p>While these distinctions were being accumulated upon Bentley, +his energy was making itself felt in many and various directions. +He had official apartments in St James’s Palace, and his first care +was the royal library. He made great efforts to retrieve this +collection from the dilapidated condition into which it had been +allowed to fall. He employed the mediation of the earl of +Marlborough to beg the grant of some additional rooms in the +palace for the books. The rooms were granted, but Marlborough +characteristically kept them for himself. Bentley enforced the +law against the publishers, and thus added to the library nearly +1000 volumes which they had neglected to deliver. He was +commissioned by the university of Cambridge to obtain Greek +and Latin founts for their classical books, and accordingly he +had cast in Holland those beautiful types which appear in the +Cambridge books of that date. He assisted Evelyn in his +<i>Numismata</i>. All Bentley’s literary appearances at this time were +of this accidental character. We do not find him settling down +to the steady execution of any of the great projects with which +he had started. He designed, indeed, in 1694 an edition of +Philostratus, but readily abandoned it to G. Olearius, +(Öhlschläger), “to the joy,” says F.A. Wolf, “of Olearius and of +no one else.” He supplied Graevius with collations of Cicero, +and Joshua Barnes with a warning as to the spuriousness of the +<i>Epistles of Euripides</i>, which was thrown away upon that blunderer, +who printed the epistles and declared that no one could doubt +their genuineness but a man <i>perfrictae frontis aut judicii imminuti</i>. +Bentley supplied to Graevius’s <i>Callimachus</i> a masterly collection +of the fragments with notes, published at Utrecht in 1697.</p> + +<p>The <i>Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris</i>, the work on which +Bentley’s fame in great part rests, originated in the same casual way. +William Wotton, being about to bring out in 1697 a second +edition of his book on <i>Ancient and Modern Learning</i>, claimed of +Bentley the fulfilment of an old promise to write a paper exposing +the spuriousness of the <i>Epistles of Phalaris</i>. This paper was +resented as an insult by the Christ Church editor of Phalaris, +Charles Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery, who in getting the MS. in +the royal library collated for his edition (1695) had had a little +quarrel with Bentley. Assisted by his college friends, particularly +Atterbury, Boyle wrote a reply, “a tissue,” says Dr Alexander Dyce +(in his edition of Bentley’s Works, 1836-1838), “of superficial +learning, ingenious sophistry, dexterous malice and happy +raillery.” The reply was hailed by the public as crushing and +went immediately into a second edition. It was incumbent on +Bentley to rejoin. This he did (1699) in what Porson styles “that +immortal dissertation,” to which no answer was or could be +given, although the truth of its conclusions was not immediately +recognized. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Phalaris</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>In the year 1700 Bentley received that main preferment which, +says De Quincey, “was at once his reward and his scourge for the +rest of his life.” The six commissioners of ecclesiastical patronage +unanimously recommended Bentley to the crown for the mastership +of Trinity College, Cambridge. This college, the most +splendid foundation in the university of Cambridge, and in the +scientific and literary reputation of its fellows the most eminent +society in either university, had in 1700 greatly fallen from its +high estate. It was not that it was more degraded than the other +colleges, but its former lustre made the abuse of endowments in +its case more conspicuous. The eclipse had taken place during +the reaction which followed 1660, and was owing to causes which +were not peculiar to Trinity, but which influenced the nation at +large. The names of John Pearson and Isaac Barrow, and, +greater than either, that of Newton, adorn the college annals of +this period. But these were quite exceptional men. They had not +inspired the rank and file of fellows of Trinity with any of their +own love for learning or science. Indolent and easy-going clerics, +without duties, without a pursuit or any consciousness of the +obligation of endowments, they haunted the college for the +pleasant life and the good things they found there, creating +sinecure offices in each other’s favour, jobbing the scholarships +and making the audits mutually pleasant. Any excuse served +for a banquet at the cost of “the house,” and the celibacy +imposed by the statutes was made as tolerable as the decorum +of a respectable position permitted. To such a society Bentley +came, obnoxious as a St John’s man and an intruder, unwelcome +as a man of learning whose interests lay outside the walls of the +college. Bentley replied to their concealed dislike with open +contempt, and proceeded to ride roughshod over their little +arrangements. He inaugurated many beneficial reforms in +college usages and discipline, executed extensive improvements +in the buildings, and generally used his eminent station for the +promotion of the interests of learning both in the college and in +the university. But this energy was accompanied by a domineering +temper, an overweening contempt for the feelings and even +for the rights of others, and an unscrupulous use of means when +a good end could be obtained. Bentley, at the summit of classical +learning, disdained to associate with men whom he regarded as +illiterate priests. He treated them with contumely, while he was +diverting their income to public purposes. The continued drain +upon their purses—on one occasion the whole dividend of the year +was absorbed by the rebuilding of the chapel—was the grievance +which at last roused the fellows to make a resolute stand. After +ten years of stubborn but ineffectual resistance within the college, +they had recourse in 1710 to the last remedy—an appeal to the +visitor, the bishop of Ely (Dr Moore). Their petition is an +ill-drawn invective, full of general complaints and not alleging +any special delinquency. Bentley’s reply (<i>The Present State of +Trinity College, &c.</i>, 1710) is in his most crushing style. The +fellows amended their petition and put in a fresh charge, in which +they articled fifty-four separate breaches of the statutes as having +been committed by the master. Bentley, called upon to answer, +demurred to the bishop of Ely’s jurisdiction, alleging that the +crown was visitor. He backed his application by a dedication of +his <i>Horace</i> to the lord treasurer (Harley). The crown lawyers +decided the point against him; the case was heard (1714) and a +sentence of ejection from the mastership ordered to be drawn up, +but before it was executed the bishop of Ely died and the process +lapsed. The feud, however, still went on in various forms. In +1718 Bentley was deprived by the university of his degrees, as a +punishment for failing to appear in the vice-chancellor’s court in +a civil suit; and it was not till 1724 that the law compelled the +university to restore them. In 1733 he was again brought to trial +before the bishop of Ely (Dr Greene) by the fellows of Trinity +and was sentenced to deprivation, but the college statutes +required the sentence to be exercised by the vice-master (Dr +Walker), who was Bentley’s friend and refused to act. In vain +were attempts made to compel the execution of the sentence, +and though the feud was kept up till 1738 or 1740 (about thirty +years in all) Bentley remained undisturbed.</p> + +<p>During the period of his mastership, with the exception of the +first two years, Bentley pursued his studies uninterruptedly, +although the results in the shape of published works seem +incommensurable. In 1709 he contributed a critical appendix +to John Davies’s edition of Cicero’s <i>Tusculan Disputations</i>. +In the following year he published his emendations on the <i>Plutus</i> +and <i>Nubes</i> of Aristophanes, and on the fragments of Menander +and Philemon. The last came out under the name of “Phileleutherus +Lipsiensis,” which he made use of two years later in his +<i>Remarks on a late Discourse of Freethinking</i>, a reply to +Anthony Collins the deist. For this he received the thanks of the +university, in recognition of the service thereby rendered to the +church and clergy. His <i>Horace</i>, long contemplated and in the +end written in very great haste and brought out to propitiate public +opinion at a critical period of the Trinity quarrel, appeared in +1711. In the preface he declared his intention of confining his +attention to criticism and correction of the text, and ignoring +exegesis. Some of his 700 or 800 emendations have been accepted, +but the majority of them are now rejected as unnecessary and +prosaic, although the learning and ingenuity shown in their +support are remarkable. In 1716, in a letter to Dr Wake, +archbishop of Canterbury, he announced his design of preparing +a critical edition of the New Testament. During the next four +years, assisted by J.J. Wetstein, an eminent biblical critic, +who claimed to have been the first to suggest the idea to Bentley, +he collected materials for the work, and in 1720 published +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span> +<i>Proposals for a New Edition of the Greek Testament</i>, with +specimens of the manner in which he intended to carry it out. +He proposed, by comparing the text of the Vulgate with that of +the oldest Greek MSS., to restore the Greek text as received by +the church at the time of the council of Nice. A large number +of subscribers to the work was obtained, but it was never completed. +His <i>Terence</i> (1726) is more important than his <i>Horace</i>, +and it is upon this, next to the <i>Phalaris</i>, that his reputation +mainly rests. Its chief value consists in the novel treatment +of the metrical questions and their bearing on the emendation +of the text. To the same year belong the <i>Fables</i> of Phaedrus +and the <i>Sententiae</i> of Publius Syrus. The <i>Paradise Lost</i> (1732), +undertaken at the suggestion of Queen Caroline, is generally +regarded as the most unsatisfactory of all his writings. It is +marred by the same rashness in emendation and lack of poetical +feeling as his Horace; but there is less excuse for him in this +case, since the English text could not offer the same field for +conjecture. He put forward the idea that Milton employed both +an amanuensis and an editor, who were to be held responsible +for the clerical errors, alterations and interpolations which +Bentley professed to detect. It is uncertain whether this was +a device on the part of Bentley to excuse his own numerous +corrections, or whether he really believed in the existence of this +editor. Of the contemplated edition of Homer nothing was +published; all that remains of it consists of some manuscript and +marginal notes in the possession of Trinity College. Their chief +importance lies in the attempt to restore the metre by the insertion +of the lost digamma. Among his minor works may be mentioned: +the <i>Astronomica</i> of Manilius (1739), for which he had +been collecting materials since 1691; a letter on the Sigean +inscription on a marble slab found in the Troad, now in the +British Museum; notes on the <i>Theriaca</i> of Nicander and on Lucan, +published after his death by Cumberland; emendations of +Plautus (in his copies of the editions by Pareus, Camerarius and +Gronovius, edited by Schröder, 1880, and Sonnenschein, 1883). +<i>Bentleii Critica Sacra</i> (1862), edited by A.A. Ellis, contains the +epistle to the Galatians (and excerpts), printed from an interleaved +folio copy of the Greek and Latin Vulgate in Trinity College. +A collection of his <i>Opuscula Philologica</i> was published +at Leipzig in 1781. The edition of his works by Dyce (1836-1838) +is incomplete.</p> + +<p>He had married in 1701 Joanna, daughter of Sir John +Bernard of Brampton in Huntingdonshire. Their union lasted +forty years. Mrs Bentley died in 1740, leaving a son, Richard, +and two daughters, one of whom married in 1728 Mr Denison +Cumberland, grandson of Richard Cumberland, bishop of Peterborough. +Their son was Richard Cumberland, the dramatist. +Surrounded by his grandchildren, Dr Bentley experienced the +joint pressure of age and infirmity as lightly as is consistent with +the lot of humanity. He continued to amuse himself with reading; +and though nearly confined to his arm-chair, was able to +enjoy the society of his friends and several rising scholars, +J. Markland, John Taylor, his nephews Richard and Thomas +Bentley, with whom he discussed classical subjects. He was +accustomed to say that he should live to be eighty, adding that a +life of that duration was long enough to read everything worth +reading. He fulfilled his own prediction, dying of pleurisy on +the 14th of July 1742. Though accused by his enemies of being +grasping, he left not more than £5000 behind him. A few Greek +MSS., brought from Mount Athos, he left to the college library; +his books and papers to his nephew, Richard Bentley. Richard, +who was a fellow of Trinity, at his death in 1786 left the papers +to the college library. The books, containing in many cases +valuable manuscript notes, were purchased by the British Museum.</p> + +<p>Of his personal habits some anecdotes are related by his +grandson, Richard Cumberland, in vol. i. of his <i>Memoirs</i> (1807). +The hat of formidable dimensions, which he always wore during +reading to shade his eyes, and his preference of port to claret +(which he said “would be port if it could”) are traits embodied +in Pope’s caricature (<i>Dunciad</i>, b. 4), which bears in other respects +little resemblance to the original. He did not take up the habit +of smoking till he was seventy. He held the archdeaconry of +Ely with two livings, but never obtained higher preference in +the church. He was offered the (then poor) bishopric of Bristol +but refused it, and being asked what preferment he would consider +worth his acceptance, replied, “That which would leave +him no reason to wish for a removal.”</p> + +<p>Bentley was the first, perhaps the only, Englishman who can +be ranked with the great heroes of classical learning, although +perhaps not a great classical scholar. Before him there were only +John Selden, and, in a more restricted field, Thomas Gataker and +Pearson. But Selden, a man of stupendous learning, wanted the +freshness of original genius and confident mastery over the whole +region of his knowledge. “Bentley inaugurated a new era of the +art of criticism. He opened a new path. With him criticism +attained its majority. Where scholars had hitherto offered +suggestions and conjectures, Bentley, with unlimited control over +the whole material of learning, gave decisions” (Mähly). The +modern German school of philology does ungrudging homage to +his genius. Bentley, says Bunsen, “was the founder of historical +philology.” And Jakob Bernays says of his corrections of the +<i>Tristia</i>, “corruptions which had hitherto defied every attempt +even of the mightiest, were removed by a touch of the fingers of +this British Samson.” The English school of Hellenists, by which +the 18th century was distinguished, and which contains the names +of R. Dawes, J. Markland, J. Taylor, J. Toup, T. Tyrwhitt, +Richard Porson, P.P. Dobree, Thomas Kidd and J.H. Monk, +was the creation of Bentley. And even the Dutch school of the +same period, though the outcome of a native tradition, was in no +small degree stimulated and directed by the example of Bentley, +whose letters to the young Hemsterhuis on his edition of Julius +Pollux produced so powerful an effect on him, that he became one +of Bentley’s most devoted admirers.</p> + +<p>Bentley was a source of inspiration to a following generation of +scholars. Himself, he sprang from the earth without forerunners, +without antecedents. Self-taught, he created his own science. +It was his misfortune that there was no contemporary gild of +learning in England by which his power could be measured, and +his eccentricities checked. In the <i>Phalaris</i> controversy his +academical adversaries had not sufficient knowledge to know how +absolute their defeat was. Garth’s couplet—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“So diamonds take a lustre from their foil,</p> +<p class="i05">And to a Bentley ’tis we owe a Boyle”—</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">expressed the belief of the wits or literary world of the time. +The attacks upon him by Pope, John Arbuthnot and others are +evidence of their inability to appreciate his work. To them, +textual criticism seemed mere pedantry and useless labour. It +was not only that he had to live with inferiors, and to waste his +energy in a struggle forced upon him by the necessities of his +official position, but the wholesome stimulus of competition and +the encouragement of a sympathetic circle were wanting. In a +university where the instruction of youth or the religious +controversy of the day were the only known occupations, +Bentley was an isolated phenomenon, and we can hardly wonder +that he should have flagged in his literary exertions after his +appointment to the mastership of Trinity. All his vast acquisitions +and all his original views seem to have been obtained before 1700. +After this period he acquired little and made only spasmodic +efforts—the <i>Horace</i>, the <i>Terence</i> and the <i>Milton</i>. The +prolonged mental concentration and mature meditation, which +alone can produce a great work, were wanting to him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>F.A. Wolf, <i>Literarische Analekten</i>, i. (1816); +Monk, <i>Life of Bentley</i> (1830); +J. Mähly, <i>Richard Bentley, eine Biographie</i> (1868); +R.C. Jebb, <i>Bentley</i> (“English Men of Letters” series, 1882), +where a list of authorities bearing on Bentley’s life and work is given. +For his letters see <i>Bentlei et doctorum virorum ad eum Epistolae</i> (1807); +<i>The Correspondence of Richard Bentley</i>, edited by C. Wordsworth (1842). +See also J.E. Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i>, ii. 401-410 (1908); +and the <i>Bibliography of Bentley</i>, by A.T. Bartholomew +and J.W. Clark (Cambridge, 1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENTLEY, RICHARD<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1794-1871), British publisher, was born +in London in 1794. His father owned the <i>General Evening Post</i> +in conjunction with John Nichols, to whom Richard Bentley, on +leaving St Paul’s school, was apprenticed to learn the printing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span> +trade. With his brother <span class="sc">Samuel</span> (1785-1868), an antiquarian of +some repute, he set up a printing establishment, but in 1829 he +began business as a publisher in partnership with Henry Colburn +in New Burlington Street. Colburn retired in 1832 and Bentley +continued business on his own account. In 1837 he began +<i>Bentley’s Miscellany</i>, edited for the first three years of its existence +by Charles Dickens, whose <i>Oliver Twist</i>, with Cruikshank’s +illustrations, appeared in its pages. Bentley and his son <span class="sc">George</span> +(1828-1895), as Richard Bentley & Son, published works by R.H. +Barham, Theodore Hook, Isaac D’Israeli, Judge Haliburton +and others; also the “Library of Standard Novels” and the +“Favourite Novel Library.” In the latter series Mrs Henry +Wood’s <i>East Lynne</i> appeared. In 1866 the firm took over the +publication of <i>Temple Bar</i>, with which <i>Bentley’s Miscellany</i> was +afterwards incorporated. Richard Bentley died on the 10th of +September 1871. His son, George Bentley, and his grandson, +Richard Bentley, junior, continued the business until it was +absorbed (1898) by Macmillan & Co.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <i>R. Bentley & Son</i> (Edinburgh, 1886), a history of the +firm reprinted from <i>Le Livre</i> (October, 1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENTON, THOMAS HART<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1782-1858), American statesman, +was born at Hillsborough, Orange county, North Carolina, on the +14th of March 1782. His father, an Englishman of refinement +and scholarship, died in 1790, leaving the boy under the influence +of a very superior mother, from whom he received lessons in book +learning, piety and temperance quite unusual in the frontier +country. His home studies, facilitated by his father’s fine +library, were supplemented by a brief stay at the university of +North Carolina (Chapel Hill) in 1799. The family removed, +probably in this year, to a large tract of land which had been +acquired by the father on the outskirts of the Indian country (at +Benton Town, now Leipers Fork) near Franklin, Tennessee. +The following years, during which Benton was at various times +school teacher, farmer, lawyer and politician, were the distinctively +formative period of his life. His intense democracy and +many features of his boldly cast personality were perfectly +representative of the border people among whom he lived; although +his education, social standing and force of character +placed him above his fellows. In 1809 he served a term as state +senator. Between 1815 and 1817 he transferred his interests to +St Louis, Missouri, and in 1820 was elected United States senator +from the new state. His senatorial career of thirty years (1821-1851) +was one of extreme prominence. A friendship early formed +in Tennessee for Andrew Jackson was broken in 1813 by an armed +fracas between the principals and their friends, but after the +presidential election of 1824 Benton became a Jacksonian +Democrat and Jackson’s close friend, and as such was long the +Democratic leader in the Senate, his power being greatest during +Jackson’s second term. He continued to be the administration’s +right-hand man under Van Buren, but gradually lost influence +under Polk, with whom he finally broke both personally and +politically.</p> + +<p>The events of Benton’s political life are associated primarily +with three things: the second United States Bank, westward +expansion and slavery. In the long struggles over the bank, +the deposits and the “expunging resolution” (<i>i.e.</i> the resolution +to expunge from the records of the Senate the vote of censure +of President Jackson for his removal of the government deposits +from the bank), Benton led the Jackson Democrats. His opposition +to a national bank and insistence on the peculiar virtues of +“hard money,” whence his sobriquet of “Old Bullion,” went +back to his Tennessee days. In all that concerned the expansion +of the country and the fortunes of the West no public man was +more consistent or more influential than Benton, and none so clear +of vision. Reared on the border, and representing a state long +the farthermost outpost across the Mississippi in the Indian +country, he held the ultra-American views of his section as +regarded foreign relations generally, and the “manifest destiny” +of expansion westward especially. It was quite natural that he +should advocate the removal westward of the Indian tribes, +should urge the encouragement of trade with Sante Fé (New +Mexico), and should oppose the abandonment in the Spanish +treaty of 1819 of American claims to Texas. He once thought +the Rocky Mountains the proper western limit of the United +States (1824), but this view he soon outgrew. He was the +originator of the policy of homestead laws by which the public +lands were used to promote the settlement of the west by home-seekers. +No other man was so early and so long active for +transcontinental railways. But Benton was not a land-grabber, +whether in the interest of slavery or of mere jingoism. In the +case of Oregon, for instance, he was firmly against joint occupation +with Great Britain, but he was always for the boundary of +49° and never joined in the campaign-jingo cry of “Fifty-four +Forty or Fight.” It was he who chiefly aided Polk in withdrawing +from that untenable position. He despised pretexts +and intrigues. Both in the case of Oregon and in that of Texas, +though one of the earliest and most insistent of those who +favoured their acquisition, yet in the face of southern and +western sentiment he denounced the sordid and devious intrigues +and politics connected with their acquisition, and kept clear of +these. For the same reason he opposed the Mexican War, though +not its prosecution once begun. In the Texas question slavery +was prominent. Toward slavery Benton held a peculiarly +creditable attitude. A southerner, he was a slaveholder; but +he seems to have gradually learned that slavery was a curse to +the South, for in 1844 he declared that he would not introduce +it into Texas lands “where it was never known,” and in 1849 +proclaimed that his personal sentiments were “against the +institution of slavery.” In the long struggle over slavery in the +territories, following 1845, he was for the extreme demands of +neither section; not because he was timorous or a compromiser,—no +man was less of either,—but because he stood unwaveringly +for justice to both sections, never adopting exaggerated views +that must or even could be compromised. The truth is that he +was always a westerner before he was a southerner and a union +man before all things else; he was no whit less national than +Webster. Hence his distrust and finally hatred of Calhoun, +dating from the nullification episode of 1832-1833. As the South +under Calhoun’s lead became increasingly sectional and +aggressive, Benton increasingly lost sympathy with her. Though +he despised political inaction Abolitionists, and hated their +propaganda as inimical to the Union, he would not therefore +close the national mails to Abolition literature, nor abridge the +right of petition. No statesman was more prescient of the +disunion tendencies of Calhoun’s policies, and as early as 1844 +he prophetically denounced the treason to the Union toward +which the South was drifting. He would not drift with her for +the sake of slavery, and this was his political undoing. In 1851 +Missouri rejected him in his sixth candidacy for the Senate, after +he had been an autocrat in her politics for thirty years. In 1852 +he was elected to the House of Representatives, but his opposition +to the repeal of the Missouri Compromise caused his defeat +in 1854. An unsuccessful campaign for the governorship of +Missouri in 1856 ended his political career. He died at +Washington on the 10th of April 1858.</p> + +<p>Benton’s entire career was eminently creditable, and he is, +besides, one of the most picturesque figures in American political +history. His political principles—whether as regarded lobbying, +congressional jobbing, civil service or great issues of legislation +and foreign affairs—were of the highest. He was so independent +that he had great dislike for caucuses, and despised party platforms—although +he never voted any but the Democratic ticket, +even when his son-in-law, J.C. Frémont, was the Republican +presidential candidate in 1856; nor would he accept instructions +from the Missouri legislature. His career shows no truckling +to self-interest, and on large issues he outgrew partisanship. +Although palpably inferior to each of his great senatorial colleagues, +Webster, Clay and Calhoun, in some gifts, yet if character, +qualities and career be taken in the whole his were possibly the +most creditable of all. Benton was austere, aggressive and vain; +besides, he had a fatal deficiency of humour. Nevertheless he +had great influence, which was a deserved tribute to his ability +and high character. An indefatigable student, he treated all +subjects capably, and especially in questions of his country’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span> +history and the exploration of the West had few equals—in the +latter none. He acted always with uncalculating boldness, and +defended his acts with extraordinary courage and persistence. +Benton wrote a <i>Thirty Years’ View ... of the American +Government</i> (2 vols., 1854-1856), characteristic of the author’s +personality; it is of great value for the history of his time. He +also compiled an <i>Abridgment of the Debates of Congress</i>, 1789-1850 +(16 vols., 1857-1861), likewise of great usefulness; and published +a bitter review of the Dred Scott decision full of extremely +valuable historical details—<i>Historical and Legal Examination +of ... the Dred Scott Case</i> (1857). All were written in the last +eight years of his life and mostly in the last three.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best biography is that by W.M. Meigs, <i>Life of Thomas Hart +Benton</i> (Philadelphia and London, 1904). See also Theodore +Roosevelt’s <i>Thomas Hart Benton</i> (Boston, 1887), in the “American +Statesmen” series, which admirably brings out Benton’s significance +as a western man; and Joseph M. Rogers’s <i>Thomas Hart Benton</i> +(Philadelphia, 1905) in the “American Crisis” series.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENTON HARBOR,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a city of Berrien county, Michigan, +U.S.A., on the Saint Joseph river, about 1 m. from Lake Michigan +(with which it is connected by a ship canal), near the S.W. corner +of the state, and 1 m. N.E. of St Joseph. Pop. (1890) 3692; +(1900) 6562, of whom 795 were foreign-born; (1904) 6702; +(1910) 9185. It is served by the Père Marquette, the Michigan +Central, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis +railways, by electric railways to St Joseph and Niles, Mich., +and South Bend, Indiana, and for a part of the year by steamboat +lines to Chicago and Milwaukee. One mile south-east of the city +are a sanitarium and the Eastman mineral springs; within the +city also there are springs and bath-houses. Near the city is a +communistic religious community, the Israelite House of David, +founded in 1903, the members believe that they are a part of the +144,000 elect (Revelation, vii, xiv) ultimately to be redeemed. +Benton Harbor has a large trade in fruit (peaches, grapes, pears, +cherries, strawberries, raspberries and apples) and other market +garden produce raised in the vicinity. The city’s manufactures +include fruit baskets, preserved fruits, cider, vinegar, pickles, +furniture, lumber and stationers’ supplies, particularly material +for the “loose-leaf ledger” system of accounting. Benton +Harbor, which was known as Bronson Harbor until 1865, was +incorporated as a village in 1869, was chartered as a city in 1891, +and in 1903 received a new charter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENUE,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a river of West Africa, the largest and most important +affluent of the Niger (<i>q.v.</i>), which it joins after a course of over +800 m. in a general east to west direction from its source in the mountains of Adamawa. Through the Tuburi marshes there is a +water connexion between the Benue (Niger) and Shari (Lake Chad) +systems.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEN VENUE,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a mountain in south-west Perthshire, Scotland, +10 m. W. of Callander. Its principal peaks are 2393 and 2386 ft. +high, and, owing to its position near the south-eastern shore of +Loch Katrine, its imposing contour is one of the most familiar +features in the scenery of the Trossachs, the mountain itself +figuring prominently in <i>The Lady of the Lake</i>. On its northern +base, close to the lake, Sir Walter Scott placed the Coir-nan-Uriskin, +or “Goblin’s Cave.” Immediately to the south of the +cave is the dell called Beal(ach)-nam-Bo, or “Cattle Pass,” +through which were driven to the refuge of the Trossachs the herds +lifted by the Highland marauders in their excursions to the lands +south of Loch Lomond. The pass, though comparatively +unvisited, offers the grandest scenery in the district.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENZALDEHYDE<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (oil of bitter almonds), C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO, the +simplest representative of the aromatic aldehydes. It was first +isolated in 1803 and was the subject of an important investigation +by J. v. Liebigin 1837 (<i>Annalen</i>, 1837, 22, p. 1). It occurs naturally +in the form of the glucoside amygdalin (C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">27</span>NO<span class="su">11</span>), which is +present in bitter almonds, cherries, peaches and the leaves of the +cherry laurel; and is obtained from this substance by hydrolysis +with dilute acids:</p> + +<p class="center">C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">27</span>NO<span class="su">11</span> + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O = HCN + 2C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">6</span> + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO.</p> + +<p class="noind">It occurs free in bitter almonds, being formed by an enzyme +decomposition of amygdalin (<i>q.v.</i>). It may also be prepared +by oxidizing benzyl alcohol with concentrated nitric acid; by +distilling a mixture of calcium benzoate and calcium formate; by +the condensation of chlor-oxalic ester with benzene in the presence +of aluminium chloride, the ester of the ketonic acid formed +being then hydrolysed and the resulting acid distilled:</p> + +<p class="center">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span> + Cl·CO·COOC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·COOC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> + HCl,<br /> +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·COOH = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO + CO<span class="su">2</span>;</p> + +<p class="noind">by the action of anhydrous hydrocyanic acid and hydrochloric +acid on benzene, an aldime being formed as an intermediate +product:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span> + HCN + HCl =</td> <td class="tcc">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH : NH·HCl,</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td> <td class="tcc">Benzaldine hydrochloride</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH : NH·HCl + H<span class="su">2</span>O = NH<span class="su">4</span>Cl + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO;</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">and by the action of chromium oxychloride on toluene dissolved +in carbon bisulphide (A. Etard, <i>Berichte</i>, 1884, 17, pp. 1462, 1700).</p> + +<p>Technically it is prepared from toluene, by converting it into +benzyl chloride, which is then heated with lead nitrate:</p> + +<p class="center">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>Cl + Pb(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span> = 2NO<span class="su">2</span> + PbCl·OH + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO,</p> + +<p class="noind">or, by conversion into benzal chloride, which is heated with milk +of lime under pressure.</p> + +<p class="center">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHCl<span class="su">2</span> + CaO = CaCL<span class="su">2</span> + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO.</p> + +<p class="noind">E. Jacobsen has also obtained benzaldehyde by heating benzal +chloride with glacial acetic acid:</p> + +<p class="center">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHCl<span class="su">2</span> + CH<span class="su">3</span>COOH = CH<span class="su">3</span>COCl + HCl + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO.</p> + +<p class="noind">Benzaldehyde is a colourless liquid smelling of bitter almonds. +Its specific gravity is 1.0636 (<span class="spp">0</span>⁄<span class="suu">0</span>° C.), and it boils at 179.1° C. +(751.3 mm). It is only slightly soluble in water, but is readily +volatile in steam. It possesses all the characteristic properties of +an aldehyde; being readily oxidized to benzoic acid; reducing +solutions of silver salts; forming addition products with +hydrogen, hydrocyanic acid and sodium bisulphite; and giving +an oxime and a hydrazone. On the other hand, it differs from +the aliphatic aldehydes in many respects; it does not form an +addition product with ammonia but condenses to hydrobenzamide +(C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH)<span class="su">3</span>N<span class="su">2</span>; on shaking with alcoholic potash it undergoes +simultaneous oxidation and reduction, giving benzoic acid and +benzyl alcohol (S. Cannizzaro); and on warming with alcoholic +potassium cyanide it condenses to benzoin (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The oxidation of benzaldehyde to benzoic acid when exposed +to air is not one of ordinary oxidation, for it has been observed in +the case of many compounds that during such oxidation, as much +oxygen is rendered “active” as is used up by the substance +undergoing oxidation; thus if benzaldehyde is left for some time +in contact with air, water and indigosulphonic acid, just as much +oxygen is used up in oxidizing the indigo compound as in oxidizing +the aldehyde. A. v. Baeyer and V. Villiger (<i>Berichte</i>, 1900, +33, pp. 858, 2480) have shown that benzoyl hydrogen peroxide +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·CO·O·OH is formed as an intermediate product and that +this oxidizes the indigo compound, being itself reduced to benzoic +acid; they have also shown that this peroxide is soluble in +benzaldehyde with production of benzoic acid, and it must be +assumed that the oxidation of benzaldehyde proceeds as shown +in the equations:</p> + +<p class="center">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO + O<span class="su">2</span> = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·CO·O·OH,<br /> +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·O·OH + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO = 2C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COOH.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Further see G. Bodlander, <i>Ahrens Sammlung</i>, 1899, iii. 470; +W.P. Jorissen, <i>Zeit. für phys. Chem.</i>, 1897, 22, p. 56; C. Engler and +W. Wild, <i>Berichte</i>, 1897, 30, p. 1669.</p> +</div> + +<p>The oxime of benzaldehyde (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH : N·OH), formed by the +addition of hydroxylamine to the aldehyde, exhibits a characteristic +behaviour when hydrochloric acid gas is passed into its +ethereal solution, a second modification being produced. The +former (known as the α or benz-anti-aldoxime) melts at 34-35° C.; +the latter (β or benz-syn-aldoxime) melts at 130° C. and is slowly +transformed into the α form. The difference between the two +forms has been explained by A. Hantzsch and A. Werner +(<i>Berichte</i>, 1890, 23, p. 11) by the assumption of the different spatial +arrangement of the atoms (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stereo-Isomerism</a></span>). On account +of the readiness with which it condenses with various compounds, +benzaldehyde is an important synthetic reagent. With aniline +it forms benzylidine aniline C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH : N·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, and with acetone, +benzal acetone C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH : CH·CO·CH<span class="su">3</span>. Heated with anhydrous +sodium acetate and acetic anhydride it gives cinnamic acid (<i>q.v.</i>); +with ethyl bromide and sodium it forms triphenyl-carbinol +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span> +(C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">3</span>C·OH; with dimethylaniline and anhydrous zinc chloride +it forms leuco-malachite green C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH[C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>]<span class="su">2</span>; and +with dimethylaniline and concentrated hydrochloric acid it gives +dimethylaminobenzhydrol, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH(OH)C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>. Heated +with sulphur it forms benzoic acid and stilbene:</p> + +<p class="center">2C<span class="su">7</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O + S = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COOH + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span>CHS,<br /> +2C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHS = 2S + C<span class="su">14</span>H<span class="su">12</span>.</p> + +<p class="noind">Its addition compound with hydrocyanic acid gives mandelic +acid C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH(OH)·COOH on hydrolysis; when heated with +sodium succinate and acetic anhydride, phenyl-iso-crotonic acid +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH : CH·CH<span class="su">2</span>COOH is produced, which on boiling is +converted into α-naphthol C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">7</span>OH. It can also be used for the +synthesis of pyridine derivatives, since A. Hantzsch has shown +that aldehydes condense with aceto-acetic ester and ammonia to +produce the homologues of pyridine, thus:</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:528px; height:85px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img755a.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2 noind">On nitration it yields chiefly meta-nitro-benzaldehyde, crystallizing +in needles which melt at 58° C. The ortho-compound may be +obtained by oxidizing ortho-nitrocinnamic acid with alkaline +potassium permanganate in the presence of benzene; or from +ortho-nitrobenzyl chloride by condensing it with aniline, +oxidizing the product so obtained to ortho-nitrobenzylidine +aniline, and then hydrolysing this compound with an acid +(<i>Farben fabrik d. Meister, Lucius und Brüning</i>). It crystallizes +in yellowish needles, which are volatile in steam and melt at 46° C. +It is used in the artificial production of indigo (see <i>German +Patent</i> 19768).</p> + +<p>Para-nitrobenzaldehyde crystallizes in prisms melting at +107° C. and is prepared by the action of chromium oxychloride on +para-nitrotoluene, or by oxidizing para-nitrocinnamic acid. By +the reduction of ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde with ferrous sulphate +and ammonia, ortho-aminobenzaldehyde is obtained. This +compound condenses in alkaline solution with compounds +containing the grouping —CH<span class="su">2</span>—CO— to form quinoline (<i>q.v.</i>) +or its derivatives; thus, with acetaldehyde it forms quinoline, +and with acetone, α-methyl quinoline. With urea it gives +quinazolone <img style="width:80px; height:49px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img755b.jpg" alt="" /> and with mandelic nitrile and its +homologues it forms oxazole derivatives (S.S. Minovici, <i>Berichte</i>, +1896, 29, p. 2097).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENZENE,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span>, a hydrocarbon discovered in 1825 by +Faraday in the liquid produced in the compression of the +illuminating gas obtained by distilling certain oils and fats. +E. Mitscherlich prepared it in 1834 by distilling benzoic acid +with lime; and in 1845 Hofmann discovered it in coal-tar. It +was named “benzin” or “benzine” by Mitscherlich in 1833, +but in the following year Liebig proposed “benzol” (the termination +<i>ol</i> being suggested by the Lat. <i>oleum</i>, oil); the form +“benzene” was due to A.W. Hofmann. The word “benzine” +is sometimes used in commerce for the coal-tar product, but also +for the light petroleum better known as petroleum-benzine; +a similar ambiguity is presented by the word “benzoline,” +which is applied to the same substances as the word “benzine.” +“Benzene” is the term used by English chemists, “benzol” +is used in Germany, and “benzole” in France.</p> + +<p>Benzene is manufactured from the low-boiling fractions of +the coal-tar distillate (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal-Tar</a></span>). The first successful +fractionation of coal-tar naphtha was devised by C.B. Mansfield +(1819-1855), who separated a benzol distilling below 100° from +a less volatile naphtha by using a simple dephlegmator. At first, +the oil was manufactured principally for combustion in the +Read-Holliday lamp and for dissolving rubber, but the development +of the coal-tar colour industry occasioned a demand for +benzols of definite purity. In the earlier stages 30%, 50% and +90% benzols were required, the 30% being mainly used for the +manufacture of “aniline for red,” and the 90% for “aniline for +blue.” (The term “30% benzol” means that 30% by volume +distils below 100°.) A purer benzol was subsequently required +for the manufacture of aniline black and other dye-stuffs. The +process originally suggested by Mansfield is generally followed, +the success of the operation being principally conditioned by the +efficiency of the dephlegmator, in which various improvements +have been made. The light oil fraction of the coal-tar distillate, +which comes over below 140° and consists principally of benzene, +toluene and the xylenes, yields on fractionation (1) various +volatile impurities such as carbon disulphide, (2) the benzene +fraction boiling at about 80° C., (3) the toluene fraction boiling +at 100°, (4) the xylene fraction boiling at 140°. The fractions are +agitated with strong sulphuric acid, and then washed with a +caustic soda solution. The washed products are then refractionated. +The toluene fraction requires a more thorough +washing with sulphuric acid in order to eliminate the thiotolene, +which is sulphonated much less readily than thiophene.</p> + +<p>Benzene is a colourless, limpid, highly refracting liquid, having +a pleasing and characteristic odour. It may be solidified to +rhombic crystals which melt at 5.4° C. (Mansfield obtained +perfectly pure benzene by freezing a carefully fractionated +sample.) It boils at 80.4°, and the vapour is highly inflammable, +the flame being extremely smoky. Its specific gravity is 0.899 +at 0° C. It is very slightly soluble in water, more soluble in +alcohol, and completely miscible with ether, acetic acid and +carbon disulphide. It is an excellent solvent for gums, resins, +fats, &c.; sulphur, phosphorus and iodine also dissolve in it. +It sometimes separates with crystals of a solute as “benzene +of crystallization,” as for example with triphenylmethane, +thio-p-tolyl urea, tropine, &c.</p> + +<p>Benzene is of exceptional importance commercially on account +of the many compounds derivable from it, which are exceedingly +valuable in the arts. Chemically it is one of the most interesting +substances known, since it is the parent of the enormous number +of compounds styled the “aromatic” or “benzenoid” compounds. +The constitution of the benzene ring, the isomerism +of its derivatives, and their syntheses from aliphatic or open-chain +compounds, are treated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>. A +summary of its chemical transformations may be given here, +and reference should be made to the articles on the separate +compounds for further details.</p> + +<p>Passed through a red-hot tube, benzene vapour yields hydrogen, +diphenyl, diphenylbenzenes and acetylene; the formation of +the last compound is an instance of a reversible reaction, since +Berthelot found that acetylene passed through a red-hot tube +gave some benzene. Benzene is very stable to oxidants, in fact +resistance to oxidation is a strong characteristic of the benzene +ring. Manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid oxidize it to benzoic +and o-phthalic acid; potassium chlorate and sulphuric acid +breaks the ring; and ozone oxidizes it to the highly explosive +white solid named ozo-benzene, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">6</span>. Hydriodic acid reduces +it to hexamethylene (cyclo-hexane or hexa-hydro-benzene); +chlorine and bromine form substitution and addition products, +but the action is slow unless some carrier such as iodine, molybdenum +chloride or ferric chloride for chlorine, and aluminium +bromide for bromine, be present. It is readily nitrated to nitrobenzene, +two, and even three nitro groups being introduced if +some dehydrator such as concentrated sulphuric acid be present. +Sulphuric acid gives a benzene sulphonic acid.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENZIDINE<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Dipara-diamino-diphenyl</span>), NH<span class="su">2</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·NH<span class="su">2</span>, +a chemical base which may be prepared by the reduction of the +corresponding dinitro-diphenyl, or by the reduction of azo-benzene +with tin and hydrochloric acid. In this latter case +hydrazo-benzene C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>NH·NH·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span> is first formed and then +undergoes a peculiar re-arrangement into benzidine (see H. +Schmidt and G. Schultz, <i>Annalen</i>, 1881, 207, p. 320; O.N. Witt +and Hans v. Helmont, <i>Berichte</i>, 1894, 27, p. 2352; P. Jacobson, +<i>Berichte</i>, 1892, 25, p. 994). Benzidine crystallizes in plates (from +water) which melt at 122° C., and boil above 360° C., and is characterized +by the great insolubility of its sulphate. It is a di-acid +base and forms salts with the mineral acids. It is readily +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span> +brominated and nitrated; when the nitration is carried out in +the presence of sulphuric acid, the nitro-groups take up the +meta position with regard to the amino-groups. Benzidine finds +commercial application since its tetrazo compound couples +readily with amino-sulphonic acids, phenol carboxylic acids, +and phenol and naphthol-sulphonic acids to produce substantive +cotton dyes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dyeing</a></span>). Among such dyestuffs are chrysamine +or flavophenine, obtained from salicylic acid and diazotized +benzidine, and congo red obtained from sodium +naphthionate and diazotized benzidine. On the constitution +of benzidine see G. Schultz (<i>Annalen</i>, 1874, 174, p. 227).</p> + +<p><i>The Benzidine and Semidine Change.</i>—Aromatic hydrazo +compounds which contain free para positions are readily converted +by the action of acids, acid chlorides and anhydrides into +diphenyl derivatives; thus, as mentioned above, hydrazo-benzene +is converted into benzidine, a small quantity of +diphenylin being formed at the same time. The two products +are separated by the different solubilities of their sulphates. +This reaction is known as the <i>benzidine transformation</i>. If, +however, one of the para positions in the hydrazo compound +is substituted, then either diphenyl derivatives or azo compounds +are formed, or what is known as the <i>semidine change</i> takes place +(P. Jacobson, <i>Berichte</i>, 1892, 25, p. 992; 1893, 26, p. 681; 1896, +29, p. 2680; <i>Annalen</i>, 1895, 287, p. 97; 1898, 303, p. 290). +A para mono substituted hydrazo compound in the presence +of a hydrochloric acid solution of stannous chloride gives either +a para diphenyl derivative (the substituent group being eliminated), +an ortho-semidine, a para-semidine, or a diphenyl base, +whilst a decomposition with the formation of amines may also +take place. The nature of the substituent exerts a specific +influence on the reaction; thus with chlorine or bromine, +ortho-semidines and the diphenyl bases are the chief products; +the dimethylamino, −N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, and acetamino, −NHCOCH<span class="su">3</span>, +groups give the diphenyl base and the para-semidine respectively. +With a methyl group, the chief product is an ortho-semidine, +whilst with a carboxyl group, the diphenyl derivative is the +chief product. The ortho- and para- semidines can be readily +distinguished by their behaviour with different reagents; thus +with nitrous acid the ortho-semidines give azimido compounds, +whilst the para-semidines give complex diazo derivatives; +with formic or acetic acids the ortho-semidines give anhydro +compounds of a basic character, the para-semidines give acyl +products possessing no basic character. The carbon disulphide +and salicylic aldehyde products have also been used as means +of distinction, as has also the formation of the stilbazonium bases +obtained by condensing ortho-semidines with benzil (O.N. Witt, +<i>Berichte</i>, 1892, 25, p. 1017).</p> + +<p>Structurally we have:—</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:527px; height:176px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img756.jpg" alt="" /></div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENZOIC ACID,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> C<span class="su">7</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">2</span> or C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COOH, the simplest representative +of the aromatic acids. It occurs naturally in some +resins, especially in gum benzoin (from <i>Styrax benzoin</i>), in +dragon’s blood, and as a benzyl ester in Peru and Tolu balsams. +It can be prepared by the oxidation of toluene, benzyl alcohol, +benzaldehyde and cinnamic acid; by the oxidation of benzene +with manganese dioxide and concentrated sulphuric acid in the +cold (L. Carius, <i>Ann</i>. 1868, 148, p. 51); by hydrolysis of benzonitrile +or of hippuric acid; by the action of carbon dioxide on +benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and +J.M. Crafts, <i>Ann. chim. phys.</i> 1888 [6], 14, p. 441); by the action +of carbon dioxide on monobrombenzene in the presence of +sodium; by condensing benzene and carbonyl chloride in +presence of aluminium chloride, the benzoyl chloride formed +being subsequently hydrolysed; and similarly from benzene +and chlorformamide:—</p> + +<p class="center">C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span> + Cl·CONH<span class="su">2</span> = HCl + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CONH<span class="su">2</span>,</p> + +<p class="noind">the benzamide being then hydrolysed. It may also be prepared +by boiling benzyl chloride with dilute nitric acid (G. Lunge, +<i>Berichte</i>, 1877, 10, p. 1275); by fusing sodium benzene sulphonate +with sodium formate: C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>SO<span class="su">3</span>Na + HCO<span class="su">2</span>Na = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COONa + NaHSO<span class="su">3</span>; +by heating calcium phthalate with calcium hydroxide +to 330°-350° C.; by heating benzotrichloride with water in a +sealed tube, and from the hippuric acid which is found in the +urine of the herbivorae. For this purpose the urine is concentrated +and the hippuric acid precipitated by the addition of +hydrochloric acid; it is then filtered and boiled for some time +with concentrated hydrochloric acid, when it is hydrolysed into +benzoic and amido-acetic acid. It is made commercially by +boiling benzotrichloride (obtained from toluene) with milk of +lime, the calcium benzoate so obtained being then decomposed +by hydrochloric acid</p> + +<p class="center">2C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CCl<span class="su">3</span> + 4Ca(OH)<span class="su">2</span> = (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COO)<span class="su">2</span>Ca + 3CaCl<span class="su">2</span> + 4H<span class="su">2</span>O.</p> + +<p class="noind">Benzoic acid crystallizes in glistening leaflets (from water) +which melt at 121.4° C. and boil at 249.2° C. (H. Kopp). Its +specific heat is 0.1946. It sublimes readily and is volatile in +steam. It is readily soluble in hot water and the ordinary organic +solvents, but is only slightly soluble in cold water. When heated +with lime, it is decomposed, benzene being formed; if its vapours +are passed over heated zinc dust, it is converted into benzaldehyde +(A. Baeyer, <i>Ann</i>. 1866, 140, p. 296). Distillation of its +calcium salt gives benzophenone (<i>q.v.</i>) with small quantities of +other substances, but if the calcium salt be mixed with calcium +formate and the mixture distilled, benzaldehyde is produced. +By the action of sodium amalgam on an aqueous solution of the +acid, benzyl alcohol, tetrahydrobenzoic acid and hexahydrobenzoic +acid are formed. The salts of benzoic acid are known +as the benzoates and are mostly soluble in water. They are +readily decomposed by mineral acids with the production of +benzoic acid, and on addition of ferric chloride to their neutral +solutions give a reddish-brown precipitate of ferric benzoate.</p> + +<p>Benzoic anhydride, (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO)<span class="su">2</span>O, is prepared by the action of +benzoyl chloride on sodium benzoate, or by heating benzoyl +chloride with anhydrous oxalic acid (R. Anschütz, <i>Ann</i>. 1884, +226, p. 15). It crystallizes in needles, melting at 42° C., and boiling +at 360° C. It is insoluble in water but readily soluble in alcohol +and ether.</p> + +<p>Benzoyl chloride, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COCl, is formed by distilling a mixture +of phosphorus pentachloride and benzoic acid; by the action of +chlorine on benzaldehyde, or by passing a stream of hydrochloric +acid gas over a mixture of benzoic acid and phosphorus pentoxide +heated to 200° C. (C. Friedel, <i>Ber.</i> 1869, 2, p. 80). It is a colourless +liquid of very unpleasant smell, which boils at 198° C., and +solidifies in a freezing mixture, the crystals obtained melting at +−1° C. It shows all the characteristic properties of an acid +chloride.</p> + +<p>Ethyl benzoate, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COOC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, is best prepared by boiling +benzoic acid and alcohol with a small quantity of sulphuric +acid for some hours (E. Fischer and A. Speier, <i>Berichte</i>, 1896, +28, p. 3252). It is a colourless liquid of boiling point 213° C.</p> + +<p><i>Benzamide</i>, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CONH<span class="su">2</span>, is prepared by the action of benzoyl +chloride on ammonia or ammonium carbonate, or from ethyl +benzoate and ammonia. It crystallizes (from water) in glistening +leaflets which melt at 130° C. and boil at 288° C. Its silver salt +behaves as if it were the salt of an imido benzoic acid, since it +yields benzimido ethyl ether C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·C( : NH)·OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> with ethyl +iodide (J. Tafel and C. Enoch, <i>Berichte</i>, 1890, 23, p. 1550).</p> + +<p>Chlor-, brom-, iodo- and fluor-benzoic acids are known and can +be obtained by oxidizing the corresponding halogen toluenes, +or from the amido acids, or by substitution. Nitration of benzoic +acid gives chiefly meta-nitro-benzoic acid. The ortho- and +para-nitro-benzoic acids can be obtained by oxidizing ortho-and +para-nitro-cinnamic acids. Ortho-amino-benzoic acid, +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>·NH<span class="su">2</span>·COOH (anthranilic acid), is closely related to indigo +(<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span></p> + +<p>Gum benzoin, which contains from 12 to 20% of benzoic acid, +is used in medicine as the essential constituent of benzoated lard, +<i>Adeps benzoatus</i>, which owes its antiseptic properties to benzoic +acid; and in friar’s balsam, <i>Tinctura benzoini composita</i>, which +is an ancient and valuable medicament, still largely used for +inhalation in cases of laryngitis, bronchitis and other inflammatory +or actually septic conditions of the respiratory tract. It +owes its value to the benzoic acid which it contains. A fluid +drachm of friar’s balsam may be added to a pint of water at a +temperature of about 140° F., and the resultant vapour may be +inhaled from the spout of a kettle or from a special inhaler. +Benzoic acid itself, ammonium benzoate and sodium benzoate +are all administered internally in doses of from five to thirty +grains. The ammonium salt is most often employed, owing to +the stimulant character of the ammonium base. The acid itself +is a powerful antiseptic. When administered internally, it +causes the appearance of hippuric acid in the urine. This is due +to its combination in the body with glycocoll. The combination +probably occurs in the kidney. The hippuric acid in the urine +acts as a stimulant and disinfectant to the urinary mucous +membrane. Benzoic acid is also excreted by the bronchi and +tends to disinfect and stimulate the bronchial mucous membrane. +Hence the value of friar’s balsam. The acid and its salts are +antipyretic and were used in Germany instead of salicylates in +rheumatic fever. But the most important fact is that ammonium +benzoate is largely used—often in combination with urinary +anodynes such as tincture of hyoscyamus—as a urinary antiseptic +in cases of cystitis (inflammation of the bladder) and pyelitis +(inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENZOIN,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHOH·CO·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, a ketone-alcohol, which may +be prepared by boiling an alcoholic solution of benzaldehyde +with potassium cyanide; by reducing benzil (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·CO·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>) +with zinc and acetic acid; or by the oxidation of hydrobenzoin +(C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>-CHOH-CHOH-C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>). It is a colourless, crystalline solid, +readily soluble in alcohol and ether, melting at 137° C. and boiling +at 343-344° C. On passing the vapour of benzoin over heated lead +oxide, it is converted into benzil and benzophenone. Owing to +the readiness with which it is oxidized, it acts as a reducing +agent, giving a red precipitate of cuprous oxide with Fehling’s +solution in the cold. Chlorine and nitric acid oxidize it to benzil; +chromic acid mixture and potassium permanganate, to benzoic +acid and benzaldehyde. On heating with zinc dust, desoxy-benzoin +(C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CO·CH<span class="su">2</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>) is obtained; sodium amalgam +converts it into hydrobenzoin; and fuming hydriodic acid at +130° C. gives dibenzyl (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>). By fusion with +alkali it is converted into benzil; and with an alcoholic solution +of benzaldehyde in presence of ammonia it forms amarine (triphenyl +dihydro-glyoxaline). In the presence of sulphuric acid +it condenses with nitriles to oxazoles (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENZOIN,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gum Benjamin</span> (supposed to be from Arab. +<i>luban</i>, frankincense, the first syllable being dropped in Romanic +as if it were the article), a balsamic resin obtained from <i>Styrax +benzoin</i>, a tree of considerable size, native to Sumatra and Java, +and from other species of <i>Styrax</i>. It is obtained by making +incisions in the bark of the trees, and appears to be formed as +the result of the wound, not to be secreted normally. There are +several varieties of benzoin in commerce: (1) Siam benzoin, +which apparently does not come from <i>Styrax benzoin</i>, is the +finest and most aromatic, and occurs in the form of small “tears,” +rarely exceeding 2 in. in length by ½ in. in thickness, and of +“blocks” made up of these tears agglomerated by a clear +reddish-brown resin. The odour of Siam benzoin is partly due +to the presence of vanillin, and the substance contains as much +as 38% of benzoic acid but no cinnamic acid. (2) Sumatra +benzoin occurs only in masses formed of dull red resin enclosing +white tears. It contains about 20% of cinnamic acid in addition +to 18 or even more of benzoic. (3) Palembang benzoin, an inferior +variety, said to be obtained from <i>Styrax benzoin</i> in Sumatra, +consists of greyish translucent resinous masses, containing small +white opaque tears. It does not appear to contain cinnamic +acid. Large quantities of benzoin are used as incense. Its +medicinal uses depend on the contained benzoic acid (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENZOPHENONE<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Diphenyl Ketone</span>), C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·CO·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, the +simplest representative of the true aromatic ketones. It may be +prepared by distilling calcium benzoate; by condensing benzene +with benzoyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium +chloride; by the action of mercury diphenyl on benzoyl chloride, +or by oxidizing diphenylmethane with chromic acid. It is a +dimorphous substance existing in two enantiotropic forms, one +melting at 26° C. and the other at 48° C: (Th. Zmcke, <i>Berichte</i>, 1871, +4, p. 576). It boils at 306.1° C., under a pressure of 760.32 mm. It +is reduced by sodium amalgam to <i>benzhydrol</i> or <i>diphenyl carbinol</i> +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·CHOH·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>; a stronger reducing agent, such as hydriodic +acid in the presence of amorphous phosphorus converts it into +<i>diphenylmethane</i> (C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>. Potash fusion converts it into +benzene and benzoic acid. With phenylhydrazine it forms a +hydrazone, and with hydroxylamine an oxime, which exists in +one form only; if, however, one of the phenyl groups in the oxime +be substituted in any way then two stereo-isomeric oximes are +produced (cf. <span class="sc">Stereo-Isomerism</span>); thus parachlorbenzophenone +oxime exists in two different forms (V. Meyer and K.F. Auwers, +<i>Berichte</i>, 1890, 23, p. 2403). Many derivatives are known, thus +ortho-amino-benzophenone, melting at 106° C., can be obtained +by reduction of the corresponding nitro compound; it condenses +under the influence of heated lead monoxide to an acridine +derivative and with acetone in presence of caustic soda it gives +a quinoline. <i>Tetramethyl-diamido-benzophenone</i> or <i>Michler’s +ketone</i>, CO[C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>N·(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>]<span class="su">2</span>, melting at 173°, is of technical +importance, as by condensation with various substances it can be +made to yield dye-stuffs. It is prepared by the action of carbonyl +chloride on dimethyl aniline in the presence of aluminium +chloride: COCl<span class="su">2</span> + 2C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span> = 2HCl + CO[C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>]<span class="su">2</span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENZYL ALCOHOL<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Phenyl Carbinol</span>), C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>OH, occurs +as a benzoic ester in Peru balsam, as cinnamic ester in Tolu balsam, +as acetic ester in essential oil of jasmine, and also in storax. It +may be synthetically prepared by the reduction of benzoyl +chloride; by the action of nitrous acid on benzylamine; by +boiling benzyl chloride with an aqueous solution of potassium +carbonate, or by the so-called “Cannizzaro” reaction, in which +benzaldehyde is shaken up with caustic potash, one half of the +aldehyde being oxidized to benzoic acid, and the other half +reduced to the alcohol. (<i>Berichte</i>, 1881, 14, p. 2394).</p> + +<p class="center">2C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO + KOH = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>COOK + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH<span class="su">2</span>OH.</p> + +<p class="noind">It is a colourless liquid, with a faint aromatic smell, and boils at +206° C. On oxidation with nitric acid it is converted into +benzaldehyde, whilst chromic acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid. +Reduction by means of hydriodic acid and phosphorus at 140° C. +gives toluene, whilst on distillation with alcoholic potash, toluene +and benzoic acid are formed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEOTHUK,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a tribe of North American Indians formerly +dwelling in the interior of Newfoundland. A certain mystery +attaches to them, since investigation of the few words of their +language which have survived suggests that they were of distinct +stock. The name (of Micmac origin) is said to mean simply “red +men.” They were bitterly hostile to the French settlers, and +were hunted down and killed off until 1820, when a few survivors +made their escape into Labrador. The last of them is believed +to have died in 1829.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEÖTHY, ÖDÖN<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1796-1854), Hungarian deputy and orator, +was born at Grosswardein, his father being a retired officer and +deputy lord-lieutenant of the county of Bihar. At the age of +sixteen he served in the war against Napoleon, and was present +at the great battle of Leipzig. Like so many others of his compatriots, +he picked up Liberal ideas abroad. He was sent to +parliament by his county in 1826 and again in 1830, but did not +become generally known till the session of 1832-1836, when along +with Deák he, as a liberal Catholic, defended the Protestant point +of view in “the mixed marriages question.” He was also an +energetic advocate of freedom of speech. After parliament rose +he carried his principles to their logical conclusion by marrying +a Protestant lady and, being denied a blessing on the occasion by +an indignant bishop, publicly declared that he could very well +dispense with such blessings. In 1841 he was elected deputy +lord-lieutenant of his county to counteract the influence of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span> +lord-lieutenant, Lajos Tisza, and powerfully promoted the +popular cause by his eloquence and agitation. After 1843 the +conservatives succeeded in excluding him both from parliament +and from his official position in the county; but during the +famous “March Days” (1848) he regained all his authority, +becoming at the same time a commander of militia, a deputy +and lord-lieutenant. At the first session of the Upper House +(5th of July 1848), he moved that it should be radically reformed, +and during the war of Independence he energetically served the +Hungarian government as a civil commissioner and lord justice. +Towards the end of the war he reappeared as a deputy at the +Szeged diet, and on the flight of the government took refuge first +with Richard Cobden in London and subsequently in Jersey, +where he made the acquaintance of Victor Hugo. Thence he +went to Hamburg, to meet his wife, and died there on the 7th of +December 1854. Beöthy was a man of extraordinary ability +and character, and an excellent debater. He also exercised as +much influence socially over his contemporaries as politically, +owing to his unfailing tact and pleasant wit.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Antal Csengery, <i>Hungarian Orators and Statesmen</i> (Hung., +Budapest, 1851).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEOWULF<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span>. The epic of Beowulf, the most precious relic of +Old English, and, indeed, of all early Germanic literature, has +come down to us in a single MS., written about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000, which +contains also the Old English poem of Judith, and is bound up +with other MSS. in a volume in the Cottonian collection now at +the British Museum. The subject of the poem is the exploits +of Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow and nephew of Hygelac, king of the +“Gēatas,” <i>i.e</i>. the people, called in Scandinavian records Gautar, +from whom a part of southern Sweden has received its present +name Götland.</p> + +<p><i>The Story.</i>—The following is a brief outline of the story, which +naturally divides itself into five parts.</p> + +<p>1. Beowulf, with fourteen companions, sails to Denmark, to +offer his help to Hrothgar, king of the Danes, whose hall (called +“Heorot”) has for twelve years been rendered uninhabitable +by the ravages of a devouring monster (apparently in gigantic +human shape) called Grendel, a dweller in the waste, who used +nightly to force an entrance and slaughter some of the inmates. +Beowulf and his friends are feasted in the long-deserted Heorot. +At night the Danes withdraw, leaving the strangers alone. +When all but Beowulf are asleep, Grendel enters, the iron-barred +doors having yielded in a moment to his hand. One of Beowulf’s +friends is killed; but Beowulf, unarmed, wrestles with the +monster, and tears his arm from the shoulder. Grendel, though +mortally wounded, breaks from the conqueror’s grasp, and +escapes from the hall. On the morrow, his bloodstained track +is followed until it ends in a distant mere.</p> + +<p>2. All fear being now removed, the Danish king and his +followers pass the night in Heorot, Beowulf and his comrades +being lodged elsewhere. The hall is invaded by Grendel’s +mother, who kills and carries off one of the Danish nobles. +Beowulf proceeds to the mere, and, armed with sword and +corslet, plunges into the water. In a vaulted chamber under the +waves, he fights with Grendel’s mother, and kills her. In the +vault he finds the corpse of Grendel; he cuts off the head, and +brings it back in triumph.</p> + +<p>3. Richly rewarded by Hrothgar, Beowulf returns to his +native land. He is welcomed by Hygelac. and relates to him +the story of his adventures, with some details not contained in +the former narrative. The king bestows on him lands and +honours, and during the reigns of Hygelac and his son Heardred +he is the greatest man in the kingdom. When Heardred is killed +in battle with the Swedes, Beowulf becomes king in his stead.</p> + +<p>4. After Beowulf has reigned prosperously for fifty years, +his country is ravaged by a fiery dragon, which inhabits an +ancient burial-mound, full of costly treasure. The royal hall +itself is burned to the ground. The aged king resolves to fight, +unaided, with the dragon. Accompanied by eleven chosen +warriors, he journeys to the barrow. Bidding his companions +retire to a distance, he takes up his position near the entrance +to the mound—an arched opening whence issues a boiling stream. I +The dragon hears Beowulf’s shout of defiance, and rushes forth, +breathing flames. The fight begins; Beowulf is all but overpowered, +and the sight is so terrible that his men, all but one, +seek safety in flight. The young Wiglaf, son of Weohstan, +though yet untried in battle, cannot, even in obedience to his +lord’s prohibition, refrain from going to his help. With Wiglaf’s +aid, Beowulf slays the dragon, but not before he has received +his own death-wound. Wiglaf enters the barrow, and returns +to show the dying king the treasures that he has found there. +With his last breath Beowulf names Wiglaf his successor, and +ordains that his ashes shall be enshrined in a great mound, +placed on a lofty cliff, so that it may be a mark for sailors far +out at sea.</p> + +<p>5. The news of Beowulf’s dear-bought victory is carried to +the army. Amid great lamentation, the hero’s body is laid on +the funeral pile and consumed. The treasures of the dragon’s +hoard are buried with his ashes; and when the great mound is +finished, twelve of Beowulf’s most famous warriors ride around +it, celebrating the praises of the bravest, gentlest and most +generous of kings.</p> + +<p><i>The Hero.</i>—Those portions of the poem that are summarized +above—that is to say, those which relate the career of the hero +in progressive order—contain a lucid and well-constructed story, +told with a vividness of imagination and a degree of narrative +skill that may with little exaggeration be called Homeric. And +yet it is probable that there are few readers of Beowulf who have +not felt—and there are many who after repeated perusal continue +to feel—that the general impression produced by it is that of +a bewildering chaos. This effect is due to the multitude and the +character of the episodes. In the first place, a very great part +of what the poem tells about Beowulf himself is not presented +in regular sequence, but by way of retrospective mention or +narration. The extent of the material thus introduced out of +course may be seen from the following abstract.</p> + +<p>When seven years old the orphaned Beowulf was adopted by +his grandfather king Hrethel, the father of Hygelac, and was +regarded by him with as much affection as any of his own sons. +In youth, although famed for his wonderful strength of grip, +he was generally despised as sluggish and unwarlike. Yet even +before his encounter with Grendel, he had won renown by his +swimming contest with another youth named Breca, when after +battling for seven days and nights with the waves, and slaying +many sea-monsters, he came to land in the country of the Finns. +In the disastrous invasion of the land of the Hetware, in which +Hygelac was killed, Beowulf killed many of the enemy, amongst +them a chieftain of the Hugas, named Daeghrefn, apparently +the slayer of Hygelac. In the retreat he once more displayed +his powers as a swimmer, carrying to his ship the armour of +thirty slain enemies. When he reached his native land, the +widowed queen offered him the kingdom, her son Heardred being +too young to rule. Beowulf, out of loyalty, refused to be made +king, and acted as the guardian of Heardred during his minority, +and as his counsellor after he came to man’s estate. By giving +shelter to the fugitive Eadgils, a rebel against his uncle the king +of the “Swēon” (the Swedes, dwelling to the north of the +Gautar), Heardred brought on himself an invasion, in which he +lost his life. When Beowulf became king, he supported the cause +of Eadgils by force of arms; the king of the Swedes was killed, +and his nephew placed on the throne.</p> + +<p><i>Historical Value.</i>—Now, with one brilliant exception—the +story of the swimming-match, which is felicitously introduced +and finely told—these retrospective passages are brought in +more or less awkwardly, interrupt inconveniently the course of +the narrative, and are too condensed and allusive in style to +make any strong poetic impression. Still, they do serve to +complete the portraiture of the hero’s character. There are, +however, many other episodes that have nothing to do with +Beowulf himself, but seem to have been inserted with a deliberate +intention of making the poem into a sort of cyclopaedia of +Germanic tradition. They include many particulars of what +purports to be the history of the royal houses, not only of the +Gautar and the Danes, but also of the Swedes, the continental +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span> +Angles, the Ostrogoths, the Frisians and the Heathobeards, +besides references to matters of unlocalized heroic story such +as the exploits of Sigismund. The Saxons are not named, and +the Franks appear only as a dreaded hostile power. Of Britain +there is no mention; and though there are some distinctly +Christian passages, they are so incongruous in tone with the +rest of the poem that they must be regarded as interpolations. +In general the extraneous episodes have no great appropriateness +to their context, and have the appearance of being abridged +versions of stories that had been related at length in poetry. +Their confusing effect, for modern readers, is increased by a +curiously irrelevant prologue. It begins by celebrating the +ancient glories of the Danes, tells in allusive style the story of +Scyld, the founder of the “Scylding” dynasty of Denmark, and +praises the virtues of his son Beowulf. If this Danish Beowulf +had been the hero of the poem, the opening would have +been appropriate; but it seems strangely out of place as an +introduction to the story of his namesake.</p> + +<p>However detrimental these redundancies may be to the poetic +beauty of the epic, they add enormously to its interest for +students of Germanic history or legend. If the mass of traditions +which it purports to contain be genuine, the poem is of unique +importance as a source of knowledge respecting the early history +of the peoples of northern Germany and Scandinavia. But the +value to be assigned to <i>Beowulf</i> in this respect can be determined +only by ascertaining its probable date, origin and manner of +composition. The criticism of the Old English epic has therefore +for nearly a century been justly regarded as indispensable to the +investigation of Germanic antiquities.</p> + +<p>The starting-point of all <i>Beowulf</i> criticism is the fact (discovered +by N.F.S. Grundtvig in 1815) that one of the episodes +of the poem belongs to authentic history. Gregory of Tours, +who died in 594, relates that in the reign of Theodoric of Metz +(511-534) the Danes invaded the kingdom, and carried off many +captives and much plunder to their ships. Their king, whose +name appears in the best MSS. as Chlochilaicus (other copies +read Chrochilaicus, Hrodolaicus, &c.), remained on shore intending +to follow afterwards, but was attacked by the Franks under +Theodobert, son of Theodoric, and killed. The Franks then +defeated the Danes in a naval battle, and recovered the booty. +The date of these events is ascertained to have been between +512 and 520. An anonymous history written early in the eighth +century (<i>Liber Hist. Francorum</i>, cap. 19) gives the name of the +Danish king as Chochilaicus, and says that he was killed in the +land of the Attoarii. Now it is related in <i>Beowulf</i> that Hygelac +met his death in fighting against the Franks and the Hetware +(the Old English form of Attoarii). The forms of the Danish +king’s name given by the Frankish historians are corruptions of +the name of which the primitive Germanic form was Hugilaikaz, +and which by regular phonetic change became in Old English +<i>Hygelāc</i>, and in Old Norse Hugleikr. It is true that the invading +king is said in the histories to have been a Dane, whereas the +Hygelac of Beowulf belonged to the “Gēatas” or Gautar. But +a work called <i>Liber Monstrorum</i>,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> preserved in two MSS. of the +10th century, cites as an example of extraordinary stature a +certain “Huiglaucus, king of the Getae,” who was killed by the +Franks, and whose bones were preserved on an island at the +mouth of the Rhine, and exhibited as a marvel. It is therefore +evident that the personality of Hygelac, and the expedition in +which, according to <i>Beowulf</i>, he died, belong not to the region of +legend or poetic invention, but to that of historic fact.</p> + +<p>This noteworthy result suggests the possibility that what the +poem tells of Hygelac’s near relatives, and of the events of his +reign and that of his successor, is based on historic fact. There +is really nothing to forbid the supposition; nor is there any +unlikelihood in the view that the persons mentioned as belonging +to the royal houses of the Danes and Swedes had a real existence. +It can be proved, at any rate, that several of the names are +derived from the native traditions of these two peoples. The +Danish king Hrothgar and his brother Halga, the sons of Healf-dene, +appear in the <i>Historia Danica</i> of Saxo as Roe (the founder +of Roskilde) and Helgo, the sons of Haldanus. The Swedish +princes Eadgils, son of Ohthere, and Onela, who are mentioned +in <i>Beowulf</i>, are in the Icelandic <i>Heimskringla</i> called Adils son of +Ōttarr, and Āli; the correspondence of the names, according to +the phonetic laws of Old English and Old Norse, being strictly +normal. There are other points of contact between <i>Beowulf</i> on +the one hand and the Scandinavian records on the other, confirming +the conclusion that the Old English poem contains much of +the historical tradition of the Gautar, the Danes and the Swedes, +in its purest accessible form.</p> + +<p>Of the hero of the poem no mention has been found elsewhere. +But the name (the Icelandic form of which is Bjōlfr) is genuinely +Scandinavian. It was borne by one of the early settlers in +Iceland, and a monk named Biuulf is commemorated in the +<i>Liber Vitae</i> of the church of Durham. As the historical character +of Hygelac has been proved, it is not unreasonable to accept the +authority of the poem for the statement that his nephew Beowulf +succeeded Heardred on the throne of the Gautar, and interfered +in the dynastic quarrels of the Swedes. His swimming exploit +among the Hetware, allowance being made for poetic exaggeration, +fits remarkably well into the circumstances of the story told +by Gregory of Tours; and perhaps his contest with Breca may +have been an exaggeration of a real incident in his career; and +even if it was originally related of some other hero, its attribution +to the historical Beowulf may have been occasioned by his +renown as a swimmer.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, it would be absurd to imagine that the +combats with Grendel and his mother and with the fiery dragon +can be exaggerated representations of actual occurrences. These +exploits belong to the domain of pure mythology. That they +have been attributed to Beowulf in particular might seem to be +adequately accounted for by the general tendency to connect +mythical achievements with the name of any famous hero. +There are, however, some facts that seem to point to a more +definite explanation. The Danish king “Scyld Scēfing,” whose +story is told in the opening lines of the poem, and his son Beowulf, +are plainly identical with Sceldwea, son of Sceaf, and his son Beaw, +who appear among the ancestors of Woden in the genealogy of +the kings of Wessex given in the <i>Old English Chronicle</i>. The story +of Scyld is related, with some details not found in <i>Beowulf</i>, by +William of Malmesbury, and, less fully, by the 10th-century +English historian Ethelwerd, though it is told not of Scyld +himself, but of his father Sceaf. According to William’s version, +Sceaf was found, as an infant, alone in a boat without oars, which +had drifted to the island of “Scandza.” The child was asleep +with his head on a <i>sheaf</i>, and from this circumstance he obtained +his name. When he grew up he reigned over the Angles at +“Slaswic.” In <i>Beowulf</i> the same story is told of Scyld, with the +addition that when he died his body was placed in a ship, laden +with rich treasure, which was sent out to sea unguided. It is +clear that in the original form of the tradition the name of the +foundling was Scyld or Sceldwea, and that his cognomen <i>Scefing</i> +(derived from <i>scēaf</i>, a sheaf) was misinterpreted as a patronymic. +Sceaf, therefore, is no genuine personage of tradition, but merely +an etymological figment.</p> + +<p>The position of Sceldwea and Beaw (in Malmesbury’s Latin +called Sceldius and Beowius) in the genealogy as anterior to +Woden would not of itself prove that they belong to divine +mythology and not to heroic legend. But there are independent +reasons for believing that they were originally gods or demi-gods. +It is a reasonable conjecture that the tales of victories over +Grendel and the fiery dragon belong properly to the myth of +Beaw. If Beowulf, the champion of the Gautar, had already +become a theme of epic song, the resemblance of name might +easily suggest the idea of enriching his story by adding to it the +achievements of Beaw. At the same time, the tradition that the +hero of these adventures was a son of Scyld, who was identified +(whether rightly or wrongly) with the eponymus of the Danish +dynasty of the Scyldings, may well have prompted the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span> +supposition that they took place in Denmark. There is, as we +shall see afterwards, some ground for believing that there were +circulated in England two rival poetic versions of the story of the +encounters with supernatural beings: the one referring them to +Beowulf the Dane, while the other (represented by the existing +poem) attached them to the legend of the son of Ecgtheow, but +ingeniously contrived to do some justice to the alternative +tradition by laying the scene of the Grendel incident at the court +of a Scylding king.</p> + +<p>As the name of Beaw appears in the genealogies of English +kings, it seems likely that the traditions of his exploits may have +been brought over by the Angles from their continental home. +This supposition is confirmed by evidence that seems to show +that the Grendel legend was popularly current in this country. +In the schedules of boundaries appended to two Old English +charters there occurs mention of pools called “Grendel’s mere,” +one in Wiltshire and the other in Staffordshire. The charter that +mentions the Wiltshire “Grendel’s mere” speaks also of a place +called <i>Bēowan hām</i> (“Beowa’s home”), and another Wiltshire +charter has a “Scyld’s tree” among the landmarks enumerated. +The notion that ancient burial mounds were liable to be inhabited +by dragons was common in the Germanic world: there is +perhaps a trace of it in the Derbyshire place-name Drakelow, +which means “dragon’s barrow.”</p> + +<p>While, however, it thus appears that the mythic part of the +Beowulf story is a portion of primeval Angle tradition, there is +no proof that it was originally peculiar to the Angles; and even if +it was so, it may easily have passed from them into the poetic +cycles of the related peoples. There are, indeed, some reasons +for suspecting that the blending of the stories of the mythic Beaw +and the historical Beowulf may have been the work of Scandinavian +and not of English poets. Prof. G. Sarrazin has pointed +out the striking resemblance between the Scandinavian legend of +Bödvarr Biarki and that of the Beowulf of the poem. In each, a +hero from Gautland slays a destructive monster at the court of a +Danish king, and afterwards is found fighting on the side of +Eadgils (Adils) in Sweden. This coincidence cannot well be due +to mere chance; but its exact significance is doubtful. On the +one hand, it is possible that the English epic, which unquestionably +derived its historical elements from Scandinavian song, may +be indebted to the same source for its general plan, including the +blending of history and myth. On the other hand, considering +the late date of the authority for the Scandinavian traditions, we +cannot be sure that the latter may not owe some of their material +to English minstrels. There are similar alternative possibilities +with regard to the explanation of the striking resemblances +which certain incidents of the adventures with Grendel and the +dragon bear to incidents in the narratives of Saxo and the +Icelandic sagas.</p> + +<p><i>Date and Origin.</i>—It is now time to speak of the probable date +and origin of the poem. The conjecture that most naturally presents +itself to those who have made no special study of the question, +is that an English epic treating of the deeds of a Scandinavian +hero on Scandinavian ground must have been composed in the +days of Norse or Danish dominion in England. This, however, is +impossible. The forms under which Scandinavian names appear +in the poem show clearly that these names must have entered English +tradition not later than the beginning of the 7th century. It +does not indeed follow that the extant poem is of so early a date; +but its syntax is remarkably archaic in comparision with that of +the Old English poetry of the 8th century. The hypothesis that +<i>Beowulf</i> is in whole or in part a translation from a Scandinavian +original, although still maintained by some scholars, introduces +more difficulties than it solves, and must be dismissed as untenable. +The limits of this article do not permit us to state and +criticize the many elaborate theories that have been proposed +respecting the origin of the poem. All that can be done is to set +forth the view that appears to us to be most free from objection. +It may be premised that although the existing MS. is written in +the West-Saxon dialect, the phenomena of the language indicate +transcription from an Anglian (<i>i.e</i>. a Northumbrian or Mercian) +original; and this conclusion is supported by the fact that while +the poem contains one important episode relating to the Angles, +the name of the Saxons does not occur in it at all.</p> + +<p>In its original form, <i>Beowulf</i> was a product of the time when +poetry was composed not to be read, but to be recited in the halls +of kings and nobles. Of course an entire epic could not be recited +on a single occasion; nor can we suppose that it would be thought +out from beginning to end before any part of it was presented to +an audience. A singer who had pleased his hearers with a tale of +adventure would be called on to tell them of earlier or later events +in the career of the hero; and so the story would grow, until it +included all that the poet knew from tradition, or could invent in +harmony with it. That <i>Beowulf</i> is concerned with the deeds of a +foreign hero is less surprising than it seems at first sight. The +minstrel of early Germanic times was required to be learned not +only in the traditions of his own people, but also in those of the +other peoples with whom they felt their kinship. He had a +double task to perform. It was not enough that his songs should +give pleasure; his patrons demanded that he should recount +faithfully the history and genealogy both of their own line and of +those other royal houses who shared with them the same divine +ancestry, and who might be connected with them by ties of +marriage or warlike alliance. Probably the singer was always +himself an original poet; he might often be content to reproduce +the songs that he had learned, but he was doubtless free to +improve or expand them as he chose, provided that his inventions +did not conflict with what was supposed to be historic truth. For +all we know, the intercourse of the Angles with Scandinavia, +which enabled their poets to obtain new knowledge of the legends +of Danes, Gautar and Swedes, may not have ceased until their +conversion to Christianity in the 7th century. And even after +this event, whatever may have been the attitude of churchmen +towards the old heathen poetry, the kings and warriors would be +slow to lose their interest in the heroic tales that had delighted +their ancestors. It is probable that down to the end of the 7th +century, if not still later, the court poets of Northumbria and +Mercia continued to celebrate the deeds of Beowulf and of many +another hero of ancient days.</p> + +<p>Although the heathen Angles had their own runic alphabet, +it is unlikely that any poetry was written down until a generation +had grown up trained in the use of the Latin letters learned from +Christian missionaries. We cannot determine the date at which +some book-learned man, interested in poetry, took down from +the lips of a minstrel one of the stories that he had been accustomed +to sing. It may have been before 700; much later it +can hardly have been, for the old heathen poetry, though its +existence might be threatened by the influence of the church, +was still in vigorous life. The epic of Beowulf was not the only +one that was reduced to writing: a fragment of the song about +Finn, king of the Frisians, still survives, and possibly several +other heroic poems were written down about the same time. +As originally dictated, <i>Beowulf</i> probably contained the story +outlined at the beginning of this article, with the addition of one +or two of the episodes relating to the hero himself—among them +the legend of the swimming-match. This story had doubtless +been told at greater length in verse, but its insertion in its +present place is the work of a poet, not of a mere redactor. The +other episodes were introduced by some later writer, who had +heard recited, or perhaps had read, a multitude of the old heathen +songs, the substance of which he piously sought to preserve +from oblivion by weaving it in an abridged form, into the texture +of the one great poem which he was transcribing. The Christian +passages, which are poetically of no value, are evidently of +literary origin, and may be of any date down to that of the +extant MS. The curious passage which says that the subjects +of Hrothgar sought deliverance from Grendel in prayer at the +temple of the Devil, “because they knew not the true God,” +must surely have been substituted for a passage referring sympathetically +to the worship of the ancient gods.</p> + +<p>An interesting light on the history of the written text seems +to be afforded by the phenomena of the existing MS. The poem +is divided into numbered sections, the length of which was +probably determined by the size of the pieces of parchment of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span> +which an earlier exemplar consisted. Now the first fifty-two +lines, which are concerned with Scyld and his son Beowulf, +stand outside this numbering. It may reasonably be inferred +that there once existed a written text of the poem that did not +include these lines. Their substance, however, is clearly ancient. +Many difficulties will be obviated if we may suppose that this +passage is the beginning of a different poem, the hero of which +was not Beowulf the son of Ecgtheow, but his Danish namesake. +It is true that Beowulf the Scylding is mentioned at the beginning +of the first numbered section; but probably the opening lines +of this section have undergone alteration in order to bring them +into connexion with the prefixed matter.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The volume containing the <i>Beowulf</i> MS. (then, +as now, belonging to the Cottonian collection, and numbered +“Vitellius A. xv.”) was first described by Humphrey Wanley in +1705, in his catalogue of MSS., published as vol. iii. of G. Hickes’s +<i>Thesaurus Veterum Linguarum Septentrionalium</i>. In 1786 G.J. +Thorkelin, an Icelander, made or procured two transcripts of the +poem, which are still preserved in the Royal Library at Copenhagen, +and are valuable for the criticism of the text, the MS. having subsequently +become in places less legible. Thorkelin’s edition (1815) is +of merely historic interest. The first edition showing competent +knowledge of the language was produced in 1833 by J.M. Kemble. +Since then editions have been very numerous. The text of the poem +was edited by C.W.M. Grein in his <i>Bibliothek der angelsächsischen +Poesie</i> (1857), and again separately in 1867. Autotypes of the MS. +with transliteration by Julius Zupitza, were issued by the Early +English Text Society in 1882. The new edition of Grein’s <i>Bibliothek</i>, +by R.P. Wülker, vol. i. (1883), contains a revised text with critical +notes. The most serviceable separate editions are those of M. Heyne +(7th ed., revised by A. Socin, 1903), A.J. Wyatt (with English notes +and glossary, 1898), and F. Holthausen (vol. i., 1905).</p> + +<p>Eleven English translations of the poem have been published +(see C.B. Tinker, <i>The Translations of Beowulf</i>, 1903). Among these +may be mentioned those of J.M. Garnett (6th ed., 1900), a literal +rendering in a metre imitating that of the original; J. Earle (1892) +in prose; W. Morris (1895) in imitative metre, and almost unintelligibly +archaistic in diction; and C.B. Tinker (1902) in prose.</p> + +<p>For the bibliography of the earlier literature on <i>Beowulf</i>, and a +detailed exposition of the theories therein advocated, see R.P. +Wülker, <i>Grundriss der angelsächsischen Litteratur</i> (1882). The views +of Karl Müllenhoff, which, though no longer tenable as a whole, +have formed the basis of most of the subsequent criticism, may be +best studied in his posthumous work, <i>Beovulf, Untersuchungen über +das angelsächsische Epos</i> (1889). Much valuable matter may be +found in B. ten Brink, <i>Beowulf, Untersuchungen</i> (1888). The work +of G. Sarrazin, <i>Beowulf-studien</i> (1888), which advocates the strange +theory that <i>Beowulf</i> is a translation by Cynewulf of a poem by the +Danish singer Starkadr, contains, amid much that is fanciful, not +a little that deserves careful consideration. The many articles by +E. Sievers and S. Bugge, in <i>Beiträdge zur Geschichte der deutschen +Sprache und Litteratur</i> and other periodicals, are of the utmost +importance for the textual criticism and interpretation of the +poem.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Br.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Printed in Berger de Xivrey, <i>Traditions Tératologiques</i> (1836), +from a MS. in private hands. Another MS., now at Wolfenbüttel, +reads “Hunglacus” for Huiglaucus, and (ungrammatically) “gentes” +for <i>Getis</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEQUEST<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>becwethan</i>, to declare or express in +words; cf. “quoth”), the disposition of property by will. +Strictly, “bequest” is used of personal, and “devise” of real +property. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Legacy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Will or Testament</a></span>.)</p> + + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉRAIN, JEAN<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1638-1711), known as “the Elder,” Belgian +draughtsman and designer, painter and engraver of ornament, +was born in 1638 or 1639 at Saint Mihiel (Meuse) and died in +Paris on the 24th of January 1711. In 1674 he was appointed +<i>dessinateur de la chambre et du cabinet de Roi</i>, in succession to +Gissey, whose pupil he is believed to have been. From 1677 +onward he had apartments, near to those of André Charles +Boulle (<i>q.v.</i>), for whom he made many designs, in the Louvre, +where he died. After the death of Le Brun he was commissioned +to compose and supervise the whole of the exterior decoration +of the king’s ships. Without possessing great originality he was +inventive and industrious, and knew so well how to assimilate +the work of those who had preceded him (especially Raffaelle’s +arabesques) and to adapt it to the taste of the time that his +designs became the rage. He furnished designs for the decorations +and costumes used in the opera performances, for court +festivals, and for public solemnities such as funeral processions, +and inspired the ornamentations of rooms and of furniture to +such an extent that a French writer says that nothing was done +during his later years which he had not designed, or at least which +was not in his manner. He was, in fact, the oracle of taste and +the supreme pontiff whose fiat was law in all matters of decoration. +His numerous designs were for the most part engraved +under his own superintendence, and a collection of them was +published in Paris in 1711 by his son-in-law, Thuret, clockmaker +to the king. There are three books, <i>Œuvre de J. Bérain, Ornements +inventés par J. Bérain</i> and <i>Œvres de J. Bérain contenant +des ornements d’architecture</i>. His earliest known works show him +as engraver—twelve plates in the collection of <i>Diverses pièces +de serrurerie inventées par Hughes Brisville el gravées par Jean +Bérain</i> (Paris, 1663), and in 1667 ten plates of designs for the use +of gunsmiths. M. Guilmard in <i>Les Maîtres ornemanistes</i>, gives +a complete list of his published works.</p> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Jean Bérain</span>, “the Younger” (1678-1726), was born +in Paris, where he also died. He was his father’s pupil, and +exercised the same official functions after his death. Thus he +planned the funeral ceremonies at St Denis on the death of the +dauphin, and afterwards made the designs for the obsequies +of Louis XIV. He is perhaps best known as an engraver. He +engraved eleven plates of the collection <i>Ornements de peinture et +de sculpture qui sont dans la galerie d’Apollon au chasteau du +Louvre, et dans le grand appartement du roy au palais des Tuileries</i> +(Paris, 1710), which have been wrongly attributed to his father, +the <i>Mausolei du duc de Bourgogne</i>, and that of <i>Marie-Louise +Gabrielle de Savoie, reine d’Espagne</i> (1714), &c. His work is +exceedingly difficult to distinguish from his father’s, the similarity +of style being remarkable.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Claude Bérain</span>, brother of the elder Jean, was still living +in 1726. He was engraver to the king, and executed a good +number of plates of ornament and arabesque of various kinds, +some of which are included in his more distinguished brother’s +works.</p> +<div class="author">(J. P. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉRANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1780-1857), French song-writer, +was born in Paris on the 19th of August 1780. The +aristocratic <i>de</i> was a piece of groundless vanity on the part +of his father, who had assumed the name of Béranger de Mersix. +He was descended in truth from a country innkeeper on the one +side, and, on the other, from a tailor in the rue Montorgueil. +Of education, in the narrower sense, he had but little. From +the roof of his first school he beheld the capture of the Bastille, +and this stirring memory was all that he acquired. Later on +he passed some time in a school at Péronne, founded by one +Bellenglise on the principles of Rousseau, where the boys were +formed into clubs and regiments, and taught to play solemnly +at politics and war. Béranger was president of the club, made +speeches before such members of Convention as passed through +Péronne, and drew up addresses to Tallien or Robespierre at +Paris. In the meanwhile he learned neither Greek nor Latin—not +even French, it would appear; for it was after he left +school, from the printer Laisney, that he acquired the elements +of grammar. His true education was of another sort. In his +childhood, shy, sickly and skilful with his hands, as he sat at +home alone to carve cherry stones, he was already forming for +himself those habits of retirement and patient elaboration which +influenced the whole tenor of his life and the character of all that +he wrote. At Péronne he learned of his good aunt to be a stout +republican; and from the doorstep of her inn, on quiet evenings, +he would listen to the thunder of the guns before Valenciennes, +and fortify himself in his passionate love of France and distaste +for all things foreign. Although he could never read Horace +save in a translation, he had been educated on <i>Télémaque</i>, Racine +and the dramas of Voltaire, and taught, from a child, in the +tradition of all that is highest and most correct in French.</p> + +<p>After serving his aunt for some time in the capacity of waiter, +and passing some time also in the printing-office of one Laisney, +he was taken to Paris by his father. Here he saw much low +speculation, and many low royalist intrigues. In 1802, in +consequence of a distressing quarrel, he left his father and began +life for himself in the garret of his ever memorable song. For +two years he did literary hackwork, when he could get it, and +wrote pastorals, epics and all manner of ambitious failures. +At the end of that period (1804) he wrote to Lucien Bonaparte, +enclosing some of these attempts. He was then in bad health, +and in the last state of misery. His watch was pledged. His +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span> +wardrobe consisted of one pair of boots, one greatcoat, one pair +of trousers with a hole in the knee, and “three bad shirts which +a friendly hand wearied itself in endeavouring to mend.” The +friendly hand was that of Judith Frère, with whom he had been +already more or less acquainted since 1796, and who continued +to be his faithful companion until her death, three months before +his own, in 1857. She must not be confounded with the Lisette +of the songs; the pieces addressed to her (<i>La Bonne Vieille, +Maudit printemps</i>, &c.) are in a very different vein. Lucien +Bonaparte interested himself in the young poet, transferred to +him his own pension of 1000 francs from the Institute, and set +him to work on a <i>Death of Nero</i>. Five years later, through the +same patronage, although indirectly, Béranger became a clerk +in the university at a salary of another thousand.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile he had written many songs for convivial occasions, +and “to console himself under all misfortunes”; some, according +to M. Boiteau, had been already published by his father, but +he set no great store on them himself; and it was only in 1812, +while watching by the sick-bed of a friend, that it occurred to +him to write down the best he could remember. Next year he +was elected to the <i>Caveau Moderne</i>, and his reputation as a +song-writer began to spread. Manuscript copies of <i>Les Gueux, Le +Sénateur</i>, above all, of <i>Le Roi d’Yvetot</i>, a satire against Napoleon, +whom he was to magnify so much in the sequel, passed from +hand to hand with acclamation. It was thus that all his best +works went abroad; one man sang them to another over all the +land of France. He was the only poet of modern times who +could altogether have dispensed with printing.</p> + +<p>His first collection escaped censure. “We must pardon +many things to the author of <i>Le Roi d’Yvetot</i>,” said Louis XVIII. +The second (1821) was more daring. The apathy of the Liberal +camp, he says, had convinced him of the need for some bugle +call of awakening. This publication lost him his situation in the +university, and subjected him to a trial, a fine of 500 francs and +an imprisonment of three months. Imprisonment was a small +affair for Béranger. At Sainte Pélagie he occupied a room (it +had just been quitted by Paul Louis Courier), warm, well +furnished, and preferable in every way to his own poor lodging, +where the water froze on winter nights. He adds, on the occasion +of his second imprisonment, that he found a certain charm in +this quiet, claustral existence, with its regular hours and long +evenings alone over the fire. This second imprisonment of nine +months, together with a fine and expenses amounting to 1100 +francs, followed on the appearance of his fourth collection. +The government proposed through Laffitte that, if he would submit +to judgment without appearing or making defences, he should +only be condemned in the smallest penalty. But his public +spirit made him refuse the proposal; and he would not even ask +permission to pass his term of imprisonment in a <i>Maison de santé</i>, +although his health was more than usually feeble at the time. +“When you have taken your stand in a contest with government, +it seems to me,” he wrote, “ridiculous to complain of the +blows it inflicts on you, and impolitic to furnish it with any +occasion of generosity.” His first thought in La Force was to +alleviate the condition of the other prisoners.</p> + +<p>In the revolution of July he took no inconsiderable part. +Copies of his song, <i>Le Vieux Drapeau</i>, were served out to the +insurgent crowd. He had been for long the intimate friend and +adviser of the leading men; and during the decisive week his +counsels went a good way towards shaping the ultimate result. +“As for the republic, that dream of my whole life,” he wrote in +1831, “I did not wish it should be given to us a second time +unripe.” Louis Philippe, hearing how much the song-writer +had done towards his elevation, expressed a wish to see and speak +with him; but Béranger refused to present himself at court, +and used his favour only to ask a place for a friend, and a pension +for Rouget de l’Isle, author of the famous <i>Marseillaise</i>, who was +now old and poor, and whom he had been already succouring +for five years.</p> + +<p>In 1848, in spite of every possible expression of his reluctance, +he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and that by so large +a number of votes (204,471) that he felt himself obliged to +accept the seat. Not long afterwards, and with great difficulty, +he obtained leave to resign. This was the last public event of +Béranger’s life. He continued to polish his songs in retirement, +visited by nearly all the famous men of France. He numbered +among his friends Chateaubriand, Thiers, Jacques Laffitte, +Michelet, Lamennais, Mignet. Nothing could exceed the +amiability of his private character; so poor a man has rarely +been so rich in good actions; he was always ready to receive +help from his friends when he was in need, and always forward +to help others. His correspondence is full of wisdom and kindness, +with a smack of Montaigne, and now and then a vein of +pleasantry that will remind the English reader of Charles Lamb. +He occupied some of his leisure in preparing his own memoirs, +and a certain treatise on <i>Social and Political Morality</i>, intended +for the people, a work he had much at heart, but judged at last +to be beyond his strength. He died on the 16th July 1857. +It was feared that his funeral would be the signal for some +political disturbance; but the government took immediate +measures, and all went quietly. The streets of Paris were lined +with soldiers and full of townsfolk, silent and uncovered. From +time to time cries arose:—“<i>Honneur, honneur à Béranger!</i>”</p> + +<p>The songs of Béranger would scarcely be called songs in +England. They are elaborate, written in a clear and sparkling +style, full of wit and incision. It is not so much for any lyrical +flow as for the happy turn of the phrase that they claim superiority. +Whether the subject be gay or serious, light or passionate, +the medium remains untroubled. The special merits of the +songs are merits to be looked for rather in English prose than +in English verse. He worked deliberately, never wrote more +than fifteen songs a year and often less, and was so fastidious +that he has not preserved a quarter of what he finished. “I +am a good little bit of a poet,” he says himself, “clever in the +craft, and a conscientious worker to whom old airs and a modest +choice of subjects (<i>le coin où je me suis confiné</i>) have brought some +success.” Nevertheless, he makes a figure of importance in +literary history. When he first began to cultivate the <i>chanson</i>, +this minor form lay under some contempt, and was restricted +to slight subjects and a humorous guise of treatment. Gradually +he filled these little chiselled toys of verbal perfection with ever +more and more of sentiment. From a date comparatively early +he had determined to sing for the people. It was for this reason +that he fled, as far as possible, the houses of his influential friends +and came back gladly to the garret and the street corner. Thus +it was, also, that he came to acknowledge obligations to Emile +Debraux, who had often stood between him and the masses as +interpreter, and given him the key-note of the popular humour. +Now, he had observed in the songs of sailors, and all who labour, +a prevailing tone of sadness; and so, as he grew more masterful +in this sort of expression, he sought more and more after what +is deep, serious and constant in the thoughts of common men. +The evolution was slow; and we can see in his own works examples +of every stage, from that of witty indifference in fifty +pieces of the first collection, to that of grave and even tragic +feeling in <i>Les Souvenirs du peuple</i> or <i>Le Vieux Vagabond</i>. And +this innovation involved another, which was as a sort of prelude +to the great romantic movement. For the <i>chanson</i>, as he says +himself, opened up to him a path in which his genius could +develop itself at ease; he escaped, by this literary postern, +from strict academical requirements, and had at his disposal +the whole dictionary, four-fifths of which, according to La Harpe, +were forbidden to the use of more regular and pretentious poetry. +If he still kept some of the old vocabulary, some of the old +imagery, he was yet accustoming people to hear moving subjects +treated in a manner more free and simple than heretofore; +so that his was a sort of conservative reform, preceding the +violent revolution of Victor Hugo and his army of uncompromising +romantics. He seems himself to have had glimmerings of +some such idea; but he withheld his full approval from the +new movement on two grounds:—first, because the romantic +school misused somewhat brutally the delicate organism of the +French language; and second, as he wrote to Sainte-Beuve +in 1832, because they adopted the motto of “Art for art,” and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span> +set no object of public usefulness before them as they wrote. +For himself (and this is the third point of importance) he had a +strong sense of political responsibility. Public interest took +a far higher place in his estimation than any private passion +or favour. He had little toleration for those erotic poets who +sing their own loves and not the common sorrows of mankind, +“who forget,” to quote his own words, “forget beside their +mistress those who labour before the Lord.” Hence it is that +so many of his pieces are political, and so many, in the later +times at least, inspired with a socialistic spirit of indignation +and revolt. It is by this socialism that he becomes truly modern +and touches hands with Burns.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—<i>Ma biographie</i> (his own memoirs) (1858); +<i>Vie de Béranger</i>, by Paul Boiteau (1861); +<i>Correspondance de Béranger</i>, edited by Paul Boiteau (4 vols., 1860); +<i>Béranger et Lamennais</i>, by Napoléon Peyrat (1857); +<i>Quarante-cinq lettres de Béranger publiées par Madame Louise Colet</i> +(almost worthless) (1857); +<i>Béranger, ses amis, ses ennemis et ses critiques</i>, by A. Arnould (2 vols., 1864); +J. Janin, <i>Béranger et son temps</i> (2 vols., 1866); +also Sainte-Beuve’s <i>Portraits contemporains</i>, vol. i.; +J. Carson, <i>Béranger et la légende napoleonienne</i> (1897) +A bibliography of Béranger’s works was +published by Jules Brivois in 1876.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERAR,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> known also as the <span class="sc">Hyderabad Assigned Districts</span>, +formerly a province administered on behalf of the nizam of +Hyderabad by the British government, but since the 1st of +October 1903 under the administration of the commissioner-general +for the Central Provinces (<i>q.v.</i>). The origin of the name +Berar is not known, but may perhaps be a corruption of Vidarbha, +the name of a kingdom in the Deccan of which, in the period of +the Mahabharata, Berar probably formed part. The history +of Berar belongs generally to that of the Deccan, the country +falling in turn under the sway of the various dynasties which +successively ruled in southern India, the first authentic records +showing it to have been part of the Andhra or Satavahana +empire. On the final fall of the Chalukyas in the 12th century, +Berar came under the sway of the Yadavas of Deogiri, and +remained in their possession till the Mussulman invasions at the +end of the 13th century. On the establishment of the Bahmani +dynasty in the Deccan (1348) Berar was constituted one of the +four provinces into which their kingdom was divided, being +governed by great nobles, with a separate army. The perils +of this system becoming apparent, the province was divided +(1478 or 1479) into two separate governments, named after +their capitals Gawil and Mahur. The Bahmani dynasty +was, however, already tottering to its fall; and in 1490 +Imad-ul-Mulk, governor of Gawil, who had formerly held all +Berar, proclaimed his independence and proceeded to annex +Mahur to his new kingdom. Imad-ul-Mulk was by birth a +Kanarese Hindu, but had been captured as a boy in one of +the expeditions against Vijayanagar and reared as a Mussulman. +He died in 1504 and his direct descendants held the sultanate +of Berar until 1561, when Burhan Imad Shah was deposed by +his minister Tufal Khan, who assumed the kingship. This +gave a pretext for the intervention of Murtaza Nizam Shah of +Ahmednagar, who in 1572 invaded Berar, imprisoned and put +to death Tufal Khan, his son Shams-ul-Mulk, and the ex-king +Burhan, and annexed Berar to his own dominions. In 1595 +Sultan Murad, son of the emperor Akbar, besieged Ahmednagar, +and was bought off by the formal cession of Berar.</p> + +<p>Murad, founding the city of Shahpur, fixed his seat at Berar, +and after his death in 1598, and the conquest of the Deccan by +Akbar, the province was united with Ahmednagar and Khandesh +under the emperor’s fifth son, Daniyal (d. 1605), as governor. +After Akbar’s death (1605) Berar once more became independent +under the Abyssinian Malik Ambar (d. 1626), but in the first +year of Shah Jahan’s reign it was again brought under the sway +of the Mogul empire. Towards the close of the 17th century +the province began to be overrun by the Mahrattas, and in 1718 +the Delhi government formally recognized their right to levy +blackmail (<i>chauth</i>) on the unhappy population. In 1724 the +Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah established the independent line of +the nizams of Hyderabad, and thenceforth the latter claimed +to be <i>de jure</i> sovereigns of Berar, with exception of certain +districts (Mehkar, Umarkhed, &c.) ceded to the peshwa in 1760 +and 1795. The claim was contested by the Bhonsla rajas, and +for more than half a century the miserable country was ground +between the upper and the nether millstone.</p> + +<p>This condition of things was ended by Wellesley’s victories +at Assaye and Argaon (1803), which forced the Bhonsla raja to +cede his territories west of the Wardha, Gawilgarh and Narnala. +By the partition treaty of Hyderabad (1804) these ceded territories +in Berar were transferred to the nizam, together with some +tracts about Sindkhed and Jalna which had been held by Sindhia. +By a treaty of 1822, which extinguished the Mahratta right +to levy <i>chauth</i>, the Wardha river was fixed as the eastern +boundary of Berar, the Melghat and adjoining districts in the +plains being assigned to the nizam in exchange for the districts +east of the Wardha held by the peshwa.</p> + +<p>Though Berar was no longer oppressed by its Mahratta taskmasters +nor harried by Pindari and Bhil raiders, it remained +long a prey to the turbulent elements let loose by the sudden +cessation of the wars. From time to time bands of soldiery, +whom the government was powerless to control, scoured the +country, and rebellion succeeded rebellion till 1859, when the last +fight against open rebels took place at Chichamba near Risod. +Meanwhile the misery of the country was increased by the +reckless raising of loans by the nizam’s government and the +pledging of the revenues to a succession of great farmers-general. +At last the British government had to intervene effectively, +and in 1853 a new treaty was signed with the nizam, under +which the Hyderabad contingent was to be maintained by the +British government, while for the pay of this force and in +satisfaction of other claims, certain districts were “assigned” to +the East India Company. It was these “Hyderabad Assigned +Districts” which were popularly supposed to form the province +of Berar, though they coincided in extent neither with the +Berar of the nizams nor with the old Mogul province. In 1860, +by a new treaty which modified in the nizam’s favour that of +1853, it was agreed that Berar should be held in trust by the +British government for the purposes specified in the treaty of 1853.</p> + +<p>Under British control Berar rapidly recovered its prosperity. +Thousands of cultivators who had emigrated across the Wardha +to the peshwa’s dominions, in order to escape the ruinous fiscal +system of the nizam’s government, now returned; the American +Civil War gave an immense stimulus to the cotton trade; the +laying of a line of railway across the province provided yet +further employment, and the people rapidly became prosperous +and contented.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908), and authorities +there quoted.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉRARD, JOSEPH FRÉDÉRIC<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1789-1828), French physician +and philosopher, was born at Montpellier. Educated at +the medical school of that town, he afterwards went to Paris, +where he was employed in connexion with the <i>Dictionnaire des +sciences médicales</i>. He returned in 1816, and published a work, +<i>Doctrine médicale de l’école de Montpellier</i> (1819), which is +indispensable to a proper understanding of the principles of the +Vitalistic school. In 1823 he was called to a chair of medicine +at Paris, which he held for three years; he was then nominated +professor of hygiene at Montpellier. His health gave way under +his labours, and he died in 1828. His most important book is his +<i>Doctrines des rapports du physique et du moral</i> (Paris, 1823). +He held that consciousness or internal perception reveals to us the +existence of an immaterial, thinking, feeling and willing subject, +the self or soul. Alongside of this there is the vital force, the +nutritive power, which uses the physical frame as its organ. +The soul and the principle of life are in constant reciprocal action, +and the first owes to the second, not the formation of its faculties, +but the conditions under which they are evolved. He showed +himself unable to understand the points of view of those whom +he criticized, and yet his own theories, midway between vitalism +and animism, are entirely destitute of originality.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>To the <i>Esprit des doctrines médicales de Montpellier</i>, published +posthumously (Paris, 1830), the editor, H. Pétiot, prefixed an account +of his life and works; see also Damiron, <i>Phil. en France au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i> (Paris, 1834); C.J. Tissot, <i>Anthropologie générale</i> (1843).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERAT<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (Slav. <i>Byelgorod</i>; Turk. <i>Arnaut-Beligradi</i>), the +capital of a sanjak in the vilayet of Iannina, southern Albania, +Turkey; on the river Ergene, Ergeni or Osum, a left-hand +tributary of the Semeni. Pop. (1900) about 15,000. Berat is +a fortified town, situated in a fertile valley, which produces +wine, olive-oil, fruit and grain. It is the see of an Orthodox +metropolitan, and the inhabitants, of whom two-thirds are +Albanian and the remainder principally Greek, are equally +divided in religion between Christianity and Islam.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERAUN<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (Czech <i>Beroun</i>), a town of Bohemia, Austria, +27 m. S.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 9693, mostly Czech. +It is situated at the confluence of the Beraun with the Litawa +river, and is the seat of important textile industry, sugar-refining, +corn-milling and brewing. Lime-kilns and the manufacture of +cement, and smelting and iron works are carried on in the +environs. Beraun is a place of immemorial antiquity. It was +originally called <i>na Brodě</i> (by the ford), and received the name +of Bern, Berun or Verona in the 13th century, when it obtained +the privileges of a city from the emperor Charles IV., who was +specially attached to the place, calling it “Verona mea.” Under +his patronage the town rapidly prospered. In 1421 Zizka +stormed the town, which later on was retaken and devastated +by the troops of Duke Leopold, bishop of Passau. During the +Thirty Years’ War it was sacked by the Imperialists, the +Saxons and the Swedes in turn; and in the first Silesian war the +same fate befell it at the hands of the French and Bavarians.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERBER,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a town and mudiria (province) of the Anglo-Egyptian +Sudan. The town is on the right bank of the Nile, +1140 ft. above sea-level, in 18° 1’ N., 33° 59′ E., and 214 m. by +rail N.W. of Khartum. Pop. about 6000. Berber derived its +importance from being the starting-point of the caravan route, +242 m. long, across the Nubian desert to the Red Sea at Suakin, +a distance covered in seven to twelve days. It was also one of +the principal stopping-places between Cairo and Khartum. The +caravan route to the Red Sea was superseded in 1906 by a railway, +which leaves the Wadi Halfa-Khartum line at the mouth of the +Atbara. Berber thus lost the Red Sea trade. It remains the +centre and market-place for the produce of the Nile valley for a +considerable distance. East of the town is an immense plain, +which, if irrigated, would yield abundant crops.</p> + +<p>Berber, or El Mekerif, is a town of considerable antiquity. +Before its conquest by the Egyptians in 1820 its ruler owed +allegiance to the kings of Sennar. It was captured by the +Mahdists on the 26th of May 1884, and was re-occupied by the +Anglo-Egyptian army on the 6th of September 1897. It was +the capital of the mudiria until 1905, in which year the +headquarters of the province were transferred to Ed Damer, a town +near the confluence of the Nile and Atbara. At the northern +end of the mudiria is Abu Hamed (<i>q.v.</i>), important as a railway +junction for Dongola mudiria. The best-known of the tribes +inhabiting the province are the Hassania, Jaalin, Bisharin and +Kimilab. During the Mahdia most of these tribes suffered +severely at the hands of the dervishes. In 1904 the total +population of the province was estimated at 83,000. It has since +considerably increased. The riverain population is largely +engaged in agriculture, the chief crops cultivated being durra, +barley, wheat and cotton.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERBERA,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> chief town and principal port of the British +Somaliland protectorate, North-East Africa, 155 m. S. of Aden, +in 10° 26′ N., 45° 4′ E. Berbera stands at the head of a deep +inlet which forms the only completely sheltered haven on the +south side of the Gulf of Aden. It is the residence of the +commissioner of the protectorate and the headquarters of the +Somaliland battalion of the King’s African Rifles. The harbour +is eleven to thirteen fathoms deep at the entrance (indicated by +a lighthouse), decreasing to five fathoms near the shore. +Ocean-going steamers find ample accommodation. There are two piers +and numerous warehouses. The town is built in two divisions—the +native town to the east, the new town, laid out by the +Egyptians (1875-1877), to the west. The majority of the +better-class houses are of rubble, one-storeyed and flat-roofed. +The public buildings include the fort, hospital and barracks. +There are a Roman Catholic mission-house and convent and a +government school. The affairs of the town are administered by +a municipality. The water-supply is brought to the town by an +aqueduct from the hills some 8 m. distant. The bulk of the +inhabitants are Somali, who have abandoned a nomadic life and +adopted largely the ways of the Arab and Indian traders. The +permanent population is under 10,000; but from October to +April the population rises to 30,000 or more by the arrival of +caravans from Ogaden and Dolbahanta. The traders bring +with them tents on the backs of camels and these are pitched near +the native town. Their merchandise consists of sheep and goats, +gum and resin, skins and ostrich feathers. The trade is almost +entirely with Aden, of which Berbera may be considered a +commercial dependency. The value of the goods brought in yearly +by caravan exceeds on the average £100,000. The total trade +of the port for the five years 1901-1902 to 1905-1906 averaged +over £200,000 a year. The chief articles of import are cotton +goods (European white longcloth and American grey shirting), +rice and jowari, flour, dates, sugar and tobacco (the last from +Rotterdam). Berbera is said to have been founded by the +Ptolemies among the <i>Barbari</i> of the adjacent coast lands. It +fell subsequently into the possession of Arabs and was included +in the Mahommedan state of Adel. At the time of the visit to +the town of R.F. Burton and J.H. Speke (1854) it was governed +by its own sheiks. In 1870 it was claimed by the khedive +Ismail, but was not permanently occupied by Egypt until 1875. +In 1884 it passed into the possession of Great Britain (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Somaliland</a></span>, § 2, <i>History</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERBERINE,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">17</span>NO<span class="su">4</span>, an alkaloid occurring together with +the alkaloids oxyacanthine C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">19</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>, berbamine C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">19</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>, +hydrastine C<span class="su">21</span>H<span class="su">21</span>NO<span class="su">6</span>, and canadine C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">21</span>NO<span class="su">4</span>, in <i>Berberis +vulgaris</i>; it also occurs in other plants, <i>Berberis aristata, B. aquifolium, +Hydrastis canadensis</i>, &c. It is a yellow, crystalline +solid, insoluble in ether and chloroform, soluble in 4½ parts of +water at 21°, and moderately soluble in alcohol. It is a monacid +base; the hydrochloride, C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">17</span>NO<span class="su">4</span>·HCl, is insoluble in cold +alcohol, ether and chloroform, and soluble in 500 parts of water; +the acid sulphate, C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">17</span>NO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> dissolves in about 100 parts +of water. Canadine is a tetrahydroberberine.</p> + +<p>Its constitution was worked out by W.H. Perkin (<i>J.C.S.</i>, +1889, 55, p. 63; 1890, 57, p. 991). This followed from +a study of the decomposition products, there being obtained +hemipinic acid (CH<span class="su">3</span>O)<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>(COOH)<span class="su">2</span>, and a substance which +proved to be ω-amino-ethyl-piperonyl carboxylic acid, +CH<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span> : C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>·COOH·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>NH<span class="su">2</span>. His formula was modified +by Gadamer (<i>Abs. J.C.S.</i>, 1902, 1, p. 555), who made the free +base an aldehyde, but the salts of an <i>iso</i>-quinolinium type. +This formula, which necessitates the presence of two asymmetric +carbon atoms in an alkyl tetrahydroberberine, has been accepted +by M. Freund and F. Mayer (<i>Abs. J.C.S.</i>, 1907, 1, p. 632), who +showed that two racemic propyl tetrahydroberberines are +produced when propyl dihydroberberine is reduced.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERBERS,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> the name under which are included the various +branches of the indigenous “Libyan” race of North Africa. +Since the dawn of history the Berbers have occupied +the tract between the Mediterranean and the +<span class="sidenote">Ethnology.</span> +Sahara from Egypt to the Atlantic. The origin of the name +is doubtful. Some believe it to be derived from the word +<span class="grk" title="barbaroi">βάρβαροι</span> (barbarians), employed first by the Greeks and later by +the Romans. Others attribute the first use of the term to the +Arab conquerors. However this may be, tribal titles, <i>Barabara</i> +and <i>Beraberata</i>, appear in Egyptian inscriptions of 1700 and 1300 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the Berbers were probably intimately related with the +Egyptians in very early times. Thus the true ethnical name may +have become confused with <i>Barbari</i>, the designation naturally +used by classical conquerors. To the Egyptians they were +known as “Lebu,” “Mashuasha,” “Tamahu,” “Tehennu” +and “Kahaka”; a long list of names is found in Herodotus, and +the Romans called them Numidae, Gaetuli and Mauri, terms +which have been derived respectively from the Greek <span class="grk" title="nomades">νομάδες</span> +(nomads), the name Gued’oula, of a great Berber tribe, and the +Hebrew <i>mahur</i> (western). To speak of more modern times +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span> +there can be enumerated the Zouaoua and Jebalia (Tripoli and +Tunisia); the Chauwia, Kabyles and Beni-Mzab (Algeria); the +Shlûh (Chlouah), Amazîgh and Berbers (Morocco); the Tuareg, +Arnóshagh, Sorgu, &c. (Sahara). These tribes have many sub-tribes, +each with a distinctive name. Among the Azgar, an +important division of the Tuareg, one of the noble or free tribes, +styled Aouraghen, is said to descend from a tribe named Avrigha. +The Avrigha, or Afrigha, in ancient times occupied the coast +lands near Carthage, and some scholars derive the word Africa +from their name (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa, Roman</a></span>). In regard to the ethnic +relations of the Berbers there has been much dispute. The +antiquity of their type is evidenced by the monuments of Egypt, +where their ancestors are pictured with the same comparatively +blond features which many of them still display. The aborigines +of the Canary Islands, the Guanches, would seem almost certainly, +from the remains of their language, to have been Berbers. But +the problem of the actual origin of the Berber race has not yet +been solved. Perhaps the most satisfactory theory is that of +Sergi, who includes the Berbers in the “Mediterranean Race.” +General L.L.C. Faidherbe regards them as indigenous Libyans +mingled with a fair-skinned people of European origin. Dr Franz +Pruner-Bey, Henri Duveyrier and Prof. Flinders Petrie maintain +that they are closely related to the ancient Egyptians. Connexion +has been traced between the early Libyan race and the +Cro-Magnon and other early European races and, later, the +Basque peoples, Iberians, Picts, Celts and Gauls. The megalithic +monuments of Iberia and Celtic Europe have their counterparts +in northern Africa, and it is suggested that these were all +erected by the same race, by whatever name they be known, +Berbers and Libyans in Africa, Iberians in Spain, Celts, Gauls +and Picts in France and Britain.</p> + +<p>In spite of a history of foreign conquest—Phoenician, Greek, +Roman, Vandal, Arab and French—the Berber physical type +and the Berber temperament and nationality have +persisted since the stone age. The numerous invasions +<span class="sidenote">Characteristics.</span> +have naturally introduced a certain amount of foreign +blood among the tribes fringing the Mediterranean, but those +farther inland have preserved their racial purity to a surprising +degree. Though considerable individual differences of type +may be found in every village, the Berbers are distinctively a +“white” race, and the majority would, if clad in European +costume, pass unchallenged as Europeans. Dark hair and +brown or hazel eyes are the rule; blue-eyed blonds are found, +but their frequency has been considerably overstated. The invaders +who have most affected the Berber race are the Arabs, +but the two races, with a common religion, often a common +government, with the same tribal groupings, have failed to +amalgamate to any great extent. This fact has been emphasized +by Dr R.G. Latham, who writes: “All that is not Arabic in the +kingdom of Morocco, all that is not Arabic in the French provinces +of Algeria, and all that is not Arabic in Tunis, Tripoli +and Fezzan, is Berber.” The explanation lies in a profound +distinction of character. The Arab is a herdsman and a nomad; +the Berber is an agriculturist and a townsman. The Arab has +built his social structure on the Koran, which inculcates absolutism, +aristocracy, theocracy; the Berber, despite his nominal +Mahommedanism, is a democrat, with his <i>Jemáa</i> or “Witangemot” +and his <i>Kanum</i> or unwritten code, the Magna Carta +of the individual’s liberty as opposed to the community’s good. +The <i>Kanum</i> forbids no sort of exercise of individual will, so long +as it is not inimical to the right or rights of other individuals. +The Arabizing of the Berbers is indeed limited to little beyond +the conversion of the latter to Islam. The Arab, transported +to a soil which does not always suit him, so far from thriving, +tends to disappear, whereas the Berber becomes more and more +aggressive, and yearly increases in numbers. At present he +forms at least three-fifths of the population in Algeria, and in +Morocco the proportion is greater. The difference between the +Berber and the Arab of the Barbary States is summed up by +Dr Randall MacIver in the following words:—“The Berber gives +the impression of being, as he is, the descendant of men who have +lived in sturdy independence, self-governing and self-reliant. +The Arab is the degenerate offspring of a race which only from +its history and past records can claim any title to respect. +Cringing, venal, avaricious, dishonest, the Arab combines all +the faults of a vicious nature with those which a degraded +religion inculcates or encourages. The Berber, on the other +hand, is straightforward, honest, by no means averse to +money-making, but not unscrupulous in the methods which +he employs to this end, intelligent in a degree to which the +ordinary Arab never approaches, and trustworthy as no Arab +can be.”</p> + +<p>The Berber’s village is his state, and the government is vested +in an assembly, the <i>Jemáa</i>, formed of all males old enough to +observe the fast of Ramadan. By them are determined +all matters of peace or war, legislation, taxation +<span class="sidenote">Government.</span> +and justice. The executive officer is the <i>Amin</i>, a kind +of mayor, elected from some influential family in which the +dignity is often in practice hereditary. He owes his position +to the good-will of his fellows, receives no remuneration, and +resigns as soon as he loses the confidence of the people. By +him are appointed certain <i>Temman</i> (sing. <i>Tamen</i>) who act as overseers, +though without executive powers, in the various quarters +of the village. The poorest Berber has as great a voice in affairs +as the richest. The undue power of the <i>Jemáa</i> is checked by +vendetta and a sort of lynch law, and by the formation of parties +(<i>sofs</i>), within or without the assembly, for trade, political +and other purposes. The Berbers are a warlike people who have +never been completely subjugated. Every boy as soon as he +reaches sixteen is brought into the <i>Jemáa</i> and given weapons +which he carries till he is sixty. Though each village is absolutely +independent as far as its internal affairs are concerned, +two or more are often connected by administrative ties to form +an <i>Arsh</i> or tribe. A number of these tribes form a <i>Thakebilt</i> +or confederation, which is an extremely loose organization. An +exception to this form of government is constituted by the +Tuareg, whose organization, owing to their peculiar circumstances +of life, is monarchical. Wars are declared by special +messengers; the exchange of sticks or guns renders an armistice +inviolable. In some tribes a tablet, on which is inscribed the +name of every man fit to bear arms, is placed in the mosque. +The Berbers, though Mahommedans, do not often observe the +prescribed ablutions; they break their fast at Ramadan; and +eat wild boar’s flesh and drink fig brandy. On the other hand, +saints, both male and female, are paid more reverence by Berbers +than by Arabs. Around their tombs their descendants settle, +and thus sacred villages, often of considerable size, spring up. +Almost every village, too, has its saint or prophet, and disputes +as to their relative sanctity and powers cause fierce feuds. +The hereditary caste known as Marabouts are frequently in open +opposition to the absolute authority of the <i>Jemáa</i>. They are +possessed of certain privileges, such as exemption from the +chief taxes and the duty of bearing arms. They, however, often +take a foremost part in tribal administration, and are frequently +called upon to perform the office of arbitrators in questions of +disputed policy, &c. In the <i>Jemáa</i>, too, the Marabout at times +takes the place of honour and keeps order. The Berbers, if +irreligious, are very superstitious, never leaving their homes +without exorcizing evil spirits, and have a good and evil interpretation +for every day of the week. Many Berbers still retain +certain Christian and Jewish usages, relics of the pre-Islamitic +days in North Africa, but of their primitive religion there is no +trace. They are seldom good scholars, but those under French +rule take all the advantage they can of the schools instituted +by the government. Their social tendencies are distinctly +communistic; property is often owned by the family in common, +and a man can call upon the services of his fellow villagers for +certain purposes, as the building of a house. Provision for the +poor is often made by the community.</p> + +<p>The dress of the Berbers was formerly made of home-woven +cloth, and the manufacture of woollen stuffs has always been +one of the chief occupations of their women. The men +wear a tunic reaching to the knees, the women a longer +<span class="sidenote">Customs.</span> +garment. For work the men use a leather apron, and in the cold +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span> +season and in travelling a burnous, usually a family heirloom, old +and ragged; the women, in winter, throw a coloured cloth over +their shoulders. The men’s hair is cut short but their beards +are allowed to grow. In some districts there are peculiar customs, +such as the wearing of small silver nose-rings, seen in +El-Jofra. The Berbers’ weapons are those of the Arab: the +long straight sword, the slightly curved and highly ornamented +dagger, and the long gun. Berbers are not great town-builders. +Their villages, however, are often of substantial appearance: +with houses of untrimmed stones, occasionally with two storeys, +built on hills, and invariably defended by a bank, a stone wall +or a hedge. Sometimes their homes are mere huts of turf, or of +clay tiles, with mortar made from lime and clay or cow-dung. +The sloping roof is covered with reeds, straw or stones. The +living room is on the right, the cattle-stall on the left. The +dwelling is surrounded by a garden or small field of grain. The +second storey is not added till a son marries. In the villages of +the western Atlas the greater part of the upper storey consists +of a sort of rough verandah. In this mountain district the natives +spend the winter in vaults beneath the houses, and, for the sake +of warmth, the tenements are built very close. Agriculture, +which is carried on even in the mountain districts by means of +laboriously constructed terraces, is antiquated in its methods. +The plough, often replaced on the steeper slopes by the hoe, +is similar to that depicted in ancient Egyptian drawings, and +hand irrigation is usual. A sickle, toothed like a saw, is used +for reaping. Corn is trodden by oxen, and kept in osier baskets +narrowing to the top, or clay granaries. The staple crop is +barley, but wheat, lentils, vetches, flax and gourds are also +cultivated. Tobacco, maize and potatoes have been introduced; +and the aloe and prickly pear, called in Morocco the Christian +fig, are also found. The Kabyles understand grafting, have +fine orchards and grow vines. The Beni-Abbas tribe in the +Algerian Atlas is famed for its walnuts, and many tribes keep +bees, chiefly for the commercial value of the wax. The Berber +diet largely consists of cucumbers, gourds, water-melons and +onions, and a small artichoke (<i>Cynara humilis</i>) which grows +wild. At the beginning and end of their meal they drink a +strongly sweetened liquid made from green tea and mint. Tea-drinking +probably became a habit in Morocco about the beginning +of the 19th century; coffee came by way of Algiers. At +feasts the food is served on large earthenware dishes with high +basket-work covers, like bee-skeps but twice as high.</p> + +<p>The Berbers have many industries. They mine and work +iron, lead and copper. They have olive presses and flour mills, +and their own millstone quarries, even travelling into +Arab districts to build mills for the Arabs. They +<span class="sidenote">Industries.</span> +make lime, tiles, woodwork for the houses, domestic +utensils and agricultural implements. They weave and dye +several kinds of cloth, tan and dress leather and manufacture +oil and soap. Without the assistance of the wheel the women +produce a variety of pottery utensils, often of very graceful +design, and decorated with patterns in red and black. Whole +tribes, such as the Beni-Sliman, are occupied in the iron trade; +the Beni-Abbas made firearms before the French conquest, and +even cannon are said to have been made by boring. Before it +was proscribed by the French, the manufacture of gunpowder +was general. The native jewellers make excellent ornaments +in silver, coral and enamel. In some places wood-carving has +been brought to considerable perfection; and native artists +know how to engrave on metal both by etching and the burin. +In its collective industry the Berber race is far superior to the +Arab. The Berbers are keen traders too, and, after the harvest, +hawk small goods, travelling great distances.</p> + +<p>A Berber woman has in many ways a better position than her +Arab sister. True, her birth is regarded as an event of no +moment, while that of a boy is celebrated by great +rejoicings, and his mother acquires the right to wear +<span class="sidenote">Women.</span> +on her forehead the <i>tafzint</i>, a mark which only the women who +have borne an heir can assume. Her husband buys and can +dismiss her at will. She has most of the hard work to do, and +is little better than a servant. When she is old and past work, +especially if she has not been the mother of a male child, +she is often abandoned. But she has a voice in public affairs; +she has laws to protect her, manages the household and goes +unveiled; she has a right to the money she earns; she can +inherit under wills, and bequeath property, though to avoid +the alienation of real property, succession to it is denied her. +But most characteristic of her social position is the Berber +woman’s right to enter into a sacred bond or agreement, represented +by the giving of the <i>anaya</i>. This is some symbolic object, +stick or what not, which passes between the parties to a contract, +the obligations under which, if not fulfilled by the contracting +parties during their lives, become hereditary. Female saints, +too, are held in high honour; and the Berber pays his wife the +compliment of monogamy. The Kabyle women have stood side +by side with their husbands in battle. Among many Berber +tribes the law of inheritance is such that the eldest daughter’s +son succeeds. South of Morocco proper, Gerhard Rohlfs, who +travelled extensively in the region (<i>c.</i> 1861-1867), states that +a Berber religious corporation, the <i>Savia Kartas</i>, was ruled over +by a woman, the chief’s wife. The Berbers consult their women +in many matters, and only one woman is really held in low +esteem. She, curiously, is the <i>kuata</i> or “go-between,” even +though her services are only employed in the respectable task +of arranging marriages. Berber women are intelligent and +hard-working, and, when young, very pretty and graceful. +The Berbers, unlike the Arabs, do not admire fat women. +Among the Kabyles the adulteress is put to death, as are those +women who have illegitimate children, the latter suffering with +their mothers.</p> + +<p>Though Arabic has to a considerable extent displaced the +Berber language, the latter is still spoken by millions of people +from Egypt to the Atlantic and from the Mediterranean +to the Sudan. It is spoken nowhere else, though, as +<span class="sidenote">Language.</span> +has been said, place-names in the Canary Islands and other +remains of the aboriginal language there prove it to have been +the native tongue. Although the Berber tongue shows a certain +affinity with Semitic in the construction both of its words and +sentences Berber is quite distinct from the Semitic languages; +and a remarkable fact is that in spite of the enormous space +over which the dialects are spread and the thousands of years +that some of the Berber peoples have been isolated from the rest, +these dialects show but slight differences from the long-extinct +Hamitic speech from which all are derived. Whatever these +dialects be called, the Kabyle, the Shilha, the Zenati, the Tuareg +or Tamashek, the Berber language is still essentially one, and +the similarity between the forms current in Morocco, Algeria, +the Sahara and the far-distant oasis of Siwa is much more marked +than between the Norse and English in the sub-Aryan Teutonic +group. The Berbers have, moreover, a writing of their own, +peculiar and little used or known, the antiquity of which is +proved by monuments and inscriptions ranging over the whole +of North Africa.</p> + +<p>The various spoken dialects, though apparently very unlike +each other, are not more dissimilar than are Portuguese, Spanish, +French and Italian, and their differences are doubtless attributable +to the lack of a literary standard. Even where different +words are used, there is evidence of a common stem from which +the various branches have sprung. The great difficulty of +satisfactory comparison arises from the fact that few of the +Beber dialects possess any writings. The <i>Tawahhid</i> (The Unity +of God), said to have been written in Moroccan Berber and believed +to be the oldest African work in existence, except Egyptian +and Ethiopic, was the work of the Muwahhadi leader, Ibn +Tumart the Mahdi, at a time when the officials of the Kairawan +mosque were dismissed because they could not speak Berber. +Most of the writings found, however, have been in the form of +inscriptions, chiefly on ornaments. A collection of the various +signs of the alphabet has shown thirty-two letters, four more +than Arabic. De Slane, in his notes on the Berber historian +Ibn Khaldūn, shows the following points of similarity to the +Semitic class:—its tri-literal roots, the inflections of the verb, +the formation of derived verbs, the genders of the second and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span> +third persons, the pronominal affixes, the aoristic style of tense, +the whole and broken plurals and the construction of the phrase. +Among the peculiar grammatical features of Berber may be +mentioned two numbers (no dual), two genders and six cases, +and verbs with one, two, three and four radicals, and imperative +and aorist tense only. As might be expected the Berber tongue +is most common in Morocco and the western Sahara—the regions +where Arab dominion was least exercised. When Arabic is +mentioned as the language of Morocco it is seldom realized how +small a proportion of its inhabitants use it as their mother tongue. +Berber is the real language of Morocco, Arabic that of its creed +and government.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—General A. Hanoteau and A. Letourneux, <i>La +Kabylie et les coutumes kabyles</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1872-1873); D. +Randall-MacIver and Antony Wilkin, <i>Libyan Notes</i> (London, 1901); +Antony Wilkin, <i>Among the Berbers of Algeria</i> (London, 1900); +G. Sergi, <i>The Mediterranean Race</i> (London, 1901), and <i>Africa, +Antropologia della Stirpe Comitica</i> (Turin, 1897); Henri Duveyrier, +<i>Exploration du Sahara</i> (1864), <i>Les Progrès de la géographie en +Algérie</i> (1867-1871), <i>Bull. de la Soc. Khédiviale de Géog</i>. (1876); +E. Renan, “La Société Berbère,” <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>, vol. for 1873; +M.G. Olivier, “Recherches sur l’origine des Berbères,” <i>Bull. de +l’Acad. d’Hippone</i> (1867-1868); F.G. Rohlfs, <i>Reise durch Marokko</i> +(1869); <i>Quer durch Afrika</i> (1874-1875); General Faidherbe, +<i>Collection complète des inscriptions numidiques</i> (<i>lybiques</i>) (1870), and +<i>Les Dolmens d’Afrique</i> (1873); H.M. Flinders Petrie in <i>The Academy</i>, +20th of April 1895; Jules Lionel, <i>Races berbères</i> (1894); Sir H.H. +Johnston, “A Journey through the Tunisian Sahara,” <i>Geog. Journal</i>, +vol. xi., 1898; De Slane’s translation of Ibn Khaldun, <i>Hist, des +Berbères</i> (Algiers, 1852); W.Z. Ripley, <i>Races of Europe</i> (London, +1900); Dr Malbot, “Les Chaouias” in <i>L’Anthropologie</i>, 1897 (p. 14); +General Faidherbe and Dr Paul Topinard, <i>Instructions sur l’anthropologie +de l’Algérie</i> (Paris, 1874); E.T. Hamy, <i>La Nécropole berbère +d’Henchir el-’Assel</i> (Paris, 1896), and <i>Cités et nécropoles berbères +de l’Enfida</i> (<i>Tunisie moyenne</i>) (<i>ib.</i> 1904).</p> + +<p>Berber dictionaries:—<i>Venture de Paradis</i> (Paris, 1844); Brosselard +(<i>ib</i>. 1844); Delaporte (<i>ib</i>. 1844, by order of minister of war); +J.B. Creusat, <i>Essai de dictionnaire français-kabyle</i> (Algiers, 1873); +A. Hanoteau, <i>Essai de grammaire de la langue tamachek, &c.</i> (Paris, +1860); Minutoli, <i>Siwah Dialect</i> (Berlin, 1827).</p> + +<p>Folklore, &c.:—J. Rivière, <i>Recueil de contes populaires de la +Kabylie</i> (1882); R. Basset, <i>Contes populaires berbères</i> (1887); P. le +Blanc de Prébois, <i>Essai de contes kabyles, avec traduction en français</i> +(Batna, 1897); H. Stumine, <i>Marchen der Berbern van Tamazratt in +Südtunisien</i> (Leipzig, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERCEUSE<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (Fr. for a “lullaby,” from <i>berceau</i>, a cradle), a +cradle-song, the German <i>Wiegenlied</i>, a musical composition with +a quiet rocking accompaniment.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERCHEM<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Berghem</span>), <b>NICOLAAS</b> (1620-1683), Dutch +painter, was born at Haarlem. He received instruction from +his father (Pieter Claasz van Haarlem) and from the painters +Van Goyen, Jan Wils and Weenix. It is not known why he +called himself Berchem (or Berighem, and other variants). +His pictures, of which he produced an immense number, +were in great demand, as were also his etchings and drawings. +His landscapes are highly esteemed; and many of them +have been finely engraved by John Visscher. His finest +pictures are at the Amsterdam Museum and at the Hermitage, +St Petersburg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERCHTA<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (English Bertha), a fairy in South German mythology. +She was at first a benevolent spirit, the counterpart +of Hulda in North German myth. Later her character changed +and she came to be regarded as a witch. In Pagan times Berchta +had the rank of a minor deity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERCHTESGADEN,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a town of Germany, beautifully situated +on the south-eastern confines of the kingdom of Bavaria, 1700 ft. +above the sea on the southern declivity of the Untersberg, 6 m. +S.S.E. from Reichenhall by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,046. It is +celebrated for its extensive mines of rock-salt, which were +worked as early as 1174. The town contains three old churches, +of which the early Gothic abbey church with its Romanesque +cloister is most notable, and some good houses. Apart from the +salt-mines, its industries include toys and other small articles +of wood, horn and ivory, for which the place has long been +famous. The district of Berchtesgaden was formerly an independent +spiritual principality, founded in 1100 and secularized +in 1803. The abbey is now a royal castle, and in the neighbourhood +a hunting-lodge was built by King Maximilian II. in 1852.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERCK,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a bathing resort of northern France, in the department +of Pas-de-Calais, 25 m. S. of Boulogne by rail. Pop. (1906) +7638. It comprises two parts—Berck-Ville, 1½ m. from the +shore, and Berck-Plage, the latter with a fine sandy beach. +There are two children’s hospitals, the climate proving peculiarly +beneficial in the treatment of scrofulous affections. About +150 boats are employed in the fisheries, and herrings form the +staple of an active trade. Boat-building and fish-curing are +carried on.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERDICHEV,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a town of W. Russia, in the government of +Kiev, 116 m. S.W. of Kiev by rail and not far from the borders +of Volhynia. The cathedral of the Assumption, finished in +1832, is the principal place of worship. The fortified Carmelite +monastery, founded in 1627, was captured and plundered by +Chmielnicki, chief of the Zaporogian Cossacks, in 1647, and +disestablished in 1864. An extensive trade is carried on in +peltry, silk goods, iron and wooden wares, salt fish, grain, cattle +and horses. Four fairs are held yearly, the most important +being on the 12th of June and the 15th of August. The numerous +minor industries include the manufacture of tobacco, soap, +candles, oil, bricks and leather. Pop. (1867) 52,563; (1897) +53,728, Jews forming about 80%. In the treaty of demarcation +between the Lithuanians and the Poles in 1546 Berdichev was +assigned to the former. In 1768 Pulaski, leader of the confederacy +of Bar, fled, after the capture of that city, to Berdichev, +and there maintained himself during a siege of twenty-five days. +The town belongs to the Radziwill family.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERDYANSK,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a seaport town of Russia, in the government +of Taurida, on the north coast of the Sea of Azov, in 46° 45′ +N. lat. and 36° 40′ E. long. The principal industries are in +bricks and tiles, tallow and macaroni. The roads are protected +from every wind except the south, which occasions a heavy +surf; but against this a mole was constructed in 1863. The +chief articles of export are cereals, flour, wool, hemp, skins +and fish; and the imports include hardwares, fruits, oil and +petroleum. In the immediate neighbourhood are salt-lagoons. +Pop. (1867) 12,223; (1900) 29,168.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEREA,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a town of Madison county, Kentucky, U.S.A., 131 m. +by rail S. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1900) 762. Berea is served by +the Louisville & Nashville railway. It is pleasantly situated +on the border between the Blue Grass and the Mountain regions. +The town is widely known as the seat of Berea College, which +has done an important work among the mountaineers of +Kentucky and of Tennessee. The college has about 70 acres +of ground (and about 4000 acres of mountain land for forestry +study), with a large recitation hall, a library, a chapel (seating +1400 persons), a science hall, an industrial hall, a brick-making +plant, a woodwork building, a printing building, a tabernacle +for commencement exercises and other buildings. In 1908 +Berea had 65 instructors and 1150 students; and it paid the +tuition of 141 negro students in Fisk University (Nashville, +Tennessee) and in other institutions. The school out of which +Berea College has developed was founded in the anti-slavery +interests in 1855. An attempt was made to procure for it a +college charter in 1859, but the slavery interests caused it to be +closed before the end of that year and it was not reopened until +1865, the charter having then been obtained, as Berea College. +Negroes as well as whites were admitted until 1904, when education +of the two races at the same institution was prohibited by +an act of the state legislature (upheld by the U.S. Supreme +Court in 1908). This act did not, however, prohibit an institution +from maintaining separate schools for the two races, +provided these schools were at least 25 m. apart, and a separate +school for the negroes was at once projected by Berea.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEREKHIAH NAQDAN,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> Jewish fabulist, author of a collection +of <i>Fox Fables</i>, written in Hebrew. As his title implies (Naqdan = punctuator +of the Biblical text), Berekhiah was also a grammarian. +He further wrote an ethical treatise and was the +author of various translations. His date is disputed. Most +authorities place him in the 13th century, but J. Jacobs has +identified him with Benedictus le Puncteur, an English Jew of +the 12th century.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERENGARIUS<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Berengar</span>] (d. 1088), medieval theologian, +was born at Tours early in the 11th century; he was educated in +the famous school of Fulbert of Chartres, but even in early life +seems to have exhibited great independence of judgment. +Appointed superintendent of the cathedral school of his native +city, he taught with such success as to attract pupils from all +parts of France, and powerfully contributed to diffuse an interest +in the study of logic and metaphysics, and to introduce that +dialectic development of theology which is designated the +scholastic. The earliest of his writings of which we have any +record is an <i>Exhortatory Discourse</i> to the hermits of his district, +written at their own request and for their spiritual edification. +It shows a clear discernment of the dangers of the ascetic life, +and a deep insight into the significance of the Augustinian +doctrine of grace. Sometime before 1040 Berengar was made +archdeacon of Angers. It was shortly after this that rumours +began to spread of his holding heretical views regarding the +sacrament of the eucharist. He had submitted the doctrine of +transubstantiation (already generally received both by priests +and people, although in the west it had been first unequivocally +taught and reduced to a regular theory by Paschasius Radbert +in 831) to an independent examination, and had come to the +conclusion that it was contrary to reason, unwarranted by +Scripture, and inconsistent with the teaching of men like +Ambrose, Jerome and Augustine. He did not conceal this +conviction from his scholars and friends, and through them the +report spread widely that he denied the common doctrine +respecting the eucharist. His early friend and school companion, +Adelmann, archdeacon of Liége, wrote to him letters of expostulation +on the subject of this report in 1046 and 1048; and a +bishop, Hugo of Langres, wrote (about 1049) a refutation of the +views which he had himself heard Berengar express in conversation. +Berengar’s belief was not shaken by their arguments and +exhortations, and hearing that Lanfranc, the most celebrated +theologian of that age, strongly approved the doctrine of +Paschasius and condemned that of “Scotus” (really Ratramnus), +he wrote to him a letter expressing his surprise and urging him +to reconsider the question. The letter, arriving at Bec when +Lanfranc was absent at Rome (1050), was sent after him, but was +opened before it reached him, and Lanfranc, fearing the scandal, +brought it under the notice of Pope Leo IX. Because of it +Berengar was condemned as a heretic without being heard, by +a synod at Rome and another at Vercelli, both held in 1050. +His enemies in France cast him into prison; but the bishop of +Angers and other powerful friends, of whom he had a considerable +number, had sufficient influence to procure his release. At the +council of Tours (1054) he found a protector in the papal legate, +the famous Hildebrand, who, satisfied himself with the fact that +Berengar did not deny the real presence of Christ in the sacramental +elements, succeeded in persuading the assembly to be content +with a general confession from him that the bread and wine, +after consecration, were the body and blood of the Lord, without +requiring him to define how. Trusting in Hildebrand’s support, +and in the justice of his own cause, he presented himself at the +synod of Rome in 1059, but found himself surrounded by zealots, +who forced him by the fear of death to signify his acceptance of +the doctrine “that the bread and wine, after consecration, are +not merely a sacrament, but the true body and the true blood +of Christ, and that this body is touched and broken by the hands +of the priests, and ground by the teeth of the faithful, not merely +in a sacramental but in a real manner.” He had no sooner done +so than he bitterly repented his weakness; and acting, as he +himself says, on the principle that “to take an oath which never +ought to have been taken is to estrange one’s self from God, but +to retract what one has wrongfully sworn to, is to return back to +God,” when he got safe again into France he attacked the +transubstantiation theory more vehemently than ever. He +continued for about sixteen years to disseminate his views by +writing and teaching, without being directly interfered with by +either his civil or ecclesiastical superiors, greatly to the scandal +of the multitude and of the zealots, in whose eyes Berengar was +“ille apostolus Satanae,” and the academy of Tours the “Babylon +nostri temporis.” An attempt was made at the council of +Poitiers in 1076 to allay the agitation caused by the controversy, +but it failed, and Berengar narrowly escaped death in a tumult. +Hildebrand, now pope as Gregory VII., next summoned him to +Rome, and, in a synod held there in 1078, tried once more to +obtain a declaration of his orthodoxy by means of a confession +of faith drawn up in general terms; but even this strong-minded +and strong-willed pontiff was at length forced to yield to the +demands of the multitude and its leaders; and in another synod +at Rome (1079), finding that he was only endangering his own +position and reputation, he turned unexpectedly upon Berengar +and commanded him to confess that he had erred in not teaching +a change <i>as to substantial reality</i> of the sacramental bread and +wine into the body and blood of Christ. “Then,” says Berengar, +“confounded by the sudden madness of the pope, and because +God in punishment for my sins did not give me a steadfast +heart, I threw myself on the ground, and confessed with impious +voice that I had erred, fearing the pope would instantly pronounce +against me the sentence of condemnation, and, as a +necessary consequence, that the populace would hurry me to +the worst of deaths.” He was kindly dismissed by the pope not +long after, with a letter recommending him to the protection of +the bishops of Tours and Angers, and another pronouncing +anathema on all who should do him any injury or call him a +heretic. He returned home overwhelmed with shame and bowed +down with sorrow for having a second time been guilty of a +great impiety. He immediately recalled his forced confession, +and besought all Christian men “to pray for him, so that his +tears might secure the pity of the Almighty.” He now saw, +however, that the spirit of the age was against him, and +hopelessly given over to the belief of what he had combated as a +delusion. He withdrew, therefore, into solitude, and passed the +rest of his life in retirement and prayer on the island of St Côme +near Tours. He died there in 1088.</p> + +<p>Berengar left behind him a considerable number of followers. +All those who in the middle ages denied the substantial presence +of the body and blood of Christ in the eucharist were commonly +designated Berengarians. They differed, of course, in many +respects, even in regard to the nature of the supper. Berengar’s +own views on the subject may be thus summed up:—1. That +bread and wine should become flesh and blood and yet not lose +the properties of bread and wine was, he held, contradictory to +reason, and therefore irreconcilable with the truthfulness of God. +2. He admitted a change (<i>conversio</i>) of the bread and wine into +the body of Christ, in the sense that to those who receive them +they are transformed by grace into higher powers and influences—into +the true, the intellectual or spiritual body of Christ. The +unbelieving receive the external sign or <i>sacramentum</i>; but the +believing receive in addition, although invisibly, the reality +represented by the sign, the <i>res sacramenti</i>. 3. He rejected the +notion that the sacrament of the altar was a constantly renewed +sacrifice, and held it to be merely a commemoration of the one +sacrifice of Christ. 4. He dwelt strongly on the importance of +men looking away from the externals of the sacrament to the +spirit of love and piety. The transubstantiation doctrine seemed +to him full of evil, from its tendency to lead men to overvalue +what was sensuous and transitory. 5. He rejected with indignation +the miraculous stories told to confirm the doctrine of +transubstantiation. 6. Reason and Scripture seemed to him +the only grounds on which a true doctrine of the Lord’s supper +could be rested. He attached little importance to mere ecclesiastical +tradition or authority, and none to the voice of majorities, +even when sanctioned by the decree of a pope. In this, as in +other respects, he was a precursor of Protestantism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The opinions of Berengar are to be ascertained from the works +written in refutation of them by Adelmann, Lanfranc, Guitmund, &c.; +from the fragments of the <i>De sacr. coena adv. Lanfr. liber</i>, edited +by Stäudlin (1820-1829); and from the <i>Liber posterior</i>, edited by +A.F. and F.T. Vischer (1834). See the collection of texts by +Sudendorf (1850); the <i>Church Histories</i> of Gieseler, ii. 396-411 +(Eng. trans.), and Neander, vi. 221-260 (Eng. trans.); A. Harnack’s +<i>History of Dogma</i>, Hauréau’s <i>Histoire de la philosophie scolastique</i>, i. +225-238; Hermann Reuter, <i>Geschichte der religiosen Aufklarung des Mittelalters</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span> +vol. i. (Berlin, 1875); L. Schwabe, <i>Studien zur Geschichte +des Zweilen Abendmahlstreits</i> (1887); and W. Broecking, “Bruno +von Angers und Berengar von Tours,” in <i>Deutsche Zeitichrift für +Geschichtewissenschaft</i> (vol. xii., 1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉRENGER, ALPHONSE MARIE MARCELLIN THOMAS<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> +(1785-1866), known as Bérenger de la Drôme, French lawyer +and politician, son of a deputy of the third estate of Dauphiné +to the Constituent Assembly, was born at Valence on the 31st of +May 1785. He entered the magistracy and became <i>procureur +général</i> at Grenoble, but resigned this office on the restoration +of the Bourbons. He now devoted himself mainly to the study +of criminal law, and in 1818 published <i>La Justice criminelle en France</i>, in which with great courage he attacked the special +tribunals, provosts’ courts or military commissions which were +the main instruments of the Reaction, and advocated a return +to the old common law and trial by jury. The book had a +considerable effect in discrediting the reactionary policy of the +government; but it was not until 1828, when Bérenger was +elected to the chamber, that he had an opportunity of exercising +a personal influence on affairs as a member of the group known +as that of constitutional opposition. His courage, as well as his +moderation, was again displayed during the revolution of 1830, +when, as president of the parliamentary commission for the trial +of the ministers of Charles X., he braved the fury of the mob and +secured a sentence of imprisonment in place of the death penalty +for which they clamoured.</p> + +<p>His position in the chamber was now one of much influence, +and he had a large share in the modelling of the new constitution, +though his effort to secure a hereditary peerage failed. Above +all he was instrumental in framing the new criminal code, based +on more humanitarian principles, which was issued in 1835. +It was due to him that, in 1832, the right, so important in actual +French practice, was given to juries to find “extenuating +circumstances” in cases when guilt involved the death penalty. +In 1831 he had been made a member of the court of appeal (<i>cour +de cassation</i>), and the same year was nominated a member of the +academy of moral and political sciences. He was raised to the +peerage in 1839. This dignity he lost owing to the revolution of +1848; and as a politician his career now ended. As a judge, +however, his activity continued. He was president of the high +courts of Bourges and Versailles in 1840. Having been appointed +president of one of the chambers of the court of cassation, he +devoted himself entirely to judicial work until his retirement, +under the age limit, on the 31st of May 1860. He now withdrew +to his native town, and occupied himself with his favourite work +of reform of criminal law. In 1833 he had shared in the foundation +of a society for the reclamation of young criminals, in which +he continued to be actively interested to the end. In 1851 and +1852, on the commission of the academy of moral sciences, he +had travelled in France and England for the purpose of examining +and comparing the penal systems in the two countries. The +result was published in 1855 under the title <i>La Répression pénale, +comparaison du système pénitentiaire en France et en Angleterre.</i> +He died on the 15th of May 1866.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">René Bérenger</span> (1830-  ), continued the work of +his father, and at the outbreak of the revolution of 1870 was +<i>avocat général</i> of Lyons. He served as a volunteer in the Franco-German +War, being wounded at Nuits on the 28th of December. +Returned to the National Assembly by the department of Drõme, +he was for a few days in 1873 minister of public works under +Thiers. He then entered the senate, of which he was vice-president from 1894 to 1897. He founded in 1871 a society for +the reclamation of discharged prisoners, and presided over +various bodies formed to secure improvement of the public +morals. He succeeded Charles Lucas in 1890 at the Academy +of Moral and Political Science.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERENICE,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bernice</span>, the Macedonian forms of the Greek +Pherenice, the name of (A) five Egyptian and (B) two Jewish +princesses.</p> + +<p>(A) 1. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, daughter of Lagus, wife of an obscure +Macedonian soldier and subsequently of Ptolemy Soter, with +whose bride Eurydice she came to Egypt as a lady-in-waiting. +Her son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, was recognized as heir over the +heads of Eurydice’s children. So great was her ability and her +influence that Pyrrhus of Epirus gave the name Berenicis to a +new city. Her son Philadelphus decreed divine honours to her +on her death. (See Theocritus, <i>Idylls</i> xv. and xvii.)</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, wife of +Antiochus Theos of Syria, who, according to agreement with +Ptolemy (249), had divorced his wife Laodice and transferred +the succession to Berenice’s children. On Ptolemy’s death, +Antiochus repudiated Berenice and took back Laodice, who, +however, at once poisoned him and murdered Berenice and +her son. The prophecy in Daniel xi. 6 seq. refers to these +events.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, the daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene, and +the wife of Ptolemy III. Euergetes. During her husband’s +absence on an expedition to Syria, she dedicated her hair to +Venus for his safe return, and placed it in the temple of the +goddess at Zephyrium. The hair having by some unknown +means disappeared, Conon of Samos, the mathematician and +astronomer, explained the phenomenon in courtly phrase, by +saying that it had been carried to the heavens and placed among +the stars. The name <i>Coma Berenices</i>, applied to a constellation, +commemorates this incident. Callimachus celebrated the +transformation in a poem, of which only a few lines remain, +but there is a fine translation of it by Catullus. Soon after her +husband’s death (221 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) she was murdered at the instigation +of her son Ptolemy IV., with whom she was probably associated +in the government.</p> + +<p>4. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, also called <span class="sc">Cleopatra</span>, daughter of Ptolemy X., +married as her second husband Alexander II., grandson of +Ptolemy VII. He murdered her three weeks afterwards.</p> + +<p>5. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, eldest sister of +the great Cleopatra. The Alexandrines placed her on the throne +in succession to her father (58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). She married Seleucus +Cybiosactes, but soon caused him to be slain, and married +Archelaus, who had been made king of Comana in Pontus (or in +Cappadocia) by Pompey. Auletes was restored and put both +Berenice and Archelaus to death in 55 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>(B) 1. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, daughter of Salome, sister of Herod I., and +wife of her cousin Aristobulus, who was assassinated in 6 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Their relations had been unhappy and she was accused of complicity in his murder. By Aristobulus she was the mother of +Herod Agrippa I. Her second husband, Theudion, uncle on the +mother’s side of Antipater, son of Herod I., having been put to +death for conspiring against Herod, she married Archelaus. +Subsequently she went to Rome and enjoyed the favour of the +imperial household.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Berenice</span>, daughter of Agrippa I., king of Judaea, and +born probably about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 28. She was first married to Marcus, +son of the alabarch<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Alexander of Alexandria. On his early +death she was married to her father’s brother, Herod of Chalcis, +after whose death (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 48) she lived for some years with her +brother, Agrippa II. Her third husband was Polemon, king of +Cilicia, but she soon deserted him, and returned to Agrippa, +with whom she was living in 60 when Paul appeared before him +at Caesarea (Acts xxvi.). During the devastation of Judaea by +the Romans, she fascinated Titus, whom along with Agrippa she +followed to Rome as his promised wife (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 75). When he +became emperor (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 79) he dismissed her finally, though +reluctantly, to her own country. Her influence had been exercised +vainly on behalf of the Jews in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 66, but the burning +of her palace alienated her sympathies. For her influence see +Juvenal, <i>Satires</i>, vi., and Tacitus, <i>Hist.</i> ii. 2.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Alabarch or Arabarch (Gr. <span class="grk" title="alabarchys">ἀλαβάρχης</span>, or <span class="grk" title="arabarchys">ἀραβάρχης</span>), +the name of the head magistrate of the Jews in Alexandria under the Ptolemaic +and Roman rules.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERENICE,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> an ancient seaport of Egypt, on the west coast of +the Red Sea, in 23° 56′ N., 35° 34′ E. Built at the head of a gulf, +the <i>Sinus Immundus</i>, or Foul Bay, of Strabo, it was sheltered on +the north by Ras Benas (<i>Lepte Extrema</i>). The port is now +nearly filled up, has a sand-bar at its entrance and can be reached +only by small craft. Most important of the ruins is a temple; +the remnants of its sculptures and inscriptions preserve the name +of Tiberius and the figures of many deities, including a goddess +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span> +of the emerald mines. Berenice was founded by Ptolemy II. +(285-247 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in order to shorten the dangerous Red Sea +voyages, and was named in honour of his mother. For four or +five centuries it became the entrepot of trade between India, +Arabia and Upper Egypt. From it a road, provided with +watering stations, leads north-west across the desert to the Nile +at Coptos. In the neighbourhood of Berenice are the emerald +mines of Zabara and Saket.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERESFORD, LORD CHARLES WILLIAM DE LA POER<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> +(1846-  ), British admiral, second son of the 4th marquess +of Waterford, was born in Ireland, and entered the “Britannia” +as a naval cadet in 1859. He became lieutenant in 1868, and +commander in 1875. In 1874 he was returned to parliament as +Conservative M.P. for Waterford, retaining his seat till 1880, and +he was already known in this period as a gallant officer, with a +special interest in naval administration. In 1875-1876 he accompanied +the then prince of Wales on his visit to India as naval +A.D.C.; from 1878 to 1881 he was commander of the royal yacht +“Osborne.” He was in command of the gunboat “Condor” +in the Mediterranean when the Egyptian crisis of 1882 occurred; +and he became a popular hero in England in connexion with +the bombardment of Alexandria (July 11), when he took his +ship close in to the forts and engaged them with such conspicuous +gallantry that the admiral ordered a special signal “Well done, +Condor!” He was promoted captain for his services, and, after +taking an active part in the re-establishment of order in Alexandria, +he served again in Egypt on Lord Wolseley’s staff in +the expedition of 1884-85, commanding the naval brigade at +Abu Klea, Abu Kru and Metemmeh, and, with the river steamer +“Safieh,” rescuing Sir C. Wilson and his party, who had been +wrecked on returning from Khartum (Feb. 4, 1885). In +November 1885 he was again returned to parliament as member +for East Marylebone (re-elected 1886), and in Lord Salisbury’s +ministry of 1886 he was appointed a lord of the admiralty. The +press agitation in favour of a stronger navy was now in full swing, +and it was well known that in Lord Charles Beresford it had an +active supporter; but very little impression was made on the +government, and in 1888 he resigned his office on this question, +a dramatic step which had considerable effect. In the House of +Commons he advocated an expenditure of twenty millions sterling +on the fleet, and the passing of the Naval Defence Act in 1889 +was largely due to his action. At the end of 1889 he became +captain of the cruiser “Undaunted” in the Mediterranean, and +when this ship was paid off in 1893 he was appointed in command +of the steam reserve at Chatham, a post he held for three years. +In 1897 he became rear-admiral, and again entered parliament, +winning a by-election at York; he retained his seat till 1900, +but was mainly occupied during these years by a mission to +China on behalf of the Associated Chambers of Commerce; he +published his book <i>The Break-up of China</i> in 1899. In 1902 he +was returned to parliament for Woolwich, but resigned on his +appointment to command the Channel squadron (1903-1905); +in 1905 he was given the command of the Mediterranean fleet, +and from 1906 to 1909 was commander-in-chief of the Channel +fleet; in 1906 he became a full admiral. At sea he had always +shown himself a remarkable disciplinarian, possessed of great +influence over his men, and his reputation as one who would, +if necessary, prove a great fighting commander was second to +none; and, even when serving afloat and therefore unable to +speak direct to the public, he was in the forefront of the campaign +for increased naval efficiency. During the administration (1903-1910) +of Sir John Fisher (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fisher, Baron</a></span>) as first sea lord of +the admiralty it was notorious that considerable friction existed +between them, and both in the navy and in public a great deal +of party-spirit was engendered in the discussion of their +opposing views. When Lord Charles Beresford’s term expired +as commander-in-chief in March 1909 he was finally “unmuzzled,” +and the attack which for some years his supporters had made +against Sir J. Fisher’s administration came to a head at a moment +coinciding with the new shipbuilding crisis occasioned by the +revelations as to the increase of the German fleet. He himself +came forward with proposals for a large increase in the navy +and a reorganization of the administrative system, his first step +being a demand for an inquiry, to which the government +promptly assented (May) in the shape of a small Committee +under the prime minister. Its report (August), however, gave +him no satisfaction, and he proceeded with his public campaign, +bitterly attacking the ministerial policy. In January 1910, at +the general election, he was returned as Conservative M.P. for +Portsmouth; but meanwhile Sir John Fisher’s term of office +came to an end, and in his successor, Admiral Sir Arthur Knyvet +Wilson (b. 1842), the navy obtained a first sea lord who commanded +universal confidence.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERESFORD, JOHN<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1738-1805), Irish statesman, was a +younger son of Sir Marcus Beresford, who, having married +Catherine, sole heiress of James Power, 3rd earl of Tyrone, was +created earl of Tyrone in 1746. After the death of the earl in +1763, Beresford’s mother successfully asserted her claim <i>suo jure</i> +to the barony of La Poer. John Beresford, born on the 14th of +March 1738, thus inherited powerful family connexions. He +was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, was called to the Irish +bar, and entered the Irish parliament as member for Waterford +in 1760. His industry, added to the influence of his family, +procured his admission to the privy council in 1768, and his +appointment as one of the commissioners of revenue two years +later. In 1780 he became first commissioner of revenue, a +position which gave him powerful influence in the Irish administration. +He introduced some useful reforms in the machinery +of taxation; and he was the author of many improvements in the +architecture of the public buildings and streets of Dublin. He +was first brought into conflict with Grattan and the popular +party, in 1784, by his support of the proposal that the Irish +parliament in return for the removal of restrictions on Irish +trade should be bound to adopt the English navigation laws. +In 1786 he was sworn a member of the English privy council, +and the power which he wielded in Ireland through his numerous +dependants and connexions grew to be so extensive that a few +years later he was spoken of as the “king of Ireland.” He was a +vehement opponent of the increasing demand for relief of the +Roman Catholics; and when it became known that Lord Fitzwilliam +was to succeed Lord Westmorland as lord lieutenant +in 1795 for the purpose of carrying out a conciliatory policy, +Beresford expressed strong hostility to the appointment. One +of Fitzwilliam’s first acts was to dismiss Beresford from his +employment but with permission to retain his entire official +salary for life, and with the assurance that no other member of +his family would be removed. Beresford immediately exerted +all his influence with his friends in England, to whom he described +himself as an injured and persecuted man; he appealed to Pitt, +and went in person to London to lay his complaint before the +English ministers. There is little doubt that the recall of Lord +Fitzwilliam (<i>q.v</i>.), which was followed by such momentous +consequences in the history of Ireland, was, as the viceroy himself +believed, mainly due to Beresford’s dismissal. There had been +a misunderstanding on the point between Pitt and Fitzwilliam. +The latter, whose veracity was unimpeachable, asserted that +previous to his coming to Ireland he had informed the prime +minister of his intention to dismiss Beresford, and that Pitt had +raised no objection. Pitt denied all recollection of any such +communication, and on the contrary described the dismissal as +“an open breach of the most solemn promise.”<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In a letter to +Lord Carlisle, justifying his action, Fitzwilliam mentioned that +malversation had been imputed to Beresford. Beresford sent a +challenge to Fitzwilliam, but the combatants were interrupted +on the field and Fitzwilliam then made an apology.</p> + +<p>When Lord Camden replaced Fitzwilliam in the viceroyalty +in March 1795, Beresford resumed his former position. On the +eve of the rebellion in 1798 his letters to Lord Auckland gave an +alarming description of the condition of Ireland, and he counselled +strong measures of repression. When first consulted by Pitt on +the question of the union Beresford appears to have disliked the +idea; but he soon became reconciled to the policy and warmly +supported it. After the union Beresford continued to represent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span> +Waterford in the imperial parliament, and he remained in office +till 1802, taking an active part in settling the financial relations +between Ireland and Great Britain. He died near Londonderry +on the 5th of November 1805. John Beresford was twice +married: in 1760 to a foreign lady, Constantia Ligondes, who +died in 1772; and, secondly, in 1774 to Barbara Montgomery, a +celebrated beauty who figures in Sir Joshua Reynolds’s picture +of “The Graces.” He had large families by both marriages. +His son, John Claudius, kept a riding school in Dublin, which +acquired an evil reputation as the chief scene of the floggings +by which evidence was extorted of the conspiracy which came +to a head in 1798. He took a prominent part in the Irish House +of Commons, where he unsuccessfully moved the reduction of +the proposed Irish contribution to the imperial exchequer in +the debates on the Act of Union, of which, unlike his father, he +was to the last an ardent opponent.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Correspondence of the Right Hon. John Beresford</i>, edited by +W. Beresford (2 vols., London, 1854); Edward Wakefield, <i>An +Account of Ireland</i> (2 vols., London, 1812); Earl Stanhope, <i>Life of +William Pitt</i> (4 vols., London, 1861); W.E.H. Lecky, <i>History of +Ireland in the Eighteenth Century</i>, vols. iii., iv., v. (5 vols., London, +1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Stanhope, <i>Life of Pitt</i>, ii, 301.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERESFORD, WILLIAM CARR BERESFORD,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> +(1768-1854), British general and Portuguese marshal, illegitimate +son of the first marquess of Waterford, was born on the 2nd of +October 1768. He entered the British army in 1785, and while +in Nova Scotia with his regiment in the following year lost the +sight of one eye by a shooting accident. He first distinguished +himself at Toulon in 1793, receiving two years later the command +of the 88th regiment (Connaught Rangers). In 1799 his regiment +was ordered to India, and a few months later Beresford left with +Sir David Baird’s expedition for Egypt, and was placed in +command of the first brigade which led the march from Kosseir +across the desert. When, on the evacuation of Egypt in 1803, +he returned home, his reputation was established. In 1805 he +accompanied Sir David Baird to South Africa, and was present +at the capture of Cape Town and the surrender of the colony. +From South Africa he was despatched to South America. He +had little difficulty in capturing Buenos Aires with only a couple +of regiments. But this force was wholly insufficient to hold the +colony. Under the leadership of a French <i>émigré</i>, the chevalier +de Timers, the colonists attacked Beresford, and at the end of +three days’ hard fighting he was compelled to capitulate. After +six months’ imprisonment he escaped, and reached England in +1807, and at the end of that year he was sent to Madeira, occupying +the island in the name of the king of Portugal. After six +months in Madeira as governor and commander-in-chief, during +which he learnt Portuguese and obtained an insight into the +Portuguese character, he was ordered to join Sir Arthur +Wellesley’s army in Portugal. He was first employed as commandant +in Lisbon, but accompanied Sir John Moore on the +advance into Spain, and took a conspicuous part in the battle of +Corunna (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular War</a></span>). In February 1809 Beresford +was given the task of reorganizing the Portuguese army. In +this task, by systematic weeding-out of inefficient officers and +men, he succeeded beyond expectation. By the summer of 1810 +he had so far improved the <i>moral</i> and discipline of the force +that Wellington brigaded some of the Portuguese regiments +with English ones, and at Busaco Portuguese and English fought +side by side. Beresford’s services in this battle were rewarded +by the British government with a knighthood of the Bath and +by the Portuguese with a peerage.</p> + +<p>In the spring of 1811 Wellington was compelled to detach +Beresford from the Portuguese service. The latter was next +in seniority to General (Lord) Hill who had gone home on sick +leave, and on him, therefore, the command of Hill’s corps now +devolved. Unfortunately Beresford never really gained the +confidence of his new troops. At Campo Mayor his light cavalry +brigade got out of hand, and a regiment of dragoons was practically +annihilated. He invested Badajoz with insufficient forces, +and on the advance of Soult he was compelled to raise the siege +and offer battle at Albuera. His personal courage was even +more than usually conspicuous, but to the initiative of a junior +staff officer, Colonel (afterwards Viscount) Hardinge, rather than +to Beresford’s own generalship, was the hardly-won victory to +be attributed. Beresford then went back to his work of +reorganizing the Portuguese army. He was present at the +siege of Badajoz and at the battle of Salamanca, where he was +severely wounded (1812). In 1813 he was present at the battle +of Vittoria, and at the battles of the Pyrenees, while at the battle +of the Nivelle, the Nive and Orthez he commanded the British +centre, and later he led a corps at the battle of Toulouse. At +the close of the Peninsular War he was created Baron Beresford +of Albuera and Cappoquin, with a pension of £2000 a year, to be +continued to his two successors.</p> + +<p>In 1819 the revolution in Portugal led to the dismissal of the +British officers in the Portuguese service. Beresford therefore +left Portugal and placed the question of the arrears of pay of his +army before the king at Rio Janeiro. On his return the new +Portuguese government refused to allow him to land, and he +accordingly left for home. On arriving in England he turned +his attention to politics, and strongly supported the duke of +Wellington in the House of Lords. In 1823 his barony was made +a viscounty, and when the duke of Wellington formed his first +cabinet in 1828 he gave Beresford the office of master-general +of the ordnance. In 1830 Beresford retired from politics, and +for some time subsequently he was occupied in a heated controversy +with William Napier, the historian of the Peninsular +War, who had severely criticised his tactics at Albuera. On this +subject Wellington’s opinion of Beresford is to the point. The +duke had no illusions as to his being a great general, but he +thought very highly of his powers of organization, and he went +so far as to declare, during the Peninsular War, that, in the event +of his own death, he would on this ground recommend Beresford +to succeed him. The last years of Beresford’s life were spent at +Bedgebury, Kent, where he had purchased a country estate. +He died on the 8th of January 1854.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEREZINA,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a river of Russia, in the government of Minsk, +forming a tributary of the Dnieper. It rises in the marshes of +Borizov and flows south, inclining to east, for 350 m. (250 m. +navigable), for the most part through low-lying but well-wooded +country. As a navigable river, and forming a portion of the +canal system which unites the Black Sea with the Baltic, it is of +importance for commerce, but is subject to severe floods. It was +just above Borizov that Napoleon’s army forced the passage +of the Berezina, with enormous losses, on the 26th-28th of +November 1812, during the retreat from Moscow.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEREZOV<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span>. a town of Asiatic Russia, in the government of +Tobolsk, 700 m. N. of the city of that name, situated on three +hills on the left bank of the Sosva, 26 m. above its mouth in the +Ob, in 63° 55′ N. lat. and 65° 7′ E. long. It has more than once +suffered from conflagrations—for example, in 1710 and 1808. +Prince Menshikov, the favourite of Peter the Great and Catherine +I., died here an exile, in 1729. In 1730 his enemy and rival, +Prince Dolgoruki, was interned here with his family; and in +1742 General Ostermann was sent to Berezov with his wife and +died there in 1747. The yearly mean temperature is 25° Fahr., +the maximum cold being 4.7°. It has a cathedral, near which +lie buried Mary Menshikov, once betrothed to the tsar Peter II., +and some of the Dolgorukis. There is some trade in furs, +mammoth bones, dried and salted fish. Pop. (1897) 1073.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEREZOVSK,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> a village of east Russia, in the government of +Perm, on the eastern slope of the Urals, 8 m. N.E. of Ekaterinburg. +It is the centre of an important gold-mining region +(5 m. by 2½) of the same name. The mines have been known +since 1747. The inhabitants also manufacture boots, cut stone +and carry on cabinet-making.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERG<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (<i>Ducatus Montensis</i>), a former duchy of Germany, on +the right bank of the Rhine, bounded N. by the duchy of Cleves, +E. by the countship of La Marck and the duchy of Westphalia, +and S. and W. by the bishopric of Cologne. Its area was about +1120 sq. m. The district was raised in 1108 to the rank of a +countship, but did not become a duchy till 1380, after it had +passed into the possession of the Jülich family. In 1423 the +duchy of Jülich fell to Adolf of Berg, and in 1437 the countship +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span> +of Ravensberg was united to the duchies. The male line of the +dukes of Jülich-Berg-Ravensberg became extinct in 1511, and +the duchy passed by marriage to John III. (d. 1539), duke of +Cleves and count of La Marck, whose male line became extinct +with the death of John William, bishop of Münster, in 1609. +Of the latter’s four sisters, the eldest (Marie Eleonore) was +married to Albert Frederick, duke of Prussia, the second (Anna) +to Philip Louis, count palatine of Neuburg, the third (Magdalena) +to John, count palatine of Zweibrücken, and the fourth (Sybille) +to Charles of Habsburg, margrave of Burgau. The question of +the succession led to a prolonged contest, which was one of the +causes of the Thirty Years’ War. It was settled in 1614 by a +partition, under which Berg, with Jülich, was assigned to the +count palatine of Neuburg, in whose line it remained till 1742, +when it passed to the Sultzbach branch of the house of Wittelsbach. +On the death of Charles Theodore, the last of this line, in +1799, Jülich and Berg fell to Maximilian Joseph of Zweibrücken +(Maximilian I. of Bavaria), who ceded the duchies in 1806 to +Napoleon. Berg was bestowed by Napoleon, along with the +duchy of Cleves and other possessions, on Joachim Murat, who +bore the title of grand-duke of Berg; and after Murat’s elevation +to the throne of Naples, it was transferred to Louis, the son of +the king of Holland. By the congress of Vienna in 1815 it was +made over to Prussia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See B. Schönneshöfer, <i>Geschichte des Bergischen Landes</i> +(Elberfeld, 1895); Stokvis, <i>Manuel d’histoire, &c.</i> vol. iii. +(Leiden, 1890-1893); and R. Göcke, <i>Das Grossherzogtum Berg +unter Joachim Murat, Napoleon I<span class="sp">er</span> und Louis Napoleon, 1806-1813</i> +(Cologne, 1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGAMASK,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bergomask</span> (from the town of Bergamo in +North Italy), a clumsy rustic dance (cf. Shakespeare, <i>Midsummer +Night’s Dream</i>, v. 360) copied from the natives of Bergamo, +reputed to be very awkward in their manners.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGAMO<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (anc. <i>Bergomum</i>), a city and episcopal see of +Lombardy, Italy, capital of the province of Bergamo, situated +at the foot of the Alps, at the junction of the Brembo and Serio, +33½ m. N.E. of Milan by rail, and 26 m. direct. Pop. (1901) +town, 25,425; commune, 46,861. The town consists of two +distinct parts, the older Città Alta, upon a hill 1200 ft. above +sea-level, strongly fortified by the Venetians, and the new town +(Città Bassa) below, the two being connected by a funicular +railway. The most interesting building of the former is the fine +Romanesque church of S. Maria Maggiore, founded in 1137 and +completed in 1355, with a baroque interior and some interesting +works of art. Adjoining it to the north is the Cappella Colleoni, +with a richly sculptured polychrome façade, and a modernized +interior, containing the fine tombs of Bartolommeo Colleoni +(<i>c.</i> 1400-1475), a native of Bergamo, and his daughter Medea. +The work was executed in 1470-1476 by Giovanni Antonio +Amadeo, who was also employed at the Certosa di Pavia. The +market-place (now Piazza Garibaldi) contains the Gothic Palazzo +Vecchio or Broletto; close by are the cathedral (1614) and a +small baptistery of 1340, rebuilt in 1898. The lower town +contains an important picture-gallery, consisting of three collections +of works of north Italian masters, one of which was +bequeathed in 1891 by the art critic Giovanni Morelli. Bergamo +has fine modern buildings and numerous silk and cotton factories. +It also has a considerable cattle market, though its yearly Fiera +di S. Alessandro (the patron saint) has lost some of its importance. +Railways radiate from it to Lecco, Ponte della Selva, Usmate +(for Monza or Seregno), Treviglio (on the main line from Milan +to Verona and Venice) and (via Rovato) to Brescia, and steam +tramways to Treviglio, Sarnico and Soncino.</p> + +<p>The ancient Bergomum was the centre of the tribe of the +Orobii; it became, after their subjection to Rome, a Roman +municipality with a considerable territory, and after its destruction +by Attila, became the capital of a Lombard duchy. From +1264 to 1428 it was under Milan, but then became Venetian, and +remained so until 1797. Remains of the Roman city are not +visible above ground, but various discoveries made are recorded +by G. Mantovani in <i>Not. Scav</i>., 1890, 25.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGAMOT, OIL OF,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> an essential oil obtained from the rind +of the fruit of the Citrus bergamia. The bergamot is a small +tree with leaves and flowers like the bitter orange, and a round +fruit nearly 3 in. in diameter, having a thin lemon-yellow smooth +rind. The tree is cultivated in southern Calabria, whence the +entire supply of bergamot oil is drawn. Machinery is mostly +used to express the oil from the fruit, which is gathered in +November and December. The oil, which on standing deposits +a stearoptene, bergamot camphor or bergaptene, is a limpid +greenish-yellow fluid of a specific gravity of 0.882 to 0.886, and +its powerful but pleasant odour is mainly due to the presence of +linalyl acetate, or <i>bergamiol</i>, which can be artificially prepared by heating linalol with acetic anhydride. The chief use of +bergamot oil is in perfumery. The word apparently is derived +from the Italian town Bergamo. The name Bergamot, for a +variety of pear, is an entirely different word, supposed to be a +corruption of the Turkish <i>beg-armudi</i> (= prince’s pear; cf. +Ger. <i>Fürstenbirn</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGEDORF,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the territory of Hamburg, +on the river Bille, 10 m. by rail E. by S. from the city. Pop. +(1900) 23,728. It produces vegetables and fruit for the Hamburg +markets, and carries on tanning, glass manufacture, brewing +and brick-making. It received civic rights in 1275, belonged to +Lübeck and Hamburg conjointly from 1420 to 1868, and in the +latter year was purchased by Hamburg. The surrounding district, +exceptionally fertile marshland, is known as Die Vierlande, +being divided into four parishes, whence the name is derived.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGEN,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> a city and seaport of Norway, forming a separate +county (<i>amt</i>), on the west coast, in lat. 60° 23′ N. (about +that of the Shetland Islands). Pop. (1900) 72,179. It lies at +the head of the broad Byfjord, and partly on a rocky promontory +(Nordnaes) between the fine harbour (Vaagen) and the Puddefjord. +Its situation is very beautiful, the moist climate (mean annual +rainfall, 74 in.) fostering on the steep surrounding hills a +vegetation unusually luxuriant for the latitude. Behind the town lie +the greater and lesser Lungegaard Lakes, so that the site is in +effect a peninsula. The harbour is crowded with picturesque +timber-ships and fishing-smacks, and is bordered by quays. +The principal street is Strandgaden, on the Nordnaes, parallel +with the harbour, communicating inland with the <i>torv</i> or +marketplace, which fronts the harbour and contains the fish and fruit +market. The portion of the city on the mainland rises in an +amphitheatre. The houses, of wood or stucco, are painted in +warm reds and yellows. On the banks of the lesser Lungegaard +Lake is the small town park, and above the greater lake the +pleasant Nygaards park, with an aquarium adjoining. Among +the principal buildings are the cathedral (rebuilt in the 16th +century), and several other churches, among which the Mariae +Kirke with its Romanesque nave is the earliest; a hospital, +diocesan college, naval academy, school of design and a theatre. +An observatory and biological station are maintained. The +museums are of great interest. The Vestlandske fishery and +industrial museum also contains a picture gallery, and exhibition +of the Bergen Art Union (<i>Kunstforening</i>). The Bergen museum +contains antiquities and a natural history collection. The +Hanseatic museum is housed in a carefully-preserved <i>gaard</i>, or +store-house and offices of the Hanseatic League of German +merchants, who inhabited the German quarter (Tydskenbryggen) +and were established here in great strength from 1445 to 1558 +(when the Norwegians began to find their presence irksome), +and brought much prosperity to the city in that period. The +Bergenhus and Fredriksberg forts defend the north and south +entries of the harbour respectively. The first was originally +built in the 13th century by King Haakon Haakonsson, and +subsequently enlarged; and still bears marks of an English +attack when a Dutch fleet was driven to shelter here in 1665. +Near it are remains of another old fort, the Sverresborg. Electric +trams ply in the principal streets.</p> + +<p>Bergen is the birthplace of the poets Ludvig Holberg (1684-1754) +and Johan Welhaven (1807-1873), of Johan Dahl the +painter (1788-1857), of Ole Bull (1810-1880) and Edvard Grieg +the musicians. There are statues to Holberg and Bull, and also +to Christie, president of the Storthing (parliament) in 1815 and 1818.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span></p> + +<p>Bergen ranks first of the Norwegian ship-owning centres, +having risen to this position from fifth in 1879. The trade, +however, is exceeded by that of Christiania. The staple export +trade is in fish and their products: other exports are +butter, copper ore and hides. The principal imports are coal, +machinery, salt, grain and provisions. The manufactures are +not extensive, but the preparation of fish products, shipbuilding, +weaving and distillery, with manufactures of paper, pottery, +tobacco and ropes are carried on. Bergen is an important centre +of the extensive tourist traffic of Norway. Regular steamers +serve the port from Hull and Newcastle (about 40 hours), from +Hamburg, and from all the Norwegian coast towns. Many +local steamers penetrate the fjords, touching at every village and +<i>gaard</i>. Bergen is the nearest port to the famous Hardanger +Fjord, and is the starting-point of a remarkable railway which +runs through many tunnels and fine scenery towards Vossevangen +or Voss. In 1896 a beginning was made with the continuation +of this line through the mountains to connect with +Christiania. In the first 50 m. from Voss the line ascends 4080 ft., +passing through a tunnel 5796 yds. long.</p> + +<p>Bergen (formerly Björgvin) was founded by King Olaf +Kyrre in 1070-1075, and rapidly grew to importance, the +Byfjord becoming the scene of several important engagements +in the civil wars of subsequent centuries. The famous +Hansa merchants maintained a failing position here till 1764. +The town suffered frequently from fire, as in 1702 and 1855, +and the broad open spaces (<i>Almenninge</i>) which interrupt +the streets are intended as a safeguard against the spread of +flames.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Y. Nielsen, <i>Bergen fra die äldste tider indtil nutiden</i> (Christiania, +1877); H. Jager, <i>Bergen og Bergenserne</i> (Bergen, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGEN-OP-ZOOM,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a town in the province of North Brabant, +Holland, situated on both sides of the small river Zoom, near +its confluence with the East Scheldt, 38½ m. by rail E. by N. of +Flushing. It is connected by steam tramway with Antwerp +(20 m. S.) and with the islands of Tholen and Duiveland to the +north-west. Pop. (1900) 13,663. The houses are well built, the +market-places and squares handsome and spacious. It possesses +a port and an arsenal, and contains a fine town hall, with portraits +of the ancient margraves of Bergen-op-Zoom, a Latin school, +and an academy of design and architecture. The remains of +the old castle of the margraves have been converted into barracks. +The tower is still standing and is remarkable for its increase in +size as it rises, which causes it to rock in a strong wind. The +church contains a monument to Lord Edward Bruce, killed in a +duel with Sir Edward Sackville, afterwards earl of Dorset, in +1613. There are numerous tile-works and potteries of fine ware; +and a considerable trade is carried on in anchovies and oysters +caught in the Scheldt. A large sugar-beet industry has also +sprung up here in modern times.</p> + +<p>Bergen-op-Zoom is a very old town, but little is known of its +early history beyond the fact that it was taken by the Normans +in 880. In the 13th century it became the seat of Count Gerhard +of Wesemael, who surrounded it with walls and built a castle. +By the end of the 15th century it had become one of the most +prosperous towns of Holland, on account of its fisheries and its +cloth-trade. In 1576 the town joined the United Netherlands, +and was shortly afterwards fortified. In 1588 it was successfully +defended against the duke of Parma by an English and Dutch +garrison commanded by Colonel Morgan, and in 1605 it was +suddenly attacked by Du Terail. In 1622 the Spaniards, under +Spinola, made another attempt to take the town, but were +forced to abandon the enterprise after a siege of ten weeks and +the loss of 1200 men. Towards the end of the 17th century the +fortifications were greatly strengthened by Coehoorn, and in +1725 they were further extended. In 1747, however, the town +was taken by the French, under Marshal Löwendahl, who +surprised it by means of a subterranean passage. Restored at +the end of the war, it was again taken by the French under +Pichegru in 1795. The English, under Sir Thomas Graham, +afterwards Lord Lynedoch, in March 1814 made an attempt to +take it by a <i>coup de main</i>, but were driven back with great loss +by the French, who surrendered the place, however, by the +treaty of peace in the following May.</p> + +<p>The lordship of Bergen-op-Zoom appears, after the definite +union of the Low Countries with the Empire in 924, as an +hereditary fief of the Empire, and the succession of its lords may +be traced from Henry (1098-1125), who also held Breda. In +1533 it was raised to a margraviate by the emperor Charles V., +and was held by various families until in 1799 it passed, through +the Sultzbach branch of the Wittelsbachs, to the royal house of +Bavaria, by whom it was renounced in favour of the Batavian +republic in 1801.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGERAC,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Dordogne, on the right bank +of the Dordogne, 60 m. E. of Bordeaux on the railway to Cahors. +Pop. (1906) town, 10,545; commune, 15,623. The river is +rendered navigable by a large dam and crossed by a fine bridge +which leads to the suburb of La Madeleine. Apart from a few +old houses in the older quarter by the river, the town contains +no monuments of antiquarian interest. There is a handsome +modern church built in the middle of the 19th century. Bergerac +is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance +and of commerce and a communal college. Wine of fine quality +is grown in the district and is the chief source of the commerce +of the town, which is mainly carried on with Libourne and +Bordeaux. There is trade in grain, truffles, chestnuts, brandy +and in the salmon of the Dordogne. The town has flour-mills, +iron-works, tanneries, distilleries and nursery-gardens, and it +has manufactures of casks and of vinegar. There are quarries +of millstone in the vicinity. In the 16th century Bergerac was a +very flourishing and populous place, but most of its inhabitants +having embraced Calvinism it suffered greatly during the +religious wars and by the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685). +It was in 1577 the scene of the signing of the sixth peace between +the Catholics and Protestants. Its fortifications and citadel +were demolished by Louis XIII. in 1621.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGHAUS, HEINRICH<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1797-1884), German geographer, +was born at Kleve on the 3rd of May 1797. He was trained as a +surveyor, and after volunteering for active service under General +Tauenzien in 1813, joined the staff of the Prussian trigonometrical +survey in 1816. He carried on a geographical school at +Potsdam in company with Heinrich Lange, August Petermann, +and others, and long held the professorship of applied mathematics +at the Bauakademie. But he is most famous in connexion +with his cartographical work. His greatest achievement was the +<i>Physikalischer Atlas</i> (Gotha, 1838-1848), in which work, as in +others, his nephew <span class="sc">Hermann Berghaus</span> (1828-1890) was +associated with him. He had also a share in the re-issue of the +great <i>Stieler Handatlas</i> (originally produced by Adolf Stieler in +1817-1823). and in the production of other atlases. His written +works were numerous and important, including <i>Allgemeine +Länder- und Völkerkunde</i> (Stuttgart, 1837-1840), <i>Grundriss der +Geographie in fünf Bückern</i> (Berlin, 1842), <i>Die Völker des Erdballs</i> +(Leipzig, 1845-1847), <i>Was man van der Erde weiss</i> (Berlin, 1856-1860), +and various large works on Germany. In 1863 he published +<i>Briefwechsel mit Alexander van Humboldt</i> (Leipzig). He +died at Stettin on the 17th of February 1884.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGK, THEODOR<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1812-1881), German philologist, was +born at Leipzig on the 22nd of May 1812. After studying at the +university of his native town, where he profited by the instruction +of G. Hermann, he was appointed in 1835 to the lectureship +in Latin at the orphan school at Halle. After holding posts +at Neustrelitz, Berlin and Cassel, he succeeded (1842) K.F. +Hermann as professor of classical literature at Marburg. In +1852 he went to Freiburg, and in 1857 returned to Halle. In +1868 he resigned his professorship, and settled down to study and +literary work in Bonn. He died on the 20th of July 1881, at +Ragatz in Switzerland, where he had gone for the benefit of his +health. Bergk’s literary activity was very great, but his reputation +mainly rests upon his work in connexion with Greek literature +and the Greek lyric poets. His <i>Poetae Lyrici Graeci</i> (1843. 5th +ed. 1900, &c.), and <i>Griechische Litteraturgeschichte</i> (1872-1887, +completed by G. Hinrichs and R. Peppmüller) are standard +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span> +works. He also edited Anacreon (1834), the fragments of +Aristophanes (1840), Aristophanes (3rd ed., 1872), Sophocles (and +ed., 1868), a lyric anthology (4th ed., 1890). Among his other +works may be mentioned: <i>Augusti Rerum a se gestarum Index</i> +(1873); <i>Inschriften römischer Schleudergeschosse</i> (1876); <i>Zur +Geschichte und Topographie der Rheinlande in römischer Zeit</i> +(1882); <i>Beiträge zur römischen Chronologie</i> (1884).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Kleine philologische Schriften</i> have been edited by Peppmüller +(1884-1886), and contain, in addition to a complete list of his writings, +a sketch of his life. See Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol</i> iii. 146 (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGLER, STEPHAN,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> German classical scholar, was born +about 1680 at Kronstadt in Transylvania. The date of his death +is uncertain. After studying at Leipzig, he went to Amsterdam, +where he edited Homer and the <i>Onomasticon</i> of Julius Pollux +for Wetzstein the publisher. Subsequently, at Hamburg, he +assisted the great bibliographer J.A. Fabricius in the production +of his <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> and his edition of Sextus Empiricus. +He finally found a permanent post in Bucharest as secretary to +the prince of Walachia, Alexander Mavrocordato, whose work +<span class="grk" title="Peri ton kathaekonton">Περὶ τῶν καθηκόντων</span> (<i>De Officiis</i>) he had previously translated +for Fritzsch, the Leipzig bookseller, by whom he had been +employed as proof-reader and literary hack. In the prince’s +library Bergler discovered the introduction and the first three +chapters of Eusebius’s <i>Demonstratio Evangelica</i>. He died in +Bucharest, and was buried at his patron’s expense. According +to another account, Bergler, finding himself without means, +drifted to Constantinople, where he came to an untoward end +(<i>c</i>. 1740). He is said to have become a convert to Islam; this +report was probably a mistake for the undisputed fact that he +embraced Roman Catholicism. Bergler led a wild and irregular +life, and offended his friends and made many enemies by his +dissipated habits and cynical disposition. In addition to writing +numerous articles for the Leipzig <i>Acta Eruditorum</i>, Bergler +edited the editio princeps of the Byzantine historiographer +Genesius (1733), and the letters of Alciphron (1715), in which +seventy-five hitherto unpublished letters were for the first time +included.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGMAN, TORBERN OLOF<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1735-1784), Swedish chemist +and naturalist, was born at Katrineberg, Vestergötland, Sweden, +on the 20th of March 1735. At the age of seventeen he entered +the university of Upsala. His father wished him to read either +law or divinity, while he himself was anxious to study mathematics +and natural science; in the effort to please both himself +and his father he overworked himself and injured his health. +During a period of enforced abstinence from study, he amused +himself with field botany and entomology, to such good purpose +that he was able to send Linnaeus specimens of several new kinds +of insects, and in 1756 he succeeded in proving that, contrary to +the opinion of that naturalist, <i>Coccus aquaticus</i> was really the +ovum of a kind of leech. In 1758, having returned to Upsala, +he graduated there, and soon afterwards began to teach mathematics +and physics at the university, publishing papers on the +rainbow, the aurora, the pyroelectric phenomena of tourmaline, +&c. In 1767 Johann Gottschalck Wallerius (1709-1785) having +resigned the chair of chemistry and mineralogy, Bergman determined +to become a candidate, though he had paid no particular +attention to chemistry. As evidence of his attainments he +produced a memoir on the manufacture of alum, but his pretensions +were strongly opposed, and it was only through the +influence of Gustavus III., then crown prince and chancellor +of the university, that he gained the appointment, which he +held till the end of his life. He died at Medevi on Lake Vetter +on the 8th of July 1784. Bergman’s most important chemical +paper is his <i>Essay on Elective Attractions</i> (1775), a study of +chemical affinity. In methods of chemical analysis, both by the +blowpipe and in the wet way, he effected many improvements, +and he made considerable contributions to mineralogical and +geological chemistry, and to crystallography. He also made +observations of the transit of Venus in 1761, and published a +<i>Physical Description of the Earth</i> in 1766.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works were collected and printed in 6 vols. as <i>Opuscula +Physica et Chemica</i> in 1779-1790, and were translated into French, +German and English.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGSCHRUND<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Berg</i>, mountain; <i>Schrund</i>, cleft or +crevice), a gaping crack in the upper part of a snowfield or +glacier, near the rock wall, caused by the glacier moving bodily +away from the mountain-side as the mass settles downwards. +The crack is roughly parallel to the rock-face of the upper edge +of the glacier basin, and extends downwards to the solid rock +beneath the glacier where at the bottom of this huge crevasse +there are blocks of ice, and large pieces of rock torn off +by the lower portion of the glacier from the rock wall and +floor.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERGUES,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of +Nord, at the junction of the canal of the Colme with canals to +Dunkirk and Furnes (in Belgium), 5 m. S.S.E. of Dunkirk by +rail. Pop. (1906) 4499. The town has a belfry, the finest in +French Flanders, dating from the middle of the 16th century +and restored in the 19th century. The church of St Martin is +a brick building of the 17th century in the Gothic style with a +modern façade. The town hall, dating from the latter half of +the 19th century, contains a municipal library and an interesting +collection of pictures. The industries of the town include +brewing and malting, and the manufacture of brushes and +oil.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERHAMPUR,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a town of British India, the headquarters +of Murshidabad district, in Bengal, situated on the left bank of +the river Bhagirathi, 5 m. below Murshidabad city. Pop. (1901) +24,397. Berhampur was fixed upon after the battle of Plassey +as the site of the chief military station for Bengal; and a huge +square of brick barracks was erected in 1767, at a cost of £300,000. +Here was committed the first overt act of the mutiny, on the +25th of February 1857. No troops are now stationed here, and +the barracks have been utilized for a jail, a lunatic asylum and +other civic buildings. A college, founded by government in +1853, was made over in 1888 to a local committee, being mainly +supported by the munificence of the rani Svarnamayi. In +the municipality of Berhampur is included the remnant of +the once important, but now utterly decayed city of Cossimbazar +(<i>q.v</i>.).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERHAMPUR,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a town of British India, in the presidency of +Madras. Pop. (1901) 25,729. It is the headquarters of Ganjam +district, and is situated about 9 m. from the sea. It is a station +on the East Coast railway, which connects Calcutta with +Madras. Berhampur had a military cantonment, sometimes +distinguished as Baupur, containing a wing of a native regiment; +but the troops have been transferred elsewhere. There is some +weaving of silk cloth, and export trade in sugar. The college, +originally founded by government, is now maintained by the +raja of Kallikota. Silk-weaving and sugar-manufacture are +carried on.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERI-BERI,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> a tropical disease of the greatest antiquity, and +known to the Chinese from an extremely remote period. It +gradually dropped out of sight of European practice, until an +epidemic in Brazil in 1863, and the opening up of Japan, where +it prevailed extensively, and the investigations into the disease +in Borneo, brought it again into notice. The researches of +Scheube and Bälz in Japan, and of Pekelharing and Winkler +in the Dutch Indies, led to its description as a form of peripheral +neuritis (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuropathology</a></span>). The geographical distribution +of beri-beri is between 45° N. and 35° S. It occurs in +Japan, Korea and on the Chinese coast south of Shanghai; in +Manila, Tongking, Cochin China, Burma, Singapore, Malacca, +Java and the neighbouring islands; also in Ceylon, Mauritius, +Madagascar and the east coast of Africa. In the Western +hemisphere it is found in Cuba, Panama, Venezuela and South +America. It has been carried in ships to Australia and to +England. Sir P. Manson has “known it originate in the port of +London in the crews of ships which had been in harbour for +several months,” and he suggests that when peripheral neuritis +occurs in epidemic form it is probably beri-beric.</p> + +<p>The cause is believed by many authorities to be an infective +agent of a parasitic nature, but attempts to identify it have not +been entirely successful. It is “not obviously communicable +from person to person” (Manson), but may be carried from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span> +place to place. It clings to particular localities, buildings and +ships, in which it has a great tendency to occur; for instance, +it is apt to break out again and again on certain vessels trading +to the East. It haunts low-lying districts along the coast, and +the banks of rivers. Moisture and high temperature are required +to develop its activity, which is further favoured by bad ventilation, +overcrowding and underfeeding. Another strongly +supported hypothesis is that it is caused by unwholesome diet. +The experience of the Japanese navy points strongly in this +direction. Beri-beri was constantly prevalent among the sailors +until 1884, when the dietary was changed. A striking and progressive +diminution at once set in, and continued until the disease +wholly disappeared. Major Ronald Ross suggested that beri-beri +was really arsenical poisoning. A natural surmise is that +it is due to some fungoid growth affecting grain, such as rice, +maize or some other food stuff commonly used in the localities +where beri-beri is prevalent, and among sailors. The conditions +under which their food is kept on board certain ships might +explain the tendency of the disease to haunt particular vessels. +Dr Charles Hose is the principal advocate of this theory. Having +had much experience of beri-beri in Sarawak, he associates it +with the eating of mouldy rice, a germ in the fungus constituting +the poison. But Dr Hose’s views as to rice have been strongly +opposed by Dr Hamilton Wright and others.</p> + +<p>The most susceptible age is from 15 to 40. Children under +15 and persons over 50 or 60 are rarely attacked. Men are more +liable than women. Race has no influence. Previous attacks +powerfully predispose.</p> + +<p>The symptoms are mainly those of peripheral neuritis with +special implication of the phrenic and the pneumogastric +nerves. There is usually a premonitory stage, in which the +patient is languid, easily tired, depressed, and complains of +numbness, stiffness and cramps in the legs; the ankles are +oedematous and the face is puffy. After this, pronounced +symptoms set in rapidly, the patient suddenly loses power +in the legs and is hardly able to walk or stand; this paresis is +accompanied by partial anaesthesia, and by burning or tingling +sensations in the feet, legs and arms; the finger-tips are numb, +the calf muscles tender. These symptoms increase, the oedema +becomes general, the paralysis more marked; breathlessness +and palpitation come on in paroxysms; the urine is greatly +diminished. There is no fever, unless it is of an incidental character, +and no brain symptoms arise. The patient may remain +in this condition for several days or weeks, when the symptoms +begin to subside. On the disappearance of the oedema the +muscles of the leg are found to be atrophied. Recovery is very +slow, but appears to be certain when once begun. When death +occurs it is usually from syncope through over-distension of the +heart. The mortality varies greatly, from 2 to 50% of the cases. +The disease is said to be extremely fatal among the Malays. +After death there is found to be serious infiltration into all the +tissues, and often haemorrhages into the muscles and nerves, but +the most important lesion is degeneration of the peripheral +nerves. The cerebrospinal centres are not affected, and the +degeneration of the nerve-fibres is more marked the farther they +are from the point of origin. The implication of the phrenic +and pneumogastric nerves, and of the cardiac plexus, accounts +for the breathlessness, palpitation and heart failure; that of +the vaso-motor system for the oedema and diminution of urine, +and that of the spinal nerves for the loss of power, the impairment +and perversion of sensation. According as these nerves +are variously affected the symptoms will be modified, some +being more prominent in one case and some in another.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—See Sir Patrick Manson, <i>Tropical Diseases</i> (new +ed., 1907), for a critical discussion of the subject, see <i>The Times</i> of +28th October 1905; a full bibliography is given by Manson in +Allbutt and Rolleston’s <i>System of Medicine</i> (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERING<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Behring</span>), <b>VITUS</b> (1680-1741), Danish navigator, +was born in 1680 at Horsens. In 1703 he entered the Russian +navy, and served in the Swedish war. A series of explorations +of the north coast of Asia, the outcome of a far-reaching plan +devised by Peter the Great, led up to Bering’s first voyage to +Kamchatka. In 1725, under the auspices of the Russian government, +he went overland to Okhotsk, crossed to Kamchatka, and +built the ship “Gabriel.” In her he pushed northward in 1728, +until he could no longer observe any extension of the land to the +north, or its appearance to the east. In the following year he +made an abortive search for land eastward, and in 1730 returned +to St Petersburg. He was subsequently commissioned to a +further expedition, and in 1740 established the settlement of +Petropavlosk in Kamchatka; and built two vessels, the “St +Peter” and “St Paul,” in which in 1741 he led an expedition +towards America. A storm separated the ships, but Bering +sighted the southern coast of Alaska, and a landing was made at +Kayak Island or in the vicinity. Bering was forced by adverse +conditions to return quickly, and discovered some of the Aleutian +Islands on his way back. He was afflicted with scurvy, and +became too ill to command his ships, which were at last driven +to refuge on an uninhabited island in the south-west of Bering +Sea, where Bering himself and many of his company died. This +island bears his name. Bering died on the 19th of December +1741. It was long before the value of his work was recognized; +but Captain Cook was able to prove his accuracy as an observer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G.F. Müller, <i>Sammlung russischer Geschichten</i>, vol. iii. +(St Petersburg, 1758); P. Lauridsen, <i>Bering og de Russishe +Opdagelsesrejser</i> (Copenhagen, 1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERING ISLAND, SEA<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> and <b>STRAIT</b>. These take their +name from the explorer Vitus Bering. The island (also called +Avatcha), which was the scene of his death, lies in the south-western +part of the sea, off the coast of Kamchatka, being one +of the Commander or Komandor group, belonging to Russia. +It is 69 m. long and 28 m. in extreme breadth; the area is 615 +sq. m. The extreme elevation is about 300 ft. The smaller +Copper Island lies near. The islands are treeless, and the climate +is severe, but there is a population of about 650. Bering Sea is +the northward continuation of the Pacific Ocean, from which +it is demarcated by the long chain of the Aleutian Islands. It +is bounded on the east by Alaska, and on the west by the Siberian +and Kamchatkan coast. Its area is estimated at 870,000 sq. m. +In the north and east it has numerous islands (St Lawrence, +St Matthew, Nunivak and the Pribiloff group) and is shallow; +in the south-west it reaches depths over 2000 fathoms. The +seal-fisheries are important (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bering Sea Arbitration</a></span>). +The sea is connected with the Arctic Ocean northward by Bering +Strait, at the narrowest part of which East Cape (Deshnev) in +Asia approaches within about 56 m. of Cape Prince of Wales on +the American shore. North and south of these points the coasts +on both sides rapidly diverge. They are steep and rocky, and +considerably indented. The extreme depth of the strait +approaches 50 fathoms, and it contains two small islands known +as the Diomede Islands. These granite domes, lacking a harbour, +lie about a mile apart, and the boundary line between the +possessions of Russia and the United States passes between them. +They are occupied by a small tribe of about 80 Eskimo, who have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span> +from early times plied the trade of middlemen between Asia and +America. They call the western island Nunárbook and the +eastern Ignálook. Haze and fogs greatly prevail in the strait, +which is never free of ice.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:529px; height:384px" src="images/img775.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The earliest names associated with the exploration of Bering +Strait are those of Russians seeking to extend their trading +facilities. Isai Ignatiev made a voyage eastward from the +Kolyma river in 1646, and Simon Dezhnev in 1648 followed +his route and prolonged it, rounding the East or Dezhnev Cape, +and entering the strait. The post of Anadyrsk was founded on +the river Anadyr, and overland communications were gradually +opened up. A Russian named Popov first learnt a rumour of the +existence of islands east of Cape Dezhnev, and of the proximity +of America, and presently there followed the explorations of +Vitus Bering. In 1731 the navigator Michael Gvosdev was +driven by storm from a point north of Cape Dezhnev to within +sight of the Alaskan coast, which he followed for two days. +Under Bering on his last voyage (1741) was Commander Chirikov +of the “St Paul,” and after being separated from his leader +during foggy weather this officer reached the Alaskan coast and +explored a considerable stretch of it. Lieutenant Waxel and +William Steller, a naturalist, left at the head of Bering’s party +after his death, by their researches laid the foundation of the +important fur trade of these waters. The Aleutian Islands +gradually became known in the pursuit of this trade, through +Michael Novidiskov (1745) and his successors, and it was not +until Captain James Cook, working from the south, explored +the sea and strait in 1778 that the tide of discovery set farther +northward.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERING SEA ARBITRATION<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span>. The important fishery +dispute between Great Britain and the United States, which +was closed by this arbitration, arose in the following circumstances.</p> + +<p>In the year 1867 the United States government had purchased +from Russia all her territorial rights in Alaska and the adjacent +islands. The boundary between the two powers, as laid down +by the treaty for purchase, was a line drawn from the middle of +Bering Strait south-west to a point midway between the +Aleutian and Komandorski Islands dividing Bering Sea into two +parts, of which the larger was on the American side of this line. +This portion included the Pribiloff Islands, which are the principal +breeding-grounds of the seals frequenting those seas. By +certain acts of congress, passed between 1868 and 1873, the +killing of seals was prohibited upon the islands of the Pribiloff +group and in “the waters adjacent thereto” except upon certain +specified conditions. No definition of the meaning of the words +“adjacent waters” was given in the act. In 1870 the exclusive +rights of killing seals upon these islands was leased by the United +States to the Alaska Commercial Company, upon conditions +limiting the numbers to be taken annually, and otherwise providing +for their protection. As early as 1872 the operations of +foreign sealers attracted the attention of the United States +government, but any precautions then taken seem to have been +directed against the capture of seals on their way through the +passages between the Aleutian Islands, and no claim to jurisdiction +beyond the three-mile limit appears to have been put +forward. On the 12th of March 1881, however, the acting +secretary of the United States treasury, in answer to a letter +asking for an interpretation of the words “waters adjacent +thereto” in the acts of 1868 and 1873, stated that all the waters +east of the boundary line were considered to be within the waters +of Alaska territory. In March 1886 this letter was communicated +to the San Francisco customs by Mr Daniel Manning, +secretary of the treasury, for publication. In the same summer +three British sealers, the “Carolena,” “Onward” and +“Thornton,” were captured by an American revenue cutter +60 m. from land. They were condemned by the district +judge on the express ground that they had been sealing within +the limits of Alaska territory. Diplomatic representations +followed, and an order for release was issued, but in 1887 further +captures were made and were judicially supported upon the same +grounds. The respective positions taken up by the two +governments in the controversy which ensued may be thus indicated. +The United States claimed as a matter of right an exclusive +jurisdiction over the sealing industry in Bering Sea; they also +contended that the protection of the fur seal was, upon grounds +both of morality and interest, an international duty, and should +be secured by international arrangement. The British government +repudiated the claim of right, but were willing to negotiate +upon the question of international regulation. Between 1887 +and 1890 negotiations were carried on between Russia, Great +Britain and the United States with a view to a joint convention. +Unfortunately the parties were unable to agree as to the principles +upon which regulation should be based. The negotiations +were wrecked upon the question of pelagic sealing. The only +seal nurseries were upon the Pribiloff Islands, which belonged +to the United States, and the Komandorski group, which belonged +to Russia. Consequently to prohibit pelagic sealing +would have been to exclude Canada from the industry. The +United States, nevertheless, insisted that such prohibition was +indispensable on the grounds—(1) that pelagic sealing involved +the destruction of breeding stock, because it was practically impossible +to distinguish between the male and female seal when +in the water; (2) that it was unnecessarily wasteful, inasmuch +as a large proportion of the seals so killed were lost. On the other +hand, it was contended by Great Britain that in all known cases +the extermination of seals had been the result of operations upon +land, and had never been caused by sealing exclusively pelagic. +The negotiations came to nothing, and the United States fell +back upon their claim of right. In June 1890 it was reported +that certain American revenue cutters had been ordered to +proceed to Bering Sea. Sir Julian Pauncefote, the British +ambassador at Washington, having failed to obtain an assurance +that British vessels would not be interfered with, laid a formal +protest before the United States government.</p> + +<p>Thereupon followed a diplomatic controversy, in the course +of which the United States developed the contentions which +were afterwards laid before the tribunal of arbitration. The +claim that Bering Sea was <i>mare clausum</i> was abandoned, but it +was asserted that Russia had formerly exercised therein rights +of exclusive jurisdiction which had passed to the United States, +and they relied <i>inter alia</i> upon the ukase of 1821, by which foreign +vessels had been forbidden to approach within 100 Italian miles +of the coasts of Russian America. It was pointed out by Great +Britain that this ukase had been the subject of protest both by +Great Britain and the United States, and that by treaties similar +in their terms, made between Russia and each of the protesting +powers, Russia had agreed that their subjects should not be +troubled or molested in navigating or fishing in any part of the +Pacific Ocean. The American answer was that the Pacific Ocean +did not include Bering Sea. They also claimed an interest in +the fur seals, involving the right to protect them outside the +three-mile limit. In August 1890 Lord Salisbury proposed that +the question at issue should be submitted to arbitration. This +was ultimately assented to by the secretary of state, James +Gillespie Blaine, on the understanding that certain specific +points, which he indicated, should be laid before the arbitrators. +On the 29th of February 1892 a definitive treaty was signed at +Washington. Each power was to name two arbitrators, and +the president of the French Republic, the king of Italy, the king +of Norway and Sweden were each to name one. The points +submitted were as follows:—(1) What exclusive jurisdiction +in the sea now known as Bering Sea, and what exclusive rights +in the seal fisheries therein, did Russia assert and exercise prior to +and up to the time of the cession of Alaska to the United States? +(2) How far were her claims of jurisdiction as to the seal fisheries +recognized and conceded by Great Britain? (3) Was the body +of water now known as Bering Sea included in the phrase +“Pacific Ocean,” as used in the treaty of 1825 between Great +Britain and Russia, and what rights, if any, in Bering Sea were +held exclusively exercised by Russia after the said treaty? +(4) Did not all the rights of Russia as to jurisdiction and as to +the seal fisheries in Bering Sea east of the water boundary, in the +treaty between the United States and Russia of the 30th of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span> +March 1867, pass unimpaired to the United States under that +treaty? (5) Had the United States any and what right of protection +over, or property in, the fur seals frequenting the islands +of Bering Sea when such seals are found outside the three-mile +limit? In the event of a determination in favour of Great +Britain the arbitrators were to determine what concurrent +regulations were necessary for the preservation of the seals, +and a joint commission was to be appointed by the two powers +to assist them in the investigation of the facts of seal life. The +question of damages was reserved for further discussion, but +either party was to be at liberty to submit any question of fact +to the arbitrators, and to ask for a finding thereon. The tribunal +was to sit at Paris. The treaty was approved by the Senate +on the 29th of March 1892, and ratified by the president on the +22nd of April.</p> + +<p>The United States appointed as arbitrator Mr John M. Harlan, +a justice of the Supreme Court, and Mr John T. Morgan, a +member of the Senate. The British arbitrators were Lord +Hannen and Sir John Thompson. The neutral arbitrators were +the baron de Courcel, the marquis Visconti Venosta, and Mr +Gregers Gram, appointed respectively by the president of the +French Republic, the king of Italy, and the king of Norway and +Sweden. The sittings of the tribunal began in February and +ended in August 1893. The main interest of the proceedings +lies in the second of the two claims put forward on behalf of the +United States. This claim cannot easily be stated in language +of precision; it is indicated rather than formulated in the last +of the five points specially submitted by the treaty. But its +general character may be gathered from the arguments addressed +to the tribunal. It was suggested that the seals had some of the +characteristics of the domestic animals, and could therefore be +the subject of something in the nature of a right of property. +They were so far amenable to human control that it was possible +to take their increase without destroying the stock. Sealing +upon land was legitimate sealing; the United States being the +owners of the land, the industry was a trust vested in them for +the benefit of mankind. On the other hand, pelagic sealing, +being a method of promiscuous slaughter, was illegitimate; it +was <i>contra bonos mores</i> and analogous to piracy. Consequently +the United States claimed a right to restrain such practices, +both as proprietors of the seals and as proprietors and trustees +of the legitimate industry. It is obvious that such a right was +a novelty hitherto unrecognized by any system of law. Mr J.C. +Carter, therefore, as counsel for the United States, submitted +a theory of international jurisprudence which was equally novel. +He argued that the determination of the tribunal must be +grounded upon “the principles of right,” that “by the rule or +principle of right was meant a moral rule dictated by the general +standard of justice upon which civilized nations are agreed, that +this international standard of justice is but another name for +international law, that the particular recognized rules were but +cases of the application of a more general rule, and that where +the particular rules were silent the general rule applied.” The +practical result of giving effect to this contention would be that +an international tribunal could make new law and apply it +retrospectively. Mr Carter’s contention was successfully combated +by Sir Charles Russell, the leading counsel for Great +Britain.</p> + +<p>The award, which was signed and published on the 15th of +August 1893, was in favour of Great Britain on all points. The +question of damages, which had been reserved, was ultimately +settled by a mixed commission appointed by the two powers in +February 1896, the total amount awarded to the British sealers +being $473,151.26.</p> +<div class="author">(M. H. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERIOT, CHARLES AUGUSTE DE<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (1802-1870), Belgian +violinist and composer. Although not definitely a pupil of +Viotti or Baillot he was much influenced by both. He was very +successful in his concert tours, and held appointments at the +courts of Belgium and France. From 1843 to 1852 he was violin +professor at the Brussels conservatoire. Then his eyesight began +to fail, and in 1858 he became blind. His compositions are still +often played, and are good, clean displays of technique.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERJA,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a town of southern Spain, in the province of Almeria; +on the south-eastern slope of the Sierra de Gádor, 10 m. N.E. of +Adra by road. Pop. (1900) 13,224. Despite the lack of a railway +Berja has a considerable trade. Lead is obtained among +the mountains, and the more sheltered valleys produce grain, +wine, oil, fruit and esparto grass. These, with the paper, linen +and cotton goods manufactured locally in small quantities, are +exported from Adra.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERKA,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a town and watering-place of Germany, in the grand-duchy +of Saxe-Weimar, on the Ilm and the Weimar-Kranichfeld +railway, 8 m. S. of Weimar. Pop. 2300. It has sulphur baths, +which are largely frequented in the summer. Berka was once +celebrated for its Cistercian nunnery, founded in 1251. Two +m. down the Ilm is the curious castle of Burgfarth, partly +hewn out of the solid rock.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERKELEY,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> the name of an ancient English family remarkable +for its long tenure of the feudal castle built by the water +of Severn upon the lands from which the family takes its name. +It traces an undoubted descent from Robert (d. 1170) son of +Harding. Old pedigree-makers from the 14th century onward +have made of Harding a younger son of a king of Denmark and +a companion of the Conqueror, while modern historians assert +his identity with one Harding who, although an English thane, +is recorded by Domesday Book in 1086 as a great landowner in +Somerset. This Harding the thane was son of Elnod or Alnod, +who is recognized as Eadnoth the Staller, slain in beating off +the sons of Harold when they attacked his county. But if Harding +the Berkeley ancestor be the Harding who, as the queen’s +butler, witnesses King Edward’s Waltham charter of 1062, his +dates seem strangely apart from those of Robert his son, dead +a hundred and eight years later. Of Robert fitz Harding we +know that he was a Bristol man whose wealth and importance +were probably increased by the trade of the port. A partisan +of Henry, son of the empress, that prince before his accession +to the throne granted him, by his charter at Bristol in the earlier +half of 1153, the Gloucestershire manor of Bitton, and a hundred +librates of land in the manor of Berkeley, Henry agreeing to +strengthen the castle of Berkeley, which was evidently already +in Robert’s hands. In his rhymed chronicle Robert of Gloucester +tells how—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“A bourgois at Bristowe—Robert Harding</p> +<p class="i05">Vor gret tresour and richesse—so wel was mid the king</p> +<p class="i05">That he gat him and is eirs—the noble baronie</p> +<p class="i05">That so riche is of Berkele—mid al the seignorie.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Later in the same year the duke of Normandy granted to Robert +fitz Harding Berkeley manor and the appurtenant district called +“Berkelaihernesse,” to hold in fee by the service of one knight +or at a rent of 100 s. Being at Berkeley, the duke confirmed +to Robert a grant of Bedminster made by Robert, earl of +Gloucester, and in the first year of his reign as king of England +he confirmed his own earlier grant of the Berkeley manor. About +this time Robert, who had founded St Augustine’s Priory in +Bristol, gave to the Black Canons there the five churches in +Berkeley and Berkeley Herness. In their priory church he was +buried in 1170, Berkeley descending to his son and heir Maurice.</p> + +<p>Berkeley had already given a surname to an earlier family +sprung from Roger, its Domesday tenant, whose descendants +seem to have been ousted by the partisan of the Angevin. But +if there had been a feud between the families it was ended by a +double alliance, a covenant having been made at Bristol about +November 1153 in the presence of Henry, duke of Normandy, +whereby Maurice, son of Robert fitz Harding, was to marry the +daughter of Roger of Berkeley, Roger’s own son Roger marrying +the daughter of Robert. In his certificate of 1166 Robert tells +the king that, although he owes the service of five knights for +Berkeley, Roger of Berkeley still holds certain lands of the +honour for which he does no service to Robert. This elder line +of Berkeley survived for more than two centuries on their lands +of Dursley and Cubberley, but after his father’s death Maurice, +son of Robert, is styled Maurice of Berkeley. Robert of Berkeley, +the eldest son of Maurice, paid in 1190 the vast sum of £1000 +for livery of his great inheritance, but, rising with the rebellious +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span> +barons against King John, his castle was taken into the king’s +hands. Seizin, however, was granted in 1220 to Thomas his +brother and heir, but the estate was again forfeit in the next +generation for a new defection, although the wind of the royal +displeasure was tempered by the fact that Isabel de Creoun, +wife of Maurice, lord of Berkeley, was the king’s near kinswoman. +Thomas, son of Maurice, was allowed to succeed his +father in the lands, and, having a writ of summons to parliament +in 1295, he is reckoned the first hereditary baron of the +line.</p> + +<p>Even in the age of chivalry the lords of Berkeley were notable +warriors. Thomas, who as a lad had ridden on the barons’ +side at Evesham, followed the king’s wars for half a century of +his long life, flying his banner at Falkirk and at Bannockburn, +in which fight he was taken by the Scots. His seal of arms is +among those attached to the famous letter of remonstrance +addressed by the barons of England to Pope Boniface VIII. +Maurice, his son, joined the confederation against the two +Despensers, and lay in prison at Wallingford until his death in +1326, the queen’s party gaining the upper hand too late to release +him. But as the queen passed by Berkeley on her way to seize +Bristol, she gave back the castle, which had been kept by the +younger Despenser, to Thomas, the prisoner’s heir, who, with +Sir John Mautravers, soon received in his hold the deposed king +brought thither secretly. The chroniclers agree that Thomas +of Berkeley had no part in the murder of the king, whom he +treated kindly. It was when Thomas was away from the castle that +Mautravers and Gournay made an end of their charge. Through +the providence of this Thomas the Berkeley estates were saved +to the male line of his house, a fine levied in the twenty-third +year of Edward III. so settling them. Thomas of Berkeley +fought at Creçy and Calais, bringing six knights and thirty-two +squires to the siege in his train, with thirty mounted archers +and two hundred men on foot. His son and heir-apparent, +Maurice of Berkeley, was the hero of a misadventure recorded +by Froissart, who tells how a young English knight, displaying +his banner for the first time on the day of Poitiers, rode after +a flying Picard squire, by whom he was grievously wounded +and held to ransom. Froissart errs in describing this knight +as Thomas lord of Berkeley, for the covenant made in 1360 +for the release of Maurice is still among the Berkeley muniments, +the ransom being stated at £1080.</p> + +<p>Being by his mother a nephew of Roger Mortimer, earl of +March, the paramour of Queen Isabel, Maurice Berkeley married +Elizabeth, daughter of Hugh Despenser, the younger of +Edward II.’s favourites and the intruder in Berkeley Castle. +With his son and heir Thomas of Berkeley, one of the +commissioners of parliament for the deposing of Richard II. and +a warden of the Welsh marches who harried Owen of Glendower, +the direct male line of Robert fitz Harding failed, and but for +the settlement of the estates Berkeley would have passed from +the family. On this Thomas’s death in 1417 Elizabeth, his +daughter and heir, and her husband, Richard Beauchamp, +earl of Warwick, the famous traveller, statesman and jouster, +seized Berkeley Castle. Earl and countess only withdrew after +James Berkeley, the nephew and heir male, had livery of his +lands by the purchased aid of Humphrey of Gloucester. But +the Beauchamps returned more than once to vain attacks on +the stout walls of Berkeley, and a quarrel of two generations +ended with the pitched battle of Nibley Green. Fought between +the retainers of William, Lord Berkeley, son of James, and +those who followed Thomas Talbot, Viscount Lisle, grandson +of the illustrious Talbot and great-grandson of the countess of +Warwick, this was the last private battle on English ground +between two feudal lords. Young Lisle was shot under the +beaver by an arrow, and the feud ended with his death, all +claims of his widow being settled with an annuity of £100. Bitter +as was the long quarrel, it kept the Berkeleys from casting their +interest into the Wars of the Roses, in which most of their +fellows of the ancient baronage sank and disappeared.</p> + +<p>The victorious Lord Berkeley, whose children died young, was +on ill terms with his next brother, and made havoc of the great +Berkeley estates by grants to the Crown and the royal house, +for which he was rewarded with certain empty titles. Edward +IV. gave him a viscount’s patent in 1481, and Richard III. +created him earl of Nottingham in 1483. His complacence +extending to the new dynasty, Henry VII. made him earl marshal +in 1485 and marquess of Berkeley in 1487. For this last patent +he, by a settlement following a recovery suffered, gave the king +and his heirs male Berkeley Castle and all that remained to him +of his ancestors’ lands, enjoying for his two remaining years a +bare life interest. At his death in 1491 the king took possession, +bringing his queen with him on a visit to Berkeley.</p> + +<p>Here follows a curious chapter of the history of the Berkeley +peerage. When Thomas, Lord Berkeley, died in 1417, it might +have been presumed that his dignity would descend to his heir, +the countess of Warwick. Nevertheless, his nephew and heir +male was summoned as a baron from 1421, apparently by reason +of his tenure of the castle and its lands. When the marquess of +Berkeley was dead without surviving issue, the castle having +passed to the crown, Maurice, the brother and heir, had no +summons. Yet this Maurice’s son, another Maurice, had a +summons as a baron, although not “with the room in the +parliament chamber that the lords of Berkeley had of old time.” +The old precedence was restored when Thomas, brother and heir +of this baron, was summoned. This Thomas, who had a command +at Flodden, held his ancestors’ castle as constable for +the king. A final remainder under the marquess’s settlement +brought back castle and lands on the failure in 1553 of the heirs +male of the body of Henry VII., and Henry, Lord Berkeley, had +special livery of them in his minority. Yet although seized of +the castle he took a lower seat in the parliament house than did +his grandfather who was not so seized, being given place after +Abergavenny, Audley and Strange.</p> + +<p>By these things we may see that peerage law in old time +rested upon the pleasure of the sovereign and upon no ascertained +and unvarying custom. Of the power behind that pleasure this +Henry, Lord Berkeley, had one sharp reminder. He was, like +most of his line, a keen sportsman, and, returning to Berkeley +to find that a royal visit had made great slaughter among his +deer, he showed his resentment by disparking Berkeley Park. +Thereat Queen Elizabeth sent him a warning in round Tudor +fashion. Let him beware, she wrote, for the earl of Leicester +coveted the castle by the Severn.</p> + +<p>At the Restoration, George, Lord Berkeley, who had been one +of the commissioners to invite Charles II.’s return from the +Hague, petitioned for a higher place in parliament, claiming a +barony by right of tenure before 1295, but his claim was silenced +by his advancement on September 11, 1679, to be viscount of +Dursley and earl of Berkeley. James, the 3rd earl, an active +sea captain who was all but lost in company with Sir Cloudesley +Shovel, became knight of the Garter and lord high admiral and +commander-in-chief in the Channel, he and his house being loyal +supporters of the Hanoverian dynasty.</p> + +<p>The last and most curious chapter of the history of the Berkeley +honours was opened by Frederick Augustus, the 5th earl of +Berkeley (1745-1810). This peer married at Lambeth, on the +16th of May 1796, one Mary Cole, the daughter of a small +tradesman at Wotton-under-Edge, with whom he had already +lived for several years, several children having been born to them. +In order to legitimatize the issue born before the marriage, the +earl in 1801 made declaration of an earlier marriage contracted +privately at Berkeley in 1785. On his death in 1811 the validity +of this alleged marriage was tested by the committee of privileges +of the House of Lords, and it was shown without doubt that the +evidence for it, a parish register entry, was a forgery.</p> + +<p>Under the will of his father, Colonel William Berkeley, the +eldest illegitimate son, had the castle and estates, and on the +failure of his claim to the earldom he demanded a writ of summons +as a baron by reason of his tenure of the castle. No judgment +was given in the matter, the king in council having declared in +1669 that baronies by tenure were “not in being and so not fit +to be revived.” But Colonel Berkeley’s political influence +afterwards procured him (1831) a peerage as Lord Segrave of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span> +Berkeley, and ten years later an earldom with the title of +Fitzhardinge. He died without issue in 1857. His brother, Sir +Maurice Fitzhardinge Berkeley, who succeeded to Berkeley +under the terms of the 5th earl’s will, revived the claims, and +was likewise given a new barony (1861) as Lord Fitzhardinge, +a title in which he was succeeded by two of his sons, the 3rd +baron (b. 1830) being in 1909 owner of the Berkeley and Cranford +estates. The earldom of Berkeley was never assumed by the +eldest legitimate son of the 5th earl, and was in 1909 enjoyed by +Randal Thomas Mowbray Berkeley, 8th earl, grandson of admiral +Sir George Cranfield Berkeley, second son of the 4th earl. In +1893 Mrs Milman (d. 1899), daughter and heir of Thomas Moreton +Fitzhardinge Berkeley, 6th earl <i>de jure</i>, was declared by letters +patent under the great seal to have succeeded to the ancient +barony of Berkeley created by the writ of 1421; and she was +succeeded by her daughter.</p> + +<p>Many branches have been thrown out by this family during +its many centuries of existence. Of these the most important +descended from Maurice of Berkeley, the baron who died in +Wallingford hold in 1326. His second son Maurice was ancestor +of the Berkeleys of Stoke Giffard, whose descendant, Norborne +Berkeley, claimed the barony of Botetourt and had a summons +in 1764, dying without issue in 1770. Sir Maurice Berkeley of +Bruton, a cadet of Stoke Giffard, was forefather of the Viscounts +Fitzhardinge, the Lords Berkeley of Stratton (1658-1773) and +the earls of Falmouth, all extinct, the Berkeleys of Stratton +bequeathing their great London estate, including Berkeley +Square and Stratton Street, to the main line. Edward Berkeley +of Pylle in Somerset, head of a cadet line of the Bruton family, +married Philippa Speke, whose mother was Joan, daughter of +Sir John Portman of Orchard Portman, baronet. His grandson +William, on succeeding to the Orchard Portman and Bryanston +estates, took the additional name of Portman, and from him +come the Viscounts Portman of Bryanston (1873). From James, +Lord Berkeley, who died in 1463, descended Rowland Berkeley, +a clothier of Worcester, who bought the estates of Spetchley. +Rowland’s second son, Sir Robert Berkeley, the king’s bench +justice who supported the imposition of ship-money, was ancestor +of the Berkeleys of Spetchley, now the only branch of the house +among untitled squires.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See John Smyth’s <i>Lives of the Berkeleys</i>, compiled <i>c.</i> 1618, edited +by Sir John Maclean (1883-1885); J.H. Round’s introduction +to the Somerset Domesday, V.C.H. series; G.E. C(okayne)’s +<i>Complete Peerage</i>; Jeayes’s <i>Descriptive Catalogue of the Charters +and Muniments at Berkeley Castle</i> (1892); <i>Dictionary of National +Biography</i>; <i>Transactions of Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological +Society</i>, 3 vols., viii., xlv., <i>et passim</i>; <i>The Red Book of the Exchequer</i>, +Chronicles of Roger of Wendover, Matthew Paris, Adam of Murimuth, +Robert of Gloucester, Henry of Huntingdon, &c. (Rolls +Series); British Museum Charters, &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERKELEY, GEORGE<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1685-1753), Irish bishop and philosopher, +the eldest son of William Berkeley (an officer of customs +who had, it seems, come to Ireland in the suite of Lord Berkeley +of Stratton, lord lieutenant, 1670-1672, to whom he was related), +was born on the 12th of March 1685, in a cottage near Dysert +Castle, Thomastown, Ireland. He passed from the school at +Kilkenny to Trinity College, Dublin (1700), where, owing to the +peculiar subtlety of his mind and his determination to accept no +doctrine on the evidence of authority or convention, he left the +beaten track of study and was regarded by some as a dunce, by +others as a genius. During his career at Dublin the works of +Descartes and Newton were superseding the older text-books, +and the doctrines of Locke’s <i>Essay</i> were eagerly discussed. Thus +he “entered on an atmosphere which was beginning to be +charged with the elements of reaction against traditional +scholasticism in physics and in metaphysics” (A.C. Fraser). +He became a fellow in 1707. His interest in philosophy led him +to take a prominent share in the foundation of a society for +discussing the new doctrines, and is further shown by his <i>Common +Place Book</i>, one of the most valuable autobiographical records +in existence, which throws much light on the growth of his ideas, +and enables us to understand the significance of his early writings. +We find here the consciousness of creative thought focused in a +new principle which is to revolutionize speculative science. +There is no sign of any intimate knowledge of ancient or scholastic +thought; to the doctrines of Spinoza, Leibnitz, Malebranche, +Norris, the attitude is one of indifference or lack of appreciation, +but the influence of Descartes and specially of Locke is evident +throughout. The new principle (nowhere in the <i>Common Place +Book</i> explicitly stated) may be expressed in the proposition that +no existence is conceivable—and therefore possible—which is +not either conscious spirit or the ideas (<i>i.e.</i> objects) of which such +spirit is conscious. In the language of a later period this principle +may be expressed as the absolute synthesis of subject and object; +no object exists apart from Mind. Mind is, therefore, prior both +in thought and in existence, if for the moment we assume the +popular distinction. Berkeley thus diverted philosophy from its +beaten track of discussion as to the meaning of matter, substance, +cause, and preferred to ask first whether these have any significance +apart from the conscious spirit. In the pursuit of this +inquiry he rashly invaded other departments of science, and +much of the <i>Common Place Book</i> is occupied with a polemic, as +vigorous as it is ignorant, against the fundamental conceptions +of the infinitesimal calculus.</p> + +<p>In 1707 Berkeley published two short mathematical tracts; +in 1709, in his <i>New Theory of Vision</i>, he applied his new principle +for the first time, and in the following year stated it fully +in the <i>Principles of Human Knowledge</i>. In these works he +attacked the existing theories of externality which to the +unphilosophical mind is proved by visual evidence. He maintained +that visual consciousness is merely a system of arbitrary signs +which symbolize for us certain actual or possible tactual +experience—in other words a purely conventional language.</p> + +<p>The contents of the visual and the tactual consciousness +have no element in common. The visible and visual signs are +definitely connected with tactual experiences, and the association +between them, which has grown up in our minds through +custom or habit, rests upon, or is guaranteed by, the constant +conjunction of the two by the will of the Universal Mind. But +this synthesis is not brought forward prominently by Berkeley. +It was evident that a similar analysis might have been applied +to tactual consciousness which does not give externality in its +deepest significance any more than the visual; but with deliberate +purpose Berkeley at first drew out only one side of his +argument. In the <i>Principles of Human Knowledge</i>, externality +in its ultimate sense as independence of all mind is considered. +Matter, as an abstract, unperceived substance or cause, is shown +to be impossible, an unreal conception; true substance is +affirmed to be conscious spirit, true causality the free activity of +such a spirit, while physical substantiality and causality are +held to be merely arbitrary, though constant, relations among +phenomena connected subjectively by suggestion or association, +objectively in the Universal Mind. In ultimate analysis, then, +nature is conscious experience, and forms the sign or symbol +of a divine, universal intelligence and will.</p> + +<p>In 1711 Berkeley delivered his <i>Discourse on Passive Obedience</i>, +in which he deduces moral rules from the intention of God to +promote the general happiness, thus working out a theological +utilitarianism, which may be compared with the later expositions +of Austin and J.S. Mill. From 1707 he had been engaged +as college tutor; in 1712 he paid a short visit to England, and +in April 1713 he was presented by Swift at court. His abilities, +his courtesy and his upright character made him a universal +favourite. While in London he published his <i>Dialogues</i> (1713), +a more popular exposition of his new theory; for exquisite +facility of style these are among the finest philosophical writings +in the English language. In November he became chaplain to +Lord Peterborough, whom he accompanied on the continent, +returning in August 1714. He travelled again in 1715-1720 as +tutor to the only son of Dr St George Ashe (?1658-1718, bishop +successively of Cloyne, Clogher and Derry). In 1721, during the +disturbed state of social relations consequent on the bursting of +the South Sea bubble he published an <i>Essay towards preventing +the Ruin of Great Britain</i>, which shows the intense interest he +took in practical affairs. In the same year he returned to +Ireland as chaplain to the duke of Grafton, and was made +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span> +divinity lecturer and university preacher. In 1722 he was +appointed to the deanery of Dromore, a post which seems to +have entailed no duties, as we find him holding the offices of +Hebrew lecturer and senior proctor at the university. The +following year Miss Vanhomrigh, Swift’s Vanessa, left him half +her property. It would appear that he had only met her once +at dinner. In 1724 he was nominated to the rich deanery of +Derry, but had hardly been appointed before he was using every +effort to resign it in order to devote himself to his scheme of +founding a college in the Bermudas, and extending its benefits +to the Americans. With infinite exertion he succeeded in obtaining +from government a promise of £20,000, and after four years +spent in preparation, sailed in September 1728, accompanied +by some friends and by his wife, daughter of Judge Forster, whom +he had married in the preceding month. Three years of quiet +retirement and study were spent in Rhode Island, but it gradually +became apparent that government would never hand over +the promised grant, and Berkeley was compelled to give up his +cherished plan. Soon after his return he published the fruits of +his studies in <i>Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher</i> (1733), a finely +written work in the form of dialogue, critically examining the +various forms of free-thinking in the age, and bringing forward +in antithesis to them his own theory, which shows all nature to +be the language of God. In 1734 he was raised to the bishopric +of Cloyne. The same year, in his <i>Analyst</i>, he attacked the higher +mathematics as leading to freethinking; this involved him in +a hot controversy. The <i>Querist</i>, a practical work in the form +of questions on what would now be called social or economical +philosophy, appeared in three parts, 1735, 1736, 1737. In 1744 +was published the <i>Siris</i>, partly occasioned by the controversy +as to the efficacy of tar-water in cases of small-pox, but rising +far above the circumstance from which it took its rise, and +revealing hidden depths in the Berkeleian metaphysics. In +1751 his eldest son died, and in 1752 he removed with his family +to Oxford for the sake of his son George, who was studying +there. He died suddenly in the midst of his family on the +14th of January 1753, and was buried in Christ Church, Oxford.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the philosophies of Descartes and Locke a large share of attention +had been directed to the idea of matter, which was held to be +the abstract, unperceived background of real experience, and was +supposed to give rise to our ideas of external things through its +action on the sentient mind. Knowledge being limited to the ideas +produced could never extend to the unperceived matter, or substance, +or cause which produced them, and it became a problem for speculative +science to determine the grounds for the very belief in its +existence. Philosophy seemed about to end in scepticism or in +materialism. Now Berkeley put this whole problem in a new light +by pointing out a preliminary question. Before we deduce results +from such abstract ideas as cause, substance, matter, we must ask +what in reality do these mean—what is the actual content of consciousness which corresponds to these words? Do not all these +ideas, when held to represent something which exists absolutely +apart from all knowledge of it, involve a contradiction? In putting +this question, not less than in answering it, consists Berkeley’s +originality as a philosopher. The essence of the answer is that the +universe is inconceivable apart from mind—that existence, as such, +denotes conscious spirits and the objects of consciousness. Matter +and external things, in so far as they are thought to have an existence +beyond the circle of consciousness, are impossible, inconceivable. +External things are things known to us in immediate perception. To +this conclusion Berkeley seems, in the first place, to +have been led by the train of reflection that naturally conducts to +subjective or egoistic idealism. It is impossible to overstep the +limits of self-consciousness; whatever words I use, whatever +notions I have, must refer to and find their meaning in facts of +consciousness. But this is by no means the whole or even the +principal part of Berkeley’s philosophy; it is essentially a theory +of causality, and this is brought out gradually under the pressure +of difficulties in the first solution of the early problem. To merely +subjective idealism, sense percepts differ from ideas of imagination +in degree, not in kind; both belong to the individual mind. To +Berkeley, however, the difference is fundamental; sense ideas are +not due to our own activity; they must therefore be produced by some other +will-by the divine intelligence. Sense experience is thus the constant +action upon our minds of supreme active intellect, and is not +the consequence of dead inert matter. It might appear, therefore, +that sensible things had an objective existence in the mind of God; +that an idea so soon as it passes out of our consciousness passes into +that of God. This is an interpretation, frequently and not without +some justice, put upon Berkeley’s own expression. But it is not a +satisfactory account of his theory. Berkeley is compelled to see that +an immediate perception is not a <i>thing</i>, and that what we consider +permanent or substantial is not a sensation but a group of qualities, +which in ultimate analysis means sensations either immediately felt +or such as our experience has taught us would be felt in conjunction +with these. Our belief in the reality of a thing may therefore be said +to mean assurance that this association in our minds between actual +and possible sensations is somehow guaranteed. Further, Berkeley’s +own theory would never permit him to speak of possible sensations, +meaning by that the ideas of sensations called up to our minds by +present experience. He could never have held that these afforded +any explanation of the permanent existence of real objects. His +theory is quite distinct from this, which really amounts to nothing +more than subjective idealism. External things are produced by +the will of the divine intelligence; they are caused, and caused in a +regular order; there exists in the divine mind archetypes, of which +sense experience may be said to be the realization in our finite minds. +Our belief in the permanence of something which corresponds to the +association in our minds of actual and possible sensations means +belief in the orderliness of nature; and <i>that</i> is merely assurance that +the universe is pervaded and regulated by mind. Physical science +is occupied in endeavouring to decipher the divine ideas which find +realization in our limited experience, in trying to interpret the +divine language of which natural things are the words and letters, +and in striving to bring human conceptions into harmony with the +divine thoughts. Instead, therefore, of fate or necessity, or matter, +or the unknown, a living, active mind is looked upon as the centre and +spring of the universe, and this is the essence of the Berkeleian +metaphysics.</p> + +<p>The deeper aspects of Berkeley’s new thought have been almost +universally neglected or misunderstood. Of his spiritual empiricism +one side only has been accepted by later thinkers, and looked +upon as the whole. The subjective mechanism of association which +with Berkeley is but part of the true explanation, and is dependent +on the objective realization in the divine mind, has been received +as in itself a satisfactory theory. <i>Suni Cogitationes</i> has been +regarded by thinkers who profess themselves Berkeleians as the one +proposition warranted by consciousness; the empiricism of his philosophy +has been eagerly welcomed, while the spiritual intuition, +without which the whole is to Berkeley meaningless, has been cast +aside. For this he is himself in no small measure to blame. The +deeper spiritual intuition, present from the first, was only brought +into clear relief in order to meet difficulties in the earlier statements, +and the extension of the intuition itself beyond the limits of our own +consciousness, which completely removes his position from mere +subjectivism, rests on foundations uncritically assumed, and at first +sight irreconcilable with certain positions of his system. The necessity +and universality of the judgments of causality and substantiality are +taken for granted; and there is no investigation of the place held by +these notions in the mental constitution. The relation between the +divine mind and finite intelligence, at first thought as that of agent +and recipient, is complicated and obscure when the necessity for +explaining the permanence of real things comes forward. The divine +archetypes, according to which sensible experience is regulated and +in which it finds its real objectivity, are different in kind from +mere sense ideas, and the question then arises whether in these we +have not again the “things as they are,” which Berkeley at first so +contemptuously dismissed. He leaves it undetermined whether or not +our knowledge of sense things, which is never entirely presentative, +involves some reference to this objective course of nature or thought +of the divine mind. And if so, what is the nature of the notions +necessarily implied in the simplest knowledge of a <i>thing</i>, as +distinct from mere sense feeling? That in knowing objects certain +thoughts are implied which are not presentations or their copies is +at times dimly seen by Berkeley himself; but he was content to propound +a question with regard to those notions, and to look upon them as +merely Locke’s ideas of relation. Such ideas of relation are in truth +the stumbling-block in Locke’s philosophy, and Berkeley’s empiricism +is equally far from accounting for them.</p> + +<p>With all these defects, however, Berkeley’s new conception marks +a distinct stage of progress in human thought. His true place in +the history of speculation may be seen from the simple observation +that the difficulties or obscurities in his scheme are really the points on which later philosophy has turned. He once for all lifted the problem of metaphysics to a higher level, and, in conjunction with +his successor, Hume, determined the form into which later metaphysical +questions have been thrown.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The standard edition of Berkeley’s works is that +of A. Campbell Eraser in 4 vols. (i.-iii. <i>Works</i>; iv. <i>Life</i>, <i>Letters and +Dissertation</i>) published by the Clarendon Press (1871); this edition, +revised throughout and largely re-written, was re-published by the +same author (1901). Another complete edition edited by G. Sampson, +with a biographical sketch by A.J. Balfour, and a useful bibliographical +summary, appeared in 1897-1898. Prof. Fraser also published an excellent +volume of selections (5th ed., 1899), and a +short general account in a volume on Berkeley in the <i>Blackwood +Philos. Class.</i> For Berkeley’s theory of vision see manuals of +psychology (<i>e.g.</i> G.F. Stout, Wm. James); for his ethical views +H. Sidgwick, <i>Hist, of Ethics</i> (5th ed., 1902); A. Bain, <i>Mental and Moral Science</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span> +(1872). See also Sir L. Stephen, <i>English Thought in +the 18th Century</i> (3rd ed., 1902); J.S. Mill’s <i>Dissertations</i>, +vols. ii. and iv.; T. Huxley, <i>Critiques and Addresses</i>, pp. 320 seq.; +G.S. Fullerton, <i>System of Metaphysics</i> (New York, 1904); John +Watson, <i>Outline of Philos.</i> (New York, 1898); J. McCosh, <i>Locke’s +Theory of Knowledge</i> (1884); T. Lorenz, <i>Ein Beitrag zur Lebensgeschichte +G. Berkeleys</i> (1900) and <i>Weitere Beiträge z. Leb. G.B.’s</i> +(1901); histories of modern philosophy generally.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Ad.; J. M. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERKELEY, MILES JOSEPH<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1803-1889), English botanist, +was born on the 1st of April 1803, at Biggin Hall, Northamptonshire, +and educated at Rugby and Christ’s College, Cambridge, +of which he became an honorary fellow. Taking holy orders, he +became incumbent of Apethorpe in 1837, and vicar of Sibbertoft, +near Market Harborough, in 1868. He acquired an +enthusiastic love of cryptogamic botany in his early years, and +soon was recognized as the leading British authority on fungi +and plant pathology. He was especially famous as a systematist +in mycology, some 6000 species of fungi being credited to him, +but his <i>Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany</i>, published in 1857, +and his papers on “Vegetable Pathology” in the <i>Gardener’s +Chronicle</i> in 1854 and onwards, show that he had a very broad +grasp of the whole domain of physiology and morphology as +understood in those days. Moreover, it should be pointed out +that Berkeley began his work as a field naturalist and collector, +his earliest objects of study having been the mollusca and other +branches of zoology, as testified by his papers in the <i>Zoological +Journal</i> and the <i>Magazine of Natural History</i>, between 1828 +and 1836. As a microscopist he was an assiduous and accurate +worker, as is shown by his numerous drawings of the smaller +algae and fungi, and his admirable dissections of mosses and +hepaticae. His investigations on the potato murrain, caused by +<i>Phytophthora infestans</i>, on the grape mildew, to which he gave +the name <i>Oidium Tuckeri</i>, and on the pathogenic fungi of wheat +rust, hop mildew, and various diseases of cabbage, pears, coffee, +onions, tomatoes, &c., were important in results bearing on the +life-history of these pests, at a time when very little was known +of such matters, and must always be considered in any historical +account of the remarkable advances in the biology of +these organisms which were made between 1850 and 1880; +and when it is remembered that this work was done without +any of the modern appliances or training of a properly equipped +laboratory, the real significance of Berkeley’s pioneer work +becomes apparent. It is as the founder of British mycology, +however, that his name will live in the history of botany, and +his most important work is contained in the account of native +British fungi in Sir W. Hooker’s <i>British Flora</i> (1836), in his +<i>Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany</i> (1857), and in his <i>Outlines +of British Fungology</i> (1860). His magnificent herbarium at +Kew, which contains over 9000 specimens, and is enriched by +numerous notes and sketches, forms one of the most important +type series in the world. Berkeley died at Sibbertoft on the +30th of July 1889. He was a man of refined and courteous +bearing, an accomplished classical student, with the simple +and modest habits that befit a man of true learning.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A list of his publications will be found in the <i>Catalogue of Scientific +Papers</i> of the Royal Society, and sketches of his life in <i>Proc. +Roy. Soc.</i>, 1890, 47, 9, by Sir Joseph Hooker, and <i>Annals of Botany</i>, +1897, 11, by Sir W.T. Thiselton-Dyer.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. M. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1608-1677), British colonial +governor in America, was born in or near London, England, +about 1608, the youngest son of Sir Maurice Berkeley, an original +member of the London Company of 1606, and brother of John, +first Lord Berkeley of Stratton, one of the proprietors of the +Carolinas. He graduated at Oxford in 1629, and in 1632 was +appointed one of the royal commissioners for Canada, in which +office he won the personal favour of Charles I., who appointed +him a gentleman of the privy chamber. During this period he +tried his hand at literary work, producing among other things +a tragi-comedy entitled <i>The Lost Lady</i> (1638). In August 1641 +he was appointed governor of Virginia, but did not take up his +duties until the following year. His first term as governor, +during which he seems to have been extremely popular with +the majority of the colonists, was notable principally for his +religious intolerance and his <span class="correction" title="amended from expulson">expulsion</span> of the Puritans, who +were in a great minority. During the Civil War in England +he remained loyal to the king, and offered an asylum in Virginia +to Charles II. and the loyalists. On the arrival of a parliamentary +fleet in 1652, however, he retired from office and spent the +following years quietly on his plantation. On the death, in +1660, of Samuel Matthews, the last parliamentary governor, +he was chosen governor by the Virginia assembly, and was +soon recommissioned by Charles II. His natural arrogance +and tyranny seems to have increased with years, and the second +period of his governorship was a stormy one. Serious frontier +warfare with the Indians was followed (1676) by Bacon’s Rebellion +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Virginia</a></span>), brought on by Berkeley’s misrule, and +during its course all his worst traits became evident. His cruelty +and barbarity in punishing the rebels did not meet with the +approval of Charles II., who is said to have remarked that “the +old fool has put to death more people in that naked country +than I did here for the murder of my father.” Berkeley was +called to England in 1677 ostensibly to report on the condition +of affairs in the colony, and a lieutenant-governor (Herbert +Jeffreys) was put in his place. Berkeley sailed in May, but died +soon after his arrival, at Twickenham, and was buried there on +the 13th of July 1677. In addition to the play mentioned +he wrote <i>A Discourse and View of Virginia</i> (London, +1663).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERKELEY,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> a city of Alameda county, California, U.S.A., +on the E. shore of San Francisco Bay, named after Bishop +Berkeley on account of his line “Westward the course of empire +takes its way.” Pop. (1890) 5101; (1900) 13,214, of whom +3216 were foreign-born; (1910) 40,434. It is served by +the Southern Pacific and the Santa Fé railway systems, both +transcontinental; and is connected by electric lines (and ferry) +with San Francisco, and by five electric lines with Oakland. Its +attractive situation and pleasant outlooks have made it a +favourite residential suburb of San Francisco, which lies at a +distance of 7 m. across the bay. Berkeley is the seat of the +California state university (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">California, University of</a></span>), +opened in 1873; the inter-related Berkeley Bible Seminary +(1896, Disciples of Christ); Pacific Theological Seminary +(established in 1866 at Oakland, in 1901 at Berkeley, +Congregational); Seminary of the Pacific Coast Baptist Theological +Union, and Unitarian Theological School—all associated +with the University of California; and the state institution for +the deaf, dumb and blind. The site of Berkeley was a farming +region until its selection for the home of the university. Berkeley +was incorporated as a town in 1878.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERKELEY,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a market town of Gloucestershire, England, near +the river Severn, in that portion of its valley known as the Vale +of Berkeley, on a branch from the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) +774. It is pleasantly situated on a gentle eminence, in a rich +pastoral vale to which it gives name, celebrated for its dairies, +producing the famous cheese known as “double Gloucester.” +The town has a handsome church (Early English and Decorated), +a grammar school, and some trade in coal, timber, malt and +cheese. Berkeley was the birthplace of Dr Edward Jenner (1749), +who is buried in the church. Berkeley Castle, on an eminence +south-east of the town, is one of the noblest baronial castles +existing in England, and one of the few inhabited. The Berkeley +Ship Canal connects Gloucester with docks at Sharpness, avoiding +the difficult navigation of the upper part of the Severn estuary.</p> + +<p>The manor of Berkeley gives its name to the noble family of +Berkeley (<i>q.v.</i>). According to tradition, a nunnery to which the +manor belonged existed here before the Conquest, and Earl +Godwin, by bringing about its dissolution, obtained the manor. +All that is certainly known, however, is that in Domesday the +manor is assigned to one Roger, who took his surname from it. +His descendants seem to have been ousted from their possessions +during the 12th century by Robert fitz Harding, an Angevin +partisan, who already held the castle when, in 1153, Henry, duke +of Normandy (who became King Henry II. in the following year), +granted him the manor. Under an agreement made in the same +year, Maurice, son of Robert fitz Harding, married a daughter +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span> +of Roger of Berkeley. Their descendants styled themselves of +Berkeley, and in 1200 the town was confirmed to Robert of +Berkeley with toll, soc, sac, &c., and a market on whatever +day of the week he chose to hold it. This charter was confirmed +to Thomas, Lord Berkeley, in 1330, and in 1395-1396 +Lord Berkeley received a grant of another fair on the vigil and +day of Holyrood. The descendants of the Berkeley family still +hold the manor and town. Berkeley Castle was the scene of the +death of Edward II. The king was at first entrusted to the care +of Lord Berkeley, who, being considered too lenient, was obliged +to give up his prisoner and castle to Sir John Mautravers and +Thomas Gournay. The town has no charter, but is mentioned +as a borough in 1284-1285. It was governed by a mayor and +twelve aldermen, but by 1864 their privileges had become merely +nominal, and the corporation was dissolved in 1885 under the +Municipal Corporations Act. Berkeley was formerly noted for +the manufacture of clothing, but the trade had decreased by +the 16th century, for Leland, writing about 1520, says “the +town of Berkeley is no great thing.... It hath very much +occupied and yet somewhat doth clothing.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See John Fisher, <i>History of Berkeley</i> (1864).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERKHAMPSTEAD<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Great Berkhampstead</span>), a market +town in the Watford parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, +England, 28 m. N.W. from London by the London & North-Western +railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5140. It lies +pleasantly in the narrow well-wooded valley of the Bulbourne, +and is close to the Grand Junction canal. The church of St +Peter, a large cruciform structure, exhibits all the Gothic styles, +and earlier fragments are traceable. There are several brasses +of interest. The poet William Cowper was born in the rectory +in 1731. The large grammar school is a foundation of 1541. +Straw-plaiting and the manufacture of small wooden wares are +the principal industries, and there are large chemical works. Of the +castle earthworks and fragments of walls remain. The name of +the town is Great Berkhampstead (or Berkhamsted), in distinction +from Little Berkhampstead near Hatfield in this county.</p> + +<p>Berkhampstead (Beorhhamstede, Berchehamstede) was undoubtedly +of some importance in Saxon times since there were +fifty-two burgesses there at the time of the Conquest. In 1156 +Henry II. granted the men and merchants of the town the same +laws and customs as they had in the time of Edward the Confessor, +and that they should be quit of toll throughout England, +Normandy, Aquitaine and Anjou. Berkhampstead rose to +importance with its castle, which is said to have been built by +Robert, count of Mortain, and when the castle fell into ruin after +1496 the town also began to decay. In 1618, however, the +burgesses received an incorporation charter; but after the civil +wars the corporate body began to fail through poverty, and in the +18th century had ceased to exist. The burgesses returned two +members to parliament in 1320 and again in 1338 and 1341, but +were never represented again. Before the 13th century the +burgesses held a weekly market on Sunday and a yearly fair on +St James’s day, but in 1218 Henry III. altered the market day +to Monday. Roofing tiles were manufactured in Berkhampstead +as early as the 13th century, and in Elizabeth’s reign the making +of malt was the chief industry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERKSHIRE, THOMAS HOWARD,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1587-1669), +2nd son of Thomas Howard, 1st earl of Suffolk and of Catherine, +daughter of Sir Henry Knevet, Kt., widow of Richard Rich, +was baptized on the 8th of October 1587. He succeeded to his +mother’s estate of Charlton in Wiltshire, was created K.B. in +1605, became master of the horse to Prince Charles, and was +created Lord Howard of Charlton and Viscount Andover in 1622, +K.G. in 1625, and earl of Berkshire in 1626. In 1634 he was +chosen high steward of the university of Oxford. He was a +commissioner for negotiating the treaty of Ripon in 1640, and +accompanied the king to York in 1642. While attempting to +execute the king’s commission of array in Oxfordshire in August +he was taken prisoner by Hampden at Watlington and imprisoned +in the Tower, but after being censured by the Lords was liberated +in September. In 1643 he was made governor of the prince of +Wales, a post for which he was in no way fitted, and in which +he showed himself factious and obstructive. He accompanied +the prince to Scilly and to Jersey, but on the latter’s departure +for France went to Holland. At the Restoration he was made a +privy councillor and received rewards. He died on the 16th of +July 1669, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. According +to Clarendon “his affection for the crown was good; his interest +and reputation less than anything but his understanding.” He +married Elizabeth, daughter and co-heir of William, earl of +Exeter, by whom he had nine sons and four daughters. Of these +Charles succeeded him as 2nd earl of Berkshire; Thomas succeeded +the latter; and Philip was ancestor of John, 15th earl +of Suffolk and 8th earl of Berkshire, and so of the later earls of +Suffolk and Berkshire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERKSHIRE<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> [abbreviated <i>Berks</i>, pronounced <i>Barkshire</i>], a +southern county of England, bounded N. by Oxfordshire and +Buckinghamshire, E. by Surrey, S. by Hampshire, W. by Wiltshire, +and N.W. for a short distance by Gloucestershire. Its area +is 721.9 sq. m. Its entire northern boundary is formed by the +river Thames, in the basin of which practically the whole county +is included. In the north-west a narrow and broken line of hills, +pierced in the west by the Cole stream, which here forms the +county boundary, extends past Faringdon and culminates in a +height over 500 ft. at Cumnor Hurst, which, with Wytham Hill, +fills a deep northward bend of the Thames, and overlooks the +city of Oxford from the west. The range separates the Thames +valley from the Vale of White Horse which is traversed by the +small river Ock, and bounded on the south by a line of hills +known as the White Horse Hills or Berkshire Downs, richly +wooded along their base, and rising sharply to bare rounded +summits. In White Horse Hill on the western confines of the +county a height of 856 ft. is reached. The line of these hills is +continued north-eastward by the Chiltern Hills in Oxfordshire, +but a division between the two is made by the Thames in a +narrow valley or gap at Goring. Southward the Downs are +scored with deep narrow valleys, the chief of which are those of +the Lambourn and the Pang. The last stream runs eastward +directly to the Thames; but the Lambourn and others join the +Kennet, which drains a beautiful sylvan valley to the Thames at +Reading. Another line of downs closely confines the vale of +Kennet on the south from Newbury upwards, and although the +greater part of these does not fall within the county, their highest +point, Inkpen Beacon (1011 ft.), does so. The Enborne stream, +rising here, and flowing parallel to the Kennet until turning +north to join it, is for a considerable distance the county +boundary. Between Reading and Windsor the Thames makes +a northward bend, past Henley and Marlow, in the form of three +sides of a square. Within the bend slight hills border the river, +but south of these, and in the Loddon valley south of Reading, +the county is low and flat. In the south-east of the county, +however, there is a high sandy plateau, forming part of Bagshot +Heath, over 400 ft. in elevation, and extending into Surrey. +Fir-woods are characteristic of this district, and northward +towards the Thames extends the royal park of Windsor, which +is magnificently timbered. The proportion to the total area of +the county which is under woods is, however, by no means so +great as in the adjacent counties of Surrey and Hampshire. +There is fine trout-fishing in the Kennet and some of its feeders.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The dominant feature of the county, the Chiltern +and White Horse Hills, owes its form to the Chalk, which spreads +from Ashbury and Hungerford on the west to Henley and +Maidenhead on the east. In the northern face of the escarpment +we find the Lower Chalk with a hard bed, the Totternhoe Stone; +on the southern slope lies the Chalk-with-Flints. At Kintbury +it is quarried for the manufacture of whiting. At the foot of the +Chalk escarpment is the Upper Greensand with a narrow crop +towards the west which is broken up into patches eastwards. +Looking northward from the Chalk hills, the low-lying ground +is occupied successively by the Gault Clay, the Kimmeridge Clay, +and finally by the Oxford Clay, which extends beyond the +Thames into Oxfordshire. This low-lying tract is relieved by an +elevated ridge of Corallian beds, between the Kimmeridge Clay +and the Gault. It extends from near Faringdon past Abingdon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span> +to Cumnor and Wytham Hill. At Faringdon there are some +interesting gravels of Lower Greensand age, full of the fossil +remains of sponges. South of the Chalk, the county is occupied +by Eocene rocks, mottled clays, well exposed in the brickfields +about Reading, and hence called the Reading beds. At Finchampstead, +Sunninghill and Ascot, these deposits are overlaid +by the more sandy beds of the Bagshot series. Between the two +last named formations is a broad outcrop of London Clay. +Numerous outliers of Eocene rest on the Chalk beyond the main +line of boundary. The Chalk of Inkpen Beacon is brought up +to the south side of the Tertiary rocks by a synclinal fold; +similarly, an anticline has brought up the small patch of Chalk +in Windsor Park. Clay-with-Flints lies in patches and holes on +the chalk, and flint gravels occur high up on either side of the +Thames. Fairly thick beds of peat are found in the alluvium of +the Kennet at Newbury.</p> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—About seven-ninths of the total area is under +cultivation; a large proportion of this being in permanent +pasture, as much attention is paid to dairy-farming. Butter and +cheese are largely produced, and the making of condensed milk +is a branch of the industry. Many sheep are pastured on the +Downs, important sheep-markets being held at the small town +of East or Market Ilsley; and an excellent breed of pigs is +named after the county. The parts about Faringdon are specially +noted for them. Oats are the principal grain crop; although a +considerable acreage is under wheat. Turnips and swedes are +largely cultivated, and apples and cherries are grown. Besides +the royal castle of Windsor, fine county seats are especially +numerous.</p> + +<p>The only manufacturing centre of first importance is Reading, +which is principally famous for its biscuit factories. The manufacture +of clothing and carpets is carried on at Abingdon; but +a woollen industry introduced into the county as early as the +Tudor period is long extinct. Engineering works and paper mills +are established at various places; and boat-building is carried +on at Reading and other riverside stations. There are extensive +seed warehouses and testing grounds near Reading; and the +Kennet and Windsor ales are in high repute. Whiting is manufactured +from chalk at Kintbury on the Kennet.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Communications are provided principally +by the Great Western railway, the main line of which crosses the +county from east to west by Maidenhead, Reading and Didcot. +A branch line serves the Kennet valley from Reading; and +the northern line of the company leaves the main line at Didcot, +a branch from it serving Abingdon. The Basingstoke branch +runs south from Reading, and lines serve Wallingford from +Cholsey, and Faringdon from Uffington. Communication with +the south of England is maintained by a joint line of the South +Western and South Eastern & Chatham companies terminating +at Reading, and there are branches of the Great Western and +South Western systems to Windsor. The Lambourn valley +light railway runs north-west to Lambourn from Newbury. +Wide water-communications are afforded by the Thames, and +the Kennet is in part canalized, to form the eastern portion of +the Kennet and Avon canal system, connecting with the Bristol +Avon above Bath.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The area of the ancient +county is 462,208 acres; with a population in 1891 of 239,138, +and in 1901 of 256,509. The area of the administrative county +is 462,367 acres. The county contains twenty hundreds. The +municipal boroughs are Abingdon (pop. 6480), Maidenhead +(12,980), Newbury (11,061), Reading, the county town and a +county borough (72,217), Wallingford (2808), Windsor or New +Windsor (14,130), Wokingham (3551). Wantage (3766) is an +urban district. Among lesser towns may be mentioned Faringdon +in the north-west (2900), Hungerford on the Kennet (2906), +and Lambourn in the valley of that name (2071), the villages +of Bray (2978), Cookham (3874) and Tilehurst (2545), which, +like others on the banks of the Thames, have grown into residential +towns; and Sandhurst (2386). The county is in the +Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at Reading. It has one +court of quarter sessions, and is divided into twelve petty +sessional divisions. The boroughs of Abingdon, Newbury, +Maidenhead, Reading, Wallingford and Windsor have separate +commissions of the peace, and Abingdon, Newbury, Reading +and Windsor have separate courts of quarter sessions. There +are 198 civil parishes. Berkshire forms an archdeaconry in +the diocese of Oxford; a small portion, however, falls within +the diocese of Salisbury. There are 202 ecclesiastical parishes +or districts, wholly or in part within the county. There are +three parliamentary divisions, Northern or Abingdon, Southern +or Newbury, and Eastern or Wokingham, each returning one +member; while the parliamentary borough of Reading returns +one member, and parts of the borough of Oxford and Windsor +are included in the county. There are several important educational +establishments in the county. Radley College near +Abingdon, Wellington College near Sandhurst, and Bradfield +College, at the village of that name, 8 m. west of Reading, are +among the more important modern public schools for boys. +Bradfield College was founded in 1850, and is well known for +the realistic performances of classical Greek plays presented +by the scholars in an open theatre designed for the purpose. +Abingdon and Reading schools rank among the lesser public +schools. At Reading is a university extension college, and in +the south-east of the county is the Sandhurst Royal Military +College.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—During the Heptarchy Berkshire formed part of +the kingdom of Wessex, and interesting relics of Saxon occupation +have been discovered in various parts of the county. Of +these the most remarkable are the burial grounds at Long +Wittenham and Frilford, and there is evidence that the Lambourn +valley was occupied in early Saxon times. The cinerary +urns found in Berkshire undoubtedly contain the ashes of the +Anglians who came south under Penda in the 7th century. +The fortification called Cherbury Castle, not far from Denchworth, +is said to have been first made up by Canute.</p> + +<p>At the time of the Norman invasion Berkshire formed part +of the earldom of Harold, and supported him stanchly at the +battle of Hastings. This loyalty was punished by very sweeping +confiscations, and at the time of the Domesday survey no +estates of any importance were in the hands of Englishmen. +When Alfred divided the country into shires, this county received +the name of Berrocscir, as Asser says, “from the wood +of Berroc, where the box-tree grows most plentifully.”<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +At the time of the survey it comprised twenty-two hundreds; at +the present day there are only twenty, of which eleven retain +their ancient names. Many parishes have been transferred +from one hundred to another, but the actual boundary of the +county is practically unchanged. Part of the parishes of Shilton +and Langford formed detached portions of the shire, until +included in Oxfordshire in the reign of William IV. Portions +of Combe and Shalbourne parishes have also been restored +to Hampshire and Wiltshire respectively, while the Wiltshire +portion of Hungerford has been transferred to Berkshire. The +county was originally included in the see of Winchester, but in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 909 it was removed to the newly-formed see of “Wiltshire,” +afterwards united with Sherborne. In 1075 the seat of the +bishopric was removed to Salisbury, and in 1836 by an order +in council Berkshire was transferred to the diocese of Oxford. +The archdeaconry is of very early origin and is co-extensive with +the county. Formerly it comprised four rural deaneries, but +the number has lately been increased to nine. Much of the early +history of the county is recorded in the <i>Chronicles</i> of the abbey +of Abingdon, which at the time of the survey was second only +to the crown in the extent and number of its possessions. The +abbot also exercised considerable judicial and administrative +powers, and his court was endowed with the privileges of the +hundred court and was freed from liability to interference by +the sheriff. Berkshire and Oxfordshire had a common sheriff +until the reign of Elizabeth, and the shire court was held at +Grauntpont. The assizes were formerly held at Reading, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span> +Abingdon and Newbury, but are now held entirely at +Reading.</p> + +<p>At the time of the Domesday survey the chief lay-proprietor +was Henry de Ferrers, ancestor of the earls of Derby, but it is remarkable +that none of the great Berkshire estates has remained +with the same family long. Thomas Fuller quaintly observes +that “the lands of Berkshire are very skittish and apt to cast +their owners.” The De la Poles succeeded to large estates by +a marriage with the heiress of Thomas Chaucer, son of the poet, +but the family became extinct in the male line, and the estates +were alienated. The same fate befell the estates of the Achards, +the Fitzwarrens and later the families of Norris and Befils.</p> + +<p>The natural advantages of this county have always encouraged +agricultural rather than commercial pursuits. The soil is +especially adapted for sheep-farming, and numerous documents +testify to the importance and prosperity of the wool-trade in +the 12th century. At first this trade was confined to the export +of the raw material, but the reign of Edward III. saw the introduction +of the clothing industry, for which the county afterwards +became famous. This trade began to decline in the 17th century, +and in 1641 the Berkshire clothiers complained of the deadness +of their trade and the difficulty of getting ready money, attributing +the same to delay in the execution of justice. The malting +industry and the timber trade also flourished in the county +until the 19th century. Agriculturally considered, the Vale of +the White Horse is especially productive, and Camden speaks +of the great crops of barley grown in the district.</p> + +<p>Owing to its proximity to London, Berkshire has from early +times been the scene of frequent military operations. The +earliest recorded historical fact relating to the county is the +occupation of the district between Wallingford and Ashbury +by Offa in 758. In the 9th and 10th centuries the county was +greatly impoverished by the ravages of the Danes, and in 871 +the invaders were defeated by Æthelwulf at Englefield and again +at Reading. During the disorders of Stephen’s reign Wallingford +was garrisoned for Matilda and was the scene of the final +treaty in 1153. Meetings took place between John and his +barons in 1213 at Wallingford and at Reading, and in 1216 +Windsor was besieged by the barons. At the opening of the +civil war of the 17th century, the sheriff, on behalf of the inhabitants +of Berkshire, petitioned that the county might be put +in a posture of defence, and here the royalists had some of their +strongest garrisons. Reading endured a ten days’ siege by the +parliamentary forces in 1643, and Wallingford did not surrender +until 1646. Newbury was the site of two battles in 1643 and +1644.</p> + +<p>In 1295, Berkshire returned two members to parliament for +the county and two for the borough of Reading. Later the +boroughs of Newbury, Wallingford, Windsor and Abingdon +secured representation, and from 1557 until the Reform Act of +1832 the county was represented by a total of ten members. By +this act Abingdon and Wallingford were each deprived of a +member, but the county returned three members instead of +two. Since the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 the county +has returned three members for three divisions, and Windsor +and Reading return one member each, the remaining boroughs +having lost representation.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—The remains of two great Benedictine monasteries +at Abingdon and Reading are scanty. The ecclesiastical +architecture of the county is not remarkable, excepting a few +individual churches. Thus for Norman work the churches of +Shellingford and Cholsey may be noted, together with the very +small chapel, of early date, at Upton near Didcot. The church +of Blewbury in the same locality is in the main transitional +Norman, and retains some of its original vaulting. Of Early +English churches there are several good examples, notably at +Uffington, with its unusual angular-headed windows, Buckland +near Faringdon, and Wantage. The tower of St Helen’s, +Abingdon, well illustrates this period. The cruciform church +of Shottesbrooke, with its central spire, is a beautiful and almost +unaltered Decorated building; and St George’s chapel in +Windsor Castle is a superb specimen of Perpendicular work. +Apart from Windsor, Berkshire retains no remarkable medieval +castles or mansions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Chief of the older works are: Elias Ashmole. +<i>Antiquities of Berkshire</i> (3 vols., 1719, 2nd ed., London, 1723; 3rd +ed., Reading, 1736); D. and S. Lysons, <i>Magna Britannia</i>, vol. i. +Other works are: Marshall, <i>Topographical and Statistical Details +of the County of Berkshire</i> (London, 1830); Earl of Carnarvon, +<i>Archaeology of Berkshire</i> (London, 1859); C. King, <i>History of Berkshire</i> +(London, 1887); Lowsley, <i>Glossary of Berkshire Words</i> (London, +1888), and <i>Index to Wills in the Court of the Archdeacon of Berkshire, +1508-1652</i> (Oxford, 1893); <i>Victoria County History, Berkshire</i>. +See also <i>The Berks Archaeological Society’s Quarterly Journal</i>, and +<i>Berkshire Notes and Queries</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The derivation from Bibroci, a British tribe in the time of Caesar, +which probably inhabited Surrey or Middlesex, seems philologically +impossible.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÊRLAD,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> the capital of the department of Tutova, Rumania, +on the river Bêrlad, which waters the high plains of Eastern +Moldavia. Pop. (1900) 24,484, about one-fourth of whom are +Jews. At Bêrlad the railway from Jassy diverges, one branch +skirting the river Sereth, the other skirting the Pruth; both +reunite at Galatz. Among a maze of narrow and winding streets +Bêrlad possesses a few good modern buildings, including a fine +hospital, administered by the St Spiridion Foundation of Jassy. +Bêrlad has manufactures of soap and candles, and some trade +in timber and farm-produce, while the annual horse-fairs are +visited by dealers from all parts of the country. In the vicinity +are traces of a Roman camp.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERLICHINGEN, GOETZ<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gottfried</span> <b>VON</b> (1480-1562), +German knight, was born at the castle of Jagsthausen now in +Württemberg. In 1497 he entered the service of Frederick IV., +margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, and in 1498 fought for the +emperor Maximilian I. in Burgundy, Lorraine and Brabant, and +next year in Switzerland. About 1500 he raised a company of +freelances, and at their head took part in various private wars. +In 1505, whilst assisting Albert IV., duke of Bavaria, at the siege +of Landshut, his right hand was shot away, and an iron one was +substituted which is still shown at Jagsthausen. In spite of this +“Goetz with the iron hand” continued his feuds, their motive +being mainly booty and ransom. In 1512 an attack near +Forchheim on some merchants returning from the great fair at +Leipzig, caused him to be put under the ban of the empire by +Maximilian, and he was only released from this in 1514 upon a +promise to pay 14,000 gulden. In 1516 he made a raid into +Hesse and captured Philip IV., count of Waldeck, whom he +compelled to pay a ransom of 8400 gold gulden, and in 1518 was +again placed under the ban. He fought for Ulrich I., duke of +Württemberg, when he was attacked by the Swabian League in +1519, and after a spirited resistance was compelled, through +want of ammunition and provisions, to surrender the town of +Möckmuhl. In violation of the terms of the capitulation he was +held prisoner, and handed over to the citizens of Heilbronn, but +owing to the efforts of Sickingen and Georg von Frundsberg was +released in 1522, upon paying 2000 gulden, and swearing not to +take vengeance on the League. When the Peasants’ War broke +out in 1525 Goetz was compelled by the rebels of the Odenwald +district to act as their leader. He accepted the position, according +to his own account, partly because he had no choice, partly +in the hope of curbing the excesses of the insurgents; but, +finding himself in this respect powerless, after a month of nominal +leadership, he took the first opportunity of escaping to his castle. +For his part in the rebellion he was called to account before the +diet of Speier, and on the 17th of October 1526 was acquitted by +the imperial chamber. In spite of this the Swabian League +seized the opportunity of paying off old scores against him. +Lured to Augsburg, under promise of safe conduct, to clear +himself of the charges made against him on behalf of the League, +he was there treacherously seized on the 28th of November 1528, +and kept a close prisoner for two years. In 1530 he was liberated +on repeating his oath of 1522, and undertaking not to leave the +neighbourhood of his castle of Hornberg on the Neckar. He +appears to have remained there quietly until 1540 when the +emperor Charles V. released him from his oath. In 1542 he +fought against the Turks in Hungary, and in 1544 accompanied +Charles when he invaded France. He returned to Hornberg, +where he passed his time until his death on the 23rd of July +1562. He was twice married and left three daughters and seven +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span> +sons. The counts von Berlichingen-Rossach, of Helmstadt +near Heidelberg, one of the two surviving branches of the family, +are his descendants. The other branch, that of the Freiherrn von +Berlichingen-Jagsthausen, is descended from Goetz’s brother +Hans. “Goetz von Berlichingen” is the title of Goethe’s play, +which, published in 1773, marked an epoch in the history of +German drama (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goethe</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Pallmann, <i>Der historische Goetz von Berlichingen</i> (Berlin, +1894); F.W.G. Graf von Berlichingen-Rossach, <i>Geschichte des +Ritters Goetz von Berlichingen und seiner Familie</i> (Leipzig, 1861). +Goetz’s <i>Autobiography</i>, valuable as a record of his times, was first +published by Pistorius at Nuremberg (1731), and again at Halle (1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERLIN, ISAIAH<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1725-1799), an eminent rabbi of Breslau; +he was the author of acute notes on the Talmud which had their +influence in advancing the critical study of that work.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERLIN,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> the largest city of the German empire, the capital +of the kingdom of Prussia. It is the principal residence of the +German emperor and king of Prussia, the seat of the imperial +parliament (<i>Reichstag</i>) and the Prussian diet (<i>Landtag</i>) and of +the state offices of the empire, except of the supreme court of +justice (<i>Reichsgericht</i>), which is fixed at Leipzig. It lies in a flat, +sandy plain, 110 ft. above sea-level, on both banks of the navigable +Spree, which intersects it from S.E. to N.W. The highest +elevation in the immediate neighbourhood is the Kreuzberg +(200 ft.), a hill in the southern suburb of Schöneberg, which +commands a fine view of the city. The situation of Berlin, +midway between the Elbe and the Oder, with which rivers it +is connected by a web of waterways, at the crossing of the main +roads from Silesia and Poland to the North Sea ports and from +Saxony, Bohemia and Thuringia to the Baltic, made it in +medieval days a place of considerable commercial importance. +In modern times the great network of railways, of which it is +the centre and which mainly follow the lines of the old roads, +further established its position. Almost equidistant from the +remotest frontiers of Prussia, from north to south, and from +east to west, 180 m. from Hamburg and 84 from Stettin, its +situation, so far from being prejudicial to its growth and +prosperity, as was formerly often asserted, has been, in fact, the +principal determining factor in its rapid rise to the position +of the greatest industrial and commercial city on the continent +of Europe. In point of wealth and population it ranks immediately +after London and Paris.</p> + +<p>The boundaries of the city have not been essentially extended +since 1860, and though large and important suburbs have crept +up and practically merged with it, its administrative area +remains unchanged. It occupies about 29 sq. m., and has a +length from E. to W. of 6 and a breadth from N. to S. of 5½ m., +contains nearly 1000 streets, has 87 squares and open spaces, +73 bridges and a population (1905) of 2,033,900 (including a +garrison of about 22,000). If, however, the outer police district, +known as “Greater Berlin,” embracing an area of about 10 m. +radius from the centre, be included, the population amounts to +about 3¼ millions.</p> + +<p>Berlin is essentially a modern city, the quaint two-storied +houses, which formerly characterized it, having given place to +palatial business blocks, which somewhat dwarf the streets +and squares, which once had an air of stately spaciousness. +The bustle of the modern commercial city has superseded the +austere dignity of the old Prussian capital. Thus the stranger +entering it for the first time will find little to remind him of its +past history. The oldest part of Berlin, the city and Alt-Kölln, +built along the arms of the Spree, is, together with that portion +of the town lying immediately west, the centre of business +activity. The west end and the south-west are the residential +quarters, the north-west is largely occupied by academic, +scientific and military institutions, the north is the seat of +machinery works, the north-east of the woollen manufactures, +the east and south-east of the dyeing, furniture and metal +industries, while in the south are great barracks and railway works.</p> + +<p>In 1870 Berlin was practically bounded on the south by the +Landwehr Canal, but it has since extended far beyond, and +the Tempelhofer Feld, where military reviews are held, then +practically in the country, is now surrounded by a dense +belt of houses. The Landwehr Canal, leaving the Spree +near the Schlesische Tor (gate), and rejoining it at Charlottenburg, +after a course of 6 m., adds not a little to the charm of +the southern and western districts, being flanked by fine boulevards +and crossed by many handsome bridges. The object of +this canal was to relieve the congestion of the water traffic in +the heart of Berlin. It was superseded, however, in its turn by +a new broad and deep canal opened in 1906, lying from 3 to 4 m. +farther south. This, the Teltow Canal, leaves the Spree above +Berlin at Köpenick, and running south of Rixdorf, Südende +and Gross-Lichterfelde, enters the Havel at Teltow. This +important engineering work was planned not only to afford a +more convenient waterway between the upper Spree and the +Havel (and thus to the Elbe), but was to remove from the city +to its banks and vicinity those factories of which the noxious +gases and other poisonous emanations were regarded as dangerous +to the health of the community. A dislocation of the +manufacturing factors has therefore been in progress, which +with the creation of a “trans Tiberim” (as in ancient Rome) +is, in many respects, altering the character and aspect of the +metropolis.</p> + +<p>The effect upon Berlin of the successful issue of the +Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 was electrical. The old Prussian +capital girded itself at once to fulfil its new rôle. The +concentration upon the city of a large garrison flushed with victory, +and eager to emulate the vanquished foe in works of peace, +and vie with them in luxury, was an incentive to Berliners to +put forth all their energy. Besides the military, a tremendous +immigration of civilian officials took place as the result of the +new conditions, and, as accommodation was not readily available, +rents rose to an enormous figure. Doubts were often +expressed whether the capital would be able to bear the burden +of empire, so enormous was the influx of new citizens. It is due +to the magnificent services of the municipal council that the city +was enabled to assimilate the hosts of newcomers, and it is to +its indefatigable exertions that Berlin has in point of organization +become the model city of Europe. In no other has public +money been expended with such enlightened discretion, and +in no other has the municipal system kept pace with such rapid +growth and displayed greater resource in emergencies. In +1870 the sanitary conditions of Berlin were the worst of any +city of Europe. It needed a Virchow to open the eyes of the +municipality to the terrible waste of life such a state of things +entailed. But open sewers, public pumps, cobble-paved roads, +open market-places and overcrowded subterranean dwellings +are now abolished. The city is excellently drained, well-paved, +well-lighted and furnished with an abundant supply of filtered +water, while the cellar dwellings have given place to light and +airy tenements, and Berlin justly claims to rank among the +cleanest and healthiest capitals in Europe. The year 1878 +marks a fresh starting-point in the development of the city. +In that year Berlin was the meeting-place of the congress which +bears its name. The recognition of Germany as a leading factor +in the world’s counsels had been given, and the people of Berlin +could indulge in the task of embellishing the capital in a manner +befitting its position. From this time forward, state, municipal +and private enterprise have worked hand in hand to make the +capital cosmopolitan. The position it has at length attained +is due not alone to the enterprise of its citizens and the municipality. +The brilliancy of the court and the triumph of the +sense of unity in the German nation over the particularism of +the smaller German states have conduced more than all else +to bring about this result. It has become the chief pleasure town +of Germany; and though the standard of morality, owing +to the enormous influx of people bent on amusement, has become +lower, yet there is so much healthy, strenuous activity in +intellectual life and commercial rivalry as to entitle it, despite +many moral deficiencies, to be regarded as the centre of life +and learning in Germany. Dr A. Shadwell (<i>Industrial Efficiency</i>, +London, 1906) describes it as representing “the most complete +application of science, order and method of public life,” adding +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span> +“it is a marvel of civic administration, the most modern and +most perfectly organized city that there is.”</p> + +<p><i>Streets.</i>—The social and official life of the capital centres +round Unter den Linden, which runs from the royal palace to +the Brandenburger Tor. This street, one of the finest and +most spacious in Europe, nearly a mile in length, its double +avenue divided by a favourite promenade, planted with lime +trees, presents Berlin life in all its varying aspects. Many +historical events have taken place in this famous boulevard, +notably the entry of the troops in 1871, and the funeral pageant +of the emperor Willaim I. South of Unter den Linden lies the +Friedrichstadt, with its parallel lines of straight streets, including +the Behren-strasse—(the seat of finance)—the Wilhelm-strasse, +with the palace of the imperial chancellor, the British +embassy, and many government offices—the official quarter of +the capital—and the busy Leipziger-strasse, running from the +Potsdamer-platz to the Dönhoff-platz. This great artery and +Unter den Linden are crossed at right angles by the Friedrich-strasse, +2 m. long, flanked by attractive shops and restaurants, +among them the beer palaces of the great breweries. In +the city proper, the König-strasse and the Kaiser-Wilhelm-strasse, +the latter a continuation of Unter den Linden, are the +chief streets; while in the fashionable south-west quarter +Viktoria-strasse, Bellevue-strasse, Potsdamer-strasse and +Kurfürsten-strasse and the Kurfürstendamm are the most +imposing. Among the most important public squares are the +Opern-platz, around or near which stand the opera house, the +royal library, the university and the armoury; the Gendarmen-markt, +with the royal theatre in its centre, the Schloss-platz; +the Lustgarten, between the north side of the royal palace, the +cathedral and the old and new museums; the Pariser-platz +with the French embassy, at the Brandenburg Gate; the +Königs-platz, with the column of Victory, the Reichstagsgebäude +and the Bismarck and Moltke monuments; the Wilhelms-platz; +the circular Belle-Alliance-platz, with a column commemorating +the battle of Waterloo; and, in the western district, the spacious +Lützow-platz.</p> + +<p><i>Bridges.</i>—Of the numerous bridges, the most remarkable are +the Schloss-brücke, built after designs by Schinkel in 1822-1824, +with eight colossal figures of white marble, representing ideal +stages in a warrior’s life, the work of Drake, Albert Wolff and +other eminent sculptors; the Kurfürsten—or Lange-brücke, +built 1692-1695, and restored in 1895, with an equestrian statue +of the great elector, and the Kaiser-Wilhelm-brücke (1886-1889) +connecting the Lustgarten with the Kaiser-Wilhelm-strasse in +the inner town. In the modern residential quarter are the +Potsdamer-Viktoria-brücke, which carries the traffic from two +converging streets into the outer Potsdamer-strasse, and the +Herkules-brucke connecting the Lützow-platz with the Tiergarten. +The first three cross the Spree and the last two the +Landwehr Canal.</p> + +<p><i>Churches.</i>—Berlin, until the last half of the 10th century, was +in respect of its churches probably the poorest of the capitals +of Christendom, and the number of worshippers on an average +Sunday was then less than 2% of the population. The city now +contains over a hundred places of worship, of which ten are +Roman Catholic, and nine Jewish synagogues. Of the older +Evangelical churches but four date from medieval days, and of +them only the Marien-kirche, with a tomb of Field marshal +O.C. von Sparr (1605-1665), and the Nikolai-kirche are particularly +noteworthy. Of a later date, though of no great pretensions +to architectural merit, are the Petri-kirche with a lofty spire, +the Französische-kirche and the Neue-kirche with dome-capped +towers, on the Gendarmen-markt, and the round, Roman Catholic +St Hedwigs—kirche behind the Opera-house. The Garrison +church in the centre of the city, which was erected in 1722 and +contained numerous historical trophies, was destroyed by fire +in 1908. Of modern erections the new cathedral (<i>Dom</i>), on the +Spree, which replaces the old building pulled down in 1853, +stands first. It is a clumsy, though somewhat imposing edifice +of sandstone in Italian Renaissance style, and has a dome rising, +with the lantern, to a height of 380 ft. The Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtnis-kirche +(in the suburb Charlottenburg) with a lofty +spire, the Dankes-kirche (in commemoration of the emperor +William I.’s escape from the hand of the assassin, Nobiling, in +1878) in Wedding, and the Kaiser-Friedrich-Gedächtnis-kirche +on a grassy knoll in the north of the Tiergarten are also worthy +of notice. In the Monbijou Park, on the north bank of the Spree, +is the pretty English church of St George. The main Jewish +synagogue, a fine building in oriental style, erected in 1866, +stands in a commanding position in the Oranienburger-strasse +and is remarkable for its stained glass. Berlin was a walled city +until 1867-1868. Of the former nineteen city gates only one +remains, the Brandenburg Gate (1789-1793), an imitation of the +Propylaea at Athens. It is 201 ft. broad and nearly 65 ft. high, +and is supported by twelve Doric columns, each 44 ft. in height, +and surmounted by a car of victory (Auriga), which, taken by +Napoleon to Paris in 1807, was brought back by the Prussians +in 1814. The gate has been enlarged by two lateral colonnades, +each supported by sixteen columns.</p> + +<p><i>Public Buildings.</i>—In secular buildings Berlin is very rich. +Entering the city at the Potsdam Gate, traversing a few hundred +yards of the Leipziger-strasse, turning into Wilhelm-strasse, and +following it to Unter den Linden, then beginning at the Brandenburg +Gate and proceeding down Unter den Linden to its end, one +passes, among other buildings, the following, many of them of +great architectural merit—the admiralty, the ministry of +commerce, the ministry of war, the ministry of public works, +the palace of Prince Frederick Leopold, the palace of the imperial +chancellor, the foreign office, the ministry of justice, the +residences of the ministers of the interior and of public worship, +the French and the Russian embassies, the arcade, the palace +of the emperor William I., the university, the royal library, the +opera, the armoury, the palace of the emperor Frederick III., +the Schloss-brücke, the royal palace, the old and new museums +and the national gallery. At a short distance from this line are the +new town-hall, the mint, the imperial bank and the royal theatre. +Berlin differs from all other great capitals in this respect that +with the exception of the royal palace, which dates from the +16th century, all its public buildings are modern. This palace, +standing in the very heart of the city, is a huge quadrangular +building, with four courts, and is surmounted by a dome 220 ft. +high. It contains more than 600 rooms and halls; among the +latter the Weisse-saal used for great court pageants, the halls +of the chapters of the Black and the Red Eagle orders, a picture +gallery and a chapel. The first floor overlooking the Schloss-platz +is the Berlin residence of the emperor, and that square is +embellished by a huge fountain (Neptuns-brunnen) by R. Begas. +Facing the west portal is the monument to the emperor William I., +and before the north gate, opening upon the Lustgarten, are +the famous bronze groups, the “horse-tamers” by Clodt, the +gift of the emperor Nicholas I. of Russia. The establishment +of the imperial government in Berlin naturally brought with it +the erection of a large number of public buildings, and +the great prosperity of the country, as well as the enhanced +national feeling, has enabled them to be built on a scale of +splendour befitting the capital of an empire. First in importance +is the Reichstagsgebäude (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, plate ix. fig. 47), +in which the federal council (<i>Bundesrat</i>) and the imperial +parliament (<i>Reichstag</i>) hold their sittings. A special feature +is the library, which is exceedingly rich in works on constitutional +law. A new house has also been built for the Prussian parliament (<i>Landtag</i>) in the Albrecht-strasse. Other +new official buildings are the patent office on the site of +the old ministry of the interior; the new ministry of posts +(with post museum) at the corner of the Mauer-strasse and +Leipziger-strasse; the central criminal court in Moabit; the +courts of first instance on the Alexander-platz; the ministry +of police, and the <i>Reichsversicherungsamt</i>, the centre for the +great system of state insurance. In addition to these, many +buildings have been restored and enlarged, chief among them +being the armoury (<i>Zeughaus</i>), the war office and the ministry +of public works, while the royal mews (<i>Marstall</i>) has been +entirely rebuilt with an imposing façade.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span></p> + +<p>Among the public monuments comes first, in excellence, +Ranch’s celebrated statue of Frederick the Great, which stands +in Unter den Linden opposite the palace of the emperor +William I.; and in size the monument to the emperor William +I. (by R. Begas), erected opposite the west portal of the royal +palace. The space for the site was gained by pulling down the +old houses composing the Schlossfreiheit and damming the +Spree. The monument, which cost £200,000, is surmounted by +an equestrian statue of the emperor in a martial cloak, his right +hand resting on a field marshal’s baton, reining in his charger, +which is led by a female genius of peace. The high pedestal on +which these figures stand is surrounded by an Ionic colonnade. +The equestrian statue of the great elector on the Lange-brücke +has been already mentioned. In the Lustgarten is a statue of +Frederick William III., by Wolff; in the Tiergarten, Drake’s +marble monument to the same ruler; and in the mausoleum +in the park in Charlottenburg he and his queen, Louisa, are +sculptured in marble by Rauch. Here also lie the emperor +William I. and the empress Augusta under marble effigies by +Encke. A second group of monuments on the Wilhelms-platz +commemorates the generals of the Seven Years’ War; and a +third in the neighbourhood of the opera-house the generals who +fought against Napoleon I. On the Kreuzberg a Gothic monument +in bronze was erected by Frederick William III. to commemorate +the victories of 1813-1815; and in the centre of the +Königs-platz stands a lofty column in honour of the triumphs +of 1864, 1866 and 1870-1871, surmounted by a gilded figure of +Victory. Literature, science and art are represented in different +parts of the city by statues and busts of Rauch, Schinkel, Thaer, +Beuth, Schadow, Winckelmann, Schiller, Hegel and Jahn. +On the Königs-platz between the column of Victory and the +Reichstagsgebäude, and immediately facing the western façade +of the latter, is the bronze statue of Bismarck, unveiled in 1901, +a figure 20 ft. in height standing on a granite base. From the +south side of the Königs-platz crossing the Tiergarten and +intersecting the avenue from the Brandenburg Gate to Charlottenburg +runs the broad Sieges-allee adorned by thirty-two +groups of marble statuary representing famous rulers of the +house of Hohenzollern, the gift of the emperor William II. to +the city. The Tiergarten, the beautiful west-end park with its +thickets of dense undergrowth and winding lanes and lakes has +lost somewhat of its sylvan character owing to building encroachments +on the north side and the laying out of new rides and +drives. It has, in addition to those above enumerated, statues +of Queen Louisa, Goethe and Lessing.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Berlin is the centre of the North German +network of railways. No fewer than twelve main lines concentrate +upon it. Internal communication is provided for by the +Ringbahn, or outer circle, which was opened in 1871, and by a +well-devised system connects the termini of the various main +lines. The through traffic coming from east and west is carried +by the Stadtbahn, or city railway, which also connects with and +forms an integral part of the outer circle. This line runs through +the heart of the city, and was originally a private enterprise. +Owing, however, to the failure of the company, the work was +taken in hand by the state, and the line opened in 1878. It has +four tracks—two for the main-line through traffic, and two for +local and suburban service, and is carried at a height of about +20 ft. above the streets. Its length is 12 m., the total cost +3¾ millions sterling. The chief stations are Zoologischer Garten, +Friedrich-strasse, Alexander-platz and Schlesischer Bahnhof. +Lying apart from the system are the Lehrter Bahnhof for +Hamburg and Bremen, the Stettiner for Baltic ports, and the +Görlitzer, Anhalter and Potsdamer termini for traffic to the +south, of which the last two are fine specimens of railway architecture. +Internal communication is also provided for by an +excellent system of electric tram-lines, by an overhead electric +railway running from the Zoologischer Garten to the Schlesische +Tor with a branch to the Potsdam railway station, and by an +underground railway laid at a shallow depth under the Leipziger-strasse. +Most of the cabs (victorias and broughams) have fare-indicators. +Steamboats ply above and below the city.</p> + +<p><i>Industry, Trade and Commerce.</i>—It is in respect of its manufacture +and trade that Berlin has attained its present high pitch +of economic prosperity. More than 50% of its working population +are engaged in industry, which embraces almost all +branches, of which new ones have lately sprung into existence, +whilst most of the older have taken a new lease of life. The old +wool industry, for example, has become much extended, and +now embraces products such as shawls, carpets, hosiery, &c. +Its silk manufactures, formerly so important, have, however, +gradually gone back. It is particularly in the working of iron, +steel and cloth, and in the by-products of these, that Berlin +excels. The manufacture of machinery and steam-engines +shows an enormous development. No fewer than 100 large +firms, many of them of world-wide reputation, are engaged in +this branch alone. Among the chief articles of manufacture +and production are railway plant, sewing machines, bicycles, +steel pens, chronometers, electric and electric-telegraph plant, +bronze, chemicals, soap, lamps, linoleum, china, pianofortes, +furniture, gloves, buttons, artificial flowers and ladies’ mantles, +the last of an annual value exceeding £5,000,000. It has extensive +breweries and vies in the amount of the output of this production +with Munich. Berlin is also the great centre and the +chief market for speculation in corn and other cereals which reach +it by water from Poland, Austria and South Russia, while in commerce +in spirits it rivals Hamburg. It is also a large publishing +centre, and has become a serious rival to Leipzig in this regard.</p> + +<p>The Börse, where 4000 persons daily do business, is the chief +market in Germany for stocks and shares, and its dealings are +of great influence upon the gold market of the world. Numerous +banks of world-wide reputation, doing an extensive international +business, have their seats in Berlin, chief among them, in addition +to the Reichs-bank, being the Berliner Kassen-Verein, the Diskonto-Gesellschaft, +the Deutsche Bank, and the Boden-Kredit Bank.</p> + +<p><i>Learning and Art.</i>—Berlin is becoming the centre of the intellectual +life of the nation. The Friedrich Wilhelm University, +although young in point of foundation, has long outstripped its +great rival Leipzig in numbers, and can point with pride to the +fact that its teaching staff has yielded to none in the number +of illustrious names. It was founded in 1810, when Prussia had +lost her celebrated university of Halle, which Napoleon had +included in his newly created kingdom of Westphalia. It was +as a weapon of war, as well as a nursery of learning, that +Frederick William III. and the great men who are associated +with its origin, called it into existence. Wilhelm von Humboldt +was at that time at the head of the educational department +of the kingdom, and men like Fichte and Schleiermacher worked +on the popular mind. Within the first ten years of its existence +it counted among its professors such names as Neander, Savigny, +Eichhorn, Böckh, Bekker, Hegel, Raumer, Niebuhr and Buttmann. +Later followed men like Hengstenberg, Homeyer, +Bethmann-Hollweg, Puchta, Stahl and Heffter; Schelling, +Trendelenburg, Bopp, the brothers Grimm, Zumpt, Carl Richter; +later still, Twesten and Dorner, Gneist and Hinschius; Langenbeck, +Bardeleben, Virchow, Du-Bois Reymond; von Ranke, +Curtius, Lipsius, Hofmann the chemist, Kiepert the geographer; +Helmholtz, van’t Hoff, Koch, E. Fischer, Waldeyer and von +Bergmann among scientists and surgeons; Mommsen, Treitschke +and Sybel among historians, Harnack among theologians, +Brunner among jurists. Taking ordinary, honorary, extraordinary +professors and licensed lecturers (<i>Privat-docenten</i>) +together, its professorial strength consisted, in 1904-1905, of +23 teachers in the faculty of theology, 32 in that of law, 175 in +that of medicine and 227 in that of philosophy—altogether 457. +The number of matriculated students during the same period +was 7154, as against 5488 in the preceding summer term. The +number of matriculated students is usually greater in winter +than in summer; the reason of the disproportion being that in +the summer university towns having pleasant surroundings, +such as Bonn, Heidelberg, Kiel and Jena, are more frequented. +Berlin is essentially a Prussian university—of students from +non-German states, Russia sends most, then the United States +of America, while Great Britain is credited with comparatively +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span> +few. It is, however, in the ugly palace of Prince Henry of +Prussia, which was given for the purpose in the days of Prussian +poverty and distress, that the university is still housed, and +although some internal rearrangement has been effected, no +substantial alterations have been made to meet the +ever-increasing demand for lecture-room accommodation. The garden +towards Unter den Linden is adorned by a bronze statue of +Helmholtz; the marble statues of Wilhelm and Alexander von +Humboldt, which were formerly placed on either side of the gate, +have been removed to the adjacent garden. Technical education +is provided in the magnificent buildings erected at a cost of +£100,000 in Charlottenburg, which are equipped with all the +apparatus for the teaching of science. Among other institutions +of university rank and affiliated to it are the school of mines, +the agricultural college, the veterinary college, the new seminary +for oriental languages, and the high school for music. The +geodetic institute has been removed to Potsdam. The university +is, moreover, rich in institutions for the promotion of +medical and chemical science, for the most part housed in +buildings belonging to the governing body. There should also be +mentioned the Royal Academy of Sciences, founded in 1700. +The name of Leibnitz is associated with its foundation, and it +was raised to the rank of a royal academy by Frederick the +Great in 1743. The Royal Academy of Arts is under the immediate +protection of the king, and is governed by a director and +senate. There is also an academy of vocal music.</p> + +<p><i>Schools.</i>—Berlin possesses fifteen <i>Gymnasia</i> (classical schools, +for the highest branches of the learned professions), of which +four are under the direct supervision of the provincial authorities +and have the prefix <i>königlich</i> (royal), while the remaining +eleven are municipal and under the control of the civic +authorities. They are attended by about 7000 scholars, of +whom a fourth are Jews. There are also eight <i>Real-gymnasia</i> +(or “modern” schools), numerous <i>Real-schulen</i> (commercial +schools), public high schools for girls, and commodious and +excellently organized elementary schools.</p> + +<p><i>Museums.</i>—The buildings of the royal museum are divided into +the old and new museums. The former is an imposing edifice +situated on the north-east side of the Lustgarten, facing the +royal palace. It was built in the reign of Frederick William III. +from designs by Schinkel. Its portico supported by eighteen +colossal Ionic columns is reached by a wide flight of steps. +The back and side walls of the portico are covered with frescoes, +from designs by Schinkel, representing the world’s progress from +chaos to organic and developed life. The sides of the flight of +steps support equestrian bronze groups of the Amazon by Kiss, +and the Lion-slayer by Albert Wolff. Under the portico are +monuments of the sculptors Rauch and Schadow, the architect +Schinkel, and the art critic Winckelmann. The interior consists +of a souterrain, and of a first floor, entered from the portico +through bronze doors, after designs by Stiller, weighing 7½ tons, +and executed at a cost of £3600. This floor consists of a rotunda, +and of halls and cabinets of sculpture. The second floor, which +formerly contained the national gallery of paintings, is occupied +by a collection of northern antiquities and by the Schliemann +treasures.</p> + +<p>The new museum, connected with the old museum by a +covered corridor, is, in its internal arrangements and decorations, +one of the finest structures in the capital. The lowest of its +three floors contains the Egyptian museum; on the first floor +plaster casts of ancient, medieval and modern sculpture are +found, while the second contains a cabinet of engravings. On +the walls of the grand marble staircase, which rises to the full +height of the building, Kaulbach’s cyclus of stereochromic +pictures is painted, representing the six great epochs of human +progress, from the confusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel +and the dispersion of the nations to the Reformation.</p> + +<p>The national gallery, a fine building surrounded by a +Corinthian colonnade and lying between the royal museums and +the Spree, contains a number of modern German paintings. +Behind these buildings, again, is the Pergamum museum, which +houses a unique collection, the result of the excavations at +Pergamum. Still farther away, on a triangular plot of land +enclosed by the two arms of the Spree and the metropolitan +railway, stands the Kaiser Friedrich museum (1904). This +edifice, in the Italian baroque style, surmounted by a dome, +possesses but little architectural merit, and its position is so +confined that great ingenuity had to be employed in its internal +arrangements to meet the demands of space, but its collection +of pictures is one of the finest in Europe. Hither were removed, +from the old and new museums, the national gallery of pictures, +the statuary of the Christian epoch and the numismatic collection. +The gallery of paintings, on the first floor, is distributed +into the separate schools of Germany, Italy, Flanders and +Holland, while another of the central rooms embraces those of +Spain, France and England. The collection, which in 1874 +contained 1300 paintings, was then enriched by the purchase +by the Prussian government for £51,000 of the Suermondt collection +which, rich in pictures of the Dutch and Flemish schools, +contained also a few by Spanish, Italian and French masters. +The gallery as a whole has been happily arranged, and there are +few great painters of whom it does not contain one or more +examples. The Kunst-gewerbe museum, at the corner of the +Königgrätzer-strasse and Albrecht-strasse, contains valuable +specimens of applied art.</p> + +<p><i>Theatres.</i>—In nothing has the importance of Berlin become +more conspicuous than in theatrical affairs. In addition to the +old-established Opernhaus and Schauspielhaus, which are +supported by the state, numerous private playhouses have been +erected, notably the Lessing and the Deutsches theatres, and it +is in these that the modern works by Wildenbruch, Sudermann, +and Hauptmann have been produced, and it may be said that +it is in Berlin that the modern school of German drama has its +home. In music Berlin is not able to vie with Leipzig, Dresden +or Munich, yet it is well represented by the Conservatorium, +with which the name of Joachim is connected, while the more +modern school is represented by Xaver Scharwenka.</p> + +<p><i>Government, Administration and Politics.</i>—On the 1st of April +1881 Berlin was divided off from the province of Brandenburg +and since forms a separate administrative district. But the chief +presidency (<i>Oberpräsidium</i>), the Consistory, the provincial +school-board, and the board of health of the province of Brandenburg +remain tribunals of last instance to which appeals lie from Berlin. +The government is partly semi-military (police) and partly +municipal. The ministry of police (a branch of the home office) +consists of six departments: (1) general; (2) trade; (3) building; +(4) criminal; (5) passports; (6) markets. It controls the fire +brigade, has the general inspection over all strangers, and is +responsible for public order. The civil authority (<i>Magistrat</i>) +consists of a chief mayor (<i>Oberbürgermeister</i>), a mayor (<i>Bürgermeister</i>), +and a city council (<i>Stadtrat</i>). The <i>Oberbürgermeister</i>, +who is <i>ex officio</i> a member of the Prussian Upper House, and +the <i>Bürgermeister</i> are elected by the common council +(<i>Stadtverordnetenversammlung</i>) of 144 members, <i>i.e.</i> three delegates +chosen by manhood suffrage for each ward of the city; but +the election is subject to the veto of the king without reason +given. The <i>Stadtrat</i> consists of 32 members, of whom 15 are +paid officials (including 2 syndics, 2 councillors for building, +and 2 for education), while 17 serve gratuitously. For general +work the <i>Magistrat</i> and the <i>Stadtverordnetenversammlung</i> +coalesce, and committees are appointed for various purposes +out of the whole body, these being usually presided over by +members of the <i>Magistrat</i>. Their jurisdiction extends to +water-supply, the drainage, lighting and cleaning of the streets, the +care of the poor, hospitals and schools. Politically the city is +divided into six Reichstag and four Landtag constituencies, +returning six and nine members respectively, and it must be +noted that in the case of the Landtag the allocation of seats +dated from 1860, so that the city, in proportion to its population, +was in 1908 much under-represented. It should have had +twenty-five members instead of nine.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:920px; height:668px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img788.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img788a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Population.</i>—The stupendous growth of the population of +Berlin during the last century is best illustrated by the following +figures. In 1816 it contained 197,717 inhabitants; in 1849, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span> +431,566; in 1871, 826,341; in 1880, 1,122,330; 1890, 1,578,794, +and in 1905, 2,033,900. The birth-rate is about 30, and the +death-rate 20 per 1000 inhabitants a year. Illegitimate births +amount to about 15% of the whole. According to religion, +about 84% are Protestants, 10% Roman Catholics and 5% +Jews, but owing to the great number of Jews who for social and +other reasons ostensibly embrace the Christian faith, these last +figures do not actually represent the number of Jews by descent +living in the city.</p> + +<p><i>Environs.</i>—Marvellous as has been the transformation in the +city itself, no less surprising results have been effected since +1875 in the surroundings of Berlin. On the east, north and west, +the city is surrounded at a distance of some 5 m. from its centre +by a thick belt of pine woods, the Jungfernheide, the Spandauer +Forst, and the Grunewald, the last named stretching away in +a south-westerly direction as far as Potsdam, and fringing the +beautiful chain of Havel lakes. These forests enjoyed until +quite recent times an unenviable notoriety as the camping-ground +and lurking-place of footpads and other disorderly +characters. After the opening of the circular railway in 1871, +private enterprise set to work to develop these districts, and a +“villa colony” was built at the edge of the Grunewald between +the station West-end and the Spandauer Bock. From these +beginnings, owing mainly to the expansion of the important +suburb of Charlottenburg, has resulted a complete transformation +of the eastern part of the Grunewald into a picturesque and +delightful villa suburb, which is connected by railway, steam-tramway +and a magnificent boulevard—the Kurfürstendamm—with +the city. Nowadays the little fishing villages on the shores +of the lakes, notably the Wannsee, cater for the recreation of the +Berliners, while palatial summer residences of wealthy merchants +occupy the most prominent sites. Suburban Berlin may be said +to extend practically to Potsdam.</p> + +<p><i>Traffic.</i>—The public streets have a total length of about 350 m., +and a large staff of workmen is regularly employed in maintaining +and cleaning the public roads and parks. The force is well +controlled, and the work of cleaning and removing snow after a +heavy fall is thoroughly and efficiently carried out. The less +important thoroughfares are mostly paved with the so-called +Vienna paving, granite bricks of medium size, while the principal +streets, and especially those upon which the traffic is heavy, +have either asphalt or wood paving.</p> + +<p><i>Water-Supply and Drainage.</i>—The water-supply is mainly +derived from works on the Müggel and Tegeler lakes, the river +water being carefully filtered through sand. The drainage +system is elaborate, and has stood the test of time. The city is +divided into twelve radial systems, each with a pumping station, +and the drainage is forced through five mains to eighteen sewage +farms, each of which is under careful sanitary supervision, in +respect both of the persons employed thereon, and the products, +mainly milk, passing thence to the city for human consumption. +Only in a few isolated cases has any contamination been traced +to fever or other zymotic germs. In this connexion it is worth +noting that the infectious diseases hospital has a separate system +of drainage which is carefully disinfected, and not allowed to be +employed for the purposes of manure.</p> + +<p><i>Hospitals.</i>—In no other city of the world is the hospital +organization so well appointed as in Berlin, or are the sick poor +tended with greater solicitude. State, municipal and private +charity here again join hands in the prompt relief of sickness +and cases of urgency. The municipal hospitals are six in number, +the largest of which is the Virchow hospital, situate in Moabit +and opened in 1906. It is arranged on the pavilion system, +contains 2000 beds, and is one of the most splendidly equipped +hospitals in the world. The cost amounted to £900,000. Next +comes that of Friedrichshain, also built on the pavilion system, +while the state controls six (not including the prison infirmaries) +of which the world-renowned Charité in the Luisen-strasse is +the principal. The hospitals of the nursing sisters (Diakonissen +Anstalten) number 8, while there are 60 registered private +hospitals under the superintendence of responsible doctors and +under the inspection of government.</p> + +<p><i>Charities.</i>—Berlin is also very richly endowed with charitable +institutions for the relief of pauperism and distress. In addition +to the municipal support of the poor-houses there are large funds +derived from bequests for the relief of the necessitous and deserving +poor; while night shelters and people’s kitchens have been +organized on an extensive scale for the temporary relief of the +indigent unemployed. For the former several of the arches of +the city railway have been utilized, and correspond in internal +arrangement to like shelters instituted by the Salvation Army +in London and various other cities.</p> + +<p><i>Markets.</i>—Open market-places in Berlin are things of the past, +and their place has been taken by airy and commodious market +halls. Of these, 14 in number, the central market, close to +the Alexander-platz station of the city railway with which it is +connected by an admirable service of lifts for the rapid unloading +of goods, is the finest. It has a ground area of about 17,000 +sq. yds., and is fitted with more than 2000 stalls. The other +markets are conveniently situated at various accessible places +within the city, and the careful police supervision to which they +are subjected, both in the matter of general cleanliness, and in +the careful examination of all articles of food exposed for sale, +has tended to the general health and comfort of the population.</p> + +<p>The central cattle market and slaughter-houses for the inspection +and supply of the fresh meat consumed in the metropolis +occupy an extensive area in the north-east of the city on the +Ringbahn, upon which a station has been erected for the accommodation +of meat trains and passengers attending the market. +The inspection is rigorously carried out, and only carcases which +have been stamped as having been certified good are permitted +to be taken away for human consumption.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The etymology of the word “Berlin” is doubtful. +Some derive it from Celtic roots—<i>ber</i>, small, short, and <i>lyn</i>, a +lake; others regard it as a Wend word, meaning a free, open +place; others, again, refer it to the word <i>werl</i>, a river island. +Another authority derives it from the German word <i>Brühl</i>, a +marshy district, and the Slavonic termination <i>in</i>; thus Brühl, +by the regular transmutation Bührl (compare Ger. <i>bren</i>-nen +and Eng. burn), Bürhlin. More recent research, however, seems +to have established the derivation from <i>Wehr</i>, dam.</p> + +<p>Similar obscurity rests on the origin of the city. The hypotheses +which carried it back to the early years of the Christian +era have been wholly abandoned. Even the margrave Albert +the Bear (d. 1170) is no longer unquestionably regarded as its +founder, and the tendency of opinion now is to date its origin +from the time of his great-grandsons, Otto III. and John I. +When first alluded to, what is now Berlin was spoken of as two +towns, Kölln and Berlin. The first authentic document concerning +the former is from the year 1237, concerning the latter +from the year 1244, and it is with these dates that the trustworthy +history of the city begins. In 1307 the first attempt was made +to combine the councils of Kölln and Berlin, but the experiment +was abandoned four years later, and the two towns continued +their separate existence till 1432, when the establishment of a +common council for both led to disturbances of which the outcome +was that Frederick II. the Iron in 1442 abolished this +arrangement, seriously curtailed the privileges of both towns, +and began the building of a castle at Kölln. A feud between the +elector and the Berliners ended in the defeat of the latter, who +in 1448 were forced to accept the constitution of 1442. From +this time Berlin became and continued to be the residence of the +Hohenzollerns, the elector John Cicero (1486-1499) being the +first to establish a permanent court inside the walls. It was not, +however, until the time of King Frederick William I. that the +sovereigns ceased to date their official acts from Kölln. In 1539, +under the elector Joachim II., Berlin embraced the Lutheran +religion. Henceforth the history of Berlin was intimately bound +up with the house of Hohenzollern. The conversion of the +elector John Sigismund in 1613 to the Reformed (Calvinist) faith +was hotly resented by the Berliners and led to bloody riots in +the city. The Thirty Years’ War all but ruined the city, the +population of which sank from some 14,000 in 1600 to less than +8000 in 1650. It was restored and the foundations of its modern +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span> +splendour were laid by the Great Elector, by the time of whose +death (1688) the population had risen to some 20,000. During +this period several suburbs had begun to grow up, Friedrichswerder +in 1667 and the Dorotheenstadt, so named in 1676 after +the electress Dorothea its founder. In 1688 Frederick III. +(afterwards King Frederick I.) began the Friedrichstadt, completed +by Frederick William I. Under Frederick I., who did +much to embellish the city as the royal <i>Residenzsiadt</i>, the +separate administrations of the quarters of Berlin, Kölln, +Friedrichstadt, Friedrichswerder and Dorotheenstadt were combined, +and the separate names were absorbed in that of Berlin. +The fortifications begun in 1658 were finally demolished under +Frederick the Great in 1745, and the Neue Friedrich-strasse, the +Alexander-strasse and the Wall-strasse were laid out on their +site.</p> + +<p>Twice during the Seven Years’ War Berlin was attacked by +the enemy: in 1757 by the Austrians, who penetrated into the +suburbs and levied a heavy contribution, and in 1760 by the +Russians, who bombarded the city, penetrated into it, and only +retired on payment of a ransom of 1,500,000 thalers (£225,000). +After the disastrous campaign of Jena, Berlin suffered much +during the French occupation (24th October 1806 to 1st December +1808). In spite of these misfortunes, however, the progress of +the city was steady. In 1809 the present municipal government +was instituted. In 1810 the university was founded. After +the alliance of Prussia and Russia in 1812 Berlin was again +occupied by the French, but in March 1813 they were finally +driven out. The period following the close of the war saw great +activity in building, especially in the erection of many noble +monuments and public buildings, <i>e.g.</i> those by the architect +Karl Friedrich Schinkel. The most notable event in the history +of Berlin during the 19th century, prior to the Franco-German +War, was the March revolution of 1848 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>: <i>History</i>, +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Frederick William IV.</a></span>, king of Prussia). The effect of +the war of 1870-71 on the growth of Berlin has been sufficiently +indicated already.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—For the history of Berlin see the publications of +the “Verein für die Geschichte Berlins”; the <i>Berlinische Chronik nebst +Urkundenbuch</i>, and the periodicals <i>Der Bar</i> (1875, &c.) and <i>Mitteilungen</i> +(1884, &c.). Of histories may be mentioned A. Streckfuss, +<i>500 Jahre Berliner Geschichte</i> (new ed. by Fernbach, 1900); +<i>Berlin im 19ten Jahrhundert</i> (4 vols., 1867-1869), and <i>Statistisches +Jahrbuch der Stadt Berlin</i> (1904-1905); Fidiein, <i>Historisch-diplomatische +Beiträge zur Geschichte der Stadt Berlin</i> (5 vols., 1837-1842); +Brockhaus, <i>Konversations-Lexikon</i> (1904); Meyer, <i>Konversations-Lexikon</i> +(1904); Baedeker, <i>Fuhrer durch Berlin</i>; Woeri, <i>Fuhrer +durch Berlin</i>; J. Pollard, <i>The Corporation of Berlin</i> (Edinburgh, +1893); A. Shaclwell, <i>Industrial Efficiency</i> (London, 1906); <i>Berliner +Jahrbuch für Handel und Industrie</i> (1905); and O. Schwebel, <i>Geschichte +der Stadt Berlin</i> (Berlin, 1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A. A.)</div> + +<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Berlin, Congress and Treaty of</span>. The events that led +up to the assembling of the congress of Berlin, the outcome of +which was the treaty of the 13th of July 1878, are described elsewhere +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turkey</a></span>: <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Russo-Turkish +War</a></span>). Here it must suffice to say that the terms of the treaty +of San Stefano (3rd March 1878), by which the Russo-Turkish War +had been brought to a conclusion, seemed to those of the other +powers who were most interested scarcely less fatal to the Ottoman +dominion than that Russian occupation of Constantinople which +Great Britain had risked a war to prevent. By this instrument +Bulgaria was to become a practically independent state, under +the nominal suzerainty of the sultan, bounded by the Danube, +the Black Sea, the Aegean and Albania, and cutting off the latter +from the remnant of Rumelia which, with Constantinople, was +to be left to the Turks. At the same time the other Christian +principalities, Servia and Montenegro, were largely increased +in size and their independence definitively recognized; and the +proposals of the powers with regard to Bosnia and Herzegovina, +communicated to the Ottoman plenipotentiaries at the first +sitting of the conference of Constantinople (23rd December 1876), +were to be immediately executed. These provisions seemed to +make Russia permanently arbiter of the fate of the Balkan +peninsula, the more so since the vast war indemnity of +1,400,000,000 roubles exacted in the treaty promised to cripple +the resources of the Ottoman government for years to +come.</p> + +<p>The two powers whose interests were most immediately +threatened by the terms of the peace were Austria and Great +Britain. The former especially, refusing to be bribed by the +Russian offer of Bosnia and Herzegovina, saw herself cut off +from all chance of expansion in the Balkan peninsula and +threatened with the establishment there of the paramount power +of Russia, a peril it had been her traditional policy to avert. +On the 5th of February, accordingly, Count Andrássy issued a +circular note, addressed to the signatory powers of the treaty of +Paris of 1856 and the London protocol of 1871, suggesting a +congress for the purpose of establishing “the agreement of +Europe on the modifications which it may become necessary to +introduce into the above-mentioned treaties” in view of the +preliminaries of peace signed by Russia and Turkey. This +appeal to the sanctity of international engagements, traditional +in the diplomatic armoury of Austria, and strengthened by so +recent a precedent as that of 1871, met with an immediate +response. On the 1st of April Lord Salisbury had already +addressed a circular note to the British embassies refusing on +behalf of the British government to recognize any arrangements +made in the peace preliminaries, calculated to modify European +treaties, “unless they were made the subject of a formal agreement +among the parties to the treaty of Paris,” and quoting the +“essential principle of the law of nations” promulgated in the +London protocol. By Great Britain therefore the Austrian +proposal was at once accepted. Germany was very willing to +fall in with the views of her Austrian ally and share in a council +in which, having no immediate interests of her own, Bismarck +could win new laurels in his rôle of “honest broker.” In these +circumstances Russia could not but accept the principle of a +congress. She tried, however, to limit the scope of its powers +by suggesting the exclusion of certain clauses of the treaty from +its reference, and pointed out (circular of Prince Gorchakov, +April 9th) that Russia had not been the first nor the only Power +to violate the treaties in question. The answer of Lord Beaconsfield +was to mobilize the militia and bring Indian troops to the +Mediterranean; and finally Russia, finding that the diplomatic +support which she had expected from Bismarck failed her, +consented to submit the whole treaty without reserve to the +congress.</p> + +<p>On the 3rd of June Count Münster, in the name of the German +government, issued the formal invitation to the congress. +The congress met, under the presidency of Prince Bismarck, at +Berlin on the 13th of June. Great Britain was represented by +Lord Beaconsfield, Lord Salisbury and Lord Odo Russell, ambassador +at Berlin; Germany by Prince Bismarck, Baron Ernst +von Bülow and Prince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, +ambassador at Paris; Austria by Count Andrássy, Count Louis +Károlyi and Baron Heinrich Karl von Haymerle, ambassador +at Rome; France by William H. Waddington, the Comte de +Saint-Vallier, ambassador at Berlin, and Félix Hippolyte +Desprez, director of political affairs in the department for foreign +affairs; Russia by the chancellor, Prince Gorchakov, Count +Peter Shuvalov, ambassador to the court of St James’s, and +Paul d’Oubril, ambassador at Berlin; Turkey by Alexander +Catheodory Pasha, minister of public works, All Pasha, <i>mushir</i> +of the Ottoman armies, and Sadullah Bey, ambassador at Berlin. +The bases of the conferences had, of course, been settled beforehand, +and the final act of the congress was signed by the plenipotentiaries +mentioned above exactly a month after the opening +of the congress, on the 13th of July.</p> + +<p>The treaty of Berlin consists in all of sixty-four articles, of +which it will be sufficient to note those which have had a special +bearing on subsequent international developments. So far as +they affect the territorial boundaries fixed by the treaties of +Paris and San Stefano it will be sufficient to refer to the sketch +map in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>. By Art. I. Bulgaria was +“constituted an autonomous and tributary principality under +the suzerainty of H.I.M. the Sultan”; it was to have “a +Christian government and a national militia,” Art. II. fixed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span> +the boundaries of the new state and provided for their delimitation +by a European commission, which was “to take into consideration +the necessity for H.I.M. the Sultan to be able to defend +the Balkan frontiers of Eastern Rumelia.” Arts. III. to XII. +provide for the election of a prince for Bulgaria, the machinery +for settling the new constitution, the adjustment of the relations +of the new Bulgarian government to the Ottoman empire and +its subjects (including the question of tribute, the amount of +which was, according to Art. XII., to be settled by agreement +of the signatory powers “at the close of the first year of the +working of the new organization”). By Art. X. Bulgaria, so +far as it was concerned, was to take the place of the Sublime +Porte in the engagements which the latter had contracted, as +well towards Austria-Hungary as towards the Rustchuck-Varna +Railway Company, for working the railway of European +Turkey in respect to the completion and connexion, as well as +the working of the railways situated in its territory.</p> + +<p>By Art. XIII. a province was formed south of the Balkans +which was to take the name of “Eastern Rumelia,” and was +to remain “under the direct military and political control of +H.I.M. the Sultan, under conditions of administrative autonomy.” +It was to have a Christian governor-general. Arts. XIV. to +XXIII. define the frontiers and organization of the new province, +questions arising out of the Russian occupation, and the +rights of the sultan. Of the latter it is to be noted that the sultan +retained the right of fortifying and occupying the Balkan passes +(Art. XV.) and all his rights and obligations over the railways +(Art. XXI.).</p> + +<p>Art. XXV., which the events of 1908 afterwards brought into +special prominence, runs as follows: “The provinces of Bosnia +and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. +The government of Austria-Hungary, not desiring +to undertake the administration of the sanjak of Novi-Bazar, +... the Ottoman administration will continue to exercise its +functions there. Nevertheless, in order to assure the maintenance +of the new political state of affairs, as well as freedom and +security of communications, Austria-Hungary reserves the +right of keeping garrisons and having military and commercial +roads in the whole of this part of the ancient vilayet of Bosnia.”</p> + +<p>By Art. XXVI. the independence of Montenegro was definitively +recognized, and by Art. XVIII. she received certain +accessions of territory, including a strip of coast on the Adriatic, +but under conditions which tended to place her under the tutelage +of Austria-Hungary. Thus, by Art. XXIX. she was to have +neither ships of war nor a war flag, the port of Antivari and all +Montenegrin waters were to be closed to the war-ships of all +nations; the fortifications between the lake and the coast were +to be razed; the administration of the maritime and sanitary +police at Antivari and along the Montenegrin littoral was to be +carried on by Austria-Hungary “by means of light coast-guard +boats”; Montenegro was to adopt the maritime code in force +in Dalmatia, while the Montenegrin merchant flag was to be under +Austro-Hungarian consular protection. Finally, Montenegro +was to “come to an understanding with Austria-Hungary on +the right to construct and keep up across the new Montenegrin +territory a road and a railway.”</p> + +<p>By Art. XXXIV. the independence of Servia was recognized, +subject to conditions (as to religious liberty, &c.) set forth in +Art. XXXV. Art. XXXVI. defined the new boundaries.</p> + +<p>By Art. XLIII. the independence of Rumania, already proclaimed +by the prince (May 22/June 3 1877), was recognized. Subsequent +articles define the conditions and the boundaries.</p> + +<p>Arts. LII. to LVII. deal with the question of the free navigation +of the Danube. All fortifications between the mouths +and the Iron Gates were to be razed, and no vessels of war, save +those of light tonnage in the service of the river police and the +customs, were to navigate the river below the Iron Gates (Art. +LII.). The Danube commission, on which Rumania was to be +represented, was maintained in its functions (Art. LIII.) and +provision made for the further prolongation of its powers +(Art. LIV.).</p> + +<p>Art. LVIII. cedes to Russia the territories of Ardahan, Kars +and Batoum, in Asiatic Turkey. By Art. LIX. “H.M. the +emperor of Russia declares that it is his intention to constitute +Batoum a free port, essentially commercial.”</p> + +<p>By Art. LXI. “the Sublime Porte undertakes to carry out, +without further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded +by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by the +Armenians, and to guarantee their security against the Circassians +and Kurds.” It was to keep the powers informed +periodically of “the steps taken to this effect.”</p> + +<p>Art. LXII. made provision for the securing religious liberty +in the Ottoman dominions.</p> + +<p>Finally, Art. LXIII. declares that “the treaty of Paris of +30th March 1856, as well as the treaty of London of 13th March +1871, are maintained in all such of their provisions as are not +abrogated or modified by the preceding stipulations.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the full text of the treaty in the English translation see +E. Hertslet, <i>Map of Europe by Treaty</i>, vol. iv. p. 2759 (No. 530); for +the French original see <i>State Papers</i>, vol. lxix. p. 749.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERLIN,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a city of Coos county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., +on the Androscoggin river, in the N. part of the state, about +98 m. N.W. of Portland, Maine. Pop. (1890) 3729; (1900) +8886, of whom 4643 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,780. +The area of the city in 1906 was 57.81 sq. m. Berlin is served +by the Grand Trunk and Boston & Maine railways. It is situated +in the heart of the White Mountains and 16 m. from the base of +Mt. Washington. Berlin Falls, on the picturesque Androscoggin +river, furnishes an immense water-power, the development of +which for manufacturing purposes accounts for the rapid growth +of the city. The forests of northern New England and of the +province of Quebec supply the raw material for the extensive +saw-mills and planing-mills, the pulp- and paper-mills, and the +sulphite fibre mills, said to be the largest in existence. In 1905 +the city’s factory products were valued at $5,989,119, of which +78.5% was the value of the paper and wood pulp manufactured. +Berlin was first settled in 1821, was incorporated as a township +in 1829, and was chartered as a city in 1897.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERLIN,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a city and port of entry, Ontario, Canada, and capital +of Waterloo county, 58 m. W. of Toronto, on the Grand Trunk +railway. It is the centre of a prosperous farming and manufacturing +district, inhabited chiefly by German immigrants and +their descendants. An electric railway connects it with the +town of Waterloo (pop. 4100) 2 m. to the north, which has +important flour and woollen mills and distilleries. Berlin is +a flourishing manufacturing town, and contains a beet sugar +refinery, automobile, leather, furniture, shirt and collar, felt, +glove, button and rubber factories. Pop. (1881) 4054; (1901) +9747.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERLIN,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a four-wheeled carriage with a separate hooded seat +behind, detached from the body of the vehicle; so called from +having been first used in Berlin. It was designed about 1670, +by a Piedmontese architect in the service of the elector of +Brandenburg. It was used as a travelling carriage, and Swift +refers to it in his advice to authors “who scribble in a berlin.” +As an adjective, the word is used to indicate a special kind of +goods, originally made in Berlin, of which the best known is +Berlin wool. A Berlin warehouse is a shop for the sale of wools +and fancy goods (cf. Italian warehouse). The spelling “berlin” +is also used by Sir Walter Scott for the “birlinn,” a large Gaelic +rowing-boat.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERLIOZ, HECTOR<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1803-1869), French musical composer, +was born on the 11th of December 1803 at Côte-Saint-André, +a small town near Grenoble, in the department of Isère. His +father, Louis Berlioz, was a physician of repute, and by his desire +Hector for some time devoted himself to the study of medicine. +At the same time he had music lessons, and, in secret, perused +numerous theoretical works on counterpoint and harmony, with +little profit it seems, till the hearing and subsequent careful +analysis of one of Haydn’s quartets opened a new vista to his +unguided aspirations. A similar work written by Berlioz in +imitation of Haydn’s masterpiece was favorably received by his +friends. From Paris, where he had been sent to complete his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span> +medical studies, he at last made known to his father the unalterable +decision of devoting himself entirely to art, the answer to +which confession was the withdrawal of all further pecuniary +assistance. In order to support life Berlioz had to accept the +humble engagement of a singer in the chorus of the Gymnase +theatre. Soon, however, he became reconciled to his father and +entered the Conservatoire, where he studied composition under +Reicha and Lesueur. His first important composition was an +opera called <i>Les Francs-Juges</i>, of which, however, only the +overture remains extant. In 1825 he left the Conservatoire, +and began a course of self-education, founded chiefly on the +works of Beethoven, Gluck, Weber and other German masters. +About this period Berlioz saw for the first time the talented Irish +actress Henrietta Smithson, who was then charming Paris by +her impersonations of Ophelia, Juliet and other Shakespearean +characters. The enthusiastic young composer became deeply +enamoured of her at first sight, and tried, for a long time in vain, +to gain the love or even the attention of his idol. To an incident +of this wild and persevering courtship Berlioz’s first symphonic +work, <i>Épisode de la vie d’un artiste</i>, owes its origin. By the +advice of his friends Berlioz once more entered the Conservatoire, +where, after several unsuccessful attempts, his cantata <i>Sardanapalus</i> +gained him the first prize for foreign travel (1830), in spite +of the strong personal antagonism of one of the umpires. During +a stay in Italy Berlioz composed an overture to <i>King Lear</i>, and +<i>Le Retour à la vie</i>—a sort of symphony, with intervening +poetical declamation between the single movements, called by +the composer a melologue, and written in continuation of the +<i>Épisode de la vie d’un artiste</i>, along with which work it was +performed at the Paris Conservatoire in 1832. Paganini on that +occasion spoke to Berlioz the memorable words: “Vous commencez +par où les autres ont fini.” Miss Smithson, who also was +present on the occasion, consented to become the wife of her +ardent lover in 1833. The marriage was a tempestuous mistake. +In 1840 he separated from his wife, who died in 1854. Six +months later Berlioz married Mademoiselle Récio. His second +wife did not live very long, nor was there much that was edifying +in this marriage. Between the date of his first marriage and +1840 came out his dramatic symphonies <i>Harold en Italie</i>, <i>Funèbre +et triomphale</i>, and <i>Roméo et Juliette</i>; his opera <i>Benvenuto Cellini</i> +(1837); his <i>Requiem</i>, and other works. In the course of time +Berlioz won his due share of the distinctions generally awarded +to artistic merit, such as the ribbon of the Legion of Honour +and the membership of the Institute. But these distinctions +he owed, perhaps, less to a genuine admiration of his compositions +than to his successes abroad and his influential position as the +musical critic of the <i>Journal des Débats</i> (a position which he held +from 1838 to 1864, and which he never used or abused to push his +own works). In 1842 Berlioz went for the first time to Germany, +where he was hailed with welcome by the leading musicians of +the younger generation, Robert Schumann foremost amongst +them. The latter paved the way for the French composer’s +success by a comprehensive analysis of the <i>Épisode</i> in his +musical journal, the <i>Neue Zeitschrift für Musik</i>. In 1846 he +produced his magnificent cantata <i>La Damnation de Faust</i>. +Berlioz gave successful concerts at Leipzig and other German +cities, and repeated his visit on various later occasions—in 1852 +by invitation of Liszt, to conduct his opera, <i>Benvenuto Cellini</i> +(hissed off the stage in Paris), at Weimar; and in 1855 to +produce his oratorio-trilogy, <i>L’Enfance du Christ</i>, in the same +city. This latter work had been previously performed at Paris, +where Berlioz mystified the critics by pretending to have found +the last chorus amongst the manuscript scores of a composer of +the 17th century, Pierre Ducré by name. In 1855 his <i>Te Deum</i> +was written for the opening of the Paris exhibition. Berlioz also +made journeys to Vienna (1866) and St Petersburg (1867), +where his works were received with great enthusiasm. In 1861 +he produced his work <i>Béatrice et Bénédict</i>, and in 1863 <i>Les +Troyens</i>. He died in Paris on the 8th of March 1869.</p> + +<p>It is not only as a composer that the life of Berlioz is full of +interest, although in this respect his achievement is singularly +significant for the comprehension of the modern spirit in music. +But it is as the symbol of French romanticism in the whole +domain of aesthetic perception that his pre-eminence has come +to be recognized. His <i>Mémoires</i> (begun in London in 1848 and +finished in 1865) illustrate this romantic spirit at its highest +elevation as well as at its lowest depths. Victor Hugo was a +romantic, Musset was a romantic, but Berlioz was romanticism +itself. As a boy he is in despair over the despair of Dido, and +his breath is taken away at Virgil’s “Quaesivit coelo lucem +ingemuitque reperta.” At the age of twelve he is in love with +“Estelle,” whom he meets fifty years afterwards. The scene +is described by himself (1865) with minute fidelity—a scene +which Flaubert must have known by heart when he wrote its +parallel in the novel <i>L’Éducation sentimentale</i>. The romance of +this meeting between the man—old, isolated, unspeakably sad, +with the halo of public fame burning round him—and the +woman—old also, a mother, a widow, whose beauty he had +worshipped when she was eighteen—is striking. In a frame of +chastened melancholy and joy at the sight of Estelle, Berlioz +goes to dine with Patti and her family. Patti, on the threshold +of her career, pets Berlioz with such uncontrollable affection, +that as the composer wrote a description of his feelings he was +overwhelmed at the bitterness of fate. What would he not +have given for Estelle to show him such affection! Patti seemed +to him like a marvellous bird with diamond wings flitting round +his head, resting on his shoulder, plucking his hair and singing +her most joyous songs to the accompaniment of beating wings. +“I was enchanted but not moved. The fact is that the young, +beautiful, dazzling, famous virtuoso who at the age of twenty-two +has already seen musical Europe and America at her feet, does +not win the power of love in me; and the aged woman, sad, +obscure, ignorant of art, possesses my soul as she did in the days +gone by, as she will do until my last day.” If this episode +touches the sublime, it may be urged with almost equal truth +that his description of the exhumation of his two wives and their +reburial in a single tomb touches the ridiculous. And yet the +scene is described with a perception of all the detail which would +call for the highest praise in a novelist. Perhaps some parallel +between the splendid and the ridiculous in this singular figure +may be seen in the comparison of Nadar’s caricature with +Charpentier’s portrait of the composer.</p> + +<p>The profound admiration of Berlioz for Shakespeare, which rose +at moments to such a pitch of folly that he set Shakespeare in the +place of God and worshipped him, cannot be explained simply +on the ground that Henrietta Smithson was a great Shakespearean +actress. Unquestionably the great figures in English literature +had a profound attraction for him, and while the romantic spirit +is obvious in his selections from Byron and Scott, it can also be +traced in the quality of his enthusiasm for Shakespeare. It is in +his music more than in his literary attitude, however, that is +disclosed something in addition to the pure romance of +Schumann—something that places him nearer in kind to Wagner, who +recognized in him a composer from whose works he might learn +something useful for the cultivation of his own ideals. As a +youth the power of Beethoven’s symphonies made a deep +impression on Berlioz, and what has been described as the +“poetical idea” in Beethoven’s creations ran riot in the young +medical student’s mind. He thus became one of the most +ardent and enlightened originators of what is now known as +“programme music.” Technically he was a brilliant musical +colourist, often extravagant, but with the extravagant emotionalism +of genius. He was a master of the orchestra; indeed, his +treatment of the orchestra and his invention of unprecedented +effects of <i>timbre</i> give him a solitary position in musical history; +he had an extraordinary gift for the use of the various instruments, +and himself propounded a new ideal for the force to be +employed, on an enormous scale.</p> + +<p>His literary works include the <i>Traité d’instrumentation</i> +(1844); <i>Voyage musical en Allemagne et en Italie</i> (1845); <i>Les +Soirées d’orchestre</i> (1853); <i>Les Grotesques de la musique</i> (1859); +<i>À travers chant</i> (1862); <i>Mémoires</i> (1870); <i>Lettres intimes</i> (1882). +For a full list of his musical works, Grove’s <i>Dictionary</i> should be +consulted.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The new critical edition of the complete musical works (published +by Breitkopf and Hartel) is in ten series. I. Symphonies: <i>Fantastique</i>, +Op. 14; <i>Funébre et triomphale</i>, Op. 15, for military band and +chorus; <i>Harold en Italie</i>, Op. 16, with viola solo; <i>Roméo et Juliette</i>, +with chorus and soli. II. Overtures (ten, including the five belonging +to larger works). III. Smaller instrumental works, of which +only the Funeral March for <i>Hamlet</i> is important. IV. Sacred +music: the <i>Grande Messe des morts</i>, Op. 5; the <i>Te Deum</i>, Op. 22; +<i>L’Enfance du Christ</i>, Op. 25, and four smaller pieces, V. Secular +cantatas, including <i>Hunt scênes de Faust</i>, Op. I; <i>Lélio, ou le retour +à la vie</i>, Op. 146 (sequel to <i>Symphonie fantastique</i>), and <i>La Damnation +de Faust</i>, Op. 24. VI. Songs and lyric choruses with orchestra, two +vols. VII. Songs and lyric choruses with pianoforte, 2 vols. including +arrangements of the orchestral songs. VIII. Operas: +<i>Benvenuto Cellini</i>; <i>Les Troyens</i> (five acts in two parts, <i>La Prise de +Troie</i> and <i>Les Troyens à Carthage</i>); Recitatives for the dialogue in +Weber’s <i>Freischutz</i>. IX. Arrangements, including the well-known +orchestral version of Weber’s <i>Invitation à la danse</i>. X. Fragments +and new discoveries.</p> + +<p>Adolphe Julien’s biography of Berlioz (1888) first gave a careful +account of the details of his life. See also the books by R. Pohl +(1884), P. Galibert (1890), E. Hippeau (1890), G. Noufflard (1885), +L. Mesnard (1888), Louise Pohl (1900), and D. Bernard (trans. by +H.M. Dunstan, 1882). An illuminating essay on Berlioz is in +Filson Young’s <i>Mastersingers</i> (1902). See also the essay in W.H. +Hadow’s <i>Studies in Modern Music</i> (1st series, 1908). Berlioz’s +<i>Traité d’instrumentation</i> has been translated into German and brought +up to date by Richard Strauss (Peters’ edition [1906]).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERM<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (probably a variant of “brim”), a narrow ledge of +ground, generally the level banks of a river. In parts of Egypt +the whole area reached by the Nile is included in the berm. +Thus of the lands near Berber, Mr C. Dupuis writes (in Sir +William Garstin’s <i>Report on the Upper Nile</i>, 1904), “In most +places there is a well-defined alluvial berm of recent formation +and varying width, up to perhaps a couple of kilometres.” In +military phraseology the berm is the space of ground between +the base of a rampart and the ditch.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERMONDSEY,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a south-eastern metropolitan borough of +London, England, bounded N. and E. by the Thames, S.E. by +Deptford, S.W. by Camberwell, and W. by Southwark. Pop. +(1901) 130,760. It is a district of poor streets, inhabited by a +labouring population employed in leather and other factories, +and in the Surrey Commercial Docks and the wharves bordering +the river. The parish of Rotherhithe or Redriff has long been +associated with a seafaring population. A tunnel connecting +it with the opposite shore of the river was opened in June 1908. +The neighbouring Thames Tunnel was opened in 1843, but, as +the tolls were insufficient to maintain it, was sold to the East +London Railway Company in 1865. The Herold Institute, a +branch of the Borough Polytechnic, Southwark, is devoted to +instruction in connexion with the leather trade. Southwark +Park in the centre of the borough is 63 acres in extent. +Bermondsey is in the parliamentary borough of Southwark, including +the whole of Rotherhithe and part of the Bermondsey division. +The borough council consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 54 +councillors. Area 1499.6 acres.</p> + +<p>The name appears in Domesday, the suffix designating the +former insular, marshy character of the district; while the +prefix is generally taken to indicate the name of a Saxon overlord, +Beormund. Bermondsey was in favour with the Norman +kings as a place of residence, and there was a palace here, perhaps +from pre-Norman times. A Cluniac monastery was founded in +1082, and Bermondsey Cross became a favoured place of pilgrimage. +The foundation was erected into an abbey in 1399, and +Abbey Road recalls its site. Similarly, Spa Road points to the +existence of a popular spring and pleasure grounds, maintained +for some years at the close of the 18th century. Jacob Street +marks Jacob’s Island, the scene of the death of Bill Sikes in +Dickens’s <i>Oliver Twist</i>. Tooley Street, leading east from Southwark +by London Bridge railway station, is well known in connexion +with the story of three tailors of Tooley Street, who +addressed a petition to parliament opening with the comprehensive +expression “We, the people of England.” The name +is a corruption of St Olave, or Olaf, the Christian king of Norway, +who in 994 attacked London by way of the river, and broke down +London Bridge.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E.T. Clarke, <i>Bermondsey, its Historic Memories</i> (1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERMUDAS,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, forming +a British colony, in 32° 15′ N. and 64° 50′ W., about 580 m. +E. by S. from Cape Hatteras on the American coast. The group, +consisting of small islands and reefs (which mark the extreme +northern range of the coral-building polyps), is of oval form, +measuring 22 m. from N.E. to S.W., the area being 20 sq. m. +The largest of the islands is Great Bermuda, or the Main Island, +14 m. long and about a mile in average width, enclosing on the +east Harrington or Little Sound, and on the west the Great +Sound, which is thickly studded with islets, and protected on +the north by the islands of Watford, Boaz, Ireland and Somerset. +The remaining members of the group, St George, Paget, Smith, +St David, Cooper, Nonsuch, &c., lie N.E. of the Main Island, and +form a semicircle round Castle Harbour. The fringing islands +which encircle the islands, especially on the north and west, leave +a few deep passages wide enough to admit the largest vessels.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The Bermudas consist of aeolian limestones (cf. +<span class="sc">Bahamas</span>) which in some of the larger islands form irregular +hills attaining a height of some 200-250 ft. These limestones +are composed chiefly of comminuted shells drifted and deposited +by the wind, and they are very irregularly stratified, as is usually +the case with wind-blown deposits. Where fresh the rock is +soft, but where it has been exposed to the action of the sea it is +covered by a hard crust and often loses all trace of stratification. +The surface is frequently irregularly honeycombed. Even the reefs +are not wholly formed of coral. They are ridges of aeolian limestone +plastered over by a thin layer of corals and other calcareous +organisms. The very remarkable “serpuline atolls” are covered +by a solid crust made of the convoluted tubes of serpulae and +<i>Vermetus</i>, together with barnacles, mussels, nullipores, corallines +and some true incrusting corals. They probably rest upon a +foundation of aeolian rock. The Bermudas were formerly much +more extensive than at present, and they may possibly stand +upon the summit of a hidden volcano. There are evidences of +small oscillations of levels, but no proofs of great elevation or +depression.</p> + +<p><i>Soil, Climate, &c.</i>—The surface soil is a curious kind of red +earth, which is also found in ochre-like strata throughout the +limestone. It is generally mixed with vegetable matter and +coral sand. There is a total want of streams and wells of fresh +water, and the inhabitants are dependent on the rain, which +they collect and preserve in tanks. The climate is mild and +healthy, although serious epidemics of yellow fever and typhus +have occurred. The maximum reading of the thermometer is +about 87° F. and its minimum 49°, the mean annual temperature +being 70°. The islands attract a large number of visitors annually +from America. Vegetation is very rapid, and the soil is clad in a +mantle of almost perpetual green. The principal kind of tree is +the so-called “Bermudas cedar,” really a species of juniper, +which furnishes timber for small vessels. The shores are fringed +with the mangrove; the prickly pear grows luxuriantly in the +most barren districts; and wherever the ground is left to itself +the sage bush springs up profusely. The citron, sour orange, +lemon and lime grow wild; but the apple and peach do not +come to perfection. The loquat, an introduction from China, +thrives admirably. The mild climate assists the growth of +esculent plants and roots; and a considerable trade is carried on +with New York, principally in onions, early potatoes, tomatoes, +and beetroot, together with lily bulbs, cut flowers and some +arrowroot. Medicinal plants, as the castor-oil plant and aloe, +come to perfection without culture; and coffee, indigo, cotton +and tobacco are also of spontaneous growth. Few oxen or sheep +are reared in the colony, meat, as well as bread and most +vegetables, being imported from America. The indigenous mammals +are very few, and the only reptiles are a small lizard and the green +turtle. Birds, however, especially aquatic species, are very +numerous. Insects are comparatively few, but ants swarm +destructively in the heat of the year. Fish are plentiful round +the coasts, and the whale-fishery was once an important industry, +but the fisheries as a whole have not been developed.</p> + +<p><i>Towns, and Administration.</i>—There are two towns in the +Bermudas: St George, on the island of that name, founded in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span> +1794 and incorporated in 1797; and Hamilton, on the Main Island, +founded in 1790 and incorporated in 1793. St George was the +capital till the senate and courts of justice were removed by +Sir James Cockburn to Hamilton, which being centrally situated, +is more convenient. Hamilton, which is situated on the inner +part of the Great Sound, had a population in 1901 of 2246, that +of St George being 985. In Ireland Island is situated the royal +dockyard and naval establishment. The harbour of St George’s +has space enough to accommodate a vast fleet; yet, till deepened +by blasting, the entrance was so narrow as to render it almost +useless. The Bermudas became an important naval and coaling +station in 1869, when a large iron dry dock was towed across the +Atlantic and placed in a secure position in St George, while, +owing to their important strategic position in mid-Atlantic, the +British government maintains a strong garrison. The Bermudas +are a British crown colony, with a governor resident at Hamilton, +who is assisted by an executive council of 6 members appointed +by the crown, a legislative council of 9 similarly appointed, +and a representative assembly of 36 members, of whom four +are returned by each of nine parishes. The currency of the +colony, which had formerly twelve shillings to the pound sterling, +was assimilated to that of England in 1842. The English +language is universal. The colony is ecclesiastically attached +to the bishopric of Newfoundland. In 1847 an educational +board was established, and there are numerous schools; attendance +is compulsory, but none of the schools is free. Government +scholarships enable youths to be educated for competition in the +Rhodes scholarships to Oxford University. The revenue of the +islands shows a fairly regular increase during the last years of the +19th century and the first of the 20th, as from £37,830 in 1895 +to £63,457 in 1904; expenditure is normally rather less than +revenue. In the year last named imports were valued at +£589,979 and exports at £130,305, the annual averages since +1895 being about £426,300 and £112,500 respectively. The +population shows a steady increase, as from 13,948 in 1881 to +17,535 in 1901; 6383 were whites and 11,152 coloured in the +latter year.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The discovery of the Bermudas resulted from the +shipwreck of Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard (whose name they now +bear), when on a voyage from Spain to Cuba with a cargo of hogs, +early in the 16th century. Henry May, an Englishman, suffered +the same fate in 1593; and lastly, Sir George Somers shared the +destiny of the two preceding navigators in 1609. Sir George, +from whom the islands took the alternative name of Somers, +was the first who established a settlement upon them, but he +died before he had fully accomplished his design. In 1612 the +Bermudas were granted to an offshoot of the Virginia Company, +which consisted of 120 persons, 60 of whom, under the command +of Henry More, proceeded to the islands. The first source of +colonial wealth was the growing of tobacco, but the curing +industry ceased early in the 18th century. In 1726 Bishop +George Berkeley chose the Bermudas as the seat of his projected +missionary establishment. The first newspaper, the <i>Bermuda +Gazette</i>, was published in 1784.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Godet, <i>Bermuda, its History, Geology, Climate, &c</i>. (London, +1860); Lefroy, <i>Discovery and Settlement of the Bermudas</i> (London, +1877-1879); A. Heilprin, <i>Bermuda Islands</i> (Philadelphia, 1889); +Stark, <i>Bermuda Guide</i> (London, 1898); Cole, <i>Bermuda ... Bibliography</i> +(Boston, 1907); and for geology see also A. Agassíz, “Visit +to the Bermudas in March 1894,” <i>Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard</i>, +vol. xxvi. No. 2, 1895; A.E. Verrill, “Notes on the Geology of the +Bermudas,” <i>Amer. Journ. Sci.</i> ser. 4, vol. ix. (1900), pp. 313-340; +“The Bermuda Islands; Their Scenery, &c.,” <i>Trans. Conn. Acad. +Arts and Sci.</i> vol. xi. pt. 2 (1901-1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERMUDEZ,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a N.E. state of Venezuela, between the Caribbean +Sea and the Orinoco river, bounded E. by the gulf of Paria +and the Delta-Amacuro territory, and W. by the states of +Guarico and Miranda. Pop. (est. 1905) 364,158. It was created +in 1881 by the union of the states of Barcelona, Cumaná and +Maturín, dissolved in 1901 into its three original states, and +reorganized in 1904 with a slight modification of territory. The +state includes the oldest settlements in Venezuela, and was once +very prosperous, producing cattle and exporting hides, but wars +and political disorders have partly destroyed its industries and +impeded their development. Its principal productions are +coffee, sugar, and cacáo, and—less important—cotton, tobacco, +cocoanuts, timber, indigo and dyewoods. Its more important +towns are the capital, Barcelona, Maturín (pop. 14,473), capital +of a district of the same name, and Cumaná (10,000), on the gulf +of Cariaco, founded in 1520 and one of the oldest towns of the +continent.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERN<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Berne</i>), after the Grisons, the largest of the Swiss +cantons, but by far the most populous, though politically Bern +ranks after that of Zürich. It extends right across Switzerland +from beyond the Jura to the snow-clad ranges that separate +Bern from the Valais. Its total area is 2641.9 sq. m., of which +2081 sq. m. are classed as “productive” (including 591 sq. m. +of forests, and 2.1 m. of vineyards), while of the remainder +111.3 sq. m. are occupied by glaciers (the Valais and the Grisons +alone surpass it in this respect). It is mainly watered by the +river Aar (<i>q.v.</i>), with its affluents, the Kander (left), the Saane +or Sarine (left) and the Emme (right); the Aar forms the two +lakes of Brienz and Thun (<i>q.v.</i>). The great extent of this canton +accounts for the different character of the regions therein comprised. +Three are usually distinguished:—(1) The <i>Oberland</i> or +Highlands, which is that best known to travellers, for it includes +the snowy Alps of the Bernese Oberland (culminating in the +Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft., and the Jungfrau, 13,669 ft.), as well +as the famous summer resorts of Grindelwald, Mürren, Lauterbrunnen, +Interlaken, Meiringen, Kandersteg, Adelboden, Thun +and the fine pastoral valley of the Simme. (2) The <i>Mittelland</i> +or Midlands, comprising the valley of the Aar below Thun, and +that of the Emme, thus taking in the outliers of the high Alps +and the open country on every side of the town of Bern. (3) +The <i>Seeland</i> (Lakeland) and the Jura, extending from Bienne +and its lake across the Jura to Porrentruy in the plains and to +the upper course of the Birs. The Oberland and Mittelland form +the “old” canton, the Jura having only been acquired in 1815, +and differing from the rest of the canton by reason of its French-speaking +and Romanist inhabitants.</p> + +<p>In 1900 the total population of the canton was 589,433, of +whom 483,388 were German-speaking, 97,789 French-speaking, +and 7167 Italian-speaking; while there were 506,699 Protestants, +80,489 Romanists (including the Old Catholics), and 1543 Jews. +The capital is Bern (<i>q.v.</i>), while the other important towns are +Bienne (<i>q.v.</i>), Burgdorf (<i>q.v.</i>), Delémont or Delsberg (5053 +inhabitants), Porrentruy or Pruntrut (6959 inhabitants), Thun +(<i>q.v.</i>), and Langenthal (4799 inhabitants). There is a university +(founded in 1834) in the town of Bern, as well as institutions +for higher education in the principal towns. The canton is +divided into 30 administrative districts, and contains 507 +communes (the highest number in Switzerland). From 1803 to +1814 the canton was one of the six “Directorial” cantons of the +Confederation. The existing cantonal constitution dates from +1893, but in 1906 the direct popular election of the executive +of 9 members (hitherto named by the legislature) was introduced. +The legislature or <i>Grossrath</i> is elected for four years (like the +executive), in the proportion of 1 member to every 2500 (or +fraction over 1250) of the resident population. The <i>obligatory +Referendum</i> obtains in the case of all laws, and of decrees relating +to an expenditure of over half a million francs, while 12,000 +citizens have the right of <i>initiative</i> in the case of legislative +projects, and 15,000 may demand the revision of the cantonal +constitution. The 2 members sent by the canton to the federal +<i>Ständerath</i> are elected by the <i>Grossrath</i>, while the 29 members +sent to the federal <i>Nationalrath</i> are chosen by a popular vote. +In the Alpine portions of the canton the breeding of cattle (those +of the Simme valley are particularly famous) is the chief industry; +next come the elaborate arrangements for summer travellers +(the <i>Fremdenindustrie</i>). It is reckoned that there are 2430 +“Alps” or mountain pastures in the canton, of which 1474 are +in the Oberland, 627 in the Jura, and 280 in the Emme valley; +they can maintain 95,478 cows and are of the estimated value +of 46½ million francs. The cheese of the Emme valley is locally +much esteemed. Other industries in the Alpine region are +wood-carving (at Brienz) and wine manufacture (on the shores +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span> +of the lakes of Bienne and of Thun). The Mittelland is the +agricultural portion of the canton. Watchmaking is the principal +industry of the Jura, Bienne and St Imier being the chief centres +of this industry. Iron mines are also worked in the Jura, while +the Heimberg potteries, near Thun, produce a locally famous +ware, and there are both quarries of building stone and tile +factories. The canton is well supplied with railway lines, the +broad gauge lines being 228 m. in length, and the narrow gauge +lines 157½ m.—in all 385½ m. Among these are many funicular +cog-wheel lines, climbing up to considerable heights, so up to +Mürren (5368 ft.), over the Wengern Alp (6772 ft.), up to the +Schynige Platte (6463 ft.), and many others still in the state of +projects. All these are in the Oberland where, too, is the +so-called Jungfrau railway, which in 1906 attained a point (the +Eismeer station) in the south wall of the Eiger (13,042 ft.) +that was 10,371 ft. in height, the loftiest railway station in +Switzerland.</p> + +<p>The canton of Bern is composed of the various districts which +the town of Bern acquired by conquest or by purchase in the +course of time. The more important, with dates of acquisition, +are the following:—Laupen (1324), Hasli and Meiringen (1334), +Thun and Burgdorf (1384), Unterseen and the Upper Simme +valley (1386), Frutigen, &c. (1400), Lower Simme valley (1439-1449), +Interlaken, with Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen and Brienz +(1528, on the suppression of the Austin Canons of Interlaken), +Saanen or Gessenay (1555), Köniz (1729), and the Bernese Jura +with Bienne (1815, from the bishopric of Basel). But certain +regions previously won were lost in 1798—Aargau (1415), Aigle +and Grandson (1475), Vaud (1536), and the Pays d’En-Haut +or Château d’Oex (1555). From 1798 to 1802 the Oberland +formed a separate canton (capital, Thun) of the Helvetic +Republic.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERN<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Berne</i>), the capital of the Swiss canton of the same +name, and, by a Federal law of 1848, the political capital of the +Swiss confederation. It is most picturesquely situated on a high +bluff or peninsula, round the base of which flows the river Aar, +thus completely cutting off the old town, save to the west. Five +lofty bridges have been thrown over the Aar, the two most +modern being the Kirchfeld and Kornhaus bridges which have +greatly contributed to create new residential quarters near the +old town. Within the town the arcades (or <i>Lauben</i>) on either +side of the main street, and the numerous elaborately ornamented +fountains attract the eye, as well as the two remaining towers +that formerly stood on the old walls but are now in the centre of +the town; the <i>Zeilglockenthurm</i> (famous for its singular 16th-century +clock, with its mechanical contrivances, set in motion +when the hour strikes) and the <i>Käficthurm</i>. The principal +medieval building in Bern is the (now Protestant) Münster, begun +in 1421 though not completed till 1573. The tower, rising +conspicuously above the town, has recently been well restored, +but the church was never a cathedral church (as is often stated), +for there has never yet been a bishop of Bern. The federal +Houses of Parliament (<i>Bundeshaus</i>) were much enlarged in +1888-1892, the older portions dating from 1852-1857, and also +contain the offices of the federal executive and administration. +The town-hall dates from 1406, while some of the houses belonging +to the old gilds contain much of interest. The town library +(with which that of the university was incorporated in 1905) +contains a vast store of MSS. and rare printed books, but should +be carefully distinguished from the national Swiss library, +which, with the building for the federal archives, is built in the +new Kirchfeld quarter. There are a number of museums; the +historical (archaeological and medieval), the natural history (in +which the skin of Barry, the famous St Bernard dog, is preserved), +the art (mainly modern Swiss pictures), and the Alpine (in which +are collections of all kinds relating to the Swiss Alps). Bern +possesses a university (founded in 1834) and two admirably +organized hospitals. The old fortifications (<i>Schanzen</i>) have been +converted into promenades, which command wonderful views +of the snowy Alps of the Bernese Oberland. Just across the +Nydeck bridge is the famous bear pit in which live bears are kept, +as they are supposed to have given the name to the town; +certainly a bear is shown on the earliest known town seal (1224), +while live bears have been maintained at the charges of the +town since 1513. There is comparatively little industrial activity +in the town, the importance of which is mainly political, though +of late years it has been selected as the seat of various international +associations (postal, telegraph, railway, copyright, &c.). +The climate is severe, as the town is much exposed to cold winds +blowing from the snowy Alps. In point of population it is +exceeded in Switzerland by Zürich, Basel and Geneva, though +the number of inhabitants has risen from 27,558 in 1850 and +43,197 in 1880 to 64,227 in 1900. In 1900, 59,698 inhabitants +were German-speaking; while 57,144 were Protestants, 6087 +Romanists (including Old Catholics) and 655 Jews. The height +of the town above the sea-level is 1788 ft.</p> + +<p>The ancient castle of Nydeck, at the eastern end of the peninsula, +guarded the passage over the Aar, and it was probably +its existence that induced Berchtold V., duke of Zäringen, to +found Bern in 1191 as a military post on the frontier between +the Alamannians (German-speaking) and the Burgundians +(French-speaking). Thrice the walls which protected the town +were moved westwards, about 1250, in 1346 and in 1622, though +even at the last-named date the town only stretched a little way +to the west of (or beyond) the present railway station. After +the extinction of the Zäringen dynasty (1218) Bern became a +free imperial city, but it had to fight hard for its independence, +which was finally secured by the victories of Dornbühl (1298) +over Fribourg and the Habsburgs, and of Laupen (1339) over +the neighbouring Burgundian nobles. In the second battle Bern +received help from the three forest cantons with which it had +become allied in 1323, while in 1353 it entered the Swiss confederation +as its eighth member. It soon took the lead in the confederation, +though always aiming at enlarging its own borders, even at +great risks (see the article on the canton). In 1528 Bern accepted +the religious reformation, and henceforth became one of its +chief champions in Switzerland. In the 17th century the number +of families by which high offices of state could be held was +diminished, so that in 1605 there were 152 thus qualified, but in +1691 only 104, while towards the end of the 18th century there +were only 69 such families. Meanwhile the rule of the town was +extending over more and more territory, so that finally it +governed 52 bailiwicks (acquired between 1324 and 1729), the +Bernese patricians being thus extremely powerful and forming +an oligarchy that administered affairs like a benevolent and +well-ordered despotism. In 1723 Major Davel, at Lausanne, and +in 1749 Henzi, in Bern itself, tried to break down this monopoly, +but in each case paid the penalty of failure on the scaffold. +The whole system was swept away by the French in 1798, and +though partially revived in 1815, came to an end in 1831, since +which time Bern has been in the van of political progress. From +1815 to 1848 it shared with Zürich and Lucerne the supreme +rule (which shifted from one to the other every two years) in +the Swiss confederation, while in 1848 a federal law made Bern +the sole political capital, where the federal government is +permanently fixed and where the ministers of foreign powers +reside.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—<i>Die Alp- und Weidewirthschaft im Kant. Bern</i> +(Bern, 1903); <i>Archiv d. hist. Vereins d. Kant. Bern</i>, from 1848, +and <i>Blätter für bernische Geschichte</i>, from 1905; <i>Bernische Biographien</i> +(Bern, 1898-1906); E. Friedli, <i>Bärndutsch als Spiegel bernischen +Volkstums</i>. vol. i. (<i>Lützelflüh</i>, Bern, 1905), and vol. ii. (Grindelwald, +Bern, 1908); <i>Festschrift zur 7ten Säkularfeier d. Gründung Berns</i>, +1191 (Bern, 1891); <i>Fontes Rerum Bernensium</i> (to 1378), (9 vols., +Bern, 1883-1908); K. Geiser, <i>Geschichte d. bernischen Verfassung</i>, +1191-1471 (Bern, 1888); B. Haller, <i>Bern in seinen Rathsmanualen</i>, +1465-1565 (3 vols., Bern, 1900-1902); E.F. and W.F. von Mülinen, +<i>Beiträge zur Heimathskunde d. Kantons Bern, deulschen Theils</i> +(3 vols., Bern, 1879-1894); W.F. von Mülinen, <i>Berns Geschichte</i>, +1191-1891 (Bern, 1891); E. von Rodt, <i>Bernische Stadtgeschichte</i> +(Bern, 1888), and 6 finely illustrated vols. on Bern in the 13th to +19th centuries (Bern, 1898-1907); L.S. von Tscharner, <i>Rechtsgeschichte +des Obersimmenthales bis zum Jahre 1798</i> (Bern, 1908); +E. von Wattenwyl, <i>Geschichte d. Stadt u. Landschaft Bern</i> (to 1400), +(2 vols.); Schaffhausen and Bern (1867-1872); F.E. Welti, <i>Die Rechtsquellen +d. Kant. Bern</i>, vol. i. (Aarau, 1902); Gertrud Züricher, <i>Kinderspiel +u. Kinderlied im Kant. Bern</i> (Zürich, 1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, SAINT<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1090-1153), abbot of Clairvaux one of the +most illustrious preachers and monks of the middle ages, was +born at Fontaines, near Dijon, in France. His father, a knight +named Tecelin, perished on crusade; and his mother Aleth, a +daughter of the noble house of Mon-Bar, and a woman distinguished +for her piety, died while Bernard was yet a boy. The +lad was constitutionally unfitted for the career of arms, and his +own disposition, as well as his mother’s early influence, directed +him to the church. His desire to enter a monastery was opposed +by his relations, who sent him to study at Châlons in order to +qualify for high ecclesiastical preferment. Bernard’s resolution +to become a monk was not, however, shaken, and when he at +last definitely decided to join the community which Robert of +Molesmes had founded at Citeaux in 1198, he carried with him +his brothers and many of his relations and friends. The little +community of reformed Benedictines, which was to produce so +profound an influence on Western monachism (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cistercians</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>) and had seemed on the point of extinction +for lack of novices, gained a sudden new life through this accession +of some thirty young men of the best families of the neighbourhood. +Others followed their example; and the community grew +so rapidly that it was soon able to send off offshoots. One of +these daughter monasteries, Clairvaux, was founded in 1115, +in a wild valley branching from that of the Aube, on land given by +Count Hugh of Troyes, and of this Bernard was appointed abbot.</p> + +<p>By the new constitution of the Cistercians Clairvaux became +the chief monastery of the five branches into which the order +was divided under the supreme direction of the abbot of Citeaux. +Though nominally subject to Citeaux, however, Clairvaux soon +became the most important Cistercian house, owing to the fame +and influence of Bernard.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> His saintly character, his self-mortification—of +so severe a character that his friend, William +of Champeaux, bishop of Châlons, thought it right to remonstrate +with him—and above all, his marvellous power as a preacher, +soon made him famous, and drew crowds of pilgrims to Clairvaux. +His miracles were noised abroad, and sick folk were brought +from near and far to be healed by his touch. Before long the +abbot, who had intended to devote his life to the work of his +monastery, was drawn into the affairs of the great world. When +in 1124 Pope Honorius II. mounted the chair of St Peter, Bernard +was already reckoned among the greatest of French churchmen; +he now shared in the most important ecclesiastical discussions, +and papal legates sought his counsel. Thus in 1128 he was +invited by Cardinal Matthew of Albano to the synod of Troyes, +where he was instrumental in obtaining the recognition of the +new order of Knights Templars, the rules of which he is said to +have drawn up; and in the following year, at the synod of Châlons-sur-Marne, +he ended the crisis arising out of certain charges +brought against Henry, bishop of Verdun, by persuading the +bishop to resign. The European importance of Bernard, however, +began with the death of Pope Honorius II. (1130) and the +disputed election that followed. In the synod convoked by +Louis the Fat at Etampes in April 1130 Bernard successfully +asserted the claims of Innocent II. against those of Anacletus II., +and from this moment became the most influential supporter +of his cause. He threw himself into the contest with characteristic +ardour. While Rome itself was held by Anacletus, France, +England, Spain and Germany declared for Innocent, who, +though banished from Rome, was—in Bernard’s phrase—“accepted +by the world.” The pope travelled from place to +place, with the powerful abbot of Clairvaux at his side; he +stayed at Clairvaux itself, humble still, so far as its buildings +were concerned; and he went with Bernard to parley with the +emperor Lothair III. at Liége.</p> + +<p>In 1133, the year of the emperor’s first expedition to Rome, +Bernard was in Italy persuading the Genoese to make peace with +the men of Pisa, since the pope had need of both. He accompanied +Innocent to Rome, successfully resisting the proposal to +reopen negotiations with Anacletus, who held the castle of Sant’ +Angelo and, with the support of Roger of Sicily, was too strong +to be subdued by force. Lothair, though crowned by Innocent +in St Peter’s, could do nothing to establish him in the Holy See +so long as his own power was sapped by his quarrel with the +house of Hohenstaufen. Again Bernard came to the rescue; +in the spring of 1135 he was at Bamberg successfully persuading +Frederick of Hohenstaufen to submit to the emperor. In June +he was back in Italy, taking a leading part in the council of Pisa, +by which Anacletus was excommunicated. In northern Italy the +effect of his personality and of his preaching was immense; +Milan itself, of all the Lombard cities most jealous of the imperial +claims, surrendered to his eloquence, submitted to Lothair and +to Innocent, and tried to force Bernard against his will into the +vacant see of St Ambrose. In 1137, the year of Lothair’s last +journey to Rome, Bernard was back in Italy again; at Monte +Cassino, setting the affairs of the monastery in order, at Salerno, +trying in vain to induce Roger of Sicily to declare against +Anacletus, in Rome itself, agitating with success against the +antipope. Anacletus died on the 25th of January 1138; on the +13th of March the cardinal Gregory was elected his successor, +assuming the name of Victor. Bernard’s crowning triumph in +the long contest was the abdication of the new antipope, the +result of his personal influence. The schism of the church was +healed, and the abbot of Clairvaux was free to return to the +peace of his monastery.</p> + +<p>Clairvaux itself had meanwhile (1135-1136) been transformed +outwardly—in spite of the reluctance of Bernard, who preferred +the rough simplicity of the original buildings—into a more +suitable seat for an influence that overshadowed that of Rome +itself. How great this influence was is shown by the outcome +of Bernard’s contest with Abelard (<i>q.v.</i>). In intellectual and +dialectical power the abbot was no match for the great schoolman; +yet at Sens in 1141 Abelard feared to face him, and when he +appealed to Rome Bernard’s word was enough to secure his +condemnation.</p> + +<p>One result of Bernard’s fame was the marvellous growth of the +Cistercian order. Between 1130 and 1145 no less than ninety-three +monasteries in connexion with Clairvaux were either +founded or affiliated from other rules, three being established in +England and one in Ireland. In 1145 a Cistercian monk, once +a member of the community of Clairvaux—another Bernard, +abbot of Aquae Silviae near Rome, was elected pope as Eugenius +III. This was a triumph for the order; to the world it was a +triumph for Bernard, who complained that all who had suits to +press at Rome applied to him, as though he himself had mounted +the chair of St Peter (<i>Ep</i>. 239).</p> + +<p>Having healed the schism within the church, Bernard was +next called upon to attack the enemy without. Languedoc +especially had become a hotbed of heresy, and at this time the +preaching of Henry of Lausanne (<i>q.v.</i>) was drawing thousands +from the orthodox faith. In June 1145, at the invitation of +Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard travelled in the south, and by +his preaching did something to stem the flood of heresy for a +while. Far more important, however, was his activity in the +following year, when, in obedience to the pope’s command, he +preached a crusade. The effect of his eloquence was extraordinary. +At the great meeting at Vezelay, on the 21st of March, +as the result of his sermon, King Louis VII. of France and his +queen, Eleanor of Guienne, took the cross, together with a host +of all classes, so numerous that the stock of crosses was soon +exhausted; Bernard next travelled through northern France, +Flanders and the Rhine provinces, everywhere rousing the +wildest enthusiasm; and at Spires on Christmas day he succeeded +in persuading Conrad, king of the Romans, to join the crusade.</p> + +<p>The lamentable outcome of the movement (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crusades</a></span>) +was a hard blow to Bernard, who found it difficult to understand +this manifestation of the hidden counsels of God, but ascribed +it to the sins of the crusaders (<i>Ep</i>. 288; <i>de Consid</i>. ii. 1). The +news of the disasters to the crusading host first reached Bernard +at Clairvaux, where Pope Eugenius, driven from Rome by the +revolution associated with the name of Arnold of Brescia, was +his guest. Bernard had in March and April 1148 accompanied +the pope to the council of Reims, where he led the attack on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span> +certain propositions of the scholastic theologian Gilbert de la +Porrée (<i>q.v.</i>). From whatever cause—whether the growing +jealousy of the cardinals, or the loss of prestige owing to the +rumoured failure of the crusade, the success of which he had so +confidently predicted—Bernard’s influence, hitherto so ruinous +to those suspected of heterodoxy, on this occasion failed of its +full effect. On the news of the full extent of the disaster that +had overtaken the crusaders, an effort was made to retrieve it +by organizing another expedition. At the invitation of Suger, +abbot of St Denis, now the virtual ruler of France, Bernard +attended the meeting of Chartres convened for this purpose, +where he himself was elected to conduct the new crusade, the +choice being confirmed by the pope. He was saved from this +task, for which he was physically and constitutionally unfit, by +the intervention of the Cistercian abbots, who forbade him to +undertake it.</p> + +<p>Bernard was now ageing, broken by his austerities and by +ceaseless work, and saddened by the loss of several of his early +friends. But his intellectual energy remained undimmed. +He continued to take an active interest in ecclesiastical affairs, +and his last work, the <i>De Consideratione</i>, shows no sign of failing +power. He died on the 20th of August 1153.</p> + +<p>The greatness of St Bernard lay not in the qualities of his +intellect, but of his character. Intellectually he was the child +of his age, inferior to those subtle minds whom the world, fired +by his contagious zeal, conspired to crush. Morally he was their +superior; and in this moral superiority lay the secret of his +power. The age recognized in him the embodiment of its ideal: +that of medieval monasticism at its highest development. The +world had no meaning for him save as a place of banishment and +trial, in which men are but “strangers and pilgrims” (Serm. +i., Epiph. n. 1; Serm. vii., Lent. n. 1); the way of grace, back +to the lost inheritance, had been marked out once for all, and the +function of theology was but to maintain the landmarks inherited +from the past. With the subtleties of the schools he had no +sympathy, and the dialectics of the schoolmen quavered into +silence before his terrible invective. Yet, within the limits of +his mental horizon, Bernard’s vision was clear enough. His very +life proves with what merciless logic he followed out the principles +of the Christian faith as he conceived it; and it is impossible to +say that he conceived it amiss. For all his overmastering zeal +he was by nature neither a bigot nor a persecutor. Even when +he was preaching the crusade he interfered at Mainz to stop the +persecution of the Jews, stirred up by the monk Radulf. As for +heretics, “the little foxes that spoil the vines,” these “should be +taken, not by force of arms, but by force of argument,” though, +if any heretic refused to be thus taken, he considered “that he +should be driven away, or even a restraint put upon his liberty, +rather than that he should be allowed to spoil the vines” (Serm. +lxiv.). He was evidently troubled by the mob violence which +made the heretics “martyrs to their unbelief.” He approved +the zeal of the people, but could not advise the imitation of their +action, “because faith is to be produced by persuasion, not +imposed by force”; adding, however, in the true spirit of his +age and of his church, “it would without doubt be better that +they should be coerced by the sword than that they should be +allowed to draw away many other persons into their error.” +Finally, oblivious of the precedent of the Pharisees, he ascribes +the steadfastness of these “dogs” in facing death to the power +of the devil (Serm. lxvi. on Canticles ii. 15).</p> + +<p>This is Bernard at his worst. At his best—and, fortunately, +this is what is mainly characteristic of the man and his writings—he +displays a nobility of nature, a wise charity and tenderness +in his dealings with others, and a genuine humility, with no +touch of servility, that make him one of the most complete +exponents of the Christian life. His broadly Christian character +is, indeed, witnessed to by the enduring quality of his influence. +The author of the <i>Imitatio</i> drew inspiration from his writings; +the reformers saw in him a medieval champion of their favourite +doctrine of the supremacy of the divine grace; his works, down +to the present day, have been reprinted in countless editions. +This is perhaps due to the fact that the chief fountain of his own +inspiration was the Bible. He was saturated in its language +and in its spirit; and though he read it, as might be expected, +uncritically, and interpreted its plain meanings allegorically—as +the fashion of the day was—it saved him from the grosser +aberrations of medieval Catholicism. He accepted the teaching +of the church as to the reverence due to our Lady and the saints, +and on feast-days and festivals these receive their due meed in +his sermons; but in his letters and sermons their names are at +other times seldom invoked. They were overshadowed completely +in his mind by his idea of the grace of God and the moral +splendour of Christ; “from Him do the Saints derive the +odour of sanctity; from Him also do they shine as lights” +(<i>Ep.</i> 464).</p> + +<p>The cause of Bernard’s extraordinary popular success as a +preacher can only imperfectly be judged by the sermons that +survive. These were all delivered in Latin, evidently to congregations +more or less on his own intellectual level. Like his letters, +they are full of quotations from and reference to the Bible, and +they have all the qualities likely to appeal to men of culture at +all times. “Bernard,” wrote Erasmus in his <i>Art of Preaching</i>, +“is an eloquent preacher, much more by nature than by art; +he is full of charm and vivacity and knows how to reach and +move the affections.” The same is true of the letters and to an +even more striking degree. They are written on a large variety +of subjects, great and small, to people of the most diverse stations +and types; and they help us to understand the adaptable nature +of the man, which enabled him to appeal as successfully to the +unlearned as to the learned.</p> + +<p>Bernard’s works fall into three categories:—(1) <i>Letters</i>, of +which over five hundred have been preserved, of great interest +and value for the history of the period. (2) <i>Treatises</i>: (<i>a</i>) +dogmatic and polemical, <i>De gratia el libero arbitrio</i>, written about +1127, and following closely the lines laid down by St Augustine; +<i>De baptismo aliisque quaestionibus ad mag. Hugonem de S. Victore; +Contra quaedam capitala errorum Abaelardi ad Innocentem II.</i> +(in justification of the action of the synod of Sens); (<i>b</i>) ascetic +and mystical, <i>De gradibus humilitatis et superbiae</i>, his first work, +written perhaps about 1121; <i>De diligendo Deo</i> (about 1126); <i>De +conversione ad clericos</i>, an address to candidates for the priesthood; +<i>De Consideratione</i>, Bernard’s last work, written about +1148 at the pope’s request for the edification and guidance of +Eugenius III.; (<i>c</i>) about monasticism, <i>Apologia ad Guilelmum</i>, +written about 1127 to William, abbot of St Thierry; <i>De laude +novae militiae ad milites templi</i> (<i>c.</i> 1132-1136); <i>De precepto et +dispensatione</i>, an answer to various questions on monastic +conduct and discipline addressed to him by the monks of St +Peter at Chartres (some time before 1143); (<i>d</i>) on ecclesiastical +government, <i>De moribus et officio episcoporum</i>, written about +1126 for Henry, bishop of Sens; the <i>De Consideratione</i> mentioned +above; (<i>e</i>) a biography, <i>De vita et rebus gestis S. Malachiae, +Hiberniae episcopi</i>, written at the request of the Irish abbot +Congan and with the aid of materials supplied by him; it is of +importance for the ecclesiastical history of Ireland in the 12th +century; (<i>f</i>) sermons—divided into <i>Sermones de tempore; de +sanctis; de diversis</i>; and eighty-six sermons, <i>in Cantica Canticorum</i>, +an allegorical and mystical exposition of the Song of +Solomon; (<i>g</i>) hymns. Many hymns ascribed to Bernard +survive, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Jesu dulcis memoria, Jesus rex admirabilis. Jesu +decus angelicum, Salve caput cruentatum</i>. Of these the three first +are included in the Roman breviary. Many have been translated +and are used in Protestant churches.</p> + +<p>St Bernard’s works were first published in anything like a +complete edition at Paris in 1508, under the title <i>Seraphica +melliflui devotique doctoris S. Bernardi scripta</i>, edited by André +Bocard; the first really critical and complete edition is that of +Dom J. Mabillon <i>Sancti Bernardi opp. &c.</i> (Paris, 1667, improved +and enlarged in 1690, and again, by Massuet and Texier, in 1719), +reprinted by J.P. Migne, <i>Patrolog. lat.</i> (Paris, 1859). There is an English translation of Mabillon’s edition, including, however, +only the letters and the sermons on the Song of Songs, +with the biographical and other prefaces, by Samuel J. Eales +(4 vols., London, 1889-1895). See further Leopold Janauschek, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span> +<i>Bibliographia Bernardina</i> (Vienna, 1891), which includes 2761 +entries, including 120 works wrongly ascribed to Bernard.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The principal source for the life of St Bernard is +the <i>Vita Prima</i>, compiled, in six books, by various contemporary +writers: book i. by William, abbot of St Thierry near Reims; +book ii. by Ernald, or Arnald, abbot of Bonnevalle; books iii., iv. and +v. by Geoffrey (Gaufrid), monk of Clairvaux and Bernard’s secretary; +book vi., on Bernard’s miracles, by Geoffrey and Philip, another +monk of Clairvaux, &c. A MS. is preserved, <i>int. al.</i>, in the library +of Lambeth Palace (§ xiv. No. 163). The <i>Vita</i> was first published +in <i>Bernardi op. omn.</i> by Mabillon (Paris, 1690), ii. pp. 1061 ff.; it +was included in Migne, <i>Patrolog. lat.</i> clxxxv. pp. 225-416, which also +contains the abridgments or amplifications, by later hands, of the <i>Vita Prima</i>, known as the <i>Vita Secunda</i>, <i>Tertia</i> and <i>Quarta</i>. For +a critical study of these sources see G. Hüffer, <i>Der heilige Bernhard +von Clairvaux</i> (2 vols., Münster, 1886), and E. Vacandard, <i>Vie de +Saint Bernard</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1895).</p> + +<p>Among the numerous modern works on St Bernard may be mentioned, +besides the above, J.C. Morison, <i>The Life and Times of +St Bernard</i> (London, 1863); G. Chevallier, <i>Histoire de Saint Bernard</i> +(2 vols., Lille, 1888); S.J. Eales, <i>St Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux</i> +(London, 1890, “Fathers for English Readers” series); ib. <i>Life +and Works of St Bernard</i> (London, 1889); R.S. Storrs, <i>Bernard of +Clairvaux: the Times, the Man and His Work</i> (New York, 1893); +Comte d’Haussonville, <i>Saint Bernard</i> (Paris, 1906). See also the +article by Vacandart in A. Vacant’s <i>Dictionnaire de théologie</i> (with +full bibliography), and that by S.M. Deutsch in Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.), vol. ii. (bibliography). Further works, +monographs, &c., are given <i>s.</i> “Vita S. Bernardi” in Potthast. +<i>Bibliotheca Historica Medii Aevi</i> (Berlin, 1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Cistercians of this branch of the order were commonly known +as Bernardines.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNARD OF CHARTRES<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1080?-1167), surnamed +<span class="sc">Sylvestris</span>, scholastic philosopher, described by John of +Salisbury as <i>perfectissimus inter Platonicos nostri saeculi</i>. He +and his brother Theodore were among the chief members of the +school of Chartres (France), founded in the early part of the +11th century by Fulbert, the great disciple of Gerbert. This +school flourished at a time when medieval thought was directed +to the ancient philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, and had perversely +come to regard Aristotle as merely the founder of abstract +logic and formal intellectualism, as opposed to Plato whose +doctrine of Ideas seemed to tend in a naturalistic direction. +Thus Bernard is a Platonist and yet the representative of a +“return to Nature” which curiously anticipates the humanism +of the early Renaissance. John of Salisbury (<i>Metalogicus</i>, iv. 35) +attributes to him two treatises, of which one contrasts the eternity +of ideas with the finite nature of things, and the other is an +attempt to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. The only extant +fragments of Bernard’s writings are from a treatise <i>Megacosmus +and Microcosmus</i> (edited by C.S. Barach at Innsbruck, 1876). +The source of Bernard’s inspiration was Plato’s <i>Timaeus</i>. He +maintained that ideas are really existent and are laid up for ever +in the mind of God. He further attempted to build up a symbolism +of numbers with the view of elaborating the doctrine of +the Trinity, and explaining the meaning of unity, plurality and +likeness.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scholasticism</a></span>; also V. Cousin, <i>Œuvres inédites</i> of Abelard +(Paris, 1836); Hauréau, <i>Philosophie scolastique</i>, i. 396 foll.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, CHARLES DE,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> whose full name was <span class="sc">Pierre +Marie Charles de Bernard du Grail de la Villette</span> (1804-1850), +French writer, was born at Besançon on the 25th of +February 1804. After studying for the law, and then taking +to journalism, he was encouraged by Balzac (whose <i>Peau de +chagrin</i> he had reviewed) to settle in Paris and devote himself +to authorship; and the result was a series of volumes of fiction, +remarkable for their picture of provincial society and the Parisian +<i>bourgeoisie</i>. The best of these are <i>Le Nœud gordien</i> (1838), +containing among other short stories <i>Une Aventure de magistrat</i>, +from which Sardou drew his comedy of the <i>Pommes du voisin; +Gerfaut</i> (1838), considered his masterpiece; <i>Les Ailes d’Icare</i> +(1840), <i>La Peau du lion</i> (1841) and <i>Le Gentilhomme campagnard</i> +(1847).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Œuvres complètes</i> (12 vols.), which appeared after his death +on the 6th of March 1850, include also his poetry and two comedies +written in collaboration with “Léonce” (C.H.L. Laurençot, 1805-1862). +A flattering appreciation by Armand de Pontmartin is +prefixed to <i>Un Beau-père</i> in this collection. In W.M. Thackeray’s +<i>Paris Sketch-book</i> (“On some fashionable French novels”) there +is an admirable criticism of Bernard. See also an essay by Henry +James in <i>French Poets and Novelists</i> (1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, CLAUDE<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1813-1878), French physiologist, was +born on the 12th of July 1813 in the village of Saint-Julien near +Villefranche. He received his early education in the Jesuit +school of that town, and then proceeded to the college at Lyons, +which, however, he soon left to become assistant in a druggist’s +shop. His leisure hours were devoted to the composition of a +vaudeville comedy, <i>La Rose du Rhône</i>, and the success it achieved +moved him to attempt a prose drama in five acts, <i>Arthur de +Bretagne</i>. At the age of twenty-one he went to Paris, armed +with this play and an introduction to Saint-Marc Girardin, but +the critic dissuaded him from adopting literature as a profession, +and urged him rather to take up the study of medicine. This +advice he followed, and in due course became interne at the +Hôtel Dieu. In this way he was brought into contact with the +great physiologist, F. Magendie, who was physician to the +hospital, and whose official <i>préparateur</i> at the Collège de France +he became in 1841. Six years afterwards he was appointed his +deputy-professor at the collège, and in 1855 he succeeded him +as full professor. Some time previously he had been chosen the +first occupant of the newly-instituted chair of physiology at the +Sorbonne. There no laboratory was provided for his use, but +Louis Napoleon, after an interview with him in 1864, supplied +the deficiency, at the same time building a laboratory at the +natural history museum in the Jardin des Plantes, and establishing +a professorship, which Bernard left the Sorbonne to accept +in 1868—the year in which he was admitted a member of the +Institute. He died in Paris on the 10th of February 1878 and +was accorded a public funeral—an honour which had never +before been bestowed by France on a man of science.</p> + +<p>Claude Bernard’s first important work was on the functions of +the pancreas gland, the juice of which he proved to be of great +significance in the process of digestion; this achievement won +him the prize for experimental physiology from the Academy of +Sciences. A second investigation—perhaps his most famous—was +on the glycogenic function of the liver; in the course of this +he was led to the conclusion, which throws light on the causation +of diabetes, that the liver, in addition to secreting bile, is the +seat of an “internal secretion,” by which it prepares sugar at +the expense of the elements of the blood passing through it. A +third research resulted in the discovery of the vaso-motor system. +While engaged, about 1851, in examining the effects produced +in the temperature of various parts of the body by section of +the nerve or nerves belonging to them, he noticed that division +of the cervical sympathetic gave rise to more active circulation +and more forcible pulsation of the arteries in certain parts of +the head, and a few months afterwards he observed that electrical +excitation of the upper portion of the divided nerve had the +contrary effect. In this way he established the existence of +vaso-motor nerves—both vaso-dilatator and vaso-constrictor. +The study of the physiological action of poisons was also a +favourite one with him, his attention being devoted in particular +to curare and carbon monoxide gas. The earliest announcements +of his results, the most striking of which were obtained in the +ten years from about 1850 to 1860, were generally made in the +recognized scientific publications; but the full exposition of his +views, and even the statement of some of the original facts, +can only be found in his published lectures. The various series +of these <i>Leçons</i> fill seventeen octavo volumes. He also published +<i>Introduction à la médecine expérimentale</i> (1865), and <i>Physiologie +générale</i> (1872).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An English <i>Life of Bernard</i>, by Sir Michael Foster, was published +in London in 1899.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, JACQUES<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1658-1718), French theologian and +publicist, was born at Nions in Dauphiné on the 1st of September +1658. Having studied at Geneva, he returned to France in 1679, +and was chosen minister of Venterol in Dauphiné, whence he +afterwards removed to the church of Vinsobres. As he continued +to preach the reformed doctrines in opposition to the royal +ordinance, he was obliged to leave the country and retired to +Holland, where he was well received and appointed one of the +pensionary ministers of Gouda. In July 1686 he commenced +his <i>Histoire abrégée de l’Europe</i>, which he continued monthly till +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span> +December 1688. In 1692 he began his <i>Lettres historiques</i>, containing +an account of the most important transactions in Europe; +he carried on this work till the end of 1698, after which it was +continued by others. When Le Clerc discontinued his <i>Bibliothèque +universelle</i> in 1691. Bernard wrote the greater part of the +twentieth volume and the five following volumes. In 1698 he +collected and published <i>Actes et négotiations de la paix de Ryswic</i>, +in four volumes 12mo. In 1699 he began a continuation of +Bayle’s <i>Nouvelles de la république des lettres</i>, which continued till +December 1710. In 1705 he was unanimously elected one of the +ministers of the Walloon church at Leiden; and about the same +time he succeeded M. de Valder in the chair of philosophy and +mathematics at Leiden. In 1716 he published a supplement +to Moreri’s dictionary, in two volumes folio. The same year he +resumed his <i>Nouvelles de la république des lettres</i>, and continued +it till his death, on the 27th of April 1718. Besides the works +above mentioned, he was the author of two practical treatises, +one on late repentance (1712), the other on the excellence of +religion (1714).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1820-1882), English international +lawyer, the third son of Charles Bernard of Jamaica, the descendant +of a Huguenot family, was born at Tibberton Court, +Gloucestershire, on the 28th of January 1820. He was educated +at Sherborne school, and Trinity College, Oxford. Graduating +B.A. in 1842, he took his B.C.L., was elected Vinerian scholar +and fellow, and having read in chambers with Roundell Palmer +(afterwards Lord Selborne), was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn +in 1846. He was specially interested in legal history and in +church questions, and was one of the founders of the <i>Guardian</i>. +In 1852 he was elected to the new professorship of international +law and diplomacy at Oxford, attached to All Souls’ College, +of which he afterwards was made a fellow. But besides his +duties at Oxford he undertook a good deal of non-collegiate +work; he was a member of several royal commissions; in 1871 +he went as one of the high commissioners to the United States, +and signed the treaty of Washington, and in 1872 he assisted +Sir Roundell Palmer before the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva. +In 1874 he resigned his professorship at Oxford, but as member +of the university of Oxford commission of 1876 he was mainly +responsible for bringing about the compromise ultimately +adopted between the university and the colleges. Bernard’s +reputation as an international lawyer was widespread, and he +was an original member of the Institut de Droit International +(1873). His published works include <i>An Historical Account of +the Neutrality of Great Britain during the American Civil War</i> +(London, 1870), and many lectures on international law and +diplomacy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, SIMON<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1779-1839), French general of engineers, +was born at Dôle, educated at the École Polytechnique, and +entered the army in the corps of engineers. He rose rapidly, +and served (1805-1812) as aide-de-camp to Napoleon. He was +wounded in the retreat after Leipzig, and distinguished himself +the same year (1813) in the gallant defence of Torgau against +the allies. After the emperor’s fall he emigrated to the United +States, where, being made a brigadier-general of engineers, +he executed a number of extensive military works for the government, +notably at Fortress Monroe, Va., and around New York, +and did a large amount of the civil engineering connected with +the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and the Delaware Breakwater. +He returned to France after the revolution of 1830, was made +a lieu tenant-general by Louis Philippe, and in 1836 served as +minister of war.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNARD, SIR THOMAS,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bart</span>. (1750-1818), English social +reformer, was born at Lincoln on the 27th of April 1750, the +younger son of Sir Francis Bernard, 1st bart. (1711-1779), who +as governor of Massachusetts Bay (1760-1770) played a responsible +part in directing the British policy which led to the +revolt of the American colonies. On the death of his elder +brother in 1810, Bernard succeeded to the baronetcy conferred +on his father in 1769. His early education was obtained in +America, partly at Harvard, in which college his father took +a great interest. He then acted as confidential secretary to his +father during the troubles which led (1769) to the governor’s +recall, and accompanied Sir Francis to England, where he was +called to the bar, and practised as a conveyancer. He married +a rich wife, and acquired a considerable fortune, and then +devoted most of his time to social work for the benefit of the +poor. He was treasurer of the Foundling Hospital, in the concerns +of which he took an important part. He helped to establish +in 1796 the “Society for Bettering the Condition and Increasing +the Comforts of the Poor,” in 1800 a school for indigent blind, +and in 1801 a fever institution. He was active in promoting +vaccination, improving the conditions of child labour, advocating +rural allotments, and agitating against the salt duties. He took +great interest in education, and with Count Rumford he was an +originator of the Royal Institution in London. He died without +issue on the 1st of July 1818.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNARDIN OF SIENA, ST<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1380-1444), Franciscan friar +and preacher, was born of a noble family in 1380. His parents +died in his childhood, and on the completion of his education +he spent some years in the service of the sick in the hospitals, +and thus caught the plague, of which he nearly died. In 1402 +he entered the Franciscan order in the strict branch called +Observant, of which he became one of the chief promoters (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franciscans</a></span>). Shortly after his profession the work of preaching +was laid upon him, and for more than thirty years he preached +with wonderful effect all over Italy, and played a great part +in the religious revival of the beginning of the 15th century. +In 1437 he became vicar-general of the Observant branch of the +Franciscans. He refused three bishoprics. He died in 1444 +at Aquila in the Abruzzi, and was canonized in 1450.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first edition of his works, for the most part elaborate sermons, +was printed at Lyons in 1501; later ones in 1636, 1650 and 1745. +His Life will be found in the Bollandists and in <i>Lives of the Saints</i> +on the 20th of May: a good modern biography has been written +by Paul Thureau-Dangin (1896), and translated into English by +Gertrude von Hügel (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNAUER, AGNES<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (d. 1435), daughter of an Augsburg +baker, was secretly married about 1432 to Albert (1401-1460), +son of Ernest, duke of Bavaria-Munich. Ignorant of the fact +that this union was a lawful one, Ernest urged his son to marry, +and reproached him with his connexion with Agnes. Albert +then declared she was his lawful wife; and subsequently, during +his absence, she was seized by order of Duke Ernest and condemned +to death for witchcraft. On the 12th of October 1435 +she was drowned in the Danube near Straubing, in which town +her remains were afterwards buried by Albert. This story lived +long in the memory of the people, and its chief interest lies in +its literary associations. It has afforded material for several +dramas, and Adolf Böttger, Friedrich Hebbel and Otto Ludwig +have each written one entitled <i>Agnes Bernauer</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNAY,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Eure, on the left bank of +the Charentonne, 31 m. W.N.W. of Evreux, on the Western +railway between that town and Lisieux. Pop. (1906) 5973. +It is beautifully situated in the midst of green wooded hills, and +still justifies Madame de Stael’s description of it as “a basket +of flowers.” Of great antiquity, it possesses numerous quaint +wooden houses and ancient ecclesiastical buildings of considerable +interest. The abbey church is now used as a market, and the +abbey, which was founded by Judith of Brittany early in the +11th century, and underwent a restoration in the 17th century, +serves for municipal and legal purposes. The church of Ste +Croix, which has a remarkable marble figure of the infant Jesus, +dates from the 14th and 15th centuries, that of Notre-Dame de +la Couture, which preserves some good stained glass, from the +14th, 15th and 16th centuries, Bernay has a sub-prefecture, +a communal college, tribunals of commerce and of first instance, +and a board of trade-arbitrators. Among the industrial establishments +of the place are manufactories of cotton and woollen +goods, bleacheries and dye-works. Large numbers of Norman +horses are sold in Lent, at the fair known as the <i>Foire fleurie</i>, +and there is also a trade in grain. Bernay grew up round +the Benedictine abbey mentioned above, and early in the 13th +century was the seat of a viscount. The town, formerly fortified +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span> +was besieged by Bertrand du Guesclin, constable of France, in +1378; it was taken several times by the English during the first +half of the 15th century, and by Admiral de Coligny in 1563. +The fortress was razed in 1589.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNAYS, JAKOB<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1824-1881), German philologist and +philosophical writer, was born at Hamburg of Jewish parents +on the 11th of September 1824. His father, Isaac Bernays +(1792-1849), a man of wide culture, was the first orthodox +German rabbi to preach in the vernacular. Jakob studied from +1844 to 1848 at the university of Bonn, the philological school +of which, under Welcker and Ritschl (whose favourite pupil +Bernays became), was the best in Germany. In 1853 he accepted +the chair of classical philology at the newly founded Jewish +theological college (the Fränkel seminary) at Breslau, where he +formed a close friendship with Mommsen. In 1866, when +Ritschl left Bonn for Leipzig, Bernays returned to his old university +as extraordinary professor and chief librarian. He +remained at Bonn until his death on the 28th of May 1881. His +chief works, which deal mainly with the Greek philosophers, +are:—<i>Die Lebensbeschreibung des J.J. Scaliger</i> (1855); <i>Über +das Phokylidische Gedicht</i> (1856); <i>Die Chronik des Sulpicius +Severus</i> (1861); <i>Die Dialoge des Aristoteles im Verhältniss zu +seinen übrigen Werken</i> (1863); <i>Theophrastos’ Schrift über +Frömmigkeit</i> (1866); <i>Die Heraklitischen Briefe</i> (1869); <i>Lucian +und die Cyniker</i> (1879); <i>Zwei Abhandlungen über die Aristolelische +Theorie des Dramas</i> (1880). The last of these was a +republication of his <i>Grundzüge der verlorenen Abhandlungen des +Aristoteles über die Wirkung der Tragödie</i> (1857), which aroused +considerable controversy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See notices in <i>Biographisches Jahrbuch für Alterthumskunde</i> (1881), +and <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, xlvi. (1902); art. in <i>Jewish +Encyclopaedia</i>; also Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> iii. 176 (1908).</p> +</div> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Michael Bernays</span> (1834-1897), was born in +Hamburg on the 27th of November 1834. He studied first law +and then literature at Bonn and Heidelberg, and obtained a +considerable reputation by his lectures on Shakespeare at +Leipzig and an explanatory text to Beethoven’s music to +<i>Egmont</i>. Having refused an invitation to take part in the editorship +of the <i>Preussiche Jahrbücher</i>, in the same year (1866) he +published his celebrated <i>Zur Kritik und Geschichte des Goetheschen-Textes.</i> +He confirmed his reputation by his lectures at the +university of Leipzig, and in 1873 accepted the post of extraordinary +professor of German literature at Munich specially created +for him by Louis II. of Bavaria. In 1874 he became an ordinary +professor, a position which he only resigned in 1889 when he +settled at Carlsruhe. He died at Carlsruhe on the 25th of +February 1897. At an early age he had embraced Christianity, +whereas his brother Jakob remained a Jew. Among his other +publications were: <i>Briefe Goethes an F.A. Wolf</i> (1868); <i>Zur +Enstehungsgeschichte des Schlegelschen Shakespeare</i> (1872); an +introduction to Hirzel’s collection entitled <i>Der junge Goethe</i> +(1875); and he edited a revised edition of Voss’s translation +of the <i>Odyssey</i>. From his literary remains were +published <i>Schriften zur Kritik und Litteraturgeschichte</i> (1895-1899).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNBURG,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> a town in the duchy of Anhalt, Germany, on +the Saale, 29 m. N. by W. from Halle by rail, formerly the +capital of the new incorporated duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg. +Pop. (1900) 34,427; (1905) 34,929. It consists of four parts, +the Altstadt or old town, the Bergstadt or hill town, the Neustadt +or new town, and the suburb of Waldau—the Bergstadt on the +right and the other three on the left of the river Saale, which is +crossed by a massive stone bridge. It is a well-built city, the +principal public buildings being the government house, the church +of St Mary, the gymnasium and the house of correction. The +castle, formerly the ducal residence, is in the Bergstadt, defended +by moats, and surrounded by beautiful gardens. Bernburg is +the seat of considerable industry, manufacturing machinery +and boilers, sugar, pottery and chemicals, and has lead and +zinc smelting. Market-gardening is also extensively carried +on, and there is a large river traffic in grain and agricultural +produce.</p> + +<p>Bernburg is of great antiquity. The Bergstadt was fortified +by Otto III. in the 10th century, and the new town was founded +in the 13th. For a long period the different parts were under +separate municipalities, the new town uniting with the old in +1560, and the Bergstadt with both in 1824. Prince Frederick +removed the ducal residence to Ballenstedt in 1765.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNERS, JOHN BOURCHIER,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> <span class="sc">2nd Baron</span> (1469-1533), +English translator, was born probably at Tharfield, Hertfordshire, +about 1469. His father was killed at Barnet in 1471, +and he inherited his title in 1474 from his grandfather, John +Bourchier, who was a descendant of Edward III. It is supposed +that he was educated at Oxford, perhaps at Balliol. His political +life began early, for in 1484 he was implicated in a premature +attempt to place Henry, duke of Richmond (afterwards +Henry VII.), on the throne, and fled in consequence to Brittany. +In 1497 he helped to put down an insurrection in Cornwall +and Devonshire, raised by Michael Joseph, a blacksmith, and +from this time was in high favour at court. He accompanied +Henry VIII. to Calais in 1513, and was a captain of pioneers +at the siege of Therouanne. In the next year he was again sent +to France as chamberlain to the king’s sister Mary on her marriage +with Louis XII., but he soon returned to England. He had +been given the reversion of the office of lord chancellor, +and in 1516 he received the actual appointment. In 1518 he +was sent to Madrid to negotiate an alliance with Charles of +Spain. He sent letters to Henry chronicling the bull-fights and +other doings of the Spanish court, and to Wolsey complaining +of the expense to which he was put in his position as ambassador. +In the next year he returned to England, and with his wife +Catherine Howard, daughter of the duke of Norfolk, was present +in 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. But his affairs were +greatly embarrassed. He was harassed by lawsuits about his +Hertfordshire property and owed the king sums he was unable +to repay. Perhaps in the hope of repairing his fortune, he +accepted the office of deputy of Calais, where he spent the rest +of his life in comparative leisure, though still harassed by his +debts, and died on the 16th of March 1533.</p> + +<p>His translation of <i>Syr Johan Froyssart of the Cronycles of +England, France, Spayne, Portyngale, Scotland, Bretayne, +Flaunders: and other places adjoynynge</i>, was undertaken at the +request of Henry VIII., and was printed by Richard Pynson in +two volumes dated 1523 and 1525. It was the most considerable +historical work that had yet appeared in English, and exercised +great influence on 16th-century chroniclers. Berners tells us in +his prefaces of his own love of histories of all kinds, and in the +introduction to his story of Arthur of Little Britain he excuses +its “fayned mater” and “many unpossybylytees” on the +ground that other well reputed histories are equally incredible. +He goes on to excuse his deficiencies by saying that he knew +himself to be unskilled in the “facundyous arte of retoryke,” +and that he was but a “lerner of the language of Frensshe.” +The want of rhetoric is not to be deplored. The style of his +translation is clear and simple, and he rarely introduces French +words or idioms. Two romances from the French followed: +<i>The Boke of Duke Huon of Burdeux</i> (printed 1534? by Wynkyn +de Worde), and <i>The Hystory of the Moost noble and valyaunt +knight Arthur of lytell brytayne</i>. His other two translations, +<i>The Castell of Love</i> (printed 1540), from the <i>Carcel de Amor</i> of +Diego de San Pedro, and <i>The Golden Boke of Marcus Aurelius</i> +(completed six days before his death, printed 1534), from a +French version of Antonio Guevara’s book, are in a different +manner. The <i>Golden Boke</i> gives Berners a claim to be a pioneer +of Euphuism, although Lyly was probably acquainted with +Guevara not through his version, but through Sir Thomas +North’s <i>Dial of Princes</i>. Berners is also credited with a book +on the duties of the inhabitants of Calais, which Mr Sidney Lee +thinks may be identical with the ordinance for watch and ward +of Calais preserved in the Cotton MSS. and with a lost comedy, +<i>Ite in vineam meam</i>, which used to be acted at Calais after +vespers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A biographical account of Berners is to be found in Mr Sidney +Lee’s introduction to <i>Huon of Bourdeaux</i> (Early English Text Society +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span> +1882-1883). Among the many editions of his translation of Froissart +may be mentioned that in the “Tudor Translations” (1901), with +an introductory critical note by Professor W.P. Ker.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNERS,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> <span class="sc">Barnes</span> or <span class="sc">Bernes</span>, <b>JULIANA</b> (b. 1388?), +English writer on hawking and hunting, is said to have been +prioress of Sopwell nunnery near St Albans, and daughter of +Sir James Berners, who was beheaded in 1388. She was probably +brought up at court, and when she adopted the religious life, +she still retained her love of hawking, hunting and fishing, and +her passion for field sports. The only documentary evidence +regarding her, however, is the statement at the end of her +treatise on hunting in the <i>Boke of St Albans</i>, “Explicit Dam +Julyans Barnes in her boke of huntyng” (edition of 1486), and +the name is changed by Wynkyn de Worde to “dame Julyans +Bernes.” There is no such person to be found in the pedigree +of the Berners family, and there is a gap in the records of the +priory of Sopwell between 1430 and 1480. Juliana Berners is +the supposed author of the work generally known as the <i>Boke +of St Albans</i>. The first and rarest edition was printed in 1486 by +an unknown schoolmaster at St Albans. It has no title-page. +Wynkyn de Worde’s edition (fol. 1496), also without a title-page, +begins:—“This present boke shewyth the manere of hawkynge +and huntynge: and also of diuysynge of Cote armours. It +shewyth also a good matere belongynge to horses: wyth other +comendable treatyses. And ferdermore of the blasynge of +armys: as hereafter it maye appere.” This edition was adorned +by three woodcuts, and included a “Treatyse of fysshynge wyth +an Angle,” not contained in the St Albans edition. J. Haslewood, +who published a facsimile of that of Wynkyn de Worde (London, +1811, folio), with a biographical and bibliographical notice, +examined with the greatest care the author’s claims to figure +as the earliest woman author in the English language. He +assigned to her little else in the <i>Boke</i> except part of the treatise +on hawking and the section on hunting. It is expressly stated +at the end of the “Blasynge of Armys” that the section was +“translatyd and compylyt,” and it is likely that the other +treatises are translations, probably from the French. An older +form of the treatise on fishing was edited in 1883 by Mr T. +Satchell from a MS. in possession of Mr A. Denison. This treatise +probably dates from about 1450, and formed the foundation of +that section in the book of 1496. Only three perfect copies of +the first edition are known to exist. A facsimile, entitled <i>The +Book of St Albans</i>, with an introduction by William Blades, +appeared in 1881. During the 16th century the work was very +popular, and was many times reprinted. It was edited by +Gervase Markham in 1595 as <i>The Gentleman’s Academie</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNHARD OF SAXE-WEIMAR,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke</span> (1604-1639), a +celebrated general in the Thirty Years’ War, was the eleventh +son of John, duke of Saxe-Weimar. He received an unusually +good education, and studied at Jena, but soon went to the court +of the Saxon elector to engage in knightly exercises. At the +outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War he took the field on the +Protestant side, and served under Mansfeld at Wiesloch (1622), +under the margrave of Baden at Wimpfen (1622), and with his +brother William at Stadtlohn (1623). Undismayed by these +defeats, he took part in the campaigns of the king of Denmark; +and when Christian withdrew from the struggle Bernhard went +to Holland and was present at the famous siege of Hertogenbosch +(Bois-le-Duc) in 1629. When Gustavus Adolphus landed in +Germany Bernhard quickly joined him, and for a short time he +was colonel of the Swedish life guards. After the battle of +Breitenfeld he accompanied Gustavus in his march to the Rhine +and, between this event and the battle of the Alte Veste, Bernhard +commanded numerous expeditions in almost every district +from the Moselle to Tirol. At the Alte Veste he displayed the +greatest courage, and at Lützen, when Gustavus was killed, +Bernhard immediately assumed the command, killed a colonel +who refused to lead his men to the charge, and finally by his +furious energy won the victory at sundown. At first as a subordinate +to his brother William, who as a Swedish lieutenant-general +succeeded to the command, but later as an independent +commander, Bernhard continued to push his forays over southern +Germany; and with the Swedish General Horn he made in 1633 +a successful invasion into Bavaria, which was defended by the +imperialist general Arldinger. In this year he acquired the duchy +of Würzburg, installing one of his brothers as <i>Stadthalter</i>, and +returning to the wars. A stern Protestant, he exacted heavy +contributions from the Catholic cities which he took, and his +repeated victories caused him to be regarded by German Protestants +as the saviour of their religion. But in 1634 Bernhard +suffered the great defeat of Nördlingen, in which the flower of +the Swedish army perished. In 1635 he entered the service of +France, which had now intervened in the war. He was now at +the same time general-in-chief of the forces maintained by the +Heilbronn union of Protestant princes, and a general officer in +the pay of France. This double position was very difficult; in +the following campaigns, ably and resolutely conducted as they +were, Bernhard sometimes pursued a purely French policy, +whilst at other times he used the French mercenaries to forward +the cause of the princes. From a military point of view his most +notable achievements were on the common ground of the upper +Rhine, in the Breisgau. In his great campaign of 1638 he won +the battles of Rheinfelden, Wittenweiher and Thann, and +captured successively Rheinfelden, Fieiburg and Breisach, the +last reputed one of the strongest fortresses in Europe. Bernhard +had in the first instance received definite assurances from France +that he should be given Alsace and Hagenau, Würzburg having +been lost in the <i>débâcle</i> of 1634; he now hoped to make Breisach +the capital of his new duchy. But his health was now broken. +He died on the 8/18th of July 1639 at the beginning of the +campaign, and the governor of Breisach was bribed to transfer the +fortress to France. The duke was buried at Breisach, his remains +being subsequently removed to Weimar.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.A.C. Hellfeld, <i>Geschichte Bernhards des Grossen, Herzogs +v. Saxe-Weimar</i> (Jena, 1747); B. Rose, <i>Herzog Bernhard d. Grosse +von Saxe-Weimar</i> (Weimar, 1828-1829); Droysen, <i>Bernhard v. +Weimar</i> (Leipzig, 1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNHARDT, SARAH<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Rosine Bernard</span>) (1845-  ), +French actress, was born in Paris on the 22nd of October 1845, +of mixed French and Dutch parentage, and of Jewish descent. +She was, however, baptized at the age of twelve and brought up +in a convent. At thirteen she entered the Conservatoire, where +she gained the second prize for tragedy in 1861 and for comedy +in 1862. Her <i>début</i> was made at the Comédie Française on the +11th of August 1862, in a minor part in Racine’s <i>Iphigénie en +Aulide</i>, without any marked success, nor did she do much better +in burlesque at the Porte St-Martin and Gymnase. In 1867 she +became a member of the company at the Odéon, where she made +her first definite successes as Cordelia in a French translation +of <i>King Lear</i>, as the queen in Victor Hugo’s <i>Ruy Blas</i>, and, +above all, as Zanetto in François Coppée’s <i>Le Passant</i> (1869). +When peace was restored after the Franco-German War she left +the Odéon for the Comédie Française, thereby incurring a +considerable monetary forfeit. From that time she steadily +increased her reputation, two of the most definite steps in her +progress being her performances of Phèdre in Racine’s play +(1874) and of Dona Sol in Victor Hugo’s <i>Hernani</i> (1877). In 1879 +she had a famous season at the Gaiety in London. By this time +her position as the greatest actress of her day was securely +established. Her amazing power of emotional acting, the +extraordinary realism and pathos of her death-scenes, the +magnetism of her personality, and the beauty of her “<i>voix d’or</i>,” +made the public tolerant of her occasional caprices. She had +developed some skill as a sculptor, and exhibited at the Salon at +various times between 1876 (honourable mention) and 1881. +She also exhibited a painting there in 1880. In 1878 she published +a prose sketch, <i>Dans les nuages; les impressions d’une +chaise</i>. Her comedy <i>L’Aveu</i> was produced in 1888 at the Odéon +without much success. Her relations with the other <i>sociétaires</i> +of the Comédie Française having become somewhat strained, a +crisis arrived in 1880, when, enraged by an unfavourable criticism +of her acting, she threw up her position on the day following +the first performance of Emile Augier’s <i>L’Aventurière</i>. This +obliged her to pay a forfeit of £4000 for breach of contract. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span> +Immediately after the rupture she gave a series of performances +in London, relying chiefly upon Scribe and Legouvé’s <i>Adrienne +Lecouvreur</i> and Meilhac and Halévy’s <i>Frou Frou</i>. These were +followed by tours in Denmark, America and Russia, during 1880 +and 1881, with <i>La Dame aux camélias</i> as the principal attraction. +In 1882 she married Jacques Damala, a Greek, in London, but +separated from him at the end of the following year. After a +fresh triumph in Paris with Sardou’s <i>Fédora</i> at the Vaudeville +she became proprietress of the Porte St-Martin. Jean Richepin’s <i>Nana +Sahib</i> (1883), Sardou’s <i>Théodora</i> (1884) and <i>La Tosca</i> +(1887), Jules Barbier’s <i>Jeanne d’Arc</i> (1890) and Sardou and +Moreau’s <i>Cléopâtre</i> (1890) were among her most conspicuous +successes here, where she remained till she became proprietress +of the Renaissance theatre in 1893. During those ten years she +made several extended tours, including visits to America in +1886-1887 and 1888-1889. Between 1891 and 1893 she again +visited America (North and South), Australia, and the chief +European capitals. In November 1893 she opened the Renaissance +with <i>Les Rois</i> by Jules Lemaitre, which was followed by +<i>Sylvestre</i> and Morand’s <i>Izeyl</i> (1894), Sardou’s <i>Gismonda</i> +(1894) and Edmond Rostand’s <i>La Princesse lointaine</i> (1895). In 1895 +she also appeared with conspicuous success as Magda in a French +translation of Sudermann’s <i>Heimat</i>. For the next few years +she visited London almost annually, and America in 1896. In +that year she made a success with an adaptation of Alfred de +Musset’s <i>Lorenzaccio</i>. In Easter week of 1897 she played in a +religious drama, <i>La Samaritaine</i>, by Rostand. In December 1896 +an elaborate fête was organized in Paris in her honour; and the +value of this public recognition of her position at the head of her +profession was enhanced by cordial greetings from all parts of +the world. By this time she had played one hundred and twelve +parts, thirty-eight of which she had created. Early in 1899 she +removed from the Renaissance to the Théâtre des Nations, a +larger house, which she opened with a revival of <i>La Tosca</i>. In the +same year she made the bold experiment of a French production +of <i>Hamlet</i>, in which she played the title part. She repeated +the impersonation in London not long afterwards, where she +also appeared (1901) as the fate-ridden son of Napoleon I., in +Rostand’s <i>L’Aiglon</i>, which had been produced in Paris the year +before. Of the successful productions of her later years perhaps +none was more remarkable than her impersonation of La Tisbé +in Victor Hugo’s romantic drama <i>Angelo</i> (1905).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Jules Huret, <i>Sarah Bernhardt</i> (1889); and her own volume of +autobiography (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNHARDY, GOTTFRIED<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1800-1875), German philologist +and literary historian, was born on the 20th of March 1800, at +Landsberg on the Wartia, in Brandenburg. He was the son of +Jewish parents in reduced circumstances. Two well-to-do +uncles provided the means for his education, and in 1811 he +entered the Joachimsthal gymnasium at Berlin. In 1817 he +went to Berlin University to study philology, where he had the +advantage of hearing F.A. Wolf (then advanced in years), +August Böckh and P. Buttmann. In 1822 he took the degree +of doctor of philosophy at Berlin, and in 1825 became extraordinary +professor. In 1829 he succeeded C. Reisig as ordinary +professor and director of the philological seminary at Halle, and +in 1844 was appointed chief librarian of the university. He died +suddenly on the 14th of May 1875. The most important of +Bernhardy’s works were his histories (or sketches) of Greek and +Roman literature; <i>Grundriss der römischen Litteratur</i> (5th ed., 1872); +<i>Grundriss der griechischcn Litteratur</i> (pt. i., Introduction +and General View, 1836; pt. ii, Greek Poetry, 1845; pt. iii., +Greek Prose Literature, was never published). A fifth edition of +pts. i. and ii., by R. Volkmann, began in 1892. Other works +by Bernhardy are: <i>Eratosthenica</i> (1822); <i>Wissenschaftliche +Syntax der griechischen Sprache</i> (1829, suppts. 1854, 1862); +<i>Grundlinien zur Encyclopädie der Philologie</i> (1832); the monumental +edition of the Lexicon of Suidas (1834-1853); and an +edition of F.A. Wolf’s <i>Kleine Schriften</i> (1869).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Volkmann, <i>G. Bernhardy</i> (1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1497-1536), Italian poet, was born +about 1497 at Lamporecchio, in Bibbiena, a district lying along +the Upper Arno. His family was of good descent, but excessively +poor. At an early age he was sent to Florence, where he remained +till his 19th year. He then set out for Rome, trusting to obtain +some assistance from his uncle, the Cardinal Bibbiena. The +cardinal, however, did nothing for him, and he was obliged to +accept a situation as clerk or secretary to Ghiberti, datary to +Clement VII. The duties of his office, for which Berni was in +every way unfit, were exceedingly irksome to the poet, who, +however, made himself celebrated at Rome as the most witty and +inventive of a certain club of literary men, who devoted themselves +to light and sparkling effusions. So strong was the +admiration for Berni’s verses, that mocking or burlesque poems +have since been called <i>poesie bernesca</i>. About the year 1530 he +was relieved from his servitude by obtaining a canonry in the +cathedral of Florence. In that city he died in 1536, according +to tradition poisoned by Duke Alessandro de’ Medici, for having +refused to poison the duke’s cousin, Ippolito de’ Medici; but +considerable obscurity rests over this story. Berni stands at the +head of Italian comic or burlesque poets. For lightness, sparkling +wit, variety of form and fluent diction, his verses are +unsurpassed. Perhaps, however, he owes his greatest fame to the +recasting (<i>Rifacimento</i>) of Boiardo’s <i>Orlando Innamorato</i>. The +enormous success of Ariosto’s <i>Orlando Furioso</i> had directed fresh +attention to the older poem, from which it took its characters, +and of which it is the continuation. But Boiardo’s work, though +good in plan, could never have achieved wide popularity on +account of the extreme ruggedness of its style. Berni undertook +the revision of the whole poem, avowedly altering no sentiment, +removing or adding no incident, but simply giving to each line +and stanza due gracefulness and polish. His task he completed +with marvellous success; scarcely a line remains as it was, and +the general opinion has pronounced decisively in favour of the +revision over the original. To each canto he prefixed a few +stanzas of reflective verse in the manner of Ariosto, and in one +of these introductions he gives us the only certain information we +have concerning his own life. Berni appears to have been favourably +disposed towards the Reformation principles at that time +introduced into Italy, and this may explain the bitterness of some +remarks of his upon the church. The first edition of the <i>Rifacimento</i> +was printed posthumously in 1541, and it has been supposed +that a few passages either did not receive the author’s final +revision, or have been retouched by another hand.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A partial translation of Berni’s <i>Orlando</i> was published +by W.S. Rose (1823).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNICIA,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> the northern of the two English kingdoms which +were eventually united in the kingdom of Northumbria. Its +territory is said to have stretched from the Tyne northwards, +ultimately reaching the Forth, while its western frontier was +gradually extended at the expense of the Welsh. The chief +royal residence was Bamburgh, and near it was the island of +Lindisfarne, afterwards the see of a bishop. The first king of +whom we have any record is Ida, who is said to have obtained +the throne about 547. Æthelfrith, king of Bernicia, united +Deira to his own kingdom, probably about 605, and the union +continued under his successor Edwin, son of Ella or Ælle, king +of Deira. Bernicia was again separate from Deira under Eanfrith, +son of Æthelfrith (633-634), after which date the kings of +Bernicia were supreme in Northumbria, though for a short time +under Oswio Deira had a king of its own.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bede, <i>Hist. Eccles.</i> ii. 14, iii. 1, 14; Nennius, § 63; Simeon +of Durham, i. 339.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. G. M. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNICIAN SERIES,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> in geology, a term proposed by S.P. Woodward +in 1856 (<i>Manual of Mollusca</i>, p. 409) for the lower +portion of the Carboniferous System, below the Millstone Grit. The +name was suggested by that of the ancient province of Bernicia +on the Anglo-Scottish borderland. It is practically equivalent +to the “Dinantien” of A. de Lapparent and Munier-Chalmas +(1893). In 1875 G. Tate’s “Calcareous and Carbonaceous” +groups of the Carboniferous Limestone series of Northumberland +were united by Professor Lebour into a single series, to which he +applied the name “Bernician”; but later he speaks of the +whole of the Carboniferous rocks of Northumberland and its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span> +borders as of the “Bernician type,” which is the most satisfactory +way in which the term may now be used (<i>Report of the Brit. +Sub-committee on Classification and Nomenclature</i>, 2nd ed., +Cambridge, 1888). “Demetian” was the corresponding designation +proposed by Woodward for the Upper Carboniferous rocks.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1598-1680), Italian artist, +was born at Naples. He was more celebrated as an architect and +a sculptor than as a painter. At a very early age his great skill +in modelling introduced him to court favour at Rome, and he +was specially patronized by Maffeo Barberini, afterwards Pope +Urban VIII., whose palace he designed. None of his sculptured +groups at all come up to the promised excellence of his first effort, +the Apollo and Daphne, nor are any of his paintings of particular +merit. His busts were in so much request that Charles I. of +England, being unable to have a personal interview with Bernini, +sent him three portraits by Vandyck, from which the artist was +enabled to complete his model. His architectural designs, +including the great colonnade of St Peter’s, brought him perhaps +his greatest celebrity. Louis XIV., when he contemplated the +restoration of the Louvre, sent for Bernini, but did not adopt his +designs. The artist’s progress through France was a triumphal +procession, and he was most liberally rewarded by the great +monarch. He left a fortune of over £100,000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNIS, FRANÇOIS JOACHIM DE PIERRE DE<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1715-1794), +French cardinal and statesman, was born at St Marcel-d’Ardèche +on the 22nd of May 1715. He was of a noble but impoverished +family, and, being a younger son, was intended for the church. +He was educated at the Louis-le-Grand college and the seminary +of Saint-Sulpice, Paris, but did not take orders till 1755. He +became known as one of the most expert epigrammatists in the +gay society of Louis XV.’s court, and by his verses won the +friendship of Madame de Pompadour, the royal mistress, who +obtained for him an apartment, furnished at her expense, in the +Tuileries, and a yearly pension of 1500 livres (about £60). In +1751 he was appointed to the French embassy at Venice, where +he acted, to the satisfaction of both parties, as mediator between +the republic and Pope Benedict XIV. During his stay in Venice +he received subdeacon’s orders, and on his return to France in +1755 was made a papal councillor of state. He took an important +part in the delicate negotiations between France and Austria +which preceded the Seven Years’ War. He regarded the alliance +purely as a temporary expedient, and did not propose to employ +the whole forces of France in a general war. But he was overruled +by his colleagues. He became secretary for foreign affairs +on the 27th of June 1757, but owing to his attempts to counteract +the spendthrift policy of the marquise de Pompadour and her +creatures, he fell into disgrace and was in December 1758 banished +to Soissons by Louis XV., where he remained in retirement for +six years. In the previous November he had been created +cardinal by Clement XIII. On the death of the royal mistress +in 1764, Bernis was recalled and once more offered the seals of +office, but declined them, and was appointed archbishop of Albi. +His occupancy of the see was not of long duration. In 1769 he +went to Rome to assist at the conclave which resulted in the +election of Clement XIV., and the talent which he displayed on +that occasion procured him the appointment of ambassador in +Rome, where he spent the remainder of his life. He was partly +instrumental in bringing about the suppression of the Jesuits, +and acted with greater moderation than is generally allowed. +He lost his influence under Pius VI., who was friendly to the +Jesuits, and the French Revolution, to which he was hostile, +reduced him almost to penury; the court of Spain, however, +mindful of the support he had given to their ambassador in +obtaining the condemnation of the Jesuits, came to his relief +with a handsome pension. He died at Rome on the 3rd of +November 1794, and was buried in the church of S. Luigi +de’ Francesi. In 1803 his remains were transferred to the cathedral +at Nîmes. His poems, the longest of which is <i>La Religion vengée</i> +(Parma, 1794), have no merit; they were collected and published +after his death (Paris, 1797, &c.); his <i>Mémoires et lettres 1715-58</i> +(2 vols., Paris, 1878) are still interesting to the historian.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Frédéric Masson’s prefaces to the <i>Mémoires et lettres</i>, and +<i>Le Cardinal de Bernis depuis son ministère;</i> (Paris, 1884); E. et J. de +Goncourt, <i>Mme de Pompadour</i> (Paris, 1888), and Sainte-Beuve, +<i>Causeries du lundi</i>, t. viii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNKASTEL,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine +province, on the Mosel, in a deep and romantic valley, connected +by a branch to Wengerohr with the main Trier-Coblenz railway. +Pop. 2300. It has some unimportant manufactures; the chief +industry is in wine, of which Berncastler Doctor enjoys great +repute. Above the town lie the ruins of the castle Landshut. +Bernkastel originally belonged to the chapter of Trier, and +received its name from one of the provosts of the cathedral, +Adalbero of Luxemburg (hence <i>Adalberonis castellum</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNOULLI,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bernouilli</span>, the name of an illustrious +family in the annals of science, who came originally from +Antwerp. Driven from their country during the oppressive +government of Spain for their attachment to the Reformed +religion, the Bernoullis sought first an asylum at Frankfort +(1583), and afterwards at Basel, where they ultimately obtained +the highest distinctions. In the course of a century eight of its +members successfully cultivated various branches of mathematics, +and contributed powerfully to the advance of science. +The most celebrated were Jacques (James), Jean (John) and +Daniel, the first, second and fourth as dealt with below; but, +for the sake of perspicuity they may be considered as nearly as +possible in the order of family succession. A complete summary +of the great developments of mathematical learning, which the +members of this family effected, lies outside the scope of this +notice. More detailed accounts are to be found in the various +mathematical articles.</p> + +<p>I. <span class="sc">Jacques Bernoulli</span> (1654-1705), mathematician, was born +at Basel on the 27th of December 1654. He was educated at +the public school of Basel, and also received private instruction +from the learned Hoffmann, then professor of Greek. At the +conclusion of his philosophical studies at the university, some +geometrical figures, which fell in his way, excited in him a passion +for mathematical pursuits, and in spite of the opposition of his +father, who wished him to be a clergyman, he applied himself +in secret to his favourite science. In 1676 he visited Geneva on +his way to France, and subsequently travelled to England and +Holland. While at Geneva he taught a blind girl several branches +of science, and also how to write; and this led him to publish +<i>A Method of Teaching Mathematics to the Blind</i>. At Bordeaux +his <i>Universal Tables on Dialling</i> were constructed; and in +London he was admitted to the meetings of Robert Boyle, +Robert Hooke and other learned and scientific men. On his +final return to Basel in 1682, he devoted himself to physical and +mathematical investigations, and opened a public seminary for +experimental physics. In the same year he published his essay +on comets, <i>Conamen Novi Systematis Cometarum</i>, which was +occasioned by the appearance of the comet of 1680. This essay, +and his next publication, entitled <i>De Gravitate Aetheris</i>, were +deeply tinged with the philosophy of René Descartes, but they +contain truths not unworthy of the philosophy of Sir Isaac +Newton’s <i>Principia</i>.</p> + +<p>Jacques Bernoulli cannot be strictly called an independent +discoverer; but, from his extensive and successful application +of the calculus and other mathematical methods, he is deserving +of a place by the side of Newton and Leibnitz. As an additional +claim to remembrance, he was the first to solve Leibnitz’s +problem of the isochronous curve (<i>Acta Eruditorum</i>, 1690). He +proposed the problem of the catenary (<i>q.v.</i>) or curve formed by +a chain suspended by its two extremities, accepted Leibnitz’s +construction of the curve and solved more complicated problems +relating to it. He determined the “elastic curve,” which is +formed by an elastic plate or rod fixed at one end and bent by a +weight applied to the other, and which he showed to be the same +as the curvature of an impervious sail filled with a liquid +(<i>lintearia</i>). In his investigations respecting cycloidal lines and +various spiral curves, his attention was directed to the loxodromic +and logarithmic spirals, in the last of which he took +particular interest from its remarkable property of reproducing +itself under a variety of conditions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span></p> + +<p>In 1696 he proposed the famous problem of isoperimetrical +figures, and offered a reward for its solution. This problem +engaged the attention of British as well as continental mathematicians; +and its proposal gave rise to a painful quarrel +with his brother Jean. Jean offered a solution of the problem; +his brother pronounced it to be wrong. Jean then amended his +solution, and again offered it, and claimed the reward. Jacques +still declared it to be no solution, and soon after published his +own. In 1701 he published also the demonstration of his solution, +which was accepted by the marquis de l’Hôpital and +Leibnitz. Jean, however, held his peace for several years, and +then dishonestly published, after the death of Jacques, another +incorrect solution; and not until 1718 did he admit that he had +been in error. Even then he set forth as his own his brother’s +solution purposely disguised.</p> + +<p>In 1687 the mathematical chair of the university of Basel was +conferred upon Jacques. He was once made rector of his +university, and had other distinctions bestowed on him. He +and his brother Jean were the first two foreign associates of the +Academy of Sciences of Paris; and, at the request of Leibnitz, +they were both received as members of the academy of Berlin. +In 1684 he had been offered a professorship at Heidelberg; but +his marriage with a lady of his native city led him to decline the +invitation. Intense application brought on infirmities and a +slow fever, of which he died on the 16th of August 1705. Like +another Archimedes, he requested that the logarithmic spiral +should be engraven on his tombstone, with these words, <i>Eadem +mutata resurgo</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Jacques Bernoulli wrote elegant verses in Latin, German and +French; but although these were held in high estimation in his own +time, it is on his mathematical works that his fame now rests. These +are:—<i>Jacobi Bernoulli Basiliensis Opera</i> (Genevae, 1744), 2 tom. +4to; <i>Ars Conjectandi, opus posthumum: accedunt tractatus de Seriebus +Infinitis, et epistola</i> (<i>Gallice scripta</i>) <i>de Ludo Pilae Reticularis</i> +(Basiliae, 1713), 1 tom. 4to.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">II. Jean Bernoulli</span> (1667-1748), brother of the preceding, +was born at Basel on the 27th of July 1667. After finishing his +literary studies he was sent to Neuchâtel to learn commerce and +acquire the French language. But at the end of a year he +renounced the pursuits of commerce, returned to the university +of Basel, and was admitted to the degree of bachelor in philosophy, +and a year later, at the age of 18, to that of master of arts. In +his studies he was aided by his elder brother Jacques. Chemistry, +as well as mathematics, seems to have been the object of his early +attention; and in the year 1690 he published a dissertation on +effervescence and fermentation. The same year he went to +Geneva, where he gave instruction in the differential calculus to +Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, and afterwards proceeded to Paris, +where he enjoyed the society of N. Malebranche, J.D. Cassini, +Philip de Lahire and Pierre Varignon. With the marquis de +l’Hôpital he spent four months studying higher geometry and +the resources of the new calculus. His independent discoveries +in mathematics are numerous and important. Among these +were the exponential calculus, and the curve called by him the +<i>linea brachistochrona</i>, or line of swiftest descent, which he was +the first to determine, pointing out at the same time the relation +which this curve bears to the path described by a ray of light +passing through strata of variable density. On his return to his +native city he studied medicine, and in 1694 took the degree of +M.D. Although he had declined a professorship in Germany, he +now accepted an invitation to the chair of mathematics at +Groningen (<i>Commercium Philosophicum</i>, epist. xi. and xii.). +There, in addition to the learned lectures by which he endeavoured +to revive mathematical science in the university, he gave a public +course of experimental physics. During a residence of ten years +in Groningen, his controversies were almost as numerous as his +discoveries. His dissertation on the “barometric light,” first +observed by Jean Picard, and discussed by Jean Bernoulli under +the name of mercurial phosphorus, or mercury shining in vacuo +(<i>Diss. physica de mercurio lucente in vacuo</i>), procured him the +notice of royalty, and engaged him in controversy. Through the +influence of Leibnitz he received from the king of Prussia a gold +medal for his supposed discoveries; but Nicolaus Hartsoeker +and some of the French academicians disputed the fact. The +family quarrel about the problem of isoperimetrical figures above +mentioned began about this time. In his dispute with his +brother, in his controversies with the English and Scottish mathematicians, +and in his harsh and jealous bearing to his son Daniel, +he showed a mean, unfair and violent temper. He had declined, +during his residence at Groningen, an invitation to Utrecht, but +accepted in 1705 the mathematical chair in the university of his +native city, vacant by the death of his brother Jacques; and +here he remained till his death. His inaugural discourse was +on the “new analysis,” which he so successfully applied in +investigating various problems both in pure and applied +mathematics.</p> + +<p>He was several times a successful competitor for the prizes +given by the Academy of Sciences of Paris; the subjects of +his essays being:—the laws of motion (<i>Discours sur les lois de la +communication du mouvement</i>, 1727), the elliptical orbits of the +planets, and the inclinations of the planetary orbits (<i>Essai d’une +nouvelle physique céleste</i>, 1735). In the last case his son Daniel +divided the prize with him. Some years after his return to Basel +he published an essay, entitled <i>Nouvelle Théorie de la manœuvre +des vaisseaux</i>. It is, however, his works in pure mathematics that +are the permanent monuments of his fame. Jean le Rond +d’Alembert acknowledges with gratitude, that “whatever he +knew of mathematics he owed to the works of Jean Bernoulli.” +He was a member of almost every learned society in Europe, and +one of the first mathematicians of a mathematical age. He was +as keen in his resentments as he was ardent in his friendships; +fondly attached to his family, he yet disliked a deserving son; +he gave full praise to Leibnitz and Leonhard Euler, yet was blind +to the excellence of Sir Isaac Newton. Such was the vigour of his +constitution that he continued to pursue his usual mathematical +studies till the age of eighty. He was then attacked by a complaint +at first apparently trifling; but his strength daily and +rapidly declined till the 1st of January 1748, when he died +peacefully in his sleep.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His writings were collected under his own eye by Gabriel Cramer, +professor of mathematics at Geneva, and published under the title +of <i>Johannis Bernoulli Operi Omnia</i> (Lausan. et Genev.), 4 tom. +4to; his interesting correspondence with Leibnitz appeared under +the title of <i>Gul. Leibnitii et Johannis Bernoulli Commercium Philosophicum +et Mathematicum</i> (Lausan. et Genev. 1745), 2 tom. 4to.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">III. Nicolas Bernoulli</span> (1695-1726), the eldest of the three +sons of Jean Bernoulli, was born on the 27th of January 1695. +At the age of eight he could speak German, Dutch, French and +Latin. When his father returned to Basel he went to the university +of that city, where, at the age of sixteen, he took the degree +of doctor in philosophy, and four years later the highest degree +in law. Meanwhile the study of mathematics was not neglected, +as appears not only from his giving instruction in geometry to +his younger brother Daniel, but from his writings on the differential, +integral, and exponential calculus, and from his father +considering him, at the age of twenty-one, worthy of receiving +the torch of science from his own hands. (“Lampada nunc +tradam filio meo natu maximo, juveni xxi. annorum, ingenio +mathematico aliisque dotibus satis instructo,” <i>Com. Phil.</i> ep. +223.) With his father’s permission he visited Italy and France, +and during his travels formed friendship with Pierre Varignon +and Count Riccati. The invitation of a Venetian nobleman +induced him again to visit Italy, where he resided two years, till +his return to be a candidate for the chair of jurisprudence at +Basel. He was unsuccessful, but was soon afterwards appointed +to a similar office in the university of Bern. Here he resided +three years, his happiness only marred by regret on account of +his separation from his brother Daniel. Both were appointed at +the same time professors of mathematics in the academy of +St Petersburg; but this office Nicolas enjoyed for little more +then eight months. He died on the 26th of July 1726 of a +lingering fever. Sensible of the loss which the nation had +sustained by his death, the empress Catherine ordered him a +funeral at the public expense.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Some of his papers are published in his father’s works, and others +in the <i>Acta Eruditorum</i> and the <i>Comment. Acad. Petropol.</i></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span></p> + +<p><span class="sc">IV. Daniel Bernoulli</span> (1700-1782), the second son of Jean +Bernoulli, was born on the 29th of January 1700, at Groningen. +He studied medicine and became a physician, but his attention +was early directed also to geometrical studies. The severity of +his father’s manner was ill-calculated to encourage the first +efforts of one so sensitive; but fortunately, at the age of eleven, +he became the pupil of his brother Nicolas. He afterwards +studied in Italy under Francesco Domenico Michelotti and +Giambattista Morgagni. After his return, though only twenty-four +years of age, he was invited to become president of an academy +then projected at Genoa; but, declining this honour, he was, in +the following year, appointed professor of mathematics at St +Petersburg. In consequence of the state of his health, however, +he returned to Basel in 1733, where he was appointed professor +of anatomy and botany, and afterwards of experimental and +speculative philosophy. In the labours of this office he spent +the remaining years of his life. He had previously published +some medical and botanical dissertations, besides his <i>Exercitationes +quaedam Mathematicae</i>, containing a solution of the differential +equation proposed by Riccati and now known by his name. +In 1738 appeared his <i>Hydrodynamica</i>, in which the equilibrium, +the pressure, the reaction and varied velocities of fluids are +considered both theoretically and practically. One of these +problems, illustrated by experiment, deals with an ingenious +mode of propelling vessels by the reaction of water ejected from +the stern. Some of his experiments on this subject were performed +before Pierre Louis M. de Maupertuis and Alexis Claude +Clairaut, whom the fame of the Bernoullis had attracted to +Basel. With a success equalled only by Leonhard Euler, Daniel +Bernoulli gained or shared no less than ten prizes of the Academy +of Sciences of Paris. The first, for a memoir on the construction +of a clepsydra for measuring time exactly at sea, he gained at +the age of twenty-four; the second, for one on the physical +cause of the inclination of the planetary orbits, he divided with +his father; and the third, for a communication on the tides, he +shared with Euler, Colin Maclaurin and another competitor. +The problem of vibrating cords, which had been some time before +resolved by Brook Taylor (1685-1731) and d’Alembert, became +the subject of a long discussion conducted in a generous spirit +between Bernoulli and his friend Euler. In one of his early +investigations he gave an ingenious though indirect demonstration +of the problem of the parallelogram of forces. His labours +in the decline of life were chiefly directed to the doctrine of +probabilities in reference to practical purposes, and in particular +to economical subjects, as, for example, to inoculation, and to +the duration of married life in the two sexes, as well as to the +relative proportion of male and female births. He retained his +usual vigour of understanding till near the age of eighty, when +his nephew Jacques relieved him of his public duties. He was +afflicted with asthma, and his retirement was relieved only by +the society of a few chosen friends. He died on the 17th of March +1782 at Basel. Excluded by his professional character from the +councils of the republic, he nevertheless received all the deference +and honour due to a first magistrate. He was wont to mention +the following as the two incidents in his life which had afforded +him the greatest pleasure,—that a stranger, whom he had met as +a travelling companion in his youth, made to his declaration +“I am Daniel Bernoulli” the incredulous and mocking reply, +“And I am Isaac Newton”; and that, while entertaining +König and other guests, he solved without rising from table a +problem which that mathematician had submitted as difficult +and lengthy. Like his father, he was a member of almost every +learned society of Europe, and he succeeded him as foreign +associate of the Academy of Paris.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Several of his investigations are contained in the earlier volumes +of the <i>Comment. Acad. Petropol.</i>; and his separately published works +are:—<i>Dissertatio Inaugur. Phys. Med. de Respiratione</i> (Basil. 1721), +4to; <i>Positiones Anatomico-Botanicae</i> (Basil. 1721), 4to; <i>Exercitationes +quaedam Mathematicae</i> (Venetiis, 1724), 4to; <i>Hydrodynamica</i> +(Argentorati, 1738), 4to.</p> +</div> + +<p>V. <span class="sc">Jean Bernoulli</span> (1710-1790), the youngest of the three +sons of Jean Bernoulli, was born at Basel on the 18th of May +1710. He studied law and mathematics, and, after travelling in +France, was for five years professor of eloquence in the university +of his native city. On the death of his father he succeeded him +as professor of mathematics. He was thrice a successful competitor +for the prizes of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. His +prize subjects were, the capstan, the propagation of light, and the +magnet. He enjoyed the friendship of P.L.M. de Maupertuis, +who died under his roof while on his way to Berlin. He himself +died in 1790. His two sons, Jean and Jacques, are the last +noted mathematicians of the family.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">VI. Nicolas Bernoulli</span> (1687-1759), cousin of the three +preceding, and son of Nicolas Bernoulli, one of the senators of +Basel, was born in that city on the 10th of October 1687. He +visited England, where he was kindly received by Sir Isaac +Newton and Edmund Halley (<i>Com. Phil.</i> ep. 199), held for a +time the mathematical chair at Padua, and was successively +professor of logic and of law at Basel, where he died on the 29th +of November 1759. He was editor of the <i>Ars Conjectandi</i> +of his uncle Jacques. His own works are contained in the <i>Acta +Eruditorum</i>, the <i>Giornale de’ letterati d’ Italia</i>, and the <i>Commercium Philosophicum</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">VII. Jean Bernoulli</span> (1744-1807), grandson of the first +Jean Bernoulli, and son of the second of that name, was born +at Basel on the 4th of November 1744. He studied at Basel +and at Neuchâtel, and when thirteen years of age took the +degree of doctor in philosophy. At nineteen he was appointed +astronomer royal of Berlin. Some years after, he visited +Germany, France and England, and subsequently Italy, +Russia and Poland. On his return to Berlin he was appointed +director of the mathematical department of the academy. +Here he died on the 13th of July 1807. His writings consist of +travels and astronomical, geographical and mathematical +works. In 1774 he published a French translation of Leonhard +Euler’s <i>Elements of Algebra</i>. He contributed several papers to +the Academy of Berlin.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">VIII. Jacques Bernoulli</span> (1759-1789), younger brother of +the preceding, and the second of this name, was born at Basel +on the 17th of October 1759. Having finished his literary +studies, he was, according to custom, sent to Neuchâtel to learn +French. On his return he graduated in law. This study, +however, did not check his hereditary taste for geometry. The +early lessons which he had received from his father were continued +by his uncle Daniel, and such was his progress that at +the age of twenty-one he was called to undertake the duties +of the chair of experimental physics, which his uncle’s advanced +years rendered him unable to discharge. He afterwards accepted +the situation of secretary to count de Brenner, which afforded +him an opportunity of seeing Germany and Italy. In Italy +he formed a friendship with Lorgna, professor of mathematics +at Verona, and one of the founders of the <i>Società Italiana</i> for the +encouragement of the sciences. He was also made corresponding +member of the royal society of Turin; and, while residing +at Venice, he was, through the friendly representation of Nicolaus +von Fuss, admitted into the academy of St Petersburg. In +1788 he was named one of its mathematical professors.</p> + +<p>He was tragically drowned while bathing in the Neva in +July 1789, a few months after his marriage with a daughter +of Albert Euler, son of Leonhard Euler.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Several of his papers are contained in the first six volumes of +<i>Nova Acta Acad. Scien. Imper. Petropol.</i>, in the <i>Acta Helvetica</i>, in the +<i>Memoirs of the Academies of Berlin and Turin</i>, and in his brother +John’s publications. He also published separately some juridical +and physical theses, and a German translation of <i>Mémoires du +philosophe de Merian</i>. See generally M. Cantor, <i>Geschichte der +Mathematik</i>; J.C. Poggendorff, <i>Biographisch-literarisches Handwörterbuch</i> (1863-1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNSTEIN, AARON<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1812-1884), Jewish scientist, author +and reformer. In the middle of the 19th century Bernstein took +an active share in the movement for synagogue reform in Germany. +He was the author of two delightful Ghetto stories, +<i>Vögele der Maggid</i> and <i>Mendel Gibbor</i>, being one of the originators +of this <i>genre</i> of modern fiction. He was also a publicist, and his +<i>History of Revolution and Reaction in Germany</i> (3 vols., 1883-1884) +was a collection of important political essays.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNSTORFF, ANDREAS PETER,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1735-1797), +Danish statesman, was born at Hanover on the 28th of August +1735. His career was determined by his uncle, Johann Hartwig +Ernst Bernstorff, who early discerned the talents of his nephew +and induced him to study in the German and Swiss universities +and travel for some years in Italy, France, England and Holland, +to prepare himself for a statesman’s career. During these +<i>Wanderjahre</i> he made the acquaintance of the poets Gellert and +Jacobi, the learned Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, the duc de +Choiseul, and Gottfried Achenwall, the statistician. At his +uncle’s desire he rejected the Hanoverian for the Danish service, +and in 1759 took his seat in the German chancery at Copenhagen. +In 1767, at the same time as his uncle, he was created a count, +and in 1769 was made a privy-councillor. He is described at +this period as intellectual, upright and absolutely trustworthy, +but obstinate and self-opinionated to the highest degree, arguing +with antiquaries about coins, with equerries about horses, and +with foreigners about their own countries, always certain that +he was right and they wrong, whatever the discussion might +be. He shared the disgrace of his uncle when Struensee came +into power, but re-entered the Danish service after Struensee’s +fall at the end of 1772, working at first in the financial and +economical departments, and taking an especial interest in +agriculture. The improvements he introduced in the tenures +of his peasantry anticipated in some respects the agricultural +reforms of the next generation.</p> + +<p>In April 1773 Bernstorff was transferred to the position for +which he was especially fitted, the ministry of foreign affairs, +with which he combined the presidency of the German chancery +(for Schleswig-Holstein). His predecessor, Adolf Siegfried Osten, +had been dismissed because he was not <i>persona grata</i> at St +Petersburg, and Bernstorff’s first official act was to conclude the +negotiations which had long been pending with the grand-duke +Paul as duke of Holstein-Gottorp. The result was the exchange-treaty +of the 1st of June (May 21 O.S.) 1773, confirming the +previous treaty of 1767 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bernstorff, J.H.E.</a></span>). This was +followed by the treaty of alliance between Denmark and Russia +of the 12th of August 1773, which was partly a mutually defensive +league, and partly an engagement between the two states to +upset the new constitution recently established in Sweden by +Gustavus III., when the right moment for doing so should arrive. +For this mischievous and immoral alliance, which bound +Denmark to the wheels of the Russian empress’s chariot and +sought to interfere in the internal affairs of a neighbouring state, +Bernstorff was scarcely responsible, for the preliminaries had +been definitely settled in his uncle’s time and he merely concluded +them. But there can be no doubt that he regarded this anti-Swedish +policy as the correct one for Denmark, especially with +a monarch like Gustavus III. on the Swedish throne. It is +also pretty certain that the anti-Swedish alliance was Russia’s +price for compounding the Gottorp difficulty.</p> + +<p>Starting from the hypothesis that Sweden was “Denmark-Norway’s +most active and irreconcilable enemy,” Bernstorff +logically included France, the secular ally of Sweden, among the +hostile powers with whom an alliance was to be avoided, and +drew near to Great Britain as the natural foe of France, especially +during the American War of Independence, and this too despite +the irritation occasioned in Denmark-Norway by Great Britain’s +masterful interpretation of the expression “contraband.” +Bernstorff’s sympathy with England grew stronger still when in +1779 Spain joined her enemies; and he was much inclined, the +same winter, to join a triple alliance between Great Britain, +Russia and Denmark-Norway, proposed by England for the +purpose of compelling the Bourbon powers to accept reasonable +terms of peace. But he was overruled by the crown prince +Frederick, who thought such a policy too hazardous, when +Russia declined to have anything to do with it. Instead of this +the Russian chancellor Nikita Panin proposed an armed league +to embrace all the neutral powers, for the purpose of protecting +neutral shipping in time of war. This league was very similar +to one proposed by Bernstorff himself in September 1778 for +enforcing the principle “a free ship makes the cargo free”; +but as now presented by Russia, he rightly regarded it as directed +exclusively against England. He acceded to it indeed (9th of +July 1780) because he could not help doing so; but he had +previously, by a separate treaty with England, on the 4th of July, +come to an understanding with that power as to the meaning of +the expression “contraband of war.” This independence +caused great wrath at St Petersburg, where Bernstorff was +accused of disloyalty, and ultimately sacrificed to the resentment +of the Russian government (13th of November 1780), the more +readily as he already disagreed on many important points of +domestic administration with the prime minister Höegh Guldberg. +He retired to his Mecklenburg estates, but on the fall of Guldberg +four years later, was recalled to office (April 1784). The ensuing +thirteen years were perhaps the best days of the old Danish +absolutism. The government, under the direction of such +enlightened ministers as Bernstorff, Reventlow and others, held +the mean between Struensee’s extravagant cosmopolitanism and +Guldberg’s stiff conservatism. In such noble projects of reform +as the emancipation of the serfs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reventlow</a></span>) Bernstorff +took a leading part, and so closely did he associate himself with +everything Danish, so popular did he become in the Danish +capital, that a Swedish diplomatist expressed the opinion that +henceforth Bernstorff could not be removed without danger. +Liberal-minded as he was, he held that “the will of the nation +should be a law to the king,” and he boldly upheld the freedom +of the press as the surest of safety-valves.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile foreign complications were again endangering the +position of Denmark-Norway. As Bernstorff had predicted, +Panin’s neutrality project had resulted in a breach between +Great Britain and Russia. Then came Gustavus III.’s sudden +war with Russia in 1788. Bernstorff was bound by treaty to +assist Russia in such a contingency, but he took care that the +assistance so rendered should be as trifling as possible, to avoid +offending Great Britain and Prussia. Still more menacing +became the political situation on the outbreak of the French +Revolution. Ill-disposed as Bernstorff was towards the Jacobins, +he now condemned on principle any interference in the domestic +affairs of France, and he was persuaded that Denmark’s safest +policy was to keep clear of every anti-French coalition. From +this unassailable standpoint he never swerved, despite the +promises and even the menaces both of the eastern and the +western powers. He was rewarded with complete success and +the respect of all the diplomatists in Europe. His neutrality +treaty with Sweden (17th of March 1794), for protecting their +merchantmen by combined squadrons, was also extremely +beneficial to the Scandinavian powers, both commercially and +politically. Taught by the lesson of Poland, he had, in fact, +long since abandoned his former policy of weakening Sweden. +Bernstorff’s great faculties appeared, indeed, to mature and +increase with age, and his death, on the 21st of June 1797, was +regarded in Denmark as a national calamity.</p> + +<p>Count Bernstorff was twice married, his wives being the two +sisters of the writers Counts Christian and Friedrich Leopold +zu Stolberg. He left seven sons and three daughters. Of his +sons the best known is Christian Günther, count von Bernstorff. +Another, Count Joachim, was attached to his brother’s fortunes +so long as he remained in the Danish service, was associated +with him in representing Denmark at the congress of Vienna, +and in 1815 was appointed ambassador at that court.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Rasmus Nyerup, <i>Bernstorffs Eftermaele</i> (Kjobenhavn, 1799); +Peter Edward Holm, <i>Danmark-Norges udenrigske Historie</i> (Copenhagen, +1875); <i>Danmarks Riges Historie V.</i> (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); +Christian Ulrich Detlev von Eggers, <i>Denkwurdigskeiten aus +dem Leben des Grafen A.P. Bernstorff</i> (Copenhagen, 1800); Aage +Frus, <i>A.P. Bernstorff og O. Hoegh-Guldberg</i> (Copenhagen, 1899); +and <i>Bernstorfferne og Danmark</i> (Copenhagen, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNSTORFF, CHRISTIAN GÜNTHER,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1769-1835), +Danish and Prussian statesman and diplomatist, son of +Count Andreas Peter von Bernstorff, was born at Copenhagen +on the 3rd of April 1769. Educated for the diplomatic service +under his father’s direction, he began his career in 1787, as +attaché to the representative of Denmark at the opening of the +Swedish diet. In 1789 he went as secretary of legation to Berlin, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span> +where his maternal uncle, Count Leopold Friedrich zu Stolberg, +was Danish ambassador. His uncle’s influence, as well as his +own social qualities, obtained him rapid promotion; he was +soon chargé d’affaires, and in 1791 minister plenipotentiary. +In 1794 he exchanged this post for the important one of ambassador +at Stockholm, where he remained until May 1797, when +he was summoned to Copenhagen to act as substitute for his +father during his illness. On the death of the latter (21st June), +he succeeded him as secretary of state for foreign affairs and +privy councillor. In 1800 he became head of the ministry. +He remained responsible for the foreign policy of Denmark +until May 1810, a fateful period which saw the battle of Copenhagen +(2nd of April 1801), the bombardment of Copenhagen +and capture of the Danish fleet in 1807. After his retirement +he remained without office until his appointment in 1811 as +Danish ambassador at Vienna. He remained here, in spite of +the fact that for a while Denmark was nominally at war with +Austria, until, in January 1814, on the accession of Denmark +to the coalition against Napoleon, he publicly resumed his +functions as ambassador. He accompanied the emperor Francis +to Paris, and was present at the signature of the first peace of +Paris. With his brother Joachim, he represented Denmark at +the congress of Vienna and, as a member for the commission +for the regulation of the affairs of Germany, was responsible +for some of that confusion of Danish and German interests which +was to bear bitter fruit later in the Schleswig-Holstein question +(<i>q.v.</i>). He again accompanied the allied sovereigns to Paris in +1815, returning to Copenhagen the same year. In 1817 he +was appointed Danish ambassador at Berlin, his brother Joachim +going at the same time to Vienna. In the following year Prince +Hardenberg made him the formal proposition that he should +transfer his services to Prussia, which, with the consent of his +sovereign, he did.</p> + +<p>It was, therefore, as a Prussian diplomat that Bernstorff +attended the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (October 1818), at +the close of which he returned to Berlin as minister of state and +head of the department for foreign affairs. Bernstorff’s management +of Prussian policy during the many years that he remained +in office has been variously judged. He was by training and +temperament opposed to the Revolution, and he was initiated +into his new duties as a Prussian minister by the reactionary +Ancillon. He is accused of having subordinated the particular +interests of Prussia to the European policy of Metternich and +the “Holy Alliance.” Whether any other policy would in the +long run have served Prussia better is a matter for speculation. +It is true that Bernstorff supported the Carlsbad decrees, and +the Vienna Final Act; he was also the faithful henchman of +Metternich at the congresses of Laibach, Troppau and Verona. +On the other hand, he took a considerable share in laying the +foundations of the customs union (<i>Zollverein</i>), which was destined +to be the foundation of the Prussian hegemony in Germany. +In his support of Russia’s action against Turkey in 1828 also +he showed that he was no blind follower of Metternich’s views. +In the crisis of 1830 his moderation in face of the warlike clamour +of the military party at Berlin did much to prevent the troubles +in Belgium and Poland from ending in a universal European +conflagration.</p> + +<p>From 1824 onward Bernstorff had been a constant sufferer +from hereditary gout, intensified and complicated by the results +of overwork. In the spring of 1832 the state of his health +compelled him to resign the ministry of foreign affairs to Ancillon, +who had already acted as his deputy for a year. He died on the +18th of March 1835.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Caro in <i>Allgem. Deutsch. Biog.</i> s.v.; also H. von Treitschke, +<i>Deutsche Geschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1874-1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERNSTORFF, JOHANN HARTWIG ERNST,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> +(1712-1772), Danish statesman, who came of a very ancient +Mecklenburg family, was the son of Joachim Engelke, Freiherr +von Bernstorff, chamberlain to the elector of Hanover, and +was born on the 13th of May 1712. His maternal grandfather, +Andreas Gottlieb Bernstorff (1640-1726), had been one of the +ablest ministers of George I., and under his guidance Johann +was very carefully educated, acquiring amongst other things +that intimate knowledge of the leading European languages, +especially French, which ever afterwards distinguished him. +He was introduced into the Danish service by his relations, the +brothers Plessen, who were ministers of state under Christian +VI. In 1732 he was sent on a diplomatic mission to the court +of Dresden; and from 1738 he represented Holstein at the diet +of Regensburg, from 1744 to 1750 he represented Denmark at +Paris, whence he returned in 1754 to Denmark as minister of +foreign affairs. Supported by the powerful favourite A.G. +Moltke, and highly respected by Frederick V., he occupied for +twenty-one years the highest position in the government, and in the +council of state his opinion was decisive. But his chief concern +was with foreign affairs. Ever since the conclusion of the +Great Northern War, Danish statesmen had been occupied +in harvesting its fruits, namely, the Gottorp portions of Schleswig +definitely annexed to Denmark in 1721 by the treaty of Nystad, +and endeavouring to bring about a definitive general understanding +with the house of Gottorp as to their remaining possessions +in Holstein. With the head of the Swedish branch of +the Gottorps, the crown prince Adolphus Frederick, things had +been arranged by the exchange of 1750; but an attempt to +make a similar arrangement with the chief of the elder Gottorp +line, the cesarevitch Peter Feodorovich, had failed. In intimate +connexion with the Gottorp affair stood the question of the political +equilibrium of the north. Ever since Russia had become +the dominant Baltic power, as well as the state to which the +Gottorpers looked primarily for help, the necessity for a better +understanding between the two Scandinavian kingdoms had +clearly been recognized by the best statesmen of both, especially +in Denmark from Christian VI.’s time; but unfortunately +this sound and sensible policy was seriously impeded by the +survival of the old national hatred on both sides of the Sound, +still further complicated by Gottorp’s hatred of Denmark. +Moreover, it was a diplomatic axiom in Denmark, founded on +experience, that an absolute monarchy in Sweden was incomparably +more dangerous to her neighbour than a limited monarchy, +and after the collapse of Swedish absolutism with Charles XII., +the upholding of the comparatively feeble, and ultimately +anarchical, parliamentary government of Sweden became +a question of principle with Danish statesmen throughout +the 18th century. A friendly alliance with a relatively weak +Sweden was the cardinal point of Bernstorff’s policy. But his +plans were traversed again and again by unforeseen complications, +the failure of the most promising presumptions, the perpetual +shifting of apparently stable alliances; and again and +again he had to modify his means to attain his ends. Amidst +all these perplexities Bernstorff approved himself a consummate +statesman. It seemed almost as if his wits were sharpened +into a keener edge by his very difficulties; but since he condemned +on principle every war which was not strictly defensive, +and it had fallen to his lot to guide a comparatively small power, +he always preferred the way of negotiation, even sometimes +where the diplomatic tangle would perhaps best have been +severed boldly by the sword. The first difficult problem he had to +face was the Seven Years’ War. He was determined to preserve +the neutrality of Denmark at any cost, and this he succeeded +in doing, despite the existence of a subsidy-treaty with the +king of Prussia, and the suspicions of England and Sweden. +It was through his initiative, too, that the convention of Kloster-Seven +was signed (10th of September 1757), and on the 4th of +May 1758 he concluded a still more promising treaty with France, +whereby, in consideration of Denmark’s holding an army-corps +of 24,000 men in Holstein till the end of the war, to secure +Hamburg, Lübeck and the Gottorp part of Holstein from +invasion, France, and ultimately Austria also, engaged to bring +about an exchange between the king of Denmark and the +cesarevitch, as regards Holstein. But the course of the war +made this compact inoperative. Austria hastened to repudiate +her guarantee to Denmark in order not to offend the new emperor +of Russia, Peter III., and one of Peter’s first acts on ascending +the throne was to declare war against Denmark. The coolness +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span> +and firmness of Bernstorff saved the situation. He protested +that the king of Denmark was bound to defend Schleswig +“so long as there was a sword in Denmark and a drop of blood +in the veins of the Danish people.” He rejected the insulting +ultimatum of the Russian emperor. He placed the best French +general of the day at the head of the well-equipped Danish +army. But just as the Russian and Danish armies had come +within striking distance, the tidings reached Copenhagen that +Peter III. had been overthrown by his consort. Bernstorff +was one of the first to recognize the impotence of the French +monarchy after the Seven Years’ War, and in 1763 he considered +it expedient to exchange the French for the Russian alliance, +which was cemented by the treaty of the 28th of April (March +11) 1765. This compact engaged Denmark to join with +Russia in upholding the existing Swedish constitution, in return +for which Catherine II. undertook to adjust the Gottorp difficulty +by the cession of the Gottorp portion of Holstein in exchange +for the counties of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst. For +his part in this treaty Bernstorff was created count. On the +accession of Christian VII., in 1766, Bernstorff’s position +became very precarious, and he was exposed to all manner of +attacks, being accused, without a shadow of truth, of exploiting +Denmark, and of unduly promoting foreigners. It is remarkable, +however, that though Bernstorff ruled Denmark for twenty years +he never learnt Danish. His last political achievement was to +draw still closer to Russia by the treaty of the 13th of December +1769, the most important paragraph of which stipulated that +any change in the Swedish constitution should be regarded +by Denmark and Russia as a <i>casus belli</i> against Sweden, and +that in the event of such a war Denmark should retain all +the territory conquered from Sweden. This treaty proved to +be a great mistake on Denmark’s part, but circumstances +seemed at the time to warrant it. Nine months later, on the +13th of September 1770, Bernstorff was dismissed as the result +of Struensee’s intrigues, and, rejecting the brilliant offers of +Catherine II. if he would enter the Russian service, retired to his +German estates, where he died on the 18th of February 1772. +Bernstorff was not only one of the ablest but one of the noblest +and most conscientious statesmen of his day. The motto he +chose on receiving the order of the Daneborg was “Integritas +et rectum custodiunt me,” and throughout a long life he was +never false to it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Poul Vedel, <i>Den aeldre Grev Bernstorffs ministerium</i> (Copenhagen, +1882); <i>Correspondance ministérielle du Comte J.H.E. +Bernstorff</i>, ed. Vedel (Copenhagen, 1882); Aage Friis, <i>Bernslorfferne og +Danmark</i> (Copenhagen, 1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEROSSUS,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a priest of Bel at Babylon, who translated into +Greek the standard Babylonian work on astrology and astronomy, +and compiled (in three books) the history of his country from +native documents, which he published in Greek in the reign of +Antiochus II. (250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). His works have perished, but extracts +from the history have been preserved by Josephus and Eusebius, +the latter of whom probably derived them not directly +from Berossus, but through the medium of Alexander Polyhistor +and Apollodorus. The extracts containing the Babylonian +cosmology, the list of the antediluvian kings of Babylonia, +and the Chaldaean story of the Deluge, have been shown by +the decipherment of the cuneiform texts to have faithfully +reproduced the native legends; we may, therefore, conclude +that the rest of the History was equally trustworthy. On the +other hand, a list of post-diluvian dynasties, which is quoted +by Eusebius and Georgius Syncellus as having been given by +Berossus, cannot, in its present form, be reconciled with the +monumental facts, though a substratum of historical truth +is discoverable in it. As it stands, it is as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">1. 86 Chaldaean</td> <td class="tcc">kings</td> <td class="tcl">34,080 or 33,091</td> <td class="tcc">years</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">2.  8 Median</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">224</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">3. 11 other kings</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">no number.</td> <td class="tcc"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">4. 49 Chaldaean</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">458</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">5.  9 Arabian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">245</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">6. 45 Assyrian</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcl">526</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">After these, according to Eusebius, came the reign of Pul. +By means of an ingenious chronological combination, the several +items of which, however, are very questionable, J.A. Brandis +assigned 258 years to the 3rd dynasty; other summations +have been proposed with equally little assurance of certainty. +If Eusebius can be trusted, the 6th dynasty ended in 729 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +the year in which Pul or Tiglath-pileser III. was crowned king of +Babylonia. But all attempts to harmonize the scheme of +dynasties thus ascribed to Berossus with the list given us in +the so-called dynastic Tablets discovered by Dr Pinches have +been failures. The numbers, whether of kings or of years, +cannot have been handed down to us correctly by the Greek +writers. All that seems certain is that Berossus arranged his +history so that it should fill the astronomical period of 36,000 +years, beginning with the first man and ending with the conquest +of Babylon by Alexander the Great.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.P. Cory, <i>Ancient Fragments</i> (1826, ed. by E.R. Hodges, +1876); Fr. Lenormant, <i>Essai de commentaire des fragments cosmogoniques +de Bérose</i> (1872); A. von Gutschmid in the <i>Rheinisches +Museum</i> (1853); George Smith in <i>T.S.B.A.</i> iii., 1874, pp. 361-379; +Th.G. Pinches in <i>P.S.B.A.</i>, 1880-1881.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERRY, CHARLES ALBERT<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1852-1899), English non-conformist +divine, was born on the 14th of December 1852 at +Bradshawgate, Leigh, Lancashire. At the age of seventeen +he entered Airedale College, Bradford, to train for the Congregational +ministry, and in 1875 became pastor of St George’s Road +Congregational church, Bolton. He became widely known +as a man of administrative ability, a vigorous platform speaker +and an eloquent preacher. In July 1883 he undertook the +pastorate of the church at Queen Street, Wolverhampton, +with the supervision of nine dependent churches in the neighbourhood. +Here again he exercised a wide influence, due in +part to his evangelical conviction, eloquence, broad views and +powers of organization, but also to the magnetic force of his +personality. In 1887 he went to America in fulfilment of a +promise to Henry Ward Beecher of Brooklyn, and received +a unanimous invitation to succeed Beecher in what was then +the best-known pulpit in the United States. Berry, however, +felt that his work lay in England and declined the invitation. +In 1892 he took part in a conference at Grindelwald on the +question of Christian Reunion, and subsequently, with Hugh +Price Hughes and Alexander Mackennal of Bowdon, conducted +a campaign throughout England, introducing the ideas and +principles of Free Church federation. He was the first president +of the Free Church congress. He played an effective part in +expressing the popular desire for peace between England and +America in reply to President Cleveland’s message on the +Venezuelan boundary dispute, and was invited to Washington +to preach in connexion with the endeavour to establish an +international arbitration treaty. In 1896 he was elected chairman +of the Congregational Union of England and Wales. In +1898 his health began to fail, and he died suddenly on the +31st of January 1899. His published works consist chiefly of +addresses, and two volumes of sermons, <i>Vision and Duty</i>, and +<i>Mischievous Goodness</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(D. Mn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERRY, CHARLES FERDINAND,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1778-1820), +younger son of Charles X. of France, was born at Versailles. +At the Revolution he left France with his father, then comte +d’Artois, and served in the army of Condé; from 1792 to 1797. +He afterwards joined the Russian army, and in 1801 took up his +residence in England, where he remained for thirteen years. +During that time he married an Englishwoman, Anna Brown, +by whom he had two daughters, afterwards the baronne de +Charette and the comtesse de Lucinge-Faucigny. The marriage +was cancelled for political reasons in 1814, when the duke set +out for France. His frank, open manners gained him some +favour with his countrymen, and Louis XVIII. named him commander-in-chief +of the army at Paris on the return of Napoleon +from Elba. He was, however, unable to retain the loyalty of +his troops, and retired to Ghent during the Hundred Days. In +1816 he married the princess Caroline Ferdinande Louise (1798-1870), +eldest daughter of King Francis I. of Naples. On the +13th of February 1820 he was mortally wounded, when leaving +the opera-house at Paris with his wife, by a saddler named +Louis Pierre Louvel. Seven months after his death the duchess +gave birth to a son, who received the title of duke of Bordeaux, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span> +but who is known in history as the comte de Chambord. +A daughter, afterwards duchess of Parma, was born in 1819.</p> + +<p>The duchess of Berry was compelled to follow Charles X. +to Holyrood after July 1830, but it was with the resolution of +returning speedily and making an attempt to secure the throne +for her son. From England she went to Italy, and in April 1832 +she landed near Marseilles, but, receiving no support, was compelled +to make her way towards the loyal districts of Vendée +and Brittany. Her followers, however, were defeated, and, +after remaining concealed for five months in a house in Nantes, +she was betrayed to the government and imprisoned in the +castle of Blaye. Here she gave birth to a daughter, the fruit of +a secret marriage contracted with an Italian nobleman, Count +Ettore Lucchesi-Palli (1805-1864). The announcement of this +marriage at once deprived the duchess of the sympathies of her +supporters. She was no longer an object of fear to the French +government, who released her in June 1833. She set sail for +Sicily, and, joining her husband, lived in retirement from that +time till her death, at Brunnensee in Switzerland, in April 1870.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERRY, JOHN,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1340-1416), third son of John II., +king of France and Bonne of Luxemburg, was born on the 30th +of November 1340 at Vincennes. He was created count of +Poitiers in 1356, and was made the king’s lieutenant in southern +France, though the real power rested chiefly with John of +Armagnac, whose daughter Jeanne he married in 1360. The +loss of his southern possessions by the treaty of Bretigny was +compensated by the fiefs of Auvergne and Berry, with the rank +of peer of France. The duke went to England in 1360 as a +hostage for the fulfilment of the treaty of Bretigny, returning +to France in 1367 on the pretext of collecting his ransom. He +took no leading part in the war against the English, his energies +being largely occupied with the satisfaction of his artistic and +luxurious tastes. For this reason perhaps his brother Charles V. +assigned him no share in the government during the minority of +Charles VI. He received, however, the province of Languedoc. +The peasant revolt of the <i>Tuchins</i> and <i>Coquins</i>, as the insurgents +were called, was suppressed with great harshness, and the duke +exacted from the states of Languedoc assembled at Lyons a fine +of £15,000. He fought at Rosebeke in 1382 against the Flemings +and helped to suppress the Parisian revolts. By a series of +delays he caused the failure of the naval expedition prepared at +Sluys against England in 1386, and a second accusation of +military negligence led to disgrace of the royal princes and the +temporary triumph of the <i>marmousels</i>, as the advisers of the late +king were nicknamed. Charles VI. visited Languedoc in 1389-1390, +and enquired into his uncle’s government. The duke was +deprived of the government of Languedoc, and his agent, Bétizac, +was burnt. When in 1401 he was restored, he delegated his +authority in the province, where he was still hated, to Bérnard +d’Armagnac. In 1396 he negotiated a truce with Richard II. +of England, and his marriage with the princess Isabella of France. +He tried to mediate between his brother Philip the Bold of +Burgundy and his nephew Louis, duke of Orleans, and later +between John “sans Peur” of Burgundy and Orleans. He +broke with John after the murder of Orleans, though he tried +to prevent civil war, and only finally joined the Armagnac party +in 1410. In 1413 he resumed his rôle of mediator, and was for +a short time tutor to the dauphin. He died in Paris on the 15th +of June 1416, leaving vast treasures of jewelry, objects of art, +and especially of illuminated MSS., many of which have been +preserved. He decorated the Sainte Chapelle at Bourges; he +built the Hôtel de Nesle in Paris, and palaces at Poitiers, Bourges, +Mehun-sur-Yèvre and elsewhere.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also L. Raynal, <i>Histoire du Berry</i> (Bourges, 1845); “Jean, +duc de Berry,” in S Luce, <i>La France pendant la guerre de Cent Ans</i> +(1890), vol. i.; Toulgoet-Tréanna, in <i>Mém. de la Soc. des antiquaires +du centre</i>, vol. xvii. (1890). His beautiful illuminated <i>Livre d’heures</i> +was reproduced (Paris, fol. 1904) by P. Durrieu.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERRY,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Berri</span>, a former province of France, absorbed +in 1790 in the departments of Cher, corresponding roughly with +Haut-Berry, and Indre, representing Bas-Berry. George Sand, +the most famous of “berrichon” writers, has described the quiet +scenery and rural life of the province in the rustic novels of her +later life. Berry is the <i>civitas</i> or <i>pagus</i> Bituricensis of Gregory +of Tours. The Bituriges were said by Livy (v. 34) to have been +the dominating tribe in Gaul in the 7th century, one of their +kings, Ambigat, having ruled over all Gaul. In Caesar’s time +they were dependent on the Aedui. The tribes inhabiting +the districts of Berry and Bourbonnais were distinguished +as Bituriges Cubi. The numerous menhirs and dolmens to be +found in the district, to which local superstitions still cling, are +probably monuments of still earlier inhabitants. In 52 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +the Bituriges, at the order of Vercingetorix, set fire to their +towns, but spared Bourges (Avaricum) their capital, which was +taken and sacked by the Romans. The province was amalgamated +under Augustus with Aquitaine, and Bourges became +the capital of Aquitania Prima. In 475 Berry came into the +possession of the west Goths, from whom it was taken (<i>c.</i> 507) +by Clovis. The first count of Berry, Chunibert (d. 763), was +created by Waifer, duke of Aquitaine, from whom the county +was wrested by Pippin the Short, who made it his residence and +left it to his son Carloman, on whose death it fell to his brother +Charlemagne. The countship of Berry was suppressed (926) by +Rudolph, king of the Franks (fl. 923-936). Berry was for some +time a group of lordships dependent directly on the crown, but +the chief authority eventually passed to the viscounts of Bourges, +who, while owning the royal suzerainty, preserved a certain +independence until 1101, when the viscount Odo Arpin de Dun +sold his fief to the crown. Berry was part of the dowry of Eleanor, +wife of Louis VII., and on her divorce and remarriage with +Henry II. of England it passed to the English king. Its possession +remained, however, a matter of dispute until 1200, when +Berry reverted by treaty with John of England to Philip Augustus, +and the various fiefs of Berry were given as a dowry to John’s +niece, Blanche of Castile, on her marriage with Philip’s son +Louis (afterwards Louis VIII.). Philip Augustus established +an effective control over the administration of the province by +the appointment of a royal <i>bailli</i>. Berry suffered during the +Hundred Years’ War, and more severely during the wars of +religion in the 16th century. It had been made a duchy in 1360, +and its first duke, John [Jean] (1340-1416), son of the French +king John II., encouraged the arts and beautified the province +with money wrung from his government of Languedoc. Thenceforward +it was held as an apanage of the French crown, usually +by a member of the royal family closely related to the king. +Charles of France (1447-1472), brother of Louis XI, was duke +of Berry, but was deprived of this province, as subsequently of +the duchies of Normandy and Guienne, for intrigues against +his brother. The duchy was also governed by Jeanne de Valois +(d. 1505), the repudiated wife of Louis XII.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>; by Marguerite +d’Angoulême, afterwards queen of Navarre; by Marguerite de +Valois, afterwards duchess of Savoy; and by Louise of Lorraine, +widow of Henry III., after whose death (1601) the province was +finally reabsorbed in the royal domain. The title of duke of +Berry, divested of territorial significance, was held by princes +of the royal house. Charles (1686-1714), duke of Berry, grandson +of Louis XIV., and third son of the dauphin Louis (d. 1711), +married Marie Louise Elisabeth (1686-1714), eldest daughter +of the duke of Orleans, whose intrigues made her notorious. +The last to bear the title of duke of Berry was the ill-fated +Charles Ferdinand, grandson and heir of Charles X.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See R. le Maulde, <i>Jeanne de France, duchesse d’Orléans et de +Berry</i> (Paris, 1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERRYER, ANTOINE PIERRE<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1790-1868), French advocate +and parliamentary orator, was the son of an eminent advocate +and counsellor to the <i>parlement</i>. He was educated at the Collège +de Juilly, on leaving which he adopted the profession of the law; +he was admitted advocate in 1811, and in the same year he +married. In the great conflict of the period between Napoleon I. +and the Bourbons, Berryer, like his father, was an ardent +Legitimist; and in the spring of 1815, at the opening of the +campaign of the Hundred Days, he followed Louis XVIII. to +Ghent as a volunteer. After the second restoration he distinguished +himself as a courageous advocate of moderation in +the treatment of the military adherents of the emperor. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span> +assisted his father and Dupin in the unsuccessful defence of +Marshal Ney before the chamber of peers; and he undertook +alone the defence of General Cambronne and General Debelle, +procuring the acquittal of the former and the pardon of the latter. +By this time he had a very large business as advocate, and was +engaged on behalf of journalists in many press prosecutions. +He stood forward with a noble resolution to maintain the freedom +of the press, and severely censured the rigorous measures of +the police department. In 1830, not long before the fall of +Charles X., Berryer was elected a member of the chamber of +deputies. He appeared there as the champion of the king and +encouraged him in his reactionary policy. After the revolution +of July, when the Legitimists withdrew in a body, Berryer alone +retained his seat as deputy. He resisted, but unsuccessfully, +the abolition of the hereditary peerage. He advocated trial +by jury in press prosecutions, the extension of municipal franchises +and other liberal measures. In May 1832 he hastened +from Paris to see the duchess of Berry on her landing in the south +of France for the purpose of organizing an insurrection in +favour of her son, the duke of Bordeaux, since known as the +Comte de Chambord. Berryer attempted to turn her from her +purpose; and failing in this he set out for Switzerland. He was, +however, arrested, imprisoned and brought to trial as one of +the insurgents. He was immediately acquitted. In the following +year he pleaded for the liberation of the duchess, made a +memorable speech in defence of Chateaubriand, who was prosecuted +for his violent attacks on the government of Louis +Philippe, and undertook the defence of several Legitimist +journalists. Among the more noteworthy events of his subsequent +career were his defence of Louis Napoleon after the +ridiculous affair of Boulogne, in 1840, and a visit to England +in December 1843, for the purpose of formally acknowledging +the pretender, the duke of Bordeaux, then living in London, +as Henry V. and lawful king of France. Berryer was an active +member of the National Assembly convoked after the revolution +of February 1848, again visited the pretender, then at Wiesbaden, +and still fought in the old cause. This long parliamentary +career was closed by a courageous protest against the <i>coup d’état</i> +of December 2, 1851. After a lapse of twelve years, however, +he appeared once more in his forsaken field as a deputy to the +Corps Législatif. Berryer was elected member of the French +Academy in 1854. A visit paid by this famous orator to Lord +Brougham in 1865 was made the occasion of a banquet given in +his honour by the benchers of the Temple and of Lincoln’s Inn. +In November 1868 he was removed by his own desire from +Paris to his country seat at Augerville, and there he died on the +29th of the same month.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERSERKER<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (from the “sark” or shirt of the “bear,” or +other animal-skins worn by them), in Scandinavian mythology, +the name of the twelve sons of the hero Berserk, grandson of +the eight-handed Starkadder and Alfhilde. Berserk was famed +for the reckless fury with which he fought, always going into +battle without armour. By the daughter of King Swafurlam, +whom he had killed, he had the twelve sons who were his equals +in bravery. In Old Norse the term <i>berserker</i> thus became +synonymous with reckless courage, and was later applied to +the bodyguards of several of the Scandinavian heroes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERT, PAUL<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1833-1886), French physiologist and politician, +was born at Auxerre (Yonne) on the 17th of October 1833. +He entered the École Polytechnique at Paris with the intention +of becoming an engineer; then changing his mind, he studied +law; and finally, under the influence of the zoologist, L.P. +Gratiolet (1815-1865), he took up physiology, becoming one of +Claude Bernard’s most brilliant pupils. After graduating at +Paris as doctor of medicine in 1863, and doctor of science in +1866, he was appointed professor of physiology successively +at Bordeaux (1866) and the Sorbonne (1869). After the revolution +of 1870 he began to take part in politics as a supporter of +Gambetta. In 1874 he was elected to the Assembly, where +he sat on the extreme left, and in 1876 to the chamber of deputies. +He was one of the most determined enemies of clericalism, and +an ardent advocate of “liberating national education from +religious sects, while rendering it accessible to every citizen.” +In 1881 he was minister of education and worship in Gambetta’s +short-lived cabinet, and in the same year he created a great +sensation by a lecture on modern Catholicism, delivered in a +Paris theatre, in which he poured ridicule on the fables and +follies of the chief religious tracts and handbooks that circulated +especially in the south of France. Early in 1886 he was appointed +resident-general in Annam and Tonkin, and died of dysentery +at Hanoi on the 11th of November of that year. But he was +more distinguished as a man of science than as a politician or +administrator. His classical work, <i>La Pression barométrique</i> +(1878), embodies researches that gained him the biennial prize +of 20,000 francs from the Academy of Sciences in 1875, and is +a comprehensive investigation on the physiological effects +of air-pressure, both above and below the normal. His earliest +researches, which provided him with material for his two doctoral +theses, were devoted to animal grafting and the vitality of +animal tissues, and they were followed by studies on the physiological +action of various poisons, on anaesthetics, on respiration +and asphyxia, on the causes of the change of colour in the +chameleon, &c. He was also interested in vegetable physiology, +and in particular investigated the movements of the sensitive +plant, and the influence of light of different colours on the life +of vegetation. After about 1880 he produced several elementary +text-books of scientific instruction, and also various publications +on educational and allied subjects.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTANI, AGOSTINO<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1812-1886), Italian revolutionist, +was born at Milan on the 19th of October 1812. He took part +in the insurrection of 1848, though opposed to the fusion of +Lombardy with Piedmont. During the Roman republic of +1849, he, as medical officer, organized the ambulance service, +and, after the fall of Rome, withdrew to Genoa, where he worked +with Sir James Hudson for the liberation of the political prisoners +of Naples, but held aloof from the Mazzinian conspiracies. In +1859 he founded a revolutionary journal at Genoa, but, shortly +afterwards, joined as surgeon the Garibaldian corps in the +war of 1859. After Villafranca he became the organizer-in-chief +of the expeditions to Sicily, remaining at Genoa after +Garibaldi’s departure for Marsala, and organizing four separate +volunteer corps, two of which were intended for Sicily and two +for the papal states. Cavour, however, obliged all to sail for +Sicily. Upon the arrival of Garibaldi at Naples, Bertani was +appointed secretary-general of the dictator, in which capacity +he reorganized the police, abolished the secret service fund, +founded twelve infant asylums, suppressed the duties upon +Sicilian products, prepared for the suppression of the religious +orders, and planned the sanitary reconstruction of the city. +Entering parliament in 1861, he opposed the Garibaldian +expedition, which ended at Aspromonte, but nevertheless +tended Garibaldi’s wound with affectionate devotion. In 1866 +he organized the medical service for the 40,000 Garibaldians, +and in 1867 fought at Mentana. His parliamentary career, +though marked by zeal, was less brilliant than his revolutionary +activity. Up to 1870 he remained an agitator, but, after the +liberation of Rome, seceded from the historic left, and +became leader of the extreme left, a position held until his +death on the 30th of April 1886. His chief work as deputy +was an inquiry into the sanitary conditions of the peasantry, +and the preparation of the sanitary code adopted by the Crispi +administration.</p> +<div class="author">(H. W. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTAT<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (Arab. <i>Jebalain</i>), negroes of the Shangalla group +of tribes, mainly agriculturists. They occupy the valleys of the +Yabus and Tumat, tributaries of the Blue Nile. They are shortish +and very black, with projecting jaws, broad noses and thick +lips. By both sexes the hair is worn short or the head shaved; +on cheeks and temple are tribal marks in the form of scars. +The huts of the Bertat are circular, the floor raised on short poles. +Their weapons are the spear, throwing-club, sword and dagger, +and also the <i>kulbeda</i> or throwing-knife. Blocks of salt are the +favourite form of currency. Gold washing is practised. Nature +worship still struggles against the spread of Mahommedanism. +The Bertat, estimated to number some 80,000, <i>c.</i> 1880, were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span> +nearly exterminated during the period of Dervish ascendancy +(1884-1898) in the eastern Sudan. Settled among them are +Arab communities governed by their own sheiks, while the +<i>meks</i> or rulers of the Bertat speak Arabic, and show traces of +foreign blood. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fazogli</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Koeltlitz, “The Bertat,” <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</i>, +xxxiii. 51; <i>Anglo-Egyptian Sudan</i>, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTAUT, JEAN<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1552-1611), French poet, was born at +Caen in 1552. He figures with Desportes in the disdainful +couplet of Boileau on Ronsard:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Ce poète orgueilleux, trébuché de si haut,</p> +<p class="i05">Rendit plus retenus Desportes et Bertaut.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">He wrote light verse to celebrate the incidents of court life +in the manner of Desportes, but his verse is more fantastic and +fuller of conceits than his master’s. He early entered the church, +and had a share in the conversion of Henry IV., a circumstance +which assured his career. He was successively councillor of +the parlement of Grenoble, secretary to the king, almoner to +Marie de’ Medici, abbot of Aulnay and finally, in 1606, bishop of +Sées. After his elevation to the bishopric he ceased to produce +the light verse in which he excelled, though his scruples did not +prevent him from preparing a new edition of his <i>Recueil de +quelques vers amoureux</i> (1602) in 1606. The serious poems in +which he celebrated the public events of his later years are dull +and lifeless. Bertaut died at Sées on the 8th of June 1611. His +works were edited by M.Ad. Chenevières in 1891.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTH,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> originally a nautical term, probably connected +with the verb “to bear,” first found in literature at the end of +the 16th century, with the alternative spelling “birth.” Its +primary meaning is “sea-room,” whether on the high seas or at +anchor. Hence the phrase “to give a wide berth to,” meaning +“to keep at a safe distance from,” both in its literal and its +metaphorical use. From meaning sea-room for a ship at anchor, +“berth” comes to mean also the position of a ship at her moorings +(“to berth a ship”). The word further means any place +on a ship allotted for a special purpose, where the men mess or +sleep, or an office or appointment on board, whence the word +has passed into colloquial use with the meaning of a situation +or employment. From the Icelandic <i>byrdi</i>, a board, is also +derived the ship-building term “berth,” meaning to board, +put up bulk-heads, etc.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTHELOT, MARCELLIN PIERRE EUGÈNE<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1827-1907), +French chemist and politician, was born at Paris on the 29th +of October 1827, being the son of a doctor. After distinguishing +himself at school in history and philosophy, he turned to the +study of science. In 1851 he became a member of the staff +of the Collège de France as assistant to A.J. Balard, his former +master, and about the same time he began his life-long friendship +with Ernest Renan. In 1854 he made his reputation by his +doctoral thesis, <i>Sur les combinaisons de la glycérine avec les acides</i>, +which described a series of beautiful researches in continuation +and amplification of M.E. Chevreul’s classical work. In 1859 +he was appointed professor of organic chemistry at the École +Supérieure de Pharmacie, and in 1865 he accepted the new +chair of organic chemistry, which was specially created for his +benefit at the Collège de France. He became a member of the +Academy of Medicine in 1863, and ten years afterwards entered +the Academy of Sciences, of which he became perpetual secretary +in 1889 in succession to Louis Pasteur. He was appointed +inspector general of higher education in 1876, and after his +election as life senator in 1881 he continued to take an active +interest in educational questions, especially as affected by +compulsory military service. In the Goblet ministry of +1886-1887 he was minister of public instruction, and in the +Bourgeois cabinet of 1895-1896 he held the portfolio for foreign +affairs. His scientific jubilee was celebrated in Paris in 1901. He +died suddenly, immediately after the death of his wife, on the 18th +of March 1907, at Paris, and with her was buried in the Panthéon.</p> + +<p>The fundamental conception that underlay all Berthelot’s +chemical work was that all chemical phenomena depend on the +action of physical forces which can be determined and measured. +When he began his active career it was generally believed +that, although some instances of the synthetical production of +organic substances had been observed, on the whole organic +chemistry must remain an analytical science and could not +become a constructive one, because the formation of the substances +with which it deals required the intervention of vital +activity in some shape. To this attitude he offered uncompromising +opposition, and by the synthetical production of numerous +hydrocarbons, natural fats, sugars and other bodies he proved +that organic compounds can be formed by ordinary methods +of chemical manipulation and obey the same laws as inorganic +substances, thus exhibiting the “creative character in virtue +of which chemistry actually realizes the abstract conceptions of +its theories and classifications—a prerogative so far possessed +neither by the natural nor by the historical sciences.” His +investigations on the synthesis of organic compounds were +published in numerous papers and books, including <i>Chimie +organique fondée sur la synthèse</i> (1860) and <i>Les Carbures d’hydrogéne</i> +(1901). Again he held that chemical phenomena are not +governed by any peculiar laws special to themselves, but are +explicable in terms of the general laws of mechanics that are in +operation throughout the universe; and this view he developed, +with the aid of thousands of experiments, in his <i>Mécanique +chimique</i> (1878) and his <i>Thermochimie</i> (1897). This branch +of study naturally conducted him to the investigation of explosives, +and on the theoretical side led to the results published in +his work <i>Sur la force de la poudre et des matières explosives</i> (1872), +while on the practical side it enabled him to render important +services to his country as president of the scientific defence +committee during the siege of Paris in 1870-71 and subsequently +as chief of the French explosives committee. In the +later years of his life he turned to the study of the earlier phases +of the science which he did so much to advance, and students +of chemical history are greatly indebted to him for his book on +<i>Les Origines de l’alchimie</i> (1885) and his <i>Introduction à l’étude +de la chimie des anciens et du moyen âge</i> (1889), as well as for +publishing translations of various old Greek, Syriac and Arabic +treatises on alchemy and chemistry (<i>Collection des anciens +alchimistes grecs</i>, 1887-1888, and <i>La Chimie au moyen âge</i>, +1893). He was also the author of <i>Science et philosophie</i> (1886), +which contains a well-known letter to Renan on “La Science +idéale et la science positive,” of <i>La Révolution chimique, Lavoisier</i> +(1890), of <i>Science et morale</i> (1897), and of numerous articles +in <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>, which he helped to establish.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> prince of Neuchâtel +(1753-1815), marshal of France and chief of the staff under +Napoleon I., was born at Versailles on the 20th of February +1753. As a boy he was instructed in the military art by his +father, an officer of the <i>Corps de génie</i>, and at the age of seventeen +he entered the army, serving successively in the staff, the +engineers and the prince de Lambesq’s dragoons. In 1780 he +went to North America with Rochambeau, and on his return, +having attained the rank of colonel, he was employed in various +staff posts and in a military mission to Prussia. During the +Revolution, as chief of staff of the Versailles national guard, he +protected the aunts of Louis XVI. from popular violence, and +aided their escape (1791). In the war of 1792 he was at once +made chief of staff to Marshal Lückner, and he bore a +distinguished part in the Argonne campaign of Dumouriez and +Kellermann. He served with great credit in the Vendéan War of +1793-95, and was in the next year made a general of division +and chief of staff (<i>Major-Général</i>) to the army of Italy, which +Bonaparte had recently been appointed to command. His power +of work, accuracy and quick comprehension, combined with his +long and varied experience and his complete mastery of detail, +made him the ideal chief of staff to a great soldier; and in this +capacity he was Napoleon’s most valued assistant for the rest +of his career. He accompanied Napoleon throughout the +brilliant campaign of 1796, and was left in charge of the army +after the peace of Campo Formio. In this post he organized the +Roman republic (1798), after which he joined his chief in Egypt, +serving there until Napoleon’s return. He assisted in the <i>coup +d’état</i> of 18th Brumaire, afterwards becoming minister of war for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span> +a time. In the campaign of Marengo he was the nominal head +of the Army of Reserve, but the first consul accompanied the +army and Berthier acted in reality, as always, as chief of staff to +Napoleon. At the close of the campaign he was employed in +civil and diplomatic business. When Napoleon became emperor, +Berthier was at once made a marshal of the empire. He took +part in the campaigns of Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland, and was +created duke of Valengin in 1806, sovereign prince of Neuchâtel +in the same year and vice-constable of the empire in 1807. In +1808 he served in the Peninsula, and in 1809 in the Austrian War, +after which he was given the title of prince of Wagram. Berthier +married a niece of the king of Bavaria. He was with Napoleon +in Russia in 1812, Germany in 1813, and France in 1814, fulfilling, +till the fall of the empire, the functions of “major-general” of +the <i>Grande Armée</i>. He abandoned Napoleon to make his peace +with Louis XVIII. in 1814, and accompanied the king in his +solemn entry into Paris. During Napoleon’s captivity in Elba, +Berthier, whom he informed of his projects, was much perplexed +as to his future course, and, being unwilling to commit himself, +fell under the suspicion both of his old leader and of Louis XVIII. +On Napoleon’s return he withdrew to Bamberg, where he died on +the 1st of June 1815. The manner of his death is uncertain; +according to some accounts he was assassinated by members of a +secret society, others say that, maddened by the sight of Russian +troops marching to invade France, he threw himself from his +window and was killed. Berthier was not a great commander. +When he was in temporary command in 1809 the French army +in Bavaria underwent a series of reverses. Whatever merit as a +general he may have possessed was completely overshadowed +by the genius of his master. But his title to fame is that he +understood and carried out that master’s directions to the +minutest detail.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1748-1822), French chemist, +was born at Talloire, near Annecy in Savoy, on the 9th of +December 1748. He studied first at Chambery and afterwards +at Turin, where he graduated in medicine. Settling in Paris in +1772, he became the private physician of Philip, duke of Orleans, +and by his chemical work soon gained so high a reputation that +in 1780 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences. In 1785 +he declared himself an adherent of the Lavoisierian school, +though he did not accept Lavoisier’s view of oxygen as the only +and universal acidifying principle, and he took part in the +reform in chemical nomenclature carried out by Lavoisier and +his associates in 1787. Among the substances of which he +investigated the composition were ammonia, sulphuretted +hydrogen and prussic acid, and his experiments on chlorine, +which he regarded, not as an element, but as oxygenated muriatic +(oxymuriatic) acid, led him to propose it as a bleaching agent +in 1785. He also prepared potassium chlorate and attempted +to use it in the manufacture of gunpowder as a substitute for +saltpetre. When, at the beginning of the French Revolution, +the deficiency in the supply of saltpetre became a serious matter, +he was placed at the head of the commission entrusted with the +development of its production in French territory, and another +commission on which he served had for its object the improvement +of the methods of iron manufacture. He was also a +member in 1794 of the committee on agriculture and the arts, +and technical science was further indebted to him for a systematic +exposition of the principles of dyeing—<i>Élémens de l’art de la +teinture</i>, 1791, of which he published a second edition in 1809, in +association with his son, A.B. Berthollet (1783-1811). After +1794 he was teacher of chemistry in the polytechnic and normal +schools of Paris, and in 1795 he took an active part in remodelling +the Academy as the Institut National. In the following year he +and Gaspard Monge were chosen chiefs of a commission charged +with the task of selecting in Italy the choicest specimens of +ancient and modern art for the national galleries of Paris; and +in 1798 he was one of the band of scientific men who accompanied +Napoleon to Egypt, there forming themselves into the Institute +of Egypt on the plan of the Institut National. On the fall of the +Directory he was made a senator and grand officer of the Legion +of Honour; under the empire he became a count; and after the +restoration of the Bourbons he took his seat as a peer. In the +later years of his life he had at Arcueil, where he died on the 6th +of November 1822, a well-equipped laboratory, which became a +centre frequented by some of the most distinguished scientific +men of the time, their proceedings being published in three +volumes, between 1807 and 1817, as the <i>Mémoires de la société +d’Arcueil</i>. Berthollet’s most remarkable contribution to +chemistry was his <i>Essai de statique chimique</i> (1803), the first +systematic attempt to grapple with the problems of chemical +physics. His doctrines did not meet with general approval +among his contemporaries, partly perhaps because he pushed +them too far, as for instance in holding that two elements might +combine in constantly varying proportions, a view which gave +rise to a long dispute with L.J. Proust; but his speculations, +in particular his insistence on the influence of the relative masses +of the acting substances in chemical reactions, have exercised +a dominating influence on the modern developments of the +theory of chemical affinity, of which, far more than T.O. Bergman, +whom he controverted, he must be regarded as the founder.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTHON, EDWARD LYON<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1813-1899), English inventor, +was born in London, on the 20th of February 1813, the son of an +army contractor and descendant of an old Huguenot family. +He studied for the medical profession in Liverpool and at Dublin, +but after his marriage in 1834 he gave up his intention of +becoming a doctor, and travelled for about six years on the continent. +Keenly interested from boyhood in mechanical science, +he made experiments in the application of the screw propeller +for boats. But his model, with a two-bladed propeller, was only +ridiculed when it was placed before the British admiralty. +Berthon therefore did not complete the patent and the idea was +left for Francis Smith to bring out more successfully in 1838. +In 1841 he entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, in order to +study for the Church. There he produced what is usually known +as “Berthon’s log,” in which the suction produced by the water +streaming past the end of a pipe projected below a ship is registered +on a mercury column above. In 1845 he was ordained, and after +holding a curacy at Lymington was given a living at Fareham. +Here he was able to carry on experiments with his log, which was +tested on the Southampton to Jersey steamboats; but the British +admiralty gave him no encouragement, and it remained uncompleted. +He next designed some instruments to indicate the trim +and rolling of boats at sea; but the idea for which he is chiefly +remembered was that of the “Berthon Folding Boat” in 1849. +This invention was again adversely reported on by the admiralty. +Berthon resigned his living at Fareham, and subsequently +accepted the living of Romsey. In 1873, encouraged by Samuel +Plimsoll, he again applied himself to perfecting his collapsible +boat. Success was at last achieved, and in less than a year he +had received orders from the admiralty for boats to the amount +of £15,000. Some were taken by Sir George Nares to the Arctic, +others were sent to General Gordon at Khartum, and others +again were taken to the Zambezi by F.C. Selous. Berthon died +on the 27th of October 1899.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTHOUD, FERDINAND<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1727-1807), Swiss chronometer-maker, +was born at Plancemont, Neuchâtel, in 1727, and settling +in Paris in 1745 gained a great reputation for the excellence +and accuracy of his chronometers. He was a member of the +Institute and a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and +among other works wrote <i>Essais sur l’horlogerie</i> (1763). He +died in 1807 at Montmorency, Seine et Oise. He was succeeded +in business by his nephew, Louis Berthoud (1759-1813).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTILLON, LOUIS ADOLPHE<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1821-1883), French statistician, +was born in Paris on the 1st of April 1821. Entering +the medical profession, he practised as a doctor for a number +of years. After the revolution of 1870, he was appointed inspector-general +of benevolent institutions. He was one of the +founders of the school of anthropology of Paris, and was appointed +a professor there in 1876. His <i>Démographie figurée de la France</i> +(1874) is an able statistical study of the population of France. +He died at Neuilly on the 28th of February 1883.</p> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Alphonse Bertillon</span>, the anthropometrist, was +born in Paris in 1853. He published in 1883 a work <i>Ethnographie moderne des races sauvages</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span> +but his chief claim to distinction +lies in the system invented by him for the identification of +criminals, which is described by him in his <i>Photographie judiciaire</i>, +Paris, 1890 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anthropometry</a></span>). He was officially appointed +in 1894 to report on the handwriting of the <i>bordereau</i> in the +Dreyfus case, and was a witness for the prosecution before the +cour de cassation on the 18th of January 1899.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTIN,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a family of distinction in the history of French +journalism. The most important member of the family, generally +regarded as the father of modern French journalism, <span class="sc">Louis +François Bertin</span> (1766-1841), known as Bertin <i>aîné</i>, was born +in Paris on the 14th of December 1766. He began his journalistic +career by writing for the <i>Journal Français</i> and other papers +during the French Revolution. After the 18th Brumaire he +founded the paper, with which the name of his family has chiefly +been connected, the <i>Journal des Débats</i>. He was suspected of +royalist tendencies by the consulate and was exiled in 1801. +He returned to Paris in 1804 and resumed the management of +the paper, the title of which had been changed by order of +Napoleon to that of <i>Journal de l’Empire</i>. Bertin had to submit +to a rigorous censorship, and in 1811 the conduct, together with +the profits, was taken over entirely by the government. In 1814 +he regained possession and restored the old title and continued +his support of the royalist cause—during the Hundred Days; +he directed the <i>Moniteur de Gand</i>—till 1823, when the <i>Journal +des Débats</i> became the recognized organ of the constitutional +opposition. Bertin’s support was, however, given to the July +monarchy after 1830. He died on the 13th of September 1841. +<span class="sc">Louis François Bertin de Vaux</span> (1771-1842), the younger +brother of Bertin <i>aîné</i>, took a leading part in the conduct of the +<i>Journal des Débats</i>, to the success of which his powers of writing +greatly contributed. He entered the chamber of deputies in +1815, was made councillor of state in 1827, and a peer of France +in 1830. The two sons of Bertin <i>aîné</i>, <span class="sc">Edouard François</span> +(1797-1871) and <span class="sc">Louis Marie François</span> (1801-1854), were +directors in succession of the <i>Journal des Débats</i>. Edouard +Bertin was also a painter of some distinction.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTINORO, OBADIAH,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> Jewish commentator of the Mishnah, +died in Jerusalem about 1500. Bertinoro much improved the +status of the Jews in the Holy Land; before his migration +thither the Jews of Palestine were in a miserable condition +of poverty and persecution. His commentary on the Mishnah +is the most useful of all helps to the understanding of that +work. It is printed in most Hebrew editions of the Mishnah. +Surenhusius, in his Latin edition of the last-named code (Amsterdam +1698-1703), translated Bertinoro’s commentary.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTINORO,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in +the province of Forli, 8 m. S.E. direct of Forli and 5½ m. N. of +the station of Forlimpopoli, and 800 ft. above sea-level. Pop. +(1901) town, 3753; commune, 7786. The town commands a +fine view to the north over the plain of Emilia and the lower +course of the Po, itself lying on the foothills of the Apennines. +It appears to have been first fortified by Frederick Barbarossa, +and its castle stood frequent sieges in the middle ages. Polenta, +2½ m. to the south of it, was the birthplace of Francesca da +Rimini. The castle is almost entirely ruined, but the church of +S. Donato, of the Lombard period, with Byzantine capitals, +is interesting; Giosuè Carducci has written a fine ode on the +subject (<i>La Chiesa di Polenta</i>, Bologna, 1897).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Ricci, “Della Chiesa e castello di Polenta” in <i>Atti e Memorie +della Deputazione di Storia patria per le prooniae di Romagna</i>, ser. iii. +vol. ix. (Bologna, 1891), 1 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTOLD<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1442-1504), elector and archbishop of Mainz, +son of George, count of Henneberg, entered the ecclesiastical +profession, and after passing through its lower stages, was made +archbishop of Mainz in 1484. He appears to have been a firm +supporter of law and order, an enemy of clerical abuses and a +careful administrator of his diocese. Immediately after his election +as archbishop he began to take a leading part in the business +of the Empire, and in 1486 was very active in securing the election +of Maximilian as Roman king. His chief work, however, was +done as an advocate of administrative reform in Germany. +During the reign of the emperor Frederick III. he had brought +this question before the diet, and after Frederick’s death, when +he had become imperial chancellor, he was the leader of the party +which pressed the necessity for reform upon Maximilian at the +diet of Worms in 1495. His proposals came to nothing, but he +continued the struggle at a series of diets, and urged the Germans +to emulate the courage and union of the Swiss cantons. He +gained a temporary victory when the diet of Augsburg in 1500 +established a council of regency (<i>Reichsregiment</i>), and in 1502 +persuaded the electors to form a union to uphold the reforms +of 1495 and 1500. The elector died on the 21st of December +1504. Bertold was a man of great ability and resourcefulness, +and as a statesman who strove for an ordered and united Germany +was far in advance of his age.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Weiss, <i>Berthold von Henneberg, Erzbischof von Mainz</i> +(Freiburg, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTOLD VON REGENSBURG<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1220-1272), the greatest +German preacher of the later middle ages, was a native of +Regensburg, and entered the Franciscan monastery there. From +about 1250 onwards his fame as a preacher spread over all the +German-speaking parts of the continent of Europe. He wandered +from village to village and town to town, preaching to enormous +audiences, always in the open air; the earnestness and straightforward +eloquence with which he insisted that true repentance +came from the heart, that pious pilgrimages and the absolution +of the Church were mere outward symbols, appealed to all +classes. He died in Regensburg on the 13th of December 1272. +His German sermons, of which seventy-one have been preserved, +are among the most powerful in the language, and form the chief +monuments of Middle High German prose. His style is clear, +direct and remarkably free from cumbrous Latin constructions; +he employed, whenever he could, the pithy and homely sayings +of the peasants, and is not reluctant to point his moral with a +rough humour. As a thinker, he shows little sympathy with +that strain of medieval mysticism which is to be observed in +all the poetry of his contemporaries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition of Bertold’s German sermons is that by F. Pfeiffer +and J. Strobl (2 vols., 1862-1880; reprinted, 1906); there is also a +modern German version by F. Göbel (4th ed., 1906). The Latin sermons +were edited by G. Jakob (1880). See C.W. Stromberger, <i>Bertold +von Regensburg, der grosste Volksredner des deutschen Mittelalters</i> +(1877), K. Unkel, <i>Bertold von Regensburg</i> (1882), and E. Bernhardt, +<i>Bruder Bertold von Regensburg</i> (1905); A.E. Schönbach, <i>Studien zur +Geschichte der altdeutschen Predigt</i> (<i>Publications of the Vienna +Academy</i>, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTRAM, CHARLES<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1723-1765), English literary impostor, +was born in London, the son of a silk dyer. In 1747, being then +teacher of English at the school for Danish naval cadets at Copenhagen, +he wrote to Dr William Stukeley, the English antiquarian, +that he had discovered a manuscript written by a monk named +Richard of Westminster, which corrected and supplemented +the <i>Itinerary</i> of Antoninus in Britain. He subsequently sent +to Stukeley a copy of various parts of the work and a facsimile +of a few lines of the manuscript. These were so cleverly executed +that they quite deceived the English palaeographers of the period. +Stukeley, finding that a chronicler of the fourteenth century, +Richard of Cirencester, had also been an inmate of Westminster +Abbey, identified him with Bertram’s Richard of Westminster, +and, in 1756, read an analysis of the “discovery” before the +Society of Antiquaries, which was published with a copy of +Richard’s map. In 1757 Bertram published at Copenhagen +a volume entitled <i>Britannicarum Gentium Historiae Antiquae +Scriptores Tres</i>. This contained the works of Gildas and Nennius +and the full text of Bertram’s forgery, and though Bertram’s +map did not correspond with that of Richard, Stukeley discarded +the latter and adopted Bertram’s concoction in his <i>Itinerarium +Curiosum</i> published in 1776. Although Thomas Reynolds +in his <i>Iter Britanniarum</i> (1799), an edition of the British portion +of Antoninus’ <i>Itinerary</i>, was distinctly sceptical as to the value +of Bertram’s manuscript, its authenticity was generally accepted +until the middle of the 19th century. No original of the manuscript +could then be found at Copenhagen, and B.B. Woodward, +librarian of Windsor Castle, proved conclusively, by a series +of articles in the <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i> in 1866 and 1867, that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span> +the supposed facsimile of calligraphy produced by Bertram +was a blend of the style of various periods, while the greater +portion of the idiomatic Latin in the book was a mere translation +of 18th century English phraseology. Nevertheless, as late as +1872, a translation of Bertram’s forgery was included in Bohn’s +Antiquarian Library as one of the <i>Six English Chronicles</i>, +and there is no doubt that the work had a wide and misleading +influence upon many antiquarian writers. Bertram died +in 1765.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTRAND, HENRI GRATIEN,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte</span> (1773-1844), French +general, was born at Châteauroux. At the outbreak of the +Revolution, he had just finished his studies, and he entered the +army as a volunteer. During the expedition to Egypt, Napoleon +named him colonel (1798), then brigadier-general, and after +Austerlitz his aide-de-camp. His life was henceforth closely +bound up with that of Napoleon, who had the fullest confidence +in him, honouring him in 1813 with the title of grand marshal +of the court. It was Bertrand who in 1809 directed the building +of the bridges by which the French army crossed the Danube +at Wagram. In 1813, after the battle of Leipzig, it was due to +his initiative that the French army was not totally destroyed. +He accompanied Napoleon to Elba in 1814, returned with him +in 1815, held a command in the Waterloo campaign, and then, +after the defeat, accompanied Napoleon to St Helena. He +did not return to France until after Napoleon’s death, and then +Louis XVIII. allowed him to retain his rank, and he was elected +deputy in 1830. In 1840 he was chosen to go to bring Napoleon’s +remains to France. He died at Châteauroux on the 31st of +January 1844. His touching fidelity has made his name very +popular in France.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERTRICH,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a village and watering place of Germany, in the +Prussian Rhine province, in a narrow valley running down to the +Mosel near Cochem. Its waters are efficacious in cases of gout, +rheumatism and biliary affections. Pop. 500.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉRULLE, PIERRE DE<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1575-1629), French cardinal and +statesman, was born at Sérilly, near Troyes, on the 4th of February +1575. He was educated by the Jesuits and at the university +of Paris. Soon after his ordination in 1599, he assisted Cardinal +Duperron in his controversy with the Protestant Philippe de +Mornay, and made numerous converts. He founded the +Congregation of the French Oratory in 1611 and introduced the +Carmelite nuns into France, notwithstanding the opposition +of the friars of that order, who were jealous of his ascendancy. +Bérulle also played an important part as a statesman. He +obtained the necessary dispensations from Rome for Henrietta +Maria’s marriage to Charles I., and acted as her chaplain during +the first year of her stay in England. In 1626, as French +ambassador to Spain, he concluded the treaty of Monzon. After +the reconciliation of Louis XIII. with his mother, Marie de’ +Medici, through his agency, he was appointed a councillor +of state, but had to resign this office, owing to his Austrian +policy, which was opposed by Richelieu. Bérulle encouraged +Descartes’ philosophical studies, and it was through him that +the Samaritan Pentateuch, recently brought over from Constantinople, +was inserted in Lejay’s <i>Polyglot Bible</i>. His treatise, +<i>Des Grandeurs de Jésus</i>, was a favourite book with the Jansenists. +He died on the 2nd of October 1629. His works, edited by P. +Bourgoing (2 vols., 1644) were reprinted, by Migne in 1857.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>M. de Bérulle et les Carmélites; Le Père de Bérulle et l’oratoire +de Jésus; Le Cardinal de Bérulle et Richelieu</i> (3 vols., 1872-1876), +by the Abbé M. Houssaye; and H. Sidney Lear’s <i>Priestly Life in +France in the Seventeenth Century</i> (London, 1873).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERVIE,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Inverbervie</span>, a royal and police burgh of Kincardineshire, +Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1207. It is situated at +the mouth of Bervie Water and is the terminus of the North +British railway’s branch line from Montrose, which lies 14 m. +S.W. The leading industries include manufactures of woollens, +flax and chemicals, and there is also a brisk trade in live-stock. +Bervie unites with Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Montrose +in returning one member (for the “Montrose burghs”) to parliament. +David II., driven by stress of weather, landed here with +his queen Joanna in 1341, and, out of gratitude for the hospitality +of the townsfolk, granted them a charter, which James VI. confirmed. +Hallgreen Castle, a stronghold of the 14th century, is +maintained in repair. About one m. south is the fishing village +of Gourdon (pop. 1197), where boat-building is carried on. +There is a small but steady export business from the harbour, +which has a pier and breakwater. St Ternan’s, the Romanesque +parish church of Arbuthnott, 2½ m. north-west, stands on the +banks of the Bervie. In the chapel dedicated to St Mary, which +was afterwards added to it, is the burial-place of the Arbuthnotts, +who took their title from the estate in 1644. John Arbuthnot, +Queen Anne’s physician and the friend of Swift and Pope, was a +native of the parish. Kinneff, 2 m. north, on the coast, is of +interest as the place where the Scottish regalia were concealed +during the siege of Dunottar Castle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERWICK, JAMES FITZJAMES,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1670-1734), +marshal of France, was the natural son of James, duke of York, +afterwards James II. of England, by Arabella Churchill (1648-1730), +sister of the great duke of Marlborough. He was born +at Moulins (Bourbonnais) on the 21st of August 1670. He +received his education in France at the hands of the Jesuits, +and at the age of fifteen, his father having succeeded to the throne, +he was sent to learn the business of a soldier under the famous +general of the empire, Charles of Lorraine. He served his first +campaign in Hungary, and was present at the siege of Buda. +He then returned to England, was made a colonel of the 8th +Foot, and in 1687 created duke of Berwick, earl of Teignmouth +and Baron Bosworth. He then went out afresh to Hungary +and was present at the battle of Mohacz. On his return to +England he was made K.G., colonel of the 3rd troop of horse +guards (Royal Horse Guards Blue) and governor of Portsmouth, +but soon afterwards the revolution forced him to flee to France. +He served under James II. in the campaign in Ireland, and +was present at the battle of the Boyne. For a short time he +was left in Ireland as commander-in-chief, but his youth and +inexperience unfitted him for the post, and he was a mere puppet +in stronger hands. He then took service in the French army, +fought under Marshal Luxembourg in Flanders, and took part in +the battles of Steinkirk and Neerwinden, at the latter of which +he was taken prisoner. He was, however, immediately exchanged +for the duke of Ormond, and afterwards he served under Villeroi. +In 1695 he married the widow of Patrick Sarsfield, who died in +1698. His second marriage, with Anne Bulkeley, took place +in 1700. As a lieutenant-general he served in the campaign +of 1702, after which he became naturalized as a French subject +in order to be eligible for the marshalate. In 1704, he first took +command of the French army in Spain. So highly was he +now esteemed for his courage, abilities and integrity, that +all parties were anxious to have him on their side (<i>Éloge</i>, by +Montesquieu). His tenure of the command was, however, +very short, and after one campaign he was replaced by the +Marshal de Tessé. In 1705 he commanded against the Camisards +in Languedoc, and when on this expedition he is said to have +carried out his orders with remorseless rigour. His successful +expedition against Nice in 1706 caused him to be made marshal +of France, and in the same year he returned to Spain as commander-in-chief +of the Franco-Spanish armies. On the 25th +of April 1707, the duke won the great and decisive victory of +Almanza, where an Englishman at the head of a French army +defeated Ruvigny, earl of Galway, a Frenchman at the head +of an English army. The victory established Philip V. on the +throne of Spain. Berwick was made a peer of France by Louis +XIV., and duke of Liria and of Xereca and lieutenant of Aragon +by Philip. Thenceforward Berwick was recognized as one of the +greatest generals of his time, and successively commanded in +nearly all the theatres of war. From 1709 to 1712 he defended +the south-east frontier of France in a series of campaigns which, +unmarked by any decisive battle, were yet models of the art +of war as practised at the time. The last great event of the +War of the Spanish Succession was the storming of Barcelona +by Berwick, after a long siege, on the 11th of September 1714. +Three years later he was appointed military governor of the +province of Guienne, in which post he became intimate with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span> +Montesquieu. In 1718 he found himself under the necessity +of once more entering Spain with an army; and this time +he had to fight against Philip V., the king who owed chiefly +to Berwick’s courage and skill the safety of his throne. One +of the marshal’s sons, known as the duke of Liria, was settled +in Spain, and was counselled by his father not to shrink from +doing his duty and fighting for his sovereign. Many years +of peace followed this campaign, and Marshal Berwick was not +again called to serve in the field till 1733. He advised and conducted +the siege of Philipsburg, and while the siege was going on +was killed by a cannon-shot on the 12th of June 1734. Cool, +self-possessed and cautious as a general, Marshal Berwick was at +the same time not wanting in audacity and swiftness of action. +He was a true general of the 18th century, not less in his care for +the lives of his men than in his punctiliousness and rigidity in +matters of discipline.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Mémoires</i> of Marshal Berwick, revised, annotated and continued +by the Abbé Hooke, were published by the marshal’s grandson +in 1778. Montesquieu made many contributions to this.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERWICKSHIRE,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> a county of Scotland, forming its south-eastern +extremity, bounded N. by Haddingtonshire and the +North Sea; E. by the North Sea; S.E. by the county of the +borough and town of Berwick; S. by the Tweed and Roxburghshire, +and W. by Mid-Lothian. Its area is 292,577 acres or 457 +sq. m., and it has a coast-line of 21 m. The county is naturally +divided into three districts: Lauderdale, or the valley of the +Leader, in the W.; Lammermuir, the upland district occupied +by the hills of that name in the N.; and the Merse (the March +or Borderland, giving a title to the earls of Wemyss), the largest +district, occupying the S.E. The Lammermuirs are a range of +round-backed hills, whose average height is about 1000 ft., +while the highest summit, Says Law, reaches 1749 ft. From +these hills the Merse stretches to the S. and E., and is a comparatively +level tract of country. The coast is lofty, rocky and +precipitous, broken by ravines and not accessible, except at +Eyemouth Harbour, for small vessels, and at Coldingham and +Burnmouth for fishing boats. St Abb’s Head, a promontory +with a lighthouse upon it, rises to 310 ft. The Eye is the only +river of any size which falls directly into the sea. The others—the +Leader, the Eden, the Leet and the Whiteadder with its +tributaries, the Blackadder and the Dye—all flow into the Tweed. +Of these the largest and most important is the Whiteadder, which +has its source in the parish of Whittingehame on the East Lothian +side of the Lammermuirs, and, following a sinuous course of +35 m., joins the Tweed within the bounds or liberties of Berwick. +There are small lochs at Coldingham, Legerwood, Spottiswoode, +the Hirsel, near Coldstream, Hule Moss on Greenlaw Moor, and +tiny sheets of water near Duns and Mersington.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The north portion of the county embraces that part +of the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland which stretches +from the Lammermuir Hills east to St Abb’s Head. The strata +consist mainly of grits, greywackes, flags and shales, repeated +by innumerable folds, trending north-east and south-west, which +are laid bare in the great cliff section between Fast Castle and +St Abb’s Head. This section of the tableland includes sediments, +chiefly of Tarannon age, which form a belt 10 m. across from the +crest of the Lammermuir Hills to a point near Westruther and +Longformacus. In the Earnscleuch Burn north-east of Lauder +representatives of Llandovery, Caradoc and Llandeilo rocks, +together with the Arenig cherts, appear along an anticlinal fold +in the midst of the younger strata. Again in the extreme north-west +of the county near Channelkirk and to the north of +the Tarannon belt radiolarian cherts and black shales with +graptolites of Upper Llandeilo and Caradoc age are met with. +The Lower Old Red Sandstone rocks, which rest unconformably +on the folded and denuded Silurian strata, appear at Eyemouth +and Reston Junction, and at St Abb’s Head are associated with +contemporaneous volcanic rocks which are evidently on the same +horizon as the interbedded lavas of Lower Old Red age in the +Cheviots. The intrusive igneous materials of this period are +represented by the granitic mass of Cockburn Law and the +porphyrites of the Dirrington Laws. The Upper Old Red Sandstone, +consisting of conglomerates and sandstones, rest unconformably +alike on the Silurian platform as at Siccar Point and +on the lower division of that system. The age of these beds has +been determined by the occurrence of remains of <i>Holoptychius +nobilissimus</i> in the sandstones at Earlston and in the Whiteadder +north of Duns. On the Black Hill of Earlston these strata are +traversed by a sheet of trachyte resembling the type of rock +capping the Eildon Hills (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roxburghshire</a></span>: <i>Geology</i>). +Overlying the strata just described there is a succession of +volcanic rocks extending from Greenlaw southwards by Stichil +and Kelso to Carham, which, at several localities, are followed +by a band of cornstone resembling that near the top of the Upper +Old Red Sandstone in the midland valley of Scotland. Next in +order comes a great development of the Cementstone group of +the Carboniferous system which spreads over nearly the whole of +the low ground of the Merse and attains a great thickness. At +Marshall Meadows north of Berwick-on-Tweed, thin bands of +marine limestone occur, which probably represent some of +the calcareous beds above the Fell sandstones south of +Spittal.</p> + +<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>—Owing to the maritime position, +the winter is seldom severe in the lowland districts, but spring is +a trying season on account of the east winds, which often last +into summer. The mean annual rainfall is 30½ in. and the +average temperature for the year is 47° F., for January 37° F., +and for July 58.5° F. The climate is excellent as regards both +the health of the inhabitants and the growth of vegetation. The +soils vary, sometimes even on the same farm. Along the rivers +is a deep rich loam, resting on gravel or clay, chiefly the former. +The less valuable clay soil of the Merse has been much improved +by drainage. The more sandy and gravelly soils are suitable for +turnips, of which great quantities are grown. Oats and barley are +the principal grain crops, but wheat also is raised. The flocks of +sheep are heavy, and cattle are pastured in considerable numbers. +Large holdings predominate—indeed, the average size is the +highest in Scotland—and scientific farming is the rule. The +labourers, who are physically well developed, are as a whole +frugal, industrious and intelligent, but somewhat migratory in +their habits. This feature in their character, which they may +have by inheritance as Borderers, has admirably fitted them for +colonial life, to which the scarcity of industrial occupation has +largely driven the surplus population.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries.</i>—Next to agriculture the fisheries are the +most important industry. The Tweed salmon fisheries are +famous, and the lesser rivers of the Merse are held in high esteem +by anglers. Eyemouth, Burnmouth, Coldingham and Cove are +engaged in the sea fisheries. Cod, haddock, herring, ling, lobsters +and crabs are principally taken. The season for herring is from +May to the middle of September and for white fish from October +to the end of May. Coal, copper ore and ironstone exist in too +small quantities to work, and the limestone is so far from a coal +district as to be of little economic value. Earlston sends out +ginghams and woollen cloths. At Cumledge on the Whiteadder, +blankets and plaids are manufactured, and paper is made at +Chirnside. The other manufactures are all connected with agriculture, +such as distilleries, breweries, tanneries, &c. The trade +is also mainly agricultural. Fairs are held at Duns, Lauder, +Coldstream and Greenlaw; but the sales of cattle and sheep +mostly take place at the auction marts at Reston, Duns and +Earlston. There are grain markets at Duns and Earlston. +Berwick, from which the county derives its name, is still its chief +market. There is, however, no legal or fiscal connexion between +the county and the borough.</p> + +<p>The North British railway monopolizes the communications +of the county. The system serves the coast districts from +Berwick to Cockburnspath, and there is a branch from Reston +to St Boswells.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Government.</i>—The population of Berwickshire +was 32,290 in 1891 and 30,824 in 1901, in which year the number +of persons speaking Gaelic and English was 74, and one person +spoke Gaelic only. The only considerable towns are Eyemouth +(pop. in 1901, 2436) and Duns (2206). The county returns one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span> +member to parliament. Lauder is the only royal burgh, and +Duns the county town, a status, however, which was held by +Greenlaw from 1696 to 1853, after which date it was shared by +both towns until conferred on Duns alone. Berwickshire forms +a sheriffdom with Roxburgh and Selkirk shires, and there is a +resident sheriff-substitute at Duns, who sits also at Greenlaw, +Coldstream, Ayton and Lauder. In addition to board and +voluntary schools throughout the county, there is a high school, +which is also a technical school, at Duns, and Coldstream and +Lauder public schools have secondary departments. Duns +school is subsidized by the county council, which pays the +expenses of students attending it from a distance.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Traces of Roman occupation and of ancient British +settlement exist in various parts of the Merse. Edin’s or Etin’s +Hall, on Cockburn Law, 4 m. north of Duns, is still called the +Pech’s or Pict’s House, and is one of the very few brochs found in +the Lowlands. After the Romans withdrew (409) the country +formed part of the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, and the +inhabitants were converted to Christianity through the missionary +efforts of Modan in the 6th, and Oswald, Aidan and Cuthbert +(traditionally believed to have been born in the vale of the +Leader) in the 7th centuries. The Northmen invaded the seaboard, +but the rugged coast proved an effectual barrier. The +Danes, however, landed in 886, and destroyed the nunnery at +Coldingham, founded about 650 by Ebba, daughter of Æthelfrith, +king of Northumbria, after whom the adjoining promontory +of St Abb’s Head was named. After the battle of Carham (1018) +the district, which then constituted part of the division of +Lothian, was annexed to Scotland. Birgham (pron. Birjam), +3½ m. west of Coldstream, was the scene of the conference in 1188 +between William the Lion and the bishop of Durham, which +discussed the attempt of the English church to assert supremacy +over the Scottish. Here also met in 1289 a convention of the Scots +estates to consider the projected marriage of Prince Edward of +England to the Maid of Norway; and here was signed in 1290 +the treaty of Birgham, assuring the independence of Scotland. +During the long period of international strife the shire was +repeatedly overrun by armies of the English and Scots kings, +who were constantly fighting for the ancient frontier town of +Berwick. It was finally ceded to England in 1482, and the +people afterwards gradually settled down to peaceful pursuits. +The ford at the confluence of the Leet and Tweed near Coldstream +gave access to south-eastern Scotland. Edward I. crossed it +with his army in 1296, encamping at Hutton the day before the +siege of Berwick, and it was similarly employed as late as 1640, +when the marquess of Montrose led the Covenanters on their +march to Newcastle, although James VI. had already caused a +bridge to be constructed from Berwick to Tweedmouth. There +are several places of historic interest in the county. Upon the +site of the nunnery at Coldingham King Edgar in 1098 founded +a Benedictine priory, which was one of the oldest monastic +institutions in Scotland and grew so wealthy that James III. +annexed its revenues to defray his extravagance, a step that +precipitated the revolt of the nobles (1488). The priory was +seriously damaged in the earl of Hertford’s inroad in 1545, and +Cromwell blew up part of the church in 1650. The chancel +(without aisles) was repaired and used as the parish church. +The remains contain some fine architectural features, such as, +on the outside, the Romanesque arcades surmounted by lancet +windows at the east end, and, in the interior, the Early Pointed +triforium. On the coast, about 4 m. north-west of Coldingham, +are the ruins of Fast Castle—the “Wolf’s Crag” of Scott’s <i>Bride +of Lammermoor</i>—situated on a precipitous headland. From Sir +Patrick Hume it passed to Sir Robert Logan of Restalrig, who +is alleged to have been one of the Gowrie conspirators, and to +have intended to imprison James VI. within its walls (1600). +Four miles west is the Pease or Peaths bridge, built by Thomas +Telford in 1786 across the deep pass which was of old one of the +strongest natural defences of Scotland. The bridge is 123 ft. +high, 300 ft. long and 16 ft. wide. Near it are the ruins of +Cockburnspath Tower, once a strong fortress and supposed to +be the “Ravens wood” of the <i>Bride of Lammermoor</i>. In the +south-west of the shire besides Dryburgh Abbey (<i>q.v.</i>) there are, +at Earlston, the remains of the castle that was traditionally the +residence of Thomas the Rhymer. Hume Castle, the ancient seat +of the Home family, a picturesque ruin about 3 m. south of Greenlaw, +is so conspicuously situated as to be visible from nearly every +part of the county. Coldstream and Lamberton, being close to +the Border, were both resorted to (like Gretna Green in the west) +by eloping couples for clandestine marriage. In Lamberton +church was signed in 1502 the contract for the marriage of +James IV. and Margaret Tudor, which led, a century later, to the +union of the crowns of Scotland and England.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.S. Crockett, <i>Minstrelsy of the Merse</i>, (Paisley, 1893); <i>In +Praise of Tweed</i> (Selkirk, 1889); <i>The Scott Country</i> (London, 1902); +J. Robson, <i>The Churches and Churchyards of Berwickshire</i> (Kelso, +1893); F.H. Groome, <i>A Short Border History</i> (Kelso, 1887); J. +Tait, <i>Two Centuries of Border Church Life</i> (Kelso, 1889); Margaret +Warrender, <i>Marchmont and the Humes of Polwarth</i> (Edinburgh, +1894); W.K. Hunter, <i>History of the Priory of Coldingham</i> (Edinburgh, +1858).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERWICK-UPON-TWEED,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> a market town, seaport, municipal +borough and county in itself, of England, at the mouth of the +Tweed on the north bank, 339 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. +(1901) 13,437. For parliamentary purposes it is in the Berwick-upon-Tweed +division of Northumberland. It is the junction on +the East Coast route from London to Scotland between the North +Eastern and North British railways, a branch of the company +first named running up the Tweed valley by Coldstream and +Kelso. The town lies in a bare district on the slope and flat +summit of an abrupt elevation, higher ground rising to the north +and south across the river. It has the rare feature of a complete +series of ramparts surrounding it. Those to the north and east +are formed of earth faced with stone, with bastions at intervals +and a ditch now dry. They are of Elizabethan date, but there +are also lines of much earlier date, the fortifications of Edward I. +Much of these last has been destroyed, and threatened encroachment +upon the remaining relics so far aroused public feeling that +in 1905 it was decided that the Board of Works should take over +these ruins, including the Bell Tower, from the town council, and +enclose them as national relics. The Bell Tower, from which +alarms were given when border raiders were observed, is in fair +preservation. There are slight remains of the castle, which fell +into disrepair after the union of the crowns of England and +Scotland. There are no traces of the churches, monasteries or +other principal buildings of the ancient town. The church of +Holy Trinity is a plain building without steeple, of the time of +Cromwell. Of modern places of worship, the most noteworthy is +Wallace Green United Presbyterian church (1859). The chief +public building is the town hall (1760), a stately classic building +surmounted by a lofty spire. Educational institutions include an +Elizabethan grammar school and a blue-coat school; and there +is a local museum. Two bridges connect the town with the south +side of the Tweed. The older, which is very substantial, was +finished in 1634, having taken twenty-four years in building. +It has fifteen arches, and is 924 ft. long, but only 17 ft. wide. +A unique provision for its upkeep out of Imperial funds dates +from the reign of Charles II. The other, the Royal Border Bridge, +situated a quarter of a mile up the river, is a magnificent +railway viaduct, 126 ft. high, with twenty-eight arches, which +extends from the railway station, a castellated building on part of +the site of the old castle, to a considerable distance beyond the +river. This bridge was designed by Robert Stephenson and +opened by Queen Victoria in 1850.</p> + +<p>The reach of the river from the old bridge to the mouth forms +the harbour. The entrance to the harbour is protected by a +stone pier, which stretches half a mile south-east from the north +bank of the river mouth. The depth of water at the bar is 17 ft. +at ordinary tides, 22 ft. at spring tides, but the channel is narrow, +a large rocky portion of the harbour on the north side being dry at +low water. There is a wet dock of 3½ acres. Principal exports +are grain, coal and fish; imports are bones and bone-ash, +manure stuffs, linseed, salt, timber and iron. The herring and +other sea fisheries are of some value, and the salmon fishery, in +the hands of a company, has long been famous. A fair is held +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span> +annually at the end of May. There are iron-works and boat-building +yards.</p> + +<p>The custom of specially mentioning Berwick-upon-Tweed after +Wales, though abandoned in acts of parliament, is retained in +certain proclamations. The title of “county in itself” also helps +to recall its ancient history. The liberties of the borough, +commonly called Berwick Bounds, include the towns of Spittal, +at the mouth, and Tweedmouth immediately above it, on the +south bank of the river. The first is a watering-place (pop. +2074), with pleasant sands and a chalybeate spa; the second +(pop. 3086) has iron foundries, engineering works and fish-curing +establishments. Berwick-upon-Tweed is governed by a mayor, +6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 6396 acres.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Very little is known of the history of Berwick before the Conquest. +It was not until the Tweed became the boundary between England +and Scotland in the 12th century that Berwick as the chief town +on that boundary became really important. Until the beginning of +the 14th century Berwick was one of the four royal boroughs of +Scotland, and although it possesses no charter granted before that +time, an inquisition taken in Edward III.’s reign shows that it was +governed by a mayor and bailiffs in the reign of Alexander III., +who granted the town to the said mayor and the commonalty for +an annual rent. After Edward I. had conquered Berwick in 1302 +he gave the burgesses another charter, no longer existing but quoted +in several confirmations, by which the town was made a free borough +with a gild merchant. The burgesses were given the right to elect +annually their mayor, who with the commonalty should elect four +bailiffs. They were also to have freedom from toll, pontage, &c., +two markets every week on Monday and Friday, and a fair lasting +from the feast of Holyrood to that of the Nativity of St John the +Baptist. Five years later, in 1307, the mayor and burgesses received +another charter, granting them their town with all things that +belonged to it in the time of Alexander III., for a fee-farm rent of +500 marks, which was granted back to them in 1313 to help towards +enclosing their town with a wall. While the war with Scotland +dragged on through the early years of the reign of Edward II., the +fortification of Berwick was a matter of importance, and in 1317 the +mayor and bailiffs undertook to defend it for the yearly sum of 6000 +marks; but in the following year, “owing to their default,” the +Scots entered and occupied it in spite of a truce between the two +kingdoms. After Edward III. had recovered Berwick the inhabitants +petitioned for the recovery of their prison called the Beffroi or +Bell-tower, the symbol of their independence, which their predecessors +had built before the time of Alexander III., and which had +been granted to William de Keythorpe when Edward I. took the +town. Edward III. in 1326 and 1356 confirmed the charter of +Edward I., and in 1357, evidently to encourage the growth of the +borough, granted that all who were willing to reside there and +desirous of becoming burgesses should be admitted as such on +payment of a fine. These early charters were confirmed by most of +the succeeding kings, until James I. granted the incorporation charter +in 1604; but on his accession to the English throne, Berwick of +course lost its importance as a frontier town. Berwick was at first +represented in the court of the four boroughs and in 1326 in Robert +Bruce’s parliament. After being taken by the English it remained +unrepresented until it was re-taken by the Scots, when it sent two +members to the parliament at Edinburgh from 1476 to 1479. In 1482 +the burgesses were allowed to send two members to the English +parliament, and were represented there until 1885, when the town +was included in the Berwick-upon-Tweed division of the county of +Northumberland. No manufactures are mentioned as having been +carried on in Berwick, but its trade, chiefly in the produce of the +surrounding country, was important in the 12th century. It has +been noted for salmon fishery in the Tweed from very early times. +There was a bridge over the Tweed at Berwick in the time of Alexander +and John, kings of Scotland, but it was broken down in the +time of the latter and not rebuilt until the end of the 14th century.</p> + +<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Northumberland</i>; John Fuller, +<i>History of Berwick-upon-Tweed</i>, &c. (1799); John Scott, <i>Berwick-upon-Tweed: +History of the Town and Guild</i> (1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERYL,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> a mineral containing beryllium and aluminium in the +form of a silicate; its formula is Be<span class="su">3</span>Al<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">18</span>. The species includes +the emerald (<i>q.v.</i>), the aquamarine (<i>q.v.</i>) and other transparent +varieties known as “precious beryl,” with certain coarse +varieties unfit for use as gem-stones. The name comes from the +Gr. <span class="grk" title="baeryllos">βήρυλλος</span>, a word of uncertain etymology applied to the +beryl and probably several other gems. It is notable that the +relation of the emerald to the beryl, though proved only by +chemical analysis, was conjectured at least as far back as the +time of Pliny.</p> + +<p>Beryl crystallizes in the hexagonal system, usually taking the +form of long six-sided prisms, striated vertically and terminated +with the basal plane, sometimes associated with various pyramidal +faces (see fig.). It cleaves rather imperfectly parallel to +the base. The colour of beryl may be blue, green, yellow, brown +or rarely pink; while in some cases the mineral is colourless. +The specific gravity is about 2.7, and the hardness 7.5 to 8, so +that for a gem-stone beryl is comparatively soft. Whilst the +gem-varieties are transparent, the coarse beryl +may be opaque. The transparent crystals +are pleochroic—a character well marked in +emerald.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:152px; height:207px" src="images/img817.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Crystal of beryl.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Beryl was much prized as a gem-stone +by the ancients, and Greek intaglios of +very fine workmanship are extant. The +Roman jewellers, taking advantage of the +columnar form of the natural crystal, worked +it into long cylinders for ear-pendants. +It was a favourite stone with the artists +of the Renaissance, but in modern times +has lost popularity, except in the form of +emerald, which remains one of the most valued gem-stones. +It is notable that English lapidaries of the 18th century often +included the sard under the term beryl—a practice which has led +to some confusion in the nomenclature of engraved gems.</p> + +<p>Beryl occurs as an accessory constituent of many granitic +rocks, especially in veins of pegmatite, whilst it is found also in +gneiss and in mica-schist. Rolled pebbles of beryl occur, with +topaz, in Brazil, especially in the province of Minas Geraes. +Crystals are found in drusy cavities in granite in the Urals, notably +near Mursinka; in the Altai Mountains, which have yielded +very long prismatic crystals; and in the mining district of +Nerchinsk in Siberia, principally in the Adun-Chalon range, +where beryl occurs in veins of topaz-rock piercing granite. +Among European localities may be mentioned Elba, good +crystals being occasionally found in the tourmaline-granite of +San Piero. In Ireland excellent crystals of beryl occur in druses +of the granite of the Mourne Mountains in Co. Down, and others +less fine are found in the highlands of Donegal, whilst the mineral +is also known from the Leinster granite. It occurs likewise in +the granite of the Grampians in Scotland, and is not unknown +in Cornwall, specimens having been found, with topaz, apatite, +&c., in joints of the granite of St Michael’s Mount.</p> + +<p>Many localities in the United States yield beryl, sometimes +sufficiently fine to be cut as a gem. It is found, for example, at +Hiddenite and elsewhere in Alexander county, N.C.; at +Haddam and Monroe, Conn.; at Stoneham and at Albany, in +Oxford county, Maine; at Royalston, Mass.; and at Mt. +Antero, Colorado, where it occurs with phenacite. Beryl of +beautiful pink colour occurs in San Diego county, California. +Coarse beryl, much rifted, is found in crystals of very large size +at Grafton and Acworth, N.H.; a crystal from Grafton weighing +more than 2½ tons. A colourless beryl from Goshen, Mass., +has been called Goshenite; whilst crystals of coarse yellow +beryl from Rubislaw quarry in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, have +been termed Davidsonite.</p> + +<p>Beryl suffers alteration by weathering, and may thus pass into +kaolin and mica.</p> +<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERYLLIUM,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Glucinum</span> (symbol Be, atomic weight 9.1), +one of the metallic chemical elements, included in the same +sub-group of the periodic classification as magnesium. It was +prepared in the form of its oxide in 1798 by L.N. Vauquelin +(<i>Ann. de chimie</i>, 1798, xxvi. p. 155) from the mineral beryl, and +though somewhat rare, is found in many minerals. It was first +obtained, in an impure condition, in 1828 by A.A.B. Bussy +(1794-1882) and F. Wöhler by the reduction of the chloride with +potassium, and in 1855 H.J. Debray prepared it, in a compact +state, by reducing the volatilized chloride with melted sodium, +in an atmosphere of hydrogen. L.F. Nilson and O. Pettersson +(<i>Wied. Ann.</i> 1878, iv. p. 554) have also prepared the metal by +heating beryllium potassium fluoride with sodium; P.M. +Lebeau (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1895-1898, vols. 120-127) has obtained +it in lustrous hexagonal crystals by electrolysing the double +fluoride of beryllium and sodium or potassium with an excess of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span> +beryllium fluoride. It is a malleable metal, of specific gravity +1.64 (Nilson and Pettersson) and a specific heat of 0.4079. Its +melting-point is below that of silver. In a fine state of division +it takes fire on heating in air, but is permanent at ordinary +temperatures in oxygen or air; it is readily attacked by hydrochloric +and sulphuric acids, but scarcely acted on by nitric acid. +It is also soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis, with evolution +of hydrogen a behaviour similar to that shown by aluminium. +It combines readily with fluorine, chlorine and bromine, and also +with sulphur, selenium, phosphorus, &c.</p> + +<p>Considerable discussion has taken place at different times as +to the position which beryllium should occupy in the periodic +classification of the elements, and as to whether its atomic weight +should be 9.1 or 13.65, but the weight of evidence undoubtedly +favours its position in Group II., with an atomic weight 9.1 +(O = 16) (see Nilson and Pettersson, <i>Berichte</i>, 1880, 13, p. 1451; +1884, 17, p. 987; B. Brauner, <i>Berichte</i>, 1881, 14, p. 53; T. Carnelley, +<i>Journ. of Chem. Soc.</i>, 1879, xxxv. p. 563; 1880, xxxvii., p. +125, and W.N. Hartley, <i>Journ. of Chem. Soc.</i>, 1883, xliii. p. 316). +The specific heat of beryllium has been calculated by L. Meyer +(<i>Berichte</i>, 1880, 13, p. 1780) from the data of L.F. Nilson and +O. Pettersson, and appears to increase rapidly with increasing +temperature, the values obtained being 0.3973 at 20.2° C., 0.4481 +at 73.2° C. and 0.5819 at 256.8° C.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Beryllium compounds are almost wholly prepared from beryl. +The mineral is fused with potassium carbonate, and, on cooling, +the product is treated with sulphuric acid, the excess of which is +removed by evaporation; water is then added and the silica is +filtered off. On concentration of the solution, the major portion +of the aluminium present separates as alum, and the mother liquor +remaining contains beryllium and iron sulphates together with a +little alum. This is now treated for some days with a hot concentrated +solution of ammonium carbonate, which precipitates the +iron and aluminium but keeps the beryllium in solution. The iron +and aluminium precipitates are filtered off, and the filtrate boiled, +when a basic beryllium hydroxide containing a little ferric oxide +is precipitated. To remove the iron, the precipitate is again dissolved +in ammonium carbonate and steam is blown through the +liquid, when beryllium oxide is precipitated. This process is repeated +several times, and the final precipitate is dissolved in hydrochloric +acid and precipitated by ammonia, washed and dried. It +has also been obtained by J. Gibson (<i>Journ. of Chem. Soc.</i>, 1893, +lxiii. p. 909) from beryl by conversion of the beryllium into its fluoride.</p> + +<p>Beryllium oxide, beryllia or glucina, BeO, is a very hard white +powder which can be melted and distilled in the electric furnace, +when it condenses in the form of minute hexagonal crystals. After +ignition it dissolves with difficulty in acids. The hydroxide Be(OH)<span class="su">2</span> +separates as a white bulky precipitate on adding a solution of an +alkaline hydroxide to a soluble beryllium salt; and like those of +aluminium and zinc, this hydroxide is soluble in excess of the +alkaline hydroxide, but is reprecipitated on prolonged boiling. +Beryllium chloride BeCl<span class="su">2</span>, like aluminium chloride, may be prepared +by heating a mixture of the oxide and sugar charcoal in a current +of dry chlorine. It is deliquescent, and readily soluble in water, +from which it separates on concentration in crystals of composition +BeCl<span class="su">2</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O. Its vapour density has been determined by Nilson +and Pettersson, and corresponds to the molecular formula BeCl<span class="su">2</span>. +The sulphate is obtained by dissolving the oxide in sulphuric acid; +if the solution be not acid, it separates in pyramidal crystals of +composition BeSO<span class="su">4</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, while from an acid solution of this salt, +crystals of composition BeSO<span class="su">4</span>·7H<span class="su">2</span>O are obtained. Double sulphates +of beryllium and the alkali metals are known, <i>e.g.</i> BeSO<span class="su">4</span>·K<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O +as are also many basic sulphates. The nitrate Be(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O is +prepared by adding barium nitrate to beryllium sulphate solution; +it crystallizes with difficulty and is very deliquescent. It readily +yields basic salts.</p> + +<p>The carbide BeC<span class="su">2</span> is formed when beryllia and sugar charcoal are +heated together in the electric furnace. Like aluminium carbide +it is slowly decomposed by water with the production of methane. +Several basic carbonates are known, being formed by the addition +of beryllium salts to solutions of the alkaline carbonates; the +normal carbonate is prepared by passing a current of carbon dioxide +through water containing the basic carbonate in suspension, the +solution being filtered and concentrated over sulphuric acid in an +atmosphere of carbon dioxide. The crystals so obtained are very +unstable and decompose rapidly with evolution of carbon dioxide.</p> + +<p>Beryllium salts are easily soluble and mostly have a sweetish +taste (hence the name Glucinum (<i>q.v.</i>), from <span class="grk" title="glukus">γλυκύς</span>, sweet); they are +readily precipitated by alkaline sulphides with formation of the white +hydroxide, and may be distinguished from salts of all other metals +by the solubility of the oxide in ammonium carbonate. Beryllium +is estimated quantitatively by precipitation with ammonia, and +ignition to oxide. Its atomic weight has been determined by L.F. +Nilson and O. Pettersson (<i>Berichte</i>, 1880, 13, p. 1451) by analysis +of the sulphate, from which they found the value 9.08, and by +G. Krüss and H. Moraht (<i>Berichte</i>, 1890, 23, p. 2556) from the conversion +of the sulphate BeSO<span class="su">4</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O into the oxide, from which they +obtained the value 9.05. C.L. Parsons (<i>Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.</i>, +1904, xxvi. p. 721) obtained the values 9.113 from analyses of beryllium +acetonyl-acetate and beryllium basic acetate.</p> + +<p>For a bibliography see C.L. Parsons, <i>The Chemistry and Literature +of Beryllium</i> (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERYLLONITE,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> a mineral phosphate of beryllium and +sodium, NaBePO<span class="su">4</span>, found as highly complex orthorhombic +crystals and as broken fragments in the disintegrated material +of a granitic vein at Stoneham, Maine, where it is associated +with felspar, smoky quartz, beryl and columbite. It was discovered +by Prof. E.S. Dana in 1888, and named beryllonite +because it contains beryllium in large amount. The crystals +vary from colourless to white or pale yellowish, and are transparent +with a vitreous lustre; there is a perfect cleavage in one +direction. Hardness 5½-6; specific gravity 2.845. A few crystals +have been cut and faceted, but, as the refractive index is no higher +than that of quartz, they do not make very brilliant gem-stones.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BERZELIUS, JÖNS JAKOB<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1779-1848), Swedish chemist, +was born at Väfversunda Sorgard, near Linköping, Sweden, on +the 20th (or 29th) of August 1779. After attending the gymnasium +school at Linköping he went to Upsala University, where +he studied chemistry and medicine, and graduated as M.D. in +1802. Appointed assistant professor of botany and pharmacy +at Stockholm in the same year, he became full professor in 1807, +and from 1815 to 1832 was professor of chemistry in the Caroline +medico-chirurgical institution of that city. The Stockholm +Academy of Sciences elected him a member in 1808, and in 1818 +he became its perpetual secretary. The same year he was +ennobled by Charles XIV., who in 1835 further made him a baron. +His death occurred at Stockholm on the 7th of August 1848. +During the first few years of his scientific career Berzelius was +mainly engaged on questions of physiological chemistry, but +about 1807 he began to devote himself to what he made the chief +object of his life—the elucidation of the composition of chemical +compounds through study of the law of multiple proportions +and the atomic theory. Perceiving the exact determination of +atomic and molecular weights to be of fundamental importance, +he spent ten years in ascertaining that constant for some two +thousand simple and compound bodies, and the results he +published in 1818 attained a remarkable standard of accuracy, +which was still further improved in a second table that appeared +in 1826. He used oxygen—in his view the pivot round which +the whole of chemistry revolves—as the basis of reference for +the atomic weights of other substances, and the data on which +he chiefly relied were the proportions of oxygen in oxygen +compounds, the doctrines of isomorphism, and Gay Lussac’s law +of volumes. When Volta’s discovery of the electric cell became +known, Berzelius, with W. Hisinger (1766-1852), began experiments +on the electrolysis of salt solutions, ammonia, sulphuric +acid, &c., and later this work led him to his electrochemical +theory, a full exposition of which he gave in his memoir on the +<i>Theory of Chemical Proportions and the Chemical Action of +Electricity</i> (1814). This theory was founded on the supposition +that the atoms of the elements are electrically polarized, the +positive charge predominating in some and the negative in others, +and from it followed his dualistic hypothesis, according to which +compounds are made up of two electrically different components. +At first this hypothesis was confined to inorganic chemistry, +but subsequently he extended it to organic compounds, +which he saw might similarly be regarded as containing a +group or groups of atoms—a compound radicle—in place of +simple elements. Although his conception of the nature of +compound radicles did not long retain general favour—indeed +he himself changed it more than once—he is entitled to rank as +one of the chief founders of the radicle theory. Another service +of the utmost importance which he rendered to the study of +chemistry was in continuing and extending the efforts of Lavoisier +and his associates to establish a convenient system of chemical +nomenclature. By using the initial letters of the Latin +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span> +(occasionally Greek) names of the elements as symbols for them, +and adding a small numeral subscript, to show the number of atoms +of each present in a compound, he introduced the present system +of chemical formulation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>). Mention should +also be made of the numerous improvements he effected in +analytical methods and the technique of the blowpipe (<i>Über +die Anwendung des Löthrohrs</i>, 1820), of his classification of +minerals on a chemical basis, and of many individual researches +such as those on tellurium, selenium, silicon, thorium, titanium, +zirconium and molybdenum, most of which he isolated for the first +time. Apart from his original memoirs, of which he published +over 250, mostly in Swedish in the <i>Transactions</i> of the Stockholm +Academy, his remarkable literary activity is attested by his +<i>Lehrbuch der Chemie</i>, which went through five editions (first +1803-1818, fifth 1843-1848) and by his <i>Jahresbericht</i> or annual +report on the progress of physics and chemistry, prepared at +the instance of the Stockholm Academy, of which he published +27 vols. (1821-1848).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BES,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> or BĒSAS (Egyp. <i>Bēs</i> or <i>Bēsa</i>), the Egyptian god of recreation, +represented as a dwarf with large head, goggle eyes, +protruding tongue, shaggy beard, a bushy tail seen between his +bow legs hanging down behind (sometimes clearly as part of a +skin girdle) and usually a large crown of feathers on his head. +A Bes-like mask was found by Petrie amongst remains of the +twelfth dynasty, but the earliest occurrence of the god is in the +temple of the queen Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahri (<i>c.</i> 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +where he is figured along with the hippopotamus goddess as +present at the queen’s birth. His figure is that of a grotesque +mountebank, intended to inspire joy or drive away pain and +sorrow, his hideousness being perhaps supposed actually to scare +away the evil spirits. In his joyous aspect Bes plays the harp +or flute, dances, &c. He is figured on mirrors, ointment vases +and other articles of the toilet. Amulets and ornaments in the +form of the figure or mask of Bes are common after the New +Kingdom; he is often associated with children and with childbirth +and is figured in the “birth-houses” devoted to the cult +of the child-god. Perhaps the earliest known instance of his +prominent appearance of large size in the sculptures of the +temples is under Tahraka, at Jebel Barkal, Nubia, at the beginning +of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> As the protector of children and +others he is the enemy of noxious beasts, such as lions, crocodiles, +serpents and scorpions. Large wooden figures of Bes are generally +found to contain the remains of a human foetus. In the +first centuries of our era an oracle of Besas was consulted at +Abydos, where A.H. Sayce has found graffiti concerning him, +and prescriptions exist for consulting Besas in dreams. It +has been held that Bes was of non-Egyptian origin, African, as +Wiedemann, or Arabian or even Babylonian, as W. Max Müller +contends; he is sometimes entitled “coming from the Divine +Land” (<i>i.e.</i> the East or Arabia), or “Lord of Puoni” (Punt), <i>i.e.</i> +the African coast of the Red Sea; his effigy occurs also on Greek +coins of Arabia. It is remarkable also that, contrary to the usual +rule, he is commonly represented in Egyptian sculptures and +paintings full faced instead of in profile. But the connexion +of the god with Puoni may have grown out of the fact that +dwarf dancers were especially brought to Egypt from Ethiopia +and Puoni.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See K. Sethe in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie, s.v.</i>; A. +Wiedemann, <i>Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</i> (London, 1897), +p. 159; E.A.W. Budge, <i>Gods of the Egyptians</i>, ii. p. 284 (London); +W. Max Müller, <i>Asien u. Europa</i> (Leipzig, 1893), p. 310.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESANÇON,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> a city of eastern France, capital of the department +of Doubs, 76 m. E. of Dijon by the Paris-Lyon railway. +Pop. (1906) town, 41,760; commune, 56,168. It is situated +on the left bank of the river Doubs, 820 ft. above sea-level at +the foot of the western Jura, and is enclosed by hills in every +direction. The Doubs almost surrounds the city proper forming +a peninsula, the neck of which is occupied by a height crowned +by the citadel; on the right bank lie populous industrial suburbs. +The river is bordered by fine quays, and in places by the shady +promenades which are a feature of Besançon. On the right +bank there is a fine bathing establishment in the Mouillère quarter, +supplied by the saline springs of Miserey. The cathedral of +St Jean, the chief of the numerous churches of the town, was +founded in the 4th century but has often undergone reconstruction +and restoration; it resembles the Rhenish churches of +Germany in the possession of apses at each of its extremities. +Several styles are represented in its architecture which for the +most part is the work of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries; +the eastern apse and the tower date from the reign of Louis XV. +In the interior there are a “Madonna and Child” of Fra Bartolommeo +and a number of other paintings and works of art. The +archiepiscopal palace adjoining the cathedral is a building of +the 18th century. The church of Ste. Madeleine belongs to the +18th and 19th centuries. The Palais de Granvelle, in the heart +of the town, was built from 1534 to 1540 by Nicolas Perrenot +de Granvella, chancellor of Charles V., and is the most interesting +of the secular buildings. It is built round a square interior court +surrounded by arcades, and is occupied by learned societies. +The hôtel de ville dates from the 16th century, to which period +many of the old mansions of Besançon also belong. The law-court, +rebuilt in recent times, preserves a Renaissance façade +and a fine audience-hall of the 18th century. Some relics of old +military architecture survive, among them a cylindrical tower +of the 15th century near the Porte Notre-Dame, the southern +gate of the city, and the Porte Rivotte, a gate of the 16th century, +flanked by two round towers. The Roman remains at Besançon +are of great archaeological value. Close to the cathedral there +is a triumphal arch decorated with bas-reliefs known as the +Porte Noire, which is generally considered to have been built +in commemoration of the victories of Marcus Aurelius over the +Germans in 167. It is in poor preservation and was partly rebuilt +in 1820. Remains of a Roman theatre, of an amphitheatre, +of an aqueduct which entered the town by the Porte Taillée, a +gate cut in the rock below the citadel, and an arch of a former +Roman bridge, forming part of the modern bridge, are also to +be seen. Besançon has statues of Victor Hugo and of the +Marquis de Jouffroy d’Abbans (b. 1751), inventor of steam-navigation.</p> + +<p>Besançon is important as the seat of an archbishopric, a court +of appeal and a court of assizes, as centre of an <i>académie</i> (educational +division), as seat of a prefect and as headquarters of the +VIIth army corps. It also has tribunals of first instance and of +commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, +an exchange and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational +establishments include the university with its faculties +of science and letters and a preparatory school of medicine and +pharmacy, an artillery school, the lycée Victor Hugo for boys, +a lycée for girls, an ecclesiastical seminary, training colleges for +teachers, and schools of watch-making, art, music and dairy-work. +The library contains over 130,000 volumes, and the city +has good collections of pictures, antiquities and natural history. +The chief industry of Besançon is watch- and clock-making, +introduced from the district of Neuchâtel at the end of the 18th +century. It employs about 12,000 workpeople, and produces +about three-fourths of the watches sold in France. Subsidiary +industries, such as enamelling, are also important. The metallurgical +works of the <i>Société de la Franche-Comté</i> are established +in the city and there are saw-mills, printing-works, paper-factories, +distilleries, and manufactories of boots and shoes, +machinery, hosiery, leather, elastic fabric, confectionery and artificial +silk. There is trade in agricultural produce, wine, metals, +&c. The canal from the Rhône to the Rhine passes under the +citadel by way of a tunnel, and the port of Besançon has considerable +trade in coal, sand, &c.</p> + +<p>As a fortress Besançon forms one of a group which includes +Dijon, Langres and Belfort; these are designed to secure Franche +Comté and to cover a field army operating on the left flank of a +German army of invasion. The citadel occupies the neck of the +peninsula upon which the town stands; along the river bank +in a semicircle is the town <i>enceinte</i>, and the suburb of Battant +on the right bank of the Doubs is also “regularly” fortified as +a bridge-head. These works, and Forts Chaudanne and Brégille +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span> +overlooking the Doubs at the bend, were constructed prior to +1870. The newer works enclose an area more suited to the needs +of modern warfare: the chain of detached forts along the ridges +of the left bank has a total length of 7½ m., and the centre of this +chain is supported by numerous forts and batteries lying +between it and the citadel. On the other bank Fort Chaudanne +is now the innermost of several forts facing towards the south-west, +and the foremost of these works connects the fortifications +of the left bank with another chain of detached forts on the right +bank. The latter completely encloses a large area of ground in +a semicircle of which Besançon itself is the centre, and the whole +of the newer works taken together form an irregular ellipse of +which the major axis, lying north-east by south-west, is formed +by the Doubs.</p> + +<p>Besançon is a place of great antiquity. Under the name of +Vesontio it was, in the time of Julius Caesar, the chief town +of the Sequani, and in 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was occupied by that general. It +was a rich and prosperous place under the Roman emperors, +and Marcus Aurelius promoted it to the rank of a <i>colonia</i> as +<i>Colonia Victrix Sequanorum</i>. During the succeeding centuries +it was several times destroyed and rebuilt. The archbishopric +dates from the close of the 2nd century, and the archbishops +gradually acquired considerable temporal power. As the capital +of the free county of Burgundy, or Franche-Comté, it was united +with the German kingdom when Frederick I. married Beatrix, +daughter of Renaud III., count of Upper Burgundy. In 1184 +Frederick made it a free imperial city, and about the same time +the archbishop obtained the dignity of a prince of the Empire. +It afterwards became detached from the German kingdom, and +during the 14th century came into the possession of the dukes +of Burgundy, from whom it passed to the emperor Maximilian I., +and his grandson Charles V. Cardinal Granvella, who was a +native of the city, became archbishop in 1584, and founded a +university which existed until the French Revolution. After +the abdication of Charles V. it came into the possession of Spain, +although it remained formally a portion of the Empire until its +cession at the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the 17th +century it was attacked several times by the French, to whom +it was definitely ceded by the peace of Nijmwegen in 1678. It +was then fortified by the engineer Vauban. Until 1789 it was +the seat of a <i>parlement</i>. In 1814 it was invested and bombarded +by the Austrians, and was an important position during +the Franco-German War of 1870-71.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Castan, <i>Besançon et ses environs</i> (Besançon, 1887); A. +Guénard, <i>Besançon, description historique</i> (Besançon, 1860).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESANT, SIR WALTER<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1836-1901), English author, was +born at Portsmouth, on the 14th of August 1836, third son of +William Besant of that town. He was educated at King’s +College, London, and Christ’s College, Cambridge, of which he +was a scholar. He graduated in 1859 as 18th wrangler, +and from 1861 to 1867 was senior professor of the Royal College, +Mauritius. From 1868 to 1885 he acted as secretary to the Palestine +Exploration Fund. In 1884 he was mainly instrumental in +establishing the Society of Authors, a trade-union of writers +designed for the protection of literary property, which has rendered +great assistance to inexperienced authors by explaining +the principles of literary profit. Of this society he was chairman +from its foundation in 1884 till 1892. He married Mary, daughter +of Mr Eustace Foster-Barham of Bridgwater, and was knighted +in 1895. He died at Hampstead, on the 9th of June 1901. +Sir Walter Besant practised many branches of literary art with +success, but he is most widely known for his long succession of +novels, many of which have enjoyed remarkable popularity. +His first stories were written in collaboration with James Rice +(<i>q.v.</i>). Two at least of these, <i>The Golden Butterfly</i> (1876) and +<i>Ready-Money Mortiboy</i> (1872), are among the most vigorous +and most characteristic of his works. Though not without +exaggeration and eccentricity, attributable to the influence +of Dickens, they are full of rich humour, shrewd observation +and sound common-sense, and contain characters which have +taken their place in the long gallery of British fiction. After +Rice’s death, Sir Walter Besant wrote alone, and in <i>All Sorts +and Conditions of Men</i> (1882) produced a stirring story of East +End life in London, which set on foot the movement that culminated +in the establishment of the People’s Palace in the Mile +End Road. Though not himself a pioneer in the effort made +by Canon Barnett and others to alleviate the social evils of the +East End by the personal contact of educated men and women +of a superior social class, his books rendered immense service to +the movement by popularizing it. His sympathy with the poor +was shown in another attempt to stir public opinion, this time +against the evils of the sweating system, in <i>The Children of +Gibeon</i> (1886).</p> + +<p>Other popular novels by him were <i>Dorothy Forster</i> (1884), +<i>Armorel of Lyonesse</i> (1890), and <i>Beyond the Dreams of Avarice</i> +(1895). He also wrote critical and biographical works, including +<i>The French Humorists</i> (1873), <i>Rabelais</i> (1879), and lives of +Coligny, Whittington, Captain Cook and Richard Jefferies. +Besant undertook a series of important historical and archaeological +volumes, dealing with the associations and development +of the various districts of London—of which the most important +was <i>A Survey of London</i>, unfortunately left unfinished, which +was intended to do for modern London what Stow did for +the Elizabethan city. Other books on <i>London</i> (1892), <i>Westminster</i> +(1895) and <i>South London</i> (1899) showed that his mind +was full of his subject. No man of his time evinced a keener +interest in the professional side of literary work, and the improved +conditions of the literary career in England were largely due +to his energetic and capable exposition of the commercial +value of authorship and to the unselfish efforts which Sir +Walter constantly made on behalf of his fellow-workers in the +field of letters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <i>Autobiography of Sir Walter Besant</i> (1902), with a prefatory +note by S.S. Sprigge; the preface to the library edition +(1887) of <i>Ready-Money Mortiboy</i> contains a history of the literary +partnership of Besant and Rice.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESENVAL DE BRONSTATT, PIERRE VICTOR,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron de</span> +(1722-1794), French soldier, was born at Soleure. He was the +son of Jean Victor Besenval, colonel of the regiment of Swiss +guards in the pay of France, who was charged in 1707 by Louis +XIV. with a mission to Sweden, to reconcile Charles XII. with +the tsar Peter the Great, and to unite them in alliance with +France against England. Pierre Victor served at first as aide-de-camp +to Marshal Broglie during the campaign of 1748 in +Bohemia, then as aide-de-camp to the duke of Orleans during +the Seven Years’ War. He then became commander of the +Swiss Guards. When the Revolution began Besenval remained +firmly attached to the court, and he was given command of the +troops which the king had concentrated on Paris in July 1789—a +movement which led to the taking of the Bastille on the +14th of July. Besenval showed incompetence in the crisis, and +attempted to flee. He was arrested, tried by the tribunal +of the Châtelet, but acquitted. He then fell into obscurity +and died in Paris in 1794. Besenval de Bronstatt is principally +known as the author of <i>Mémoires</i>, which were published in +1805-1807 by the vicomte T.A. de Ségur, in which are reported +many scandalous tales, true or false, of the court of Louis XVI. +and Marie Antoinette. The authenticity of these memoirs is +not absolutely established.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESKOW, BERNHARD VON,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1796-1868), Swedish +dramatist and historian, son of a Stockholm merchant, was +born on the 19th of April 1796. His vocation for literature was +assisted by his tutor, the poet Johan Magnus Stjernstolpe +(1777-1831), whose works he edited. He entered the civil +service in 1814, was ennobled in 1826 and received the title of +baron in 1843. He held high appointments at court, and was, +from 1834 onwards, perpetual secretary of the Swedish academy, +using his great influence with tact and generosity. His poetry +is over-decorated, and his plays are grandiose historical poems +in dramatic form. Among them are “Erik XIV.” (2 parts, +1826); and four pieces collected (1836-1838) as <i>Dramatiska +Studier</i>, the most famous of which is the tragedy of “Thorkel +Knutsson.” His works include many academical memoirs, +volumes of poems, philosophy and a valuable historical study, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span> +<i>Om Gustav den Tredje såsom konung och menniska</i> (5 vols. +1860-1869, “Gustavus III. as king and man”), printed in the +transactions of the Swedish Academy (vols. 32, 34, 37, 42, 44). +He died on the 17th of October 1868.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also a notice by C. D. af Wirsen in his <i>Lefnadsteckningar</i> +(Stockholm, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESNARD, PAUL ALBERT<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1849-  ), French painter, +was born in Paris and studied at the École des Beaux-Arts, +winning the <i>Prix de Rome</i> in 1874. Until about 1880 he followed +the academic tradition, but then broke away completely, and +devoted himself to the study of colour and light as conceived +by the impressionists. The realism of this group never appealed +to his bold imagination, but he applied their technical method +to ideological and decorative works on a large scale, such as +his frescoes at the Sorbonne, the École de Pharmacie, the Salle +des Sciences at the hôtel de ville, the mairie of the first arrondissement, +and the chapel of Berck hospital, for which he painted +twelve “Stations of the Cross” in an entirely modern spirit. +A great virtuoso, he achieved brilliant successes alike in water-colour, +pastel, oil and etching, both in portraiture, in landscape +and in decoration. A good example of his daring unconventionality +is his portrait of Madame Réjane; and his close analysis +of light can be studied in his picture “Femme qui se chauffe” +at the Luxembourg in Paris.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESOM<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (Old Eng. <i>besema</i>, a rod), originally a bundle of rods +or twigs, used for sweeping, &c.; a stiff broom.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESSARABIA,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> a government of south-west Russia, separated +on the W. and S. from Moldavia and Walachia by the Pruth, and +on the E. and N. from the Russian governments of Podolia +and Kherson by the Dniester; on the S.E. it is washed by +the Black Sea. Area, 17,614 sq. m. The northern districts are +invaded by offshoots of the Carpathians, which reach altitudes +of 800 to 1150 ft., and are cut up by numerous ravines and river +valleys. Here, however, agriculture is the prevailing occupation, +the soil being the fertile black earth. The crops principally +raised are wheat and maize, though here, as well as in other parts +of the government, barley, flax, tobacco, water-melons, gourds, +fruit, wine, saffron and madder are grown. The middle of the +government is also hilly (850-1000 ft.), and is heavily timbered, +chiefly with beech, oak and mountain-ash, and, though to a +smaller extent, with birch. The districts south of the old Roman +earthworks which link the Dniester with the Pruth along the +line of the Botna, just south of Bender, consist of level pasture-land +known as the Budjak steppes. Here stock-breeding is the +predominant calling, the people owning large numbers of sheep, +cattle and horses, also goats, pigs and buffaloes. Lagoons +fringe the lower course of the Pruth and the coast of the Black +Sea, and marshy ground exists beside the Reuth and other +tributaries of the Dniester. The climate is rather subject to +extremes, the mean temperature for the year, at Kishinev, +being 50° Fahr., of January 27°, and of July 72°. The rainfall +amounts to over 25 in. annually. Salt, saltpetre and marble are +the principal mineral products. Manufacturing industry is only +just beginning, wine-making (17,000,000 gallons annually), +cloth-mills, iron-works, soap-works and tanneries being the +principal branches. Both the Dniester and the Pruth are +important waterways commercially, the former being navigable +up to Mogilev and the latter to Leovo (46° 30′ N. lat.). Down the +Dniester come timber and wooden wares from Galicia, and grain +and wool from Bessarabia itself. Three branches of the railway +from Odessa to Poland penetrate the government and proceed +towards the Carpathians. The population numbered 988,431 +in 1860 and 1,938,326 in 1897, of whom only 302,852 were urban, +while 942,179 were women. In 1906 it was estimated at 2,262,400. +It consists of various races, nearly one-half (920,919 in 1897) +being Moldavians, the others Little Russians, Jews (37% in the +towns and 12% in the rural districts), Bulgarians (103,225), +Germans (60,206), with some Gypsies (Zigani), Greeks, Armenians, +Tatars and Albanians. The Germans, who form some thirty +prosperous colonies in the Budjak steppes west from Akkerman, +have been settled there since about 1814. The government is +divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which are Akkerman +(pop. 32,470 in 1900), Bender (33,741 in 1900), Byeltsi +(18,526 in 1897), Izmail (33,607 in 1900), Khotin (18,126), +Kishinev (125,787 in 1900), Orgeyev (13,356), and Soroki (25,523 +in 1900). The capital is Kishinev. Kagul, on the Pruth, and +Reni on the Danube (the place to which Alexander of Bulgaria +was carried when kidnapped by the Russians in 1886), are small, +but lively, river-ports.</p> + +<p>The original inhabitants were Cimmerians, and after them +came Scythians. During the early centuries of the Christian era +Bessarabia, being the key to one of the approaches towards the +Byzantine empire, was invaded by many successive races. In +the 2nd century it was occupied by the Getae, a Thracian +tribe, whom the Roman emperor Trajan conquered in 106; he +then incorporated the region in the province of Dacia. In the +following century the Goths poured into this quarter of the +empire, and in the 5th century it was overrun one after the other +by the Huns, the Avars and the Bulgarians. Then followed in +the 7th century the Bessi, a Thracian tribe, who gave their name +to the region, and in the 9th the Ugrians, that is to say the +ancestors of the present Magyars of Hungary, the country being +then known as Atel-kuzu. The Ugrians were forced farther west +by the Turkish tribe of the Petchenegs in the 10th century, and +these were succeeded in the 11th century by the Kumans (Comani) +or Polovtsians, a kindred Turkish stock or federation. In the +13th century Bessarabia was overrun by the irresistible Mongols +under the leadership of Batu, grandson of Jenghiz Khan. In this +century also the Genoese founded trading factories on the banks +of the Dniester. In 1367 Bessarabia was subdued and annexed +by the ruling prince of Moldavia. During the 16th century it +was in the possession alternately of the Turks and the Nogais or +Crimean Tatars. From early in the 18th century it was a bone +of contention between the Ottoman Turks and the Russians, the +latter capturing it five times between 1711 and 1812. In the +latter year it was definitely annexed to Russia, and in 1829 its +frontier was pushed southwards so as to include the delta of the +Danube. After the Crimean War, however, Russia ceded to +Moldavia not only this later addition, but also certain districts +in the south of the existing government, amounting altogether +to an area of 4250 sq. m. and a population of 180,000. By the +treaty of Berlin (1878) Russia recovered of this 3580 sq. m., with +a population of 127,000.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Nakko, <i>History of Bessarabia</i>, in Russian (1873).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESSARION, JOHANNES,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Basilius</span> (<i>c.</i> 1395-1472), titular +patriarch of Constantinople, and one of the illustrious Greek +scholars who contributed to the great revival of letters in the +15th century, was born at Trebizond, the year of his birth being +variously given as 1389, 1395 or 1403. He was educated at +Constantinople, and in 1423 went to the Peloponnese to hear +Gemistus Pletho expound the philosophy of Plato. On entering +the order of St Basil, he adopted the name of an old Egyptian +anchorite Bessarion, whose story he has related. In 1437 he was +made archbishop of Nicaea by John VII. Palacologus, whom +he accompanied to Italy in order to bring about a union between +the Greek and Latin churches with the object of obtaining help +from the West against the Turks. The Greeks had bitterly +resented his attachment to the party which saw no difficulty in +a reconciliation of the two churches. At the councils held in +Ferrara and Florence Bessarion supported the Roman church, +and gained the favour of Pope Eugenius IV., who invested him +with the rank of cardinal. From that time he resided permanently +in Italy, doing much, by his patronage of learned men, by his +collection of books and manuscripts, and by his own writings, +to spread abroad the new learning. He held in succession the +archbishopric of Siponto and the bishoprics of Sabina and +Frascati. In 1463 he received the title of Latin patriarch of +Constantinople; and it was only on account of his Greek birth +that he was not elevated to the papal chair. For five years +(1450-1455) he was legate at Bologna, and he was engaged on +embassies to many foreign princes, among others to Louis XI. +of France in 1471. Vexation at an insult offered him by Louis +is said to have hastened his death, which took place on the 19th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span> +of November 1472, at Ravenna. Bessarion was one of the most +learned scholars of his time. Besides his translations of Aristotle’s +<i>Metaphysics</i> and Xenophon’s <i>Memorabilia</i>, his most important +work is a treatise directed against George of Trebizond, a violent +Aristotelian, entitled <i>In Calumniatorem Platonis</i>. Bessarion, +though a Platonist, is not so thoroughgoing in his admiration as +Gemistus Pletho, and rather strives after a reconciliation of the +two philosophies. His work, by opening up the relations of +Platonism to the main questions of religion, contributed greatly +to the extension of speculative thought in the department of +theology. His library, which contained a very extensive collection +of Greek MSS., was presented by him to the senate +of Venice, and formed the nucleus of the famous library of +St Mark.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.M. Bandini, <i>De Vita et Rebus Gestis Bessarionis</i> (1777); +H. Vast, <i>Le Cardinal Bessarion</i> (1878); E. Legrand, <i>Bibliographie +Hellénique</i> (1885); G. Voigt, <i>Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen +Altertums</i>, ii. (1893); on Bessarion at the councils of Ferrara and +Florence, A. Sadov, <i>Bessarion de Nicée</i> (1883); on his philosophy, +monograph by A. Kandelos (in Greek: Athens, 1888); most of his +works are in Migne, <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, clxi.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESSBOROUGH, EARLS OF<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span>. The Ponsonby family, who +have contributed many conspicuous men to Irish and English +public life, trace their descent to Sir John Ponsonby (d. 1678), +of Cumberland, a Commonwealth soldier who obtained land +grants in Ireland. His son William (1657-1724) was created +Baron Bessborough (1721) and Viscount Duncannon (1723), +and the latter’s son Brabazon was raised to the earldom of +Bessborough in 1739. He was the father not only of the 2nd earl +(1704-1793), but of John Ponsonby (<i>q.v.</i>), speaker of the Irish +House of Commons. The 2nd earl was a well-known Whig +politician, who held various offices of state; and his son the 3rd +earl (1758-1844) was father of the 4th earl (1781-1847), first +commissioner of works in 1831-1834, lord privy seal from 1835 to +1839 and lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1846. He was succeeded +by his three sons, the 5th earl (d. 1880), 6th earl (1815-1895), +a famous cricketer and chairman of the Bessborough commission +(1881) to inquire into the Irish land system, and 7th earl (d. 1906), +and the last named by his son the 8th earl.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESSÈGES,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, in the department +of Gard, on the Cèze, 20 m. north of Alais by rail. Pop. +(1906) 7662. The town is important for its coal-mines, blast-furnaces +and iron-works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1784-1846), German +astronomer, was born at Minden on the 22nd of July 1784. +Placed at the age of fifteen in a counting-house at Bremen, he +was impelled by his desire to obtain a situation as supercargo +on a foreign voyage to study navigation, mathematics and +finally astronomy. In 1804 he calculated the orbit of Halley’s +comet from observations made in 1607 by Thomas Harriot, +and communicated his results to H.W.M. Olbers, who procured +their publication (<i>Monatliche Correspondenz</i>, x. 425), and recommended +the young aspirant in 1805 for the post of assistant +in J.H. Schröter’s observatory at Lilienthal. A masterly +investigation of the comet of 1807 (Königsberg, 1810) enhanced +his reputation, and the king of Prussia summoned him, in 1810, +to superintend the erection of a new observatory at Königsberg, +of which he acted as director from its completion in 1813 until +his death. In this capacity he inaugurated the modern era +of practical astronomy. For the purpose of improving knowledge +of star-places he reduced James Bradley’s Greenwich observations, +and derived from them an invaluable catalogue of 3222 +stars, published in the volume rightly named <i>Fundamenta +Astronomiae</i> (1818). In <i>Tabulae Regiomontanae</i> (1830), he +definitively established the uniform system of reduction still +in use. During the years 1821-1833, he observed all stars to +the ninth magnitude in zones extending from -15° to +45° dec., +and thus raised the number of those accurately determined to +about 50,000. He corrected the length of the seconds’ pendulum +in 1826, in a discussion re-published by H. Bruns in 1889; +measured an arc of the meridian in East Prussia in 1831-1832; +and deduced for the earth in 1841 an ellipticity of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">299</span>. His +ascertainment in 1838 (<i>Astr. Nach.</i>, Nos. 365-366) of a parallax +of 0″.31 for 61 Cygni was the first authentic result of the kind +published. He announced in 1844 the binary character of Sirius +and Procyon from their disturbed proper motions; and was +preparing to attack the problem solved later by the discovery +of Neptune, when fatal illness intervened. He died at Königsberg +on the 17th of March 1846. Modern astronomy of precision is +essentially Bessel’s creation. Apart from the large scope of his +activity, he introduced such important novelties as the effective +use of the heliometer, the correction for personal equation +(in 1823), and the systematic investigation of instrumental +errors. He issued 21 volumes of <i>Astronomische Beobachtungen +auf der Sternwarte zu Königsberg</i> (1815-1844), and a list of his +writings drawn up by A.L. Busch appeared in vol. 24 of the +same series. Especial attention should be directed to his +<i>Astronomische Untersuchungen</i> (2 vols. 1841-1842), <i>Populäre +Vorlesungen</i> (1848), edited by H.C. Schumacher, and to the +important collection entitled <i>Abhandlungen</i> (4 vols. 1875-1882), +issued by R. Engelmann at Leipzig. His minor treatises numbered +over 350. In pure mathematics he enlarged the resources +of analysis by the invention of Bessel’s Functions. He made +some preliminary use of these expressions in 1817, in a paper +on Kepler’s Problem (<i>Transactions Berlin Academy</i>, 1816-1817, +p. 49), and fully developed them seven years later, for the +purposes of a research into planetary perturbations (<i>Ibid.</i> 1824, +pp. 1-52).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also H. Durège, <i>Bessels Leben und Wirken</i> (Zürich, 1861); +J.F. Encke, <i>Gedächtnissrede auf Bessel</i> (Berlin, 1846); C.T. Anger, +<i>Erinnerung an Bessels Leben und Wirken</i> (Danzig, 1845); <i>Astronomische +Nachrichten</i>, xxiv. 49, 331 (1846); <i>Monthly Notices Roy. +Astr. Society</i>, vii. 199 (1847); <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, ii. +558-567.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESSEL FUNCTION,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a certain mathematical relation between +two variables. The <i>Bessel function of order m</i> satisfies the +differential equation</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>d²u</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> <td>du</td> + <td rowspan="2">+ <span class="f200">(</span> 1 − </td> <td>m²</td> + <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">)</span> u = 0,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dρ²</td> <td class="denom">ρ</td> + <td class="denom">dρ</td> <td class="denom">ρ²</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and may be expressed as the series</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>ρ<span class="sp">m</span></td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">{</span> 1 −</td> + <td>ρ²</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td> + <td>ρ<span class="sp">4</span></td> <td rowspan="2">... <span class="f200">}</span>;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2<span class="sp">m</span>·m!</td> <td class="denom">2·2m + 2</td> + <td class="denom">2·4·2m + 2·2m + 4</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">the function of <i>zero order</i> is deduced by making m = 0, and is +equivalent to the series 1 − ρ²/2² + ρ<span class="sp">4</span>/2²·4², &c. O. Schlömilch +defines these functions as the coefficients of the power of t in +the expansion of exp ½ρ(t − t<span class="sp">−1</span>). The symbol generally +adopted to represent these functions is J<span class="su">m</span>(ρ) where m denotes +the order of the function. These functions are named after +Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, who in 1817 introduced them in an +investigation on Kepler’s Problem. He discussed their properties +and constructed tables for their evaluation. Although +Bessel was the first to systematically treat of these functions, it +is to be noted that in 1732 Daniel Bernoulli obtained the function +of zero order as a solution to the problem of the oscillations of +a chain suspended at one end. This problem has been more +fully discussed by Sir A.G. Greenhill. In 1764 Leonhard Euler +employed the functions of both zero and integral orders in an +analysis into the vibrations of a stretched membrane; an +investigation which has been considerably developed by Lord +Rayleigh, who has also shown (1878) that Bessel’s functions are +particular cases of Laplace’s functions. There is hardly a branch +of mathematical physics which is independent of these functions. +Of the many applications we may notice:—Joseph Fourier’s (1824) +investigation of the motion of heat in a solid cylinder, a problem +which, with the related one of the flow of electricity, has been +developed by W.E. Weber, G.F. Riemann and S.D. Poisson; +the flow of electromagnetic waves along wires (Sir J.J. Thomson, +H. Hertz, O. Heaviside); the diffraction of light (E. Lömmel, +Lord Rayleigh, Georg Wilhelm Struve); the theory of elasticity +(A.E. Love, H. Lamb, C. Chree, Lord Rayleigh); and to +hydrodynamics (Lord Kelvin, Sir G. Stokes).</p> + +<p>The remarkable connexion between Bessel’s functions and +spherical harmonics was established in 1868 by F.G. Mehler, +who proved that a simple relation existed between the function +of zero order and the zonal harmonic of order <i>n</i>. Heinrich +Eduard Heine has shown that the functions of higher orders +may be considered as limiting values of the associated functions; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span> +this relation was discussed independently, in 1878, by Lord +Rayleigh.</p> + +<p>For the mathematical investigation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spherical Harmonics</a></span> +and for tables see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Table, Mathematical</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Gray and G.B. Matthews, <i>Treatise on Bessel’s Functions</i> +(1895); <i>Encyclopädie der math. Wissenschaften</i>; F.W. Bessel, <i>Untersuchung +des Teils der planetarischen Störungen</i> (1824).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESSEMER, SIR HENRY<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1813-1898), English engineer, +was born on the 19th of January 1813, at Charlton, in Hertfordshire. +Throughout his life he was a prolific inventor, but +his name is chiefly known in connexion with the Bessemer +process for the manufacture of steel, by which it has been rendered +famous throughout the civilized world. Though this process +is now largely supplemented, and even displaced, by various +rivals, at the time it was brought out it was of enormous industrial +importance, since it effected a great cheapening in the price of +steel, and led to that material being widely substituted for others +which were inferior in almost every respect but that of cost. +Bessemer’s attention was drawn to the problem of steel manufacture +in the course of an attempt to improve the construction +of guns. Coming to the conclusion that if any advance was +to be made in artillery better metal must be available, he established +a small iron-works in St Pancras, and began a series of +experiments. These he carried on for two years before he +evolved the essential idea of his process, which is the decarbonization +of cast iron by forcing a blast of air through the mass +of metal when in the molten condition. The first public announcement +of the process was made at the Cheltenham meeting of +the British Association in 1856, and immediately attracted +considerable notice. Many metallurgists were sceptical on +theoretical grounds about his results, and only became convinced +when they saw that his process was really able to convert +melted cast iron into malleable iron in a perfectly fluid state. +But though five firms applied without delay for licences to work +under his patents, success did not at once attend his efforts; +indeed, after several ironmasters had put the process to practical +trial and failed to get good results, it was in danger of being +thrust aside and entirely forgotten. Its author, however, instead +of being discouraged by this lack of success, continued his experiments, +and in two years was able to turn out a product, the +quality of which was not inferior to that yielded by the older +methods. But when he now tried to induce makers to take +up his improved system, he met with general rebuffs, and finally +was driven to undertake the exploitation of the process himself. +To this end he erected steelworks in Sheffield, on ground purchased +with the help of friends, and began to manufacture steel. +At first the output was insignificant, but gradually the magnitude +of the operations was enlarged until the competition +became effective, and steel traders generally became aware +that the firm of Henry Bessemer & Co. was underselling them +to the extent of £20 a ton. This argument to the pocket quickly +had its effect, and licences were applied for in such numbers +that, in royalties for the use of his process, Bessemer received +a sum in all considerably exceeding a million sterling.</p> + +<p>Of course, patents of such obvious value did not escape +criticism, and invalidity was freely urged against them on +various grounds. But Bessemer was fortunate enough to +maintain them intact without litigation, though he found +it advisable to buy up the rights of one patentee, while in another +case he was freed from anxiety by the patent being allowed to +lapse in 1859 through non-payment of fees. At the outset he +had found great difficulty in making steel by his process—in his +first licences to the trade iron alone was mentioned. Experiments +he made with South Wales iron were failures because the +product was devoid of malleability; Mr Göransson, a Swedish +ironmaster, using the purer charcoal pig iron of that country, +was the first to make good steel by the process, and even he was +successful only after many attempts. His results prompted +Bessemer to try the purer iron obtained from Cumberland +haematite, but even with this he did not meet with much success, +until Robert Mushet showed that the addition of a certain +quantity of spiegeleisen had the effect of removing the difficulties. +Whether or not Mushet’s patents could have been sustained, +the value of his procedure was shown by its general adoption +in conjunction with the Bessemer method of conversion. At the +same time it is only fair to say that whatever may have been the +conveniences of Mushet’s plan, it was not absolutely essential; +this Bessemer proved in 1865, by exhibiting a series of samples +of steel made by his own process alone. The pecuniary rewards +of Bessemer’s great invention came to him with comparative +quickness; but it was not till 1879 that the Royal Society +admitted him as a fellow and the government honoured him +with a knighthood. Bessemer died at Denmark Hill, London, +on the 15th of March 1898.</p> + +<p>Among Bessemer’s numerous other inventions, not one of +which attained a tithe of the success or importance of the steel +process, were movable dies for embossed stamps, a gold paint, +sugar machinery, and a ship which was to save her passengers +from the miseries of <i>mal de mer</i>. This last had her saloon +mounted in such a way as to be free to swing relatively to the +boat herself, and the idea was that this saloon should always be +maintained steady and level, no matter how rough the sea. +For this purpose hydraulic mechanism of Bessemer’s design was +arranged under the control of an attendant, whose duty it was +to keep watch on a spirit-level, and counteract by proper manipulation +of the apparatus any deviation from the horizontal that +might manifest itself on the floor of the saloon owing to the +rolling of the vessel. A boat, called the “Bessemer,” was built +on this plan in 1875 and put on the cross-Channel service to +Calais, but the mechanism of the swinging saloon was not found +effective in practice and was ultimately removed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An <i>Autobiography</i> was published in 1905.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESSEMER,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a town of Jefferson county, Alabama, U.S.A., +about 12 m. S.W. of Birmingham, a little N. of the centre of +the state. Pop. (1890) 4544; (1900) 6538, including 3695 negroes; +(1910) 10,864. The town is served by the Alabama Great +Southern (Queen & Crescent route), the Louisville & Nashville, +the Kansas City, Memphis & Birmingham (St Louis +& San Francisco system), the Birmingham Southern, and the +Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic railways. Bessemer is +situated in the midst of the iron ore and limestone district of +Alabama, in the south part of Jones’ Valley (about 3 m. wide.); +to the east is the Red Ore mountain range, rich in red haematite; +to the north-west are the Warrior coalfields; to the south-west, +south and south-east are immense fossiliferous iron ore seams +and the Cahaba coalfields; in the immediate vicinity of the city +are limestone quarries, and about 18 m. north-east are the limestone +kilns of Gate City. Mining, iron smelting and the manufacture +of iron and coke are the chief industries of Bessemer; +truck farming is also an important industry. In 1900 Bessemer +was the eighth city of the state in population, second in amount +of capital invested in manufacturing, and fourth in the value +of its manufactured product for the year. Bessemer was laid +out in 1887, and was incorporated in 1889.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESSIÈRES, JEAN BAPTISTE,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> duke of Istria (1768-1813), +French marshal, was born near Cahors in 1768. He served for +a short time in the “Constitutional Guard” of Louis XVI. +and as a non-commissioned officer took part in the war against +Spain. In the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees and in the Army +of the Moselle he repeatedly distinguished himself for valour, +and in 1796, as captain, he served in Bonaparte’s Italian campaign. +At Roveredo his conduct brought him to his chief’s +notice, and after Rivoli he was sent to France to deliver the +captured colours to the Directory. Hastening back to the front, +he accompanied Napoleon in the invasion of Styria in command +of the “Guides,” who formed the nucleus of the later Consular +and Imperial Guard. As <i>chef de brigade</i> he next served in the +Egyptian expedition, and won further distinction at Acre and +Aboukir. Returning to Europe with Napoleon, he was present +at Marengo (1800) as second-in-command of the Consular Guard, +and led a brilliant and successful cavalry charge at the close of +the day, though its effect on the battle was not as decisive as +Napoleon pretended. Promoted general of division in 1802 +and marshal of France in 1804, he made the most famous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span> +campaigns of the Grande Armée as colonel-general of the Guard +Cavalry (1805, 1806, 1807). In 1805 he had received the Grand +Eagle of the Legion of Honour, and in 1800 was created duke of +Istria. With the outbreak of the Peninsular War, Marshal +Bessières had his first opportunity of an independent command, +and his crushing victory over the Spaniards at Medina del Rio +Seco (1808) justified Napoleon’s choice. When disaster in other +parts of the theatre of war called Napoleon himself to the +Peninsula, Bessières continued to give the emperor the very greatest +assistance in his campaign. In 1809 he was again with the +<i>Grande Armée</i> in the Danube valley. At Essling his repeated +and desperate charges checked the Austrians in the full tide of +their success. At Wagram he had a horse killed under him. +Replacing Bernadotte in the command of the Army of the North, +a little later in the same year, the newly-created duke of Istria +successfully opposed the British Walcheren expedition, and in +1811 he was back again, in a still more important command, +in Spain. As Masséna’s second-in-command he was present +at the battle of Fuentes d’Onoro, but Napoleon never detached +him for very long, and in 1812 he commanded the Guard Cavalry +at Borodino and in the retreat from Moscow. Wherever engaged +he won further distinction, and at the beginning of the 1813 +campaign he was appointed to the command of the whole of +Napoleon’s cavalry. Three days after the opening of the campaign, +while reconnoitring the defile of Poserna-Rippach, +Bessières was killed by a musket-ball. Napoleon, who deeply +felt the loss of one of his truest friends and ablest commanders, +protected his children, and his eldest son was made a member +of the Chamber of Peers by Louis XVIII. As a commander, +especially of cavalry, Bessières left a reputation excelled by +very few of Napoleon’s marshals, and his dauntless courage +and cool judgment made him a safe leader in independent +command. He was personally beloved to an extraordinary extent +amongst his soldiers, and (unlike most of the French generals +of the time) amongst his opponents. It is said that masses were +performed for his soul by the priests of insurgent Spain, and the +king of Saxony raised a monument to his memory.</p> + +<p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">Bertrand, Baron Bessières</span> (1773-1855), +was a distinguished divisional leader under Napoleon. +After serving with a good record in Italy, in Egypt and at +Hohenlinden, he had a command in the <i>Grande Armée</i>, and in +1808 was sent to Spain. He commanded a division in Catalonia +and played a notable part at the action of Molins de Rey near +Barcelona. Disagreements with his superior, General Duhesme, +led to his resignation, but he subsequently served with Napoleon +in all the later campaigns of the empire. Placed on the +retired list by the Bourbons, his last public act was his defence +of the unfortunate Ney. The rest of his long life was spent in +retirement.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESSUS,<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> satrap of Bactria and Sogdiana under Darius III. +In the battle of Gaugamela (1st of October 331) he commanded +the troops of his satrapy. When Alexander pursued the Persian +king on his flight to the East (summer 330), Bessus with some +of the other conspirators deposed Darius and shortly afterwards +killed him. He then tried to organize a national resistance +against the Macedonian conqueror in the eastern provinces, +proclaimed himself king and adopted the name Artaxerxes. +But he was taken prisoner by treachery in the summer of 329. +Alexander sent him to Ecbatana, where he was condemned to +death. Before his execution his nose and ears were cut off, +according to the Persian custom; we learn from the Behistun +inscription that Darius I. punished the usurpers in the same way.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEST, WILLIAM THOMAS<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1826-1897), English organist, the +son of a solicitor, was born at Carlisle on the 13th of August +1826. Having decided upon a musical career, he received his +first instruction from the cathedral organist. He applied himself +especially to Bach’s music, and became a player of great skill. +His successive appointments were to Pembroke chapel, Liverpool, +1840; to a church for the blind, 1847, and the Liverpool +Philharmonic Society, 1848. For a short time (1854-1855) he +was in London at the Panopticon in Leicester Square, the church +of St Martin-in-the-Fields, and Lincoln’s Inn chapel. In 1855 +he returned to Liverpool as organist of St George’s Hall, where +his performances rapidly became famous throughout England. +Ill-health compelled him at last to retire in 1894. He was +engaged as solo organist at all the Handel festivals at the Crystal +Palace, and also as organist at the Albert Hall, where he inaugurated +the great organ in 1871. He had been in the receipt +of a civil list pension of £100 a year since 1880, and in 1890 went +to Australia to give organ recitals in the town hall of Sydney. +Best died at Liverpool on the 10th of May 1897.</p> + +<p>His command over all the resources of his own instrument +was masterly; his series of Saturday recitals at St George’s Hall, +carried on for many years, included the whole field of organ +music, and of music that could be arranged for the organ, +ancient and modern; and his performances of Bach’s organ +works were particularly fine. His own compositions for the +organ, chiefly comprised in the publication entitled <i>Organ +Pieces for Church Use</i>, have a strong and marked individuality. +Best, unlike many soloists, was an all-round musician, and fully +acquainted with every branch of the art. His bust, by Conrad +Dressler, has been placed on the platform in front of the Liverpool +organ, as a memorial of his long series of performances there.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESTIA,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> the name of a family in ancient Rome, of which the +following were the most distinguished.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Lucius Calpurnius Bestia</span>, Roman tribune of the +people in 121 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, consul in 111. Having been appointed +to the command of the operations against Jugurtha, he at +first carried on the campaign energetically, but soon, having +been heavily bribed, concluded a disgraceful peace. On his +return to Rome he was brought to trial for his conduct and +condemned, in spite of the efforts of Marcus Scaurus who, though +formerly his legate and equally guilty, was one of the judges. +He is probably identical with the Bestia who encouraged the +Italians in their revolt, and went into exile (90) to avoid +punishment under the law of Q. Varius, whereby those who had secretly +or openly aided the Italian allies against Rome were to be brought +to trial (Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> i. 37; Val. Max. viii. 6. 4). Both +Cicero and Sallust express a high opinion of Bestia’s abilities, but +his love of money demoralized him. He is mentioned in a +Carthaginian inscription as one of a board of three, perhaps an +agricultural commission.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sallust, <i>Jugurtha</i>; Cicero, <i>Brutus</i>, xxxiv. 128; for the general +history, A.H.J. Greenidge, <i>Hist. of Rome</i>, vol. i. (1904), pp. 346 foll.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Lucius Calpurnius Bestia</span>, one of the Catilinarian +conspirators, possibly a grandson of the above. He was tribune +elect in 63, and it had been arranged that, after entering upon his +office, he should publicly accuse Cicero of responsibility for the +impending war. This was to be the signal for the outbreak of +revolution. The conspiracy, however, was put down and Bestia +had to content himself with delivering a violent attack upon the +consul on the expiration of his office. This Bestia is probably not +the Lucius Calpurnius Bestia, aedile, and a candidate for the +praetorship in 57. He was accused of bribery during his candidature, +and, in spite of Cicero’s defence, was condemned. In 43 +he attached himself to the party of Antony, apparently in the +hope of obtaining the consulship.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Sallust, <i>Catiline</i>, xvii. 43; Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> ii. 3; +Cicero, <i>Ad Q. Fr.</i> ii. 3, 6.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, ALEXIUS PETROVICH,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1693-1768), +grand chancellor of Russia, the second son of Count +Peter Bestuzhev, the early favourite of the empress Anne, was +born at Moscow on the 1st of June 1693. Educated abroad, with +his elder brother Mikhail, at Copenhagen and Berlin, he especially +distinguished himself in languages and the applied sciences. +Peter the Great, in 1712, attached him to Prince Kurakin at the +Utrecht Congress that he might learn diplomacy, and for the +same reason permitted him in 1713 to enter the service of the +elector of Hanover. George I. took him to London in 1714, and +sent him to St Petersburg as his accredited minister with a +notification of his accession. Bestuzhev then returned to +England, where he remained four years. It was the necessary +apprenticeship to his brilliant diplomatic career. His passion for +intrigue is curiously illustrated by his letter to the tsarevich +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span> +Alexius at Vienna, assuring his “future sovereign” of his +devotion, and representing his sojourn in England as a deliberate +seclusion of a zealous but powerless well-wisher. This extraordinary +indiscretion might well have cost him his life, but the +tsarevich fortunately destroyed the letter.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> On his return to +Russia he served for two years without any salary as chief +gentleman of the Bedchamber at the court of Anne of Courland, +and in 1721 succeeded Vasily Dolgoruki as Russian minister at +Copenhagen. Copenhagen was then a whirlpool of diplomatic +intrigue, for George I. was endeavouring to arm the northern +powers against Peter the Great, and this it was Bestuzhev’s +mission to counteract. On the occasion of the peace of Nystad, +which terminated the 21 years war between Russia and Sweden, +Bestuzhev designed and struck a commemorative medal with a +panegyrical Latin inscription, which so delighted Peter (then at +Derbent) that he sent a letter of thanks written with his own +hand and his portrait set in brilliants. It was at this time too +that the many-sided Alexius invented his famous “drops,” or +<i>tinctura toniconervina Bestuscheffi</i>, the recipe of which was stolen +by the French brigadier Lamotte, who made his fortune by +introducing it at the French court, where it was known as +<i>Élixir d’Or</i>.</p> + +<p>The sudden death of Peter the Great seriously injured Bestuzhev’s +prospects. For more than ten years he remained at Copenhagen, +looking vainly towards Russia as a sort of promised land +from which he was excluded by enemies or rivals. He rendered +some important services, however, to the empress Anne, for +which he was decorated and made a privy councillor. He also +won the favour of Biren, and on the tragic fall of Artemy Voluinsky +in 1739 was summoned home to take his place in the +council. He assisted Biren to obtain the regency in the last days +of the empress Anne, but when his patron fell three weeks later, +his own position became extremely precarious. His chance +came when the empress Elizabeth, immediately after her accession, +summoned him back to court, and appointed him vice-chancellor. +For the next twenty years, during a period of +exceptional difficulty, he practically controlled the foreign +policy of Russia. Bestuzhev rightly recognized that, at this +time, France was the natural enemy of Russia. The interests of +the two states in Turkey, Poland and Sweden were diametrically +opposed, and Russia could never hope to be safe from the +intrigues of France in these three borderlands. All the enemies of +France were thus necessarily the friends of Russia, and her +friends Russia’s enemies. Consequently Great Britain, and still +more Austria, were Russia’s natural allies, while the aggressive +and energetic king of Prussia was a danger to be guarded against. +It was, therefore, the policy of Bestuzhev to bring about a quadruple +alliance between Russia, Austria, Great Britain and Saxony, +to counterpoise the Franco-Prussian league. But he was on +dangerous ground. The empress herself was averse from an +alliance with Great Britain and Austria, whose representatives +had striven to prevent her accession; and many of her personal +friends, in the pay of France and Prussia, took part in innumerable +conspiracies to overthrow Bestuzhev. Nevertheless, step by +step, Bestuzhev, aided by his elder brother Mikhail, carried out +his policy. On the 11th of December 1742, a defensive alliance +was concluded between Great Britain and Russia. Bestuzhev +had previously rejected with scorn the proposals of the French +government to mediate between Russia and Sweden on the basis +of a territorial surrender on the part of the former; and he +conducted the war so vigorously that by the end of 1742 Sweden +lay at the mercy of the empress. At the peace congress of Åbo +(January-August 1743) he insisted that the whole of Finland +should be ceded to Russia, by way of completing the testament of +Peter the Great. But the French party contrived to get better +terms for Sweden, by artfully appealing to the empress’s fondness +for the house of Holstein. The Swedes, at the desire of Elizabeth, +accepted Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein, as their future +king, and, in return, received back Finland, with the exception of +a small strip of land up to the river Kymmene. Nor could +Bestuzhev prevent the signing of a Russo-Prussian defensive +alliance (March 1743); but he deprived it of all political significance +by excluding from it the proposed guarantee of Frederick’s +Silesian conquests. Moreover, through Bestuzhev’s efforts, the +credit of the Prussian king (whom he rightly regarded as more +dangerous than France) at the Russian court fell steadily, and +the vice-chancellor prepared the way for an alliance with Austria +by acceding to the treaty of Breslau (1st of November 1743). +A bogus conspiracy, however, got up by the Holstein faction, +aided by France and Prussia, who persuaded Elizabeth that the +Austrian ambassador was intriguing to replace Ivan VI. on the +throne, alienated the empress from Austria for a time; and +Bestuzhev’s ruin was regarded as certain when, in 1743, the +French agent, the marquis de La Chétardie, arrived to reinforce +his other enemies. But he found a friend in need in M.L. +Vorontsov, the empress’s confidant, who shared his political +views. Still his position was most delicate, especially when the +betrothal between the grand-duke Peter and Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbst +(afterwards Catharine II.) was carried through against his +will, and Elizabeth of Holstein, the mother of the bride, arrived +in the Prussian interests to spy upon him. Frederick II., +conscious of the instability of his French ally, was now eager to +contract an offensive alliance with Russia; and the first step to +its realization was the overthrow of Bestuzhev, “upon whom,” +he wrote to his minister Axel von Mardefeld, “the fate of Prussia +and my own house depends.” But Bestuzhev succeeded, at last, +in convincing the empress that Chétardie was an impudent +intriguer, and on the 6th of June 1744, that diplomatist was +ordered to quit Russia within twenty-four hours. Five weeks +later Bestuzhev was made grand chancellor (July 15th). Before +the end of the year Elizabeth of Holstein was also expelled from +Russia, and Bestuzhev was supreme.</p> + +<p>The attention of European diplomacy at this time was concentrated +upon the king of Prussia, whose insatiable acquisitiveness +disturbed all his neighbours. Bestuzhev’s offer, communicated +to the British government at the end of 1745, to attack +Prussia if Great Britain would guarantee subsidies to the amount +of some £6,000,000, was rejected as useless now that Austria and +Prussia were coming to terms. Then he turned to Austria, and +on the 22nd of May 1746, an offensive and defensive alliance +was concluded between the two powers manifestly directed against +Prussia. In 1747, alliances were also concluded with Denmark +and the Porte. At the same time Bestuzhev resisted any +rapprochement with France, and severely rebuked the court of +Saxony for its intrigues with that of Versailles. About this +time he was hampered by the persistent opposition of the +vice-chancellor Mikhail Vorontsov, formerly his friend, now his +jealous rival, who was secretly supported by Frederick the Great. +In 1748, however, he got rid of him by proving to the empress +that Vorontsov was in the pay of Prussia. The hour of +Bestuzhev’s triumph coincided with the peace congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, +which altered the whole situation of European +politics and introduced fresh combinations, the breaking away +of Prussia from France and a rapprochement between England +and Prussia, with the inevitable corollary of an alliance between +France and the enemies of Prussia. Bestuzhev’s violent political +prejudices at first prevented him from properly recognizing this +change. Passion had always been too large an ingredient +in his diplomacy. His Anglomania also misled him. His +enemies, headed by his elder brother Mikhail and the vice-chancellor +Vorontsov, powerless while his diplomacy was faultless, +quickly took advantage of his mistakes. When, on the 16th of +January 1756, the Anglo-Prussian, and on the 2nd of May the +Franco-Austrian alliances were concluded, Vorontsov advocated +the accession of Russia to the latter league, whereas Bestuzhev +insisted on a subsidy treaty with Great Britain. But his influence +was now on the wane. The totally unexpected Anglo-Prussian +alliance had justified the arguments of his enemies that +England was impossible, while his hatred of France prevented +him from adopting the only alternative of an alliance with her. +To prevent <span class="correction" title="amended from undergound">underground</span> intrigues, Bestuzhev now proposed +the erection of a council of ministers, to settle all important +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span> +affairs, and at its first session (14th-30th of March) an alliance +with Austria, France and Poland against Frederick II. was +proposed, though Bestuzhev opposed any composition with +France. He endeavoured to support his failing credit by a +secret alliance with the grand-duchess Catherine, whom he +proposed to raise to the throne instead of her Holstein husband, +Peter, from whom Bestuzhev expected nothing good either +for himself or for Russia. The negotiations were conducted +through the Pole Stanislaus Poniatowski. The accession of +Russia to the anti-Prussian coalition (1756) was made over his +head, and the cowardice and incapacity of Bestuzhev’s friend, +the Russian commander-in-chief, Stephen Apraksin, after the +battle of Gross-Jagersdorf (1757), was made the pretext for +overthrowing the chancellor. His unwillingness to agree to +the coalition was magnified into a determination to defeat it, +though it is quite obvious that he could only gain by the +humiliation of Frederick, and nothing was ever proved against him. +Nevertheless he was deprived of the chancellorship and banished +to his estate at Goretovo (April 1759), where he remained till +the accession of Catharine II., who recalled him to court and +created him a field marshal. But he took no leading part in +affairs and died on the 21st of April 1768, the last of his race.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Sbornik of the Russian Historical Society</i>, vols. 1, 3, 5, 7, +12, 22, 26, 66, 79, 80, 81, 85-86, 91-92, 96, 99, 100, 103 (St Petersburg, +1870, &c.); <i>Politische Correspondenz Friedrichs des Grossen</i>, vols. +1-21 (Berlin, 1879-1904.); R. Nisbet Bain, <i>The Daughter of Peter the +Great</i> (London, 1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A copy of the letter was taken by way of precaution, beforehand, +by the Austrian ministers, and this copy is still in the Vienna archives.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, MIKHAIL PETROVICH,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> +(1688-1760), Russian diplomatist, elder brother of the foregoing, +was educated at Berlin, and was sent by Peter the Great to +represent Russia at Copenhagen in 1705. In 1720 he was +appointed resident at London at a time when the English court +was greatly inflamed against Peter, who was regarded as a +dangerous rival in the Baltic; and Bestuzhev was summarily +dismissed for protesting against the lately-formed Anglo-Swedish +alliance. On the conclusion of the peace of Nystad in 1721 he +was sent as ambassador to the court of Stockholm. His first +official act was the signing of a defensive alliance between +Russia and Sweden for twelve years, in 1724. He was successively +transferred to Warsaw (1726) and to Berlin (1730), but +returned to Stockholm in 1732. How far Bestuzhev was concerned +in the murder (June 28th, 1739) of the Swedish diplomatic +agent Sinclair in Silesia on his journey home from Constantinople, +it is difficult to say. It is certain that Bestuzhev sent information +to his court of Sinclair’s mission, which was supposed to +be hostile to Russia, and even supplied the portrait of the envoy +for recognition. The Swedish authorities are unanimous in +describing Bestuzhev as the arch-plotter in this miserable affair; +yet, while the active agents were banished to Siberia, Bestuzhev +was not even censured. The Sinclair murder led ultimately +to the Swedish-Russian War of 1741, when Bestuzhev was +transferred first to Hamburg and subsequently to Hanover, +where he endeavoured to conclude an alliance between Great +Britain and Russia. On his return to Russia in 1743, he was +made grand marshal, and married Anna, the widow of Paul +Yaguzhinsky, Peter the Great’s famous pupil. A few months +later his wife was implicated in a bogus conspiracy got up by the +French ambassador, the marquis de La Chétardie, to ruin the +Bestuzhevs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Alexius</a></span>), and after +a public whipping, had her tongue cut out and was banished to +Siberia. Thither Bestuzhev had not the manhood to follow her, +but went abroad, and subsequently resumed his diplomatic +career. His last and most brilliant mission was to Versailles, +shortly after the conclusion of the coalition against Frederick +the Great, where he cut a great figure. He died at Paris on the +26th of February 1760.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Robert Nisbet Bain, <i>The Daughter of Peter the Great</i> +(London, 1899); Mikhail Sergyievich, <i>History of Russia</i> +(Rus.), vols. xv.-xxii. (2nd ed., St Petersburg, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BET<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> and <b>BETTING</b> (probably from O. Fr. <i>abeter</i>, to instigate, +Eng. “abet,” <i>i.e.</i> with money). To “bet” is to stake money +or something valuable on some future contingency. Betting +in some form or other has been in vogue from the earliest days, +commencing in the East with royal and noble gamblers, and +gradually extending itself westwards and throughout all classes. +In all countries where the English tongue is spoken betting is +now largely indulged in; and in the United Kingdom it spread +to such an extent amongst all grades of society, during the 19th +century, that the interference of the legislature was necessary +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gaming and Wagering</a></span>). Bets can, of course, be made on +any subject, and are a common method of backing one’s opinion +or skill, whether at games of cards or in any other connexion; +but the commonest form of betting is associated with the turf. +In the early days of horse-racing persons who wished to bet +often failed to gratify their inclination because of the difficulty +of finding any one ready to wager. To obviate this difficulty +the professional bookmaker arose. It was perceived that if a +man laid money against a number of horses, conducting his +business on discreet principles, he would in all probability receive +enough to pay the bettor who was successful and to leave a surplus +for himself; for the “bookmaker,” as the professional +betting man came to be called, had enormous advantages in his +favour. He was presumably shrewd and wary, whereas many +of those with whom he dealt were precisely the opposite, and +benefit arose to him from the mistakes and miscalculations +of owners and trainers of horses, and from the innumerable +accidents which occur to prevent anticipated success; moreover, +if he carried out the theory of his calling he would so arrange his +book, by what is called “betting to figures,” that the money he +received would be more than he could possibly be called upon to +pay. In practice, of course, this often does not happen, because +“backers” will sometimes support two or three horses in a race +only, and the success of one may result in loss to the bookmaker; +but in the long run it has been almost invariably found that the +bookmaker grows rich and that the backer of horses loses money. +It is the bookmaker who regulates the odds, and this he does, +sometimes by anticipating, sometimes by noting, the desire of +backers to support certain animals. Such things as stable secrets +can scarcely be said to exist at the present time; the bookmaker +is usually as well able as any one else to estimate the chances of +the various horses engaged in races. Notwithstanding that the +reports of a trial gallop are of comparatively little value to any +except the few persons who know what weights the animals +carried when tried, the bookmaker is extraordinarily keen, and +frequently successful, in his search for information; and on this +the odds depend.</p> + +<p>Betting in connexion with horse-racing is of two kinds: +“post,” when wagering does not begin until the numbers of the +runners are hoisted on the board; and “ante-post,” when +wagering opens weeks or months before the event; though of +this latter there is far less than was formerly the case, doubtless +for the reason that before the introduction of so many new and +valuable stakes attention was generally concentrated on a +comparatively small number of races. Bets on the Derby, the +Oaks and the St Leger were formerly common nearly a year +before the running of the races, and a few handicaps, such as +the Chester Cup, used to occupy attention months beforehand; +the weights, of course, being published at a much longer interval +prior to the contest than is at present the rule. As regards +ante-post betting, bookmakers have their own ideas as to the relative +prospects of the horses entered. A person who wishes to back a +horse asks the price, and accepts or declines, as the case may be. +If the bet is laid it will probably be quoted in the newspapers, +and other persons who propose to wager on the race are so likely +to follow suit that it is shrewdly suspected that in not a few cases +bets are quoted which never have been laid, in order to induce +the backers to speculate. According to the public demand for +a horse the price shortens. If there is little or no demand the +odds increase, the market being almost entirely regulated by the +money; so that if a great many people bet on a certain animal +the odds become shorter and shorter, till in many cases instead +of laying odds against a horse, the bookmaker comes to take +odds, that is, to agree to pay a smaller sum than he would receive +from the backer if the animal lost. Post betting is conducted +on very much the same principles. When the numbers are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span> +hoisted bookmakers proclaim their readiness to lay or take +certain odds, which vary according to the demand for the +different animals. Backers are influenced by many considerations: +by gossip, by the opinions of writers on racing, and in many +cases, unfortunately, by the advice of “tipsters,” who by +advertisements and circulars profess their ability to indicate +winners, a pretence which is obviously absurd, as if these men +possessed the knowledge they claim, they would assuredly keep +it to themselves and utilize it for their own private purposes.</p> + +<p>The specious promises of such men do infinite mischief, as +they so often appeal with success to the folly and gullibility +of the ignorant, and in recent years the extent to which betting +has grown has resulted in attempts to check it by organized +means. A society for the purpose was formed in England called +the Anti-Gambling League. A bookmaker named Dunn was +summoned in 1897 for betting in Tattersall’s enclosure, which it +was contended contravened the Betting House Act of 1853. +This act had been aimed against what were known as “list houses,” +establishments then kept by bookmakers for betting purposes, +and associated with many disgraceful scandals. In the +preamble to his bill Lord Cockburn began by remarking that +“Whereas a new form of betting has of late sprung up,” and the +Anti-Gambling League sought to argue that this included a form +of betting which had not sprung up of late but had on the contrary +been carried on without interference for many generations. +The divisional court of the queen’s bench (<i>Hawke</i> v. <i>Dunn</i>, +13 T.L.R. 281) held that such betting was an infringement of the +act, and that the enclosure was a “place” within the meaning +of the act, and had been used by the respondent for the +purpose of betting with persons resorting thereto, and that +he was liable to be Convicted. The case was remitted to +the justices, who convicted the defendant. A somewhat similar +case was decided on the same day (<i>M‘Inany</i> v. <i>Hildreth</i>, 1897, +13 T.L.R. 285), in which it was held that a professional bookmaker +who went to a place known as the “pit heap” at Jarrow, +to which the public had access at all times, and made bets with +persons assembled there, was properly convicted, and that the +“pit heap” itself and the place where he stood were “places” +within the meaning of the act. It was afterwards held by the +court of appeal (<i>Powell</i> v. <i>Kempton Park Racecourse Co., Ltd.</i>, +1897, 2 Q.B. 242), in an action brought to restrain a racecourse +company from opening or keeping an enclosure on a racecourse +by allowing it to be used by bookmakers, that the words “other +place” must be construed as meaning a defined place, that the +user of such a place implied some exclusive right in the +user against others, and that the racecourse owners had not +been guilty of permitting the enclosure to be used in the manner +prohibited by the act of 1853. The decision in <i>Hawke</i> v. <i>Dunn</i> +was disapproved of; and the House of Lords afterwards affirmed +the decision of the court of appeal.</p> + +<p>The Street Betting Act 1906 enacted that any person frequenting +or loitering in streets or public places for the purpose of +bookmaking, or betting, or wagering, should be liable on summary +conviction, in the case of a first offence, to a fine not exceeding +ten pounds, in the case of a second offence, to a fine not exceeding +twenty pounds, and in the case of a third or subsequent offence, +or in any case where he is proved to have committed the offence +of having a betting transaction with a person under the age of +sixteen years, to a fine, on conviction on indictment, not +exceeding fifty pounds or to imprisonment with or without hard +labour for a term not exceeding six months. On summary +conviction the fine is a sum not exceeding thirty pounds or +imprisonment with or without hard labour for a term not +exceeding three months. A wide definition is given to the words +“street” and “public place,” and racecourses are expressly +exempted from the operation of the act.</p> + +<p>On all French racecourses (since 1866), as on others nearly +everywhere else on the continent, and likewise in the British +colonies, a system of betting known as the <i>Pari-Mutuel</i> or +Totalizator, is carried on. Rows of offices are established +behind or near the stands, on each of which lists are exhibited +containing the numbers of the horses that are to run in the +coming race. At some of these the minimum wager is five +francs, at others ten, twenty, fifty, one hundred, five hundred and +in some cases a thousand. The person who proposes to bet +goes to the clerk at one of these offices, mentions the number, +as indicated on the card, of the horse he wishes to back, and states +whether he desires to bet on it to win or for a place only. He +receives a voucher for his money. After the race the whole +amount collected at the various offices is put together and divided +after a percentage has been deducted for the administration +and for the poor. As soon as this has been done, the money +is divided and the prices to be paid to winners are exhibited +on boards. These prices are calculated on a unit of ten francs. +Thus, for instance, if the winner is notified as bringing in +twenty-five francs, the meaning is that the backer receives his +original stake of ten and fifteen in addition, the money being paid +immediately by another clerk attached to the office at which +the bet was made. The great French municipalities derive +considerable revenue in relief of rates from the <i>Paris +Mutuels</i>. In Japan this system was made illegal in 1908.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETAÏNE<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Oxyneurine, Lycine</span>), C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">13</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>, a substance +discovered in the sugar beet (<i>Beta vulgaris</i>) in 1869 by C. Scheibler +(<i>Ber.</i>, 1869, 2, p. 292). It is also found in cotton seed, in the +vetch and in wheat sprouts (E. Schulz and S. Frankfurt, <i>Ber.</i>, 1893, +26, p. 2151). It may be synthetically prepared by oxidizing +choline with chromic acid (O. Liebreich, <i>Ber.</i>, 1869, 2, 13), +(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>N(OH)·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>OH → C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">13</span>NO<span class="su">3</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O; +by heating trimethylamine with monochloracetic acid (Liebreich), +(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>N + CH<span class="su">2</span>Cl·COOH = (CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>N(Cl)·CH<span class="su">2</span>·COOH +(betaïne hydrochloride); and by heating amino-acetic acid (glycocoll) +with methyl iodide in the presence of an alkali (P. Griess, <i>Ber.</i>, +1875, 8, p. 1406). It crystallizes from alcohol in large deliquescent +crystals; and is readily soluble in water, but insoluble in ether. +It is a weak base. As is shown by the various syntheses of the +base, it is the methyl hydroxide of dimethyl glycocoll. This +free base readily loses water on heating and gives an internal +anhydride of constitution <img style="width:179px; height:34px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img827a.jpg" alt="" /> +which is the type of the so-called “betaïnes.” These organic betaïnes +are internal anhydrides of carboxylic acids, which contain an +ammonium hydroxide group in the α-position. A. Hantzsch +(<i>Ber.</i>, 1886, 19, p. 31) prepared the betaïnes of nicotinic, picolinic +and collidine carboxylic acids from the potassium salts of the +acids, by treatment with methyl iodide, followed by moist silver +oxide. The reaction may be shown as follows:—</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:336px; height:81px" src="images/img827b.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The methyl betaïne of nicotinic acid is identical with the +alkaloid <i>trigonelline</i>, which was discovered in 1885 by E. Jahns +in the seeds of <i>Trigonella faenum-graecum</i> (<i>Ber.</i>, 1885, 18, p. 2518). +It has also been obtained from nicotine by A. Pictet by oxidizing +the methyl hydroxide of nicotine with potassium permanganate +(<i>Ber.</i>, 1897, 30, p. 2117).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Substances closely related to betaïne are choline, neurine +and muscarine. Choline (bilineurine, sincaline), (Gr. <span class="grk" title="cholae">χολή</span>, bile), +C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">15</span>NO<span class="su">2</span> or HO·CH<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">2</span>·N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·OH, +first isolated by A. Strecker in 1862 (<i>Ann.</i> 123, p. 353; 148, p. 76), +is found in the bile, in brain substance, and in yolk of egg in the form of +lecithin, a complex ester of glycerin with phosphoric acid and the fatty +acids. It is also found in combination with sinapic acid in sinapin, +the glucoside obtained from white mustard, and can be obtained from +this glucoside by hydrolysis with baryta water,</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">23</span>NO<span class="su">5</span> + 2H<span class="su">2</span>O</td> + <td class="tcc">=</td> <td class="tcc">C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">15</span>NO<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">+</td> <td class="tcc">C<span class="su">11</span>H<span class="su">12</span>O<span class="su">5</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sinapin.</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc">Choline.</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc">Sinapic acid.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">It can be synthetically prepared by the action of trimethylamine +on an aqueous solution of ethylene oxide (A. Wurtz, <i>Ann. Suppl.</i>, +1868, 6, p. 201). It forms deliquescent crystals of strongly alkaline +reaction, and absorbs carbon dioxide from the air. It is not poisonous. +By continued boiling of its aqueous solution, it is resolved into glycol +and trimethylamine.</p> + +<p>Neurine, trimethyl vinyl ammonium hydroxide (Gr. <span class="grk" title="neuron">νεῦρον</span>, nerve), +CH<span class="su">2</span> : CH·N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·OH, +is a product of the putrefaction of albumen. It may be prepared by the +action of moist silver oxide on ethylene dibromide and trimethylamine,</p> + +<p class="center">CH<span class="su">2</span>Br·CH<span class="su">2</span>Br → CH<span class="su">2</span>Br·CH<span class="su">2</span>N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>Br +→ CH<span class="su">2</span> : CH·N(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·OH.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span></p> + +<p class="noind">It is a crystalline solid, very soluble in water, and is strongly basic +and very poisonous. Muscarine, C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">15</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>, is an exceedingly +poisonous substance found in many fungi. It may be obtained synthetically +by oxidizing choline with dilute nitric acid (O. Schmiedeberg, +<i>Jahresb.</i>, 1876, p. 804). The exact constitution has not yet been +definitely determined.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETEL NUT<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span>. The name betel is applied to two different +plants, which in the East are very closely associated in the +purposes to which they are applied. The betel nut is the fruit +of the Areca or betel palm, <i>Areca Catechu</i>, and the betel leaf is +the produce of the betel vine or pan, <i>Chavica Betel</i>, a plant allied +to that which yields black pepper. The Areca palm is a native +of the Malay Peninsula and Islands and is extensively cultivated +over a wide area in the East, including southern India, Ceylon, +Siam, the Malay Archipelago and the Philippine Islands. It +is a graceful tree with a straight, slender, unbranched stem reaching +40 or 50 ft. in height and about 1½ ft. in circumference, and +bearing a crown of 6-9 very large spreading pinnate fronds. +The fruit is about the size of a small hen’s egg, and within its +fibrous rind is the seed or so-called nut, the albumen of which is +very hard and has a prettily mettled grey and brown appearance. +The chief purpose for which betel nuts are cultivated and collected +is for use as a masticatory,—their use in this form being so +widespread among Oriental nations that it is estimated that +one-tenth of the whole human family indulge in betel chewing. +For this use the fruits are annually gathered between the months +of August and November, before they are quite ripe, and deprived +of their husks. They are prepared by boiling in water, cutting +up into slices, and drying in the sun, by which treatment the +slices assume a dark brown or black colour. When chewed a +small piece is wrapped up in a leaf of the betel vine or pan, with +a pellet of shell lime or chunam; and in some cases a little +cardamom, turmeric or other aromatic is added. The mastication +causes a copious flow of saliva of a brick-red colour, which dyes +the mouth, lips and gums. The habit blackens the teeth, but +it is asserted by those addicted to it that it strengthens the gums, +sweetens the breath and stimulates the digestive organs. Among +the Orientals betel is offered on ceremonial visits in the same +manner as wine is produced on similar occasions by Europeans. +Betel nuts are further used as a source of catechu, which is +procured by boiling the nuts in water. The water of the first +boiling becomes red and thick, and when this is inspissated +after the removal of the nuts it forms a catechu of high +astringency and dark colour called in Bombay “Kossa.” The nuts are +again boiled, and the inspissated juice of the second decoction +yields a weaker catechu of a brown or reddish colour. Betel +nuts have been used by turners for ornamental purposes, and +for coat buttons on account of the beauty of their structure. +At one time they were supposed to be useful as a vermifuge. The +nuts of other species of <i>Areca</i> are used by the poorer classes +in the East as substitutes for the genuine betel nut.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The alkaloid arecaidine, C<span class="su">7</span>H<span class="su">11</span>NO<span class="su">2</span>, occurs in areca or betel nuts, +together with three other alkaloids: arecoline, C<span class="su">8</span>H<span class="su">13</span>NO<span class="su">2</span>, guvacine, +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">9</span>NO<span class="su">2</span>, and arecaine, C<span class="su">7</span>H<span class="su">11</span>NO<span class="su">2</span>. Arecaidine forms white +crystals easily soluble in water, and difficultly soluble in alcohol. +Chemically it is methyl-tetrahydro-nicotinic acid. Dehydration results in the +formation of a “betaïne,” which is a tetrahydro-trigonelline (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Betaïne</a></span>). Arecoline is an oil, and the physiological action of the +betel nut is alone due to this substance. Chemically it is the methyl +ester of arecaidine. Guvacine, named from “guvaca,” an Indian +designation of the betel palm, forms white crystals. It is a secondary +base, but its constitution is uncertain. Arecaine is <i>n</i>-methyl-guvacine.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETHANY<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (mod. <i>el-‘Azariyeh</i>), a village nearly 2 m. E.S.E. +from Jerusalem, on the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives, +2208 ft. above the sea. It is interesting as the residence of +Lazarus and his sisters, and a favourite retreat of Jesus +(see especially John xi., which describes the miracle of the resurrection +of Lazarus at this place). From the 4th century down to the +time of the Mahommedan invasion several ecclesiastical buildings +were erected on the spot, but of these no distinct traces remain. +El-‘Azariyeh is a poor village of about thirty families, with few +marks of antiquity; there is no reason to believe that the houses +of Mary and Martha and of Simon the Leper, or the sepulchre +of Lazarus, still shown by the monks, have any claim to the +names they bear. Another Bethany (with the alternative +reading Bethabara) is mentioned in John i. 28, as +“beyond Jordan”; it has not been identified.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETHEL<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (Heb. “House of God”), originally called <i>Luz</i>, +an ancient city of Palestine, on the N.W. border of the tribe of +Benjamin, 11 m. N. of Jerusalem and nearly 2900 ft. above +sea-level. From very early times it was a holy place, a circumstance +probably due primarily to a very extraordinary group of +boulders and rock-outcrops north of the town. Abraham +recognized its sanctity (Gen. xii. 8); Jacob, in ignorance, slept +in the sacred enclosure and was granted a vision (“Jacob’s +ladder,” Gen. xxviii). For a while the ark seems to have been +deposited here (Judg. xx. 27), and it was a place for consulting +the oracle (Judg. xx. 18). At the secession of the northern +kingdom under Jeroboam, Bethel became a royal residence +and a national shrine (1 Kings xii. 29-31, Amos vii. 13), for +which its position at the junction of main roads from N. to S. +and E. to W. well fitted it. It was taken from Jeroboam by +Abijah, king of Judah (2 Chr. xiii. 19). It seems to have continued +to flourish down into the Christian era; remains of its +ecclesiastical buildings still exist. The present village, which +bears the name of Beitin, occupies about three or four acres, +and has a population of 2000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉTHENCOURT, JEAN DE<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1360-1422), French explorer, +belonged to a noble family of Normandy, and held important +offices at the court of Charles VI., king of France. His spirit +was fired by hearing of the deeds of explorers and adventurers, +and having formed a plan to conquer the Canary Islands he +raised some money by pledging his Norman estates, and sailed +from La Rochelle on the 1st of May 1402 with two ships, +commanded by himself and Gadifer de la Salle. He was delayed +by a mutiny off the coast of Spain, but reached the island +of Lanzarote in July. Unable to carry out his project of conquest, +he left his men at the Canaries and went to seek help at +the court of Castile. He obtained men and provisions from +Henry III. king of Castile, through the good offices of his uncle, +Robert de Braquemont, who had considerable influence with +Henry; he also received the title of king, and did homage to +Henry for his future conquests. Returning to the Canaries in +1404 he found that Gadifer de la Salle had conquered Lanzarote +and Fuerteventura, and explored other islands. La Salle, unwilling +to accept a position of inferiority, left the Canaries and +appealed unsuccessfully for redress at the court of Castile. +Béthencourt was unable to complete his work of conquest and +exploration. In 1405 he visited Normandy, and returned with +fresh colonists who occupied Hierro. In December 1406 he left +the islands to the government of his nephew, Maciot de Béthencourt, +reserving for himself the royal title and a share in any +profits obtained. He returned to Normandy, where he appears +to have spent the remainder of his days. He died in 1422, and +was buried in the church of Grainville-la-Teinturière. Béthencourt +wrote a very untrustworthy account of his “conquest of the Canary +Islands,” <i>Le Canarien, livre de la conquête et conversion +ses Canaries</i>. This has been published with introduction and +notes by G. Gravier (Rouen, 1874), and an English translation +was edited by R.H. Major for the Hakluyt Society (London, 1872).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canary Islands</a></span>, for the controversy as to the relations +between Béthencourt and La Salle.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETHESDA<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> “House of Mercy,” John v. 2), better perhaps +<span class="sc">Bethzatha</span> or <span class="sc">Bethsaida</span>, a pool or public bath in Jerusalem, +where miraculous cures were believed to be performed. The +following identifications have been suggested: <i>Birket Isra’il</i>, +near St Stephen’s gate; a large cistern, near St Anne’s church; +the “Twin Pools,” north of the Haram (the ancient Temple area); +the <i>Hammam esh-Shifa‘</i> or pool of healing, west of the Haram; +the Virgin’s fountain, south of the Haram; and the “Pool of Siloam.” +Which, if any, of these identifications is correct, it is impossible to say.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETHESDA,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> an urban district of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, +5 m. from Bangor, by a branch of the London & North-Western +railway. Pop. (1901) 5281. It lies near the lower end of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span> +fine Nant Ffrancon (valley of the Ogwen stream). The +scriptural name is due, as often in Wales, to the village or +hamlet taking its title from the Nonconformist church. Here +are extensive slate quarries belonging to Lord Penrhyn. A +narrow-gauge railway connects these with Port Penrhyn, at the +mouth of the stream Cegid (hemlock, “<i>cicuta</i>”), which admits +the entry of vessels of 300 tons to the quay at low water.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETH-HORON<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (“the place of the hollow way”), the name +of two neighbouring villages, upper and lower Beth-horon, on +the ascent from the coast plain of Palestine to the high tableland +of Benjamin, which was until the 16th century the high road +from Jerusalem to the sea. The two towns thus played a conspicuous +part in Israelitish military history (see Josh. x. 10; +1 Sam. xiii. 18; 1 Kings ix. 17; 1 Macc. iii. 13-24, vii. 39 ff., +ix. 50). Josephus (<i>Bell. Jud.</i> ii. 19) tells of the rout of a Roman +army under Cestius Gallus in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 66. The Talmud states that +many rabbis were born in the place. It is now represented by +Beit ‘Ur-el-foka and Beit ‘Ur-et-tahta.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETHLEHEM<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (Heb. “House of Bread,” or, according to a +more questionable etymology, “of [the god] Lakhmu”), a small +town in Palestine, situated on a limestone ridge (2550 ft. above +sea-level), 5 m. S. of Jerusalem. The neighbourhood produces +wheat, barley, olives and vines in abundance. It was occupied +in very early times, though the references in Judges xvii., xix., +and Ruth<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> are of doubtful date. It was the early home of David +and of Joab (2 Sam. ii. 32). It was fortified by Rehoboam, and +in the neighbouring inn of Chimham the murderers of Gedaliah +took refuge (Jer. xli. 17). Micah (v. 2) and other writers speak +of it as Bethlehem-Ephrathah; perhaps Ephrathah was the +name of the district. Almost complete obscurity, however, was +gathering round it when it became (according to Matt. ii. and +Luke ii.) the birthplace of Jesus. The traditional scene of the +Nativity, a grotto on the eastern part of the ridge, is alleged to +have been desecrated during the reign of Hadrian by a temple +of Adonis. In 330 it was enclosed by a basilica built by the orders +of the emperor Constantine. This basilica (S. Maria a Praesepio), +which is still standing, was restored and added to by Justinian, +and was later surrounded by the three convents successively +erected by the Greek, Latin and Armenian Churches (see de Vogüé, +<i>Les Églises de la Terre Sainte</i>). Captured by the +Crusaders in the 11th century, Bethlehem was made an episcopal +see; but the bishopric soon sank to a titular dignity. Beside +the grotto of the Nativity other traditional sites are shown within +the church, such as the Altar of the Magi, the Tomb of Eusebius, +the cave wherein Jerome made his translation of the Bible, &c.</p> + +<p>There are several monasteries and convents, and British, +French and German schools. The village is well built and +comparatively clean. The population (8000) has contained few +Moslems since the Moslem quarter was destroyed by Ibrahim +Pasha, in revenge for the murder of one of his favourites, after +the insurrection of 1834. The carving of crucifixes and other +sacred mementoes gives employment to a large proportion +of the population. In 1850 a dispute arose between France and +Russia, in the name of the Latin and Greek Churches respectively, +concerning the possession of the key of the chief door of the +basilica, and concerning the right to place a silver star, with the +arms of France, in the grotto of the Nativity. The Porte, +after much futile temporizing, yielded to France. The +disappointment thus inflicted on Russia was a determining cause +of the outbreak of the Crimean War (see Kinglake, <i>Invasion +of the Crimea</i>, chap. iii.). [There is a tiny village of the same +name in Zebulun, 7 m. N.W. of Nazareth (Josh. xv. 19).]</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See bibliography under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palestine</a></span>. For the modern town see Palmer, +“Das jetzige Bethlehem,” in the <i>Zeitschrift</i> of the Deutsche +Palästina-Verein, xvii. p. 89.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The country of Moab is clearly visible from around Bethlehem.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETHLEHEM,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> a borough of Northampton and Lehigh +counties, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Lehigh +river, opposite South Bethlehem and 55 m. N. by W. of +Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 6762; (1900) 7293 (350 foreign-born); +(1910) 12,837. It is served by the Central of New Jersey, the +Lehigh & New England, the Lehigh Valley and the Philadelphia +& Reading railways, and is connected by two long +bridges with South Bethlehem. The borough lies on a ridge +of ground commanding delightful landscape scenery extending +north up the course of the river to the Blue Mountains 20 m. away. +In Church Street and its vicinity still stand several specimens +of the 17th-century style of architecture of eastern Germany. +The same sect that erected these buildings, the Moravians, or +United Brethren, maintain here the Moravian College and +Theological Seminary, and a well-known school for girls (the +Moravian Seminary), founded as a church boarding school in +1749 and reorganized in 1785, for girls of all denominations. +During the War of Independence, from December 1776 to +April 1777, and from September 1777 to April 1778, the old +Colonial Hall in this seminary (built 1748) was used as a general +hospital of the continental army. From its roof the famous +Moravian trombones were long played on festal or funeral +occasions, and later summoned the people to musical festivals. +The Moravians have given Bethlehem a national reputation as +a musical centre. Only a few years after the city was founded, +Benjamin Franklin was strongly impressed with the fine music +in its church, and towards the close of the 19th century a choir +under the direction of the organist, J. Frederick Wolle, became +widely known by rendering for the first time in America Bach’s +<i>St John Passion</i> (in 1888), followed after short intervals by the +<i>St Matthew Passion</i>, the <i>Christmas Oratorio</i>, the <i>Mass in B +Minor</i>, and finally by an annual Bach festival continuing for +three days, which was discontinued after Wolle’s removal to +the university of California in 1905. Bethlehem has often been +called the American Bayreuth. Among the borough’s industrial +establishments, the manufactories of iron and steel are the most +important, but it also manufactures brass, zinc, and silk and +knit goods. The municipality owns and operates its +waterworks. Bethlehem was founded by the Moravians, led by +Count Nikolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf, shortly before Christmas +in 1741, and the season of the year suggested its name; for the +first century of its existence it was almost exclusively a settlement +of that sect, and it is still their American headquarters. +Bethlehem was incorporated as a borough in 1845. In 1904 +the borough of West Bethlehem (pop. in 1900, 3465) was +consolidated with Bethlehem.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.M. Levering, <i>A History of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania</i> +(Bethlehem, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETHLEHEMITES,<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> a name borne at different times by three +orders in the Roman Catholic Church. +(1) A community of friars at Cambridge, in 1257, whose habit was +distinguished from that of the ordinary Dominicans by a five-rayed +red star (in reference to Matt. ii. 9 f). +(2) An order of knighthood similar to the Knights of St John, +established by Pius II. in 1459 to resist the inroads of the Turks. +(3) The Bethlehemite Order of Guatemala, a nursing community founded +in 1650 by Pedro Betancourt (d. 1667), extended by the brothers +Rodrigo and Antonio of the Cross, and raised to an order by Innocent XI. +in 1687. They wore a dress like that of the Capuchins, and Clement XI. +in 1707 gave them the privileges of the mendicant orders. They +spread throughout Central America and Mexico and as far south +as Lima, and with the order of sisters, founded in 1668 by +Anna Maria del Galdo, were conspicuous for their devotion +during times of plague and other contagious diseases. This +order became extinct about 1850. The name Bethlehemites has +also sometimes been given to the Hussites of Bohemia because +their leader preached in the Bethlehem church at Prague.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETHLEN, GABRIEL<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Gábor</span>) (1580-1629), prince of Transylvania, +the most famous representative of the Iktári branch of a +very ancient Hungarian family, was born at Illyé, and educated +at Szarhegy, at the castle of his uncle András Lázár. Thence +he was sent to the court of Prince Zsigmond Báthory, whom +he accompanied on his famous Wallachian campaign in 1600. +Subsequently he assisted Stephen Bocskay to mount the throne +of Transylvania (1605), and remained his chief counsellor. +Bethlen also supported Bocskay’s successor Gabriel Báthory +(1608-1613), but the prince became jealous of Bethlen’s superior +abilities, and he was obliged to take refuge with the Turks. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span> +In 1613 he led a large army against his persecutor, on whose +murder by two of his officers that year Bethlen was placed on +the throne by the Porte, in opposition to the wishes of the +emperor, who preferred a prince who would incline more towards +Vienna than towards Constantinople. On the 13th of October 1613, +the diet of Klausenburg confirmed the choice of the sultan. +In 1615 Gábor was also officially recognized by the emperor +Matthias. Bethlen no sooner felt firmly seated on his throne +than he seized the opportunity presented to him by the outbreak +of the Thirty Years’ War to take up arms in defence of the +liberties and the constitution of the extra-Transylvanian Hungarian +provinces, with the view of more effectually assuring his +own position. While Ferdinand was occupied with the Bohemian +rebels, Bethlen led his armies into Hungary (1619), and soon won +over the whole of the northern counties, even securing Pressburg +and the Holy Crown. Nevertheless he was not averse to a +peace, nor to a preliminary suspension of hostilities, and +negotiations were opened at Pressburg, Kassa and Beszterczebánya +successively, but came to nothing because Bethlen insisted on +including the Bohemians in the peace, whereupon (20th of August +1620) the estates of North Hungary elected him king. Bethlen +accepted the title but refused to be crowned, and war was resumed, +till the defeat of the Czechs at the battle of the White +Hill gave a new turn to affairs. In Bohemia, Ferdinand II. +took a fearful revenge upon the vanquished; and Bethlen, +regarding a continuation of the war as unprofitable, concluded +the peace of Nikolsburg (31st of December 1621), renouncing +the royal title on condition that Ferdinand confirmed the peace +of Vienna (which had granted full liberty of worship to the +Protestants) and engaged to summon a general diet within six +months. For himself Bethlen secured the title of prince of +the Empire, the seven counties of the Upper Theiss, and the +fortresses of Tokaj, Munkács and Ecsed. Subsequently Bethlen +twice (1623 and 1626) took up arms against Ferdinand as the +ally of the anti-Habsburg Protestant powers. The first war +was concluded by the peace of Vienna, the second by the peace +of Pressburg, both confirmatory of the peace of Nikolsburg. +After the second of these insurrections, Bethlen attempted +a rapprochement with the court of Vienna on the basis +of an alliance against the Turks and his own marriage with +one of the Austrian archduchesses; but Ferdinand had no +confidence in him and rejected his overtures. Bethlen was obliged +to renounce his anti-Turkish projects, which he had hitherto +cherished as the great aim and object of his life, and continue +in the old beaten paths. Accordingly, on his return from Vienna +he wedded Catherine, the daughter of the elector of Brandenburg, +and still more closely allied himself with the Protestant powers, +especially with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who, he hoped, +would assist him to obtain the Polish crown. He died before he +could accomplish any of his great designs (15th of November 1629), +having previously secured the election of his wife Catherine +as princess. His first wife, Susannah Károlyi, died in 1622.</p> + +<p>Gabriel Bethlen was certainly one of the most striking and +original personages of his century. A zealous Calvinist, whose +boast it was that he had read the Bible twenty-five times, he +was nevertheless no persecutor, and even helped the Jesuit +Kaldy to translate and print his version of the Scriptures. He +was in communication all his life with the leading contemporary +statesmen, so that his correspondence is one of the most interesting +and important of historical documents. He also composed hymns.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best editions of his correspondence are those by Sándor +Szilágyi, both published at Buda (1866 and 1879). The best life of +him is that by the Bohemian historian Anton Gindely, <i>Acta et +documenta historiam Gabrielis Bethleni illustrantia</i> (Budapest, 1890). +This work has been largely utilized by Ignáe-Acsády in his excellent +<i>Gabriel Bethlen and his Court</i> (Hung., Budapest, 1890).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETHNAL GREEN,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> an eastern metropolitan borough of +London, England, bounded N. by Hackney, E. by Poplar, +S. by Stepney and W. by Shoreditch. Pop. (1901) 129,680. +It is a district of poor houses, forming part of the area commonly +known as the “East End.” The working population is employed +in the making of match-boxes, boot-making, cabinet-making +and other industries; but was formerly largely devoted to +silk-weaving, which spread over the district from its centre in +Spitalfields (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stepney</a></span>). This industry is still maintained. +The Bethnal Green museum was opened in 1872. It contains exhibits +of food and animal products, formerly at South Kensington, +entomological collections, &c.; and various loan exhibitions +are held from time to time. The Museum also housed the Wallace +collection until the opening of Hertford House, and the pictures +now in the National Portrait Gallery. It stands in public gardens; +there are several other small open spaces; and some 70 +out of the 217 acres of Victoria Park are within the borough. +Close by the park there stood, until the 19th century, a house +believed to have belonged to the notorious Bishop Bonner, the +persecutor of Protestants in the reign of Mary; his name is +still attached to a street here. Among institutions are the +missionary settlement of the Oxford House, founded in 1884, +with its women’s branch, St Margaret’s House; the North-Eastern +hospital for children, the Craft school und the Leather +Trade school. The parliamentary borough of Bethnal Green +has two divisions, each returning one member. The borough +council consists of a mayor, 5 aldermen and 30 councillors. +Area, 759.3 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉTHUNE<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Family</span>). The <i>seigneurs</i> of Béthune, <i>avoués</i> +(<i>advocati</i>) of the great abbey of Saint-Vaast at Arras from the +11th century, were the ancestors of a great French house whence +sprang the dukes of Sully, Charost, Orval, and Ancenis; the +marquises of Rosny, Courville and Chabris; the counts of Selles +and the princes of Boisbelle and Henrichemont. Conon de +Béthune (<i>q.v.</i>), the crusader and poet, was an early forebear. +The most illustrious member of the Béthune family was +Maximilien, baron of Rosny, and afterwards duke of Sully (<i>q.v.</i>), +minister of Henry IV. His brother Philip, count of Selles and +of Charost, was ambassador to Scotland, Rome, Savoy and +Germany, and died in 1649. Hippolyte de Béthune, count of +Selles and marquis of Chabris, who died in 1665, bequeathed to +the king a magnificent collection of historical documents and +works of art. The Charost branch of the family gave France +a number of generals during the 17th and 18th centuries.</p> + +<p>The last duke of Charost, Armand Joseph de Béthune (1738-1800), +French economist and philanthropist, served in the +army during the Seven Years’ War, after which he retired to his +estates in Berry, where, and also in Brittany and Picardy, he +sought to ameliorate the lot of his peasants by abolishing feudal +dues, and introducing reforms in agriculture. During the +Terror he was arrested, but was liberated after the 9th Thermidor. +He was mayor of the 10th arrondissement of Paris under the +Consulate, and died at Paris on the 20th of October 1800, of +small-pox, contracted during a visit to a workshop for the +blind which he had founded. He published essays on the way +to destroy mendicancy and to improve the condition of the +labourers, and also on the establishment of a fund for rural +relief and the organization of rural education. His life throws +light on some phases of the <i>ancien régime</i> which are often +overlooked by historians. Louis XV. said of Charost, “Look at +this man, his appearance is insignificant, but he has put new +life into three of my provinces.” His only son, Armand Louis +de Béthune, marquis de Charost, was beheaded on the 28th of +April 1794.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉTHUNE, CONON<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Quesnes</span>, <b>DE</b> (<i>c.</i> 1150-1224), French +<i>trouvère</i> of Arras, was born about the middle of the 12th century. +He came about 1180 to the court of France, where he met Marie +de France, countess of Champagne. To this princess his love +poems are dedicated, and much of his time was passed at her +court where the <i>trouvères</i> were held in high honour. At the +French court he met with some criticisms from Queen Alix, +the widow of Louis VII., on the roughness of his verse and on his +Picard dialect. To these criticisms, interesting as proof of the +already preponderant influence of the dialect of the Île de France, +the poet replied by some verses in the satirical vein that best +suited his temperament. Some of his best songs were inspired +by anger at the delays before the crusade of 1188-1192. His +plain-speaking made him many enemies, and when he returned +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span> +with the rest after the fruitless capture of Acre, these were not +slow to take advantage of the opportunity for retaliation. +Conon took part with Baldwin of Flanders in the crusade which +resulted in 1204 in the capture of Constantinople, and he is said +to have been the first to plant the crusaders’ standard on the +walls of the city. He held high office in the new empire and died +about 1224. His verses, of which the crusading song <i>Ah! +amors com dure departie</i> is well known, are marked by a vigour +and martial spirit which distinguish them from the work of +other <i>trouvères</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The completest edition of his works is in the +<i>Trouvères belges</i> of Aug. Scheler (1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉTHUNE,<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> a town of northern France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 24 m. N.N.W. +of Arras, on the Northern railway between that town and +St Omer. Pop. (1906) 12,601. Béthune is situated on a low +hill at the confluence of the Lawe with the canal from Aire +to Bauvin. Once strongly fortified, it is now surrounded by +wide boulevards, and new quarters have grown up on its +outskirts. The old town is composed of winding streets and +<i>culs-de-sac</i> bordered by old houses in the Flemish style. In +the central square stands one of the finest belfries of northern +France, a square structure surmounted by a wooden campanile, +dating from the 14th century. St Vaast, the principal church +of Béthune, belongs to the 16th century. The town is the seat +of a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber +of commerce and a communal college among its public institutions. +Béthune lies in the midst of the richest coal mines in +France. Its industries include the distillation of oil, tanning, +salt-refining, brewing, and the manufacture of earthenware and +casks. Trade is carried on in flax, cloth, cereals, oil-seeds, &c.</p> + +<p>The town, which dates from the 11th century, was governed +by its own lords till 1248, after which date it passed through the +ownership of the counts of Flanders, the dukes of Burgundy, +and the sovereigns of Austria and Spain. Ceded to France by +the peace of Nijmwegen (1678), it was taken by the allied forces +in 1710, and restored to France by the treaty of Utrecht.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETROTHAL<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (A.S. <i>treowth</i>, “truth”), the giving “one’s +truth,” or pledging one’s faith to marry. Although left optional +by the church and not necessary in law, betrothal was anciently +a formal ceremony which in most cases preceded the actual +marriage service, usually by a period of some weeks, but the +marriage might for various reasons be delayed for years. The +canon law distinguished two types of betrothal:—(1) <i>Sponsalia +de praesenti</i>, (2) <i>Sponsalia de futuro</i>. The first was a true +though irregular marriage, and was abolished by the council +of Trent as leading to clandestine unions and therefore being +inimical to morality. The second, or betrothal properly so +called, was a promise to marry at a future date, which promise +without further ceremony became a valid marriage upon +consummation. The church never precisely determined the form +of the ceremony, but demanded for its validity that it should +have been entered into freely and at a legal age, <i>i.e.</i> after the +seventh birthday. The church further declared that females +between the ages of seven and twelve, and males between +seven and fourteen, could be betrothed, but not married, and that +all such betrothals were to be public. The ill-defined laws as +to betrothals tended to encourage abuses; and the people, especially +in the rural districts, inclined to hold betrothal sufficient +justification for cohabitation. Such pre-contract is known to +have existed in the case of Shakespeare (<i>q.v.</i>). Francis Douce +(<i>Illustrations of Shakespeare and of Antient Manners</i>, 1807) +says that betrothal consisted of the “interchange of rings—the +kiss—the joining of hands, to which is to be added the testimony +of witnesses.” In France the presence of a priest seems to have +been considered essential, and though this was not so elsewhere +it was customary for the couple to get their parish priest to +witness their promise. In England solemn betrothal was almost +universally practised. Among the peasantry the place of rings +was taken by a coin which was broken between the pair, each +taking a part. But almost any gift sufficed. A case in 1582 +is recorded where the lover gave the girl a pair of gloves, two +oranges, two handkerchiefs and a red silk girdle. Sometimes +the bride-elect received a bent or crooked sixpence. At the +conclusion of the ceremony, which by no means always took +place in a church, it seems to have been usual for the couple to +pledge each other in a cup of wine, as do the Jews and Russians +to-day. This drinking together was ever the universal custom +of parties in ratification of a bargain. Joseph Strutt (1749-1802) +states that by the civil law gifts given at betrothal could +be recovered by the parties, if the marriage did not take place. +But only conditionally, for if the man “had had a kiss for his +money, he should lose one half of that which he gave. Yet with +the woman it is otherwise, for, kissing or not kissing, whatever +she gave, she may ask and have it again. However, this extends +only to gloves, rings, bracelets and such-like small wares.” +Though the church abstained from prescribing the form of +the ceremony, it jealously watched over the fulfilment of such +contracts and punished their violation. Betrothal, validly +contracted, could be dissolved either by mutual consent, or +by the supervening of some radical physical or social change +in the parties, or by the omission to fulfil one of the conditions +of the contract. But here the church stepped in, and endeavoured +to override such law as existed in the matter by decreeing that +whoever, after betrothal, refused to marry <i>in facie ecclesiae</i>, +was liable to excommunication till relieved by public penance. +In England the law was settled by an act of 1753, which enacted +that an aggrieved party could obtain redress only by an action at +common law for breach of promise of marriage (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marriage</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Formal betrothal is no longer customary in England, but on +the European continent it retains much of its former importance. +There it is either solemn (publicly in church) or private (simply +before witnesses). Such betrothals are legal contracts. They +are only valid between persons of legal age, both of whom consent; +and they are rendered void by fraud, intimidation and duress. +In Germany if the parties are under age the consent of the parents +is needed; but if this be unreasonably withheld the couple may +appeal to a magistrate, who can sanction the betrothal. If the +parents disagree, the father’s wish prevails. Public betrothal +carries with it an obligation to marry, and in case of refusal +an action “lies” for the injured party. In Germany the betrothal +is generally celebrated before the relatives, and the couple are +called bride and bridegroom from that day <i>until</i> marriage. +In Russia, where it was once as binding as marriage, it is now a +mere formal part of the marriage ceremony.</p> + +<p>Among the ancient Jews betrothal was formal and as +binding as marriage. After the ceremony, which consisted of +the handing of a ring or some object of value to the bride and +formal words of contract, and the mutual pledging of the couple +in consecrated wine, a period of twelve months elapsed before the +marriage was completed by the formal home-taking; unless +the bride was a widow or the groom a widower, when this interval +was reduced to thirty days. Latterly the ceremony of betrothal +has become a part of the marriage ceremony, and the engagement +has become the informal affair it is in England.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For betrothal customs in China, the East and elsewhere, consult +L.J. Miln, <i>Wooings and Weddings in Many Climes</i> (London, 1900), +and H.N. Hutchinson, <i>Marriage Customs in Many Lands</i> (London, 1897). +On early English law as to betrothals see Sir F. Pollock and Maitland, +<i>History of English Law before the time of Edward I.</i> (2nd ed., 1898). +See also J.O. Halliwell-Phillipps, <i>Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare</i> +(London, 1848, 1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETTERMENT<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> “making better,” as opposed to “worsement”), +a general term, used particularly in connexion with the +increased value given to real property by causes for which a +tenant or the public, but not the owner, is responsible; it is thus +of the nature of “unearned increment.” When, for instance, +some public improvement results in raising the value of a piece +of private land, and the owner is thereby “bettered” through +no merit of his own, he gains by the betterment, and many economists +and politicians have sought to arrange, by taxation or +otherwise, that the increased value shall come into the pocket of +the public rather than into his. A betterment tax would be so +assessed as to divert from the owner of the property the profit +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span> +thus accruing “unearned” to him. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Compensation</a></span>.) +The whole problem is one of the incidence of taxation and the +question of land values, and various applications of the principle +of betterment have been tried in America and in England, +raising considerable controversy from time to time.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.A. Baumann, <i>Betterment, Worsement and Recoupment</i> (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETTERTON, THOMAS<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 1635-1710), English actor, son of +an under-cook to King Charles I., was born in London. He was +apprenticed to John Holden Sir William Davenant’s publisher, +and possibly later to a bookseller named Rhodes, who had been +wardrobe-keeper to the theatre in Blackfriars. The latter +obtained in 1659 a licence to set up a company of players at the +Cockpit in Drury Lane; and on the reopening of this theatre in +1660, Betterton made his first appearance on the stage. His +talents at once brought him into prominence, and he was given +leading parts. On the opening of the new theatre in Lincoln’s +Inn Fields in 1661, Sir William Davenant, the patentee, engaged +Betterton and all Rhodes’s company to play in his <i>Siege of +Rhodes</i>. Betterton, besides being a public favourite, was held +in high esteem by Charles II., who sent him to Paris to examine +stage improvements there. According to Cibber it was after his +return that shifting scenes instead of tapestry were first used in +an English theatre. In 1692, in an unfortunate speculation, +Betterton and his friend Sir Francis Watson were ruined; but +Betterton’s affection for Sir Francis was so strong that he adopted +the latter’s daughter and educated her for the stage. In 1693, +with the aid of friends, he erected the New Playhouse in the +tennis court in Lincoln’s Inn Fields. It was opened in 1695 +with Congreve’s <i>Love for Love</i>. But in a few years the profits +fell off; and Betterton, labouring under the infirmities of age +and gout, determined to quit the stage. At his benefit performance, +when the profits are said to have been over £500, he played +Valentine in <i>Love for Love</i>. In 1710 he made his last appearance +as Melantius in <i>The Maid’s Tragedy</i>; he died on the 28th of +April, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<p>In appearance he was athletic, slightly above middle height, +with a tendency to stoutness; his voice was strong rather than +melodious, but in recitation it was used with the greatest dexterity. +Pepys, Pope, Steele and Cibber all bestow lavish praise +on his acting. His repertory included a large number of Shakespearian +roles, and although many of these were presented in the +tasteless versions of Davenant, Dryden, Shadwell and Nahum +Tate, yet they could not hide the great histrionic gifts which +Betterton possessed, nor does his reputation rest on these +performances alone. The blamelessness of his life was conspicuous +in an age and a profession notorious for dissolute +habits. Betterton was author of several adaptations which +were popular in their day. In 1662 he had married Mary Saunderson +(d. 1712), an admirable actress, whose Ophelia shared +the honours with his Hamlet.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Howe, <i>Thomas Betterton</i> (1891); <i>The Life and Times of Thomas Betterton</i> (1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETTIA,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Champaran district +of Bengal; situated on a former branch of the Harha river, +with a station on the Tirhoot section of the Bengal & North-Western +railway. Bettia is the residence of one of the leading +noblemen of northern Behar, who enjoys a rent-roll of £66,000. +In 1901, owing to a disputed succession, the estate was under +the management of the court of wards. It comprises land +in no fewer than ten districts, much of which is let on permanent +leases to indigo-planters. Besides the palace of the maharaja, +the town contains a middle English school and a female dispensary, +entirely supported out of the estate. There is a Roman +Catholic mission, with about 1000 converts, which was founded +by an Italian priest in 1746.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETTINELLI, SAVERIO<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (1718-1808), Italian Jesuit and man +of letters, was born at Mantua on the 18th of July 1718. After +studying under the Jesuits in his native city and at Bologna +he entered the society in 1736. He taught the belles-lettres +from 1739 to 1744 at Brescia, where Cardinal Quirini, Count +Mazzuchelli, Count Duranti and other scholars, formed an illustrious +academy. He next went to Bologna, to pursue the study +of divinity, and there he enjoyed the society of many learned +and literary men. At the age of thirty he went to Venice, +where he became professor of rhetoric, and was on friendly terms +with the most illustrious persons of that city and state. The +superintendence of the college of nobles at Parma was entrusted +to him in 1751; and he had principal charge of the studies of +poetry and history, and the entertainments of the theatre. He +remained there eight years, visiting, at intervals, other cities of +Italy, either on the affairs of his order, for pleasure or for +health. In 1755 he traversed part of Germany, proceeded +as far as Strassburg and Nancy, and returned by way of +Germany into Italy, taking with him two young sons or +nephews of the prince of Hohenlohe, who had requested him +to take charge of their education. He made, the year following, +another journey into France along with the eldest of his pupils; +and during this excursion he wrote his famous <i>Lettere dieci di +Virgilio agli Arcadi</i>, which were published at Venice with his +<i>sciolti</i> verses, and those of Frugoni and Algarotti. The opinions +maintained in these letters against the two great Italian poets +and particularly against Dante, created him many enemies, +and embroiled him with Algarotti. In 1758 he went into +Lorraine, to the court of King Stanislaus, who sent him on a +matter of business to visit Voltaire. Voltaire presented him with +a copy of his works, with a flattering inscription in allusion to +Bettinelli’s <i>Letters of Virgil</i>. From Geneva he returned to +Parma, where he arrived in 1759. He afterwards lived for some +years at Verona and Modena, and he had just been appointed +professor of rhetoric there, when, in 1773, the order of Jesuits +was abolished in Italy. Bettinelli then returned into his own +country, and resumed his literary labours with new ardour. +The siege of Mantua by the French compelled him to leave the +city, and he retired to Verona, where he formed an intimate +friendship with the chevalier Hippolito Pindemonti. In 1797 +he returned to Mantua. Though nearly eighty years old, he +resumed his labours and his customary manner of life. He +undertook in 1799 a complete edition of his works, which was +published at Venice in 24 vols. 12mo. Arrived at the age of +ninety years, he still retained his gaiety and vivacity of mind, +and died on the 13th of September 1808. The works of Bettinelli +are now of little value. The only one still deserving remembrance, +perhaps, is the <i>Risorgimento negli studj, nelle Arti e ne’ Costumi +dopo il Mille</i> (1775-1786), a sketch of the progress of literature, +science, the fine arts, industry, &c., in Italy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETTWS Y COED,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> an urban district of Carnarvonshire, North +Wales, 4 m. from Llanrwst and 16 m. from Llandudno, on a branch +of the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1070. +The name means “warm place of the wood,” according to Llyn’s +definition of <i>bettws</i>. The other derivation of the word from +<i>Abbatis</i> (<i>domus</i>) agrees with its vicinity to Yspytty<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Ifan (Ieuan), +<i>Hospitium Ioannis</i>, near Pentre’r Foelas. The words “y coed” +are added to distinguish this Bettws from several others in Wales, +especially that near Llandeilo Fawr, Carmarthenshire, not far +from the Bettws hills. Bettws y coed is a favourite village for +artists and tourists. It is a centre for excursions towards Capel +Curig and Snowdon, or towards Blaenau Festiniog, via Roman +Bridge. There is excellent fishing for salmon and trout, and in +summer coaches leave their daily loads of tourists here. The +best-known streams and waterfalls are Llugwy, Lledr, with +Rhaiadr y wenol (Swallow falls), Conwy and Machno falls. In the +neighbourhood are Dolwyddelan castle and the hill of Moel +Siabod.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Other places named “Yspytty” are Y. Cynfyn and Y. +Ystwyth. For the name Yspytty, cf. Bale’s <i>King John</i>, 2125: +“So many masendeens (<i>maisons Dieu</i>), hospytals and <i>spyttle</i> howses.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETTY, WILLIAM HENRY WEST<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> (1791-1874), English +actor, known as “the young Roscius,” was born on the 13th of +September 1791 at Shrewsbury. He first appeared on the stage +at Belfast before he was twelve years old, as Osman in Aaron +Hill’s <i>Zara</i>, an English version of Voltaire’s <i>Zaire</i>. His success +was immediate, and he shortly afterwards appeared in Dublin, +where it is said that in three hours of study he committed the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span> +part of Hamlet to memory. His precocious talents aroused great +enthusiasm in Glasgow and Edinburgh, and he was favourably +compared with some of the greatest tragedians. In 1804 he first +appeared at Covent Garden, when the troops had to be called out +to preserve order, so great was the crush to obtain admittance. +At Drury Lane the house was similarly packed, and he played +for the then unprecedented salary of over 75 guineas a night. +He was a great success socially, George III. himself presenting +him to the queen, and Pitt upon one occasion adjourning the +House of Commons that members might be in time for his +performance. But this enthusiasm gradually subsided, and in +1808 he made his final appearance as a boy actor, and entered +Christ’s College, Cambridge. He re-appeared four years later, +but the public would have none of him, and he retired to the +enjoyment of the large fortune which he had amassed as a prodigy. +He died on the 24th of August 1874. His son Henry Betty +(1819-1897) was also an actor.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETUL,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Nerbudda +division of the Central Provinces. In 1901 the population of the +town was 4739. The administrative headquarters of the district +have been transferred to the town of Badnur (<i>q.v.</i>), 3 m. north.</p> + +<p>The district of <span class="sc">Betul</span> has an area of 3826 sq. m. In 1901 the +population was 285,363, showing a decrease of 12% in the decade, +due to the results of famine. The mean elevation above the +sea is about 2000 ft. The country is essentially a highland tract, +divided naturally into three distinct portions, differing in their +superficial aspects, the character of their soil and their geological +formation. The northern part of the district forms an irregular +plain of the sandstone formation. It is a well-wooded tract, in +many places stretching out in charming glades like an English +park, but it has a very sparse population and little cultivated +land. In the extreme north a line of hills rises abruptly out of +the great plain of the Nerbudda valley. The central tract alone +possesses a rich soil, well watered by the Machna and Sampna +rivers, almost entirely cultivated and studded with villages. To +the south lies a rolling plateau of basaltic formation (with the +sacred town of Multai, and the springs of the river Tapti at its +highest point), extending over the whole of the southern face of +the district, and finally merging into the wild and broken line of +the Ghats, which lead down to the plains. This tract consists of a +succession of stony ridges of trap rock, enclosing valleys or basins +of fertile soil, to which cultivation is for the most part confined, +except where the shallow soil on the tops of the hills has been +turned to account. The principal crops are wheat, millet, other +food-grains, pulse, oil-seeds, and a little sugar-cane and cotton. +A large part of the area is covered with forests, which yield teak +and other timber. The only manufacture is cotton cloth. A +railway is projected from Itarsi through the district to Berar. +Good roads are few; and none of the rivers is navigable. This +district suffered very severely from the famine of 1896-1897, +in 1897 the death-rate being as high as 73 per 1000. It suffered +again in 1900, when in May the number of persons relieved rose +to one-third of the total population.</p> + +<p>Little is known of the early history of the district except that +it must have been the centre of the first of the four ancient Gond +kingdoms of Kherla, Deogarh, Mandla and Chanda. According +to Ferishta, the Persian historian, these kingdoms engrossed +in 1398 all the hills of Gondwana and adjacent countries, and +were of great wealth and power. About the year 1418 Sultan +Husain Shah of Malwa invaded Kherla, and reduced it to a +dependency. Nine years later the raja rebelled, but although +with the help of the Bahmani kings of the Deccan he managed +for a time to assert his independence, he was finally subdued and +deprived of his territories. In 1467 Kherla was seized by the +Bahmani king, but was afterwards restored to Malwa. A century +later the kingdom of Malwa became incorporated into the +dominions of the emperor of Delhi. In 1703 a Mussulman +convert of the Gond tribe held the country, and in 1743 Raghoji +Bhonsla, the Mahratta ruler of Berar, annexed it to his dominions. +The Mahrattas in the year 1818 ceded this district to the East +India Company as payment for a contingent, and by the treaty +of 1826 it was formally incorporated with the British possessions. +Detachments of British troops were stationed at Multai, Betul +and Shahpur to cut off the retreat of Apa Sahib, the Mahratta +general, and a military force was quartered at Betul until June +1862. The ruined city of Kherla formed the seat of government +under the Gonds and preceding rulers, and hence the district was, +until the time of its annexation to the British dominions, known +as the “Kherla Sarkar.” The town of Multai contains an +artificial tank, from the centre of which the Tapti is said to take +its rise: hence the reputed sanctity of the spot, and the accumulation +of temples in its honour.</p> + +<p>The climate of Betul is fairly healthy. Its height above the +plains and the neighbourhood of extensive forests moderate the +heat, and render the temperature pleasant throughout the greater +part of the year. During the cold season the thermometer at +night falls below the freezing point; little or no hot wind is felt +before the end of April, and even then it ceases after sunset. The +nights in the hot season are comparatively cool and pleasant. +During the monsoon the climate is very damp, and at times even +cold and raw, thick clouds and mist enveloping the sky for many +days together. The average annual rainfall is 40 in. In the +denser jungles malaria prevails for months after the cessation +of the rains, but the Gonds do not appear to suffer much from its +effects. Travellers and strangers who venture into these jungles +run the risk of fever of a severe type at almost all seasons of the +year.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BETWA,<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> a river of India, which rises in the native state of +Bhopal in Malwa, and after a course of 360 m., for the most part +in a north-easterly direction, falls into the Jumna at Hamirpur. +A weir is thrown across the Betwa about 15 m. from Jhansi +town, whence a canal 168 m. long takes off, irrigating 106,000 acres +of the Jalaun district; similar works have been carried out +elsewhere on the river.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEUDANT, FRANÇOIS SULPICE<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (1787-1850), French mineralogist +and geologist, was born at Paris on the 5th of September +1787. He was educated at the École Polytechnique and École +Normale, and in 1811 was appointed professor of mathematics +at the lycée of Avignon. Thence he was called, in 1813, to +the lycée of Marseilles to fill the post of professor of physics. +In the following year the royal mineralogical cabinet was committed +to his charge to be conveyed into England, and from +that time his attention was directed principally towards geology +and cognate sciences. In 1817 he published a paper on the +phenomena of crystallization, treating especially of the variety +of forms assumed by the same mineral substance. In 1818 +he undertook, at the expense of the French government, a +geological journey through Hungary, and the results of his +researches, <i>Voyage minéralogique et géologique en Hongrie</i>, +3 vols. 4to, with atlas, published in 1822, established for him +a European reputation. In 1820 he was appointed to the +professorship of mineralogy in the Paris faculty of sciences, +and afterwards became inspector-general of the university. +He subsequently published treatises on physics and on +mineralogy and geology, and died on the 10th of December +1850.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEUGNOT, JACQUES CLAUDE,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1761-1835), French +politician, was born at Bar-sur-Aube. A magistrate under the +old régime, he was elected deputy to the Legislative Assembly +(1791), then to the Convention. He was involved in the +proscription of the Girondists and imprisoned until the 9th +Thermidor. He next entered into relations with the family +of Bonaparte, and in 1799, after the 18th Brumaire, again +entered politics, becoming successively prefect of the lower +Seine, councillor of state, and finance minister to Jerome Bonaparte, +king of Westphalia. In 1808 Beugnot, who had meanwhile +been appointed administrator of the duchy of Berg-Cleves, +received the cross of officer of the Legion of Honour with the +title of count. He returned to France in 1813, after the battle +of Leipzig, and was made prefect of the department of Nord. +In 1814 he was a member of the provisional government as +minister of the interior; and by Louis XVIII. he was named +director-general of police and afterwards minister of marine. He +followed Louis to Ghent during the Hundred Days, and became +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span> +one of his confidants. He contributed to draw up Louis’s +charter, and in his memoirs boasted of having furnished the +text of the proclamation addressed by the king to the French +people before his return to France; but it is known now that +it was another text that was adopted. Lacking the support +of the ultra-royalists, he was given the title of minister of state +without portfolio, which was equivalent to a retirement. Elected +deputy, he attached himself to the moderate party, and defended +the liberty of the press. In 1831 Louis Philippe made him a peer +of France and director-general of manufactures and commerce. +He died on the 24th of June 1835.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Auguste Arthur Beugnot</span> (1797-1865), was an +historian and scholar, who published an <i>Essai sur les institutions +de Saint Louis</i> (1821), <i>Histoire de la destruction du paganisme en +occident</i> (2 vols., 1885), and edited the <i>Olim</i> of the parlement +of Paris, the <i>Assizes of Jerusalem</i>, and the <i>Coutumes de +Beauvoisis</i> of Philippe de Beaumanoir. He was a member of the +chamber of peers under Louis Philippe, and opposed Villemain’s +plan for freedom of education. After 1848 he maintained the +same rôle, acting as reporter of the <i>loi Falloux</i>. He retired from +public life after the <i>coup d’état</i> of Napoleon III., and died +on the 15th of March 1865.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Mémoires</i> of J.C. Beugnot were published by his grandson, +Count Albert Beugnot (2nd ed., Paris, 1868); see H. Wallon, <i>Éloges +académiques</i> (1882); and E. Dejean, <i>Un Préfet du Consulat: +J.C. Beugnot</i> (Paris, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEULÉ, CHARLES ERNEST<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (1826-1874), French archaeologist +and politician, was born at Saumur on the 29th of June 1826. +He was educated at the École Normale, and after having +held the professorship of rhetoric at Moulins for a year, was sent +to Athens in 1851 as one of the professors in the École Française +there. He had the good fortune to discover the propylaea of the +Acropolis, and his work, <i>L’Acropole d’Athènes</i> (2nd ed., 1863), +was published by order of the minister of public instruction. +On his return to France, promotion and distinctions followed +rapidly upon his first successes. He was made doctor of letters, +chevalier of the Legion of Honour, professor of archaeology +at the Bibliothèque Impériale, member of the Académie des +Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres and perpetual secretary of the +Académie des Beaux-Arts. He took great interest in political +affairs, with which the last few years of his life were entirely +occupied. Elected a member of the National Assembly in 1871, +he zealously supported the Orleanist party. In May-November +1873 he was minister of the interior in the Broglie ministry. +He died by his own hand on the 4th of April 1874. His other +important works are: <i>Études sur le Péloponnèse</i> (2nd ed., 1875); +<i>Les Monnaies d’Athènes</i> (1858); <i>L’Architecture au siècle de +Pisistrate</i> (1860); <i>Fouilles à Carthage</i> (1861). Beulé was also +the author of high-class popular works on artistic and historical +subjects: <i>Histoire de l’art grec avant Périclès</i> (2nd ed., 1870); +<i>Le Procès des Césars</i> (1867-1870, in four parts; <i>Auguste, sa +famille et ses amis</i>; <i>Tibère et l’héritage d’Auguste</i>; <i>Le Sang de +Germanicus</i>; <i>Titus et sa dynastie</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ideville, <i>Monsieur Beulé, Souvenirs personnels</i> (1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEURNONVILLE, PIERRE DE RUEL,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1752-1821), +French general. After service in the colonies, he married +a wealthy Creole, and returning to France purchased the post +of lieutenant of the Swiss guard of the count of Provence. +During the Revolution he was named lieutenant-general, and +took an active part in the battles of Valmy and Jemmapes. +Minister of war in February 1793, he denounced his old commander, +C.F. Dumouriez, to the Convention, and was one of +the four deputies sent to watch him. Given over by him to the +Austrians on the 3rd of April 1793, Beurnonville was not +exchanged until November 1795. He entered the service again, +commanded the armies of the Sambre-et-Meuse and of the +North, and was appointed inspector of infantry of the army +of England in 1798. In 1800 he was sent as ambassador to +Berlin, in 1802 to Madrid. Napoleon made him a senator and +count of the empire. In 1814 he was a member of the provisional +government organized after the abdication of Napoleon, +and was created a peer of France. During the Hundred Days +he followed Louis XVIII. to Ghent, and after the second restoration +was made marquis and marshal of France.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Chaquet, <i>Les Guerres de la Révolution</i> (Paris, 1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEUST, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> (1809-1886), Austrian +statesman, was descended from a noble family which had +originally sprung from the Mark of Brandenburg, and of which +one branch had been for over 300 years settled in Saxony. He +was born on the 13th of January 1809 in Dresden, where his +father held office at the Saxon court. After studying at Leipzig +and Göttingen he entered the Saxon public service; in 1836 +he was made secretary of legation at Berlin, and afterwards +held appointments at Paris, Munich and London. In March +1848 he was summoned to Dresden to take the office of foreign +minister, but in consequence of the outbreak of the revolution +was not appointed. In May he was appointed Saxon envoy at +Berlin, and in February 1849 was again summoned to Dresden, +and this time appointed minister of foreign affairs, an office +which he continued to hold till 1866. In addition to this he +held the ministry of education and public worship from 1849 +to 1853; that of internal affairs in 1853, and in the same year +was appointed minister-president. From the time that he +entered the ministry he was, however, the leading member of +it, and he was chiefly responsible for the events of 1849. By +his advice the king refused to accept the constitution proclaimed +by the Frankfort parliament, a policy which led to the outbreak +of revolution in Dresden, which was suppressed after four days’ +fighting by Prussian troops, for whose assistance Beust had +asked. On Beust fell also the chief responsibility for governing +the country after order was restored, and he was the author of +the so-called <i>coup d’état</i> of June 1850 by which the new +constitution was overthrown. The vigour he showed in repressing all +resistance to the government, especially that of the university, and +in reorganizing the police, made him one of the most unpopular +men among the Liberals, and his name became synonymous with +the worst form of reaction, but it is not clear that the attacks on +him were justified. After this he was chiefly occupied with foreign +affairs, and he soon became one of the most conspicuous figures +in German politics. He was the leader of that party which +hoped to maintain the independence of the smaller states, and +was the opponent of all attempts on the part of Prussia to +attract them into a separate union; in 1849-1850 he had +been obliged to join the “three kings’ union” of Prussia, +Hanover and Saxony, but he was careful to keep open a loophole +for withdrawal, of which he speedily availed himself. In +the crisis of 1851 Saxony was on the side of Austria, and he +supported the restoration of the diet of the confederation. +In 1854 he took part in the Bamberg conferences, in which +the smaller German states claimed the right to direct their +own policy independent of that of Austria or of Prussia, and he +was the leading supporter of the idea of the <i>Trias</i>, <i>i.e.</i> that +the smaller states should form a closer union among themselves +against the preponderance of the great monarchies. In 1863 +he came forward as a warm supporter of the claims of the +prince of Augustenburg to Schleswig-Holstein (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein +Question</a></span>); he was the leader of the party in the +German diet which refused to recognize the settlement of the +Danish question effected in 1852 by the treaty of London, and +in 1864 he was appointed representative of the diet at the +congress of London. He was thus thrown into opposition to the +policy of Bismarck, and he was exposed to violent attacks in +the Prussian press as a “particularist,” <i>i.e.</i> a supporter of the +independence of the smaller states. The expulsion of the Saxon +troops from Rendsburg nearly led to a conflict with Prussia. +Beust was accused of having brought about the war of 1866, +but the responsibility for this must rest with Bismarck. On +the outbreak of war Beust accompanied the king to Prague, and +thence to Vienna, where they were received by the emperor +with the news of Königgrätz. Beust undertook a mission to +Paris to procure the help of Napoleon. When the terms of +peace were discussed he resigned, for Bismarck refused to +negotiate with him.</p> + +<p>After the victory of Prussia there was no place for Beust in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span> +Germany, and his public career seemed to be closed, but he +quite unexpectedly received an invitation from the emperor +of Austria to become his foreign minister. It was a bold decision, +for Beust was not only a stranger to Austria, but also a +Protestant; but the choice of the emperor justified itself. Beust +threw himself into his new position with great energy; it was +owing to him that the negotiations with Hungary were brought +to a successful issue. When difficulties came he went himself to +Budapest, and acted directly with the Hungarian leaders. In +1867 he also held the position of Austrian minister-president, +and he carried through the measures by which parliamentary +government was restored. He also carried on the negotiations +with the pope concerning the repeal of the concordat, and in this +matter also did much by a liberal policy to relieve Austria from +the pressure of institutions which had checked the development +of the country. In 1868, after giving up his post as +minister-president, he was appointed chancellor of the empire, and +received the title of count. His conduct of foreign affairs, especially +in the matter of the Balkan States and Crete, successfully +maintained the position of the empire. In 1869 he accompanied +the emperor on his expedition to the East. He was still to some +extent influenced by the anti-Prussian feeling he had brought +from Saxony. He maintained a close understanding with France, +and there can be little doubt that he would have welcomed +an opportunity in his new position of another struggle with his +old rival Bismarck. In 1867, however, he helped to bring the +affair of Luxemburg to a peaceful termination. In 1870 he did +not disguise his sympathy for France, and the failure of all +attempts to bring about an intervention of the powers, joined +to the action of Russia in denouncing the treaty of Paris, was +the occasion of his celebrated saying that he was nowhere able +to find Europe. After the war was over he completely accepted +the new organization of Germany.</p> + +<p>As early as December 1870 he had opened a correspondence +with Bismarck with a view to establishing a good understanding +with Germany. Bismarck accepted his advances with alacrity, +and the new <i>entente</i>, which Beust announced to the +Austro-Hungarian delegations in July 1871, was sealed in August +by a friendly meeting of the two old rivals and enemies at Gastein.</p> + +<p>In 1871 Beust interfered at the last moment, together with +Andrássy, to prevent the emperor accepting the federalist plans +of Hohenwart. He was successful, but at the same time he +was dismissed from office. The precise cause for this is not +known, and no reason was given him. At his own request +he was appointed Austrian ambassador at London; in 1878 +he was transferred to Paris; in 1882 he retired from public life. +He died at his villa at Altenberg, near Vienna, on the 24th of +October 1886, leaving two sons, both of whom entered the +Austrian diplomatic service. His wife, a Bavarian lady, +survived him only a few weeks. His elder brother Friedrich +Konstantin (1806-1891), who was at the head of the Saxon +department for mines, was the author of several works on +mining and geology, a subject in which other members of the +family had distinguished themselves.</p> + +<p>Beust was in many ways a diplomatist of the old school. He +had great social gifts and personal graces; he was proud of +his proficiency in the lighter arts of composing waltzes and +<i>vers de société</i>. His chief fault was vanity, but it was an +amiable weakness. It was more vanity than rancour which made him +glad to appear even in later years as the great opponent of +Bismarck; and if he cared too much for popularity, and was +very sensitive to neglect, the saying attributed to Bismarck, +that if his vanity were taken away there would be nothing left, +is very unjust. He was apt to look more to the form than the +substance, and attached too much importance to the verbal +victory of a well-written despatch; but when the opportunity +was given him he showed higher qualities. In the crisis of 1849 +he displayed considerable courage, and never lost his judgment +even in personal danger. If he was defeated in his German +policy, it must be remembered that Bismarck held all the good +cards, and in 1866 Saxony was the only one of the smaller states +which entered on the war with an army properly equipped and +ready at the moment. That he was no mere reactionary the +whole course of his government in Saxony, and still more in +Austria, shows. His Austrian policy has been much criticized, +on the ground that in establishing the system of dualism he +gave too much to Hungary, and did not really understand +Austrian affairs; and the Austro-Hungarian crisis during the +early years of the present century has given point to this view. +Yet it remains the fact that in a crisis of extraordinary difficulty +he carried to a successful conclusion a policy which, even if it +was not the best imaginable, was probably the best attainable +in the circumstances.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Beust was the author of reminiscences: +<i>Aus drei Viertel-Jahrhunderten</i> (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1887; +English trans. edited by Baron H. de Worms); and he also wrote +a shorter work, <i>Erinnerungen zu Erinnerungen</i> (Leipzig, 1881), +in answer to attacks made on him by his former colleague, +Herr v. Frieseri, in his reminiscences. See also Ebeling, +<i>F.F. Graf v. Beust</i> (Leipzig, 1876), a full and careful account +of his political career, especially up to 1866; <i>Diplomatic Sketches: +No. 1, Count Beust</i>, by Outsider (Baron Carl v. Malortie); Flathe, +<i>Geschichte van Sachsen</i>, vol. iii. (Gotha, 1877); Friesen, +<i>Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben</i> (Dresden, 1880).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEUTHEN,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Niederbeuthen</span>, a town of Germany, in the +north of Prussian Silesia, on the Oder, the capital of the +mediatized principality of Carolath-Beuthen. Pop. (1900) 3164. +The chief industries of the place are straw-plaiting, +boat-building, and the manufacture of pottery; and a considerable +traffic is carried on by means of the river.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEUTHEN,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Oberbeuthen</span>, a town of Germany, in the +extreme south-east of Prussian Silesia, on the railway between +Breslau and Cracow, 121 m. S.E. of the former. Pop. (1905) +60,078. It is the centre of the mining district of Upper Silesia, +and its population is mainly engaged in such operations and in +iron and zinc smelting. Beuthen is an old town, and was +formerly the capital of the Bohemian duchy of Beuthen, which +in 1620 was ultimately granted, as a free lordship of the Empire, +to Lazarus, Baron Henckel von Donnersmarck, by the emperor +Ferdinand II., and parts of which, now mediatized, are held by +two branches of the counts Henckel von Donnersmarck.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEVEL<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (from an O. Fr. word, cf. mod. <i>biveau</i>, a joiner’s +instrument), the inclination of one surface of a solid body to +another; also, any angle other than a right angle, and particularly, +in joinery, the angle to which a piece of timber has to +be cut. The mechanic’s instrument known as a bevel consists of +a rule with two arms so jointed as to be adjustable to any angle. +In heraldry, a bevel is an angular break in a line. Bevelment, +as a term of crystallography, means the replacement of an edge +of a crystal by two planes equally inclined to the adjacent +planes. As an architectural term “bevel” is a sloped or canted +edge given to a sill or horizontal course of stone, but is more +frequently applied to the canted edges worked round the +projecting bands of masonry which for decorative purposes are +employed on the quoins of walls or windows and in some cases, +with vertical joints, cover the whole wall. When the outer face +of the stone band is left rough so that it forms what is known +as rusticated masonry, the description would be bevelled +and rusticated. The term is sometimes applied to the splaying +of the edges of a window on the outside, but the wide +expansion made inside in order to admit more light is known +as a splay.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEVERLEY, WILLIAM ROXBY<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (1814?-1889), English +artist and scene-painter, was born at Richmond, Surrey, about +1814, the son of William Roxby, an actor-manager who had +assumed the name of Beverley. His four brothers and his sister +all entered the theatrical profession, and Beverley soon became +both actor and scene-painter. In 1831 his father and his brothers +took over the old Durham circuit, and he joined them to play +heavy comedy for several seasons, besides painting scenery. His +work was first seen in 1831 in London, for the pantomime +<i>Baron Munchausen</i> at the Victoria theatre, which was being +managed by his brother Henry. He was appointed scenic director +for the Covent Garden operas in 1853. In 1854 he entered +the service of the Drury Lane theatre under the management +of E.T. Smith, and for thirty years continued to produce +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span> +wonderful scenes for the pantomimes, besides working for Covent +Garden and a number of other theatres. In 1851 he executed +part of a great diorama of Jerusalem and the Holy Land, and +produced dioramic views of the ascent of Mont Blanc, exhibited +at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, and in 1884 a panorama of +the Lakes of Killarney. He was a frequent exhibitor of sea +pictures at the Royal Academy from 1865 to 1880. In 1884 +failing eyesight put an end to his painting. He died in +comparative poverty at Hampstead on the 17th of May 1889. He +was the last of the old school of one surface painters, and famed +for the wonderful atmospheric effects he was able to produce. +Although he was skilled in all the mechanical devices of the +stage, and painted in 1881 scenery for <i>Michael Strogoff</i> at the +Adelphi, in which for the first time in England the still life of +the stage was placed in harmony with the background, he +was strongly opposed to the new school of scene-builders.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEVERLEY,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the +Holderness parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, +England, 8 m. N.N.W. of Hull by a branch of the North-Eastern +railway. Pop. (1901) 13,183. It lies in a level country +east of the line of slight elevations known as the Wolds, near +the river Hull, and has communication by canal with Hull. +The church of St John the Evangelist, commonly called Beverley +Minster, is a magnificent building, exceeding in size and +splendour some of the English cathedrals. A monastery was founded +here by John of Beverley (<i>c.</i> 640-721), a native of the East +Riding, who was bishop successively of Hexham and of York, +and was canonized in 1037. A college of secular canons followed +in the 10th century, the provostship of which subsequently +became an office of high dignity, and was held by Thomas +Becket, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. Of the existing +building, the easternmost bay of the nave, the transepts with +east and west aisles, the choir with aisles and short transepts, +and the Lady chapel, are Early English, a superb example of +the finest development of that style. The remainder of the +nave is Decorated, excepting the westernmost bay which is +Perpendicular, as is the ornate west front with its graceful +flanking towers. The north porch is also a beautiful example +of this style. The most noteworthy details within the church +are the exquisite Early English staircase which led to the chapter +house (no longer remaining), and the Percy tomb, a remarkable +example of Decorated work, commemorating Eleanor, wife of +Henry Percy (d. 1328). The church of St Mary is a cruciform +building with central tower, almost entirely of Decorated and +Perpendicular work. Though overshadowed by the presence +of the minster, it is yet a very fine example of its styles, its most +noteworthy features being the tower and the west front. Beverley +was walled, and one gate of the 15th century remains; there +are also some picturesque old houses. The industries are tanning, +iron-founding, brewing and the manufacture of chemicals; +and there is a large agricultural trade. Beverley is the seat +of a suffragan bishop in the diocese of York. The municipal +borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors, and +has an area of 2404 acres, including a large extent of common +pasture land.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Beverley (Beverlac) is said to be on the site of a British settlement. +Evidently a church had existed there before 704, since in that year +it was restored by St John of Beverley, who also founded a monastery +there and was himself buried in the church. In the devastation of +the north of England which followed the Conquest, Beverley is said +to have escaped by a miracle attributed to St John; the Norman +leader, while about to enter and pillage the church, fell from his +horse dead, and the king, thinking this a sign that the town was +under the protection of heaven, exempted it from pillage. From the +time of St John of Beverley until the dissolution of the monasteries, +the manor and town of Beverley belonged to the archbishopric of +York, and is said to have been held under a charter of liberties +supposed to have been granted by King Æthelstan in 925. This +charter, besides other privileges, is said to have granted sanctuary +in Beverley, and the “leuga” over which this privilege extended +was afterwards shown to include the whole town. Confirmations of +Æthelstan’s charter were granted by Edward the Confessor and +other succeeding kings. In the reign of Henry I., Thurstan, archbishop +of York, gave the burgesses their first charter, which is one +of the earliest granted to any town in England. In it he granted +them the same privileges as the citizens of York, among these being +a gild merchant and freedom from toll throughout the whole of +Yorkshire, with right to take it at all the markets and fairs in their +town except at the three principal fairs, the toll of which belonged +to the archbishop. In 1200 King John granted the town a new +charter, for which the burgesses had to pay 500 marks. Other +charters generally confirming the first were granted to the town by +most of the early kings. The incorporation charter granted by +Queen Elizabeth in 1573 was confirmed by Charles I. in 1629 and +Charles II. in 1663, and renewed by James II. on his accession. +Parliamentary representation by two members began in the reign +of Edward I., but lapsed, until the corporation charter of 1573, +from which date it continued until the Reform Act of 1867. In +1554-1555 Queen Mary granted the three fairs on the feasts of St +John the Confessor, the Translation of St John and the Nativity of +St John the Baptist, together with the weekly markets on Wednesday +and Saturday, which had been held by the archbishops of York by +traditional grant of Edward the Confessor to the burgesses of the +town. Cloth-weaving was one of the chief industries of Beverley; +it is mentioned and appears to have been important as early as 1315.</p> + +<p>See <i>Victoria County History—Yorkshire</i>; G. Poulson, <i>Beverlac; +Antiquities and History of Beverley and of the Provostry, &c., of +St John’s</i> (2 vols., 1829); G. Oliver, D.D., <i>History and Antiquities +of Beverley, &c</i>. (1829).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEVERLY,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> a seaboard city of Essex county, Massachusetts, +U.S.A., situated on the N. shore of Massachusetts Bay, opposite +Salem. It is 18 m. from Boston on the Boston & Maine railway. +Pop. (1890) 10,821; (1900) 13,884, of whom 2814 were foreign-born; +(1910, census) 18,650. The land area of the city is +about 15 sq. m. The surface is the typical glacial topography, +with a few low, rocky hills, less than 100 ft. in height. There are +beautiful drives through well-wooded districts, studded with +handsome summer houses. In the city are a public library, the +Beverly hospital, the New England industrial school for deaf +mutes (organized, 1876; incorporated, 1870), and the Beverly +historical society (1891), which owns a large colonial house, in +which there is a valuable historical collection. The city has an +excellent public school system. There are a number of +manufacturing establishments; in 1905 the total factory product of +the city was valued at $4,101,168, boots and shoes accounting +for more than one-half of the total. Leather and shoe machinery +also are important manufactures; and the main plant of the +United Shoe Machinery Corporation is located here. Market +gardening is a considerable industry, and large quantities of +vegetables are raised under glass for the Boston markets. Fishing +is an industry no longer of much importance. Beverly is connected +by a regular line of oil-steamers with Port Arthur, Texas, +and is the main distributing point for the Texas oil fields. The +first settlement within the limits of Beverly was made by Roger +Conant in 1626. The town was a part of Salem until 1668, when +it was incorporated as a separate township; in 1894 it was +chartered as a city. In 1788 there was established here the first +cotton mill to be successfully operated in the United States. The +manufacture of Britannia ware was begun in 1812. George +Cabot lived for many years in Beverly, which he represented in +the provincial congress (1779); Nathan Dane (1752-1835) was +also a resident; and it was the birthplace of Wilson Flagg +(1805-1884), the author of <i>Studies in the Field and Forest</i> (1857), +<i>The Woods and By-Ways of New England</i> (1872), <i>The Birds and +Seasons of New England</i> (1875), and <i>A Year with the Birds</i> (1881). +It was also the birthplace and early home of Lucy Larcom (1826-1893), +and the scene of much of her <i>Story of a New England +Girlhood</i> (Boston, 1889).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEVIS OF HAMPTON,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> the name of an English metrical +romance. Bevis is the son of Guy, count of Hampton +(Southampton) and his young wife, a daughter of the king of +Scotland. The countess asks a former suitor, Doon or Devoun, +emperor of Almaine (Germany), to send an army to murder Guy +in the forest. The plot is successful, and she marries Doon. +When threatened with future vengeance by her ten-year-old son, +she determines to make away with him also, but he is saved from +death by a faithful tutor, is sold to heathen pirates, and reaches +the court of King Hermin, whose realm is variously placed in +Egypt and Armenia (Armorica). The exploits of Bevis, his love +for the king’s daughter Josiane, his mission to King Bradmond +of Damascus with a sealed letter demanding his own death, his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span> +imprisonment, his final vengeance on his stepfather are related +in detail. After succeeding to his inheritance he is, however, +driven into exile and separated from Josiane, to whom he is +reunited only after each of them has contracted, in form only, +a second union. The story also relates the hero’s death and the +fortunes of his two sons.</p> + +<p>The oldest extant version appears to be <i>Boeve de Haumtone</i>, +an Anglo-Norman text which dates from the first half of the 13th +century. The English metrical romance, <i>Sir Beues of Hamtoun</i>, +is founded on some French original varying slightly from those +which have been preserved. The oldest MS. dates from the +beginning of the 14th century. The French <i>chanson de geste</i>, +<i>Beuve d’Hanstone</i>, was followed by numerous prose versions. +The printed editions of the story were most numerous in Italy, +where <i>Bovo d’Antona</i> was the subject of more than one poem, +and the tale was interpolated in the <i>Reali di Francia</i>, the Italian +compilation of Carolingian legend. Although the English +version that we possess is based on a French original, it seems +probable that the legend took shape on English soil in the 10th +century, and that it originated with the Danish invaders. Doon +may be identified with the emperor Otto the Great, who was +the contemporary of the English king Edgar of the story. +R. Zenker (<i>Boeve-Amlethus</i>, Berlin and Leipzig, 1904) establishes +a close parallel between Bevis and the Hamlet legend as related +by Saxo Grammaticus in the <i>Historia Danica</i>. Among the +more obvious coincidences which point to a common source are +the vengeance taken on a stepfather for a father’s death, the +letter bearing his own death-warrant which is entrusted to the +hero, and his double marriage.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The motive of the feigned +madness is, however, lacking in Bevis. The princess who is +Josiane’s rival is less ferocious than the Hermuthruda of the +Hamlet legend, but she threatens Bevis with death if he refuses +her. Both seem to be modelled on the type of Thyrdo of the +Beowulf legend. A fanciful etymology connecting Bevis (Boeve) +with Béowa (Béowulf), on the ground that both were dragon +slayers, is inadmissible.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—<i>The Romance of Sir Beues of Hamtoun</i>, edited from +six MSS. and the edition (without date) of Richard Pynson, by +E. Kölbing (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1885-1886-1894); A. Stimming, +“Der anglonormannische Boeve de Haumtone,” in H. Suchier’s +<i>Bibl. Norm</i>. vol. vii. (Halle, 1899); the Welsh version, with a translation, +is given by R. Williams, <i>Selections of the Hengwrt MSS</i>. (vol. ii., +London, 1892); the old Norse version by G. Cederschiöld, <i>Fornsogur +Sudhrlanda</i> (Lund, 1884); A. Wesselofsky, “Zum russischen +Bovo d’Antona” (in <i>Archiv für slav. Phil</i>. vol. viii., 1885); for the +early printed editions of the romance in English, French and Italian +see G. Brunet, <i>Manuel du libraire</i>, <i>s.vv.</i> Bevis, Beufues and Buovo.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> On double marriage in early romance see G. Paris, “La Légende +du mari aux deux femmes,” in <i>La Poésie du moyen âge</i> (2nd series, +Paris, 1895); and A. Nutt, “The Lai of Eliduc,” &c, in <i>Folk-Lore</i>, +vol. iii. (1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEWDLEY,<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the +Bewdley parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England; +137 m. N.W. by W. from London and 17¼ N. by W. from +Worcester by rail. Pop. (1901) 2866. The Worcester-Shrewsbury +line of the Great Western is here joined by lines east from +Birmingham and west from Tenbury. Bewdley is pleasantly +situated on the sloping right bank of the Severn, on the eastern +border of the forest of Wyre. A bridge by Telford (1797) crosses +the river. A free grammar school, founded in 1591, was re-founded +by James I. in 1606, and possesses a large library +bequeathed in 1812. The town manufactures combs and horn +goods, brass and iron wares, leather, malt, bricks and ropes. +The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. +Area, 2105 acres.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bewdley (<i>i.e.</i> Beaulieu) is probably referred to in the Domesday +survey as “another Ribbesford,” and was held by the king. The +manor, then called <i>Bellus Locus</i> or Beaulieu on account of its beautiful +situation, was afterwards granted to the Mortimers, in whose family +it continued until it was merged in the crown on the accession of +Edward IV. It is from this time that Bewdley dates its importance. +Through its situation on the Severn it was connected with the sea, +and in 1250 a bridge, the only one between it and Worcester, was +built across the river and added greatly to the commerce of the town. +From Edward IV. Bewdley received its charter in 1472, and there +appears to be no evidence that it was a borough before this time. +Other charters were granted in 1605, 1685 and 1708. By James I.’s +charter the burgesses sent one member to parliament, and continued +to do so until 1885. A fair and a market on Wednesday were granted +by Edward III. in 1373 to his grand-daughter Philippa, wife of +Edmund Mortimer, and confirmed to Richard, duke of York, by +Henry VI. Edward IV. also granted the burgesses a market on +Saturdays, and three fairs, which were confirmed to them by Henry +VII. Coal-mines were worked in Bewdley as early as 1669, and the +town was formerly noted for making caps.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEWICK, THOMAS<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1753-1828), English wood-engraver, +was born at Cherryburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, in August +1753. His father rented a small colliery at Mickleybank, and +sent his son to school at Mickley. He proved a poor scholar, +but showed, at a very early age, a remarkable talent for drawing. +He had no tuition in the art, and no models save natural objects. +At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to Mr Beilby, an +engraver in Newcastle. In his office Bewick engraved on +wood for Dr Hutton a series of diagrams illustrating a treatise +on mensuration. He seems thereafter to have devoted himself +entirely to engraving on wood, and in 1775 he received a premium +from the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures +for a woodcut of the “Huntsman and the Old Hound.” In +1784 appeared his <i>Select Fables</i>, the engravings in which, though +far surpassed by his later productions, were incomparably +superior to anything that had yet been done in that line. The +<i>Quadrupeds</i> appeared in 1790, and his great achievement, that +with which his name is inseparably associated, the <i>British Birds</i>, +was published from 1797-1804. Bewick, from his intimate +knowledge of the habits of animals acquired during his constant +excursions into the country, was thoroughly qualified to do +justice to his great task. Of his other productions the engravings +for Goldsmith’s <i>Traveller</i> and <i>Deserted Village</i>, for Parnell’s +<i>Hermit</i>, for Somerville’s <i>Chase</i>, and for the collection of <i>Fables +of Aesop and Others</i>, may be specially mentioned. Bewick +was for many years in partnership with his former master, and +in later life had numerous pupils, several of whom gained +distinction as engravers. He died on the 8th of November +1828.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His autobiography, <i>Memoirs of Thomas Bewick, by Himself</i>, +appeared in 1862.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEXHILL,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> a municipal borough and watering-place in the +Rye parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 62 m. S.E. +by S. from London, on the London, Brighton & South +Coast, and the South-Eastern & Chatham railways. Pop. +(1891) 5206; (1901) 12,213. The ancient village, with the +Norman and Early English church of St Peter, lies inland on +the slope of the low hills fringing the coast, but the watering-place +on the shore has developed very rapidly since about +1884, owing to the exertions of Earl De la Warr, who owns +most of the property. It has a marine parade, pier, golf links, +and the usual appointments of a seaside resort, while the climate +is bracing and the neighbouring country pleasant. Bexhill +was incorporated in 1902, the corporation consisting of a mayor, +6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 8013 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEXLEY, NICHOLAS VANSITTART,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1766-1851), +English politician, was the fifth son of Henry Vansittart (d. 1770), +governor of Bengal, and was born in London on the 29th of April +1766. Educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he took his degree in +1787, and was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1791. He +began his public career by writing pamphlets in defence of +the administration of William Pitt, especially on its financial +side, and in May 1796 became member of parliament for Hastings, +retaining his seat until July 1802, when he was returned for Old +Sarum. In February 1801 he was sent on a diplomatic errand +to Copenhagen, and shortly after his return was appointed joint +secretary to the treasury, a position which he retained until the +resignation of Addington’s ministry in April 1804. Owing to the +influence of his friend, Ernest, duke of Cumberland, he became +secretary for Ireland under Pitt in January 1805, resigning +his office in the following September. With Addington, now +Viscount Sidmouth, he joined the government of Fox and Grenville +as secretary to the treasury in February 1806, leaving +office with Sidmouth just before the fall of the ministry in March +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span> +1807. During these and the next few years Vansittart’s reputation +as a financier was gradually rising. In 1809 he proposed +and carried without opposition in the House of Commons +thirty-eight resolutions on financial questions, and only his loyalty +to Sidmouth prevented him from joining the cabinet of Spencer +Perceval as chancellor of the exchequer in October 1809. He +opposed an early resumption of cash payments in 1811, and became +chancellor of the exchequer when the earl of Liverpool succeeded +Perceval in May 1812. Having forsaken Old Sarum, he had +represented Helston from November 1806 to June 1812; and +after being member for East Grinstead for a few weeks, was +returned for Harwich in October 1812.</p> + +<p>When Vansittart became chancellor of the exchequer the +country was burdened with heavy taxation and an enormous +debt. Nevertheless, the continuance of the war compelled him +to increase the custom duties and other taxes, and in 1813 he +introduced a complicated scheme for dealing with the sinking +fund. In 1816, after the conclusion of peace, a large decrease in +taxation was generally desired, and there was a loud outcry +when the chancellor proposed only to reduce, not to abolish, +the property or income tax. The abolition of this tax, however, +was carried in parliament, and Vansittart was also obliged to +remit the extra tax on malt, meeting a large deficiency principally +by borrowing. He devoted considerable attention to effecting +real or supposed economies with regard to the national debt. +He carried an elaborate scheme for handing over the payment of +naval and military pensions to contractors, who would be paid +a fixed annual sum for forty-five years; but no one was found +willing to undertake this contract, although a modified plan on +the same lines was afterwards adopted. Vansittart became +very unpopular in the country, and he resigned his office in +December 1822. His system of finance was severely criticized +by Huskisson, Tierney, Brougham, Hume and Ricardo. On +his resignation Liverpool offered Vansittart the post of chancellor +of the duchy of Lancaster. Accepting this offer in February +1823, he was created Baron Bexley in March, and granted a +pension of £3000 a year. He resigned in January 1828. In +the House of Lords Bexley took very little part in public business, +although he introduced the Spitalfields weavers bill in 1823, +and voted for the removal of Roman Catholic disabilities in +1824. He took a good deal of interest in the British and Foreign +Bible Mission, the Church Missionary Society and kindred +bodies, and assisted to found King’s College, London. He died +at Foot’s Cray, Kent, on the 8th of February 1851. His wife, +whom he married in July 1806, was Isabella (d. 1810), daughter +of William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland, and as he had no issue +the title became extinct on his death. There are nine volumes +of Vansittart’s papers in the British Museum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Spencer Walpole, <i>History of England</i> (London, 1890); S.C. +Buxton, <i>Finance and Politics</i> (London, 1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEXLEY,<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> an urban district in the Dartford parliamentary +division of Kent, England, 12 m. S.E. by E. of London by +the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 12,918. +Bexley, which is mentioned in Domesday Book, has had a church +since the 9th century. The present church of St Mary is Early +English and later. With the rental of the manor of Bexley, +William Camden, the antiquary, founded the ancient history +professorship at Oxford. Hall Place, which contains a fine +Jacobean staircase and oak-panelled hall, is said to occupy the +site of the dwelling-place of the Black Prince. The course of +Watling Street may be traced over Bexley Heath, where, too, +there exist deep pits, widening into vaults below, and probably +of British origin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEY<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (a modern Turk, word, the older form being <i>beg</i>, cf. +Pers. <i>baig</i>), the administrator of a district, now generally an +honorific title throughout the Turkish empire; the granting +of this in Egypt is made by the sultan of Turkey through the +khedive. In Tunis “bey” has become the hereditary title +of the reigning sovereigns (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tunisia</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEYBAZAR,<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> the chief town of a <i>kaza</i> of the Angora vilayet +in Asiatic Turkey, situated on an affluent of the Sakaria (anc. +<i>Sangarius</i>), about 52 m. W. of Angora. It corresponds to the +anc. <i>Lagania</i>, renamed <i>Anastasiopolis</i> under the emperor +Anastasius (491-518), a bishopric by the 5th century. Its well-built +wooden houses cover the slopes of three hills at the mouth +of a gorge filled with fruit gardens and vineyards. The chief +products are rice, cotton and fruits. From Beybazar come the +fine pears sold in Constantinople as “Angora pears”; its musk-melons +are equally esteemed; its grapes are used only for a +sweetmeat called <i>jevizli-sujuk</i> (“nutty fruit sausage”). There +are few remains of antiquity apart from numerous rock-cut +chambers lining the banks of the stream. Pop. about 4000 to +5000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEYLE, MARIE HENRI<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> (1783-1842), better known by his +<i>nom de plume</i> of <span class="sc">Stendhal</span>, French author, was born at Grenoble +on the 23rd of January 1783. With his father, who was an +<i>avocat</i> in the parlement of Grenoble, he was never on good terms, +but his intractable disposition sufficiently explains his unhappy +childhood and youth. Until he was twelve years old he was +educated by a priest, who succeeded in inspiring him with a +lasting hatred of clericalism. He was then sent to the newly +established École Centrale at Grenoble, and in 1799 to Paris +with a letter of introduction to the Daru family, with which the +Beyles were connected. Pierre Daru offered him a place in the +ministry for war, and with the brothers Daru he followed +Napoleon to Italy. Most of his time in Italy was spent at Milan, +a city for which he conceived a lasting attachment. Much of his +<i>Chartreuse de Parme</i> seems to be autobiographical of this part of +his life.</p> + +<p>He was a spectator of the battle of Marengo, and afterwards +enlisted in a dragoon regiment. With rapid promotion he +became adjutant to General Michaud; but after the peace of +Amiens in 1802 he returned to study in Paris. There he met an +actress, Mélanie Guilbert, whom he followed to Marseilles. His +father cut off his supplies on hearing of this escapade, and Beyle +was reduced to serving as clerk to a grocer. Mélanie Guilbert, +however, soon abandoned him to marry a Russian, and Beyle +returned to Paris. Through the influence of Daru he obtained +a place in the commissariat, which he filled with some distinction +from 1806 to 1814. Charged with raising a levy in Brunswick +of five million francs, he extracted seven; and during the retreat +from Moscow he discharged his duties with efficiency. On the +fall of Napoleon he refused to accept a place under the new +régime, and retired to Milan, where he met Silvio Pellico, Manzoni, +Lord Byron and other men of note. At Milan he contracted a +<i>liaison</i> with a certain Angelina P., whom he had admired fruitlessly +during his earlier residence in that city. In 1814 he +published, under the pseudonym of Alexandre César Bombet, +his <i>Lettres écrites de Vienne en Aulriche sur le célèbre compositeur, +Joseph Haydn, suivies d’une vie de Mozart, et de considérations sur +Métastase et l’état présent de la musique en Italie</i>. His letters on +Haydn were borrowed from the <i>Haydini</i> (1812) of Joseph +Carpani, and the section on Mozart had no greater claim to +originality. The book was reprinted (1817) as <i>Vies de Haydn, +Mozart et Métastase</i>. His <i>Histoire de la peinture en Italic</i> (2 vols., +1817) was originally dedicated to Napoleon.</p> + +<p>His friendship with some Italian patriots brought him in 1821 +under the notice of the Austrian authorities, and he was exiled +from Milan. In Paris he felt himself a stranger, as he had never +recognized French contemporary art in literature, music or +painting. He frequented, however, many literary salons in +Paris, and found some friends in the “<i>idéologues</i>” who gathered +round Destutt de Tracy. He was the most closely allied with +Prosper Mérimée, a <i>dilettante</i> and an ironist like himself. He +published at this time his <i>Essai sur l’amour</i> (1822), of which only +seventeen copies were sold in eleven years, though it afterwards +became famous, <i>Racine et Shakespeare</i> (1823-1825), <i>Vie de +Rossini</i> (1824), <i>D’un nouveau complot centre les industriels</i> (1825), +<i>Promenades dans Rome</i> (1829), and his first novel, <i>Armance, ou +quelques scenes de Paris en 1827</i> (1827). After the Revolution +of 1830 he was appointed consul at Trieste, but the Austrian +government refused to accept him, and he was sent to Civita +Vecchia instead. <i>Le Rouge et le noir, chronique du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> +(2 vols., 1830) appeared in Paris after his departure, but attracted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span> +small notice. He had published in 1838 <i>Mémoires d’un touriste</i>, +and in 1839 <i>La Chartreuse de Parme</i> (2 vols.), which was the last +of his publications, and the first to secure any popular success, +though his earlier writings had been regarded as significant by a +limited public. It was enthusiastically reviewed by Balzac in his +<i>Revue Parisienne</i> (1840). Beyle remained at Civita Vecchia, +discharging his duties as consul perfunctorily and with frequent +intervals of absence until his death, which took place in Paris on +the 23rd of March 1842. He wrote his own epitaph,<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> describing +himself as a Milanese.</p> + +<p>His posthumous works include a fragmentary <i>Vie de Napoléon</i> +(1875); <i>Mélanges d’art et de littérature</i> (1867); <i>Chroniques +italiennes</i> (1885), including “<i>L’Abbesse de Castro</i>,” “<i>Les Cenci</i>,” +“<i>Vittoria Accoramboni</i>,” “<i>Vanina Vanini</i>,” “<i>La Duchesse de +Palliano</i>,” some of which has appeared separately; <i>Romans et +nouvelles</i> and <i>Nouvelles inédites</i> (1855); <i>Correspondance</i> (2 vols., +1855); Lamiel (ed. C. Stryienski, 1889); his <i>Journal 1801-1814</i> +(ed. Stryienski and F. de Nion, 1888), of which the section dealing +with the Russian and German campaigns is unfortunately lost; +<i>Vie de Henri Brulard</i> (1890), a disguised autobiography, chiefly +the history of his numerous love affairs; <i>Lettres intimes</i> (1892); +<i>Lucien Leuwen</i> (ed. J. de Mitty, 1894); <i>Souvenirs d’égotisme</i> +(ed. C. Stryienski, 1892), autobiography and unpublished letters.</p> + +<p>Stendhal’s reputation practically rests on the two novels <i>Le +Rouge et le noir</i> and <i>La Chartreuse de Parme</i>. In the former of +these he borrowed his plot from events which had actually +happened some years previously. Julien Sorel in the novel is +tutor in a noble family and seduces his pupil’s mother. He +eventually kills her to avenge a letter accusing him to the family +of his betrothed, Mlle de la Mole. Julien is a picture of Beyle as +he imagined himself to be. The <i>Chartreuse de Parme</i> has less +unity of purpose than <i>Le Rouge et le noir</i>. For its setting the +author drew largely on his own experiences. Fabrice’s experiences +at Waterloo are his own in the Italian campaign, and +the countess Pietranera is his Milanese Angelina. But of the two +novels it is more picturesque and has been more popular. Stendhal’s +real vogue dates from the early sixties, but his importance +is essentially literary. In spite of his egotism and the limitations +of his ideas, his acute analysis of the motives of his personages +has appealed to successive generations of writers, and a great +part of the development of the French novel must be traced to +him. Brunetière has pointed out (<i>Manual of French Lit.</i>, Eng. +trans., 1898) that Stendhal supplied the Romanticists with the +notion of the interchange of the methods and effects of poetry, +painting and music, and that in his worship of Napoleon he +agreed with their glorification of individual energy. Stendhal, +however, thoroughly disliked the Romanticists, though Sainte-Beuve +acknowledged (<i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. ix.) that his +books gave ideas. Taine (<i>Essais de critique et d’histoire</i>, 1857) +found in him a great psychologist; Zola (<i>Romanciers naturalistes</i>, +1881) actually claimed him as the father of the naturalist school; +and Paul Bourget (<i>Essais de psychologie contemporaine</i>, 1883) +cited <i>Le Rouge et le noir</i> as one of the classic novels of analysis.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The 1846 edition of <i>La Chartreuse de Parme</i> contains a prefatory +notice by R. Colomb, and a reprint of Balzac’s article. In addition +to the authorities already mentioned see the essay on Beyle (1850) +by Prosper Mérimée; A.A. Paton, <i>Henry Beyle, a Critical and +Biographical Study</i> (1874); Adolphe Paupe, <i>Histoire des œuvres de +Stendhal</i> (1903); A. Chuquet, <i>Stendhal-Beyle</i> (1902); a review by +R. Doumic (<i>Revue des deux mondes</i>, February 1902), deprecating the +excessive attention paid to Beyle’s writings; and Edouard Rod, +<i>Stendhal</i> (1892) in the “Grands écrivains français” series. See also +<i>Correspondance de Stendhal, 1800-1842</i>, with preface by M. Barrés +(Paris, 1908).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Quì giace Arrigo Beyle Milanese; visse, scrisse, amò.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEYRICH, HEINRICH ERNST VON<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> (1815-1896), German +geologist, was born at Berlin on the 31st of August 1815, and +educated at the university in that city, and afterwards at Bonn, +where he studied under Goldfuss and Nöggerath. He obtained +his degree of Ph.D. in 1837 at Berlin, and was subsequently +employed in the mineralogical museum of the university, +becoming director of the palaeontological collection in 1857, +and director of the museum in 1875. He was one of the founders +of the German Geological Society in 1848. He early recognized +the value of palaeontology in stratigraphical work; and he +made important researches in the Rhenish mountains, in the +Harz and Alpine districts. In later years he gave special +attention to the Tertiary strata, including the Brown Coal of +North Germany. In 1854 he proposed the term Oligocene for +certain Tertiary strata intermediate between the Eocene and +Miocene; and the term is now generally adopted. In 1865 +he was appointed professor of geology and palaeontology in the +Berlin University, where he was eminently successful as a +teacher; and when the Prussian Geological Survey was instituted +in 1873 he was appointed co-director with Wilhelm Hauchecorne +(1828-1900). He published <i>Beiträgezur Kenntniss der Versteinerungen +des rheinischen Übergangs-gebirges</i> (1837); <i>Über einige +böhmische Trilobiten</i> (1845); <i>Die Conchylien des norddeutschen +Tertiärgebirges</i> (1853-1857). He died on the 9th of July +1896.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEYSCHLAG, WILLIBALD<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (1823-1900), German Protestant +divine, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 5th of September +1823. He studied theology at Bonn and Berlin (1840-1844), +and in 1856 was appointed court-preacher at Karlsruhe. In +1860, he moved to Halle as professor ordinarius of practical +theology. A theologian of the mediating school, he became leader +of the <i>Mittelpartei</i>, and with Albrecht Wolters founded as its +organ the <i>Deutschevangelische Blätter</i>. As a representative of this +party, he took a prominent part in the general synods of 1875 +and 1879. His championship of the rights of the laity and his +belief in the autonomy of the church led him to advocate the +separation of church and state. He died at Halle on the 25th of +November 1900. Among his numerous works are <i>Die Christologie +des Neuen Testaments</i> (1866), <i>Der Altkatholicismus</i> (three editions, +1882-1883), <i>Leben Jesu</i> (2 vols., 1885; 3rd ed., 1893), <i>Neutestamentliche +Theologie</i> (2 vols., 1891-1892; 2nd ed., 1896), <i>Christenlehre +auf Grund des kleinen luth. Katechismus</i> (1900), and an +autobiography <i>Aus meinem Leben</i> (2 parts, 1896-1898).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See P. Schaff, <i>Living Divines</i> (1887); Lichtenberger, <i>Hist. Germ. +Theol.</i> (1889); Calwer-Zeller, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEZA<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> (<span class="sc">de Bèsze</span>), <b>THEODORE</b> (1519-1605), French theologian, +son of <i>bailli</i> Pierre de Bèsze, was born at Vezelai, Burgundy, +on the 24th of June 1519. Of good descent, his parents were +known for generous piety. He owed his education to an uncle, +Nicolas de Bèsze, counsellor of the Paris parlement, who placed +him (1529) under Melchior Wolmar at Orleans, and later at +Bourges. Wolmar, who had taught Greek to Calvin, grounded +Beza in Scripture from a Protestant standpoint; after his +return to Germany (1534) Beza studied law at Orleans (May 1535 +to August 1539), beginning practice in Paris (1539) as law licentiate. +To this period belong his exercises in Latin verse, in the +loose taste of the day, foolishly published by him as <i>Juvenilia</i> +in 1548. Though not in orders, he held two benefices. A severe +illness wrought a change; he married his mistress, Claude +Desnoz, and joined the church of Calvin at Geneva (October +1548). In November 1549 he was appointed Greek professor +at Lausanne, where he acted as Calvin’s adjutant in various +publications, including his defence of the burning of Servetus, +<i>De Haereticis a civili magistratu puniendis</i> (1554). In 1558 he +became professor in the Geneva academy, where his career was +brilliant. His conspicuous ability was shown in the abortive +Colloquy of Poissy (1561). On Calvin’s death (1564) he became +his biographer and administrative successor. As a historian, +Beza, by his chronological inexactitude, has been the source +of serious mistakes; as an administrator, he softened the rigour +of Calvin. His editions and Latin versions of the New Testament +had a marked influence on the English versions of Geneva (1557 +and 1560) and London (1611). The famous codex D. was presented +by him (1581) to Cambridge University, with a characteristically +dubious account of the history of the manuscript. +His works are very numerous, but of little moment, except those +already mentioned. He resigned his offices in 1600, and died +on the 13th of October 1605. He had taken a second wife (1588), +Catherine del Piano, a widow, but left no issue. He was not the +author of the <i>Histoire ecclésiastique</i> (1580), sometimes ascribed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span> +to him; nor, probably, of the vulgar skit published under the +name of Benedict Panavantius (1551).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Laingaeus, <i>De Vita et Moribus</i> (1585, calumnious); Antoine la Faye, +<i>De Vita et Obitu</i> (1606, eulogistic); Schlosser, <i>Leben</i> (1806); Baum, +<i>Th. Beza</i>, portrait (1843-1851); Heppe, <i>Leben</i> (1861).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEZANT<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Byzant</span> (from Byzantium, the modern Constantinople), +originally a Byzantine gold coin which had a wide circulation +throughout Europe up to about 1250. Its average value +was about nine shillings. Bezants were also issued in Flanders +and Spain. Silver bezants, in value from one to two shillings, +were in circulation in England in the 13th and 14th centuries. +In Wycliffe’s translation of the Bible he uses the word for a +“talent” (<i>e.g.</i> in Luke xv. 8). In heraldry, bezants are represented +by gold circles on the shield, and were introduced by the crusaders.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEZANTÉE,<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> in architecture, a name given to an ornamented +moulding much used in the Norman period, resembling the coins +(bezants) struck in Byzantium.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEZBORODKO, ALEKSANDER ANDREEVICH,<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince</span> (1747-1799), +grand chancellor of Russia, was born at Gluchova +on the 14th of March 1747, and educated at home and in the +clerical academy at Kiev. He entered the public service as a +clerk in the office of Count P.A. Rumyantsev, then governor-general +of Little Russia, whom he accompanied to the Turkish +War in 1768. He was present at the engagements of Larga and +Kaluga, and at the storming of Silistria. On the conclusion of the +peace of Kuchuk-Kainarji (1774) the field marshal recommended +him to Catharine II., and she appointed him in 1775 her +petition-secretary. He thus had the opportunity of impressing +the empress with his brilliant gifts, the most remarkable of +which were exquisite manners, a marvellous memory and a +clear and pregnant style. At the same time he set to work to +acquire the principal European languages, especially French, +of which he became a master. It was at this time that he wrote +his historical sketches of the Tatar wars and of Little Russia.</p> + +<p>His activity was prodigious, and Catharine called him her +factotum. In 1780 he accompanied her on her journey through +White Russia, meeting the emperor Joseph, who urged him to +study diplomacy. On his return from a delicate mission to Copenhagen, +he presented to the empress “a memorial on political +affairs” which comprised the first plan of a partition of Turkey +between Russia and Austria. This document was transmitted +almost word for word to Vienna as the Russian proposals. +He followed this up by <i>Epitomised Historical Information +concerning Moldavia</i>. For these two state papers he was rewarded +with the posts of “plenipotentiary for all negotiations” in the +foreign office and postmaster-general. From this time he was +inseparably associated with Catharine in all important diplomatic +affairs, though officially he was the subordinate of the +vice-chancellor, Count Alexander Osterman. He wrote all +the most important despatches to the Russian ministers abroad, +concluded and subscribed all treaties, and performed all the +functions of a secretary of state. He identified himself +entirely with Catharine’s political ideas, even with that of +re-establishing the Greek empire under her grandson Constantine. +The empress, as usual, richly rewarded her <i>comes</i> with pensions +and principalities. In 1786 he was promoted to the senate, +and it was through him that the empress communicated her +will to that august state-decoration. In 1787 he accompanied +Catharine on her triumphal progress through South Russia +in the capacity of minister of foreign affairs. At Kaniev he +conducted the negotiations with the Polish king, Stanislaus II., +and at Novuiya Kaidaniya he was in the empress’s carriage +when she received Joseph II.</p> + +<p>The second Turkish War (1787-92) and the war with Gustavus +III. (1788-90) heaped fresh burdens on his already heavily +laden shoulders, and he suffered from the intrigues of his +numerous jealous rivals, including the empress’s latest favourite, +A.M. Mamonov. All his efforts were directed towards the +conclusion of the two oppressive wars by an honourable peace. +The pause of Verelå with Gustavus III. (14th of August 1790) +was on the terms dictated by him. On the sudden death of +Potemkin he was despatched to Jassy to prevent the peace congress +there from breaking up, and succeeded, in the face of all +but insuperable difficulties, in concluding a treaty exceedingly +advantageous to Russia (9th of January 1792). For this service +he received the thanks of the empress, the ribbon of St Andrew +and 50,000 roubles. On his return from Jassy, however, he found +his confidential post of secretary of petitions occupied by the +empress’s last favourite, P.A. Zubov. He complained of this +“diminution of his dignity” to the empress in a private +memorial in the course of 1793. The empress reassured him +by fresh honours and distinctions on the occasion of the solemn +celebration of the peace of Jassy (2nd of September 1793), +when she publicly presented him with a golden olive-branch +encrusted with brilliants. Subsequently Catharine reconciled +him with Zubov, and he resumed the conduct of foreign affairs. +He contributed more than any other man to bring about the +downfall and the third partition of Poland, for which he was +magnificently recompensed. But diplomacy by no means exhausted +Bezborodko’s capacity for work. He had a large share +in the internal administration also. He reformed the post-office, +improved the banking system of Russia, regulated the finances, +constructed roads, and united the Uniate and Orthodox churches.</p> + +<p>On the death of Catharine, the emperor Paul entrusted +Bezborodko with the examination of the late empress’s private +papers, and shortly afterwards made him a prince of the Russian +empire, with a correspondingly splendid apanage. On the +retirement of Osterman he received the highest dignity in the +Russian empire—that of imperial chancellor. Bezborodko +was the only Russian minister who retained the favour of Paul +to the last. During the last two years of his life the control of +Russia’s diplomacy was entirely in his hands. His programme +at this period was peace with all the European powers, +revolutionary France included. But the emperor’s growing aversion +from this pacific policy induced the astute old minister to +attempt to “seek safety in moral and physical repose.” Paul, +however, refused to accept his resignation and would have sent +him abroad for the benefit of his health, had not a sudden stroke +of paralysis prevented Bezborodko from taking advantage of +his master’s kindness. He died at St Petersburg on the +6th of April 1799. In private life Bezborodko was a typical +Catharinian, corrupt, licentious, conscienceless and self-seeking. +But he was infinitely generous and affectionate, and spent his +enormous fortune liberally. His banquets were magnificent, +his collections of pictures and statues unique in Europe. He +was the best friend of his innumerable poor relatives, and the +Maecenas of all the struggling authors of his day. Sycophantic +he might have been, but he was neither ungrateful nor vindictive. +His patriotism is as indisputable as his genius.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Sbornik</i> (Collections) of the <i>Imperial Russian Historical +Society</i> (Fr. and Russ.), vols. 60-100 (St Petersburg, 1870-1904); +Nikolai Ivanovich Grigorovich, <i>The Chancellor A.A. Bezborodko +in Connexion with the Events of His Time</i> (Rus., St Petersburg, +1879-1881).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEZEL<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> (from an O. Fr. word, cf. Mod. Fr. <i>biseau</i>, <i>basile</i>, +possibly connected with Lat. <i>bis</i>, twice), a sloping edge, as of +a cutting tool, also known as basil. In jewelry, the term is used +for the oblique sides or faces of a gem; the rim which secures +the crystal of a watch in position or a jewel in its setting, and +particularly the enlarged part of a ring on which the device +is engraved (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ring</a></span>).</p> + +<p>BÉZIERS, a town of southern France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Hérault, 47 m. S.W. +of Montpellier by rail. Pop. (1906) 46,262. Béziers is situated +in a wine-growing district on a hill on the left bank of the river +Orb, which is joined at this point by the Canal du Midi. The +Allées Paul Riquet, named after the creator of the canal, occupy +the centre of Béziers and divide the old town with its +maze of narrow and irregular streets from the new quarter to +the east. They form a long and shady promenade, terminating +at one end in the Place de la République and the theatre, the +front of which is decorated with bas-reliefs by David d’Angers, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span> +and at the other in a beautiful park, the Plateau des Poétes. +The most interesting portion of the town is the extreme west +where the old ramparts overlook the Orb. Above them towers +St Nazaire, the finest of the churches of Béziers; it dates from +the 12th to the 14th centuries and is a good specimen of the +ecclesiastical fortification common in southern France. Its +chief artistic features are the rose window in the western façade, +and the stained glass and curious iron grilles of the choir-windows, +which belong to the 14th century. Adjoining the south transept +there are Gothic cloisters of the 14th century. The Orb is +crossed by four bridges, the railway bridge, an ancient bridge +of the 13th or 14th century, a modern bridge and the fine aqueduct +by which the Canal du Midi is carried over the river. About half +a mile to the south-west of the town are the locks of Fonserannes, +in which in 330 yds. the water of the canal descends 80 ft. +to reach the level of the Orb. There are remains of a Roman +arena which have been built into the houses of the rue St Jacques. +Béziers is seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance +and of commerce, communal colleges and several learned societies. +It is an agricultural market and carries on an active trade in +wine, brandy, fruit, leather and sulphur. Its industries are +chiefly connected with the wine trade (cask and cork making, &c.) +and there are important distilleries. It also has iron-works +and tanneries.</p> + +<p>The Romans established a colony at Béziers, and it was the +headquarters of the seventh legion, under the title of <i>Baeterrae +Septimanorum</i>. The present name occurs in the form <i>Besara</i> +as early as Festus Avienus (later 4th century). The town was +completely destroyed in 1209 by the forces of Simon de Montfort +in the crusade against the Albigenses, on which occasion 20,000 +persons were massacred. The walls were rebuilt in 1289; but +the town again suffered severely in the civil and religious wars of +the 16th century, and all its fortifications were destroyed in 1632.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉZIQUE<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> (probably from Span. <i>besico</i>, little kiss, in allusion to +the meeting of the queen and knave, an important feature in +the game), a game at cards played with two similar packs +from which the twos, threes, fours, fives and sixes have been +rejected, shuffled together and used as one. It is modelled on +a group of card games which possess many features in common; +the oldest of these is <i>mariage</i>, then follow <i>brusquembille, +l’homme de brou, briscan</i> or <i>brisque</i>, and <i>cinq-cents</i>. +Bézique (also called <i>besi</i> and <i>besigue</i>) is, in fact, +<i>brisque</i> played with a double pack, and with certain modifications +rendered necessary by the introduction of additional cards. The cards +rank as follows:—Ace, ten, king, queen, knave, nine, eight, seven.</p> + +<p>The usual game is for two players. The players cut for deal, +and the higher bézique card deals. The objects of the play are: +(1) to promote in the hand various combinations of cards, which, +when declared, entitle the holder to certain scores; +(2) to win aces and tens, known as “brisques”; +(3) to win the so-called last trick. +The dealer deals eight cards to each, first three, then two, and again +three. The top card of those remaining (called the “stock”) is turned +up for trumps. As sometimes played, the first marriage, or the first +sequence, decides the trump suit; there is then no score for the seven +of trumps (see below). The stock is placed face downwards between the +players and slightly spread. The non-dealer leads any card, and the +dealer plays to it, but need not follow suit, nor win the trick. If he +wins the trick by playing a higher card of the same suit led, or a +trump, the lead falls to him. In case of ties the leader wins. Whoever +wins the trick leads to the next; but before playing again each +player takes a card from the stock and adds it to his hand, the +winner of the trick taking the top card. This alternate playing +and drawing a card continues until the stock (including the trump +card or card exchanged for it, which is taken up last) is exhausted. +The tricks remain face upwards on the table, but must not be +searched during the play of the hand.</p> + +<p>The scores are shown as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="center pt1"><i>Table of Bézique Scores.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Seven of trumps</i>, turned up, dealer marks</td> <td class="tcr">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Seven of trumps</i>, declared (see below) or exchanged, player marks</td> <td class="tcr">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Marriage</i> (king and queen of any suit) declared</td> <td class="tcr">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Royal marriage</i> (king and queen of trumps) declared</td> <td class="tcr">40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Bézique</i> (queen of spades and knave of diamonds) declared</td> <td class="tcr">40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Double bézique</i> (all the four bézique cards) declared</td> <td class="tcr">500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Four aces</i> (any four, whether duplicates or not) declared</td> <td class="tcr">100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Four kings</i> (any four) declared</td> <td class="tcr">80</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Four queens</i> (any four) declared</td> <td class="tcr">60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Four knaves</i> (any four) declared</td> <td class="tcr">40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Sequence</i> (ace, ten, king, queen, knave of trumps) declared</td> <td class="tcr">250</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Aces and tens</i>, in tricks, the winner for each one marks</td> <td class="tcr">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Last trick</i> of all (as sometimes <i>played</i>, the last + trick before the stock<br />   is exhausted) the winner marks</td> <td class="tcrb">10</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>A “declaration” can only be made by the winner of a trick +immediately after he has won it, and before he draws from the +stock. It is effected by placing the declared cards (one of which +at least must not have been declared before) face upwards +on the table, where they are left, unless they are played, as they +may be. A player is not bound to declare. A card led or played +cannot be declared. More than one declaration may be made +at a time, provided no card of one combination forms part of +another that is declared with it. Thus four knaves and a marriage +may be declared at the same time; but a player cannot +declare king and queen of spades and knave of diamonds together +to score marriage and bézique. He must first declare one +combination, say bézique; and when he wins another trick he +can score marriage by declaring the king. A declaration cannot +be made of cards that have already all been declared. Thus, +if four knaves (one being a bézique knave) and four queens +(one being a bézique queen) have been declared, the knave +and queen already declared cannot be declared again as bézique. +To score all the combinations with these cards, after the knaves +are declared and another trick won, bézique must next be made, +after which, on winning another trick, the three queens can be +added and four queens scored. Lastly, a card once declared +can only be used again in declaring in combinations of a different +class. For example: the bézique queen can be declared in +bézique, marriage and four queens; but having once been declared +in single bézique, she cannot form part of another single +bézique. Two declarations may, in a sense, be made to a trick, +but only one can be scored at the time. Thus with four kings +declared, including the king of spades, bézique can be declared +and scored, but the spade marriage cannot be scored till the +holder wins another trick. The correct formula is “Forty, and +20 to score.” The seven of trumps may be either declared or +exchanged for the turn-up after winning a trick, and before +drawing. When exchanged, the turn-up is taken into the +player’s hand, and the seven put in its place. The second +seven can, of course, be declared. A seven when declared +is not left on the table, but is simply shown.</p> + +<p>The winner of the last trick can declare anything hitherto +undeclared in his hand. After this all declarations cease. The +winner of the last trick takes the last card of the stock, and the +loser the turn-up card (or seven exchanged for it). All cards on +the table, that have been declared and not played, are taken up +by their owners. The last eight tricks are then played, but the +second player must follow suit if able, and must win the trick if +able. Finally, each player counts his tricks for the aces and tens +they may contain, unless (as is often done) they are scored at the +time. If a player revokes in the last eight tricks, or does not +win the card led, if able, the last eight tricks belong to his +adversary. The deal then passes on alternately until the +game (1000) is won. If the loser does not make 500, his opponent +counts a double game, or double points, according as they +have agreed. The score is best kept by means of a special +bézique-marker.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Three- and Four-Handed Bézique.</i>—When three play, three packs +are used together. All play against each other. The player on the left +of the dealer is first dealt to and has the first lead. The rotation +of dealing goes to the left. If double bézique has been scored, and +one pair has been played, a second double bézique may be made with +the third pair and the pair on the table. Triple bézique scores 1500. +All the cards of the triple bézique must be on the table at the same +time and unplayed to a trick. All may be declared together, or a +double bézique may be added to a single one, or a third bézique may +be added to a double bézique already declared. The game is 2000 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span> +up. Sometimes the three players cut, the one who cuts the highest +card plays against the other two in consultation, and continues to +do so till the allies win a game, when the two cut as before to see +who shall be the single player. Only two packs are then used.</p> + +<p>When four play four packs are used. The players may then score +independently or may play as partners. A second double bézique +or triple bézique may be scored as before; to form them the béziques +may be declared from the hand of either partner. A player may +declare when he or his partner takes a trick. In playing the last +eight tricks, the winner of the last trick and the adversary to his +left play their cards against each other, and then the other two +similarly play theirs. Four people may also play in pairs by consultation, +only two packs being then required.</p> + +<p><i>Polish Bézique</i> (also called “Open Bézique” and “Fildniski”) +differs from ordinary bézique in the following particulars. The game +is not less than 2000 up. Whenever a scoring card is played, the +winner of the trick places it face upwards in front of him (the same +with both cards if two scoring cards are played to a trick), forming +rows of aces, kings, queens, knaves and trump tens (called <i>open</i> +cards). Cards of the same denomination are placed overlapping +one another lengthwise from the player towards his adversary to +economise space. When a scoring card is placed among the open +cards, all the sevens, eights, nines, and plain suit tens in the +tricks are turned down and put on one side. Open cards cannot be +played a second time, and can only be used in declaring. Whether so used +or not they remain face upwards on the table until the end of the +hand, including the last eight tricks. A player can declare after +winning a trick and before drawing again, when the trick won contains +a card or cards, which added to his open cards complete any +combination that scores. Every declaration must include a card +played to the trick last won. Aces and tens must be scored as soon +as won, and not at the end of the hand. The seven of trumps can be +exchanged by the winner of the trick containing it; and if the turn-up +card is one that can be used in declaring, it becomes an open card +when exchanged. The seven of trumps when not exchanged is scored +for by the player winning the trick containing it.</p> + +<p>Compound declarations are allowed, <i>i.e</i>. cards added to the open +cards can at once be used, without waiting to win another trick, in +as many combinations of different classes as they will form with the +winner’s open cards. For example: A has three open kings, and +he wins a trick containing a king. Before drawing again he places +the fourth king with the other three, and scores 80 for kings. This +is a simple declaration. But suppose the card led was the queen +of trumps, and A wins it with the king, and he has the following +open cards—three kings, three queens, and ace, ten, knave of trumps. +He at once declares royal marriage (40); four kings (80); four +queens (60); and sequence (250); and scores in all, 430. Again: +ace of spades is turned up, and ace of hearts is led. The second +player has two open aces, and wins the ace of hearts with the seven of +trumps and exchanges. He scores for the exchange, 10; for the +ace of hearts, 10; for the ace of spades, 10; and adds the aces to +his open cards, and scores 100 for aces; in all, 130. If a declaration +or part of a compound declaration is omitted, and the winner of the +trick draws again, he cannot amend his score.</p> + +<p>The ordinary rule holds that a second declaration cannot be made +of a card already declared in the same class. Thus: a queen once +married, cannot be married again; a fifth king added to four already +declared does not entitle to another score for kings. The fundamental +point to be borne in mind is, that no declaration can be +effected by means of cards held in the hand. Thus: A having +three open queens and a queen in hand cannot add it to his +open cards. He must win another trick containing a queen, when +he can declare queens. Declarations continue during the play of +the last eight tricks just the same as during the play of the other +cards.</p> + +<p><i>Rubicon Bézique.</i>—Four packs are used. Nine cards are dealt by +three to each player. The rules of Polish bézique hold good in regard +to dealing, leading, playing to lead, drawing and declaring; but a +player who receives a hand containing no picture-card (king, queen, +or knave) scores 50 for <i>carte blanche</i>, which he shows. If he +does not draw a picture-card, he can again score for <i>carte blanche</i>. The +trump suit is decided by the first sequence or marriage declared. +As four packs are used, triple and quadruple bézique may be made. +Triple bézique counts 1500, quadruple 4500. Tricks are left face +upwards till a <i>brisque</i> (ace or ten) is played, when the winner takes +all the played cards and puts them in a heap; their only value is the +value of the <i>brisques</i>, which are only counted when the scores are very +close; then they are used to decide the game. They may be counted +during the play, provided there are not more than twelve cards in +the stock. Declarations can only be made after winning a trick and +before drawing. In addition to the ordinary bézique declarations, +sequence, counting 150, can be made in plain suits. Declared cards, +except <i>carte blanche</i>, remain on the table. If the holder of <i>carte +blanche</i> hold four aces and wins the first trick, he can declare his +aces. With the exceptions already made, the scores for declarations +are the same as at ordinary bézique. Declaration is not compulsory. +Cards led or played cannot be declared. There are three classes of +declarations, their order being (1) marriage and sequence, (2) bézique, +(3) fours. A card once declared can be used for a second declaration, +but only in an equal or superior class. If a card of a declared combination +be played to a trick, another card of the same rank may +be used to form a second similar combination; <i>e.g.</i> if aces be declared +and one of them be played by the playing of a fifth ace, aces can be +declared again. If a player has a chance of a double declaration he +can declare both, but can only score one at the time. As in other +variations of bézique he announces, say, “forty, and twenty to +score.” He should repeat, “Twenty to score,” after every trick, +until he can legally score it, but if he plays a card of the combination +he cannot score the points. To the last nine tricks, after the stock +is exhausted, the second player must follow suit and win the trick by +trumping or over-playing, if he can. The winner of the odd trick +scores 50. The game consists of one deal. In reckoning the score all +fractions of 100 are neglected; the winner scores 500 for game in +addition to the difference between his own points and his opponent’s. +The loser is “rubiconed” if he does not score 1000 points, in which +case the winner adds the loser’s points to his own, takes 300 for +<i>brisques</i> and 1000 for game, but the loser may claim his <i>brisques</i> to +save a rubicon, though they are not reckoned among his points. +If a rubiconed player has scored less than 100 the opponent counts +the score as 100.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEZWADA,<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Kistna district of +Madras, on the left bank of the river Kistna, at the head of its +delta. Pop. (1901) 24,224. Here are the headquarters of the +Kistna canal system, which irrigates more than 500,000 acres, +and also provides navigation throughout the delta. The anicut +or dam at Bezwada, begun in 1852, consists of a mass of rubble, +fronted with masonry, 1240 yds. long. Here also is the central +junction of the East Coast railway from Madras to Calcutta, +267 m. from Madras, where one branch line comes down from +the Warangal coalfield in the Nizam’s Dominions, and another +from Bellary on the Southern Mahratta line. Ancient cuttings +on the hills west of Bezwada have been held by some to mark +the site of a Buddhist monastery; by others they are considered +to have been quarries. At Undavalle to the south are some +noted cave-shrines.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHAGALPUR,<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> a city of British India, in the Behar province +of Bengal, which gives its name to a district and to a division; +situated on the right bank of the Ganges, 265 m. from Calcutta. +It is a station on the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901) 75,760, +showing an increase of 9% in the decade. The chief educational +institution is the Tejnarayan Jubilee college (1887), supported +almost entirely by fees. Adjacent to the town are the two +Augustus Cleveland monuments, one erected by government, +and the other by the Hindus, to the memory of the civilian, who, +as collector of Bhagalpur at the end of the 18th century, “by +conciliation, confidence and benevolence, attempted and +accomplished the entire subjection of the lawless and savage +inhabitants of the Jungleterry of Rajmahal.”</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Bhagalpur</span> stretches across both banks of +the Ganges. It has an area of 4226 sq. m. In 1901 the +population was 2,088,953, showing an increase of 3% in the +decade. Bhagalpur is a long and narrow district, divided into +two unequal parts by the river Ganges. In the southern portion +of the district the scenery in parts of the hill-ranges and the +highlands which connect them is very beautiful. The hills are +of primary formation, with fine masses of contorted gneiss. The +ground is broken up into picturesque gorges and deep ravines, +and the whole is covered with fine forest trees and a rich undergrowth. +Within this portion also lie the lowlands of Bhagalpur, +fertile, well planted, well watered, and highly cultivated. The +country north of the Ganges is level, but beautifully diversified +with trees and verdure. Three fine rivers flow through the +district-the Ganges, Kusi and Ghagri. The Ganges runs a +course of 60 m. through Bhagalpur, is navigable all the year +round, and has an average width of 3 m. The Kusi rises +in the Himalayas and falls into the Ganges near Colgong within +Bhagalpur. It is a fine stream, navigable up to the foot of the +hills, and receives the Ghagri 8 m. above its debouchure.</p> + +<p>In the early days of British administration the hill people, +the Nats and Santals, gave much trouble. They were the +original inhabitants of the country whom the Aryan conquerors +had driven back into the barren hills and unhealthy forests. +This they avenged from generation to generation by plundering +and ravaging the plains. The efforts to subdue or restrain these +marauders proved fruitless, till Augustus Cleveland won them by +mild measures, and successfully made over the protection of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span> +district to the very hill people who a few years before had been +its scourge. Rice, wheat, barley, oats, Indian corn, various kinds +of millet, pulses, oil-seeds, tobacco, cotton, indigo, opium, flax +and hemp and sugar-cane, are the principal agricultural products +of Bhagalpur district. The jungles afford good pasturage in the +hot weather, and abound in lac, silk cocoons, catechu, resin and +the <i>mahuá</i> fruit, which is both used as fruit and for the manufacture +of spirits. Lead ores (chiefly argentiferous galena) and +building stone are found, and iron ore is distributed over the +hilly country. Attempts made to work the galena in 1878-79 +and 1900 were abandoned, and the iron ore is little worked. +Gold is washed from the river sand in small particles.</p> + +<p>The climate of Bhagalpur partakes of the character both of the +deltaic districts of Bengal and of the districts of Behar, between +which it is situated. The hot season sets in about the end of +March, and continues till the beginning of June, the temperature +at this time rising as high as 110° Fahr. The rains usually begin at +the end of June and last till the middle of September; average +annual rainfall, 55 in. The cold season commences at the beginning +of November and lasts till March. During December and +January the temperature falls as low as 41° Fahr. The average +annual temperature is 78°. Bhagalpur formed a part of the ancient +Sanskrit kingdom of Anga. In later times it was included in the +powerful Hindu kingdom of Magadha or Behar, and in the 7th +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> it was an independent state, with the city of Champa +for its capital. It afterwards formed a part of the Mahommedan +kingdom of Gaur, and was subsequently subjugated by Akbar, +who declared it to be a part of the Delhi empire. Bhagalpur +passed to the East India Company by the grant of the emperor +Shah Alam in 1765.</p> + +<p>There are indigo factories, and other industries include the +weaving of tussur silk and the making of coarse glass. A large +trade is carried on by rail and river with Lower Bengal. The +tract south of the Ganges is traversed by the loop-line of the +East Indian railway, and there is also a railway across the +northern tract.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Division of Bhagalpur</span> stretches across the Ganges +from the Nepal frontier to the hills of Chota Nagpur. It comprises +the five districts of Monghyr, Bhagalpur, Purnea, Darjeeling, +and the Santal Parganas. The total area is 19,776 +sq. m.; and in 1901 the population was 8,091,405.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHAMO,<a name="ar243" id="ar243"></a></span> a town and district of Burma. The town was in +ancient times the capital of the Shan state of Manmaw, later the +seat of a Burmese governor. It is now the headquarters of a +district in the Mandalay division of Upper Burma (Chinese +frontier). It is situated about 300 m. up the river from Mandalay. +It is the highest station on the Irrawaddy held by British troops, +and the nearest point on the river to the Chinese frontier. In +1901 it contained 10,734 inhabitants, of whom a considerable +number were Chinamen, natives of India and Shan-Chinese. +It stretches for a distance of nearly 4 m. along the Irrawaddy +bank in a series of small villages, transformed into quarters of the +town, but the town proper is confined mainly to the one high +ridge of land running at right angles to the river. The surface +of the ground is much cut up by ravines which fill and dry up +according to the rise and fall of the river. When the Irrawaddy +is at its height the lower portion of the town is flooded, and the +country all round is a sheet of water, but usually for no very +long time. Here or hereabouts has long been the terminus of +a great deal of the land commerce from China. For years +after its annexation by Great Britain in 1885 the trade routes +were unsafe owing to attacks from Kachins. These have now +ceased, and the roads, which were mere bridle-tracks, have +been greatly improved. The two chief are the so-called Santa +and Ponlaing route, through Manyün (Manwaing) and Nantien +to Momein, and the southern or Sawadi route by way of Namhkam. +Cart roads are now being constructed on both routes, and +that south of the Taiping river could easily be continued through +Manyün to Momein if the Chinese should be induced to co-operate. +There is a fairly large military garrison in Bhamo distributed +between two forts to the north and east of the town. There are +in general stationed here a native regiment, two sections of +a battery and the wing of a European regiment. Besides the +barracks there are a circuit house, dâk bungalow, courthouse, +and post and telegraph offices. There is a branch railway from +Myitkyina to Katha, whence there is daily communication by +river to Bhamo.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Bhamo</span> lies wholly in the basin of the Irrawaddy, +which, as well as its tributaries, runs through the heart of +it. On the east of the river is the Shan plateau, running almost +due north and south. West of the Irrawaddy there is a regular +series of ranges, enclosing the basins of the Kaukkwe, Mosit, +Indaw and other streams, down which much timber is floated. +Beyond the Kaukkwe there is a ridge of hills, which starts at +Leka, near Mogaung, and diverges to the south, the eastern +ridge dividing the Kaukkwe from the Mosit, and the western +forming the eastern watershed of the Nam Yin and running +south into Katha. It is an offshoot from the latter of these +ridges that forms the third defile of the Irrawaddy between +Bhamo and Sinbo. The district covers an area of 4146 sq. m., and +the population in 1901 was 79,515. It is mainly composed of +Shan-Burmese and Kachins. The Shan-Burmese inhabit the +valleys and alluvial plains on each side of the river. The Kachins, +who probably came from the sub-regions of the Himalayas, +occupy the hills throughout the district. There are also settlements +of Shans, Shan-Chinese, Chinese and Assamese. There are +extensive fisheries in the Shwegu and Mo-hnyin circles, and in the +Indaw, a chain of lakes just behind the Mosit, opposite Shwegu. +The district abounds in rich teak forests, and there are reserves +representing 60,000 acres of teak plantation. The whole of the +country along the banks of the Irrawaddy, the Mole, Taiping +and Kaukkwe, is generally in a water-logged condition during +the rains. The climate in the district is therefore decidedly +malarious, especially at the beginning and end of the rains. From +November to March there is very bracing cold weather. The +highest temperatures range a few degrees over 100° F. up to 106°, +and the lowest a few degrees under 40°. The average maximum +for the year is about 87°, the average minimum about 62°. The +rainfall averages 72 in. a year.</p> +<div class="author">(J. G. Sc.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHANDARA,<a name="ar244" id="ar244"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the +Nagpur division of the Central Provinces. The town (pop. in +1901, 14,023) is situated on the left bank of the river Wainganga, +7 m. from a station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway. It has +considerable manufactures of cotton cloth and brass-ware, and +a first-grade middle school, with a library.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Bhandara</span> has an area of 3965 sq. m. In +1901 the population was 663,062, showing a decrease of 11% +since 1891 compared with an increase of 8% in the preceding +decade. The district is bounded on the N., N.E. and E. by +lofty hills, inhabited by Gonds and other aboriginal tribes, +while the W. and N.W. are comparatively open. Small branches +of the Satpura range make their way into the interior of the +district. The Ambagarh or Sendurjhari hills, which skirt the +south of the Chandpur pargana, have an average height of +between 300 and 400 ft. above the level of the plain. The +other elevated tracts are the Balahi hills, the Kanheri hills and +the Nawegaon hills. The Wainganga is the principal river in +the district, and the only stream that does not dry up in the hot +weather,—its affluents within the district being the Bawanthari, +Bagh, Kanhan and Chulban. There are 3648 small lakes and +tanks in Bhandara district, whence it is called the “lake region +of Nagpur”; they afford ample means of irrigation. More +than one-third of the district lies under jungle, which yields +gum, medicinal fruit and nuts, edible fruits, lac, honey and the +blossoms of the <i>mahuá</i> tree (<i>Bassia latifolia</i>), which are eaten +by the poorer classes, and used for the manufacture of a kind +of spirit. Tigers, panthers, deer, wild hogs and other wild +animals abound in the forests, and during the rainy season +many deaths occur from snake-bites. Iron is the chief mineral +product. Gold is also found in the bed of the Sone river. +Laterite, shale and sandstone occur all over the district. Native +cloth, brass wares, pot-stone wares, cartwheels, straw and reed +baskets, and a small quantity of silk, form the only manufactures. +The principal crops are rice, wheat, millet, other food-grains, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span> +pulse, linseed, and a little sugar-cane. The district is traversed +by the main road from Nagpur to the east, and also by the +Bengal-Nagpur railway. It suffered in the famine of 1896-1897, +and yet more severely in 1900.</p> + +<p>Bhandara district contains 25 semi-independent chiefships. +These little states are exempted from the revenue system, +and only pay a light tribute. Their territory, however, is +included within the returns of area and population above given. +The climate of Bhandara is unhealthy,—the prevailing diseases +being fever, small-pox and cholera. Nothing is known of the +early history of the district. Tradition says that at a remote +period a tribe of men, called the Gaulis or Gaulars, overran and +conquered it. At the end of the 17th century it belonged to +the Gond raja of Deogarh. In 1743 it was conquered by the +Mahrattas, who governed it till 1853, when it lapsed to the +British government, the raja of Nagpur having died without +an heir.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHANG<a name="ar245" id="ar245"></a></span>, an East Indian name for the hemp plant, <i>Cannabis +sativa</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hemp</a></span>), but applied specially to the leaves dried and +prepared for use as a narcotic drug. In India the products of +the plant for use as a narcotic and intoxicant are recognized +under the three names and forms of Bhang, Gunja or Ganja, +and Churrus or Charas. Bhang consists of the larger leaves +and capsules of the plant on which an efflorescence of resinous +matter has occurred. The leaves are in broken and partly +agglutinated pieces, having a dark-green colour and a heavy +but not unpleasant smell. Bhang is used in India for smoking, +with or without tobacco; it is prepared in the form of a cake +or manjan, and it is made into an intoxicating beverage by +infusing in cold water and straining. Gunja is the flowering +or fruit-bearing tops of the female plants. It is gathered in +stalks of several inches in length, the tops of which form a matted +mass, from the agglutination of flowers, seeds and leaflets by +the abundant resinous exudation which coats them. Churrus +is the crude resinous substance separated from the plant. The +use of preparations of hemp among the Mussulman and Hindu +population of India is very general; and the habit also obtains +among the population of central Asia, the Arabs and Egyptians, +extending even to the negroes of the valley of the Zambezi and +the Hottentots of South Africa. The habit appears to date from +very remote times, for Herodotus says of the Scythians, that +they creep inside huts and throw hemp seeds on hot stones.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHARAHAT<a name="ar246" id="ar246"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Barhut</span>, a village in the small state of +Nagod in India, lying about 24° 15′ N. by 80° 45′ E., about +120 m. S.W. of Allahabad. General A. Cunningham discovered +there in 1873 the remains of a <i>stūpa</i> (<i>i.e.</i> a burial mound over +the ashes of some distinguished person) which were excavated, +in 1874, by his assistant, J.D. Beglar. The results showed +that it must have been one of the most imposing and handsome +in India; and it is especially important now from the large +number of inscriptions found upon it. The ancient name of +the place has not been yet traced, but it must have been a +considerable city and its site lay on the high road between the +ancient capitals of Ujjenī and Kosāmbī. The <i>stūpa</i> was circular, +70 ft. in diameter and 42 ft. high. It was surrounded by a +stone railing 100 ft. in diameter, so that between railing and +<i>stūpa</i> there was an open circle round which visitors could walk; +and the whole stood towards the east side of a paved quadrangle +about 300 ft. by 320 ft., surrounded by a stone wall. On the +top of the <i>stūpa</i> was an ornament shaped like the letter T, and +as the base of the <i>stūpa</i> was above the quadrangle, the total +height of the monument was between 50 and 60 ft. But its +main interest, to us, lies in the railing. This consisted of eighty +square pillars, 7 ft. 1 in. in height, connected by cross-bars about +1 ft. broad. Both pillars and cross-bars were elaborately +carved in bas-relief, and most of them bore inscriptions giving +either the name of the donor, or the subject of the bas-relief, +or both. There were four entrances through the railing, facing +the cardinal points, and each one protected by the railing coming +out at right angles, and then turning back across it in the shape +of the letter <b>L</b>. This gave the whole ground plan of the monument, +and no doubt designedly so, the shape of a gigantic <i>swastika</i> +(<i>i.e.</i> a symbol of good fortune). By the forms of the letters of the +inscriptions, and by the architectural details, the age of the +monument has been approximately fixed in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +The bas-reliefs give us invaluable evidence of the literature, and +also of the clothing, buildings and other details of the social +conditions of the peoples of Buddhist India at that period. +The subjects are taken from the Buddhist sacred books, more +especially from the accounts given in them of the life of the +Buddha in his last or in his previous births. Unfortunately, +only about half the pillars, and about one-third of the cross-bars +have been recovered. When the <i>stūpa</i> was discovered +the villagers had already carried off the greater part of the +monument to build their cottages with the stones and bricks of +it. The process has gone on till now nothing is left except +what General Cunningham found and rescued and carried off to +Calcutta. Even the mere money value of the lost pieces must +be immense, and among them is the central relic box, which +would have told us in whose honour the monument was +put up.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Cunningham, <i>The Stūpa of Bharhut</i> (London, 1879); T.W. +Rhys Davids, <i>Buddhist India</i> (London, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. W. R. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHARAL<a name="ar247" id="ar247"></a></span>, the Tatar name for the “blue sheep” <i>Ovis</i> (Pseudois) +<i>nahura</i>, of Ladak and Tibet. The general colour is blue-grey +with black “points” and white markings and belly; and +the horns of the rams are olive-brown and nearly smooth, with +a characteristic backward curvature. In the absence of face-glands, +as well as in certain other features, the bharal serves to +connect more typical sheep (<i>q.v.</i>) with goats.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHARATPUR<a name="ar248" id="ar248"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Bhurtpore</span>, a native state of India, +in the Rajputana agency. Its area covers 1982 sq. m. The +country is generally level, about 700 ft. above the sea. Small +detached hills, rising to 200 ft. in height, occur, especially in the +northern part. These hills contain good building stone for ornamental +architecture, and in some of them iron ore is abundant. +The Banganga is the only river which flows through the state. +It takes its rise at Manoharpur in the territory of Jaipur, and +flowing eastward passes through the heart of the Bharatpur state, +and joins the Jamna below Agra.</p> + +<p>Bharatpur rose into importance under Suraj Mall, who bore a +conspicuous part in the destruction of the Delhi empire. Having +built the forts of Dig and Kumbher in 1730, he received in 1756 +the title of raja, and subsequently joined the great Mahratta +army with 30,000 troops. But the misconduct of the Mahratta +leader induced him to abandon the confederacy, just in time to +escape the murderous defeat at Panipat. Suraj Mall raised the +Jat power to its highest point; and Colonel Dow, in 1770, estimated +the raja’s revenue (perhaps extravagantly) at £2,000,000 +and his military force at 60,000 or 70,000 men. In 1803 the +East India Company concluded a treaty, offensive and defensive, +with Bharatpur. In 1804, however, the raja assisted the +Mahrattas against the British. The English under Lord Lake +captured the fort of Dig and besieged Bharatpur, but were +compelled to raise the siege after four attempts at storming. +A treaty, concluded on the 17th of April 1805, guaranteed the +raja’s territory; but he became bound to pay £200,000 as +indemnity to the East India Company. A dispute as to the right +of the succession again led to a war in 1825, and Lord Combermere +captured Bharatpur with a besieging force of 20,000 men, after +a desperate resistance, on the 18th of January 1826. The +fortifications were dismantled, the hostile chief being deported +to Benares, and an infant son of the former raja installed under +a treaty favourable to the company. In 1853 the Bharatpur +ruler died, leaving a minor heir. The state came under British +management, and the administration was improved, the revenue +increased, a system of irrigation developed, new tanks and wells +constructed and an excellent system of roads and public buildings +organized. Owing to the hot winds blowing from Rajputana, +the climate of Bharatpur is extremely sultry till the setting in of +the periodical rains.</p> + +<p>In 1901 the population was 626,665, a decrease of 2%. The +estimated revenue is £180,000. The maharaja Ram Singh, who +succeeded his father in 1893, was deprived of power of government +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span> +in 1895 on the ground of intemperate conduct; and in 1900 +was finally deposed for the murder of one of his personal attendants. +He was succeeded by his infant son Kishen Singh. +During his minority the administration was undertaken by a +native minister, together with a state council, under the general +superintendence of the political agent. Imperial service cavalry +are maintained. The state is traversed for about 40 m. by +the Rajputana railway.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">City of Bharatpur</span> is 34 m. W. of Agra by rail. The +population in 1901 was 43,601, showing a decrease of over 23,000 +in the decade. The immense mud ramparts still stand. It has +a handsome palace, a new hospital and a high school. There +are special manufactures of <i>chauris</i>, or flappers, with handles +of sandalwood, ivory or silver, and tails also made of strips of +ivory or sandalwood as fine as horse-hair.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHATGÁON<a name="ar249" id="ar249"></a></span>, a town of Nepal, 8 m. from Khatmandu. It +is a celebrated place of Hindu superstition, the favourite residence +of the Brahmans of Nepal, and contains more families of that +order than either Khatmandu or Patan. It has a population +of about 30,000, and its palace and buildings generally are of +a more striking appearance than in other Nepalese towns. The +town is said to possess many Sanskrit libraries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHATTIANA<a name="ar250" id="ar250"></a></span>, a tract of country in the Punjab province of +India, covering the Ghaggar valley from Fatehabad in the +district of Hissar to Bhatnair in Bikanir. It derives its name +from the Bhattis, a wild Rajput clan, who held the country +lying between Hariana, Bikanir and Bahawalpur. It skirts +the borders of the great sandy desert, and only contains a small +and scattered population. This tract was ravaged by Timur +in his invasion of India; and in 1795 paid a nominal allegiance +to George Thomas, the adventurer of Hariana. After the +victories of Lord Lake in 1803 it passed with the rest of the +Delhi territory under British rule, but was not settled until 1810. +A district of Bhattiana was formed in 1837, but in 1858 it was +merged in the Sirsa district, which was divided up in 1884. +The Bhattis number some 350,000, and are a fine tall race, +making capital soldiers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHAU DAJI<a name="ar251" id="ar251"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Ramkrishna Vithal</span>) (1822-1874), Hindu +physician of Bombay, Sanskrit scholar and antiquary, was born +in 1822 at the village of Manjare, in the native state of Sawantwari, +of humble parents dealing in clay dolls. Dr Bhau’s career +is a striking instance of great results arising from small accidents. +An Englishman noticing his cleverness at chess induced his +father to give the boy an English education. Accordingly Bhau +was brought to Bombay and was educated at the Elphinstone +Institution. He relieved his father of the cost of his education +by winning many prizes and scholarships, and on his father’s +death two years later he cheerfully undertook the burden of +supporting his mother and a brother (Narayen), who also in +after-life became a distinguished physician and surgeon. About +this time he gained a prize for an essay on infanticide, and was +appointed a teacher in the Elphinstone Institution. He began +to devote his time to the study of Indian antiquities, deciphering +inscriptions and ascertaining the dates and history of ancient +Sanskrit authors. He then studied at the Grant Medical College, +and was one of the first batch who graduated there in 1850. +In 1851 he set up as a medical practitioner in Bombay, where +his success was so great that he soon made a fortune. He studied +the Sanskrit literature of medicine, and also tested the value +of drugs to which the ancient Hindus ascribed marvellous +powers, among other pathological subjects of historical interest +investigating that of leprosy. Being an ardent promoter of +education, he was appointed a member of the board of education, +and was one of the original fellows of the university of Bombay. +As the first native president of the students’ literary and scientific +society, and the champion of the cause of female education, +a girls’ school was founded in his name, for which an endowment +was provided by his friends and admirers. In the political +progress of India he took a great and active interest, and the +Bombay Association and the Bombay branch of the East Indian +Association owe their existence to his ability and exertions. +He was twice chosen sheriff of Bombay, in 1869 and 1871. +Various scientific societies in England, France, Germany and +America conferred on him their membership. He contributed +numerous papers to the journal of the Bombay branch of the +Royal Asiatic Society. He found time to make a large collection +of rare ancient Sanskrit manuscripts at great cost and +trouble. He died in May 1874. His brother, Dr Narayen +Daji (who helped him to set up the charitable dispensary in +Bombay), did not long survive him. Dr Bhau was a man +of the most simple and amiable character and manners; his +kindness and sympathy towards the poor and distressed +were unbounded, and endeared his memory among the Hindus +of Bombay.</p> +<div class="author">(N. B. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHAUNAGAR<a name="ar252" id="ar252"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Bhavnagar</span>, a native state of India in the +Kathiawar agency, Bombay. Its area covers 2860 sq. m. In +1901 the population was 412,664, showing a decrease of 12% +in the decade; the estimated revenue is £255,800, and the tribute +£10,300. The chief, whose title is thakor sahib, is head of the +famous clan of the Gohel Rajputs of Kathiawar. The enlightened +system of administration formed during the rule of the thakor +sahib maharaja Sir Takhtsinghji Jaswatsinghji, G.C.S.I., was +continued with admirable results under the personal supervision +of his son, the maharaja Bhausinghji, K.C.S.I. (b. 1875), and +forms a model for other native states. The Gohel Rajputs are +said to have settled in the district about 1260. Bhaunagar +suffered terribly from the famine of 1899-1900. About 60 m. of +the Bhaunagar-Gondal railway run through the state, with its +terminus at the town of Bhaunagar, which is the principal port. +The town of Bhaunagar is situated on the west coast of the gulf +of Cambay. The population in 1901 was 56,442. It is the chief +port in Kathiawar, though only admitting vessels of small burden. +It was founded in 1723 by the thakor sahib Bhausinghji, after +whom it is named, in place of his former capital, Sihor, which +was considered too exposed to the Mahratta power.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHEESTY<a name="ar253" id="ar253"></a></span> (from the Persian <i>bihisti</i>, paradise), the Hindustani +name for a water carrier, the native who supplies water from a +pigskin or goat-skin bag.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHERA<a name="ar254" id="ar254"></a></span>, a town of British India, in the Shahpur district of the +Punjab, situated on the river Jhelum. Pop. (1901) 18,680. It is +the terminus of a branch of the North-Western railway. It is an +important centre of trade, with manufactures of cotton goods, +metal-work, carving, &c. Bhera was founded about 1540 on its +present site, but it took the place of a city on the opposite bank of +the river, of far greater antiquity, which was destroyed at this +period.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHILS<a name="ar255" id="ar255"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Bheels</span> (“bowmen,” from Dravidian <i>bil</i>, a bow), a +Dravidian people of central India, probably aborigines of Marwar. +They live scattered over a great part of India. They are found +as far north as the Aravalli Hills, in Sind and Rajputana, as well +as Khandesh and Ahmedabad. They are mentioned in Sanskrit +works, and it is thought that Ptolemy (vii. I. 66) refers to them +as <span class="grk" title="Phullitai">Φυλλῖται</span> (“leaf wearers”), though this word might equally +apply to the Gonds. Expelled by the Aryans from the richer +lowlands, they are found to-day in greatest numbers on the hills +of central India. In many Rajput states the princes on succession +have their foreheads marked with blood from the thumb or +toe of a Bhil. The Rajputs declare this a mark of Bhil allegiance, +but it is more probably a relic of days when the Bhils were a +power in India. The Bhils eagerly keep the practice alive, and +the right of giving the blood is hereditary in certain families. +The popular legend of the Bhil origin assigns them a semi-divine +birth, Mahadeva (Siva) having wedded an earth maiden who +bore him children, the ugliest of whom killed his father’s bull and +was banished to the mountains. The Bhils of to-day claim to be +his descendants. Under the Moguls the Bhils were submissive, +but they rebelled against the Mahrattas, who, being unable to +subdue them, treated them with the utmost cruelty. The race +became outlaws, and they have lived their present wild life ever +since. Their nomad habits and skill with their bows helped +them to maintain successfully the fight with their oppressors. +An unsuccessful attempt was made in 1818 by the British to +conquer them. Milder measures were then tried, and the Bhil +Agency was formed in 1825. The Bhil corps was then organized +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span> +with a view to utilizing the excellent fighting qualities of the +tribesmen. This corps has done good service in gradually +reducing their more lawless countrymen to habits of order, and +many Bhils are now settled in regular industries.</p> + +<p>The pure Bhil is to-day much what he has always been, a +savage forest dweller. The Bhils are a stunted race, but well built, +active and strong, of a black colour, with high cheek-bones, wide +nostrils, broad noses and coarse features. Like all Dravidians +the hair is long and wavy. The lowland Bhils are not now +easily distinguished from the low-caste Hindus. Surgeon-major +T.H. Hendley writes:—“The Bhil is an excellent woodman, +knows the shortest cuts over the hills; can walk the roughest +paths and climb the steepest crags without slipping or feeling +distressed. Though robbers, and timorous owing to ages of ill-treatment, +the men are brave when trusted, and very faithful. +History proves them always to have been faithful to their +nominal Rajput sovereigns, especially in their adversity. The +Bhil is a merry soul, loving a jest.” The hill Bhils wear nothing +but a loin-cloth, their women a coarse robe; lowland Bhils wear +turban, coat and waist-cloth. The Bhils have oaths none of +them will break. The most sacred is that sworn by a dog, the +Bhil praying that the curse of a dog may fall on him if he breaks +his word. Their chief divinity is Hanuman, the monkey-god. +Offerings are made to the much-feared goddess of small-pox. +Stone worship is found among them, and some lowland Bhils +are Moslems, while many have adopted Hinduism.</p> + +<p>The Bhils of pure blood number upwards of a million, and +there are some 200,000 Bhils of mixed descent.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gustav Oppert, <i>The Original Inhabitants of India</i> (1893); +T.H. Hendley, “Account of Marwar Bhils,” in <i>Bengal Asiatic +Journal</i>, vol. 44; W.I. Sinclair in <i>Indian Antiquary</i>, vol. iv. pp. 336-338; +Col. W. Kincaid, “On the Bheel Tribes of the Vindhyan +Range,” <i>Jour. Anthrop. Institute</i>, vol. ix.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHIMA<a name="ar256" id="ar256"></a></span> (Sanskrit, “The Terrible”), in Hindu mythology, a +hero, one of the Pandava princes who figure in the <i>Mahabharata</i>. +He was distinguished by his huge body, strength and voracity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHIWANI,<a name="ar257" id="ar257"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Hissar district of the +Punjab, 38 m. S.E. of Hissar town by rail. Pop. (1901) 35,917. +It is an important centre of trade with Rajputana, and has +factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and metal manufactures. +Its rise dates from 1817, when it was made a free market.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHOPAL,<a name="ar258" id="ar258"></a></span> a native state of India, in the central India agency. +Its area is 6902 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 665,961, +showing a decrease of 30% in the decade. This seems to be in +part due to a difference in numeration, but the state suffered +heavily from famine in 1896-1897 and 1899-1900. Bhopal is +the principal Mussulman state in central India, ranking next +to Hyderabad among the Mahommedan states of India. The +surface of the country is uneven, being traversed by the Vindhya +ranges, a peak of which near Raysen is upwards of 2500 ft. above +sea-level. The general inclination of the country is towards the +north, in which direction most of the streams of the state flow, +while others, passing through the Vindhya ranges, flow to the +Nerbudda.</p> + +<p>Bhopal state was founded in 1723 by Dost Mahommed Khan, +an Afghan adventurer. In 1778, when General Thomas Goddard +made his bold march across India, the state of Bhopal was the +only Indian power that showed itself friendly; and in 1809 when +another British expedition under General Close appeared in the +same parts, the nawab of Bhopal petitioned earnestly but in vain +to be received under British protection. But in 1817, at the +outbreak of the Pindari War, a treaty of dependence was concluded +between the chief and the British government. Since +then Bhopal has been steadily loyal to the British government, +and during the Mutiny it rendered good services. The throne +has descended in the female line since 1844, when Sikandar +Begum became ruler. Succeeding begums have taken a great +interest in the work of governing the state, which they carried on +with marked success. The sultan Jahan Begum, succeeded on +the death of her mother, Shah Jahan Begum, in June 1901, +being the only female ruler in India.</p> + +<p>The estimated revenue of the state is £250,000, and the state +pays a subsidy of £13,000 for the Bhopal battalion. Besides the +Bhopal battalion, a regiment of imperial service cavalry is +maintained, under the name of the Victoria Lancers. There is a +branch railway from Itarsi to Bhopal city, continued to Jhansi. +The British currency has been introduced, and in 1897-1898, +Rs. 71,00,000 of Bhopali coins were converted. The residence of +the political agent and the headquarters of the Bhopal battalion +are at Sehore, 20 m. west of Bhopal city. The city of Bhopal, +a railway station, had a population in 1901 of 76,561. The +palace, with its rock fortress, is called Fatehgarh. An excellent +water-supply has been provided from two large artificial lakes. +There are two hospitals. There is an export trade in opium.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bhopal Agency</span>, an administrative section of central India, +takes its name from the state of Bhopal, which is included in it. +The Bhopal agency is administered by the agent to the governor-general +in central India. Its area is 11,653 sq. m., and its +population in 1901 was 1,157,697. It was created in 1818. In +1900 this district suffered severely from famine owing to the complete +failure of the monsoon, and the cultivated area decreased +by 50 or 60%; but, on the whole, trade has improved of late +years owing to the new railways, which have stimulated +commerce and created fresh centres of industry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHOPAWAR,<a name="ar259" id="ar259"></a></span> an agency in central India. It consists of the +Dhar and Barwani states, three minor states, Ali Rajpur, Jhabua +and Jobat, and a number of districts and estates. Its total area +is 7684 sq. m., and its population on this area in 1901 was +547,546. But in 1901 and 1904 certain districts were transferred +from this agency to the Indore residency, created in 1899, and +the area of Bhopawar was thus reduced by 3283 sq. m. The +chief towns are Dhar (pop. 17,792), Barwani (6277) and Kukshi +(5402).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHOR,<a name="ar260" id="ar260"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Poona political agency, +Bombay, forming one of the Satara Jagirs; situated among the +higher peaks of the Western Ghats. Its area covers 925 sq. m. +The population in 1901 was 137,268, showing a decrease of 12% +in the decade; the estimated gross revenue is £21,437; the +tribute, £310. The chief, whose title is <i>pant sachiv</i>, is a Brahman +by caste. The town of <span class="sc">Bhor</span> is 25 m. south of Poona. In 1901 +the population was 4178. The Bhor Ghat, on the northern +border of the state, has always been the main pass over the +Western Ghats, or means of communication between the sea-coast +and the Deccan. Since 1861 it has been traversed by the +main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHUJ,<a name="ar261" id="ar261"></a></span> a town of India, the capital of the native state of Kach, +in the Gujarat division of Bombay, situated at the base of a +fortified hill. Pop. (1901) 26,362. It contains some interesting +examples of architecture of the middle of the 16th century and +later; it was a place sacred to the snake-god Bhujanga.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BHUTAN,<a name="ar262" id="ar262"></a></span> an independent kingdom in the Eastern Himalayas, +lying between the Brahmaputra and the southern face of the +mountains. It is under various commercial and other arrangements +with the government of India, from whom it receives +an annual subsidy of £3333. It is bounded on the N. by Tibet; +on the E. by a tract inhabited by various uncivilized independent +mountain tribes; on the S. by the British province of +Assam, and the district of Jalpaiguri; and on the W. by the +independent native state of Sikkim. The whole of Bhutan +presents a succession of lofty and rugged mountains abounding +in picturesque and sublime scenery. This alpine region sends +out numerous rivers in a southerly direction, which, forcing their +passage through narrow defiles, and precipitated in cataracts +over the precipices, eventually pour themselves into the Brahmaputra. +Of the rivers traversing Bhutan, the most considerable +is the Manas, flowing in its progress to the Brahmaputra under +the walls of Tasgaon, below which it is unfordable. At the foot +of Tasgaon Hill it is crossed by a suspension bridge. The other +principal rivers are the Machu, Tchinchu, Torsha, Manchi and +Dharla. Information respecting the country accumulates but +slowly. In 1863 Captain Godwin Austen accompanied Sir +Ashley Eden’s mission to the court of the Deb raja, and made +a survey of the route to Punakha. There has also been a certain +amount of geographical sketching combined with trigonometrical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span> +observations; and there are the route surveys of native +explorers. In 1887-1888 two native Indian explorers “R. N.” +and “P. A.” traversed a part of Western Bhutan, but were +forced to retire owing to the disturbed state of the districts. +They re-entered the country on the east from Dewangiri. Here +they explored the Kuru, or Lhobrak Chu, which proves to be +the largest river in Bhutan. It drains the tract between the +Yamdok Tso and Tigu Lakes, and is fed by the glaciers of the +Kulha Kangri and other great ranges. The Lhobrak was finally +identified with the Manas river, a geographical discovery of +some importance. A previously unknown tribe, the Chingmis, +were discovered in Eastern Bhutan, who are socially on a higher +level than the Bhutias, and differ from them chiefly in the +matter of wearing pigtails. Some excellent survey work was +done in Bhutan by a native surveyor during the progress of +the Tibetan Expedition in 1904. The Monla Kachung pass +(17,500 ft.), by which “R. N.” crossed into Tibet, is nearly on +the meridian of Gualpara, and is one of the most important +passes between Bhutan and Tibet. East of Bhutan, amongst +the semi-independent hill states which sometimes own allegiance +to Tibet and sometimes assert complete freedom from all +authority, the geographical puzzle of the course of the Tsanpo, the +great river of Tibet, has been solved by the researches of Captain +Harman, and the explorations of the native surveyor “K. P.” +The Tsanpo has been definitely ascertained to be the same +river as the Brahmaputra. The tracts inhabited by the +aboriginal tribes entitled Lo Nakpo, Lo Karpo and Lo Tawa +(“Lo” signifies “barbarous” in Tibetan), are described as a +pleasant country; the lands on either side of the Tsanpo being well +cultivated and planted with mangoes, plantains and oranges.</p> + +<p>Nothing is known certainly about the area and population +of Bhutan, the former being estimated at 16,800 sq. m. At +the head of the Bhutan government there are nominally two +supreme authorities, the Dharm raja, the spiritual head, and the +Deb raja, the temporal ruler. Recently official correspondence +has been written in the name of the Dharm raja, but it is not +known whether this change really signifies anything. To aid +these rajas in administering the country, there is a council of +permanent ministers, called the Lenehen. Practically, however, +there is no government at all. Subordinate officers and +rapacious governors of forts wield all the power of the state, +and tyranny, oppression and anarchy reign over the whole +country. The Dharm raja succeeds as an incarnation of the +deity. On the death of a Dharm raja a year or two elapses, and +the new incarnation then reappears in the shape of a child who +generally happens to be born in the family of a principal officer. +The child establishes his identity by recognizing the cooking +utensils, &c., of the late Dharm raja; he is then trained in a +monastery, and on attaining his majority is recognized as raja, +though he exercises no more real authority in his majority than +he did in his infancy. The Deb raja is in theory elected by the +council. In practice he is merely the nominee of whichever of +the two governors of East and West Bhutan happens for the time +to be the more powerful. The people are industrious, and devote +themselves to agriculture, but from the geological structure of +the country, and from the insecurity of property, regular husbandry +is limited to comparatively few spots. The people are +oppressed and poor. “Nothing that a Bhutia possesses is his +own,” wrote the British envoy in 1864; “he is at all times +liable to lose it if it attracts the cupidity of any one more powerful +than himself. The lower classes, whether villagers or public +servants, are little better than the slaves of higher officials. +In regard to them no rights of property are observed, and they +have at once to surrender anything that is demanded of them. +There never was, I fancy, a country in which the doctrine of +‘might is right’ formed more completely the whole and sole +law and custom of the land than it does in Bhutan. No official +receives a salary; he has certain districts made over to him, +and he may get what he can out of them; a certain portion of +his gains he is compelled to send to the durbar, and the more +he extorts and the more he sends to his superior, the longer his +tenure of office is likely to be.”</p> + +<p>Physically the Bhutias are a fine race, although dirty in their +habits and persons. Their food consists of meat, chiefly pork, +turnips, rice, barley-meal and tea made from the brick-tea of +China. Their favourite drink is <i>chong</i>, distilled from rice or +barley and millet, and <i>Marwá</i>, beer made from fermented +millet. A loose woollen coat reaching to the knees, and bound +round the waist by a thick fold of cotton cloth, forms the dress +of the men; the women’s dress is a long cloak with loose sleeves. +The houses of the Bhutias are of three and four storeys; all the +floors are neatly boarded with deal; and on two sides of the +house is a verandah ornamented with carved work generally +painted. The Bhutias are neat joiners, and their doors, windows +and panelling are perfect in their way. No iron-work is used; +the doors open on ingenious wooden hinges. The appearance of +the houses is precisely that of Swiss chalets, picturesque and comfortable—the +only drawback being a want of chimneys, which +the Bhutias do not know how to construct. The people nominally +profess the Buddhist religion, but in reality their religious +exercises are confined to the propitiation of evil spirits, and the +mechanical recital of a few sacred sentences. Around the +cottages in the mountains the land is cleared for cultivation, +and produces thriving crops of barley, wheat, buckwheat, millet, +mustard, chillies, &c. Turnips of excellent quality are extensively +grown; they are free from fibre and remarkably sweet. +The wheat and barley have a full round grain, and the climate +is well adapted to the production of both European and Asiatic +vegetables. Potatoes have been introduced. The Bhutias +lay out their fields in a series of terraces cut out of the sides of +the hills; each terrace is riveted and supported by stone +embankments, sometimes 20 ft. high. Every field is carefully +fenced with pine branches, or protected by a stone wall. +A complete system of irrigation permeates the whole cultivated +part of a village, the water being often brought from +a long distance by stone aqueducts. Bhutias do not care to +extend their cultivation, as an increased revenue is exacted in +proportion to the land cultivated, but devote their whole energies +to make the land yield twice what it is estimated to produce. +The forests of Bhutan abound in many varieties of stately trees. +Among them are the beech, ash, birch, maple, cypress and yew. +Firs and pines cover the mountain heights; and below these, +but still at an elevation of eight or nine thousand feet, is a +zone of vegetation, consisting principally of oaks and rhododendrons. +The cinnamon tree is also found. Some of the roots +and branches were examined by Captain Samuel Turner during +his journey to Tibet; but the plant being neither in blossom +nor bearing fruit, it was impossible to decide whether it was the +true cinnamon or an inferior kind of cassia. The leaf, however, +corresponded with the description given of the true +cinnamon by Linnaeus. The lower ranges of the hills +abound in animal life. Elephants are so numerous as to be +dangerous to travellers; but tigers are not common, except +near the river Tista, and in the dense reed jungle and forests +of the Dwars. Leopards abound in the Hah valley; deer everywhere, +some of them of a very large species. The musk deer +is found in the snows, and the barking deer on every +hill side. Wild hogs are met with even at great elevations. +Large squirrels are common. Bears and rhinoceros are +also found. Pheasants, jungle fowls, pigeons and other small +game abound. The Bhutias are no sportsmen. They have a +superstitious objection to firing a gun, thinking that it offends +the deities of the woods and valleys, and brings down rain. +A species of horse, which seems indigenous to Bhutan, and is +used as a domestic animal, is called <i>tángan</i>, from Tangastan, +the general appellation of that assemblage of mountains which +constitutes the territory of Bhutan. It is peculiar to this tract, +not being found in any of the neighbouring countries of Assam, +Nepal, Tibet or Bengal, and unites in an eminent degree the +two qualities of strength and beauty. The <i>tángan</i> horse usually +stands about thirteen hands high, is short-bodied, clean-limbed, +deep in the chest and extremely active, his colour usually +inclining to piebald. In so barren and rude a country the +manufacturing industry of its people is, as might be expected, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span> +in a low stage, the few articles produced being all destined for +home consumption. These consist of coarse blankets and +cotton cloths made by the villagers inhabiting the southern +tract. Leather, from the hide of the buffalo, imperfectly +tanned, furnishes the soles of snow boots. Circular bowls are +neatly turned from various woods. A small quantity of paper +is made from a plant described as the <i>Daphne papyrifera</i>. Swords, +iron spears and arrow-heads, and a few copper caldrons, +fabricated from the metal obtained in the country, complete +the list of manufactures.</p> + +<p>Trade connections are rather with Tibet than with India. +In 1901-1902 the value of the import and export trade with +British India amounted only to £57,000. The military resources +of the country are on an insignificant scale. Beyond the guards +for the defence of the various castles, there is nothing like a +standing army. The total military force was estimated by the +British envoy in 1864 at 6000. The climate of Bhutan varies +according to the difference of elevation. At the time when the +inhabitants of Punakha (the winter residence of the rajas) are +afraid of exposing themselves to the blazing sun, those of Ghasa +experience all the rigour of winter, and are chilled by perpetual +snows. Yet these places are within sight of each other. The +rains descend in floods upon the heights; but in the vicinity of +Tasisudon, the capital, they are moderate; there are frequent +showers, but nothing that can be compared to the tropical rains +of Bengal. Owing to the great elevation and steepness of the +mountains, dreadful storms arise among the hollows, often +attended with fatal results.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Bhutan formerly belonged to a tribe called by the +Bhutias Tephu, generally believed to have been the people of +Kuch Behar. About <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1670 some Tibetan soldiers subjugated +the Tephus, took possession of the country and settled down +in it. The relations of the British with Bhutan commenced in +1772, when the Bhutias invaded the principality of Kuch Behar, +a dependency of Bengal. The Kuch Behar Raja applied for aid, +and a force under Captain James was despatched to his assistance; +the invaders were expelled and pursued into their own territories. +Upon the intercession of Teshu Lama, then regent of Tibet, a +treaty of peace was concluded in 1774 between the East India +Company and the ruler of Bhutan. In 1783 Captain S. Turner +was deputed to Bhutan, with a view of promoting commercial +intercourse, but his mission proved unsuccessful. From this +period little intercourse took place with Bhutan, until the +occupation of Assam by the British in 1826. It was then +discovered that the Bhutias had usurped several tracts of low +land lying at the foot of the mountains, called the Dwars or +passes, and for these they agreed to pay a small tribute. They +failed to pay, however, and availed themselves of the command +of the passes to commit depredations within the British territory. +Captain R.B. Pemberton was accordingly deputed to Bhutan to +adjust the points of difference. But his negotiations yielded no +definite result; and every other means of obtaining redress and +security proving unsuccessful, the Assam Dwars were wrested +from the Bhutias, and the British government consented to pay +to Bhutan a sum of £1000 per annum as compensation for the +resumption of their tenure, during the good behaviour of the +Bhutias. Continued outrages and aggressions were, however, +committed by the Bhutias on British subjects in the Dwars. +Nothwithstanding repeated remonstrances and threats, scarcely +a year passed without the occurrence of several raids in British +territory headed by Bhutia officials, in which they plundered the +inhabitants, massacred them, or carried them away as slaves. +In 1863 Sir Ashley Eden was sent as an envoy to Bhutan to +demand reparation for these outrages. He did not succeed in his +mission; he was subjected to the grossest insults; and under +compulsion signed a treaty giving over the disputed territory to +Bhutan, and making other concessions which the Bhutan +government demanded. On Sir A. Eden’s return the viceroy +at once disavowed his treaty, sternly stopped the former allowance +for the Assam Dwars, and demanded the immediate restoration +of all British subjects kidnapped during the last five years. The +Bhutias not complying with this demand, the governor-general +issued a proclamation, dated the 12th of November 1864, by which +the eleven Western or Bengal Dwars were forthwith incorporated +with the queen’s Indian dominions. No resistance was at first +offered to the annexation; but, suddenly, in January 1865, the +Bhutias surprised the English garrison at Dewangiri, and the +post was abandoned with the loss of two mountain guns. This +disaster was soon retrieved by General Sir Henry Tombs, and the +Bhutias were compelled to sue for peace, which was concluded on +the 11th of November 1865. The Bhutan government formally +ceded all the eighteen Dwars of Bengal and Assam, with the rest +of the territory taken from them, and agreed to liberate all +kidnapped British subjects. As the revenues of Bhutan mainly +depended on these Dwars, the British government, in return for +these concessions, undertook to pay the Deb and Dharm rajas +annually, subject to the condition of their continued good +behaviour, an allowance beginning at £2500 and rising gradually +to the present figure. Since that time the annexed territories +have settled down into peaceful and prosperous British districts. +The recent relations between the Indian government and Bhutan +have been satisfactory; and during the troubles with Tibet in 1904 +the attitude of the Bhutias was perfectly correct and friendly.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Report on Explorations in Sikkim, Bhutan and Tibet</i> (Deva +Dun, 1889); Tanner, “Our present Knowledge of the Himalayas,” +<i>R.G.S. Proceedings</i>, vol. xiii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BIANCHINI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar263" id="ar263"></a></span> (1662-1729), Italian astronomer +and antiquary, was born of a noble family at Verona on the +13th of December 1662. In 1684 he went to Rome, and became +librarian to Cardinal Ottoboni, who, as Pope Alexander VIII. +(1689), raised him to the offices of papal chamberlain and canon +of Santa Maria Maggiore. Clement XI. sent him on a mission to +Paris in 1712, and employed him to form a museum of Christian +antiquities. He died at Rome on the 2nd of March 1729. A +paper by him on G.D. Cassini’s new method of parallaxes was +inserted in the <i>Acta Eruditorum</i> of Leipzig in 1685. He published +separately:—<i>Istoria Universale</i> (Roma, 1697), only one +volume of which appeared; <i>De Calendario et Cyclo Caesaris</i> +(1703); <i>Hesperi et Phosphori nova Phaenomena</i> (1729), in which +he asserted Venus to rotate in 24<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> days; and (posthumously) +<i>Astronomicae et Geographicae Observaliones Selectae</i> (1737) and +<i>Opuscula Varia</i> (1754).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Fontenelle’s “Éloge” +(<i>Mémoires de l’Acad. de l’Histoire</i>, p. 102, Paris, 1729); +Mazzoleni, <i>Vita di Francesco Bianchini</i> (Verona, 1735); +Tipaldo, <i>Biografia degli Italiani Illustri</i>, vii. 288 (Venezia, 1840); +Mazzuchelli, <i>Scrittori d’ Italia</i>; +Maffei, <i>Verona Illustrata</i>, p. 254, &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BIARRITZ,<a name="ar264" id="ar264"></a></span> a watering-place of south-western France, in the +department of Basses-Pyrénées, on the sea-coast about 5 m. +W.S.W. of Bayonne. Pop. (1906) 13,629. From a mere fishing +village, with a few hundred inhabitants in the beginning of the +19th century, Biarritz rose rapidly into a place of importance +under the patronage of the emperor Napoleon III. and the +empress Eugénie, with whom it was a favourite resort. The +town is situated on a promontory jutting north-west into the +Bay of Biscay and on the coast which extends on each side of it. +The beach to the north-east is known as the Grande Plage, that +to the south-west as the Côte des Basques. The Grande Plage is +more than half a mile long and stretches to the Cap St Martin, on +which stands a lighthouse. It is divided into two parts by a +small headland once the site of the villa of the empress Eugénie, +between which and the main promontory are the two casinos, the +principal baths and many luxurious villas and fine hotels. +Towards the north-east the promontory of Biarritz ends in a +projection known as the Atalaye, crowned by the ruins of a castle +and surrounded by rocky islets. Some of these are united to the +mainland and to each other by jetties which curve round so as to +form the Port de Refuge, a haven available only in fair weather. +South-west of the Atalaye lies the Port-Vieux, a sheltered cove +now used only as a bathing-place. The Port des Pêcheurs, the +principal of the three harbours, is on the south-east side of the +Atalaye and is that most used by the fishermen of the town. +Apart from unimportant manufactures of pottery, chocolate, &c., +fishing is the only industry; Biarritz depends for its prosperity +on the visitors who are attracted by its mild climate and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span> +bathing. The season is almost continuous; in the winter the +English, in the summer Russians, Spaniards and French fill the +hotels of the town. Among its attractions is a golf club, established +in 1888, with a course of 18 holes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BIAS<a name="ar265" id="ar265"></a></span> of Priene in Ionia, one of the so-called Seven Sages of +Greece, son of Teutamus, flourished about 570 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was +famous for his patriotism, the nobility of his character and his +eloquence. A number of gnomes or aphorisms are attributed to +him, which may be found collected in F.W.A. Mullach, <i>Fragmenta +Philosophorum Graecorum</i> (1860). He is said to have +written a poem on the best means of making Ionia prosperous. +His advice to its inhabitants, at the time of the Persian invasion, +to migrate to Sardinia and there found a single pan-Ionic city +(Herodotus i. 170), has generally been regarded as historical. +One much-quoted saying of his may be mentioned. When his +native town was besieged by the enemy, the inhabitants resolved +to escape with their most valuable belongings. One of them +seeing Bias without anything, advised him to follow the example +of the rest. “I am doing so,” said lie, “for I carry all my belongings +with me” (<i>omnia mea mecum porto</i>). He was honoured with +a splendid funeral, and a sanctuary called Teutamium was +dedicated to him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bohren, <i>De Septem Sapientibus</i> (1860).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BIAS<a name="ar266" id="ar266"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>biais</i>, of unknown origin; the derivation +from Lat. <i>bifax</i>, two-faced, is wrong), something oblique or +slanting. The term is used especially of a piece of cloth cut +obliquely across the texture, or of a seam of two such pieces +brought together; and in the game of bowls (<i>q.v.</i>) it is applied +alike to the one-sided construction of the bowl, flattened on one +side and protruding on the other, and to the slanting line the +bowl takes when thrown. The figurative sense of the word, +prejudice or undue leaning to one side of a subject, is derived +from this bowling term.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BIBACULUS, MARCUS FURIUS,<a name="ar267" id="ar267"></a></span> Roman poet, flourished +during the last century of the republic. According to Jerome, +he was born at Cremona in 103 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and probably lived to a great +age. He wrote satirical poems after the manner of Catullus, +whose bitterness he rivalled, according to Quintilian (<i>Instit.</i> x. i. 196), +in his iambics. He even attacked Augustus (and perhaps +Caesar), who treated the matter with indifference. He was also +author of prose <i>Lucubrationes</i> and perhaps of an epic poem on +Caesar’s Gallic wars (<i>Pragmatia Belli Gallici</i>). Otto Ribbeck +attributes to him one of the shorter poems usually assigned to +Virgil. It is doubtful whether he is the person ridiculed by +Horace (<i>Satires</i>, ii 5. 40) and whether he is identical with the +<i>turgidus Alpinus</i> (<i>Satires</i>, i. 10. 36), the author of an Aethiopis +dealing with the life and death of Memnon and of a poem on the +Rhine. Some critics, on the ground that Horace would not have +ventured to attack so dangerous an adversary, assume the +existence of a poet whose real name was Furius (or Cornelius) +Alpinus. Bibaculus was ridiculed for his high-flown and exaggerated +style and manner of expression.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Weichert, “De M. Furio Bibaculo,” in his <i>Poetarum Latinorum +Reliquiae</i> (1830); fragments in L. Müller’s edition of <i>Catullus</i> in +the Teubner Series (1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BIBER, HEINRICH JOHANN FRANZ VON<a name="ar268" id="ar268"></a></span> (1644-1704), +German violinist and composer, was for some time musical +conductor at Salzburg, and was ennobled by the emperor +Leopold in 1681. He is regarded as the earliest important German +composer for the violin, his works including sonatas and church +music.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BIBERACH,<a name="ar269" id="ar269"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, +on the Riss, a small affluent of the Danube, 22 m. S.S.W. +from Ulm. Pop. (1900) 8390. It is still surrounded by medieval +walls and towers, and is strikingly picturesque. Its principal +church dates from the 12th century, and it possesses a hospital +with rich endowments. Its main industries are cloth, bell-casting, +toys and zinc wares, and its fruit markets are famous.</p> + +<p>Biberach appears as a village in the 8th century, and in 1312 it +became a free imperial city. During the Thirty Years’ War it +underwent various vicissitudes, and was for a while held by the +Swedes. In 1707 it was captured and put to ransom by the +French, who afterwards, in 1796 and 1800, defeated the Austrians +in the neighbourhood. In 1803 the city was deprived of its +imperial freedom and assigned to Baden, and in 1806 was +transferred to Württemberg. Biberach is the birthplace of the +sculptor Johann Lorenz Natter (1705-1763) and the painter +Bernhard Neher (1806-1886); Christoph Martin Wieland, born +in 1733 at the neighbouring village of Oberholzheim, spent +several years in the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BIBIRINE,<a name="ar270" id="ar270"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bebeerine</span>, C<span class="su">19</span>H<span class="su">21</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>, an alkaloid obtained +from the bark and fruit of the greenheart (<i>q.v.</i>) tree, <i>Nectandra rodiaei</i>, +called <i>bibiru</i> or <i>sipiri</i> in Guiana, where the tree grows. +The substance was discovered about the year 1835 by Hugh +Rodie, a surgeon in Demerara, who used it as a febrifuge in +substitution for quinine.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 3, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 34612-h.htm or 34612-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/6/1/34612/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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