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+
+Project Gutenberg's The Practical Garden-Book, by C. E. Hunn and L. H. Bailey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Practical Garden-Book
+       Containing the Simplest Directions for the Growing of the
+              Commonest Things about the House and Garden
+
+Author: C. E. Hunn
+        L. H. Bailey
+
+Release Date: December 8, 2010 [EBook #34602]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, S.D., and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div id="front">
+<p><span class="lg">The Garden-Craft Series</span><br />
+<span class="ind2 smcap">Edited by L. H. Bailey</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="center xlg pad-tb">THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter pad-tb" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/macmillian-style1-sm.png" width="150" height="53" alt="Publisher Logo" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div id="title-page">
+<h1>THE<br />
+PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK</h1>
+
+<p class="center med"><i>CONTAINING THE SIMPLEST DIRECTIONS<br />
+FOR THE GROWING OF THE COMMONEST<br />
+THINGS ABOUT THE HOUSE AND GARDEN</i></p>
+
+<p class="center pad-tb"><span class="sm">BY</span><br />
+<span class="lg">C. E. HUNN</span><br />
+<span class="sm">AND</span><br />
+<span class="lg">L. H. BAILEY</span></p>
+
+<p class="center med"><i>THIRD EDITION</i></p>
+
+<p class="center pad-tb">New York<br />
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br />
+<span class="smcap sm">LONDON: MACMILLAN &amp; CO., Ltd.</span><br />
+1903<br />
+<span class="sm"><i>All rights reserved</i></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center sm"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1900<br />
+By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 75px;">
+<img src="images/med-line-thin.png" width="75" height="1" alt="Decorative Line" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center sm">Set up and electrotyped March, 1900<br />
+Reprinted February, 1901, and June, 1903</p>
+
+<p class="center sm pad-t2">Mount Pleasant Press<br />
+J. Horace McFarland Company<br />
+Harrisburg, Pennsylvania</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+<p id="preface">Like the love of music, books and pictures,
+the love of gardens comes with culture and leisure
+and with the ripening of the home life.
+The love of gardens, as of every other beautiful
+and refining thing, must increase to the end of
+time. More and more must the sympathies
+enlarge. There must be more points of contact
+with the world. Life ever becomes richer.
+Gardening is more than the growing of plants:
+it is the expression of desire.</p>
+
+<p>As there must be many gardeners, so there
+must be many books. There must be books for
+different persons and different ideals. The garden
+made by one’s own hands is always the best
+garden, because it is a part of oneself. A garden
+made by another may interest, but it is another
+person’s individuality. A poor garden of
+one’s own is better than a good garden in which
+one may not dig. Many a poor soul has more
+help in a plant in the window than another has
+in a plantation made by a gardener.</p>
+
+<p>I would emphasize the home garden, made by
+the members of the family. I would preach the
+beauty of the common plants and the familiar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>
+places. These things are never old. Many
+times I have noted how intently an audience of
+plant-lovers will listen to the most commonplace
+details respecting the cultivation of plants with
+which they have been always familiar. There
+was nothing new in what they heard; but they
+liked to have the old story told over again, and
+every detail called up a memory.</p>
+
+<p>The same questions are asked every year, and
+they always will be asked,&mdash;the questions about
+the simplest garden operations. Upon this desire
+for commonplace advice the horticultural
+journals live. A journal which publishes only
+things that are new would find little support.
+Some of these common questions I have tried to
+answer in this little book. I wish them answered
+in the simple and direct phrase of the gardener.
+Therefore I asked my friend C. E. Hunn, gardener
+to the Horticultural Department of Cornell
+University, who lives with plants, to write advice
+for one who would make a garden; and
+this he did in a summer vacation. These notes,
+edited and amplified, now make this book.</p>
+
+<p class="ralign">L. H. BAILEY.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><span class="ind1">Horticultural Department,</span><br />
+<span class="ind2">Cornell University.</span></span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Ithaca, N. Y.</span>, February 22, 1900.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>THE<br />
+PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK</h2>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 75px;">
+<img src="images/med-line-thin.png" width="75" height="1" alt="Decorative Line" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<table id="nav" cellpadding="10" summary="Alphabetical Navigation Table">
+<tr>
+<td><a href="#A">A</a></td><td><a href="#B">B</a></td>
+<td><a href="#C">C</a></td><td><a href="#D">D</a></td>
+<td><a href="#E">E</a></td><td><a href="#F">F</a></td>
+<td><a href="#G">G</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><a href="#H">H</a></td><td><a href="#I">I</a></td>
+<td><a href="#K">K</a></td><td><a href="#L">L</a></td>
+<td><a href="#M">M</a></td><td><a href="#N">N</a></td>
+<td><a href="#O">O</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#P">P</a></td><td><a href="#R">R</a></td>
+<td><a href="#S">S</a></td><td><a href="#T">T</a></td>
+<td><a href="#V">V</a></td><td><a href="#W">W</a></td>
+<td><a href="#Z">Z</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a name="A" id="A"></a><b>Abobra viridiflora.</b> A handsome tender climber
+with tuberous roots, that may be taken up in the fall and
+stored in a cellar. The foliage is dark and glossy, the flowers
+small and inconspicuous; but the small scarlet fruits are
+very effective in contrast to the leaves, making it a desirable
+screen plant. It is sold by seedsmen. Seeds sown as soon
+as warm weather comes will give plants which bloom in the
+open (in a warm soil and exposure), and which reach a
+height of 5-8 ft. It is sometimes grown as a glasshouse
+plant. It is cucurbitaceous (allied to melons and gourds).</p>
+
+<p><b>Abronia.</b> Californian trailing perennials, but
+treated as hardy annuals. They thrive in any warm, open garden
+soil, and are very satisfactory for the margins of beds or
+borders. The little flowers are borne in clusters. <i>A. latifolia</i>
+or <i>arenaria</i> (yellow) and <i>A. umbellata</i> or <i>grandiflora</i>
+(pink) are the leading kinds. Usually sown where they
+are to bloom. Peel the husk off the seed before sowing.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 161px;">
+<img src="images/001-abutilon.jpg" width="161" height="170" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Abutilon striatum</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="abutilon" id="abutilon"></a>Abutilons</b>, or <span class="smcap">Flowering Maples</span> as they are
+called by many, make fine house or bedding plants. Common
+kinds may be grown from seed or from cuttings of
+young wood. If the former, the seed should be sown in
+February or March in a temperature of not less than 60°.
+The seedlings should be potted when from four to six leaves
+have grown, in a rich, sandy soil. Frequent pottings should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+be made to insure a rapid growth, making plants large
+enough to flower by fall. Or, the seedlings may be planted
+out in the border when danger of frost is over, and taken up
+in the fall before frost: these plants will bloom all winter.
+About one-half of the newer growth should be cut off when
+they are taken up, as they are very apt to spindle up when
+grown in the house. When grown from cuttings, young
+wood should be used, which, after being well rooted, may
+be treated in the same manner as the seedlings.
+The varieties with variegated leaves have been
+improved until the foliage effects are equal to
+the flowers of some varieties; and, these are a
+great addition to the conservatory or window
+garden. The staple spotted-leaved type is <i>A.
+Thompsoni</i>. A compact form, now much used
+for bedding and other outdoor work, is <i>Savitzii</i>,
+which is a horticultural variety, not a distinct
+species. The old-fashioned green-leaved <i>A. striatum</i>, from
+which <i>A. Thompsoni</i> has probably sprung, is one of the
+best. <i>A. megapotamicum</i> or <i>vexillarium</i> is a trailing or
+drooping red-and-yellow-flowered species, which is excellent
+for baskets. It propagates readily from seed. Abutilons
+are most satisfactory for house plants when they are
+not much more than a year old. They need no special
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aconitum.</b> <span class="smcap">Monk’s Hood. Wolf’s Bane.</span>
+Hardy herbaceous perennials allied to larkspurs. They are
+showy border plants, usually flowering the first year from
+seed, if the seed is started early, and bearing panicles of
+quaint hood-shaped, rich flowers. The colors have a wide
+range, but are usually deep blue. The improved varieties
+are much superior in size and markings. Aconitums are
+most effective when planted in a mixed border: the flower
+stalks being held well up, show the blossoms to good advantage.
+Seed may be sown every two years, as the plants
+in their year-old and 2-year-old stage have the largest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+blossoms. Sow in gentle heat in March, transplanting to
+border when the weather is settled. Roots may be divided
+if desired, but best results are to be expected from seedlings.
+<i>A. Napellus</i> is the commonest one. The plants are
+very poisonous if eaten. Bloom in early summer. 2-3 ft.</p>
+
+<p><b>Acroclinium.</b> A low-growing everlasting annual
+flower, white, violet, or rose in color. Seeds should
+preferably be started in a hotbed or window, and planted
+out when danger of frost is past; the flowers should be
+gathered when half expanded and hung
+in the shade to dry. Half-hardy.
+Plant 1 foot apart. Grow 10-15 in.
+high. <a href="#everlastings">See <i>Everlastings</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 226px;">
+<img src="images/003-adlumia.jpg" width="226" height="269" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Adlumia cirrhosa</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="adlumia" id="adlumia"></a>Adlumia.</b> <span class="smcap">Mountain Fringe.
+Allegheny Vine.</span> One of the daintiest
+of climbers, making a very rapid growth,
+and when once established seeding itself
+and thriving for years, growing 10 or
+15 feet in a season. Give rich, rather
+moist soil. It is biennial, blooming the
+second year. Flowers like those of the
+bleeding heart and other dicentras. It is native.</p>
+
+<p><b>Adonis.</b> A low-growing hardy annual or perennial
+of the easiest culture. It makes a fine mass effect,
+as the flowers are a striking dark scarlet or crimson color,
+and the plants are very free and continuous bloomers.
+Sow early in the spring where wanted. The perennial
+yellow-flowered sorts sometimes bloom the first year from
+seed. Adonises are very neat in habit, and the foliage is
+fine and interesting. 10-15 in.</p>
+
+<p><b>Agapanthus.</b> <span class="smcap">African Lily.</span> A tuberous-rooted,
+well known conservatory or window plant. It lends
+itself to many conditions and proves satisfactory a large part
+of the year, the leaves forming a green arch over the pot,
+covering it entirely in a well grown specimen. The flowers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+are borne in a large cluster on stems growing from 2 to 3
+ft. high, as many as two or three hundred bright blue flowers
+often forming on a single plant. A large, well grown
+plant throws up a number of flower-stalks through the
+early season. The one essential to free growth is an abundance
+of water and an occasional application of manure
+water. Propagation is effected by division of the offsets,
+which may be broken from the main plant in early spring.
+After flowering, gradually lessen the quantity of water until
+they are placed in winter quarters, which should be a position
+free from frost and moderately dry. The Agapanthus,
+being a heavy feeder, should be grown in strong loam to
+which is added well rotted manure and a little sand.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 70px;">
+<img src="images/004-ageratum.jpg" width="70" height="173" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Ageratum</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Ageratum.</b> A half-hardy annual, used as a
+border plant, for ribbon bedding for mass effect, or in
+mixed beds of geranium, coleuses and other plants. The
+seeds germinate readily, but as the plant is only
+half-hardy and is usually wanted in flower when
+planted out, it is usual to sow the seed in boxes
+placed in hotbeds or windows in March, transplanting
+the seedlings to small boxes or pots and
+growing the young plants on until the 1st of May,
+when they may be planted out. Pieces of young
+wood root very easily, and the gardener usually
+increases his stock by cuttings. The dwarf varieties
+are the most desirable, and the two colors,
+blue and white, may be planted together. 2-3 ft. Plants
+may be taken up in the fall and set in the house; cut them
+back severely.</p>
+
+<p><b>Allegheny Vine.</b> <a href="#adlumia">See <i>Adlumia</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Almond</b> is about as hardy as the peach, but it
+blooms so early in the spring that it is little grown east of
+the Pacific slope. It is an interesting ornamental tree, and
+its early bloom is a merit when the fruit is not desired.
+The Almonds commonly sold by nurserymen in the east are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+hard-shell varieties, and the nuts are not good enough for
+commerce. The Almond fruit is a drupe, like the peach,
+but the flesh is thin and hard and the pit is the “Almond”
+of commerce. Culture the same as for peach.</p>
+
+<p>Flowering Almond is a very early-flowering bush, excellent
+for shrub-borders. It is usually grafted on plum
+stock, and one must take care to keep down the plum sprouts
+which sometimes spring from the root.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aloe.</b> Succulent tropical plants, sometimes seen
+in window gardens. Of easy culture. See that the pots
+have perfect drainage. Make a soil of sandy loam, with
+one-third or one-fourth part of broken brick. Pot firmly.
+Water whenever needed, but the soil and drainage should
+be such that the earth does not remain soggy or become
+sour. Aloes thrive year after year without repotting.
+Usually propagated by cuttings. <i>A. variegata</i> is the commonest
+species.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alonsoa.</b> Tender annual. Not very well known,
+but a bright plant for second-row border or a low bedding
+plant. Planted against shrubbery or other protection after
+danger of frost is over, it lightens up a dark corner. 2-3 ft.
+Plant 10-15 in. apart, in a warm place protected from wind.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alströmeria.</b> The Alströmerias belong to the
+amaryllis family, being tuberous-rooted plants, having leafy
+stems and terminating in a cluster of from 10 to 50 small
+lily-shaped flowers of rich colors. Most of the kinds should
+be given pot culture, as they are easily grown and are not
+hardy in the open in the north. The culture is nearly that of
+the amaryllis,&mdash;a good, fibrous loam with a little sand, potting
+the tubers in early spring or late fall. Start the plants
+slowly, giving only water enough to cause root growth; but
+after growth has become established, a quantity of water may
+be given. After flowering they may be treated as are amaryllis
+or agapanthus. The plants grow 1-2½ ft. high. The
+flowers often have odd colors.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+<b>Althæa.</b> <a href="#hollyhock">See <i>Hollyhock</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 148px;">
+<img src="images/006-alyssum.jpg" width="148" height="253" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Sweet Alyssum</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Alyssum, Sweet.</b> A low-growing, hardy, white-flowered,
+very fragrant annual which is much used for edgings,
+window boxes, and the like. It is of the easiest culture
+in any soil, but thrives best in a garden loam of moderate
+fertility. Seeds may be sown as early as the
+ground can be well prepared in spring. The plant
+will begin to bloom when 2 or 3 inches high, and
+continue to bloom, as it grows, until after the
+first hard frosts. It makes a mat 1 to 2 ft.
+across. If immediate effects are not desired,
+the plants should be thinned out or transplanted
+to stand half a foot apart. It rarely stands more
+than a foot high. In the fall, plants may be cut
+back and put into pots or boxes, and they will
+bloom in the window. Better results in winter
+blooming are secured by starting seeds in boxes in August,
+September or October. There are certain hardy perennial
+yellow-flowered Alyssums which are useful for prominent
+edgings and for rockwork.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 126px;">
+<img src="images/006-prince.jpg" width="126" height="159" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Prince’s Feather</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="amarantus" id="amarantus"></a>Amarantus.</b> Decorative annuals. One species
+(with erect spikes) is known as <span class="smcap">Prince’s Feather</span>, another
+(with variegated foliage) as <span class="smcap">Joseph’s Coat</span>, and still another
+(with drooping spikes) as <span class="smcap">Love-lies-bleeding</span>.
+Probably the finest of the list is <i>A. salicifolius</i>,
+often called Fountain Plant. This has graceful
+willow-shaped leaves, banded and tipped with
+carmine, bronze and orange. The tall kinds
+make fine screens for unsightly objects. They
+may also be used against masses of green to add
+color. The Amaranths are half-hardy or tender
+plants, and should be sown in boxes in March or
+April, to be planted out after all danger of frost is past.
+Seeds may also be sown where the plants are to stand.
+They were once among the most popular of garden plants,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+but for a few years have been neglected. Fine colors have
+recently been developed, and they are again becoming favorites.
+As they are rather coarse and weedy plants, do not
+use them with dainty flowers. Most kinds grow 2-3 ft. high
+and spread 2-3 ft.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="amaryllis" id="amaryllis"></a>Amaryllis.</b> Popular name of a variety of house
+or conservatory tender bulbs, but properly applied only to
+the Belladonna Lily. Most of them are hippeastrums, but
+the culture of all is similar. They are satisfactory house
+plants. The one objection to their culture is the habit of
+the flower-stalk starting into growth before the leaves start.
+This is caused in most cases by stimulating root growth before
+the bulb has had sufficient rest. The bulbs should be
+dormant for four or five months in a dry place with a temperature
+of about 50°. When wanted to be brought into flower,
+the bulbs, if to be repotted, should have all the dirt shaken
+off and potted in soil composed of fibrous loam and leaf-mold,
+to which should be added a little sand. If the loam
+is a heavy one, place the pot in a warm situation; a spent
+hotbed is a good place. Water as needed, and as the flowers
+develop liquid manure may be given. If large clumps are
+well established in 8- or 10-inch pots, they may be top-dressed
+with new soil containing rotted manure, and as growth increases
+liquid manure may be given twice a week until the
+flowers open. After flowering, gradually withhold water until
+the leaves die. The most popular species for window gardens
+is <i>A. Johnsoni</i> (properly a hippeastrum), with red flowers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Amethyst.</b> <a href="#browallia">See <i>Browallia</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Ammobium.</b> A half-hardy perennial everlasting
+with white flowers. Thrives best in sandy soil. Sow
+seeds where plants are to stand. Although perennial, it
+blooms the first year from seed, and is usually treated as an
+annual. 2-3 ft. high. Plant 12-18 in. apart.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ammoniacal Carbonate of Copper.</b> <a href="#bordeaux">See under
+<i>Bordeaux Mixture</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+<b>Anchusa.</b> Hardy annuals and perennials, fit
+for heavy borders. The plants grow to the height of 2 to 3
+feet and bear purple or blue flowers, which are showy either
+on the plant or in bouquets. Propagated from seed sown in
+early spring, either where the plants are to stand or in boxes
+or hotbeds. The common kind is annual. Blooms in
+summer.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 74px;">
+<img src="images/008-anemone.jpg" width="74" height="162" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Spray of Anemone Japonica</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="anemone" id="anemone"></a>Anemone.</b> <span class="smcap">Wind Flower.</span> A group of hardy
+perennials. The best known of this genus is <i>A. Japonica
+alba</i>, or Honorine Jobert. This species blooms from
+August to November, and is at that season the finest
+of border plants. The pure white flowers, with
+lemon-colored stamens, are held well up on stalks
+2-3 ft. high. The flower stems are long and excellent
+for cutting. This species may be propagated
+by division of the plants or by seed. The
+former method should be put into practice in the
+spring; the latter as soon as the seeds are ripe in
+the fall. Sow the seed in boxes in a warm, sheltered
+situation in the border or under glass. The seed
+should be covered lightly with soil containing a quantity
+of sand and not allowed to become dry. A well enriched,
+sheltered position in a border should be given. There are
+red-flowered varieties.</p>
+
+<p>The varieties of <i>A. coronaria</i> are tuberous-rooted plants.
+The tubers of these should be planted in the fall, late in
+September or early in October, in a well enriched, sheltered
+border, setting the tubers 3 in. deep and from 4-6 in. apart.
+The surface of the border should be mulched with leaves or
+strawy manure through the severe winter weather, uncovering
+the soil in March. The flowers will appear in April or
+May, and in June or July the tubers should be taken up and
+placed in a dry place in sand until the following fall. This
+section is not as well known as it should be. The range
+of color is very wide. The flowers are often 2 in. across,
+and are lasting. These tubers may be planted in pots in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+the same manner as in the border, bringing them into the
+conservatory or house at intervals through the winter,
+where they make an excellent showing when in bloom.</p>
+
+<p>The little wild Wind Flowers are easily colonized in a
+hardy border.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="annuals" id="annuals"></a>Annuals.</b> The annual flowers of the seedsmen
+are those which give their best bloom in the very year
+in which the seeds are sown. True annuals are those
+plants which complete their entire life-cycle in one season.
+Some of the so-called annual flowers will continue to bloom
+the second and third years, but the bloom is so poor and
+sparse after the first season that it does not pay to keep
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Most annuals will bloom in central New York if the seeds
+are sown in the open ground when the weather becomes
+thoroughly settled. But there are some kinds, as Cosmos
+and Moonflowers, for which our season is commonly too
+short to give good bloom. These kinds may be started early
+in the house or in hotbeds; and similar treatment may be
+given any plants of which it is desired
+to secure blooms before the normal time.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/009-box.jpg" width="250" height="259" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A box garden</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Prepare the ground thoroughly and
+deep. Annuals must make a quick
+growth. See that the soil contains
+enough humus or vegetable mold to
+make it rich and to enable it to
+hold moisture. If the ground is
+not naturally rich, spade in well-rotted
+manure or mold from the
+woods. A little commercial fertilizer
+may help in starting off the
+plants quickly. Prepare the land
+as early in spring as it is in fit condition, and prevent
+evaporation by keeping the surface loose by means of
+raking.</p>
+
+<p>If the flowers are to be grown about the edges of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+lawn, make sure that the grass roots do not run underneath
+them and rob them of food and moisture. It is well to run
+a sharp spade deep into the ground about the edges of the
+bed every two or three weeks for the purpose of cutting
+off any grass roots which may have run into the
+bed. If beds are made in the turf, see that they are
+3 ft. or more wide, so that the grass roots will not
+undermine them. Against the shrub borders,
+this precaution may not be necessary. In fact,
+it is desirable that the flowers fill all the
+space between the overhanging branches and
+the sod.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 142px;">
+<img src="images/010-border.jpg" width="142" height="188" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Flowers against a border</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sow the seeds freely. Many will not germinate.
+Even if they do all germinate, the combined
+strength of the rising plantlets will break the crust on
+the hard soils; and in the thinning which follows, only strong
+and promising plants are allowed to remain. Better effects
+are also often secured when the colors are in masses, especially
+if the flowers are thrown into the bays of heavy shrub
+borders.</p>
+
+<p>Plants continue to bloom for a longer period if they are
+not allowed to produce seeds. The flowers should be picked,
+if possible, as soon as they begin to fade.</p>
+
+<p>In the selection of the kinds of annuals, one’s personal
+preference must be the guide. Yet there are some groups
+which may be considered to be standard or general-purpose
+plants. They are easily grown almost anywhere, and are
+sure to give satisfaction. The remaining plants are mostly
+such as have secondary value, or are adapted to particular
+purposes or uses.</p>
+
+<p>The groups which most strongly appeal to the writer as
+staple or general-purpose types are the following: Petunias,
+phloxes, pinks or dianthuses, larkspurs or delphiniums,
+calliopsis or coreopsis, pot marigold or calendula, bachelor’s
+button or <i>Centaurea Cyanus</i>, clarkias, zinnias, marigolds or
+tagetes, collinsias, gilias, California poppies or eschscholtzias,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+verbenas, poppies, China asters, sweet peas, nemophilas,
+portulacas, silenes, candytufts or iberis, alyssum, stocks or
+matthiolas, morning-glories, nasturtiums or tropæolums.</p>
+
+<p>Annual flowers possess a great advantage over perennials
+in the fact that they appeal strongly to the desire for experiment.
+The seeds are sown every year, and there is sufficient
+element of uncertainty in the results to make the effort
+interesting; and new combinations can be tried each year.</p>
+
+<p>Do not cut the old stalks down in the fall. They will
+stand in the snow all through the winter, and remind you of
+the bursting summer time and the long-ripening fall; and
+the snow-birds will find them in the short days of winter.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the most reliable and easily grown annuals for
+the north are given in the following lists (under the common
+trade names):</p>
+
+<h3><i>WHITE FLOWERS</i></h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Ageratum Mexicanum album.</li>
+<li>Alyssum, Common Sweet.</li>
+<li>Alyssum, Sweet, compacta.</li>
+<li>Centranthus macrosiphon albus.</li>
+<li>Convolvulus major.</li>
+<li>Dianthus, Double White Margaret.</li>
+<li>Iberis amara.</li>
+<li>Iberis coronaria, White Rocket.</li>
+<li>Ipomœa hederacea.</li>
+<li>Lavatera alba.</li>
+<li>Malope grandiflora alba.</li>
+<li>Matthiola (Stocks), Cut and Come Again.</li>
+<li>Matthiola, Dresden Perpetual.</li>
+<li>Matthiola, Giant Perfection.</li>
+<li>Matthiola, White Pearl.</li>
+<li>Mirabilis longiflora alba.</li>
+<li>Nigella.</li>
+<li>Papaver (Poppy), Flag of Truce.</li>
+<li>Papaver, Shirley.</li>
+<li>Papaver, The Mikado.</li>
+<li>Phlox, Dwarf Snowball.</li>
+<li>Phlox, Leopoldii.</li>
+<li>Zinnia.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3><i>YELLOW FLOWERS</i></h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Cacalia lutea.</li>
+<li>Calendula officinalis, Common.</li>
+<li>Calendula officinalis, Meteor.</li>
+<li>Calendula sulphurea.</li>
+<li>Calendula suffruticosa.</li>
+<li>Calliopsis bicolor marmorata.</li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+Calliopsis cardaminæfolia.</li>
+<li>Calliopsis elegans picta.</li>
+<li>Cosmidium Burridgeanum.</li>
+<li>Erysimum Peroffskianum.</li>
+<li>Eschscholtzia Californica.</li>
+<li>Hibiscus Africanus.</li>
+<li>Hibiscus, Golden Bowl.</li>
+<li>Ipomœa coccinea lutea.</li>
+<li>Loasa tricolor.</li>
+<li>Tagetes, various kinds.</li>
+<li>Thunbergia alata Fryeri.</li>
+<li>Thunbergia alata aurantiaca.</li>
+<li>Tropæolum, Dwarf, Lady Bird.</li>
+<li>Tropæolum, Tall, Schulzi.</li>
+<li>Zinnia.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3><i>BLUE FLOWERS</i></h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Ageratum Mexicanum.</li>
+<li>Ageratum Mexicanum, Dwarf.</li>
+<li>Browallia Czerniakowski.</li>
+<li>Browallia elata.</li>
+<li>Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact.</li>
+<li>Centaurea Cyanus minor.</li>
+<li>China Asters of several varieties.</li>
+<li>Convolvulus minor.</li>
+<li>Convolvulus minor unicaulis.</li>
+<li>Gilia achilleæfolia.</li>
+<li>Gilia capitata.</li>
+<li>Iberis umbellata.</li>
+<li>Iberis umbellata lilacina.</li>
+<li>Kaulfussia amelloides.</li>
+<li>Kaulfussia atroviolacea.</li>
+<li>Lobelia Erinus.</li>
+<li>Lobelia Erinus, Elegant.</li>
+<li>Nigella.</li>
+<li>Phlox variabilis atropurpurea.</li>
+<li>Salvia farinacea.</li>
+<li>Specularia.</li>
+<li>Verbena, Black-blue.</li>
+<li>Verbena cœrulea.</li>
+<li>Verbena, Golden-leaved.</li>
+<li>Whitlavia gloxinoides.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3><i>RED FLOWERS</i></h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Cacalia, Scarlet.</li>
+<li>Clarkia elegans rosea.</li>
+<li>Convolvulus tricolor roseus.</li>
+<li>Dianthus, Half Dwarf Early Margaret.</li>
+<li>Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual.</li>
+<li>Dianthus Chinensis, Double.</li>
+<li>Gaillardia picta.</li>
+<li>Ipomœa coccinea.</li>
+<li>Ipomœa volubilis.</li>
+<li>Matthiola annuus (Stocks).</li>
+<li>Matthiola, Blood-red Ten Weeks.</li>
+<li>Matthiola grandiflora, Dwarf.</li>
+<li>Papaver (Poppy) cardinale.</li>
+<li>Papaver, Double.</li>
+<li>Papaver, Mephisto.</li>
+<li>Phaseolus multiflorus.</li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+Phlox, Large-flowering Dwarf.</li>
+<li>Phlox, Dwarf Fireball.</li>
+<li>Phlox, Black Warrior.</li>
+<li>Salvia coccinea.</li>
+<li>Saponaria.</li>
+<li>Tropæolum, Dwarf, Tom Thumb.</li>
+<li>Tropæolum, Dwarf.</li>
+<li>Verbena hybrida.</li>
+<li>Verbena hybrida, Scarlet Defiance.</li>
+<li>Zinnia.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3><i>GOOD FOR EDGINGS OF BEDS AND WALKS</i></h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Alyssum, Sweet.</li>
+<li>Brachycome.</li>
+<li>Collinsias.</li>
+<li>Dianthuses or Pinks.</li>
+<li>Gypsophila muralis.</li>
+<li>Iberis or Candytufts.</li>
+<li>Leptosiphons.</li>
+<li>Lobelia Erinus.</li>
+<li>Nigellas.</li>
+<li>Nemophilas.</li>
+<li>Portulacas or Rose Moss.</li>
+<li>Saponaria Calabrica.</li>
+<li>Specularia.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3><i>KINDS WHICH CONTINUE TO BLOOM AFTER FROST</i></h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Abronia umbellata.</li>
+<li>Adonis æstivalis.</li>
+<li>Adonis autumnalis.</li>
+<li>Argemone grandiflora.</li>
+<li>Calendulas.</li>
+<li>Callirrhoë.</li>
+<li>Carduus Benedictus.</li>
+<li>Centaurea Cyanus.</li>
+<li>Centauridium.</li>
+<li>Centranthus macrosiphon.</li>
+<li>Cerinthe retorta.</li>
+<li>Cheiranthus Cheiri.</li>
+<li>Chrysanthemums.</li>
+<li>Convolvulus minor.</li>
+<li>Convolvulus tricolor.</li>
+<li>Dianthus of various kinds.</li>
+<li>Elscholtzia cristata.</li>
+<li>Erysimum Peroffskianum.</li>
+<li>Erysimum Arkansanum.</li>
+<li>Eschscholtzias, in several varieties.</li>
+<li>Gaillardia picta.</li>
+<li>Gilia Achilleæfolia.</li>
+<li>Gilia capitata.</li>
+<li>Gilia laciniata.</li>
+<li>Gilia tricolor.</li>
+<li>Iberis affinis.</li>
+<li>Lavatera alba.</li>
+<li>Matthiolas or Stocks.</li>
+<li>Œnothera rosea.</li>
+<li>Œnothera Lamarckiana.</li>
+<li>Œnothera Drummondii.</li>
+<li>Phlox Drummondii.</li>
+<li>Podolepis affinis.</li>
+<li>Podolepis chrysantha.</li>
+<li>Salvia coccinea.</li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+Salvia farinacea.</li>
+<li>Salvia Horminum.</li>
+<li>Verbenas.</li>
+<li>Vicia Gerardii.</li>
+<li>Virginian Stocks.</li>
+<li>Viscaria elegans.</li>
+<li>Viscaria oculata.</li>
+<li>Viscaria cœli-rosa.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><b>Antirrhinum.</b> <a href="#snapdragon">See <i>Snapdragon</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Apple</b>, the “King of Fruits,” thrives over a
+wider range of territory and under more varied conditions
+than any other tree fruit. This means that it is easy to
+grow. In fact, it is so easy to grow that it usually is
+neglected; and people wonder why the trees do not bear.</p>
+
+<p>The selection of varieties of Apples for home use is, to a
+large extent, a personal matter; and no one may say what
+to plant. A variety that is successfully grown in one section
+may prove disappointing in another. One should study
+the locality in which he wishes to plant and choose those
+varieties which are the most successfully grown there,&mdash;choosing
+from amongst the successful kinds those which he
+likes best and which seem best to meet the purposes for
+which he is to grow them. When the selection is made, the
+trees should be procured from a near-by nurseryman, if
+possible, as one is then able to select his own trees, receive
+them in the shortest time, and plant them before they have
+become dry.</p>
+
+<p>The land on which an orchard is to be planted should
+have been in cultivation at least two years previous to setting
+the trees and be in a fine physical condition. Dig
+the hole broad and deep enough to take in all the roots left
+after pruning off the bruised ends caused by digging up the
+tree, and trim back the branches at least two-thirds, making a
+smooth cut. Set the trunk in the center of the hole, and
+sift the fine dirt down through the roots, slightly lifting the
+tree once or twice in order that the fine soil may settle under
+the roots, making congenial soil for the new roots to run
+through. Fill in over the roots, gradually firming the soil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+above with the feet. When the hole is full, firm the
+soil around the trunk to prevent whipping by the
+wind, leaving the surface level. If the trees are set in the
+fall a slight earthing up to the trunk may be beneficial
+in certain soils, and if set in a dry
+spring a mulch of straw or grass
+will benefit them. Two- or 3-year-old
+trees (usually the latter) are
+the most desirable for planting
+in home grounds. Commercial
+orchards are often planted exclusively
+with 2-year-olds.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 264px;">
+<img src="images/015-apples.jpg" width="264" height="155" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Spray of Apples</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In orchard cultivation, Apple trees are usually planted
+35 to 40 ft. apart each way. In home grounds they may be
+placed somewhat closer than this, especially if they are
+planted upon the boundaries, so that the limbs may project
+freely in one direction.</p>
+
+<p>It is ordinarily advisable, especially in the humid climates
+east of the Great Lakes, to have the body of the tree 3½ to
+4½ ft. long. The limbs should be trimmed up to this point
+when the tree is set. From three to five main branches
+may be left to form the framework of the top. These should
+be shortened back one-fourth or one-half when the tree is set.
+Subsequent pruning should keep the top of the tree open
+and maintain it in more or less symmetrical form. <a href="#pruning">See
+<i>Pruning</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p>In orchard conditions, the trees should be kept in clean
+culture, especially for the first few years; but this is not
+always possible in home yards. In lieu of tillage, the sward
+may be mulched each fall with stable manure, and commercial
+fertilizer may be applied each fall or spring. If fruit is
+wanted rather than foliage and shade, care should be taken
+not to make ground too rich but to keep it in such condition that
+the tree is making a fairly vigorous growth, with good strong
+foliage, but is not overgrowing. An Apple tree in full bearing
+is usually in good condition if the twigs grow from 10 to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+18 in. each season. All leaf-eating insects may be kept off
+by spraying with Paris green. The Appleworm or codlin-moth
+may be kept in check by spraying with Paris green as
+soon as the blossoms fall, and again a week or ten days
+later. The leaf blight or apple-scab fungus may be kept in
+check by spraying with Bordeaux mixture just before the
+flowers open, and again after they fall (<a href="#spraying">see <i>Spraying</i></a>). A
+close watch should be kept for borers. Whenever the bark
+appears to be dead or sunken in patches, remove it and
+search for the cause. A borer will usually be found underneath
+the bark. About the base of the tree the most serious
+injury occurs from borers, since the insect which enters
+there bores into the hard wood. His presence can be determined
+by the chips which are cast from his burrows. The
+only remedy is to dig out the larvæ. If they have got far
+into the wood, they can be killed by running a flexible wire
+into the burrows.</p>
+
+<p>Apple trees should begin to bear when three to five years
+planted, and at ten years should be bearing good crops.
+With good treatment, they should continue to bear for thirty
+or more years. It is cheaper to buy trees from the nursery
+than to attempt to raise them for oneself.</p>
+
+<p>The dwarf Apples are secured by grafting any variety
+on the Paradise or Doucin stocks, which are simply small-growing
+varieties of Apples. Dwarfs are much used in the Old
+World. There is no reason why they should not be used for
+home gardens in this country. They may be planted 8 to
+10 ft. apart, and trained in various ways. The body or
+trunk should not be more than 1 or 2 ft. long. The top
+should be headed-in each year a third or a half of the annual
+growth. Dwarfs bear sooner than standards. A dwarf in
+full bearing should produce from a peck to a bushel of
+apples. Usually only the finer or dessert variety of Apples
+should be grown on dwarf trees.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the local varieties of Apples are excellent
+for home use. From the following list of dessert varieties,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+one can select a good assortment for the home
+garden:</p>
+
+<p><i>Summer.</i>&mdash;Early Joe, Primate, Garden Royal, Summer
+Pearmain, Early Harvest, Summer Rose, Sweet Bough, Summer
+Queen, Early Strawberry, Williams Favorite.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fall.</i>&mdash;Chenango, Dyer, Jefferis, Jersey Sweet, Maiden
+Blush, Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Mother (late fall to winter),
+Twenty Ounce.</p>
+
+<p><i>Winter.</i>&mdash;Newtown Pippin, Golden Russet, Bellflower,
+Belmont, King (late fall S. of N. Y.), Grimes Golden, Melon,
+Hubbardston (Nonesuch), Northern Spy, Jonathan, Fameuse
+or Snow, Lady, Rambo, Canada Red, York Imperial, Pomme
+Gris, Esopus Spitzenburg, Swaar, Peck Pleasant, Rhode
+Island Greening, Tallman Sweet, Sutton Beauty, Wagener,
+Seek-no-further.</p>
+
+<p><b>Apricot.</b> This fruit, usually thought to be too
+tender for the winters in the latitude of New York, has
+proved as hardy as the peach. Given the right conditions
+as to soil and exposure, it will yield abundant crops, ripening
+its fruits about three weeks in advance of early peaches.
+It would seem that more attention should be given to its
+cultivation. In western New York commercial orchards are
+now producing crops of as fine fruit as that brought from
+California. The introduction of the Russian varieties, a few
+years ago, added to the list several desirable kinds that have
+proved hardier and a little later in blooming than the old
+kinds. The fruits of the Russian varieties, while not as
+large as the other varieties, fully equal many of them in
+flavor, and they are very productive. The soil for Apricots
+should be rather dry; especially should the subsoil be
+such that no water may stand around the roots. The exposure
+should be to the north or west to retard the blooming
+period, as the one great drawback to their successful fruiting
+is the early blooming and subsequent freezing of the flowers
+or small fruits.</p>
+
+<p>The two serious difficulties in the growing of Apricots<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+are the ravages of the curculio (<a href="#plum">see <i>Plum</i></a>) and the danger
+to the flowers from the spring frosts. It is usually almost
+impossible to secure fruits from one or two isolated Apricot
+trees, because the curculios will take them all. It is possible,
+also, that some of the varieties need cross-pollination.
+The Apricot usually thrives best on strong soil; but otherwise
+the treatment which is given the peach suits the Apricot
+very well. The Russian varieties bear more profusely
+and with less care than the old-fashioned and larger kinds.
+Amongst the best kinds of Apricots are Montgamet, Jackson,
+Royal, St. Ambroise, Early Golden, Harris, Roman and
+Moorepark. In the east, Apricots are commonly worked on
+plums, but they also thrive on the peach.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aquarium.</b> A pleasant adjunct to a living
+room or conservatory is a large glass globe or glass box
+containing water, in which plants and animals are living
+and growing. A solid glass tank or globe is better than
+a box with glass sides, because it does not leak, but the
+box must be used if one wants a large Aquarium. For
+most persons it is better to buy the Aquarium box than to
+attempt to make it. Four things are important in making
+and keeping an Aquarium (according to Miss Rogers, in
+Cornell Nature-Study Leaflet No. 11):</p>
+
+<p>“(1) The equilibrium between plant and animal life
+must be secured and maintained. Animals do not thrive in
+water where no plants are growing. Nature keeps plants
+and animals in the same pond, and we must follow her lead.
+The plants have three valuable functions in the Aquarium.
+First, they supply food for the herbivorous creatures.
+Second, they give off a quantity of oxygen which is necessary
+to the life of the animals. Third, they take up from
+the water the poisonous carbonic acid gas which passes
+from the bodies of the animals. Just how the plants do
+this is another story. (2) The Aquarium must be ventilated.
+Every little fish, snail and insect wants air. A
+certain quantity of air is mixed with the water, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+creatures must breathe that or come to the surface for their
+supply. How does Mother Nature manage the ventilation
+of her aquaria, the ponds and streams? The plants furnish
+part of the air, as we have seen. The open pond,
+whose surface is ruffled by every passing breeze, is constantly
+being provided with fresh air. A tadpole or a fish
+can no more live in a long-necked bottle than a boy can
+live in a chimney. (3) The temperature should be kept
+between 40° and 50° Fahr. Both nature and experience
+teach us this. A shady corner is a better place for the
+Aquarium than a sunny window on a warm day. (4) It is
+well to choose such animals for the Aquarium as are
+adapted to life in still water. Unless one has an arrangement
+of water pipes to supply a constant flow of water
+through the Aquarium, it is best not to try to keep creatures
+that we find in swift streams. Practical experience shows
+that there are certain dangers to guard against. Perhaps
+the most serious results come from overstocking. It is
+better to have too few plants or animals than too many of
+either. A great deal of light, especially bright sunlight, is
+not good for the Aquarium. A pond that is not shaded
+soon becomes green with a thick growth of slime, or algæ.
+This does not look well in an Aquarium, and is apt to take
+up so much of the plant-food that the other plants are
+starved out. The plants in the school-room window will
+shade the Aquarium nicely, just as the trees and shrubs on
+its banks shade the pond. If we find this slime forming
+on the light side of our miniature pond we put it in a darker
+place, shade it heavily so that the light comes in from the
+top only, and put in a few more snails. These will make
+quick work of the green slime, for they are fond of it, if we
+are not.”</p>
+
+<p>The aquatic plants of the neighborhood may be kept in
+the Aquarium,&mdash;such things as myriophyllums, charas, eel-grass,
+duckmeats or lemnas, cabomba or fish grass, arrowleafs
+or sagittaria, and the like; also the parrot’s feather,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+to be bought of florists (a species of myriophyllum). Of animals,
+there are fishes (particularly minnows), water insects,
+tadpoles, clams, snails. If the proper balance is maintained
+between plant and animal life, it will not be necessary
+to change the water so frequently.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aquatics and Bog Plants.</b> Many water plants
+are easily grown, and make a fine addition to the home
+garden. The sedges and other bog plants, the cyperus or
+umbrella plant, the common wild water lily, and in large
+grounds the nelumbium or Egyptian lotus, all may be grown
+with ease. For restricted grounds any of these, with the
+exception of the nelumbium, may be grown in tubs made by
+sawing an oaken barrel in two, filling each half from one-third
+to one-half with soil composed of good loam, sand
+and leaf-mold, setting the plants well into the soil and filling
+the tubs with water. These tubs should be sunk to the
+rim in the borders or lawn, both for a good appearance and
+to prevent too great evaporation. By a little care in filling
+with water, these plants may be well grown through the
+hottest weather. Most of the foreign water lilies are not
+hardy, but some of them may be grown with ease if the
+pond is covered in winter.</p>
+
+<p>Native Aquatics may be colonized in streams or ponds.
+If artificial ponds are to be made, do not get them too deep.
+A foot or 15 inches is sufficient depth of water to stand
+above the crowns of the plants; and the greatest depth of
+water should not be more than 2½ ft. for all kinds of
+water lilies. Half this depth is often sufficient. The soil
+should be 1 to 2 ft. deep, and very rich. Cow manure may
+be mixed with rich loam. Roots of hardy water lilies may
+be planted as soon as the pond is clear of frost, but the
+tender kinds (which are also to be taken up in the fall)
+should not be planted till it is time to plant out geraniums.
+Sink the roots into the mud so that they are just buried, and
+weight them down with a stone or clod. In cold climates,
+protect the pond of hardy Aquatics by throwing boards over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+the pond and covering with hay, straw or evergreen boughs.
+It is well to supply an additional depth of water as a further
+protection.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="aquilegia" id="aquilegia"></a>Aquilegia.</b> <span class="smcap">Columbine.</span> These hardy perennials
+are general favorites for borders and rockwork.
+Blooming early in the season, they may be said to head the
+procession of the perennials. The ease with which they
+may be cultivated, their freedom of bloom, their varied
+colors and odd shape entitle them to the front rank among
+hardy plants. They are propagated by division of the
+plants in the spring or from seed sown in the fall. Seedlings
+may be expected to bloom well the second year. They
+require a moist, partially sheltered situation, with exposure
+to the sun. The common wild Columbine (often called
+“honeysuckle”) is easily grown and is very attractive.
+Clumps of Columbine should stand 12-18 in. apart. 2-3 ft.
+high.</p>
+
+<p><b>Araucaria</b>, or <span class="smcap">Norfolk Island Pine</span>, is now
+sold in pots by florists as a window plant. The common
+species (<i>A. excelsa</i>) is most excellent for this purpose, making
+a symmetrical evergreen subject. It keeps well in
+a cool window, or on the veranda in the summer. Protect
+it from direct sunlight, and give plenty of room. If the
+plant begins to fail, return it to the florist for recuperation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Argemone.</b> <a href="#prickly">See <i>Prickly Poppy</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="aristolochia" id="aristolochia"></a>Aristolochia</b>, or <span class="smcap">Dutchman’s Pipe</span>. A strong,
+woody twiner with very large, heavy leaves, forming a dense
+screen and having peculiarly shaped flowers. But one
+species is considered hardy north, <i>A. Sipho</i>. This will grow
+without special treatment and prove a satisfactory ornamental
+screen or porch plant. Reaches a height of 20 or 30
+ft. Young plants need some protection in cold winters.</p>
+
+<p><b>Artichoke.</b> A tall, coarse perennial of the thistle
+tribe, producing flower-heads which are edible. When once
+established, it will last in bearing for a number of years.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+While this plant is not generally grown in this country,
+its merit as a supplementary vegetable for salads or cooking
+is great. It is usually grown from suckers from the root,
+but a start can be made by sowing the seed. Sow in a
+border or seed box and transplant to the garden in early
+summer; and the following year a crop may be had. The
+parts of the plant used are the flower-heads and the young
+suckers, the former boiled or eaten raw as a salad. The young
+shoots may be tied together and blanched, using them like
+asparagus or Swiss chard. The fleshy scales of the head
+and the soft “bottom” of the head are the parts used. But
+few of these plants would be needed for a family, as they
+produce a number of flower-heads to a plant and a quantity
+of suckers. The plants should be set from 2 to 3 ft. apart
+in the row, the rows being 3 ft. apart. This vegetable is
+not quite hardy in the north, but a covering of leaves or
+barnyard litter to the depth of a foot will protect them well.
+The plant, being a perennial, will continue to yield for a
+number of years under good cultivation. These plants make
+no mean decorative subjects, either massed or in a mixed
+border, and from the rarity of their culture are always objects
+of interest.</p>
+
+<p><b>Artichoke, Jerusalem</b>, is a wholly different
+plant from the above, although it is commonly known as
+“Artichoke” in this country. It is a species of sunflower
+which produces potato-like tubers. These tubers may be
+used in lieu of potatoes. They are very palatable to hogs;
+and when the plant becomes a weed&mdash;as it often does&mdash;it
+may be exterminated by turning the hogs into it. Hardy.</p>
+
+<p><b>Arundo</b>, or <span class="smcap">Reed</span>, is one of the best of bold and
+ornamental grasses, excellent for the center of a large formal
+bed, or for emphatic points in a mixed border. It is perennial
+and hardy in the northern states, but it is advisable
+to give it a mulch on the approach of winter. Thrives in
+any rich soil, doing best where somewhat moist. 8-12 ft.
+The clumps enlarge year by year.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+<b>Asparagus.</b> A hardy herbaceous perennial,
+much grown for the soft, edible, early spring shoots. The
+culture of this, the finest of early vegetables, has been simplified
+in the past few years, and at present the knowledge
+required to successfully plant and grow a good supply need
+not be that of a professional. The old method of excavating
+to the depth of 3 ft. or more, throwing in from 4 to 6 in.
+of broken stone or bricks for drainage, then filling to within
+16 to 18 in. of the surface with well rotted manure, with 6
+in. of soil upon which to set the roots, has given place to
+the simple practice of plowing or digging a trench from 14
+to 16 in. deep, spreading well rotted manure in the bottom
+to the depth of 3 or 4 in.; when well trodden down covering
+the manure with 3 or 4 in. of good garden soil, then setting
+the plants, with the roots well spread out, covering carefully
+with soil to the level of the garden, and firming the soil
+with the feet. This will leave the crowns of the plants from
+4 to 5 in. below the surface. In setting, 1-year-old plants
+will prove more satisfactory than older ones, being less
+liable to suffer from injury to the root system than those
+which have made a larger growth. Two years after setting
+the crop may be cut, but not sooner if a lasting bed is desired,
+as the effort to replace the stalks has a tendency to
+weaken the plant unless the roots are well established. The
+yearly treatment of an Asparagus bed consists of cleaning
+off tops and weeds in the fall and adding a dressing of well
+rotted manure to the depth of 3 or 4 in., this manure to be
+lightly forked into the bed the following spring; or, the
+tops may be allowed to stand for winter protection and the
+mulch left off. A top-dressing of nitrate of soda, at the
+rate of 200 pounds per acre, is often beneficial as a spring
+stimulant, especially in the case of an old bed. Good results
+will also follow an application of bone meal or superphosphate
+at the rate of from 300 to 500 pounds per
+acre. The practice of sowing salt on an Asparagus bed is
+almost universal. Still, beds that have never received a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+pound of salt are found to be as productive as those having
+received an annual dressing. Nevertheless, a salt dressing
+is recommended. In stubborn, heavy soil the best method
+to pursue in making a permanent bed would be to throw out
+all the dirt from the trench and replace with good, fibrous
+loam. Two rows of Asparagus 25 ft. long and 3 ft. apart would
+supply a large family with an abundance throughout the
+season, and if well taken care of will last a number of years.
+Conover’s Colossal is the variety most generally grown,
+and is perhaps the most satisfactory sort. Palmetto, a
+variety originating at the south, is also very popular. A
+newer variety, called Donald White, originating near Elmira,
+N. Y., is recommended by the trade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Asperula.</b> Hardy annuals and perennials.
+The low-growing Asperula, with its blue or white flowers,
+is not as often used as it should be. The profusion of small
+flowers and the long season entitle it to a place in low borders.
+The flowers have a pleasing fragrance. Asperulas may be
+used effectively on rockwork. The common white species, or
+Woodruff, grows less than 1 foot. Grown readily from
+seeds, and blooms the first year. All Asperulas thrive best
+in a rather moist soil.</p>
+
+<p><b>Asters, China.</b> Half-hardy annuals, of easy
+culture. The China Aster has been for years a great
+favorite in both old-fashioned and modern gardens. With
+the improvements in shapes and colors, they are now
+the rivals of the chrysanthemum. As early as 1731 single
+white and red Asters were grown and described in England,
+and by 1845 they are mentioned as being very numerous
+in New England. The Germans were, perhaps, the
+first to improve the Asters, and the type most admired and
+sought fifty years ago was the full-quilled varieties. Now,
+however, the informal type replaces the stiff, formal quilled
+flowers of that period. Compare the Comet Aster of to-day
+with the Asters of even twenty years ago, and note the
+looseness of its broad rays, giving an artistic value<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+far beyond the tall, stiff, purple-blue or whites of that
+period.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 126px;">
+<img src="images/025-asters.jpg" width="126" height="165" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">China Aster</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The early Asters will bloom in August if the seed is
+sown in the open early in the season. They are represented
+by the Queen of the Market and Queen of Spring,
+either of which, if started in a hotbed or window,
+will begin to bloom the last of July. The Queen
+of the Market is probably the freest of growth,
+and with its long stems makes a very desirable
+variety for cut-flowers. In fact, in the rich, mellow
+soil in which Asters delight, this variety is
+likely to have its large flowers on stems so long
+and slender that the plants will need stakes.</p>
+
+<p>The Victoria Asters hold a well deserved place
+among the leading varieties, and with high culture will
+generally lead in size and profusion of bloom, the colors
+ranging from white to the darkest blue. The plants are
+also well adapted to pot culture. The chrysanthemum-flowered
+Asters, both tall and dwarf, are excellent, as are
+the Truffaut Perfection and Peony-flowered. The Comet
+Asters are amongst the best. The New Branching type is
+now in great favor.</p>
+
+<p>The culture of China Asters is easy. For early bloom
+the seeds should be sown in March in boxes of light soil and
+covered one-quarter of an inch with soil, the soil pressed
+down or firmed over them and the boxes placed in a hotbed
+or a sunny window and attention given to watering. When
+the seedlings are one inch high they should be transplanted
+to other boxes, setting the plants 3 inches apart or
+put into 2-inch pots. These should be again placed in a
+frame and grown along until the ground has become comparatively
+warm. The soil will need to be well enriched,
+mellow, and if slightly moist under the surface the results
+will be all that could be wished. Asters will grow fairly
+well on rather light soil, even if not very rich, but the best
+results can only be obtained when the highest culture is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+given. If the rust attacks the plants, spray with ammoniacal
+carbonate of copper.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 171px;">
+<img src="images/026-asters2.jpg" width="171" height="159" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Spray of wild Aster</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 143px;">
+<img src="images/026-asters3.jpg" width="143" height="192" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Wild Asters</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Aster, Native.</b> Wild Asters are one of the
+glories of the American autumn. They grow almost everywhere
+in the north and east,&mdash;along roadsides,
+in meadows and swales. Their colors
+range from pure white to pink, and purple,
+and blue. From August until winter closes
+in, they are conspicuous features of the landscape,
+vying with the goldenrods in form and
+color, but surpassing them in color-range.
+Most of them are greatly improved when
+transferred to the border. They become
+more attractive in general habit, and the flowers are usually
+more profuse and sometimes larger. They are of the easiest
+possible culture. They can be removed to home grounds in
+the fall or spring, and, with little care until they are established,
+will make most attractive displays of
+autumn color. The species are numerous and
+much confused, and it is not necessary to make
+a list of them here. Because of their free and
+careless habit, they are better adapted to
+planting in borders than in the formal flower
+beds.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aubrietia deltoidea.</b> A very handsome
+little trailing hardy perennial, covered
+with attractive purple flowers in early spring.
+Should be planted in masses for best effect.
+Propagated by cuttings or seeds, usually the latter. Excellent
+for rockwork and permanent low edgings.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="auricula" id="auricula"></a>Auricula.</b> A half-hardy perennial of the
+Primrose tribe (<i>Primula Auricula</i>), very popular in Europe,
+but little grown in this country on account of the hot, dry
+summers. In this country usually propagated by seed, as
+for Cineraria; but special varieties are perpetuated by offsets.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+Seeds sown in February or March should give blooming
+plants for the next February or March. Keep the
+plants cool and moist, and away from the direct sun during
+the summer. Gardeners usually grow them in frames.
+In the fall, they are potted into 3-inch or 4-inch pots, and
+made to bloom either in frames as for violets or in a cool
+conservatory or greenhouse. In April, after blooming has
+ceased, repot the plants and treat as the previous year.
+From the best plants, offsets may be taken and treated the
+same as seedlings. As with most annual-blooming perennials,
+best results are to be expected with year-old or 2-year-old
+plants. Auriculas grow 6-8 in. high. Colors white
+and many shades of red and blue.</p>
+
+<p><b>Azaleas</b> are less grown in this country than
+in Europe, largely because of our hot, dry summers and
+severe winters. There are two common types or classes,&mdash;the
+hardy or Ghent Azaleas, and the Indian Azaleas.</p>
+
+<p>Ghent Azaleas thrive in the open along the seacoast as
+far north as southern New England. They require a sandy,
+peaty soil, and are treated as other shrubs are. The large
+flower-buds are liable to injury from the warm suns of late
+winter and early spring, and to avoid this injury the plants
+are often protected by covers or shades of brush. In the
+interior country, little attempt is made to flower Azaleas
+permanently in the open, although they may be grown if
+carefully tended and well protected. Both Ghent and Indian
+Azaleas are excellent pot-plants, for bloom in late
+winter and spring. The plants are imported in great numbers
+from Europe, and it is better to buy these plants than
+to attempt to propagate them. Pot them up in large-sized
+pots, keep them cool and backward for a time until they are
+established, then take them into a conservatory temperature,
+in which carnations and roses thrive. They should be
+potted in a soil made of half peat or well decayed mold and
+half rich loam; add a little sand. Pot firmly, and be sure
+to provide sufficient drainage. Keep off red spider by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+syringing. After blooming, the plants may be thinned by
+pruning out the straggling growths, and repotted. Set them
+in a frame or in a semi-shaded place during summer, and see
+that they make a good growth. The wood should be well
+ripened in the fall. After cold weather sets in, keep the
+Indian or evergreen kinds half-dormant by setting them in
+a cool, dull-lighted cellar or pit, bringing them in when
+wanted for bloom. The Ghent or deciduous kinds may be
+touched with frost without injury; and they may be stored
+in a cellar until wanted.</p>
+
+<p><a name="B" id="B"></a><b>Bachelor’s Button.</b> <a href="#centaurea"><i>Centaurea Cyanus</i></a>
+and also <a href="#gomphrena"><i>Gomphrena</i></a>. Sometimes applied
+to double-flowered Crowfoots.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 172px;">
+<img src="images/028-balloon.jpg" width="172" height="233" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Balloon Vine</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="balloon" id="balloon"></a>Balloon Vine</b>, or <span class="smcap">Cardiospermum</span>. Annual
+tender tendril climber of very rapid growth.
+Seed should not be planted until the soil becomes
+warm. A very pretty effect can be had by allowing
+the vine to run over some coarser vine, or into an
+evergreen tree. The balloon-like capsules show to
+good advantage between the leaves. It is also useful
+for covering piles of brush. Grows 8-12 ft. high.
+Give a warm, sunny place.</p>
+
+<p><b>Balsams</b>, or <span class="smcap">Impatiens</span>. Tender annuals, producing
+both single and double flowers of many colors.
+These well known favorites are usually to be found in old-fashioned
+gardens. They are very likely to seed themselves,
+coming up in unexpected places and flourishing in neglect.
+They do best, however, in rich, sandy soil. If the seed is
+sown in boxes late in April and the plants transplanted several
+times they will be much dwarfer and the flowers much
+more double. A stately, though very formal and stiff, effect
+may be had by planting a row of Balsams in the rear of a
+low border, pinching off all the side shoots as they start and
+growing the plant to a single stem. This will become covered
+with the large blooms, giving it the appearance of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+perfect column of flowers. Balsams are injured by the
+slightest frost. Seeds germinate quickly. Plants should
+stand 12-18 in. apart. They grow 18-30 in. high.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bartonia.</b> Hardy annual, with golden yellow,
+brilliant flowers. The tall-growing Bartonia (<i>B. aurea</i>)
+may be used in a mixed border to good advantage. It is a
+bushy plant, reaching 2-3 ft. high. The dwarf kind may
+be used as a border plant or in a rock garden, or as an
+edging. The fragrance of both tall and dwarf is very pronounced
+in the evening. The Bartonias are very easy to
+grow in a warm soil and sunny exposure. Their numerous
+thread-like, long stamens are very interesting.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="basket_plants" id="basket_plants"></a>Basket Plants.</b> In order to have a good hanging
+basket, it is necessary that some provision be made
+to prevent too rapid drying out of the earth. It is customary,
+therefore, to line the pot or basket with moss. Open
+wire baskets, like a horse muzzle, are often lined with moss
+and used for the growing of plants. Prepare the earth by
+mixing some well decayed leaf-mold with rich garden loam,
+thereby making an earth which will retain moisture. Hang
+the basket in a light place, but still not in a direct sunlight;
+and, if possible, avoid putting it where it will be exposed to
+drying wind. In order to water the basket, it is often advisable
+to sink it into a pail or tub of water. Various
+plants are well adapted to hanging baskets. Among the
+drooping or vine-like kinds are the strawberry geranium,
+Kenilworth ivy, maurandya, German ivy, canary-bird flower,
+<i>Asparagus Sprengeri</i>, ivy geranium, trailing fuchsia, wandering
+Jew, and othonna. Among the erect-growing plants
+which produce flowers, <i>Lobelia Erinus</i>, sweet alyssum,
+petunias, oxalis, and various geraniums are to be recommended.
+Among foliage plants such things as coleus, dusty
+miller, begonia, and some geraniums are adaptable.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 172px;">
+<img src="images/030-basket.jpg" width="172" height="139" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Climax basket</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Baskets.</b> For the picking and handling of
+fruit in the home garden, the common Climax basket, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+various sizes, is the best receptacle. In these baskets the
+products may be sold. When the baskets are sent to
+market or to a friend, they should be neat and new looking;
+therefore keep them in a dry, dark place, as
+in an attic or loft, to prevent them from
+becoming warped and discolored.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bean.</b> Under the general name of
+Bean, many kinds of plants are cultivated.
+They are all tender, and the seeds, therefore,
+should not be planted until the weather is
+thoroughly settled; and the soil should be
+warm and loose. They are all annuals in northern countries,
+or treated as such.</p>
+
+<p>The Bean plants may be classified in various ways. In
+respect to stature, they may be thrown into three general
+categories; viz., the pole or climbing Beans, the bush
+Beans, and the strict-growing or upright Beans (as the
+Broad or Windsor Bean). In respect to their uses, Beans
+again may be divided into three categories; viz., those
+which are used as string or snap Beans, the entire pod
+being eaten; those which are used as shell Beans, the
+full-size but immature Beans being shelled from the pod
+and cooked; dry Beans, or those which are eaten in their
+dry or winter condition. The same variety of Bean may be
+used for all of these three purposes at different stages of its
+development; but as a matter of fact, there are varieties
+which are better for one purpose than the other. Again,
+Beans may be classified in respect to their species. Those
+species which are best known are as follows: (1) Common
+Bean, or <i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i>, of which there are both
+tall and bush forms. All the common snap and string Beans
+belong here, as also the Speckled Cranberry types of pole
+Beans, and the common field Beans. (2) The Lima Beans,
+or <i>Phaseolus lunatus</i>. The larger part of these are pole
+Beans, but lately dwarf or bush varieties have appeared.
+(3) The Scarlet Runner, <i>Phaseolus multiflorus</i>, of which the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+Scarlet Runner and White Dutch Runner are familiar examples.
+The Scarlet Runner is usually grown as an ornamental
+vine, and it is perennial in warm countries, but the
+Beans are edible as shelled Beans. The White Dutch
+Runner is oftener cultivated for food. (4) The Yard-Long,
+or Asparagus Bean, <i>Dolichos sesquipedalis</i>, which produces
+long and weak vines and very long, slender pods. The
+green pods are eaten, and also the shelled Beans. The
+French Yard-Long is the only variety of this type which is
+commonly known in this country. This type of Bean is
+popular in the Orient. (5) The Broad Beans, of which the
+Windsor is the common type. These are much grown in
+the Old World for stock feed, and they are sometimes used
+for human food. They grow to one strict, central, stiff
+stalk, to a height of 2-4 or 5 ft., and they are very unlike
+other kinds of Beans in appearance. In this country, they
+are very little grown on account of our hot and dry summers.
+In Canada they are somewhat grown, and are sometimes
+used in the making of ensilage.</p>
+
+<p>The culture of the Bean, while of the easiest, often
+proves a failure as far as the first crop is concerned, because
+of planting the seed before the ground has become
+warm and dry. No vegetable seed will decay quicker than
+Beans, and the delay caused by waiting for the soil to become
+warm and free from excessive moisture will be more
+than made up by the rapidity of growth when finally they
+are planted. Beans will grow in most any soil, but the best
+results may be obtained by having the soil well enriched
+and in good physical condition. From the 5th to the 10th
+of May in the latitude of central New York, it will be safe
+to plant Beans for an early crop. The Beans may be
+dropped 2 inches deep in shallow drills, the seeds to lie 3
+inches apart. Cover to the surface of the soil, and if the
+ground be dry, firm it with the foot or the back of the hoe.
+For the bush varieties, allow 2 ft. between the drill-rows,
+but for the dwarf Limas 2½ ft. is better. Pole Limas are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+usually planted in hills 2-3 ft. apart in the rows. Dwarf
+Limas may be sown thinly in drills.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of the varieties of both the green-podded
+and the wax-podded Beans are used almost exclusively as
+snap Beans, to be eaten with the pod while tender. The
+various strains of the Black Wax are the most popular
+string Beans. The pole or running Beans are used either
+green or dried, and the Limas, both tall and dwarf, are
+well known for their superior flavor either as shelled or
+dry Beans. The old-fashioned Cranberry or Horticultural
+Lima type (a pole form of <i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i>) is probably
+the best shell Bean, but the trouble of poling makes it
+unpopular. Dwarf Limas are much more desirable for
+small gardens than the pole varieties, as they may be
+planted much closer, the bother of procuring poles and
+twine is avoided, and the garden will have a more sightly
+appearance. Both the dwarf Limas and pole Limas require
+a longer season in which to mature than the bush varieties,
+and only one planting is usually made. But the bush varieties
+may be planted at intervals of two weeks from the
+first planting until the 10th of August. Each planting may
+be made on ground previously occupied by some early-maturing
+crop. Thus, the first to third plantings may be on
+ground from which has been harvested a crop of spinach,
+early radish or lettuce; after that, on ground where early
+peas have been grown; and the later sowings where beets
+or early potatoes have grown. String Beans for canning
+are usually taken from the last crop. One quart of seed
+will plant 100 ft. of drill; or 1 quart of Limas will plant
+100 hills.</p>
+
+<p>Limas are the richest of Beans, but they often fail to
+mature in the northern states. The land should not be
+very rich in nitrogen (or stable manure), else the plants
+will run too much to vine and be too late. Select a fertile
+sandy or gravelly soil with warm exposure, use some soluble
+commercial fertilizer to start them off, and give them the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+best of culture. Aim to have the pods set before the
+droughts of midsummer come. Good trellises for Beans
+are made by wool twine stretched between two horizontal
+wires, one of which is drawn a foot above the ground and
+the other 6 or 7 ft. high.</p>
+
+<p>Bean plants are not troubled by insects to any extent,
+but they are sometimes attacked by blight. When this occurs,
+do not plant the same ground to Beans again for
+a year or two.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="bedding" id="bedding"></a>Bedding.</b> This term is used to designate the
+massing of plants in the open ground for the purpose of
+making a bold display of color. This color may be obtained
+with flowers or with strong effects of foliage. Bedding is
+ordinarily a temporary species of planting; that is, the bed
+is filled anew each year. However, the term may be used
+to designate a permanent plantation of plants which are
+heavily massed so as to give one continuous or emphatic
+display of form or color. Some of the best permanent bedding
+masses are made of the various hardy ornamental
+grasses, as eulalias, arundo, and the like.</p>
+
+<p>Some bedding is very temporary in its effect. Especially
+is this true of spring Bedding, in which the plants used are
+tulips, hyacinths, crocuses or other early-flowering bulbous
+plants. In this case, the ground is usually occupied later in
+the season by other plants. These later plants are usually
+annuals, the seeds of which are sown amongst the bulbs as
+soon as the season is far enough advanced; or the annuals
+may be started in boxes and the plants transplanted amongst
+the bulbs as soon as the weather is fit. Many of the low-growing
+and compact, continuous-flowering annuals are excellent
+for summer Bedding effects. Some of the best plants
+for this purpose are mentioned in the following list:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Adonis æstivalis.</li>
+<li>Adonis autumnalis.</li>
+<li>Ageratum Mexicanum.</li>
+<li>Ageratum Mexicanum, dwarf.</li>
+<li>Bartonia aurea.</li>
+<li>Cacalia.</li>
+<li>Calendula officinalis, in several forms.</li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+Calendula pluvialis.</li>
+<li>Calendula Pongei.</li>
+<li>Calendula sulphurea, fl. pl.</li>
+<li>Calendula suffruticosa.</li>
+<li>Calliopsis bicolor marmorata.</li>
+<li>Calliopsis cardaminæfolia.</li>
+<li>Calliopsis elegans picta.</li>
+<li>Callirrhoë involucrata.</li>
+<li>Callirrhoë pedata nana.</li>
+<li>Callirrhoë pedata.</li>
+<li>Centaurea Americana.</li>
+<li>Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact.</li>
+<li>Centaurea Cyanus minor.</li>
+<li>Centaurea suaveolens.</li>
+<li>Chrysanthemum Burridgeanum.</li>
+<li>Chrysanthemum carinatum.</li>
+<li>Chrysanthemum coronarium.</li>
+<li>Chrysanthemum tricolor.</li>
+<li>Convolvulus minor.</li>
+<li>Convolvulus tricolor.</li>
+<li>Cosmidium Burridgeanum.</li>
+<li>Delphinium, single.</li>
+<li>Delphinium, double.</li>
+<li>Dianthus, Double White Half Dwarf Margaret.</li>
+<li>Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual.</li>
+<li>Dianthus Caryophyllus semperflorens.</li>
+<li>Dianthus Chinensis, double.</li>
+<li>Dianthus dentosus hybridus.</li>
+<li>Dianthus Heddewigii.</li>
+<li>Dianthus imperialis.</li>
+<li>Dianthus laciniatus, Salmon Queen.</li>
+<li>Dianthus plumarius.</li>
+<li>Dianthus superbus, dwarf fl. pl.</li>
+<li>Dianthus, Picotee.</li>
+<li>Elscholtzia cristata.</li>
+<li>Eschscholtzia Californica.</li>
+<li>Eschscholtzia crocea.</li>
+<li>Eschscholtzia, Mandarin.</li>
+<li>Eschscholtzia tenuifolia.</li>
+<li>Gaillardia picta.</li>
+<li>Gaillardia picta Lorenziana.</li>
+<li>Gilia achilleæfolia.</li>
+<li>Gilia capitata.</li>
+<li>Gilia laciniata.</li>
+<li>Gilia linifolia.</li>
+<li>Gilia nivalis.</li>
+<li>Gilia tricolor.</li>
+<li>Godetia Whitneyi.</li>
+<li>Godetia grandiflora maculata.</li>
+<li>Godetia rubicunda splendens.</li>
+<li>Hibiscus Africanus.</li>
+<li>Hibiscus, Golden Bowl.</li>
+<li>Iberis affinis.</li>
+<li>Iberis amara.</li>
+<li>Iberis coronaria.</li>
+<li>Iberis umbellata.</li>
+<li>Impatiens or Balsam.</li>
+<li>Lavatera alba.</li>
+<li>Lavatera trimestris.</li>
+<li>Linum grandiflorum.</li>
+<li>Madia elegans.</li>
+<li>Malope grandiflora.</li>
+<li>Matricaria eximia plena.</li>
+<li>Matthiola or Stock, in many forms.</li>
+<li>Matthiola, Wallflower-leaved.</li>
+<li>Matthiola bicornis.</li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+Nigella or Love-in-a-Mist.</li>
+<li>Œnothera Drummondii.</li>
+<li>Œnothera Lamarckiana.</li>
+<li>Œnothera rosea.</li>
+<li>Œnothera tetraptera.</li>
+<li>Papaver or Poppy, of many kinds.</li>
+<li>Papaver cardinale.</li>
+<li>Papaver glaucum.</li>
+<li>Papaver umbrosum.</li>
+<li>Petunia, Ring of Emerald.</li>
+<li>Phlox Drummondii, in many varieties.</li>
+<li>Portulaca.</li>
+<li>Salvia farinacea.</li>
+<li>Salvia Horminum.</li>
+<li>Salvia splendens.</li>
+<li>Schizanthus papilionaceus.</li>
+<li>Schizanthus pinnatus.</li>
+<li>Silene Armeria.</li>
+<li>Silene pendula.</li>
+<li>Tagetes or Marigold, in many forms.</li>
+<li>Tagetes erecta.</li>
+<li>Tagetes patula.</li>
+<li>Tagetes signata.</li>
+<li>Tropæolum, Dwarf.</li>
+<li>Verbena auriculæflora.</li>
+<li>Verbena Italica striata.</li>
+<li>Verbena hybrida.</li>
+<li>Verbena cœrulea.</li>
+<li>Verbena, Golden-leaved.</li>
+<li>Viscaria cœli-rosa.</li>
+<li>Viscaria elegans picta.</li>
+<li>Viscaria oculata.</li>
+<li>Zinnia, Dwarf.</li>
+<li>Zinnia elegans alba.</li>
+<li>Zinnia, Tom Thumb.</li>
+<li>Zinnia Haageana.</li>
+<li>Zinnia coccinea plena.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Summer bedding is often made by perennial plants which
+are carried over from the preceding year, or better, which
+are propagated for that particular purpose in February and
+March. Such plants as geranium, coleus, alyssum, scarlet
+salvia, ageratum and heliotrope may be used for these beds.
+It is a common practice to use geranium plants which are in
+bloom during the winter for bedding out during the summer,
+but such plants are tall and ungainly in form and have
+expended the greater part of their energies. It is better to
+propagate new plants by taking cuttings or slips late in the
+winter and setting out young, fresh, vigorous subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Very bold and subtropical effects can be made by planting
+in the open such things as palms, bananas, crotons,
+araucarias, caladiums and cannas. Plants like bananas and
+palms, which are kept normally in pots, would better be left
+in the pots and plunged to the rims rather than turned out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+directly into the soil. In order to attain quick and continuous
+effects, it is advisable to set the plants rather close.
+As such plants are likely to be injured by strong winds, it
+is well to have subtropical beds in a somewhat protected
+place.</p>
+
+<p>Another type of bed is that which attempts to make
+patterns or designs, or carpet-bedding. There are comparatively
+few plants which are adapted to this purpose,
+for the plants must be such as will stand shearing and which
+have very strong and constant colors of foliage. The most
+popular bedding plants are coleus (particularly the yellow
+Golden Bedder) achyranthes, alternanthera, <i>Centaurea
+gymnocarpa</i>, and such succulent plants as the house leeks.
+Some of the annual flowers may also be used for strong
+color effects, as <i>Lobelia Erinus</i> and sweet alyssum. Ordinarily
+the making of carpet-beds should be left to professional
+gardeners, since it requires much skill and care to
+make and keep the beds in perfect condition; and a ragged
+or imperfect carpet-bed is worse than no bed at all. Carpet-beds
+are really curiosities, and they have no more legitimate
+place in the general pictorial landscape design area than
+painted stones or sheared evergreens. Therefore, they
+should be placed by themselves at one side, where they do not
+interfere with the general design of the place. In public
+parks they make a very useful attraction when set off by
+themselves, the same as zoölogical gardens or other attractions
+do.</p>
+
+<p><b>Beefsteak Geranium</b> is <a href="#begonias"><i>Begonia</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Beets.</b> Being one of the hardiest of spring
+vegetables, the seed may be sown as early in the spring as
+the ground can be worked. A light, sandy soil is the best
+on which to grow Beets to perfection, but any well tilled
+garden soil will raise satisfactory crops. On heavy soil the
+turnip Beet gives the best results, as the growth is nearly
+all at or above the surface. The long varieties, having
+tapering roots running deep into the soil, are apt to be misshapen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+unless the physical condition of the soil is such that
+the roots meet with little obstruction. A succession of sowings
+should be made, at intervals of from two to three weeks,
+until late summer, as the Beets are much more desirable
+in their young stage than when they have become old and
+woody. The Mangel-Wurzel and the Sugar Beet are usually
+grown as a field crop, and will not enter into the calculations
+of the home garden.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 138px;">
+<img src="images/037-beets.jpg" width="138" height="245" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Early Beets</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In order to hasten the season of the extra-early crop of
+Beets, the seeds may be sown in boxes or in the soil of a
+hotbed in February or March, transplanting the small plants
+to the open ground at the time the first sowing of seed is
+made. As the flat or turnip-rooted varieties grow at the
+surface of the ground, the seed may be sown thickly, and as
+the more advanced roots are large enough to use they may
+be pulled, leaving room for the later ones to develop, thus
+growing a quantity in a small area and having a long season
+of small Beets from one sowing. For winter use
+the late July sown seed will give the best roots,
+growing through the cool months of the fall to a
+medium size and remaining firm without being
+tough or stringy. These may be dug up after
+light frosts and before any severe cold weather,
+and stored in barrels or boxes in the cellar, using
+enough dry dirt to fill spaces between the roots
+and cover them to the depth of 6 inches. These
+roots, thus packed in a cool cellar, will be fit to
+use through the entire winter months. When it
+can be had, florists’ or sphagnum moss is an excellent
+medium in which to pack roots for winter.</p>
+
+<p>The early round or turnip varieties are best for early and
+summer use. The Long Blood Beets may be used for storing,
+but these require a longer season of growth.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="begonias" id="begonias"></a>Begonias.</b> Tender bedding and house plants.
+Next to the geranium, Begonias are probably the most popular
+for house culture of the entire plant list. The ease of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+culture, profusion of bloom or richness of foliage, together
+with their adaptability to shade, make them very desirable.</p>
+
+<p>Begonias may be divided into three sections: the fibrous-rooted
+class, which contains the winter-flowering varieties;
+the tuberous-rooted, those which
+bloom through the summer, the
+tuber resting through the winter;
+and the Rex forms, or Beefsteak
+Geraniums, having large ornamental
+leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 245px;">
+<img src="images/038-begonia.jpg" width="245" height="220" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Fibrous-rooted Begonia</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fibrous-rooted kinds may be
+propagated by seed or cuttings, the
+latter being the usual method. Cuttings
+of half-ripened wood root easily,
+making a rapid growth, the
+plants flowering in a few months.</p>
+
+<p>The tuberous-rooted varieties are propagated by division
+of the tuber or from seed, the former being rarely done except
+to increase the stock of some extra fine variety. The
+seeds, like those of all Begonias, are very small, and
+should be sown with great care. Simply sprinkle them on
+the surface of the soil, which should be a mixture of leaf-mold
+and sand, with the addition of a small amount of fibrous
+loam. Watering should be done by setting the pot or box
+in which the seeds are sown in water, allowing the moisture
+to ascend through the soil. When the soil has become completely
+saturated, set the box in a shady situation, covering
+it with glass or some other object until the tiny seedlings
+appear. Never allow the soil to become dry. The seedlings
+should be transplanted, as soon as they can be handled, into
+boxes or pots containing the same mixture of soil, setting
+each plant down to the seed-leaf. They will need three or
+four transplantings before they reach the blooming stage,
+and at each one after the first, the amount of fibrous loam
+may be increased until the soil is composed of one-third
+each of loam, sand and leaf-mold. The addition of a little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+well rotted manure may be made at the last transplanting.
+These tuberous-rooted Begonias make superior bedding
+plants if given a shady situation and deep soil; but for the
+amateur they are perhaps better grown as pot-plants, for
+one is able to give them better conditions by that method.
+The flowers are both double and single,
+ranging in color from pure white and yellow
+to pink and red. After flowering the plants
+will die down and the tubers, after drying
+off, may be placed in a dry, warm place
+until spring.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 168px;">
+<img src="images/039-begonia2.jpg" width="168" height="160" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Rex Begonia</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Rex type, having no branches, is
+propagated from the leaves. The large mature
+leaves are used. The leaf may be cut
+into sections having at the base a union of
+two ribs. These pieces of leaves may be inserted in the sand
+as any other cutting. Or a whole leaf may be used, cutting
+through the ribs at intervals and laying the leaf flat on the
+propagating bench or other warm, moist place. In a short
+time young plants having roots of their own will form.
+These may be potted when large enough to handle, and will
+soon make good sized plants. Rex Begonias usually grow
+little during winter. Be sure that the pots are well drained,
+so that the soil does not become sour. New plants&mdash;those
+a year or so old&mdash;are usually most satisfactory. Keep them
+away from direct sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>An insidious disease of Begonia leaves has recently made
+its appearance. The best treatment yet known is to propagate
+fresh plants, throwing away the old stock
+and the dirt in which it is grown.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bellis perennis.</b> <a href="#daisy">See <i>Daisy</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;">
+<img src="images/039-blkberry.jpg" width="164" height="167" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Ancient Briton Blackberry</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Blackberries.</b> The one essential to
+the successful growing of Blackberries is a
+moist soil,&mdash;not one in which water will stand,
+but one rich enough in humus to hold sufficient
+moisture to carry the crop through the growing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+season. It is usually found best to plant in the fall,
+earthing up slightly around the plants. The distance between
+the plants should be regulated by the variety. The
+smaller-growing kinds (as Early Harvest and Wilson) may
+be planted 4 x 7 ft., the rank-growing varieties
+(as Snyder) 6 x 8 ft. Thorough cultivation
+throughout the season will help in a material
+degree to hold the moisture necessary to perfect
+a good crop. The soil should be cultivated
+very shallow, however, so as not to disturb
+the roots, as the breaking of the roots
+starts a large number of suckers that have to
+be cut out and destroyed.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 163px;">
+<img src="images/040-shears.jpg" width="163" height="170" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Shears for cutting out
+old canes</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Blackberries, like dewberries and raspberries,
+bear but one crop on the cane. That is,
+canes which spring up this year bear next year.
+From 3 to 6 canes are sufficient to be left in each
+hill. The superfluous ones are thinned out soon
+after they start from the ground. The old canes
+should be cut out soon after fruiting and burned.
+The new shoots should be pinched back at the
+height of 2 or 3 ft. if the plants are to support
+themselves. If to be fastened to wires, they may
+be allowed to grow throughout the season and be
+cut back when tied to the wires in winter or early
+spring. Tools for the cutting out of the old canes
+are well represented in the pictures. Shears are used
+for shortening-in the canes.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 172px;">
+<img src="images/040-shears2.jpg" width="172" height="187" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Shears for heading-in
+bushes</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Blackberry plants are sometimes laid down in cold
+climates,&mdash;the tops being bent over and held to the
+ground by earth or sods thrown on their tips.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 96px;">
+<img src="images/040-hook.jpg" width="96" height="160" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Knife hook for cutting out
+old canes</p>
+</div>
+<p>Snyder is the most popular commercial variety;
+but Agawam, Ancient Briton, Taylor, and others are
+better in quality. A new patch should be planted
+every five or six years.</p>
+
+<p><b>Blue Bottle.</b> <a href="#centaurea">See <i>Centaurea Cyanus</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+<b><a name="bordeaux" id="bordeaux"></a>Bordeaux Mixture</b> is a fungicide, used to combat
+mildews, leaf-diseases, blights, etc. It is sprayed on
+the plants with a spray pump or syringe, or it may be applied
+with a whisk broom. Apply enough of it so that the
+foliage looks blue. It is made as follows: Copper sulfate,
+6 pounds; quicklime, 4 pounds; water, 40 to 50 gallons.
+Dissolve the copper sulfate by putting it into a bag of coarse
+cloth and hanging this in a vessel holding at least four gallons,
+so that it is just covered by the water. Use an
+earthen or wooden vessel. Slake the lime in an equal
+amount of water. Then mix the two and add enough
+water to make 40 gallons. It is then ready for immediate
+use, but will keep for some time. If the mixture
+is to be used on peach foliage, it is advisable to add an
+extra pound of lime to the above formula. When applied
+to such plants as carnations or cabbages, it will
+adhere better if a pound of hard soap is dissolved in
+hot water and added to the mixture. For rots, molds,
+mildews, and all fungous diseases.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst Bordeaux Mixture is the best general fungicide,
+it discolors the plants until it washes off. On ornamental
+plants, therefore, a colorless fungicide may be preferable.
+In such cases, use the ammoniacal carbonate of copper
+solution, as follows: Copper carbonate, 1 ounce; ammonia,
+1 volume 26° Baumé, ⅞ volumes water (enough to dissolve
+the copper); water, 9 gallons. The copper carbonate is best
+dissolved in large bottles, where it will keep indefinitely,
+and it should be diluted with water as required. For the
+same purposes as Bordeaux Mixture.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="border" id="border"></a>Border.</b> The word border is used to designate
+the heavy or continuous planting about the boundaries of a
+place, or along the walks and drives, or against the buildings,
+in distinction from planting on the lawn or in the interior
+spaces. A border receives different designations,
+depending upon the kinds of plants which are grown
+therein; that is, it may be a shrub border, a flower<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+border, a hardy border for native and other hardy plants,
+a vine border, and the like. As a rule, the most effective
+planting is that which is thrown into masses, for one plant
+reinforces the other, and the flowers have a good setting
+or background. Very striking displays of foliage and flowers
+and plant forms can be made when massed together. As a
+rule, plants are more easily grown when planted in a border,
+since the whole area can be kept cultivated with ease; and
+if a plant becomes weak or dies, its place is readily filled
+by the neighboring plants spreading into it. Planting in
+masses is also essential to the best arrangement of the
+yard, since the basis of any landscape is
+a more or less continuous greensward (<a href="#lawns">see
+<i>Lawn</i></a>). The house occupies the central
+part of the area, and the sides are heavily
+massed or planted so as to make a framework
+for the whole place. The border
+may be mixed,&mdash;that is, composed of a great
+variety of plants,&mdash;or it may be made up of
+one continuous thing. In long and very
+striking borders, it is often best to have the
+background&mdash;that is, the back row&mdash;of one general type of
+plant in order to give continuity and strength to the whole
+group. In front of this a variety of plants may be set, if
+one desire.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 184px;">
+<img src="images/042-steps.jpg" width="184" height="177" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Planting by the steps</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The land should be rich. The whole ground should be
+plowed or spaded and the plants set irregularly in the
+space; or the back row may be set in a line. If the border
+is composed of shrubs, and is large, a horse cultivator may
+be run in and out between the plants for the first two or
+three years, since the shrubs will be set from 2 to 4 ft.
+apart. Ordinarily, however, the cultivating is done by hand
+tools. After the plants are once established and the border
+is filled, it is best to dig up as little as possible, for the
+digging disturbs the roots and breaks off the crowns. It is
+usually best to pull out the weeds and give the border a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+top-dressing each fall of well rotted manure. If the ground
+is not very rich, a sprinkling of ashes or some commercial
+fertilizer may be given from time to time. The border
+should be planted so thick as to allow the plants to run
+together, thereby giving one continuous effect. Most
+shrubs should be set 3 feet apart. Things as large as
+lilacs may go 4 feet and sometimes even more. Common
+herbaceous perennials, like bleeding heart, delphiniums,
+hollyhocks, and the like, should go from 12 to 18 inches.
+On the front edge of the border is a very excellent
+place for annual and tender flowering plants. Here,
+for example, one may make a fringe of asters, geraniums,
+coleus, or anything else which he may choose (<a href="#flower_beds">see
+<i>Flower Beds</i></a>).</p>
+
+<p>The border is an excellent place in which to colonize
+native or other interesting plants. A person comes across
+an attractive plant on his tramp and wishes it were in his
+garden. Whatever the time of year, he may break off the
+top close to the ground, take up the roots and plant them
+in the border. If a little attention is given to the plant for
+the first two or three weeks, as watering or mulching or
+shading, it should become established and give satisfactory
+bloom the following year. Two-thirds of the herbs
+which one would take up in this way, even in midsummer,
+should grow. Into the heavy borders about the boundaries
+of the place the autumn leaves will drift and afford an excellent
+mulch. If these borders are planted with shrubs,
+the leaves may be left there to decay, and not be raked off in
+the spring. The general outline of the border facing the
+lawn should be more or less wavy or irregular, particularly
+if it is on the boundary of the place. Alongside a walk or
+drive, the margins may follow the general directions of the
+walk or drive.</p>
+
+<p>There are three rules for the choosing of plants for a
+hardy border. Choose (1) those which you like best, (2)
+those which are adapted to the climate and soil, (3) those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+which are in place or in keeping with that part of the
+grounds. See <a href="#herbs"><i>Herbs</i></a>, <a href="#shrub"><i>Shrubs</i></a>, <a href="#trees"><i>Trees</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Borecole</b> is <a href="#kale"><i>Kale</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="borers" id="borers"></a>Borers.</b> There is no sovereign remedy for
+borers except to dig them out. Do not rely upon washes or
+other applications. If trees are examined two or three
+times a year, it is not a laborious undertaking to dig them
+out, as they will not be deep in the wood. If they do get
+deep in the wood, thrust a wire into the burrow. By the
+chips cast from the holes, or by the dead bark, the presence
+of borers may be detected. Apple and peach trees are particularly
+liable to attack. The flat-headed apple-tree borer
+works just underneath the bark on any part of the trunk or
+large branches. The round-headed apple-tree borer eats
+into the wood at the crown.</p>
+
+<p><b>Boxes</b> of many sizes can be utilized in which
+to grow plants. Excellent effects of bulbs and annuals may
+be had in old soap boxes. The boxes may be placed in
+the best situations for the growth of the plants, and they
+can receive better attention than the large flower bed.
+Vines planted about the edge will hide the sides,&mdash;such
+vines as Kenilworth ivy, moneywort, maurandya, trailing
+fuchsia, and the like.</p>
+
+<p><b>Brachycome.</b> <a href="#swan_river">See <i>Swan River Daisy</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Broccoli.</b> This is almost identical with the
+Cauliflower, except that it usually requires a longer season
+and matures in the fall. It is grown more generally in
+Europe than in this country. The special merit of Broccoli
+is its adaptability for late summer planting and its
+rapid growth in the late fall. It is said that a large
+proportion of Broccoli is used in the manufacture of
+pickles. The culture is the same as for Cauliflower,&mdash;deep,
+moist soil well enriched, cool weather, and the destruction
+of the cabbage worm.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+The young plants may be grown in a coldframe or in a
+well protected border, sowing the seed about the 15th of
+May, transplanting into rows in July. In sections in which
+early fall frosts are not to be feared, the plants may be set
+two weeks later, say August 1, as all vegetables of the
+cabbage family make the best growth through the cool
+months of September and October. The plants should be
+set 18 in. apart in the rows, the rows being from 2½ ft. to 3
+ft. apart.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="browallia" id="browallia"></a>Browallia elata</b> is a very fine tender annual,
+giving a border or mixed bed a dash of amethyst blue not
+often found in flowers. It is a strong-growing plant with a
+profusion of bloom, and no doubt one of the choicest plants
+of its color in cultivation. There are other species with
+white flowers that serve as contrast, and may be grown
+with this. All of the kinds may be taken up and potted
+in the fall, cutting the plant well back, and a profusion
+of bloom may be obtained through the winter months if
+attention is given to pinching off the seed pods. In the
+garden, let the plants stand 12 in. apart. The plants grow
+1-2 ft. high.</p>
+
+<p><b>Brussels Sprouts.</b> This is a vegetable that
+should be more generally known, as it is one of the
+choicest of the cabbage family, and may be had at its
+best after the season for cauliflower has passed. It is
+the better for being touched by the fall frosts. The
+parts used are the buttons or sprouts (miniature cabbage
+heads) that grow thickly along the stem. These should
+be cut off rather than broken. The very small hard
+“sprouts” or buttons are the best. The culture is essentially
+the same as for late cabbage or broccoli. One ounce
+will sow 100 ft. of drill, or make upward of 2,000 plants.
+Set plants in field 2-3 ft. apart. They require the entire
+season in which to grow.</p>
+
+<p><b>Budding.</b> <a href="#grafting">See <i>Grafting</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+<b><a name="bulbs" id="bulbs"></a>Bulbs.</b> The outdoor culture of bulbs is extremely
+simple. They care for themselves throughout a
+greater part of the year, many of them flowering when no
+other plants are able to grow and bloom out of doors.</p>
+
+<p>While all the so-called Holland bulbs will thrive in any
+kind of soil, they will all do better by being planted in a
+deep, sandy soil well enriched with well rotted manure.
+But do not let the manure come into direct contact with the
+bulb. Even heavy clay soil may be fitted for the growing of
+bulbs by the addition of sharp sand, either worked into the
+soil or placed directly under the bulb when planted. To
+make a bulb bed, choose, if possible, a sandy soil and throw
+out the top soil to the depth of 6 in. Put into the bottom
+of the bed about 2 in. of well rotted manure and spade it
+into the soil. Throw back half of the top soil, level it off
+nicely, set the bulbs firmly on this bed and then cover them
+with the balance of the soil; in this way one will have the
+bulbs from 3 to 4 in. below the surface. In the fall months
+the top of the ground is cooler than at the depth of 5 or 6
+in. and the top of the bulb will not want to grow, while the
+bottom, which is always in a hurry, will send out roots,
+to push out the leaves and flowers the next spring. When
+the weather is cold enough to freeze a hard crust on the
+soil, the bed should have its winter overcoat. This may be
+straw, hay, cornstalks or leaves spread over the bed to the
+depth of 6 in. if the material is coarse; but if leaves
+are used, 3 in. will be enough, because the leaves lay close
+together and may smother out the frost that is in the
+ground and let the bulbs start. What we want is to keep
+them asleep until spring, because if they start too early the
+hard freezes of March and early April will spoil their beauty
+if the leaves or flowers are near or above the surface.
+Early in April, in New York, the covering may be removed
+gradually, and should all be off the beds before the leaves
+show above the ground.</p>
+
+<p>If there is no sandy place for the beds, make them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+as directed, leaving the stones in the bottom of the bed
+for drainage. Then, when ready to set the bulb, place
+a large handful of sand where the bulb is to go and set the
+bulb on it. This will keep the water from standing around
+the bulb. Very fine results may be had on heavy soil by
+this method.</p>
+
+<p>As to kinds of bulbs, select hyacinths, tulips or narcissus
+or daffodils, with snowdrops or crocuses of various
+colors around the edge. For the culture of these and other
+bulbs, see the various articles throughout the book.</p>
+
+<p><i>The growing of flowering bulbs through the winter</i> adds
+to the list of house plants a charming variety. The labor,
+time and skill required is much less than that of growing
+many of the larger plants more commonly used for winter
+decorations. The larger number of winter bulbs may
+be left out of doors until within four to six weeks of the
+time when they are wanted in flower. Hyacinths, narcissus,
+tulips, and crocus can be made to flower in the winter
+without difficulty. Secure the bulbs so as to be able to pot
+them by the middle or last of October, or if earlier all the
+better. The soil should be rich, sandy loam, if possible; if
+not, the best one can get, to which add about one-fourth
+the bulk of sand and mix thoroughly. If ordinary flower
+pots are to be used, put in the bottom a few pieces of
+broken pots, charcoal or small stones for drainage, then fill
+the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on the dirt
+the top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot. Fill
+around it with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing
+above the dirt. If the soil is heavy, a good plan is to
+sprinkle a small handful of sand under the bulb to carry off
+the water, the same as is done in the beds outdoors. If one
+does not have pots he may use boxes. Starch boxes are a
+good size to use, as they are not heavy to handle; and excellent
+flowers are sometimes obtained from bulbs planted
+in old tomato cans. If boxes or cans are used, care must
+be taken to have holes in the bottoms to let the water run<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+out. A large size hyacinth bulb will do well in a 5-inch
+pot. The same size pot will do for three or four narcissuses
+or eight to twelve crocuses.</p>
+
+<p>After the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles,
+they should be placed in a cool place, either in a
+cold pit or cellar, or on the shady side of a building, or,
+better yet, plunged or buried up to the rim of the pot in a
+shady border. This is done to force the roots to grow
+while the top stands still; as only the bulbs with good roots
+will give good flowers. When the weather gets so cold that
+a crust is frozen on the soil, the pots should be covered
+with a little straw, and as the weather gets colder more
+straw must be used. In from six to eight weeks after
+planting the bulbs, they should have made roots enough to
+grow the plant, and they may be taken up and placed in a
+cool room for a week or so, after which, if they have
+started into growth, they may be taken into a warmer room
+where they can have plenty of light. They will grow very
+rapidly now and will want lots of water, and after the
+flowers begin to show, the pots may stand in a saucer of
+water all the time. When just coming into bloom the
+plants may have full sunlight part of the time to help
+bring out the color of the flowers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bushes.</b> <a href="#shrub">See <i>Shrubs</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="C" id="C"></a><b>Cabbage.</b> For an early crop, the plants must be
+started either in February or early March, or the previous
+September and wintered over in coldframes. This latter
+method was once a common practice by gardeners near large
+cities, but the building of greenhouses to replace the many
+hotbeds of the market-gardener has changed the practice
+in many localities, and now most of the early Cabbages
+in the north are grown from seed sown in January, February
+or March. The plants are hardened off in March and
+early April and planted out as early as possible. The private
+grower, or one with a small garden, may often procure
+his early plants from the market-gardener much cheaper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+than he can grow them, as usually only a limited number of
+early Cabbage plants are wanted; but for the midseason and
+main crop, the seed may be sown in May or June, setting
+the plants in July.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 224px;">
+<img src="images/049-cabbage.jpg" width="224" height="150" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Early Cabbage</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For early planting, the number of varieties is limited to
+three or four. For an intermediate crop the list is more
+extended, and the late varieties are very numerous. The
+early list is headed by the Jersey Wakefield, a variety which
+heads very quickly, and, although not one of the solid
+kinds, is generally grown. The Early
+York and Winnigstadt are good varieties
+to follow it. The latter especially
+is solid and of very good quality. For
+the midseason, the Succession and All
+Season are of the best, and for the winter
+supply the Drumhead, Danish Ball
+and Flat Dutch types are the leaders.
+One of the best of the Cabbages for
+table use is seldom seen in the garden&mdash;the Savoy Cabbage.
+It is a type with netted leaves, making a large, low-growing
+head, the center of which is very solid and of excellent
+flavor, especially late in the fall, when the heads have had
+a slight touch of frost. Savoy should be grown in every
+private garden.</p>
+
+<p>The seed-bed should be made mellow and rich. A good
+border will do. The seed is sown preferably in rows, thus
+allowing thinning of the plants and the pulling of any
+weeds that germinate. The young plants will well repay
+attention to watering and thinning. The rows should be 3
+or 4 in. apart. When the plants are large enough to transplant,
+they may be planted where early vegetables have
+been grown. Set the plants from 18 to 24 in. apart in the
+row, the rows being 3 ft. apart for the medium-growing
+kinds. One ounce of seed will furnish about two thousand
+plants. All Cabbages require deep and rich soil, and one
+that holds moisture well.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+The best remedy for the Cabbage worm is to kill the
+first brood on the very young plants with Paris green.
+After the plants begin to head, pyrethrum or salt water
+may be used. On a small area, hand-picking may be
+recommended.</p>
+
+<p>The maggot is the most serious Cabbage pest. After
+studying the seventy odd remedies proposed, Slingerland
+concludes that 6 are efficient and practicable: growing the
+young plants in closely covered frames; tarred paper cards
+placed snugly about the base of the plants to keep the fly
+away; rubbing the eggs from the base of the plant; hand-picking
+of the maggots; treating the plants with emulsion
+of carbolic acid; treating them with carbon bisulfide. The
+insecticidal materials are injected or poured into the soil
+about the base of the plant.</p>
+
+<p>Respecting these two insecticides, Slingerland remarks:
+“Always use the crude carbolic acid, as it is much cheaper
+than the purified and is nearly, if not quite, as effective.
+It will probably be safer if used as an emulsion than if
+simply diluted with water. We would advise that it be
+made by the follow formula: 1 pound of hard soap or 1
+quart of soft soap dissolved in 1 gallon of boiling water, into
+which 1 pint of crude carbolic acid is then poured and the
+whole mass agitated into an emulsion, which will remain in
+this condition for a long time. In treating the plants, take
+one part of this standard emulsion and dilute it with 30
+equal parts of water; it probably can be used stronger without
+injury to the plants. If the emulsion is cold and semi-solid,
+use several parts of warm water at first. Begin the
+treatment early, a day or two after the plants are up, or in
+the case of Cabbages and Cauliflowers the next day after
+they are set in the field, and repeat it once each week or 10
+days until about May 20 in our state. While we have little
+faith in the preventive effects of the early treatments, we do
+believe that the emulsion will then kill many of the eggs
+and recently hatched maggots. If it could be applied with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+some force through a syringe or force pump, it might not be
+necessary to go to the trouble of first removing some of the
+earth from about the plants. It must be remembered that
+its success will depend on the eggs or maggots being hit
+with it. None of the Cabbages in our experiment were injured
+in the least by an application containing nearly twice
+as much of the acid, and there is but little danger of its
+injuring the tenderest foliage of radishes, turnips or onions;
+if any injury manifests itself on these crops, dilute the
+emulsion with 40 or 50 or more parts of water, instead of 30.
+A knapsack or wheelbarrow sprayer would prove a very useful
+instrument in applying the emulsion on a large scale.”</p>
+
+<p>The carbon bisulfide is best injected into the soil by
+means of a long-nosed syringe. Slingerland (Cornell Bulletin
+78) illustrates a specially made syringe or injector for this
+purpose: “Thus Cabbage plants can be treated once, and
+once is usually sufficient, at the rate of about 10 plants for
+1 cent for the liquid, using about 1 teaspoonful to each
+plant. As the injector will last for years, and several
+neighbors might join in the purchase and use of one instrument,
+its cost would practically not influence this estimate
+of the cost of killing the maggots. We believe it is the
+cheapest, most effective, and most practicable method yet
+devised for fighting this pest on crops of Cabbages and
+cauliflowers; on crops of radishes, turnips, or onions it will
+probably be too expensive except where choice or new varieties
+are attacked. The carbolic acid emulsion will prove
+the most practicable on these last crops.”</p>
+
+<p>The club-root, which causes the roots to become greatly
+thickened and distorted, is difficult to manage if Cabbages
+or allied plants are grown continuously on land in which
+diseased plants have been raised. Changing the location
+of the Cabbage or Cauliflower patch is the best procedure.
+If very different crops, as corn, potatoes, peas, tomatoes,
+etc., are grown on the land, the disease will be starved out
+in two or three years.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+<b>Cacalia.</b> <span class="smcap">Tassel Flower. Ladies’ Paint
+Brush.</span> A quaint old annual, in two colors, scarlet and
+orange. It is easily grown, and makes a fine second-row
+plant for a border, contrasting well with Browallia or Ageratum.
+Sow where the plants are to stand. Let plants stand
+10-12 inches apart. Grow 1½-2 ft. high.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="cactus" id="cactus"></a>Cactus.</b> This class of plants is often seen in
+small collections of house plants, to which they add interest,
+being altogether different from other plants. All
+Cacti are easy to grow, requiring but little care and enduring
+the heat and dryness of a living room much better than
+most other plants. Their requirements are ample drainage
+and a sandy soil. Cactus growers usually make a soil by
+mixing pulverized plaster or lime refuse with garden
+loam, using about two-thirds of the loam. The very fine
+parts, or dust, of the plaster, are blown out, else the soil
+is likely to cement. They may be rested at any season by
+simply setting them away in a dry place for two or three
+months, and bringing them into heat and light when they
+are wanted. As new growth advances they should have
+water occasionally, and when in bloom they should be
+watered freely. Withhold water gradually after blooming
+until they are to be rested.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the most common species in cultivation are the
+Phyllocactus species, often called the Night-blooming Cereus.
+These are not the true Night-blooming Cereuses, which have
+angular or cylindrical stems, covered with bristles, while
+this has flat, leaf-like branches; the flowers of these, however,
+are very much like the Cereus, opening at evening
+and closing before morning, and as the Phyllocacti may be
+grown with greater ease, blooming on smaller and younger
+plants, they are to be recommended. <a href="#cereus">See <i>Cereus</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p>The Epiphyllum, or Lobster Cactus, is one of the best
+of the family, easy of culture. It bears bright-colored
+blossoms at the end of each joint. When in flower, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+will be through some of the winter months, this requires a
+richer soil than the other Cacti. Opuntias, or prickly pears,
+are often grown as border plants through the summer. In
+fact, all the family may be planted out, and if a number of
+varieties are set in a bed together they make a striking addition
+to the garden. Be very careful not to bruise the
+plants. It is better to plunge them in the pots than to turn
+them out of the pots.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 189px;">
+<img src="images/053-caladium.jpg" width="189" height="192" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Caladium or Colocasia</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Caladium.</b> Tuberous-rooted, tender perennial
+plants which are used for conservatory decorations, and
+also for subtropical and bold effects in the lawn. The
+plants which are commonly known under this name are
+really Colocasias. The plants should be rested during the
+winter, being kept in a warm cellar or under a greenhouse
+bench, where they are not liable to frost or dampness. The
+roots are usually kept covered with earth during the winter,
+but they are kept dry. Early in the spring
+the roots are put into boxes or pots and are
+started into growth, so that by the time
+settled weather comes they will be 1 or 2
+feet high and ready to set directly into soil.
+When set out of doors, they should be given
+a place which is protected from strong
+winds, and one which does not receive the
+full glare of direct sunlight. The soil
+should be rich and deep, and the plants
+should have an abundance of water. Caladiums
+are most excellent plants for striking effects, especially
+against a house, high shrubbery or other background.
+If they are planted by themselves, they should be in clumps
+rather than scattered as single specimens, as the effect is
+better. See that they get a good start before they are
+planted in the open ground.</p>
+
+<p><b>Calceolaria.</b> Small greenhouse herbs which
+are sometimes used in the window-garden. They are not
+very satisfactory plants for window treatment, however, since<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+they suffer from dry atmosphere and from sudden changes
+of temperature. In the window-garden they should be protected
+from strong, direct sunlight. They are grown from
+seeds. If the seeds are sown in early summer and the
+young plants are transplanted as they need, flowering
+specimens may be had for the late fall and early winter. In
+the growing of the young plants, always avoid exposing
+them to direct sunlight; but they should be given a place
+which has an abundance of screened or tempered light. A
+new crop of plants should be raised each year. There is a
+race of shrubby Calceolarias, but it is little known in this
+country. One or two species are annuals which are adaptable
+to cultivation in the open garden, and their little,
+ladyslipper-like flowers are attractive. However, they are
+of secondary importance as annual garden flowers.</p>
+
+<p><b>Calendula.</b> These are the well known <span class="smcap">Pot
+Marigolds</span>, and add a bright spot to any garden. Annual.
+Especially are they fine in the cool days of the fall, when
+many of the annual flowers have gone to seed. The places
+of short-lived plants may be filled by sowing seed of Calendulas
+in May, scattering them through the border and
+allowing the plants to grow where they come up. Easy of
+growth and hardy. 1-2 ft. high. Should stand 8-12 in.
+apart. Colors, yellow and orange.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 172px;">
+<img src="images/054-calpoppy.jpg" width="172" height="105" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">California Poppy</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="california_poppy" id="california_poppy"></a>California Poppy</b> (<i>Eschscholtzia Californica</i>).
+Low perennial, poppy-like plant, grown as a hardy annual.
+It is certainly one of the best low-growing annuals, blooming
+through a long season and being at its
+best through the cool days of fall, after
+touched by frost. Most of the varieties have
+flowers of fine shades of orange or yellow,
+making a bright spot in the border at all
+times. They are like the pot marigolds, in
+that once planted they seed themselves.
+They are never out of place, and should be left to bloom
+wherever they may be. Flowers open only in sunshine.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+As cut-flowers they are excellent, a large bowl of them glowing
+like a golden ball, especially if they are emphasized by
+a few blue larkspurs or bachelor’s buttons.</p>
+
+<p>Propagated by seed, which would best be sown as soon
+as ripe, thus giving the plant an early start, and having
+bloom through the season. They make attractive mats of
+foliage. 12-18 in. high. Let the plants stand 10-20 in.
+apart.</p>
+
+<p><b>Calla</b> (properly <i>Richardia</i>). <span class="smcap">Egyptian Lily.</span>
+All things considered, this is one of the most satisfactory of
+winter house plants, lending itself to various conditions.
+The requirements of the Calla are rich soil and an abundance
+of water, with the roots confined in as small a space
+as possible. If a too large pot is used the growth of foliage
+will be very rank, at the expense of the flowers, but by using
+a smaller sized pot and applying liquid manure the flowers
+will be produced freely. A 6-inch pot will be large enough
+for all but an exceptionally large bulb. If desired, a number
+of bulbs may be grown together in a larger pot. The soil
+should be very rich but fibrous&mdash;at least one-third well
+rotted manure will be none too much, mixed with equal
+parts of fibrous loam and sharp sand. The tubers should be
+planted firmly and the pots set in a cool place to make roots.
+After the roots have partially filled the pot, the plant may
+be brought into heat and given a sunny position and an
+abundance of water. An occasional sponging or washing of
+the leaves will free them from dust. No other treatment
+will be required until the flowers appear, when liquid manure
+may be given. The plant will thrive all the better at
+this time if the pot is placed in a saucer of water. In fact,
+the Calla will grow finely in an aquarium. The Calla may
+be grown through the entire year, but it will prove more
+satisfactory, both in leaf and flower, if rested through part
+of the summer. This may be done by laying the pots on
+their sides in a dry, shady place under shrubbery, or if in
+the open slightly covered with straw or other litter to keep<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+the roots from becoming extremely dry. In September or
+October they may be shaken out, cleaning off all the old soil,
+and repotted, as already mentioned. The offsets may be
+taken off and set in small pots and given a year’s growth,
+resting them the second year and having them in flower that
+winter.</p>
+
+<p>The spotted Calla has variegated foliage and is a fine
+plant for mixed collections. This blooms in the spring,
+which will lengthen the season of Calla bloom. The treatment
+of this is similar to that of the common Calla.</p>
+
+<p><b>Calliopsis</b> is a garden name for <a href="#coreopsis"><i>Coreopsis</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Callirrhoë.</b> <i>C. pedata</i> is a hardy annual which
+has large, graceful blossoms of violet or red. Is it a very
+free-blooming plant. Should be started in a frame and
+planted out where wanted. 2-3 ft. high and grows bushy.
+Plants should stand 1½-2 ft. apart.</p>
+
+<p><b>Camellia.</b> Years ago Camellias were very popular,
+but they have been crowded out by the informal flowers
+of recent times. Their time will come again. They are
+half-hardy woody plants, blooming in late winter and
+spring. During the blooming season keep them cool&mdash;say
+not over 50° at night and a little higher by day.
+When blooming is done they begin to grow, then give
+them more heat and plenty of water. See that they are
+well ripened by winter. Always screen them from direct
+sunlight. Do not try to force them in early winter, after
+the growth has ceased. Their summer quarters may be in
+a protected place in the open air. Propagated by cuttings
+in winter, which should give blooming plants in two
+years. Use a porous soil for Camellias, with considerable
+leaf-mold.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="campanula" id="campanula"></a>Campanula.</b> <span class="smcap">Bell Flower.</span> But one of the
+Campanulas commonly listed by seedsmen is an annual,&mdash;<i>C.
+macrostyla</i>, a clean-leaved plant, growing 2 feet high, spreading
+over the ground, and bearing a profusion of large, violet,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+bell-shaped flowers. The Canterbury Bell is the best known.
+It is biennial, but if started early and transplanted will
+bloom the first season. The perennial Campanulas are
+most excellent for borders. <i>C. Carpatica</i> is particularly
+good for edgings.</p>
+
+<p><b>Canary Bird Flower.</b> <a href="#nasturtiums">See <i>Nasturtium</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 212px;">
+<img src="images/057-candytuft.jpg" width="212" height="145" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Candytuft</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Candytuft.</b> Well known sweet-scented hardy
+annuals, in red, purple, and white; easy of
+culture and fine for cutting. One of the
+best of edging plants for the front row. The
+plants grow from 6 in. to 1 ft. tall. Sow
+seeds where the plants are to grow, letting
+plants stand 6-12 in. apart. They do not
+last the entire season, and successive sowings
+may well be made. There are also perennial kinds.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 120px;">
+<img src="images/058-canna.jpg" width="120" height="311" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Canna</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Canna</b> is now the favorite bedding plant. The
+improvements made in the past ten years, in size and
+markings of the flowers, have created a liking for the plant.
+The tropical effect of a large bed of Cannas, either mixed
+or of one color, is not surpassed by any other plant used for
+bedding purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The Canna may be grown from seed and had in bloom
+the first year by sowing in February or March, in
+boxes or pots placed in hotbeds or warmhouse, first
+soaking the seeds in warm water for a short time. Attention
+to transplanting as needed and removal to the ground
+only when it is well warmed are the necessary requirements.
+The majority of Cannas, however, are grown from pieces of
+the roots (rhizomes), each piece having a bud. The roots
+may be divided at any time in the winter, and if early
+flowers and foliage are wanted the pieces may be planted in
+a hotbed or warmhouse in early April, started into growth
+and planted out where wanted as soon as the ground has
+warmed and all danger of frost is over. A hardening of the
+plants, by leaving the sash off the hotbeds, or setting the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+plants in shallow boxes and placing the boxes in a sheltered
+position through May, not forgetting a liberal supply
+of water, will fit the plants to take kindly to the
+final planting out. After frost has injured the tops,
+the roots may be dug, choosing, if possible, a dry
+day. The soil is shaken off and the roots stored
+in a warm, dry place through the winter. If the
+cellar is too dry the roots are liable to shrivel,
+in which case it would be best to cover them with
+soil or sand, filling in around the roots to exclude
+the drying air.</p>
+
+<p>Cannas grow 3 to 7 ft. high. For dense mass
+effects, plant 12-18 in. apart. For individual plants,
+or for best bloom, give more room. Fine clumps
+may be had by planting out the entire old root, not
+dividing it. Cannas want a rich, warm soil and a sunny
+place. They are very easy to grow.</p>
+
+<p><b>Canterbury Bell</b> is a <a href="#campanula"><i>Campanula</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Carbonate of Copper.</b> <a href="#bordeaux">See <i>Bordeaux Mixture</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Cardiospermum.</b> <a href="#balloon">See <i>Balloon Vine</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="carnations" id="carnations"></a>Carnations</b> are of two types, the outdoor or
+garden varieties, and the indoor or forcing kinds. Normally,
+the Carnation is a hardy perennial, but the garden
+kinds, or Marguerites, are usually treated as annuals. The
+forcing kinds are flowered but once, new plants being grown
+each year from cuttings.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;">
+<img src="images/059-carnation.jpg" width="161" height="264" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Carnation</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Marguerite Carnations bloom the year the seed is sown,
+and with a slight protection will bloom freely the second
+year. They make attractive house plants if potted
+in the fall. The seeds of these Carnations should be sown
+in boxes in March and the young plants set out as early as
+possible, pinching out the center of the plant to make them
+branch freely. Give the same space as for garden pinks.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 96px;">
+<img src="images/059-carnation2.jpg" width="96" height="204" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Carnation cutting</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The winter-flowering Carnations have become prime
+favorites with all flower lovers, and a collection of winter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+house plants seems incomplete without them. Carnations
+grow readily from cuttings made of the suckers that form
+around the base of the stem, the side shoots of the flowering
+stem, or the main shoots before they show flower buds. The
+cuttings from the base make the best plants in
+most cases. These cuttings may be taken from
+a plant at any time through the fall or winter,
+rooted in sand and potted up, to be held
+in pots until the planting out time in the
+spring, usually in April, or any time when the
+ground is ready to handle. Care should be
+taken to pinch out the tops of young plants
+while growing in the pot, and later while in
+the ground, causing them to grow stocky and
+send out new growths along the stem. The
+young plants should be grown cool, a temperature
+of 45° suiting them well. Attention
+should be given to spraying the cuttings each day while in
+the house to keep down the red spider, which is very partial
+to the Carnation. In the summer, the plants are
+grown in the field, and not in pots. The soil in
+which they are to be planted should be moderately
+rich and loose. Clean cultivation should be given
+throughout the summer. Frequently pinch out the
+tops. The plants are taken up in September and
+potted firmly, and well watered; then set in a
+cool, partially shaded situation until root growth
+has started, spraying the foliage often, and watering
+the plant only as it shows need of water.</p>
+
+<p>The usual living-room conditions as to moisture
+and heat are not such as the Carnation demands, and care
+must be taken to overcome the dryness by spraying the foliage
+and setting the plant in a position not exposed to the
+direct heat of a stove or the sun. In commercial houses, it
+is not often necessary to spray established plants. Pick off
+most or all of the side buds, in order to add to the size of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+the leading flowers. After all is said, it is probably advisable
+in most cases to purchase the plants when in bloom
+from a florist, and after blooming either throw them away
+or store them for planting in the spring, when they will
+bloom throughout the summer.</p>
+
+<p><b>Carpet Bedding.</b> <a href="#bedding">See <i>Bedding</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 128px;">
+<img src="images/060-carrots.jpg" width="128" height="208" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Early Carrots</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Carrot</b>, while essentially a farm crop in this
+country, is nevertheless a most acceptable garden vegetable.
+It is hardy and easily grown. The extra-early
+varieties may be forced in a hotbed, or seed
+may be sown as soon as the ground is fit to work in
+the spring. The stump-rooted, or half-long varieties,
+are sown for the general garden crop. Well enriched,
+mellow loam, deeply dug or plowed, is best
+suited to the requirements of Carrots. The seed for
+the main crop may be sown as late as July 1.
+Sow thickly, thinning to 3-4 in. in the row. The
+rows, if in a garden that is hand-worked, may be 12 in.
+apart. If the cultivation is done by a horse, the rows should
+be from 2 to 3 ft. apart. One ounce will sow 100 feet of drill.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 295px;">
+<img src="images/060-castor.jpg" width="295" height="279" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Castor Bean</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="castor" id="castor"></a>Castor Oil Plant.</b> In the entire list of quick-growing
+plants there is none that excels
+this for rapidity of growth, grace
+of foliage and rich effect. Used either
+as a specimen plant, with cannas, caladiums,
+or for a tropical bed, or as
+a screen, it gives the most satisfactory
+results. Seeds sown early in the
+house, and the plants grown in the
+full light, make fine, stocky plants to
+set out about the middle of May.
+With rich soil and plenty of water,
+they will grow without a check until frost. Height, 5-12
+ft. For screens, plant 3-4 ft. apart. There are varieties
+with differing shades of foliage.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 238px;">
+<img src="images/061-cauliflower.jpg" width="238" height="162" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Cauliflower</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Cauliflower.</b> The general culture of Cauliflower
+is much like that of cabbage, except that the Cauliflower,
+being more tender, should be more thoroughly hardened
+off before setting out. Still, it is essential that the plants
+be set out as early as possible, as the warm weather of
+June causes them to make imperfect heads unless the soil
+is filled with moisture. No garden crop will as well repay
+the cost and time of thorough irrigation, either by running
+the water between the rows or applying it directly to the
+plants. When it is impossible to furnish water, it would
+be a good plan to mulch heavily with straw or some other
+substance. This mulch, if put on just after a heavy
+rain, will hold the moisture for a long time. When the
+heads begin to form the outside leaves may be brought together
+and tied above the head, excluding the direct sunshine
+and keeping the head white and
+tender. No vegetable will respond
+more quickly to good culture and
+well manured soil than the Cauliflower,
+and none will prove such an
+utter failure when neglected. It is
+imperative that care be taken to destroy
+all the cabbage worms before
+the leaves are tied in, as after that
+it will be impossible to see or reach them. Cauliflower
+prospers best in moist soil and a cool climate. From 1,000
+to 1,500 plants may be grown from 1 ounce of seed. Good
+Cauliflower seed is very expensive.</p>
+
+<p>For winter crop, seeds may be started in June or July,
+as for late cabbage.</p>
+
+<p>Erfurt, Snowball and Paris are popular early varieties.
+Nonpareil and Algiers are good late kinds.</p>
+
+<p><b>Celeriac</b>, or <span class="smcap">Turnip-rooted Celery</span>. This
+tuber has the celery flavor in a pronounced degree, and is
+used for flavoring soups and for celery salad. It may be
+served raw, sliced in vinegar and oil, or boiled. The culture<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+is the same as given for celery, except that no earthing or
+blanching is required. About an equal number of plants are
+obtained from the same weight of seed as from celery seed.
+Celeriac is extensively used abroad, but, unfortunately, is
+little grown in America.</p>
+
+<p><b>Celery</b> has become one of the favorite relish
+and salad vegetables, and is now very generally grown. The
+self-blanching varieties have simplified the culture so that
+the amateur, as well as the expert, may have a supply
+through at least six months of the year. The so-called new
+culture, which consists of setting the plants close together
+and causing them to shade each other, can be recommended
+for the garden when a supply of well rotted manure is to be
+had, and when any amount of water is available. This
+method is as follows: Fork or spade
+into the soil a large quantity of manure
+to the depth of 10-12 in., pulverize the
+soil until the ground for the depth of 4-6
+in. is in very fine condition. Then set
+the plants in rows 10 in. apart and the
+plants but 5 or 6 in. apart in the rows.
+It will be seen that plants set as close
+as this will soon fill the soil with a mass
+of roots and must have large amounts
+of plant-food, as well as a large quantity
+of water; and the making of such
+a bed can be recommended only to
+those who can supply these needs.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 218px;">
+<img src="images/062-celery.jpg" width="218" height="263" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Celery</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The common practice in home gardens is to plow or dig a
+shallow trench, setting the plants in the bottom and hoeing
+in the soil as the plants grow. The distance apart of the
+rows and plants will depend on the varieties. For the dwarf
+varieties, such as White Plume, Golden Self-blanching and
+others of that type, the rows may be as close as 3 ft. and the
+plants 6 in. in the rows. For the large-growing varieties, as
+Kalamazoo, Giant Pascal and, in fact, most of the late varieties,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+the rows may be from 4½ to 5 ft. apart and the plants
+7 or 8 in. in the row.</p>
+
+<p>The seed for an early crop should be sown in February or
+early in March in shallow boxes, which may be placed in a
+hotbed or sunny window, or sown directly in the soil of a
+hotbed. Cover the seeds thinly and press the soil firmly
+over them. When the seedling plants are about one inch
+high they should be transplanted to other boxes or hotbeds,
+setting the plants 1 in. apart in rows 3 in. apart. At
+this transplanting, as with the following ones, the tall leaves
+should be cut or pinched off, leaving only the upright growth,
+as with the utmost care it is almost impossible to prevent
+the outside leafstalks from wilting down and dying. The
+roots of the plants should also be trimmed back at each transplanting
+in order to increase the feeding roots. The plants
+should be set as deep as possible, care being taken, however,
+not to allow the heart of the plant to be covered up. The
+varieties usually grown for an early crop are the so-called
+self-blanching varieties. They may be made fit for the table
+with much less labor than the late crop, the shade required
+to blanch the stalks being much less. When only a few short
+rows are grown in a private garden, screens of lath may be
+made by driving stakes on each side of the row and tacking
+lath on, leaving spaces of an inch or more for the light to
+enter; or each head may be wrapped in paper, or a tile drain
+pipe may be set over the plant. In fact, any material that
+will exclude the light will render the stalks white and
+brittle.</p>
+
+<p>The seed for the main or fall crop should be sown in April
+or early May in a seed bed prepared by forking fine, well
+rotted manure into a fine soil, sowing the seed thinly in
+rows 8 or 10 in. apart, covering the seed lightly and firming
+over the seed with the feet, hoe or back of a spade.
+This seed bed should be kept moist at all times until the
+seed germinates, either by close attention to watering or by
+a lath screen. The use of a piece of cloth laid directly on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+the soil, and the bed wet through the cloth, is often recommended,
+and if the cloth is always wet and taken off the
+bed as soon as the seed sprouts it can be used. After the
+young plants have grown to the height of 1 or 2 in. they
+must be thinned out, leaving the plants so that they do not
+touch each other, and transplanting those thinned&mdash;if wanted&mdash;to
+other ground prepared in the same manner as the seed
+bed. All these plants may be sheared or cut back to induce
+stockiness.</p>
+
+<p>If in a private garden, the ground on which the fall
+crop is usually set will likely be land from which a crop of
+some early vegetable has been taken. This land should be
+again well enriched with fine, well rotted manure, to which
+may be added a liberal amount of wood ashes. If the manure
+or ashes are not easily obtained, a small amount may
+be used by plowing or digging out a furrow 8 or 12 in. deep,
+scattering the manure and ashes in the bottom of the trench
+and filling it up almost level with the surface. The plants
+should be set about the middle of July, preferably just before
+a rain. The plant bed should have a thorough soaking
+shortly before the plants are lifted, and each plant be trimmed,
+both top and root, before setting. The plants should
+be set from 5 to 6 in. apart in the rows and the earth well
+firmed around each one.</p>
+
+<p>The after-cultivation consists in thorough tillage
+until the time of “handling” or earthing up the
+plants. This process of handling is accomplished by
+drawing up the earth with one hand while holding the
+plant with the other, packing the soil well around the stalks.
+This process may be continued until only the leaves are to
+be seen. For the private grower, it is much easier to blanch
+the Celery with boards or paper, or if the Celery is not
+wanted until winter, the plants may be dug up, packed
+closely in boxes, covering the roots with soil, and placed in
+a dark, cool cellar, where the stalks will blanch themselves.
+In this manner Celery may be stored in boxes in the house<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+cellar. Put earth in the bottom of a deep box, and plant
+the Celery in it. An ounce of seed will furnish about three
+thousand plants.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="centaurea" id="centaurea"></a>Centaurea.</b> Showy annuals and perennials.
+<i>C. Cyanus</i> is the <span class="smcap">Corn Flower</span> or <span class="smcap">Bachelor Button</span>,
+familiar to every flower lover, and always seen in old-fashioned
+gardens. This is a fine plant for borders or
+mixed beds, and also gives good flowers for bouquets. A
+bunch of the Corn Flower, with a sprinkling of yellow
+marigolds or California poppy, makes a rich effect.
+These Centaureas are easy of culture, seeding themselves
+after once being planted, and coming up year after year in
+great profusion. There are blue, white and rose varieties.
+Annuals. 2-3 ft. Hardy.</p>
+
+<p>The silver-leaved Centaureas are used only for foliage
+effects. They are excellent for ribbon beds or border lines.
+The seed of these should be started in a hotbed or box in
+March, the young plants being set out where wanted when
+the ground becomes warm. These species are perennials,
+and are sometimes grown from cuttings. <i>C. candidissima</i>
+and <i>C. gymnocarpa</i> are among the best white-leaved bedders.</p>
+
+<p><b>Centranthus.</b> Low-growing hardy annuals in
+two colors, red and white. They make very effective
+covering for low rockwork, and are also suitable for vases
+or lawn baskets. Sow where the plants are to stand, or
+start indoors if early bloom is wanted. 1 ft. Thin to 10-12
+in. apart.</p>
+
+<p><b>Century Plant</b>, or <span class="smcap">Agave</span>. These are fine ornamental
+plants for the window-garden or conservatory, requiring
+but little care and growing slowly, thus needing
+repotting only at long intervals. When the plants have
+outgrown their usefulness as house plants, they are still
+valuable as porch decorations, for plunging in rockwork or
+about rustic nooks. The striped-leaved variety is the most
+desirable, but the common type, with its blue-gray leaves,
+is highly ornamental.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+There are a number of dwarf-growing species of Agave
+that are not so common, although they may be grown with
+ease. Such plants add novelty to a collection, and may be
+used through the summer as noted above or plunged with
+cactus in a bed of tropical plants. All succeed well in
+loam and sand in equal parts, adding a little leaf-mold in
+the case of the small varieties. The more common species
+are propagated by suckers from around the base of the
+established plants. A few kinds having no suckers must
+be grown from seed. As to watering, they demand no
+special care. Agaves will not stand frost.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="cereus" id="cereus"></a>Cereus.</b> Under the name of <span class="smcap">Night-blooming
+Cereuses</span>, several species of Cacti are cultivated. The name
+is sometimes applied to species of Phyllocactus, the flowers
+of which, in white and shades of red, sometimes open at
+nightfall. Phyllocactuses are easy to grow. <a href="#cactus">See <i>Cactus</i>.</a>
+The true Night-blooming Cereuses, however, are species of
+the genus Cereus. The commonest one is <i>C. nycticalus</i>, but
+<i>C. grandiflorus</i>, <i>C. triangularis</i> and others are occasionally
+seen. These true Night-blooming Cereuses all have long rod-like
+stems, which are cylindrical or angular. These stems
+often reach a height of 10 to 30 ft., and they need support.
+They should be trained along a pillar or tied to a stake.
+They are uninteresting leafless things during a large part
+of the year; but in midsummer, after they are three or
+more years old, they throw out their great tubular flowers,
+which open at nightfall and wither and die when the light
+strikes them next morning. They are very easily grown,
+either in pots or planted in the natural soil in the conservatory.
+The only special care they need is good drainage at
+the roots, so that the soil will not become soggy.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 225px;">
+<img src="images/067-cherry.jpg" width="225" height="305" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Sweet Cherry</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Cherry.</b> Of Cherries there are two common
+types, the sweet Cherries and the sour Cherries. The sweet
+Cherries are larger and taller-growing trees. They comprise
+the varieties known as the Hearts, Bigarreaus and
+Dukes. The sour Cherries include the various kinds of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+Morellos and pie Cherries, and these usually ripen after the
+sweet Cherries. The sour Cherries make low, round-headed
+trees. The fruits are extensively used for
+canning. Cherry trees should be planted
+when 2 and 3 years old. Too rich soil tends
+to make growth at the expense of fruit, particularly
+in the sweet Cherries. For the
+sweet types, a strong, gravelly loam is best.
+Sour Cherries thrive well on clay loams.</p>
+
+<p>Trees of the sour Cherry should be
+planted 18 by 18 ft. apart, in well prepared
+under-drained soil. The trees may be
+slightly trimmed back each year, keeping
+the head low and bushy.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 167px;">
+<img src="images/067-cherry2.jpg" width="167" height="164" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Black Tartarian Cherry</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sweet Cherries have proved disappointing in many
+instances from the rotting of the fruit. This may never be
+entirely avoided, but good cultivation, soil not too rich in
+nitrogen, attention to spraying, and picking the fruit when
+dry, will lessen the loss very much. In years
+of severe rotting, the fruit should be picked
+before it becomes fully ripe, placed in a cool,
+airy room and allowed to color. It will be
+nearly as well flavored as if left on the tree;
+and, as the fungus usually attacks only the
+ripe fruit, a considerable part of the crop may
+be saved. Set the trees 25 or 30 ft. apart.</p>
+
+<p>Leaf-blight is readily controlled by timely
+spraying with Bordeaux mixture. The curculio or fruit worm
+is best controlled by jarring, as for plums (<a href="#plum">which see</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Of sweet Cherries, Windsor is the most popular variety.
+Other good kinds are Napoleon, Governor Wood, Dikeman,
+Black Tartarian. Of sour Cherries, Ostheim and Early
+Richmond are very early and productive, but better kinds
+are Montmorency and English Morello.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chervil.</b> The curled Chervil is a good addition
+to the list of garnishing vegetables, and adds flavor to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+dishes when it is used to season. Sow seeds and cultivate
+the same as parsley.</p>
+
+<p>The tuberous Chervil resembles a short carrot or
+parsnip. It is much esteemed in France and Germany.
+The tubers have somewhat the flavor of a sweet potato, perhaps
+a little sweeter. They are perfectly hardy, and, like
+the parsnip, the better for frosts. The seed may be
+sown in September or October, as it does not keep well; or
+as soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring, it being
+slow to germinate after the weather becomes hot and dry.
+One packet of seed will give all the plants necessary.</p>
+
+<p><b>Chestnuts.</b> Of Chestnuts there are three types
+in cultivation: the European, the Japanese, and the American.
+The American, or native Chestnuts, of which there
+are several improved varieties, are the hardiest and most
+reliable, and the nuts are the sweetest, but they are also the
+smallest. The Japanese varieties are usually injured by the
+winter in central New York. The European varieties are
+somewhat hardier, and some of the varieties will thrive in
+the northern states. Chestnuts are very easily grown.
+They usually bear better when two or more trees are
+planted near each other. There are few really good Chestnut
+orchards in North America, but Chestnut planting is now
+considerably agitated. Sprouts in old Chestnut clearings
+are often allowed to remain, and sometimes they are
+grafted to the improved varieties. The young trees may be
+grafted in the spring by the whip-graft or cleft-graft
+method; but the cions should be perfectly dormant, and
+the operation should be very carefully done. Even with
+the best workmanship, a considerable percentage of the
+grafts are likely to fail or to break off after two or three
+years. The most popular single variety of Chestnut is the
+Paragon, which bears large and excellent nuts when the
+tree is very young. When the home ground is large
+enough, two or three of these trees should be planted near
+the borders.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+<b>Chicory.</b> The Magdeburg Chicory is the variety
+usually spoken of, it being the one most extensively
+grown. The roots of this, after being ground and
+roasted, are used either as a substitute or an adulterant of
+coffee.</p>
+
+<p>The Witloof, a form of Chicory, is used as a salad,
+or boiled and served in the same manner as Cauliflower.
+The plants should be thinned to 6 in. In the latter part of
+summer they should be banked up like celery, and the leaves
+used after becoming white and tender. This and the common
+wild Chicory are often dug in the fall, the leaves cut
+off, the roots packed in sand in a cellar and watered until a
+new growth of leaves starts. These leaves grow rapidly and
+are very tender, making a fine salad vegetable. One
+packet of seed of the Witloof will furnish plants enough for
+a large family.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 90px;">
+<img src="images/069-chrysanth.jpg" width="90" height="157" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Chrysanthemum</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Chrysanthemums</b> are both annual and perennial.
+The annual Chrysanthemums must not be confounded
+with the well known fall-flowering kinds, as they
+will prove a disappointment if one expects large flowers of
+all colors and shapes. The annuals are mostly coarse-growing
+plants, with an abundance of bloom and a
+rank smell. The flowers are single in most cases, and
+not very lasting. They are useful for massing and
+also for cut-flowers. They are among the easiest of
+hardy annuals to grow. The stoniest part of the
+garden will usually suit them. 1-2 ft. Colors white
+and shades of yellow, the flowers daisy-like.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst perennial kinds, <i>Chrysanthemum frutescens</i>
+is the well known Paris Daisy or Marguerite, one of
+the most popular of the genus. This makes a very fine pot-plant
+for the window-garden, blooming throughout the winter
+and spring months. It is usually propagated by cuttings,
+which, if taken in spring, will give large blooming
+plants for the next winter. Gradually transfer to larger
+pots or boxes, until the plants finally stand in 6-inch or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+8-inch pots or in small soap boxes. There is a fine yellow-flowered
+variety.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;">
+<img src="images/070-chrysbox.jpg" width="180" height="194" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Chrysanthemums in a box</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In variety of form and color, and in size of bloom, the
+florists’ Chrysanthemum is one of the most
+wonderful of plants. It is a late autumn
+flower, and it needs little artificial heat to
+bring it to perfection. The great blooms of
+the exhibitions are produced by growing
+only one flower to a plant and by feeding
+the plant heavily. It is hardly possible for
+the amateur to grow such specimen flowers
+as the professional florist or gardener does;
+neither is it necessary. A well-grown plant
+with fourteen to twenty flowers is far more satisfactory as
+a window plant than a long, stiff stem with only one immense
+flower at the apex. Their culture is simple, much
+more so than that of many of the plants commonly grown
+for house decoration. Although their season of bloom is
+short, the satisfaction of having a fall display of flowers
+before the geraniums, begonias and other house
+plants have recovered from their removal from out
+of doors, repays all efforts.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 105px;">
+<img src="images/070-chryscut.jpg" width="105" height="249" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Cutting of
+Chrysanthemum</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cuttings taken in March or April, planted out in
+the border in May, well tended through the summer
+and lifted before frost in September, will bloom in
+October or November. The ground in which they
+are planted should be moderately rich and moist.
+The plants may be tied to stakes. When the buds
+show, all but the center one of each cluster on the
+leading shoots should be picked off, as also the small
+lateral branches. A thrifty bushy plant thus treated
+will usually have flowers large enough to show the
+character of the variety, also enough flowers to make
+a fine display. As to the receptacle into which to put
+them when lifted from the border, it need not be a
+flower pot. A pail or soap box, with holes bored for drainage,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+will suit the plant just as well, and by covering the
+box with cloth or paper the difference will not be noticed.
+If cuttings are not to be had, young plants may be bought
+of the florists and treated in the manner described.
+Buy them in midsummer or earlier.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;">
+<img src="images/071-chrysvase.jpg" width="84" height="153" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Vase of small
+Chrysanthemums</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 98px;">
+<img src="images/071-chryshardy.jpg" width="98" height="115" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Hardy
+Chrysanthemum</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is best not to attempt to flower the same plant
+two seasons. After the plant has bloomed, the top
+may be cut down, and the box set in a cellar and
+kept moderately dry. In February or March,
+bring the plant to the sitting-room window
+and let the shoots start from the root. These
+shoots are taken for cuttings to grow plants
+for the fall bloom.</p>
+
+<p>There is a hardy race of Chrysanthemums, very
+excellent for the border. Mulch in winter. The best
+bloom is usually given the first and second years.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cineraria.</b> A tender greenhouse plant. It may
+be grown as a house plant, although the conditions necessary
+to the best results are hard to obtain outside of a
+greenhouse. The conditions for their growing are a cool
+temperature, frequent repotting and guarding against the
+attacks of the greenfly. Perhaps the last is the most difficult,
+and with one having no facilities for fumigating, it
+will be almost impossible to prevent the difficulty. A
+living room usually has too dry air for Cinerarias. The
+seed, which is very minute, should be sown in August or
+September to have plants in bloom in January or February.
+Sow the seed on the surface of fine soil and water
+very lightly to settle the seeds into the soil. A piece of
+glass or a damp cloth may be spread over the pot or box
+in which the seeds are sown, to remain until the seeds are
+up. Always keep the soil damp, but not wet. When the
+seedlings are large enough to repot, they should be potted
+singly in 2- or 3-inch pots. Before the plants have become
+pot-bound, they should again be repotted into larger
+pots, until they are in at least a 6-inch pot in which to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+bloom. In all this time, they should be grown cool and,
+if not possible to fumigate them with tobacco smoke, the
+pots should stand on tobacco stems, which should be moist
+at all times. The general practice, in order to have bushy
+plants, is to pinch out the center when the flower buds
+show, causing the lateral branches to start, which they are
+slow to do if the central stem is allowed to grow. Plants
+bloom but once.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cives.</b> These belong to the onion family, and
+are propagated by division of the root. They may be planted
+in a permanent place in the border, and, being hardy, will
+remain for years. The leaves are the parts used, as the
+roots are very rank in flavor. The leaves may be cut frequently,
+as they readily grow again.</p>
+
+<p><b>Clarkia.</b> The Clarkias are among the popular
+hardy edging and vase annuals, bearing rose, white or
+bordered flowers in great profusion. The double-flowering
+varieties are the most showy, but the single ones
+will prove very satisfactory. The seeds may be sown where
+the plants are wanted, or started in frames for earlier
+flowers. 6-18 in. high. Thin to 6-12 in. apart. Plant
+in a warm soil and sunny place.</p>
+
+<p><b>Clematis.</b> One of the best of woody climbing
+vines. The common <i>C. Flammula</i>, <i>Virginiana</i>, <i>paniculata</i>
+and others are used frequently to cover division walls or
+fences, growing year after year without any care and producing
+quantities of flowers. <i>C. paniculata</i> is now planted
+very extensively. The panicles of star-shaped flowers entirely
+cover the vine and have a pleasant fragrance. One
+of the best of all fall-flowering vines, and hardy North.
+Clings well to a chicken-wire trellis.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;">
+<img src="images/073-clematis.jpg" width="170" height="71" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Clematis paniculata</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The large-flowered section, of which Jackmani is perhaps
+the best known, is very popular for pillar or porch
+climbers. The flowers of this section are large and showy,
+running from pure white, through blue, to scarlet. Of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+class, the most serviceable purple is Jackmani; white,
+Henryi; blue, Ramona; crimson, Madame E. André.</p>
+
+<p>The Flammula class may be propagated by division of
+the roots. The large-flowered kinds are propagated by
+layers or root-grafting on <i>C. Flammula</i> and others.</p>
+
+<p>A deep, mellow, rich soil, naturally moist, will suit the
+requirements of Clematis. In dry times apply water freely,
+particularly for the large-flowered kinds. Also
+provide trellis or other support as soon as they
+begin to run. Clematis usually blooms on the
+wood of the season: therefore prune in winter
+or early spring, in order to secure strong new
+flowering shoots. The large-flowered kinds should be cut
+back to the ground each year; and other kinds may be similarly
+treated unless they are wanted for permanent bowers.</p>
+
+<p>The Clematis root disease is the depredation of a nematode
+or eel-worm. It is seldom troublesome in ground
+which thoroughly freezes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Climbers.</b> <a href="#vines">Treated under <i>Vines</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Cobæa.</b> This is most commonly seen in the
+greenhouse, although it is one of the best of tender
+climbers for porches. Seed sown in February or March,
+and grown in gentle heat, will make suitable plants for setting
+out by June. It may also be grown from cuttings of
+the young wood, taken in February and rooted in brisk
+heat. The flowers of <i>C. scandens</i> are shaped very much
+like those of the Campanulas, but are larger. They open a
+greenish white and deepen to a dark purple in the course of
+a few days. The vines in full bloom have a gradation of
+colors as the flowers are in different stages of development.
+The variegated form of <i>C. scandens</i> should be propagated
+by cuttings to hold the variegation. Grows 10-15 ft.
+Tender. Climbs by means of tendrils.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cockscomb.</b> <i>Celosia cristata</i> is the well known
+Cockscomb, having combs or heads of scarlet, crimson,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+rose and yellow. The combs are often saved for winter
+bouquets by cutting them off before thoroughly ripe and
+drying them. The feathered section comprises tall-growing
+plants with plumes of various colors which, with the colored
+leaves of some varieties, make a striking feature in a
+border. The Celosias, being tender, should be started in a
+hotbed or frame, potted off when out of the seed-leaf, and
+planted out in well enriched soil after danger of frost is
+past, 1½-2½ ft. high.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="coldframe" id="coldframe"></a>Coldframe.</b> A Coldframe is a simple, low
+structure, covered with glass or oiled paper or cloth, in
+which plants are grown without artificial heat. It differs
+from the hotbed in the fact that it has no bottom heat. The
+atmosphere in the Coldframe is warmer than that outside,
+because it is protected from the winds and because there
+is more or less of the sun’s heat stored up in the earth.
+For the details of construction of the Coldframe, <a href="#hotbed">see
+<i>Hotbed</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>A Coldframe is ordinarily used for later work than the hotbed:
+that is, seeds may be sown in a Coldframe from two to
+three and sometimes four weeks in advance of their sowing
+in the open; whereas in a hotbed the seeds may be started
+from one to three months earlier than they may be out of
+doors. Coldframes are sometimes used for the wintering
+over of hardy plants which are started in the fall. For
+example, cabbage seed may be sown in September in a
+Coldframe and the young plants may be protected therein
+during the winter. If they are properly grown and hardened
+off, they will not be injured by the winter, even
+though they freeze. Lettuce and sometimes cauliflowers are
+carried over in the same way. Coldframes are also used to
+receive plants which have outgrown the hotbed and must be
+transplanted. Plants which need hardening off may also be
+transplanted from the hotbed into the Coldframe. The
+Coldframe in these cases is an intermediate stage between
+the hotbed and the open field.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+<b>Coleus.</b> A well known foliage plant for pot
+culture or bedding. It was used very extensively at one
+time in ornamental bedding and ribbon borders, but owing
+to its being tender has lost in favor, and its place is
+largely taken by other plants. Cuttings root very readily.
+It may also be grown from seed, although the types have
+not become fixed, and a large number of differently marked
+plants may be had from the same packet. This would not
+be a drawback in the window-garden, unless a uniform
+effect is wished. Sow the seed in gentle heat in March.
+Make new plants from cuttings each year, and throw the
+old ones away.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="collards" id="collards"></a>Collards.</b> This is a name given to a kind of
+kale, used when young as greens; also to young cabbages
+used in the same way. The seed of any early cabbage
+may be sown thickly in rows 18 inches apart, from early
+spring to late fall. The plants are cut off when 6 or 8
+inches high and boiled as are other greens. The kale
+Collards is grown in the South, where cabbages fail to
+head. It grows to the height of 2 to 6 feet, furnishing a
+large quantity of leaves.</p>
+
+<p><b>Collinsia.</b> A hardy annual that should be
+sown in the fall, where wanted, if early flowers are desired.
+The flowers of all the varieties are showy, either in masses
+or planted in a border. Give them a position near the front,
+as the plants rarely exceed 18 inches in height.</p>
+
+<p><b>Columbine.</b> <a href="#aquilegia">See <i>Aquilegia</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Compost.</b> <a href="#manure">See <i>Manure</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Convolvulus.</b> <a href="#morning-glory">See <i>Morning-Glory</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="coreopsis" id="coreopsis"></a>Coreopsis</b>, or <span class="smcap">Calliopsis</span>. Very showy hardy
+annuals, growing from 1 to 3 feet high, and covered throughout
+the season with a profusion of bloom. The colors range
+from lemon-yellow to dark velvety brown. Excellent for
+cutting, and very effective in mixed borders. They thrive in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+any garden soil if they have full sunlight. Sow where
+they are to grow, letting the plants stand 6-12 in. apart for
+mass effects.</p>
+
+<p><b>Corn Salad.</b> This is one of the earliest spring
+salad vegetables, coming into condition to use with spinach,
+and needing the same culture. Sown in the fall, and covered
+with straw or hay when cold weather sets in, it will
+start into rapid growth when the covering is removed in
+March or April. Or the seed may be sown in early spring,
+and plants will be fit to use in six or eight weeks. One
+packet of seed will suffice for a small family.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="corn" id="corn"></a>Corn, Sweet</b>, is not so generally used as it
+should be. Usually when planted at all, only one planting
+of one kind is made. The ears come to edible maturity
+almost simultaneously, and a short season of Sweet Corn is
+the result. The first planting should be made from May 1
+to 10, planting early, intermediate and late varieties at the
+same time, then at intervals of two weeks until the middle
+of July, when the late varieties should be planted, thus
+having a succession from the first crop until October.
+The soil for Corn should be rich in plant-food, and the
+coarser manure left from the preparation of the ground for
+small crops may be used to good advantage. Corn for the
+garden is better planted in drills, the drills 3 feet apart,
+dropping the seed from 10 to 12 inches apart in the drills.
+One quart of seed will plant 200 hills.</p>
+
+<p>For extra early, Marblehead, Adams, Vermont, Minnesota
+and Early Cory are favorites. For later crop, Crosby,
+Hickox, Shoe Peg and Stowell Evergreen are now popular.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cosmos.</b> The Cosmos grown in a locality free
+from early fall frosts is certainly a beautiful thing, but
+there are probably few flowers that have caused so much disappointment
+to the flower lover in the North. The seed
+germinates very freely. The plants grow with great vigor,
+and if the season permits, an abundance of bloom may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+had in September. An early-flowering strain of dwarf Cosmos
+has been offered by the trade for several years; and
+each year there seems to be an improvement in the size and
+colors, so the time may shortly come when this will equal
+the late-flowering varieties, making the culture of Cosmos
+more satisfactory. Cosmos flowers are borne on long
+stems, and the colors are in white and fine shades of red.
+The foliage is also fine. Seed should be sown in gentle
+heat, in the greenhouse, hotbed or window in early April,
+and the young plants transplanted when 2 inches high,
+setting the plants well down in the soil and giving at least
+3 inches between the plants, as they are very likely to spindle
+up, with weak stems, if crowded. When danger of frost
+is over, set them out in a warm, well sheltered position,
+3 feet apart. After the plants start into growth, pinch
+out the top to induce a bushy growth. If situated where
+the wind can whip them, they should have a stake driven
+close to the stem, and be tied to it for support. Flowers
+of Cosmos are on the order of single Dahlias.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cranberry.</b> The growing of Cranberries in artificial
+bogs is an American industry. The common large
+Cranberry of markets is also a peculiarly American fruit,
+since it is unknown in other countries except as the fruit is
+shipped there. Cranberries are grown in bogs, which may
+be flooded. The whole area is kept under water during the
+winter time, largely to prevent the plants from winter injury
+by the heaving and freezing and thawing of the bogs.
+Flooding is also employed at intervals for the purpose of
+drowning out insects, mitigating drought, and protecting
+against frost and fires. Every good Cranberry bog should
+have facilities for flooding. The ordinary practice is to choose
+a bog which has a creek running through it, or through
+which some creek or ditch may be diverted. At the lower
+side of the bog flood gates are provided, so that when the
+gates are shut the water backs up and floods the area. It
+is best that the bog be comparatively flat, so that the water<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+will be of approximately equal depth over the whole area.
+At the shallowest places the water should stand about a foot
+above the plants. The water is usually let on the bog early
+in December and kept on until April or early May. No flooding
+is done during the rest of the year unless there is some
+particular occasion therefor.</p>
+
+<p>All the wild and turfy growth should be taken off the
+bog before the vines are set. This is done either by digging
+it off and removing it bodily, or by drowning it out by
+means of a year’s flooding. The former method is generally
+considered to be the better. After the turfy growth
+is removed, the bog is smoothed and covered 2 or 3 in.
+deep with clean sand. The vines are now set, the lower
+ends of them being shoved through the sand into the richer
+earth. In order to prevent a too rapid and tangled growth
+of vine, it is customary to resand the bog every three or
+four years to a depth of one-fourth or one-half inch.
+When sanding is not practicable, the vines may be mown
+off when they become too luxuriant.</p>
+
+<p>The plants for setting are merely cuttings or branches of
+the vines. These cuttings may be from 5 to 10 in. long.
+They are inserted into the ground in a hole made by a
+crowbar or stick. They are usually planted at distances of
+12 to 18 in. each way, and the vines are allowed to cover
+the entire ground as with a mat. In three years a good
+crop should be secured, if the weeds and wild growth are
+kept down. A crop ranges between 50 to 100 barrels per
+acre.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cress.</b> The Upland Cress, or the true <span class="smcap">Pepper
+Grass</span>, may be grown on any garden soil. Sow early in the
+spring. It makes a rapid growth and can be cut from
+four to five weeks. Succession of sowings must be made,
+as it runs quickly to seed. The curled variety is the one
+usually grown, as the leaves may be used for garnishing as
+well as for salads. One packet of seed will be sufficient for
+each sowing. Any good soil will do. Sow thickly in drills<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+12-18 in. apart. In summer it runs to seed quickly, so that
+it is usually grown in spring and fall.</p>
+
+<p>The Water Cress is more exacting in its culture, and can
+only be successfully grown in moist places, such as edges of
+shallow, slow-running creeks, open drains, or beds excavated
+near such streams. A few plants for private use may be
+grown in a frame, provided a retentive soil is used and attention
+given to watering the bed often. Water Cress may
+be propagated from pieces of the stem, used as cuttings. If
+one is fond of Water Cress, it is well to colonize it in some
+clean creek or pool. It will take care of itself year by year.
+Seeds may also be used for propagating it.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="crocus" id="crocus"></a>Crocus.</b> A hardy bulb, easily grown and giving
+good satisfaction either in the border or scattered
+through the lawn. They are also forced for winter (<a href="#bulbs">see
+<i>Bulbs</i></a>). They are so cheap and lasting that they may be
+used in quantity. A border of them along the edges of
+walks, little clumps of them in the lawn, or masses in a
+bed, give the first touch of color as the spring opens. They
+may be forced with ease planted in pots or shallow boxes,
+put away in a cool place and brought into the house at any
+time through the winter. A low temperature will bring
+them into bloom in perfection in about four weeks from the
+time they are brought in. They can be had in the window-garden
+in this way.</p>
+
+<p>A sandy soil suits the Crocus admirably. Plant in the
+fall, in the open, setting them 3 to 4 inches deep. When they
+show signs of failing, take up the bulbs and reset them.
+They tend to rise out of the ground, because the new bulb or
+corm forms on the top of the old one. If best results are
+desired, it is well to renew the bed occasionally by buying
+new bulbs. Crocus beds may be filled later in the season
+with quick-growing annuals.</p>
+
+<p><b>Croton.</b> Under this name many varieties and
+so-called species of Codiæum are grown for conservatory
+decoration, and latterly for foliage bedding in the open.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+The colors and shapes of the leaves are very various and attractive.
+The Crotons make good window-garden subjects,
+although they are very liable to the attack of the mealy bug.
+They are propagated readily by cuttings of half-ripened
+wood any time during winter or spring. The plants should
+be given an abundance of light in order to bring out their
+fine colors; but it is usually advisable to screen them from
+the direct rays of the sun when they are grown under glass.
+If the red spider or the mealy bug attack them, they may
+be syringed with tobacco water. Plants which are propagated
+indoors during the winter may be massed in beds
+out of doors during the summer, where they make very
+striking effects. Give them rich, deep soil, and be sure
+that they are syringed frequently enough on the under
+side of the leaves to keep down the red spider. If the
+plants have been gradually subjected to strong light before
+they are taken out of doors, they will stand the full sunlight
+and will develop their rich colors to perfection. In the
+fall they may be taken up, cut back and used for window-garden
+or conservatory subjects. Crotons are shrubs or
+small trees, and they may be transferred into large pots or
+tubs and grown on into large tree-like specimens.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="cucumber" id="cucumber"></a>Cucumber.</b> For early use, the Cucumber is
+usually started in a hotbed or coldframe by sowing the seed
+on pieces of sod 4 to 6 inches square, turned grass side
+down. Three or four seeds are placed on or pushed into
+each piece of sod and covered with 1 to 2 inches of fine soil.
+The soil should be well watered and the glass or cloth placed
+over the frame. The roots will run through the sod. When
+the plants are large enough to set out, a flat trowel or a
+shingle may be slipped under the sod and the plants moved
+to the hill without check. In place of sod, old quart
+berry boxes are good; after setting in the hill the roots
+may force their way through the cracks in the baskets. The
+baskets also decay rapidly. Flower pots may be used.
+These plants from the frames may be set out when danger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+of frost is over, usually by the 10th of May, and should make
+a very rapid growth, yielding good-sized fruits in two
+months. The hills should be made rich by forking in a
+quantity of well rotted manure, and given a slight elevation
+above the garden&mdash;not high enough to allow
+the wind to dry the soil, but slightly raised
+so that water will not stand around the roots.
+One ounce of seed will plant fifty hills. The
+hills may be 4-5 ft. apart each way.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;">
+<img src="images/081-cucumbers.jpg" width="169" height="75" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Cucumbers</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The White Spine is the leading general-purpose variety.
+For very early or pickling sorts, the Chicago, Russian, and
+other picklings are good.</p>
+
+<p>The striped beetle is an inveterate pest on Cucumbers
+and squashes. Following is the latest advice (Hall and
+Sirrine, New York State Experiment Station): “Poisons can
+be used with success against these beetles for only a short
+time in the spring, when they begin to feed; and again, in
+the fall, against beetles of the new brood. This fall poisoning
+will succeed only where there is not an abundance
+of wild fall flowers; for the beetles will desert any poisoned
+crop for the unpoisoned flowers and will feed upon the
+flowers to a considerable extent, anyhow, if they are to be
+found. Green arsenite, dry, gave best results. It was
+found a waste of the poisons to apply them in Bordeaux
+mixture, as the mixture so repelled the insects that they
+would not eat the sprayed vines to secure the poison.
+These poisons, applied in water, are liable to burn or stunt
+the plants. It is necessary, then, if we wish to poison the
+beetles, to use a trap crop to attract the insects and to apply
+the poison to this crop instead of to the plants we design to
+protect. On small areas it may be advisable to shut in the
+small plants of the growing crop by the well known cloth-topped
+boxes; by the tent-like cloth covers spread over arched
+hoops or wires; by boxes made from a rectangular piece of
+cloth and two short 6-inch boards with cleats attached to
+insert in the soil and hold the boards upright; or even 6-inch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+wire plate-covers. Covers, however, are too expensive
+on large areas, and they have the disadvantage of frequently
+making the plants weak, so that winds will snap
+them off or twist and ruin them when the covers have to be
+removed. If covers are used alone, their removal leaves
+the unprotected vines not only for feeding places but for
+breeding places for the beetles.</p>
+
+<p>“Bordeaux mixture, if thoroughly and frequently applied,
+makes as efficient a protection as the covers, is much
+cheaper, and at the same time protects the plants from diseases.
+This mixture (1-to-11 formula) should be sprayed
+upon the Cucumbers when they are just well up, again when
+they show the third leaf, and the third time just before the
+plants commence to form runners. The early application
+can probably best be made with a knapsack sprayer, and
+later ones by any good pump sprayer. The three applications
+should not cost over $2 per acre. The Bordeaux mixture
+is a much better repellant, according to station tests,
+than kerosene, turpentine, tobacco dust, cow manure, burdock
+infusion, slug shot, bug death, or any other known
+compound. Indeed, all materials of this class, supposed to
+drive away the beetles by their distasteful odor, proved failures
+when used alone. Air-slaked lime, dusted over the
+vines, will make them unpalatable to the beetles, but the
+lime is liable to stunt the plants. It may be used, with
+care, by those whose crop is not large enough to warrant
+purchase of a spraying outfit.</p>
+
+<p>“All of these appliances or applications, covers, Bordeaux
+mixture or lime, merely protect the young plants
+until they are strong enough to stand the injury from the
+beetles; they do not kill the insects. To do this, trap crops
+are needed. As the squash is the beetle’s favorite food
+plant, this vegetable should be planted&mdash;in single rows
+along the margins of small patches, in several rows around
+large fields&mdash;about four days before the Cucumbers or
+melon seeds are sown. When these trap plants are up and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+the beetles appear about them, dust about half the plants
+with green arsenite, reserving the other half for use if rain
+or heavy dew makes the poison soluble and kills the vines
+first treated. The beetles, attracted by their favorite tidbit,
+will feed upon the squash vines and be poisoned by the
+arsenite. When the Cucumbers or melons are up, unless
+they are protected by covers, spray with Bordeaux, and poison
+more of the squash vines. When the beetles commence
+to pair, the squashes may be cultivated up, leaving only a
+few vines for the beetles to feed upon at flowering time, as
+the insects prefer the squash flowers and will not molest the
+others. Beans may be used with some success as a fall
+catch crop, where wild flowers are not too plentiful. They
+should be planted on the Cucumber or melon fields; and
+when the beetles leave the old vines to feed upon the fresh
+bean plants, they should be treated to liberal doses of poison
+as well.”</p>
+
+<p>The mildew on the vines can be prevented by Bordeaux
+mixture spray.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;">
+<img src="images/083-currants.jpg" width="133" height="158" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Currants</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="currant" id="currant"></a>Currants.</b> The Currant, being one of the
+hardiest and most productive of fruits, is often neglected,
+the patch allowed to become foul with grass, never
+thinned or trimmed, the worms eating the leaves until, in
+the course of time, the plants weaken and die.
+Along the fence is no place to plant Currants, or,
+indeed, any other fruit; plant out in the open, at
+least 5 feet from anything that will interfere with
+cultivation. No fruit crop will respond more readily
+to good care than the Currant. Clean cultivation
+and a liberal use of manure or fertilizers
+will certainly be followed by well paying crops.
+One- or two-year-old plants may be set 4 by 6
+feet. Trim the bush by cutting off most of the suckers
+below the surface of the ground. If the season is dry, a
+mulch of straw or leaves will assist the plants to establish
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+The red and white Currants bear mostly on two-year-old
+or older wood. A succession of young shoots should be
+allowed to grow to take the place of the old bearing wood.
+Cut out the canes as they grow older. The partial shade
+afforded by a young orchard suits the Currant well, and if
+the ground is in good condition no bad results will follow to
+the orchard, provided the Currants are removed before the
+trees need the entire feeding space.</p>
+
+<p>A Currant patch should continue in good bearing for 10
+to 20 years, if properly handled. One very important point
+is to keep the old, weak canes cut out, and a succession of
+two to four new ones coming from the root each year. For
+home use, White Imperial and Moore’s Ruby are excellent.
+Prince of Wales is a heavy bearer and excellent for cooking.
+Wilder, Victoria, Cherry and White Grape are meritorious
+varieties.</p>
+
+<p>To combat the Currant worm, spray thoroughly with
+Paris green to kill the first brood, just as soon as holes can
+be seen in the lower leaves&mdash;usually before the plants are
+in bloom. For the second brood, if it appear, spray with
+white hellebore. For borers, cut out and burn the affected
+canes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cuttings.</b> Cuttings are parts of plants which
+are inserted in soil or water with the intention that they
+shall grow and make new plants. They are of various kinds.
+They may be classified, with reference to the age of the
+wood or tissue, into two classes; viz., those made from
+perfectly hard or dormant wood (taken from the winter
+twigs of trees and bushes), and those made from more or
+less immature or growing wood. They may be classified
+again in respect to the part of the plants from which they
+are taken, as root Cuttings, tuber Cuttings (as the ordinary
+“seed” planted for potatoes), stem Cuttings and leaf Cuttings.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 199px;">
+<img src="images/085-cuttings.jpg" width="199" height="168" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">The planting of dormant wood
+Cuttings</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Dormant wood Cuttings are used for grapes, currants,
+gooseberries, willows, poplars and many other kinds of soft-wooded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+trees and shrubs. Cuttings are ordinarily taken in
+fall or winter, but cut into the proper lengths and then
+buried in sand or moss where they do not freeze, in order
+that the lower end may heal over or callus.
+In the spring these Cuttings are
+set in the ground, preferably in a rather
+sandy and well drained place. Usually,
+hardwood Cuttings are made with two to
+four joints or buds, and when they are
+planted, only the upper bud projects
+above the ground. They may be planted
+erect, as the picture shows, or somewhat
+slanting. In order that the Cutting may
+reach down to moist earth, it is desirable
+that it should not be less than 6 inches long; and it is
+sometimes better if it is 8 to 12 inches. If the wood is
+short-jointed, there may be several buds on a Cutting of
+this length; and, in order to prevent too many shoots from
+arising from these buds, the lowermost buds are often cut
+out. Roots will start as readily if the lower buds are removed,
+since the buds grow into shoots and not into roots.
+Cuttings of currants, grapes, gooseberries, and the like may
+be set in rows which are far enough apart to admit of easy
+tillage either with horse or hand tools, and the Cuttings
+may be placed from 3 to 8 inches apart in the
+row. After the Cuttings have grown for one season,
+the plants are usually transplanted and given more
+room for the second year’s growth, after which time
+they are ready to be set in permanent plantations.
+In some cases, the plants are set at the end of the
+first year; but two-year plants are stronger and usually
+preferable.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 96px;">
+<img src="images/085-cuttings2.jpg" width="96" height="155" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Root Cutting,
+which has given
+rise to a shoot</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Root Cuttings are used for blackberries, raspberries,
+and a few other things. They are ordinarily made of
+roots from the size of a lead pencil to one’s little finger, and
+are cut in lengths from 3 to 5 inches long. The Cuttings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+are stored the same as stem Cuttings and allowed to callus.
+In the spring they are planted in a horizontal or
+nearly horizontal position in moist, sandy soil, being entirely
+covered to a depth of 1 or 2 inches.</p>
+
+<p>Softwood or greenwood Cuttings are always rooted under
+cover; that is, in a greenhouse, coldframe or dwelling
+house. They are usually made of wood which is mature
+enough to break when it is bent sharply. When the wood
+is so soft that it will bend and not break, it is too immature,
+in the majority of plants, for the making of good Cuttings.
+One to two joints is the proper length of a greenwood Cutting.
+If of two joints, the lower leaf should be cut off and
+the upper leaves cut in two, so that they do not present
+their entire surface to the air and thereby evaporate the
+plant juices too rapidly. If the Cutting is of only one joint,
+the lower end is usually cut just above a joint. In either
+case, the Cuttings are usually inserted in sand or well
+washed gravel, nearly or quite up to the leaves. Keep the
+bed uniformly moist throughout its depth, but avoid any soil
+which holds so much moisture that it becomes muddy and
+sour. These Cuttings should be shaded until they begin to
+emit their roots. Coleus, geraniums, fuchsias, and nearly
+all the common greenhouse and house plants, are propagated
+by these Cuttings or slips.</p>
+
+<p>Leaf Cuttings are often used, for the fancy-leaved begonias,
+gloxinias, and a few other plants. The young plant
+usually arises most readily from the leaf-stalk or petiole.
+The leaf, therefore, is inserted into the ground much as a
+green Cutting is. Begonia leaves, however, will throw out
+young plants from the main veins when these veins or
+ribs are cut. Therefore, well-grown and firm begonia leaves
+are sometimes laid flat on the sand and the main veins cut;
+then the leaf is weighted down with pebbles or pegs so that
+these cut surfaces come into intimate contact with the soil
+beneath. The begonia leaf may be treated in various other
+ways and still give good results. <a href="#begonias">See <i>Begonia</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 166px;">
+<img src="images/087-cuttings3.jpg" width="166" height="175" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Cuttings inserted in a
+double pot</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+In the growing of all greenwood Cuttings, it is well to
+remember that they should have a gentle bottom heat; the
+soil should be such that it will hold moisture and yet not
+remain wet; the air about the tops should not become close
+and stagnant, else the plants will damp off; and the tops
+should be shaded for a time.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent method of starting Cuttings
+in the living room is to make a double pot,
+as shown in the picture. Inside a 6-inch pot,
+set a 4-inch pot. Fill the bottom, <i>a</i>, with
+gravel or bits of brick, for drainage. Plug the
+hole in the inside pot. Fill the spaces between,
+<i>c</i>, with earth, and in this set the Cuttings.
+Water may be poured into the inner pot, <i>b</i>, to
+supply the moisture.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cutworms.</b> Probably the remedy for Cutworms
+most often practiced in gardens, and which cannot
+fail to be effective when faithfully carried out, is hand-picking
+with lanterns at night or digging them out from around
+the base of the infested plants during the day. Bushels of
+Cutworms have been gathered in this way, and with profit.
+When from some cause success does not attend the use of
+the poisoned baits, discussed next, hand-picking is the only
+other method yet recommended which can be relied upon to
+check Cutworm depredations.</p>
+
+<p>By far the best methods yet devised for killing Cutworms in
+any situation are the poisoned baits; hand-picking is usually
+unnecessary where they are thoroughly used. Poisoned
+bunches of clover or weeds have been thoroughly tested,
+even by the wagon-load, over large areas, and nearly
+all have reported them very effective; lamb’s quarters
+(pigweed), pepper-grass and mullein are among the weeds
+especially attractive to Cutworms. On small areas the
+making of the baits is done by hand, but they have been
+prepared on a large scale by spraying the plants in the
+field, cutting them with a scythe or machine, and pitching<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+them from wagons in small bunches wherever desired.
+Distributed a few feet apart between rows of garden plants
+at nightfall, they have attracted and killed enough Cutworms
+often to save a large proportion of the crop; if the
+bunches can be covered with a shingle, they will keep
+fresher much longer. The fresher the baits, and the more
+thoroughly the baiting is done, the more Cutworms one can
+destroy. However, it may sometimes happen that a sufficient
+quantity of such green succulent plants cannot be obtained
+early enough in the season in some localities. In
+this case, and we are not sure but in all cases, the poisoned
+bran mash can be used to the best advantage. It is easily
+made and applied at any time, is not expensive, and thus
+far the results show that it is a very attractive and effective
+bait. A tablespoonful can be quickly dropped around the
+base of each cabbage or tomato plant, small amounts can be
+easily scattered along the rows of onions, turnips, etc., or
+a little dropped on a hill of corn, cucumbers, etc. It was
+used on sweet potato hills in New Jersey last year, and
+“served as a complete protection, the Cutworms preferring
+the bran.” It is well to apply it on the evening
+of the day the plants are set out.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 174px;">
+<img src="images/088-cutworm.jpg" width="174" height="227" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Protection from cutworms</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The best time to apply these poisoned
+baits is two or three days before any plants
+have come up or been set out in the garden.
+If the ground has been properly prepared, the
+worms will have had but little to eat for several
+days and they will thus seize the first
+opportunity to appease their hunger upon the
+baits, and wholesale destruction will result.
+The baits should always be applied at this time
+wherever Cutworms are expected. But it is
+not too late usually to save most of a crop after the pests
+have made their presence known by cutting off some of the
+plants. Act promptly and use the baits freely.&mdash;<i>M. V.
+Slingerland.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+Cutworms may be kept away from plants by making a
+collar of stiff paper or tin about the base, as in the picture;
+but this is not practicable on a large scale.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cyclamen.</b> A tender greenhouse tuberous
+plant, sometimes seen in the window-garden. Cyclamens may
+be grown from seed sown in April or September in soil containing
+a large proportion of sand and leaf-mold. If sown
+in September, they should be wintered in a coolhouse. In
+May they should be potted into larger pots and placed in a
+shaded frame, and by July will have become large enough
+for their flowering pot, which should be either a 5- or
+6-inch one. They should be brought into the house before
+danger of frost, and grown cool until through flowering. A
+temperature of 55° suits them while in flower. After
+flowering, they will need a rest for a short time, but should
+not become very dry, or the bulb will be injured. When
+they start into growth, they should have the old soil shaken
+off and be potted into smaller pots. At no time should more
+than half the tuber be under the soil.</p>
+
+<p>Tubers large enough to flower the first year may be obtained
+from the seedsmen at moderate prices; and unless
+one has facilities for growing the seedlings for a year, purchase
+of the tubers will give the best satisfaction. The soil
+best suited to the Cyclamen is one containing two parts
+leaf-mold, 1 part each of sand and loam.</p>
+
+<p><a name="D" id="D"></a><b>Daffodils</b> are a kind of Narcissus. They are
+hardy, and require the treatment recommended for Crocus.
+They may be naturalized in the grass, but they usually do
+not persist long on account of our hot, dry summers. Daffodils
+have been much improved of late. Plant in the fall,
+4-6 in. deep. Excellent old garden plants.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dahlia.</b> The Dahlia is an old favorite which,
+on account of its formal flowers, has been in disfavor for a
+few years, although it has always held a place in the rural
+districts. Now, however, with the advent of the cactus and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+semi-cactus types (or loose-flowered forms), and the improvement
+of the singles, it again has taken a front rank
+among late summer flowers, coming in just in advance of
+the Chrysanthemum.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 102px;">
+<img src="images/090-dahlia.jpg" width="102" height="162" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Dahlia</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The single varieties may be grown from seed, but the
+double sorts should be grown from cuttings of young
+stems or from division of the roots. If cuttings are
+to be made, it will be necessary to start the roots early
+either in a hotbed or house. When the growth has
+reached 4 or 5 inches, they may be cut from the plant
+and rooted in sand. Care should be taken to cut just
+below the joint, as a cutting made between two joints
+will not form tubers. The most rapid method of propagation
+of named varieties is to grow from cuttings
+in this way. In growing the plants from roots, the best
+plan is to place the whole root in gentle heat, covering
+slightly. When the young growth has started, the roots
+may be taken up, divided, and planted out 3 to 4 feet apart.
+This plan will ensure a plant from each piece of root,
+whereas if the roots are divided while dormant, there is
+danger of not having a bud at the end of each
+piece, in which case no growth will start.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 132px;">
+<img src="images/090-dahlia2.jpg" width="132" height="166" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Dahlia</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Dahlia flourishes best in a deep, rich,
+moist soil, although very good results can be had
+on sandy soil, provided plant-food and moisture
+are furnished. Clay should be avoided. If the
+plants are to be grown without stakes, the center
+of each plant should be pinched out after making
+two or three joints. By doing this the lateral
+branches will start near the ground and be stiff enough to
+withstand the winds. In most home gardens the plants are
+allowed to reach their full height, and are tied to stakes if
+necessary. Dahlias are very susceptible to frost. The tall
+kinds reach a height of 5-8 feet.</p>
+
+<p>After the first frost, lift the roots, let them dry in the
+sun, shake off the dirt, trim off tops and broken parts, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+store them in a cellar as you would potatoes. Cannas may
+be stored in the same place.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="daisy" id="daisy"></a>Daisy.</b> The perennial English Daisy, or <i>Bellis
+perennis</i>, is a prime favorite as an edging plant. The cheerful
+little flowers show early in the spring, and with a little
+care bloom continuously through a long season. They
+should be given well enriched, moist soil, and be mulched
+through hot weather. The usual method of propagation is
+by division of the crowns, made in cool weather. They may
+also be grown from seed, but the chances are that many inferior
+flowers will be produced. Set the plants 3 or 4 inches
+apart. Height 3 to 5 inches. The colors are white, pink and
+red. Hardy if mulched in winter, but best results are obtained
+if plants are renewed frequently.</p>
+
+<p>Many other plants are called Daisy, particularly the wild
+Asters, the Ox-eye Daisy or Whiteweed, and the Paris Daisy
+(<i>Chrysanthemum frutescens</i>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Damping Off</b> is the rotting off of cuttings or
+young plants near the surface of the soil. It is the work of
+fungi; but these fungi are injurious because they find conditions
+congenial to their rapid growth. Prevention is
+worth more than cure. See that the soil is wet clear
+through, not wet on top and dry beneath. Keep it as dry as
+possible on the surface. Avoid soggy soils. On peaty soils,
+sprinkle sand or coal ashes to keep the top dry. Give the
+plants free circulation of air. Give them abundance of
+room. If Damping Off threatens, transplant.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dandelion.</b> This common weed would hardly
+be recognized if seen under cultivation in the vegetable
+garden. The plants attain a large size and the leaves are
+much more tender. The seed may be selected from the
+best field-growing plants, but it is better to buy the French
+seed of the seedsmen.</p>
+
+<p>Sow in spring in well manured soil, either in drills or in
+hills 1 foot apart. A cutting of leaves may be had in September<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+or October, and some of the stools may stand until
+spring. The delicacy of the leaves may be improved by
+blanching them, either by the use of boards or earth. One
+trade packet of seed will supply a large number of plants.
+The whole plant is destroyed when the crop of leaves is taken.</p>
+
+<p><b>Datura.</b> <span class="smcap">Brugmansia.</span> Large-growing annuals
+with large, trumpet-shaped flowers. The coloring of
+some of the flowers is very attractive, but the odor of the
+plant is unpleasant. Plants should be set 4 feet apart.
+They grow 3-4 feet high, bear large leaves, and therefore
+make good low screens. Frost kills them. Sow seed where
+plants are to grow; or, better, start them in the house three
+or four weeks before the weather is fit for planting outside.
+Some of the Daturas are weeds. The great spiny
+seed pods are interesting.</p>
+
+<p><b>Delphinium.</b> <a href="#larkspur">See <i>Larkspur</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;">
+<img src="images/092-dewberry.jpg" width="160" height="165" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Lucretia Dewberry</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Dewberry.</b> The Dewberry may be called an
+early trailing blackberry. The culture of this, as of the
+blackberry, is very simple; but, unlike the latter, some
+support should be given to the canes, as they are very
+slender and rank growers. A wire trellis or
+large-meshed fence-wire answers admirably;
+or (and this is the better general method) they
+may be tied to stakes. The fruits are large and
+showy, which, combined with their earliness,
+makes them desirable; but they are usually
+deficient in flavor. The Lucretia is the leading
+variety in cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>Lay the canes on the ground in winter. In
+the spring tie all the canes from each plant to a stake.
+After fruiting, cut the old canes and burn them (as for
+blackberries). In the meantime, the young canes (for next
+year’s fruiting) are growing. These may be tied up as they
+grow, to be out of the way of the cultivator. Dewberries
+are one to two weeks earlier than blackberries.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+<b><a name="dianthus" id="dianthus"></a>Dianthus</b>, or <span class="smcap">Pink</span>. Under this head are included
+Chinese Pinks, Sweet William, Picotee, Carnation
+(<a href="#carnations">which see</a>), and the perennial or Grass Pinks. All of
+them are general favorites.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese Pinks (<i>Dianthus Chinensis</i>, or <i>Heddewigii</i>) are
+now very popular. They are biennials, but flower the first
+year from seed, and are treated as hardy annuals. They have
+a wide range of color and markings. Some of them are as
+double as a rose, and are edged, splashed or lined with other
+colors. The single ones are very brilliant and are profuse
+bloomers. Sow seeds where plants are to stand, or if early
+bloom is desired, start in the house. Set the plants 6-10
+in. apart. They grow 8-15 in. high. They bloom until after
+frost. Of easiest culture in any good soil, and should be
+even more popular. The petals are often quite deeply and
+oddly cut.</p>
+
+<p>The Sweet William is an old-fashioned perennial, having
+flowers of many combinations of color, growing for several
+years when once planted, but being the better for renewal
+every two years. Raising new stock from seeds is usually
+better than dividing old plants. Of late years, the Sweet
+William has been much improved.</p>
+
+<p>The perennial garden or Grass Pinks are low-growing,
+with highly perfumed flowers. They are very useful for
+permanent edgings, although the grass is likely to run them
+out unless a clean strip is kept on either side. Divide the
+old plants when the edging begins to fail; or
+raise new plants from seed. Seedlings usually
+do not bloom much the first year. Usually perfectly
+hardy.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;">
+<img src="images/093-dibber.jpg" width="173" height="122" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Dibbers</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Dibbers</b> are hand tools used for making
+holes in which to set plants or to drop
+seeds. They are better than a hoe or a spade
+for most transplanting. For small plants, as cabbages and
+tomatoes, a cylindrical Dibber is generally used. (See the
+lower one in the cut.) It can be made from an old spade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+handle or any hardwood stick. When broad holes are
+wanted, the triangular iron Dibber (sold by dealers) is excellent.
+It is particularly useful in hard soils.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dicentra</b> includes the Bleeding Heart; also
+the native little Dutchman’s Breeches and Squirrel Corn,
+and a few other species. All are hardy perennials of
+the easiest culture, blooming in spring. In common with
+all perennial herbs, they are benefited by a winter mulch of
+leaves or litter. Propagated by dividing the clumps.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="dictamnus" id="dictamnus"></a>Dictamnus.</b> <span class="smcap">Fraxinella</span> or <span class="smcap">Gas Plant</span>. An
+old border plant (perennial herb) with white or pale red
+flowers. The leaves of the plant emit a strong odor when
+rubbed, likened to that of the lemon verbena. It has been
+advertised as the Gas Plant from the fact that the plant
+exudes an oily matter that may be ignited, especially in
+warm, dry weather. Propagated by seeds, which should be
+sown as soon as ripe. The plant blooms the third year,
+and improves with age. Set plants 3 feet apart. Height 2
+to 3 feet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dill.</b> An annual aromatic herb that will seed
+itself if seeds are left to ripen, and an abundance of plants
+may always be had. The culture is of the easiest. The
+seeds are often used to flavor pickles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Diseases.</b> Diseases of plants may be caused
+by some physiological disturbance to the plant system, or by
+the incursions of some parasitic organism, as insects or fungi.
+The work of insects, however, is ordinarily not classed with
+plant Diseases (<a href="#insects">see <i>Insects</i></a>). Of Diseases which are caused
+by plant parasites or by physiological disturbances, there
+are two general groups:</p>
+
+<p>(1) Parasitic fungous Diseases, such as the apple-scab,
+black-rot and mildew of the grape, leaf-blight of the plum
+and pear, black-knot, and the like. These Diseases are
+characterized by definite spots, discolorations or excrescences,
+which are more or less scattered over the surface of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+the leaf, fruit or branch. As a rule, the leaves and fruits
+which are attacked have a tendency to drop from the tree.
+The general treatment for these Diseases is to spray with
+some fungicidal mixture, like the Bordeaux mixture or the
+ammoniacal carbonate of copper. The treatment is useful
+in proportion as it is applied early and thoroughly. After
+the fungus once gets into the tissues of the host-plant, it is
+difficult, if not impossible, to kill it. If, however, the fungicide
+is upon the plant before the fungus is, the parasite
+may not be able to obtain a foothold. Even after it does
+obtain a foothold, it is probable, however, that the spray
+will check its spread by preventing the development of its
+external parts.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The physiological and bacterial Diseases, or those
+which are termed constitutional troubles. In these cases
+there are rarely any definite spots, as in the attacks of
+parasitic fungi, but the entire leaf, or even the entire plant,
+or a large part of it, shows a general weakening and Disease,
+as if there were some cutting off of the accustomed
+source of nourishment. Such Diseases are very likely to be
+seen in a general yellowing and death of the leaf, in the
+dying of the leaf along the main veins and around the
+edges, showing that the difficulty is one which affects the
+entire leaf, and not any particular part of it. In general,
+there is a tendency for the foliage in plants so attacked to
+wither up and hang on the tree for a time. The peach-yellows
+and pear blight are Diseases of this kind. There
+are no specific treatments for troubles of this sort. They
+must be approached by what physicians call prophylaxis&mdash;that
+is, by methods of sanitation and prevention. The diseased
+plants or parts are cut away and burned. All those
+conditions which seem to favor the development of the Disease
+are removed. Varieties which are particularly susceptible
+are discarded. Careful management in matters of
+this sort is often much more important than any attempt at
+specific treatment.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+<b>Dolichos.</b> <a href="#hyacinth_bean">Mentioned under <i>Hyacinth Bean</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Dracænas</b> of the conservatories (properly
+mostly <span class="smcap">Cordylines</span>) are sometimes used as house plants.
+Protect from direct sunlight, keep an even and fairly high
+temperature, water freely when they are growing. When
+the plants begin to fail, return them to the florist for recuperation,
+where they may have equable conditions. They
+are handsome long-leaved foliage plants, excellent for
+jardinieres.</p>
+
+<p><b>Drainage</b> serves two purposes: first, to carry
+superfluous water from the land; second, to lower the water-table
+or hard-pan, and to make the soil loose and friable
+above. Nearly all hard clay lands are much benefited by
+draining, even though they are not too wet. The region of
+free or standing water is lowered and air is admitted into
+the soil, rendering it fine and mellow. For carrying off
+mere surface water, surface or open ditches are sufficient;
+but if the soil is to be ameliorated, the drain must be beneath
+the surface. The best underdrains are those which
+use hollow or cylindrical tiles, but very good results may be
+had by making drains from stones. In regions where there
+are many flat stones, a very good conduit may be laid with
+them, but they are likely to get out of order. If there is
+considerable fall to the ditch, the bottom may be filled for
+the space of 10 inches or a foot with common stones rolled
+in, and the water will find its way between them. If the
+stones are even deeper than this, the results will be better;
+and such ditches also provide place for disposing of superfluous
+stones.</p>
+
+<p>The deeper the ditch the further it will draw on either
+side. It should always be deep enough to be protected from
+freezing, particularly if tiles are used. Three feet should
+be the least depth, and 3½ feet is a good average depth.
+Drains as deep as this need not be placed oftener than 2 to 3
+rods apart, unless, in garden conditions, it is desired to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+very thoroughly ameliorate a heavy clay soil, in which case
+they may be placed every 20 feet. The better the fall
+the quicker the drain will act and the more permanent it will
+be, as it will tend to clean itself and not fill up with silt.
+It is important that the outlet be entirely free, and it should
+be protected with stones or mason work. The roots of some
+trees, particularly of willows and elms, are attracted by tile
+drains, and often fill up the pipes. When the drain goes
+near such trees, therefore, it is well to cement the joints.
+In general practice, however, the joints should not be
+cemented, because a large part of the drainage water enters
+at those places. In laying the tiles, it is well to cover the
+joints with inverted sod, tarred paper, wisps of straw,
+stones or other material. This prevents the fresh earth
+from falling in between the joints, and by the time the material
+is decayed the earth will have become so thoroughly
+set that no further trouble will result. Although under-drains
+take off superfluous water, nevertheless an under-drained
+soil will hold more moisture than one which is not
+drained, particularly in the case of clay lands with high
+subsoils. This is because fine, mallow soils are able to hold
+more moisture than very loose and open or very dense and
+compact ones. A well constructed underdrain should last
+indefinitely.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dutchman’s Pipe.</b> <a href="#aristolochia">See <i>Aristolochia</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="E" id="E"></a><b>Echeveria.</b> Tender succulents largely used for
+carpet bedding and rock gardens. <i>Echeveria secunda</i> is sometimes
+called <span class="smcap">Old-Hen-and-Chickens</span>, from the little plants
+that grow out from the stem of the parent plant and show
+around the edges of the rosette top; but the hardy Hen-and-Chickens
+of old gardens is a different but closely allied
+plant (<i>Sempervivum tectorum</i>). All the species are of easy
+culture and thrive on sandy soil. They should not be
+planted out until all danger of frost is over and the ground
+thoroughly warm. Propagated by the offsets. Height 3<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+inches. The name Echeveria is now given up by botanists
+for <i>Cotyledon</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Egg-plant.</b> <span class="smcap">Guinea Squash.</span> Unless one has
+a greenhouse or a very warm hotbed, the growing of Egg-plants
+in the North should be left to the professional gardener,
+as the young plants are very tender, and should be
+grown without a check. The seed should be sown in the
+hotbed or greenhouse about April 10, keeping a temperature
+of from 65° to 70°. When the seedlings have made three
+rough leaves, they may be pricked out into shallow boxes,
+or, still better, into 3-inch pots. The pots or boxes should
+be plunged to the rim in soil in a hotbed or coldframe so
+situated that protection may be given on chilly nights. The
+10th of June is early enough to plant them out in central
+New York. The soil in which they are to grow cannot well
+be made too rich, as they have only a short season in which
+to develop their fruits. The plants are usually set 3 feet
+apart each way. A dozen plants are sufficient
+for the needs of a large family, as each plant
+should yield from two to six large fruits. The
+fruits are fit to eat at all stages of growth, from
+those the size of a large egg to their largest
+development. One ounce of seed will furnish
+600 to 800 plants.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 152px;">
+<img src="images/098-eggplant.jpg" width="152" height="160" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">New York Purple Egg-plant</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The New York Improved Purple is the standard
+variety. Black Pekin is good. For early,
+or for a short-season climate, the Early Dwarf Purple is
+excellent.</p>
+
+<p><b>Endive.</b> As a fall salad vegetable, this should
+be better known, it being far superior to lettuce at that
+time and as easily grown. For fall use, the seed may be
+sown from June to August, and as the plants become fit to
+eat about the same time from sowing as lettuce does, a succession
+may be had until cold weather. The plants will
+need protection from the severe fall frosts, and this may be
+given by carefully lifting the plants and transplanting to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+frame, where sash or cloth may be used to cover them in
+freezing weather. The leaves, which constitute practically
+the whole plant, are blanched before being used, either by
+tying together with some soft material or by standing boards
+on each side of the row, allowing the top of the boards to
+meet over the center of the row. The rows should be 1½
+or 2 feet apart, the plants 1 foot apart in the rows. One
+ounce of seed will sow 150 feet of drill.</p>
+
+<p><b>Eschscholtzia.</b> <a href="#california_poppy">See <i>California Poppy</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Eutoca.</b> Hardy early-flowering annuals having
+pink or blue flowers, good for masses. Sow seed early
+where wanted. Height 1 foot. Eutocas are properly classed
+with Phacelias.</p>
+
+<p><b>Evergreens.</b> Evergreens are plants which hold
+their foliage in winter. Ordinarily, however, in this country
+the word Evergreen is understood to mean coniferous
+trees with persistent leaves, as pines, spruces, firs, cedars,
+junipers, arborvitæ, retinosporas, and the like. These trees
+have always been favorites with plant lovers, as they have
+very distinctive forms and other characteristics. Many of
+them are of the easiest culture. It is a common notion that,
+since spruces and other conifers grow so symmetrically,
+they will not stand pruning; but this is an error. They
+may be pruned with as good effect as other trees, and if
+they tend to grow too tall the leader may be cut out without
+fear. A new leader will arise, but in the meantime the
+upward growth of the tree will be somewhat checked, and
+the effect will be to make the tree dense. The tips of
+the branches may also be headed in with the same effect. The
+beauty of an Evergreen lies in its natural form; therefore,
+it should not be sheared into unusual shapes, but a gentle
+trimming back, as suggested, will tend to prevent the Norway
+spruce and others from growing open and ragged.
+After the tree attains some age, 4 or 5 inches may be taken
+off the ends of the main branches every year or two with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+good results. This slight trimming is ordinarily done with
+Waters’ long-handled pruning shears.</p>
+
+<p>There is much difference of opinion as to the proper time
+for the transplanting of Evergreens, which means that there
+is more than one season in which they may be moved. It
+is ordinarily unsafe to transplant them in the fall in northern
+climates or bleak situations, since the evaporation from
+the foliage during the winter is likely to injure the plant.
+The best results are usually secured when they are transplanted
+just as new growth is beginning, rather late in the
+spring. Some people also plant them in August, and the
+roots secure a hold of the soil before winter. In transplanting
+conifers, it is very important that the roots be not exposed
+to the sun. They should be moistened and covered
+with burlaps or other material. The holes should be ready
+to receive them. If the trees are large, or if it has been
+necessary to trim in the roots, the top should be cut when
+the tree is set. Large Evergreens (those 10 feet and more
+high) are usually best transplanted late in winter, at a time
+when a large ball of earth may be moved with them. A
+trench is dug around the tree, it being deepened a little day
+by day so that the frost can work into the earth and hold it
+in shape. When the ball is thoroughly frozen, it is hoisted
+onto a stone-boat and moved to its new position.</p>
+
+<p>For low hedges or screens, one of the most serviceable
+Evergreens is the arborvitæ in its various forms. Red cedars
+are also useful. Perhaps the handsomest of all of them
+for such purposes is the ordinary hemlock spruce; but it is
+usually difficult to move. Transplanted trees from nurseries
+are usually safest. If the trees are taken from the wild,
+they should be selected from open and sunny places. For
+neat and compact effects near porches and along walks, the
+dwarf retinosporas are very useful. Most of the pines and
+spruces are too coarse for planting very close to the house.
+They are better at some distance removed, where they serve
+as a background to other planting. If they are wanted for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+individual specimens, they should be given plenty of room,
+so that the limbs will not be crowded and the tree become
+misshapen. Whatever else is done to the spruces and firs,
+the lower limbs should not be trimmed up, at least not until
+the tree has become so old that the lowest branches die.
+Some species hold their branches much longer than others.
+The oriental spruce (<i>Picea orientalis</i>) is one of the best in
+this respect. The occasional slight heading-in, which we
+have mentioned, will tend to preserve the lower limbs, and
+it will not be marked enough to alter the form of the tree.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="everlastings" id="everlastings"></a>Everlastings</b> are flowers which retain their
+shape and usually their color when they are dried. Most of
+them are members of the composite family. In order to
+have them hold shape and color, cut them with very long
+stems just before they are fully expanded, and hang them in
+an airy place away from the sun. They are all annuals, or
+grown as such, and are of very easy culture. Sow seeds
+where the plants are to stand. Good kinds are Ammobium,
+Gomphrena or Bachelor’s Buttons, Rhodanthe, Helichrysum,
+Xeranthemum, and Acroclinium. Certain wild
+composites may be similarly used, particularly Anaphalis
+and species of Gnaphalium. Some of the grasses make
+excellent additions to dry bouquets (<a href="#grass">see <i>Grass</i></a>). With these
+dry bouquets, various seed pods look well.</p>
+
+<p><a name="F" id="F"></a><b>Fenzlia.</b> Little hardy annuals, having a profusion
+of bloom through the entire summer. The flowers are
+a delicate pink, with yellow throat surrounded by dark
+spots. A charming edging plant or window box subject.
+Sow the seed in boxes or where plants are wanted, and thin
+to the distance of 10 inches. Height 3 to 4 inches. Now
+classed with Gilia.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ferns.</b> Probably the one Fern grown most
+extensively as a house plant is the small-leaved Maidenhair
+Fern (or <i>Adiantum gracillimum</i>). This and other species are
+among the finest of house plants, when sufficient moisture<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+can be given. They make fine specimens, as well as serving
+the purpose of greenery for cut-flowers. Other species
+often grown for house plants are <i>A. cuneatum</i> and <i>A.
+Capillus-Veneris</i>. All these do well in a mixture of fibrous
+sod, loam, and sand, with ample drainage material. They
+may be divided if an increase is wanted.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 165px;">
+<img src="images/102-fern.jpg" width="165" height="174" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Boston Fern</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other Ferns for house culture include
+<i>Nephrolepis exaltata</i>. This is no doubt the
+most easily grown of the list, flourishing in
+a sitting-room. The new variety of <i>N. exaltata</i>,
+called the Boston Fern (see figure),
+is a decided addition to this family, having a
+drooping habit, covering the pot and making
+a fine stand or bracket plant.</p>
+
+<p>Several species of Pteris, particularly <i>P.
+serrulata</i>, are valuable house Ferns, but require
+a warmer situation than those mentioned above. They
+will also thrive better in a shady or ill-lighted corner.</p>
+
+<p>Perfect drainage and care in watering have more to do
+with the successful growing of Ferns than any special mixture
+of soils. If the drainage material in the bottom of the
+pot or box is sufficient, there is little danger of over-watering;
+but water-logged soil is always to be avoided.
+Do not use clay soils. Ferns need protection from the direct
+sunshine, and also a moist atmosphere. They thrive
+well in a close glass box, or window-garden, if the conditions
+can be kept equable.</p>
+
+<p>The native Ferns transplant easily to the garden, and
+they make an attractive addition to the side of a house, or
+as an admixture in a hardy border. The Ostrich and Cinnamon
+Ferns are the best subjects. Give all outdoor Ferns
+a place which is protected from winds, otherwise they will
+shrivel and perhaps die. Screen them from the hot sun,
+or give them the shady side of the building. See that the
+soil is uniformly moist, and that it does not get too hot.
+Mulch with leaf-mold in the fall.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+<b><a name="fertilizers" id="fertilizers"></a>Fertilizers.</b> Soil is productive when it has
+good physical texture, plant-food, and a sufficient supply of
+moisture. Even though it has an abundance of plant-food,
+if its texture is not good, it will not raise a good crop.
+Soil has good texture when it is open, mellow, friable,
+rather than loose and leachy, or hard and cloddy. Commercial
+Fertilizers add plant-food, but usually they have only a
+small influence in correcting faulty texture. Therefore,
+before concentrated Fertilizers are applied to land, it should
+be gotten into good physical condition by judicious tillage
+and by the incorporation of vegetable mold or humus. The
+leading source of humus in most gardens is stable manure.
+<a href="#manure">See <i>Manure</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p>The plant-food in commercial Fertilizers is largely in a
+soluble or quickly available condition. Therefore, a little
+Fertilizer applied late in the fall or early in the spring will
+tend to start the plants off quickly in the spring and to
+cause them to become established before the trying weather
+of summer. For garden purposes, it is usually advisable to
+buy one of the so-called complete Fertilizers; that is, one
+which contains nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. If a
+luxuriant growth of stalk and foliage is wanted rather than
+flowers or fruit, an application of nitrogen alone is usually
+advisable. The most readily available nitrogen in commercial
+form is that which is afforded by nitrate of soda and
+sulfate of ammonia. In garden practice this may be applied
+at the rate of 300 to 400 pounds an acre, although this
+quantity is more than is profitable to use in most general
+field or agricultural conditions. If it is desired to have
+stout, stocky plants, with early and profuse bloom, it is
+ordinarily advisable to use somewhat sparingly of nitrogen
+and to use a little more heavily of potash and phosphoric
+acid. This is especially true of the leguminous plants,
+which have the power of appropriating atmospheric nitrogen,
+and among such plants are sweet peas. Heavy fertilizing
+of sweet pea land with strong stable manure tends to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+make the vines grow too tall and to bear comparatively few
+flowers. For dressing of lawns, a Fertilizer which is comparatively
+rich in nitrogen is usually to be advised.</p>
+
+<p>An important value of commercial Fertilizers is to use
+them to start off the plants quickly in the spring. The food
+is available and acts at once. When used for this purpose,
+the Fertilizer may be applied in the hill; but when it is desired
+for the enriching of the land and for the support of the
+crop throughout the season, it should be applied to the entire
+surface. Always avoid putting the Fertilizer on the
+crown of the plant, or directly in contact with it. It is
+usually better to work the Fertilizer in lightly. For most
+garden operations, it is better to apply in spring.</p>
+
+<p><b>Feverfew.</b> <a href="#pyrethrum">See <i>Pyrethrum</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 140px;">
+<img src="images/105-fig.jpg" width="140" height="133" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Branches of Fig tree pegged down</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Fig.</b> The Fig is little grown in the East
+except as a curiosity, but on the Pacific coast it has
+gained more or less prominence as an orchard fruit. The
+trees are usually planted at distances of about 18 to 25 feet
+apart. Figs will stand considerable frost, and seedling or
+inferior varieties grow out of doors without protection as
+far north as Virginia. Many of the varieties fruit on young
+sprouts, and, inasmuch as the roots will stand considerable
+cold, these varieties will often give a few Figs in the northern
+states. Figs have been fruited in the open ground in
+Michigan. In all frosty countries, however, the Fig should
+be laid down during the winter time. The following notes
+from Professor Massey, of North Carolina, indicate how this
+may be done:</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 142px;">
+<img src="images/105-fig2.jpg" width="142" height="142" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Fig branches covered with earth</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“The light hoar-frosts that have occurred here affected
+vegetation only on low grounds, and today (November 5)
+our gardens on high ground show no signs of frost. Lima
+beans and tomato vines are as green as in summer time,
+and this morning we gathered ripe Figs from our trees in
+the garden&mdash;the latest I have ever known Figs to ripen.
+As the early crop of Figs ripens in July (if it escapes the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+winter frosts, for the fruit is now set on the trees), and the
+late crop begins in August and continues to ripen in succession
+till frost, it is easy to see what a desirable fruit the
+Fig is. In this section it is easy to have a great abundance
+of Figs, and it is possible almost anywhere in the
+United States to have both early and late crops
+in abundance by taking a little trouble to protect
+the trees in winter. Years ago the writer grew
+Figs in abundance in a very cold locality in
+northern Maryland, and never failed
+to get a good crop. Where the winter
+temperature seldom drops lower than
+18° or 20° above zero, Figs will need no special
+protection if sheltered from cold winds. In
+colder climates they should be branched from the
+ground, and, after the leaves have fallen, be bent
+to the ground in four bundles and covered with
+earth, making a sharp mound over the center and
+sloping off like a four-pointed star or cross, as shown in
+the cuts, taken from Bulletin 74 of North Carolina Experiment
+Station.”</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="flower_beds" id="flower_beds"></a>Flower Beds.</b> Two classes of subjects are to
+be considered in the discussion of Flower Beds: those concerned
+with the location of the bed; those concerned with
+the actual making of the bed itself. Most persons do not
+consider the former subject. If one wants a flower garden in
+which there is to be a collection of plants grown for the
+plants’ sake, the garden should be placed at the rear or one
+side, and may be laid out in regular fashion like a vegetable
+garden. If the flowers are to be a part of the home picture,&mdash;that
+is, a part of the place itself,&mdash;then they may be
+freely distributed amongst the border planting, or as edgings
+along groups of shrubbery. It is rarely, if ever, allowable
+to place formal beds in the lawn in home grounds. The
+place for carpet-bedding is usually in parks or other public
+areas, in sections which are set aside and devoted to that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+particular purpose, the same as another section may be devoted
+to a zoölogical garden, play-ground or to other specific
+use. Flowers which are grown in the middle of the
+lawn have little relation to other planting, and they have no
+background to show them off to good advantage. It is also
+difficult to grow them in small beds in the grass, since they
+are exposed to sun and wind, and the grass roots absorb the
+food and moisture. In the formal bed, every effort must be
+made to keep it prim, otherwise it becomes displeasing;
+whereas, if the flowers are planted more or less promiscuously
+in large, irregular borders, or along the edge of shrubbery,
+the failure of one or even of a dozen plants is not a
+serious matter. The growing of plants in formal designs
+requires so much care and attention that a large part of the
+fun of plant-growing is lost. Such plant-growing should
+ordinarily be left to those who make a business of it.</p>
+
+<p>In making a Flower Bed, see that the ground is well
+drained; that the subsoil is deep; that the land is in a
+mellow and friable condition, and that it is rich. Each fall
+it may have a mulch of rotted manure or of leaf-mold, which
+may be spaded under deeply in the spring; or the land may
+be spaded and left rough in the fall, which is a good practice
+when the soil has much clay. Make the Flower Beds as
+broad as possible, so that the roots of the grass running in
+from either side will not meet beneath the flowers and rob
+them of food and moisture. It is well to add a little commercial
+fertilizer each fall or spring.</p>
+
+<p><b>Flowering Maple.</b> <a href="#abutilon">See <i>Abutilon</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Forget-me-not.</b> This old favorite grows so
+easily, looks so cheerful, and with a little care will bloom
+so long, that it should have a place in every collection of
+flowering plants. It is perennial, but the best results may
+be had by dividing the roots as often as every other year; or
+seedlings may be taken up from around the old plants.
+They require a moist soil, with shade a part of the day.
+They will thrive exceedingly if grown in a frame like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+pansies. Easily grown from seeds, usually blooming the
+first fall. Excellent for low edgings. Height 6 inches.</p>
+
+<p><b>Four-o’clock.</b> <span class="smcap">Mirabilis.</span> Tender annual, a
+plant of old-fashioned gardens, and always interesting.
+Grows 2 to 3 feet high. Drop seeds where the plants are to
+stand, thinning them to 12 to 18 inches apart. The colors
+are white and pink. There are variegated-leaved forms;
+also dwarfs. Excellent for the back row in a bed of
+annuals.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 87px;">
+<img src="images/107-foxglove.jpg" width="87" height="247" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Foxglove</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Foxglove</b>, or <span class="smcap">Digitalis</span>. Foxgloves make most
+effective border plants, either as a background or planted
+among other things. The tall flower-spikes are
+covered during the blooming period with funnel-shaped
+drooping flowers in various colors and with
+fine markings. Some of the newer varieties have
+flowers that rival the Gloxinias in shadings and markings.
+The plants are perfectly hardy, growing in one
+situation for a number of years; but, as with many
+other perennials, they are all the better for being
+divided at intervals. They may be grown readily from
+seed. Sow in boxes under glass or in the border
+where wanted. They bloom the second year. A rich,
+deep soil and partial shade suit their requirements.
+Period of bloom, July and August. Height 2 to 4 feet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Frame.</b> See <a href="#hotbed"><i>Hotbed</i></a> and <a href="#coldframe"><i>Coldframe</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Freesia.</b> One of the best and most easily handled
+winter-flowering bulbs. The white or yellowish bell-shaped
+flowers are produced on slender stalks just above the foliage,
+to the number of six to eight in a cluster. They are very
+fragrant, and last for a considerable time when picked.
+The bulbs are small, and look as though they could not
+produce a growth of foliage and flowers, but even the
+smallest mature bulb will prove satisfactory. Several
+bulbs should be planted together in a pot, box or pan, in
+October, if wanted for the holidays, or later if wanted at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+Easter. The plants bloom from ten to twelve weeks from
+planting, under ordinary care. No special treatment is required;
+keep the plants cool and moist through the growing
+season. The soil should contain a little sand mixed with
+fibrous loam, and the pot should be well drained. After
+flowering, gradually withhold water and the tops will die
+down, after which the roots may be shaken out and rested
+until time to plant in fall. Care should be taken to keep them
+perfectly dry. The bulbs increase rapidly from offsets.
+Plants may also be grown from seed, which should be sown
+as soon as ripe, giving blooming plants the second or third
+year. Height 12 or 15 inches. Easy to bloom in the window.
+The white form (<i>Freesia refracta alba</i>) is the best.
+<a href="#bulbs">See <i>Bulbs</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Fritillaria</b>, or <span class="smcap">Fritillary</span>. Bulbous plants,
+the commoner species hardy. Only the Crown Imperial is
+well known in this country. This is an old-fashioned plant,
+which takes care of itself when once planted. The other
+hardy Fritillarias are treated like tulips.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="frost" id="frost"></a>Frost.</b> The light frosts of late spring and of
+early fall may be prevented by any means which will keep
+the air in motion, or which will fill the air with moisture or
+cloud-like vapor, so that there is less radiation from the
+ground. When frost is expected, it is well to water the
+plants and the ground thoroughly. This will ordinarily protect
+them from two or three degrees of still frost. The water
+should be applied just at nightfall. On larger areas, it is
+often practicable to make a smudge. In order to be
+effective, the smudge must be rather dense and lie over
+the whole area, and it should be kept up until the danger
+from frost is past. Material which burns very slowly and
+with much smoke is preferable. Moist manure or straw or
+other litter is useful. Materials which are dry enough to
+blaze are of little use. Ordinarily, frost comes towards
+morning. It is well to have the piles of rubbish ready at
+nightfall and have them lighted toward the latter part of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+the night, when the frost is expected. The smudge should
+be kept up until sunrise. It is well to have these piles of
+smudge material on all sides of the area; or if the area is on
+a slope, it may be sufficient to have them on the upper
+side, for there is usually a movement of air down the hillside
+and the area will thereby be covered with the smudge.
+For a thorough protection, it is best to have many small
+piles rather than a few large ones. If the piles are placed
+every ten feet around the areas, better results are to be expected.
+There are especially prepared tar-like materials
+for use in smudging plantations, but they are little used in
+this country, although some of them are excellent.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 236px;">
+<img src="images/109-fuchsia.jpg" width="236" height="185" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Fuchsia</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Fuchsia.</b> Well-known window or greenhouse
+shrub. It is readily grown from cuttings. Soft, green wood
+should be used for cuttings, and it will root in about three
+weeks, when the cuttings should be potted. Take care not
+to have them pot-bound while in growth, but do not
+over-pot when bloom is wanted. Given warmth and good
+soil, they will make fine plants in
+three months or less. In well protected,
+partially shady places they
+may be planted out, growing into
+miniature bushes by fall. Plants may
+be kept on from year to year; and
+if the branches are well cut back after
+blooming, abundant new bloom will
+come. But it is usually best to make
+new plants each year from cuttings,
+since young plants usually bloom most profusely and demand
+less care. Fuchsias are amongst the best of window
+subjects.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fumigation</b> is mentioned under <a href="#insects"><i>Insects</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fungi.</b> Flowerless, leafless plants, living mostly
+on food (either living or dead) which has been prepared by
+other plants or by animals, Molds, mushrooms and puff-balls<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+are familiar examples. Some of the parasitic kinds
+cause great damage to the plants or animals on which they
+live. Examples of these injurious parasitic kinds are apple-scab
+fungus, potato mildew, grape mildew, corn smut
+fungus, and the like. Most of these are combated by
+spraying with materials containing copper or sulfur.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="funkia" id="funkia"></a>Funkia</b>, or <span class="smcap">Day Lily</span>. Hardy perennial herbs,
+growing in dense clumps and bearing attractive foliage.
+They are of the easiest culture. <i>F. subcordata</i>, the white-flowered
+species, is commonest. Of blue-flowered forms there
+are several, of which <i>F. ovata</i> (or <i>F. cærulca</i>) is perhaps
+the best. Funkias are excellent for borders, or as a formal
+edging to long walks or drives. There are variegated forms.
+Funkias grow 12 to 24 inches high, and the flower clusters
+stand still higher. Propagated by dividing the roots. Day
+Lily is a name applied also to species of Hemerocallis,
+which are yellow-flowered lilies.</p>
+
+<p><a name="G" id="G"></a><b>Gaillardias</b> are plants that should have a place
+in every garden, either as border plants or for cutting. The
+flowers are very showy and lasting in bouquets, as
+well as on the plants. The double form has perfect
+balls of color. Gaillardias are both annual and perennial.
+The perennials usually have flowers much
+larger than the annuals; and they bloom the first year
+if seed is started early. These are also propagated by
+seed or cuttings. If from seed, it should be sown
+under glass in February or March, setting out the
+young plants where wanted when danger of frost is
+over. The cuttings may be made of the new growth
+in the fall and wintered over in the house. Set 2 feet
+apart. Height 2 feet, blooming from July until hard frosts.
+The perennials are usually orange.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 75px;">
+<img src="images/110-gaillardia.jpg" width="75" height="168" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Gaillardia picta</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The annual kind (<i>Gaillardia picta</i> of florists) is probably
+the best kind for the home garden. It is of the
+easiest culture. Hardy. Two feet. Sow seeds where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+plants are to bloom. The colors of the flowers are in
+rich shades of yellow and red.</p>
+
+<p><b>Galanthus.</b> <a href="#snowdrop">See <i>Snowdrop</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Garlic.</b> An onion-like plant, the bulbs of which
+are used for flavoring. Little known in this country except
+amongst those of foreign birth. It is multiplied the same
+as multiplier onions&mdash;the bulb is broken apart and each
+bulbule or “clove” makes a new compound bulb in a few
+weeks. Hardy; plant in early spring, or in the South in
+the fall. Plant 2 to 3 inches apart in the row.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gas Plant</b> is <a href="#dictamnus"><i>Dictamnus</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Geranium.</b> What are generally known as
+Geraniums are, strictly speaking, Pelargoniums, <a href="#pelargoniums">which see</a>.
+The true Geraniums are mostly hardy plants, and therefore
+should not be confounded with the tender Pelargoniums.
+Geraniums are worthy a place in a border. They are
+hardy perennials, and may be transplanted early in the
+spring, setting them 2 feet apart. Height 10 to 12 inches.</p>
+
+<p>The common wild Cranesbill (<i>Geranium maculatum</i>) improves
+under cultivation, and is an attractive plant when it
+stands in front of taller foliage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gilia.</b> Low-growing hardy annuals, good for
+front borders or rockwork, growing from seed very quickly
+and continuing in flower a long season. They will do well
+in light soil. Sow seed in the fall or early spring where
+plants are wanted. <i>Gilia tricolor</i>, blue, white and yellow,
+is the best, but there are excellent white and red sorts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gladiolus.</b> A popular summer-flowering bulbous
+plant, thriving best in moist, sandy loam, that has had
+an application of well rotted manure the previous year.
+No manure should be used the year of planting, as it has a
+tendency to rot the bulbs. Plantings may be made from the
+time the ground is in condition to work in the spring until
+late in June. In planting, the bulbs should be set 3 inches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+deep and 8 to 10 inches apart, unless they are to be grown
+in groups, when they may be planted five or six in the
+space of 1 foot. Stakes should be furnished each plant
+to support the flower-spike. When in groups, one stake
+may be used, setting it in the middle of the circle.</p>
+
+<p>Gladioli are increased by bulblets formed around the
+old bulbs (or corms), or they may be grown from seed. The
+bulblets should be planted in drills in April or May, and
+will grow to flowering size in one or two years. In the
+same way, seed sown early in drills, grown through the
+summer, the little bulbs taken up and stored through the
+winter and again planted out, will often make bulbs large
+enough to flower the second year.</p>
+
+<p>Care should be taken to lift all bulbs before freezing
+weather, as most varieties are tender. They should be harvested
+with the tops on, and laid away in a cool, dry place
+to ripen. The tops are then cut off and the bulbs stored in
+a dry place (fit for potatoes, but drier) until wanted the following
+spring. <a href="#bulbs">See <i>Bulbs</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Glaucium</b>, or <span class="smcap">Horned Poppy</span>. The kind most
+cultivated (<i>G. luteum</i>) has bright yellow flowers in July and
+September. The flowers, contrasting with the deep cut
+glaucous leaves, make a fine effect in the mixed or ribbon
+border. Seed may be sown in the open ground where
+wanted. Thin to 12 inches apart. Height 12 to 20 inches.
+Perennial; but treated as a hardy annual.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gloxinia.</b> Choice greenhouse tuberous-rooted
+perennials, sometimes seen in window gardens, but really
+not adapted to them. Gloxinias must have a uniform moist
+and warm atmosphere and protection from the sun. They
+will not stand abuse or varying conditions. Propagated
+often by leaf-cuttings, which should give flowering plants
+in one year. From the leaf, inserted half its length in the
+soil (or sometimes only the petiole inserted) a tuber arises.
+This tuber, after resting until midwinter or later, is planted
+and flowering plants soon arise. Gloxinias also grow readily<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+from seeds, which may be germinated in a temperature of
+about 70°. Flowering plants may be had in a year if seeds
+are sown in late winter or early spring. This is the
+usual method. Soil should be porous and rich.</p>
+
+<p><b>Godetia.</b> Very free-blooming annuals in fine
+colors, harmonizing well with the California poppy. Many
+of the varieties are beautifully blotched with contrasting
+colors. They are very satisfactory plants for solid beds or
+border lines, blooming from June to October. Seed may be
+sown in heat, and seedlings planted in open ground at a distance
+of 18 inches apart when danger of frost is over. A
+rather poor soil will cause them to bloom better than one
+very rich, as they are inclined to make a rank growth.
+Height 1 to 2 feet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Golden Feather.</b> <a href="#pyrethrum">See <i>Pyrethrum</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 107px;">
+<img src="images/113-goldenrod.jpg" width="107" height="250" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Goldenrod</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="goldenrod" id="goldenrod"></a>Goldenrod</b> (<i>Solidago</i> of many species).
+The Goldenrod of the wayside is so familiar that the
+thought of bringing it into the garden is distasteful
+to many persons. But if given a suitable place in a
+well enriched border, no plant has greater possibilities.
+A large clump against a hedge of green, or
+massed behind a well grown plant of the blue-flowering
+wild asters, makes a striking contrast. They bloom
+late in the season, and the rich yellow and golden
+colors and the graceful forms are always pleasing.</p>
+
+<p>Goldenrods will grow more vigorously and the blooms be
+larger if the roots are divided every third or fourth year.
+There are several species catalogued by nurserymen, and
+some of the stock is superior to the wild type, either having
+a larger truss of flowers or blooming later. Goldenrods
+range in height from 2 to 6 feet. All are easily propagated
+by division. Transplant in the fall, if convenient, although
+spring planting may be equally successful.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="gomphrena" id="gomphrena"></a>Gomphrena.</b> <span class="smcap">Bachelor’s Button. Globe
+Amaranth.</span> A useful everlasting for winter bouquets. Seed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+may be sown in heat in March, the plants transplanted once
+before setting out to cause them to grow stocky and branching;
+or seed may be sown in a warm place where the plants
+are to grow. The flowers, to retain their colors, should be
+cut before fully expanded and dried in a dark, airy place.
+<a href="#everlastings">See <i>Everlastings</i>.</a> Set the plants 18 inches apart. Height
+12 inches. The heads resemble clover heads. The term
+Bachelor’s Button is also given to the cornflower (<i>Centaurea
+Cyanus</i>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Gooseberry.</b> Since the advent of the practice
+of spraying with fungicides to prevent mildew, the culture
+of the Gooseberry has increased. There
+is now no reason why, with a little care,
+good crops of many of the best English varieties
+may not be grown. The price for
+good fruits of Gooseberry is usually remunerative,
+as the market is rarely overstocked by the sudden
+ripening of the crop, since the fruits ripen through a long
+season. A large part of the crop is picked green for culinary
+purposes. The leading market variety is Downing, a native
+sort, which is little subject to mildew. Several of the English
+varieties have proved of value, having larger fruits than
+the natives. Whitesmith, Chautauqua, Triumph and Industry
+are among the best.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 169px;">
+<img src="images/114-gooseberries.jpg" width="169" height="71" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Gooseberries</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The propagation of the Gooseberry is similar to that of
+the currant, although the practice of earthing up a whole
+plant, causing every branch thus covered to throw out roots,
+is common with the European varieties. The rooted
+branches are cut off the following spring and planted in
+nursery rows or sometimes directly in the field. In order to
+succeed with this method, the plant should have been cut
+back to the ground so that all the shoots are yearling.</p>
+
+<p>Pruning is essentially the same as for the currant
+(<a href="#currant">which see</a>); and the treatment of the currant worm is the
+same as for that fruit.</p>
+
+<p>Gooseberries should be set (either in fall or spring) 3 to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+4 feet apart; rows 5 to 7 feet apart. Select a rich, rather
+moist soil. The tops need no winter protection. If mildew
+and worms are to be kept in check, spraying must
+be begun with the very first sign of trouble and be thoroughly
+done.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="gourds" id="gourds"></a>Gourds</b> are valuable as rapid-growing screen
+vines, the curious fruits of many varieties adding much to
+their attractiveness. Cultivation the same as for melons or
+squashes. Height 10 to 15 feet. Provide a chicken-wire
+trellis; or let them run on a brush pile.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="grafting" id="grafting"></a>Grafting.</b> Grafting is the operation of inserting
+a piece of a plant into another plant with the intention
+that it shall grow. It differs from the making of cuttings
+in the fact that the severed part grows in another plant
+rather than in the soil. There are two general kinds of
+Grafting&mdash;one of which inserts a piece of branch in the
+stock (Grafting proper), and one which inserts only a bud
+with little or no wood attached (budding). In both cases
+the success of the operation depends upon the growing
+together of the cambium of the cion (or cutting) and that of
+the stock. The cambium is the new and growing tissue
+which lies underneath the bark and on the outside of the
+growing wood. Therefore, the line of demarcation between
+the bark and the wood should coincide when the cion and
+stock are joined. The plant upon which the severed piece is
+set is called the stock. The part which is removed and set
+into the stock is called a cion if it is a piece of a branch, or
+a bud if it is only a single bud with a bit of tissue attached.
+The greater part of Grafting and budding is done when the
+cion or bud is nearly or quite dormant. That is, Grafting
+is usually done late in winter and early in spring, and budding
+may be done then, or late in summer, when the buds
+have nearly or quite matured.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 95px;">
+<img src="images/116-grafting.jpg" width="87" height="172" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">The bud severed
+from its twig</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The prime object of Grafting is to perpetuate a kind of
+plant which will not reproduce itself from seed or of which
+seed is very difficult to obtain. Cions or buds are therefore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+taken from this plant and set into whatever kind of plant is
+obtainable and on which they will grow. Thus, if one
+wants to propagate the Baldwin apple, he does not for
+that purpose sow seeds thereof, but takes cions or
+buds from the tree and grafts them into some other
+apple tree. The stocks are usually obtained from
+seeds. In the case of the apple, young plants are
+raised from seeds which are obtained mostly from
+cider factories, without reference to the variety from
+which they came. When the seedlings have grown
+to a certain age, they are budded or grafted; and
+thereafter they bear fruit like that of the tree from
+which the cions were taken.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 66px;">
+<img src="images/116-grafting2.jpg" width="66" height="153" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">The bud
+tied</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 58px;">
+<img src="images/116-grafting3.jpg" width="58" height="170" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">The bud
+inserted</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 70px;">
+<img src="images/117-grafting4.jpg" width="70" height="264" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Whip-graft</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are many ways in which the union between cion
+and stock is made. Budding may be first discussed.
+It consists in inserting a bud underneath the bark of
+the stock, and the commonest practice is that which is
+shown in the illustrations. Budding is mostly performed
+in July, August and early September, when
+the bark is still loose or will peel. Twigs are cut
+from the tree which it is desired to propagate, and
+the buds are cut off with a sharp knife, a shield-shaped
+bit of bark (with possibly a little wood) being left
+with them (see illustration). The bud is then shoved into a
+slit made in the stock, and it is held in place by tying
+with some soft strand. In two or three weeks the bud
+will have “stuck” (that is, it will have grown fast to
+the stock), and the strand is cut to prevent its strangling
+the stock. Ordinarily the bud does not grow until
+the following spring, at which time the entire stock or
+branch in which the bud is inserted is cut off an inch
+above the bud; and the bud thereby receives all the
+energy of the stock. Budding is the commonest Grafting
+operation in nurseries. Seeds of peaches may be
+sown in spring, and the plants which result will be ready
+for budding that same August. The following spring, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+a year from the planting of the seed, the stock is cut off
+just above the bud (which is inserted near the ground), and
+in the fall of that year the tree is ready for sale; that
+is, the top is one season old and the root is two seasons
+old, but in the trade it is known as a 1-year-old
+tree. In apples and pears the stock is usually two
+years old before it is budded, and the tree is not sold
+until the top has grown two or three years. Budding
+may be performed also in the spring, in which case the
+bud will grow the same season. Budding is always
+done in young branches, preferably in those not more
+than one year old.</p>
+
+<p>Grafting is the insertion of a small branch
+(or cion), usually bearing more than one bud. If
+Grafting is done on small stocks, it is customary
+to employ the whip-graft, which is illustrated in the
+margin. Both stock and cion are cut across diagonally,
+and a split made in each, so that one fits into the
+other. The graft is tied securely with a string, and
+then, if it is above ground, it is also waxed carefully.
+In larger limbs or stocks, the common method is to
+employ the cleft-graft. This consists in cutting off the
+stock, splitting it and inserting a wedge-shaped cion
+in one or both sides of the split, taking care that
+the cambium layer of the cion matches that of
+the stock. The exposed surfaces are then securely
+covered with wax. Grafting is usually performed
+early in the spring, just before the buds swell. The
+cions should have been cut before this time, when they
+were perfectly dormant. Cions may be stored in sand
+in the cellar or in the ice house, or they may be
+buried in the field. The object is to keep them fresh
+and dormant until they are wanted.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 85px;">
+<img src="images/117-grafting5.jpg" width="85" height="271" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Cleft-graft</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 78px;">
+<img src="images/117-grafting6.jpg" width="78" height="205" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Cleft-grafting
+a Cactus</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If it is desired to change the top of an old plum,
+apple or pear tree to some other variety, it is usually done
+by means of the cleft-graft. If the tree is very young, budding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+or whip-grafting may be employed. On an old top the
+cions should begin to bear when three to four years old.
+All the main limbs should be grafted. It is important to
+keep down the suckers or water-sprouts from around the
+grafts, and part of the remaining top should be cut away
+each year until the top is entirely changed over (which will
+result in two to four years).</p>
+
+<p>A good wax for covering the exposed parts is made as
+follows: Resin, 4 parts by weight; beeswax, 2 parts; tallow,
+1 part. In making the wax, the materials are first
+broken up and melted together. When thoroughly melted
+the liquid is poured into a pail or tub of cold water. It soon
+becomes hard enough to handle, and it is then pulled and
+worked over until it becomes tough or “gets a grain,” at
+which stage it becomes the color of very light-colored
+manilla paper. When wax is applied by hand, the hands
+must be well greased. Hard cake tallow is the best material
+for this purpose. In top-grafting large trees, it is
+well to carry a supply of tallow when waxing, by smearing
+the backs of the hands before entering the tree.</p>
+
+<p><b>Grape.</b> One of the surest of fruit crops is
+the Grape, a crop each year being reasonably certain after
+the third year from the time of setting the vines. The
+Grape does well on any soil that is under good cultivation
+and well drained. A soil with considerable clay is better
+under these circumstances than a light, sandy loam. The
+exposure should be to the sun; and the place should admit
+of cultivation on all sides. One- or 2-year-old vines should
+be planted, either in the fall or early spring. At planting
+the vine is cut back to 3 or 4 eyes, and the roots are well
+shortened in. The hole in which the plant is to be set
+should be large enough to allow a full spreading of the
+roots. Fine soil should be worked around the roots and
+firmed with the feet. If the season should be dry, a mulch
+of coarse litter may be spread around the vine. If all the
+buds start, the strongest one or two may be allowed to grow.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+The canes arising from these buds should be staked and allowed
+to grow through the season; or in large plantations the first-year
+canes may be allowed to lie on the ground. The second
+year one cane should be cut back to the same number of eyes
+as the first year. After growth begins in the
+spring, two of the strongest buds should be
+allowed to remain. These two canes now arising
+may be grown to a single stake through the
+second summer, or they may be spread horizontally
+on a trellis. These are the canes which
+form the permanent arms or parts of the vine.
+From them start the upright shoots which, in
+succeeding years, are to bear the fruits.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;">
+<img src="images/119-grapes.jpg" width="174" height="167" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Grape</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In order to understand the pruning of Grapes, the operator
+must fully grasp this principle: <i>Fruit is borne on wood of
+the present season, which arises from wood of the previous
+season.</i> To illustrate: A growing shoot, or cane of 1899,
+makes buds. In 1900 a shoot arises from each bud; and
+near the base of this shoot the Grapes are borne (1 to 4
+clusters on each). While every bud on the 1899 shoot may
+produce shoots or canes in 1900, only the strongest of these
+new canes will bear fruit. The skilled Grape-grower can
+tell by the looks of his cane (as he prunes it in winter)
+which buds will give rise to the Grape-producing wood the
+following season. The larger and stronger buds usually
+give best results; but if the cane itself is very big and
+stout, or if it is very weak and slender, he does not expect
+good results from any of its buds. A hard, well-ripened
+cane the diameter of a man’s little finger is the ideal size.</p>
+
+<p>Another principle to be mastered is this: <i>A vine should
+bear only a limited number of clusters</i>,&mdash;say from 30 to 80. A
+shoot bears clusters near its base; beyond these clusters the
+shoot grows on into a long, leafy cane. An average of two
+clusters may be reckoned to a shoot. If the vine is strong
+enough to bear 60 clusters, 30 good buds must be left at the
+pruning (which is done from December to late February).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+The essential operation of pruning a Grape vine, therefore,
+is each year to cut back a limited number of good
+canes to a few buds, and to cut off entirely all the remaining
+canes or wood of the previous season’s growth. If a cane is
+cut back to 2 or 3 buds, the stub-like part which remains is
+called a spur. Present systems, however, cut each cane
+back to 8 or 10 buds (on strong varieties), and 3 or 4 canes
+are left,&mdash;all radiating from near the head or trunk of the
+vine. The top of the vine does not grow bigger from year
+to year, after it has once covered the trellis, but is cut back
+to practically the same number of buds each year. Since
+these buds are on new wood, it is evident that they are each
+year farther and farther removed from the head of the vine.
+In order to obviate this difficulty, new canes are taken out
+each year or two from near the head of the vine, and the
+2-year or 3-year-old wood is cut away.</p>
+
+<p>The training of Grapes is a different matter. A dozen
+different systems of training may be practiced on the same
+trellis and from the same style of pruning,&mdash;for training is
+only the disposition or arrangement of the parts.</p>
+
+<p>On arbors, it is best to carry one permanent arm or
+trunk from each root over the framework to the peak. Each
+year the canes are cut back to short spurs (of 2 or 3 buds)
+along the sides of this trunk.</p>
+
+<p>Grapes are set from 6 to 8 feet apart in rows which are
+8 to 10 feet apart. A trellis made of 2 or 3 wires is the
+best support. Slat trellises catch too much wind and blow
+down. Avoid stimulating manures. In very cold climates,
+the vines may be taken off the trellis in early winter and
+laid on the ground and lightly covered with earth. Along
+the boundaries of home lots, where Grapes are often planted,
+little is to be expected in the way of fruit because the ground
+is not well tilled. For mildew and rot, spray with Bordeaux
+mixture. <a href="#spraying">See <i>Spraying</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p>Concord is the most cosmopolitan variety, but its quality
+is not the best. For the home garden, a good selection may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+be made from the following list: Winchell or Green Mountain,
+Campbell Early, Worden, Concord, Niagara, Moore
+Diamond, Vergennes, Agawam, Salem, Wilder, Iona,
+Brighton, Delaware.</p>
+
+<p><b>Grapery.</b> The European grapes rarely thrive
+out of doors in eastern America. Grape houses are necessary,
+with or without artificial heat. Fruit for home use may
+be grown very satisfactorily in a cold Grapery (without artificial
+heat). A simple lean-to against the south side of a
+building or wall is cheap and serviceable. When a separate
+building is desired, an even-span house running north and
+south is preferable. There is no advantage in having a
+curved roof, except as a matter of looks. A compost of four
+parts rotted turf to one of manure is laid on a sloping cement
+bottom outside the house, making a border 12 feet wide and
+2 feet deep. The cement may be replaced with rubble on
+well drained soils, but it is a poor makeshift. Every three
+years the upper 6 inches of the border should be renewed
+with manure. The border inside the house is prepared likewise.
+Two-year-old potted vines are planted about 4 feet
+apart in a single row. Part of the roots go through a crevice
+in the wall to the outer border and part remain inside; or all
+may go outside if the house is desired for other purposes.
+One strong cane is trained to a wire trellis hanging at least
+18 inches from the glass, and is cut back to 3 feet the first
+year, 6 the second, and 9 the third. Do not be in a hurry
+to get a long cane. Pruning is on the spur system, as recommended
+for arbors on <a href="#Page_120">page 120</a>. The vines are usually laid
+on the ground for winter and covered with leaves or wrapped
+with cloth.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the buds swell in early spring, tie the vines
+to the trellis and start out one shoot from each spur, rubbing
+off all others. After the berries begin to color, however,
+it is better to leave all further growth to shade the fruit.
+Pinch back each of these laterals two joints beyond the
+second bunch. To keep down red spider and thrips, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+foliage should be sprayed with water every bright morning
+except during the blooming season. At least one-third of
+the berries should be thinned from each bunch; do not be
+afraid of taking out too many. Water the inside border
+frequently all through the summer, and the outside occasionally
+if the season is dry. Mildew may appear in July.
+The best preventives are to syringe faithfully, admit air
+freely, and sprinkle sulfur on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Fruit may be kept fresh on the vines in a warm (or artificially
+heated) Grapery until late December: in a coldhouse
+it must be picked before frost. After the fruit is off, ventilate
+from top and bottom and withhold water, so as to thoroughly
+ripen the wood. Along in November the canes are
+pruned, covered with straw or wrapped with mats and laid
+down till spring. Black Hamburg is superior to all other
+varieties for a cold Grapery; Bowood Muscat, Muscat of
+Alexandria and Chasselas Musque may be added in the warmhouse.
+Good vines will live and bear almost indefinitely.&mdash;<i>S. W. Fletcher.</i></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="grass" id="grass"></a>Grasses</b> of various kinds are grown for ornament,
+the most popular types being the hardy perennials,
+which make attractive clumps in the lawn or border. The
+best of the permanent kinds in the North are the various
+sorts of Eulalia (properly Miscanthus). When once established
+they remain for years, making large and bold clumps.
+The striped kind, or zebra grass, is particularly good. These
+grasses thrive in any good soil. They grow from 4 to 7 feet
+high. The great reed, or <i>Arundo Donax</i>, is a bold subject
+and perfectly hardy. In a rich and rather moist soil, it
+grows 10 to 12 feet high when well established. Pampas
+Grass is most excellent in the Middle States and South.
+Some of the big native grasses and sedges make attractive
+lawn clumps.</p>
+
+<p>Grasses are also grown for dry or everlasting bouquets.
+For this purpose, small-growing delicate annual species are
+mostly used. Good types are species of agrostis, briza,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+bromus, eragrostis, and pennisetum. Seeds of these and
+of others are sold by seedsmen. With ordinary treatment,
+they thrive in any garden soil.</p>
+
+<p>For notes on sod-making, <a href="#lawns">see <i>Lawn</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Greenhouse.</b> In America the word Greenhouse
+has come to be applied to all kinds of glass-houses in which
+plants are grown. Originally the word was applied to those
+houses in which plants are merely preserved or kept green
+during the winter. Other types of glass-houses are the conservatory,
+in which plants are displayed; stove or hothouse,
+in which plants are grown in a high temperature; the propagating
+pit, in which the multiplication of plants is carried
+forward; and the houses which have various temperatures,
+as cold, cool and intermediate. The principles which underlie
+the construction and management of glass-houses are too
+extensive to be discussed here. The reader should refer to
+special books on the topic. For the general subject, Taft’s
+“Greenhouse Construction” and “Greenhouse Management”
+are excellent. For particular applications to floriculture,
+Hunt’s “How to Grow Cut-flowers” is a standard work.
+For applications to the forcing of vegetable crops, Bailey’s
+“Forcing-Book” may perhaps be consulted.</p>
+
+<p>The smaller the glass-house the more difficult it is to
+manage, because it is likely to be more variable in temperature,
+moisture and other conditions. This is particularly
+true if the house is a small lean-to against the south side of
+a dwelling house, for it becomes very hot at midday and
+comparatively cold at night. In order to moderate the heat
+in these little houses, it is ordinarily advisable to use ground
+glass for the roof or to whitewash it. The house conservatory
+may be heated by a coal stove, but the best results are
+rarely to be attained in this case. A stove is likely to leak
+gas, and the temperature is more or less uneven. The best
+results are to be attained when the conservatory is heated
+by steam or hot water, piped in the modern fashion with
+wrought iron pipes, which go together with threads. If the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+conservatory is heated from the heater which supplies the
+dwelling house, it should have an extra amount of pipe;
+otherwise it will be necessary to keep the dwelling house
+too hot for comfort in order to maintain the conservatory at
+its proper temperature. It is always best, when practicable,
+to heat the conservatory with a separate apparatus. There
+are various small hot water and steam heaters, the size of coal
+stoves, which are excellent for the purpose. For a small
+conservatory, hot water is usually preferable to steam, since
+it is less likely to fluctuate. For large establishments, however,
+the steam is usually the better. For further discussions
+of related subjects, see <a href="#hotbed"><i>Hotbed</i></a>, <a href="#window-gardens"><i>Window Garden</i></a>,
+<a href="#potting"><i>Potting</i></a> and <a href="#watering"><i>Watering</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Grevillea.</b> A very graceful greenhouse plant,
+suitable for house culture. The plants grow freely from
+seed, and until they become too large are as decorative as
+ferns. Grevilleas are really trees, and are valuable in
+greenhouses and rooms only in their young state. They
+withstand much abuse. They are now very popular as jardiniere
+subjects. Seeds sown in spring will give handsome
+plants by the next winter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Gypsophila.</b> <span class="smcap">Baby’s Breath.</span> <i>Gypsophila
+muralis</i> is one of the dainty little plants called Baby’s Breath.
+It is a low-growing annual forming compact mounds of green,
+thickly covered with little pink flowers. It is one of the
+most attractive border plants in cultivation. It is also a
+charming pot-plant. <i>G. paniculata</i> is a hardy perennial having
+panicles of bluish white flowers. This is very graceful, and
+the flowers are fine for cutting and for use with sweet pea
+bouquets or with other choice flowers. The panicles are so
+lasting that they may be used in winter bouquets. The annuals
+may be planted 1 foot apart; the perennials 3 feet.
+Both are readily grown from seed, and bloom the first year.</p>
+
+<p><a name="H" id="H"></a><b>Hardy.</b> A relative term, used to denote a
+plant which endures the climate (particularly the winter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+climate) of a given place. Half-hardy plants are those
+which withstand some frost or uncongenial conditions, but
+will not endure the severity of the climate. Tender plants
+are those which are injured by light frosts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hedges.</b> Hedges are much less used in this
+country than in Europe, and for several reasons. Our
+climate is dry, and most Hedges do not thrive so well here as
+there; labor is high-priced, and the trimming is therefore
+likely to be neglected; our farms are so large that much
+fencing is required; timber and wire are cheaper than live
+Hedges. However, they are used with good effects about
+the home grounds. In order to secure a good Hedge, it is
+necessary to have a thoroughly well-prepared, deep soil, to
+set the plants close, and to shear them at least twice every
+year. For evergreen Hedges the most serviceable plant in
+general is the arborvitæ. The plants may be set at distances
+of 1 to 2½ feet apart. For choice Hedges about the
+grounds, particularly outside the northern states, some of
+the retinosporas are very useful. One of the most satisfactory
+of all coniferous plants for Hedges is the common
+hemlock, which stands shearing well and makes a very soft
+and pleasing mass. The plants may be set from 1 to 3 feet
+apart. Other plants which hold their leaves and are good
+for Hedges are the common box and the privets. Box
+Hedges are the best for very low borders about walks and
+flower beds. The dwarf variety can be kept down to a
+height of 6 inches to a foot for any number of years. The
+larger-growing varieties make excellent Hedges 3, 4 and 5
+feet high. The ordinary privet or prim holds its leaves well
+into winter in the North. The so-called Californian privet
+holds its leaves rather longer and stands better along the
+seashore. In the southern states, nothing is better than
+<i>Citrus trifoliata</i>.</p>
+
+<p>For Hedges of deciduous plants, the most common species
+are the buckthorn, the European thorn apple or cratægus,
+osage orange, and various kinds of roses.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+Hedges should be trimmed the year after they are set,
+although they should not be trimmed very closely until they
+reach the desired or permanent height. Thereafter they
+should be sheared into the desired form in spring or fall.
+If the plants are allowed to grow for a year or two without
+trimming, they lose their lower leaves and become open and
+straggly. Osage orange and some other plants are plashed&mdash;that
+is, the plants are set at an angle rather than perpendicularly,
+and they are wired together in such a way that
+they make an impenetrable barrier just above the surface of
+the ground.</p>
+
+<p><b>Helianthus.</b> <a href="#sunflower">See <i>Sunflower</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Helichrysum.</b> These are perhaps the most
+popular of the Everlastings (<a href="#everlastings">which see</a>), having large flowers
+of several colors. They grow readily from seed, blooming
+from July to October. Height 10 inches to 2 feet. Should
+be planted or thinned to stand 18 inches apart.</p>
+
+<p><b>Heliotrope.</b> A universal favorite house or
+border plant, growing readily from cuttings or seeds, and
+producing quantities of fragrant violet, purple or white
+flowers. One of the best methods of cultivation is to set a
+strong plant in the border and peg the new growths to the
+ground, where they will root and form a perfect mat, flowering
+profusely during the fall months until frost. They
+will endure the temperature of a living room well if the
+room is not too dry. Red spider is a natural enemy of the
+Heliotrope, and when once it obtains a foothold is a very
+difficult pest to manage, but frequent syringing with water
+will keep it in check. A light, rich soil and an abundance
+of heat are their requirements. Height 1 to 3 feet. Propagated
+by cuttings or layers.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="hellebore" id="hellebore"></a>Hellebore</b> (White Hellebore) is often used for
+the killing of currant-worms and other insects (<a href="#currant">see <i>Currant</i></a>).
+It is not so poisonous as the arsenites, and therefore is to be
+preferred when it is necessary to apply a poison to nearly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+ripe fruit. It is usually applied in a spray with water, at
+the rate of ⅓ ounce to the gallon. It is harmless to foliage.</p>
+
+<p><b>Helleborus</b>, or <span class="smcap">Christmas Rose</span>, may be had
+in flower at the holidays if grown in a frame and protected.
+The usual time for it to flower in the open border is
+in March or early April. It will continue to bloom for many
+years if grown in a shady place. Roots may be divided as
+an increase is wanted. It may also be grown from seeds;
+and seedlings may be expected to bloom a year from the
+spring in which they are sown. Height 6 to 10 inches.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hemerocallis</b>, or <span class="smcap">Yellow Day Lily</span>. <a href="#funkia">The
+advice given under Funkia will apply to this.</a></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="herbs" id="herbs"></a>Herbs</b> are plants which die to the ground in
+winter. They may be annual, biennial, or perennial. For
+a list of annual Herbs suitable for the flower garden, see
+the articles on <a href="#annuals"><i>Annuals</i></a> and <a href="#bedding"><i>Bedding</i></a>. A border or free mass
+of perennial Herbs is one of the charms of any place. It is
+informal, easy of care, and self-sustaining. The large part
+of the mass should be composed of common and hardy
+things&mdash;wild or from gardens&mdash;and incidental features
+may be made of the choicer and rarer exotics. In most
+cases, plants look better when judiciously mixed than when
+planted one kind in a bed. <a href="#border">See <i>Border</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Hibiscus.</b> Annuals and perennials, some of
+them shrubs, with showy, hollyhock-like flowers. The annual
+Hibiscuses are very satisfactory. They grow quickly
+and flower freely. The flowers are usually white or yellow,
+of large size, and appear from July on. The herbaceous
+perennial kinds are amongst the best of hardy border
+plants, blooming in late summer and fall. The commonest
+of these is <i>Hibiscus Moscheutos</i>. Give rich, moist soil.</p>
+
+<p>The greenhouse species are old favorites. They may be
+used in outdoor bedding through the summer, lifted in the
+fall and cut back. Keep rather dry and dormant during
+winter. Propagated by cuttings.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+<b>Hippeastrum.</b> <a href="#amaryllis">Consult <i>Amaryllis</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 55px;">
+<img src="images/128-hoe.jpg" width="55" height="190" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Common hoe</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;">
+<img src="images/128-scarifier.jpg" width="136" height="231" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Scarifier</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Hoes</b> should be of several patterns if the
+most efficient work is to be done in the garden. The
+ordinary Hoe is adapted only to the rougher and coarser
+Hoe-work, such as digging and fitting the ground. For
+much of the subsequent tillage, some of the narrow-blade
+and pointed Hoes are excellent. For cutting
+off weeds, the push Hoe or scarifier is excellent.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 158px;">
+<img src="images/128-hollyhock.jpg" width="158" height="294" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Hollyhocks</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="hollyhock" id="hollyhock"></a>Hollyhock.</b> These old garden favorites
+have been neglected of late years, primarily
+because the Hollyhock rust has been so prevalent,
+destroying the plants or making the unsightly.
+The double varieties seem to suffer the
+most; and for that reason, and from the fact that
+the less formal type is in favor, the single varieties are now
+the most generally grown. Their culture is very simple. The
+seed is usually sown in July or August, and the plants set
+where wanted the following spring. They will bloom the
+same year in which they are transplanted&mdash;the year following
+the seed-sowing. New plants should be set every two
+years, as the old crowns are apt to rot or die after the first
+flowering. For rust, spray early with Bordeaux
+mixture or ammoniacal carbonate of copper.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="hop" id="hop"></a>Hop, Ornamental.</b> <i>Humulus Japonicus</i>,
+or the annual <span class="smcap">Hop</span>, is one of the best
+rapid-growing screen vines in cultivation. It
+makes a dense canopy of attractive foliage. The
+leaves are finely cut, and in one variety variegated
+with white. This variegated variety is a
+fine vine for a porch or front screen, always
+attracting attention to its markings. This Hop
+is propagated by seed sown in boxes in March.
+When once established, it will seed itself and
+start as soon as the soil becomes warm. Set
+plants 4 to 8 feet apart. Height 8 to 20 feet.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+<b>Horseradish.</b> As a kitchen garden vegetable,
+this is usually planted in some out-of-the-way spot and a
+piece of the root dug as often as needed, the fragments of
+roots being left in the soil to grow for further use. This
+method results in having nothing but tough, stringy roots,
+very unlike the product of a properly planted and well
+cared for bed. The best roots are those planted in the
+spring at the time of setting early cabbage, and dug as late
+the same fall as the weather will permit. It becomes,
+therefore, an annual crop. The roots for planting are
+small pieces, from 4 to 6 inches long, obtained when trimming
+the roots dug in the fall. These pieces may be packed
+in sand and stored until wanted the following spring. In
+planting, the roots should be set with the upper end 3 inches
+below the surface of the ground, using a dibber or sharp-pointed
+stick in making the holes. The crop may be planted
+between rows of early-sown beets, lettuce or other crop,
+and given full possession of the ground when these crops are
+harvested. Where the ground is inclined to be stiff or the
+subsoil is near the surface, the roots may be set in a slanting
+position. In fact, many gardeners practice this method
+of planting, thinking that the roots make a better growth
+and are more uniform in size.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="hotbed" id="hotbed"></a>Hotbed.</b> A Hotbed is a frame or box which
+has artificial heat and a transparent covering and in which
+plants are grown. It differs from a coldframe (<a href="#coldframe">which see</a>)
+in the fact that it has artificial bottom heat. This bottom
+heat is usually supplied by fermenting organic matter,
+chiefly horse manure, but hot air, hot water or steam conveyed
+in pipes, may be employed. It is covered with sash
+of which the normal or standard size is 3 feet wide and 6
+feet long. These sashes are laid crosswise the box or frame.
+The standard size of frame is 6 feet wide and 12 feet long.
+A “frame,” therefore, accommodates four sashes. However,
+the frame may be of any length desired. This frame is
+ordinarily made of boards, and the back of it is 3 or 4<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+inches higher than the front, so that the sashes slope to
+the sun. It is customary to have a space of 6 to 10 inches
+between the earth and the sash on the lower or front side.
+The manure which is used to heat the bed
+may be placed on top of the ground and the
+frame set on the pile, or it may be placed
+in a pit. If the land is warm and well drained,
+it is ordinarily better to have a pit from 1 to
+2 feet deep and to set the frame over it. This
+is especially the case if it is desired to have a permanent
+Hotbed yard. The place in which the frames are set should
+be protected from the cold and prevailing winds by a rising
+slope, a high board fence, a building, hedge, or other obstruction.
+If the frame yard is near the main buildings,
+it will be much more accessible in rainy or snowy times,
+and the plants are likely to have better care. Water should
+also be handy.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 178px;">
+<img src="images/130-hotbed.jpg" width="178" height="96" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Section of a Hotbed</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The time of starting a Hotbed will depend upon the
+kinds of plants to be grown, the amount of time which one
+wishes to gain, and something, also, on the quality of the
+manure. The hardier the plant the earlier it can be started.
+In the latitude of New York, from the first to the middle of
+March is the usual time for starting a Hotbed. In this bed are
+sown seeds of early flowers and such vegetables as cabbage,
+cauliflower, tomato, etc. In the raising of any plants in the
+Hotbed, it is very essential that they do not become “drawn”
+or “leggy.” In order to prevent this, they must be given
+plenty of room, thorough ventilation on all pleasant days,
+and not too great heat. It is well to transplant them once
+or twice before they are finally set in the field, especially if
+they are started, in New York, as early as the first or middle
+of March. When they are transplanted, they can be set in
+another Hotbed or in a coldframe; but it is important that
+the succeeding frames in which they are set should not be
+very much colder than the one in which they grew, else they
+may become stunted. It is well, however, to transplant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+them into a gradually cooler and freer atmosphere in order
+to harden them off, so that they may go into the open ground
+without danger. On every pleasant day, raise the sash at
+the upper end 1 or 2 inches, or if the sun shines brightly
+and the wind does not blow, give even more air; and eventually
+strip off the sashes entirely. It is very important that
+the plants are not kept too close and grown too soft. It is
+usually advisable to sow cabbage, lettuce and other hardy
+plants in different frames from tomatoes and other tender
+things, in order that the proper requirements may be given
+to each. At night the Hotbeds (at least early in the season)
+will need more protection than the glass sash. It was formerly
+the custom to use thick rye-straw mats to cover Hotbeds,
+but it is now a common practice to use the straw
+matting which can be bought of carpet dealers. This
+is rolled out on the sashes at night in one or two thicknesses;
+and if the weather is sharp, board shutters, the
+size of the sash, may be laid on top. As the manure heat
+begins to fail give more and more air, so that the plants
+may be able to shift for themselves when the bottom heat is
+finally exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>Fresh horse manure is the material which is commonly
+used for the heating of Hotbeds. If it can be secured from
+livery stables, so that it is all of nearly or quite the same age,
+better results may be expected. Manure from highly fed
+horses usually heats better than that from horses which receive
+little grain, or in which there is very much litter. Put
+the manure in a pile, preferably under cover, and as soon as
+it shows signs of heating, fork it over in order to mix the
+entire mass and to cause it to heat evenly. When it is
+steaming throughout the whole mass, it may be put in the
+bed. Assuming that the Hotbed has a pit beneath it, it is
+well to put in 2 or 3 inches of coarse litter in order to keep
+the manure off the cold ground. The manure is then put in
+and tramped down, in layers of 4 to 6 inches each. If the
+manure is of the right consistency, it will pack without becoming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+dense and soggy; that is, it will spring a little beneath
+the feet. If it has too much litter, it will fluff up
+under the feet and not pack well. From 18 to 24 or even 30
+inches of manure is placed in the pit. On top, an inch of
+dry straw or light leaf-mold may be placed to serve as a distributor
+of the heat to the earth above. From 3 to 4 inches
+of rich, light earth is placed upon this, in which to sow the
+seed. The manure will ordinarily heat violently for a few
+days. Place a soil thermometer in it, and as soon as the
+temperature begins to fall below 90° the seeds of tomatoes
+and egg-plants may be sown; and when it begins to fall below
+80°, the seeds of cabbages, lettuce and cauliflower may
+be sown. If the frame is not placed over a pit and the
+manure is put on top of the ground, it will be necessary to
+allow the body of manure to project 1 or 2 feet in all directions
+in order to prevent the edges of the bed from freezing.</p>
+
+<p>In starting plants in a Hotbed, one must not expect to
+gain as much time in the crop as he gains in the starting of
+the seeds: that is, if he starts the seeds two months ahead
+of the normal season, he will not gain two months in the
+ripening of the crop. Ordinarily, he cannot expect to gain
+much more than one-half the time, particularly if the plants
+are transplanted to the field from the Hotbed.</p>
+
+<p>Some plants may be grown to maturity in the Hotbed,
+particularly lettuce and radishes. After Hotbeds
+have been emptied of their plants, the sashes may be
+stored away, and the frames, with their spent manure,
+used for the growing of an early summer crop of melons
+or cucumbers.</p>
+
+<p><b>House Plants.</b> <a href="#window-gardens">See <i>Window-Garden</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 62px;">
+<img src="images/132-hyabean.jpg" width="62" height="168" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Hyacinth bean</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="hyacinth_bean" id="hyacinth_bean"></a>Hyacinth Bean</b> (<i>Dolichos Lablab</i>). A very
+rapid-growing twiner, bearing fragrant flowers of purple
+or white. It is a fine screen plant. Plant seeds when the
+ground is warm where the plants are to grow; or they may
+be started early in pots. Height 10 feet.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+<b><a name="hyacinths" id="hyacinths"></a>Hyacinths</b> are most popular winter- or spring-flowering
+bulbs. Hyacinths are hardy, but they are often
+used as window or greenhouse plants. They are easy to
+grow and very satisfactory. For winter flowering the bulbs
+should be procured early in the fall, potted in October in soil
+composed of loam, leaf-mold and sand. If ordinary flower
+pots are used, put in the bottom a few pieces of broken pots,
+charcoal or small stones for drainage; then fill the pot with
+dirt, so that when the bulb is planted the top will be on a
+level with the rim of the pot. Fill in around the bulb with
+soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing. These pots of
+bulbs should be placed in a cold pit, cellar or on the shady
+side of a building. In all cases, plunge the pot in some cool material
+(as cinders). Before the weather becomes cold enough
+to freeze a crust on the ground, the pots should have a protection
+of straw or leaves to keep the bulbs from severe freezing.
+In from six to eight weeks the bulbs should have made
+roots enough to grow the plant, and the pots may be
+placed in a cool room for a short time. When the plants have
+started into growth, they may be placed in a warmer situation.
+Watering should be carefully attended to from this
+time, and when the plant is in bloom the pot may be set in a
+saucer or other shallow dish containing water. After flowering,
+the bulbs may be ripened by gradually withholding water
+until the leaves die. They may then be planted out in the
+border, where they will bloom each spring for a number of
+years, but will never prove satisfactory for forcing again.
+The open ground culture of Hyacinths is the same as for
+tulips, <a href="#tulips">which see</a>. <a href="#bulbs">See <i>Bulbs</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Water Culture of Hyacinths.</i>&mdash;The Hyacinth is the most
+popular of the Dutch bulbs for growing in vases. The Narcissus
+may be grown in water, and do just as well, but it is
+not as pretty in glasses as the Hyacinth. Glasses for Hyacinths
+may be had of florists who deal in supplies, and in
+various shapes and colors. The usual form is tall and narrow,
+with a cup-like mouth to receive the bulb. They are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+filled with water, so that it will just reach the base of the
+bulb when it has been placed in position in the cup above.
+The vessels of dark-colored glass are preferable to those of
+clear glass, as roots prefer darkness. When the glasses, or
+bowls as above mentioned, have been arranged, they are set
+away in a cool, dark place to form roots like potted bulbs.
+Results are usually secured earlier in water than in soil. To
+keep the water sweet, a few lumps of charcoal may be put
+in the glass. As the water evaporates, add fresh; add
+enough so that it runs over, and thereby renews that in the
+glass. Do not disturb the roots by taking out the bulb.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hydrangea.</b> One of the commonest lawn
+shrubs is <i>Hydrangea paniculata</i>. The commonest fault in
+growing it is scattering the plants over the lawn, where
+they suffer in the competition with grass roots, and do not
+show off to advantage. It is far better to mass them in
+front of taller things. The Hydrangea blooms on wood of
+the season; therefore it should be pruned after bloom&mdash;in
+winter or early spring (<a href="#pruning">see <i>Pruning</i></a>). Cut back heavily, in
+order to secure the strong new shoots upon which the
+flowers are borne.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hyssop.</b> <a href="#sweet_herbs">See <i>Sweet Herbs</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="I" id="I"></a><b>Ice Plant</b>, or <span class="smcap">Mesembryanthemum</span>. Fine little
+plants for rockwork or edging. The majority of the species
+are greenhouse and window plants, but a few can be
+recommended for outdoor planting. A very sunny location,
+with gravelly soil, will give the best results, either in the
+open or in the house. Easily propagated by pieces of the
+plant laid on moist sand in a somewhat sunny place. The
+common Ice Plant of window-gardens is readily grown from
+seeds or slips. It is prized for its glandular-glistening thick
+foliage (whence the common name). The little flowers,
+which open in sunshine, are also interesting.</p>
+
+<p><b>Impatiens Sultani</b> is a generally known conservatory
+plant, making a charming pot subject for warm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+greenhouse or a room. It is readily propagated from seed or
+cuttings, seed being preferable. Flowers bright pink-red.
+Of easy culture in a fairly moist atmosphere. Height about
+18 inches.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="insects" id="insects"></a>Insects.</b> For horticultural purposes, Insects
+might be grouped into three general classes: borers, or those
+which live inside the plant tissue; chewing
+Insects which live on the outside of
+the plant; and the sucking Insects.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 206px;">
+<img src="images/135-moth.jpg" width="206" height="149" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Moth of one of the borers</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a general statement, it may be
+said that the digging out of borers is the
+only complete remedy. Sometimes an
+application of something to the body of
+the tree may keep them out, but it is always
+uncertain; and it usually involves more work than to
+dig them out. All trees which are subject to borers (especially
+apples, peaches and pears) should be examined at
+least twice every year. <a href="#borers">See <i>Borers</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 195px;">
+<img src="images/135-beetle.jpg" width="195" height="165" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A beetle borer</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The general run of chewing or biting Insects may be
+killed by the arsenical poisons. Such Insects are the common
+types of worms and beetles which feed on foliage. The
+leading poison which is now used for this purpose is Paris
+green (<a href="#paris_green">which see</a>). Hellebore and pyrethrum are useful
+when it is not advisable to use arsenical
+poisons.</p>
+
+<p>The sucking Insects include all the kinds
+of plant lice, the squash bug and all the
+scale Insects. These are dispatched by
+some material which kills by external application,
+especially material which has kerosene
+or petroleum in it. The common material
+heretofore used for this purpose is
+kerosene and soap emulsion; but it is now believed that the
+emulsion of kerosene and water is fully as efficient, and since
+machines have been perfected for automatically mixing it, it
+is a much more practicable remedy. <a href="#kerosene_emulsion">See <i>Kerosene Emulsion</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 152px;">
+<img src="images/136-weevil.jpg" width="152" height="59" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Weevil&mdash;a chewing insect</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the fighting of all Insects, success depends upon taking
+them in time. If something is known of the life history
+of the Insect, very much will be gained, for the operator
+may be on hand as soon as the Insect is
+expected to appear.</p>
+
+<p><i>Insects on House Plants.</i>&mdash;The most troublesome
+or common Insects with which the amateur
+is likely to meet in the window-garden or conservatory
+are the red spider, mite, mealy bug, aphis, and scale.</p>
+
+<p>The red spider is a very minute Insect with a reddish
+body. Its presence may be suspected whenever plants are
+growing in a warm and dry place. Usually it first appears
+on the under side of leaves, but it multiplies rapidly, and
+will soon not be so choice of position. It sucks the juices of
+the leaves, and they soon indicate the injury by a dull appearance,
+and also, in many cases, by small whitish or paler
+areas on the upper surfaces. The mite is of similar habits
+and size, but is of a pale color, with black on its back.
+It appears under the same conditions as the red spider.
+These pests are small, but are very serious if allowed
+to multiply unchecked. They should be looked after as
+soon as their presence is detected.</p>
+
+<p>The remedy is to arrange for keeping the air about the
+plants more moist, and giving drenchings of the foliage
+with clear or soapy water. The latter is most effective.
+The soap used may be simply the common washing soap, or
+that sold at drug stores known as whale-oil soap. In fighting
+them, care must be used not to keep the soil soaked
+with water, or it will check the plants in vigor and only add
+to the strength of the enemy. Even florists sometimes get
+into just such a predicament. Flagging and extreme variations
+in dryness and humidity of the air, checking the vigor
+of plants, favor the appearance and presence of the red
+spider quite as much as extreme and continued dryness of
+the air.</p>
+
+<p>The aphids or plant lice are readily discernable when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+they appear on plants, as they are sure to do under nearly all
+conditions. They are small, have elongated, succulent bodies,
+move about slowly and awkwardly, on rather long, hairlike
+legs, and are most commonly of a pale green color, though
+often brown or reddish, and sometimes of other shades.
+Fumigation of the plants in a closed box with burning
+tobacco stems will kill them. Latterly florists evaporate a
+liquid extract of tobacco (which is sold by dealers in
+florists’ supplies) by dropping a hot iron into a pan of it. A
+tea made by soaking tobacco stems in water for a few hours,
+and applied with a syringe, is effective, and a safe remedy
+in inexperienced hands. A tablespoonful of tobacco
+sheep-dip, or extract of tobacco, to a couple of gallons of
+water, also makes an effective syringing or dipping solution.
+As mentioned above, we should use care, especially in the
+winter time, when the soil often dries out slowly, to avoid
+soaking it when already wet or sufficiently moist.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 135px;">
+<img src="images/137-suck.jpg" width="135" height="258" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">One of the kind
+which sucks its food</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mealy bug has a small, flat, tortoise-shaped body,
+from about one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch long.
+The Insects collect in masses in the axils of the
+leaves. They are covered with a white mealy or
+cottony substance, and are readily recognized,
+although persons unfamiliar with their appearance
+have sometimes mistaken them for bits of down
+or cotton lodged upon the foliage or in the axils
+of the leaves. The young are small, and likely
+to escape observation unless one looks closely.
+They are flat, of a creamy or pinkish tint, and lie
+close to the surface of the leaves, especially on the
+under surface. Coleus and bouvardias are among
+the plants upon which mealy bugs are most often
+found. Owing to the oily nature of their covering,
+it is difficult to wet their bodies with any ordinary liquid that
+may be applied for the purpose of destroying them. Fir-tree
+oil is one of the most effective remedies for them. This liquid
+is rather expensive, but for a small collection a gallon can will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+last for a long time. It is also effective against other Insects.
+For mealy bugs, two tablespoonfuls of the oil to one
+pint of water will make an effective dipping or spraying solution.
+Soft or rain-water should be used, and tin, wooden,
+or earthenware vessels. Galvanized iron vessels are to be
+avoided. Apply forcibly with a syringe or atomizer, preferably
+in the evening. If effective, the mealy bug
+will turn buff-color. For other Insects, except for
+the scale, mentioned below, the solution will not
+need to be more than half or a fourth so strong.
+Where there are only a few mealy bugs, the plant
+may be gone over with a soft brush and the Insects
+crushed.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 120px;">
+<img src="images/138-codmoth.jpg" width="120" height="77" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">The codlin-moth</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Scales are most commonly of a brown or whitish
+color, flat or tortoise-shaped, and easily seen. They adhere
+closely by the under surface of their bodies to the stems,
+branches, and foliage of woody plants. The mature Insect
+is stationary, and its body at length becomes a shell containing
+hundreds of eggs. These hatch, and the young emerge
+from the shell, crawl about and settle, to develop into the familiar
+form. A strong solution of fir-tree oil, like that used for
+mealy bugs, is a good remedy. A strong solution of whale-oil
+soap, made by adding an ounce or more of the soap to three
+gallons of water, even more if necessary, is also useful in
+combating them. After dipping or syringing the plants
+they may be allowed to stand over night, when they should
+be rinsed off with clear water. Applications may need repeating
+every three or four days until the Insects are gotten
+rid of. It is difficult, for a time, to tell when they are dead.
+If killed, the bodies will fall off easily, and in the case of the
+soft-shelled species shrivel up somewhat after a time.
+Kerosene and water emulsion (<a href="#kerosene">see <i>Kerosene</i></a>) will kill them.</p>
+
+<p><b>Insecticide.</b> A substance which will kill insects.
+Insecticides are of two general classes&mdash;those that kill by
+contact (<a href="#kerosene">see <i>Kerosene</i></a>), and those that poison the insect (see
+<a href="#paris_green"><i>Paris Green</i></a> and <a href="#hellebore"><i>Hellebore</i></a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+<b>Iris.</b> Many handsome perennials, of which the
+Blue Flag is familiar to every old-fashioned garden. Most
+Irises thrive best in a rather moist soil, and some of them
+may be colonized in the water in margins of ponds. Gardeners
+usually divide them into two sections&mdash;the tuberous-rooted
+or rhizomatous, and the bulbous. A third division&mdash;the
+fibrous-rooted&mdash;is sometimes made. The common and
+most serviceable species belong to the tuberous-rooted section.
+Here belongs the beautiful and varied Japanese
+Iris, <i>Iris lævigata</i> (or <i>I. Kæmpferi</i>), which is among the
+most deserving of all hardy perennials. Most of these Irises
+need no special care. They are propagated by division of
+the rootstocks. Plant the pieces 1 foot apart if a mass
+effect is desired. When the plants begin to fail, dig them
+up, divide the roots, discard the old parts and grow a new
+stock, as before. <i>I. Susiana</i>, of this section, is one of the
+oddest of Irises, but it is not quite hardy in the North. Of
+the bulbous section, most species are not hardy in the
+North. The bulbs should be taken up and replanted every
+two or three years. The Persian and Spanish Irises belong
+here. The bulbs give rise to but a single stem.</p>
+
+<p><a name="K" id="K"></a><b><a name="kale" id="kale"></a>Kale.</b> A low-growing, spreading plant belonging
+to the cabbage family and extensively used for
+winter and spring greens. The same culture as given to late
+cabbage is suitable. At the approach of severe freezing
+weather a slight protection is given in the North. The
+leaves remain green through the winter and may be gathered
+from under the snow at a time when material for greens is
+scarce. Some of the Kales are very ornamental because of
+their blue and purple curled foliage. The Scotch Curled is
+the most popular variety. Kales are extensively grown at
+Norfolk, Va., and southward, and shipped north in winter.
+Let the plants stand 18 to 30 inches apart. Young cabbage
+plants are sometimes used as Kale. <a href="#collards">See <i>Collards</i>.</a> Borecole
+is a kind of Kale. Sea Kale is a wholly different vegetable
+(<a href="#sea-kale">which see</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+<b><a name="kerosene" id="kerosene"></a>Kerosene</b> is fatal to insects. It is likely to
+injure plants if applied full strength, although if applied in
+full sunlight (so that evaporation takes place rapidly) it may
+do no harm. It is safest to apply it in dilution. Of late,
+there are pumps which mix or emulsify Kerosene and water
+in definite proportions, and this mixture (in the proportion
+of ⅕ or ¼ Kerosene) is fatal to insects and usually harmless to
+plants. The standard Kerosene emulsion is with soap, but
+the perfection of mechanical devices for emulsifying it with
+water is probably destined to supplant the soap emulsion.</p>
+
+<p><i><a name="kerosene_emulsion" id="kerosene_emulsion"></a>Kerosene Emulsion.</i>&mdash;Hard soap, ½ pound; boiling soft
+water, 1 gallon; Kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in the
+water, add the Kerosene, and churn with a pump for 5 to 10
+minutes. Dilute 10 to 25 times before applying. Use strong
+emulsion, diluted four times in winter, for all scale insects.
+For insects which suck, as plant-lice, mealy bugs, red spider,
+thrips, bark-lice or scale. Cabbage-worms, currant-worms,
+and all insects which have soft bodies can also be successfully
+treated.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kohlrabi.</b> This vegetable looks like a leafy
+turnip growing above ground. If used when small (2 to 3
+inches in diam.), and not allowed to become
+hard and tough, it is of superior quality. It
+should be more generally grown. The culture
+is very simple. A succession of sowings should
+be made from early spring until the middle of
+summer, in drills 18 inches to 2 feet apart,
+thinning the young plants to 6 or 8 inches in
+the rows. It matures as quickly as turnips.
+One ounce of seed to 100 feet of drill.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 178px;">
+<img src="images/140-lantana.jpg" width="178" height="249" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Lantana</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="L" id="L"></a><b>Lantana</b> is a popular greenhouse
+pot-plant, and is occasionally seen in window-gardens,
+being grown for the profusion of its
+orange-red, heliotrope-shaped flowers. In the South, and
+sometimes in the North, it is planted out for the summer.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+It is very easy to grow, and also to propagate by means of
+cuttings. Although the flowers of the common species are
+ill-scented, the profusion of bloom makes it desirable.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="larkspur" id="larkspur"></a>Larkspur.</b> <span class="smcap">Delphinium.</span> The Larkspurs are
+among the very best hardy plants, being free-flowering and
+having a good habit. They should be in every mixed
+border, particularly the perennial kinds. The tall flower-spikes,
+showing above the cut foliage, give the plant a
+striking effect. The flowers are in shades of blue in most
+varieties. The plants are propagated by division of root or
+from seed. The latter method will give good results, although
+the resulting plants are not likely to be the same variety
+as the seed plant.</p>
+
+<p>As winter approaches, a covering of coarse litter should
+be thrown over the crowns of the perennial kinds. The
+plants will come into bloom in late June and continue for a
+long season. Plants should be set 3 to 5 feet apart if in rows,
+but they are seen to better advantage when mixed with other
+border plants. Height of plants from 3 to 5 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The annual Larkspur may be grown from seed sown in
+heat and transplanted to the ground in May; or seed may
+be sown where the plants are wanted and the seedlings
+thinned to 1 foot. These seedlings will bloom in June, and
+continue through the summer. Plants grow from 8 to 18
+inches high.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lathyrus.</b> See <a href="#pea_everlasting"><i>Pea, Everlasting</i></a>; also, <a href="#sweet_pea"><i>Sweet
+Pea</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="lawns" id="lawns"></a>Lawns.</b> In order to have a good Lawn, two
+things are essential: first, a pleasing surface or contour;
+second, a dense, firm sod.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 156px;">
+<img src="images/142-fun.jpg" width="156" height="188" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">It is fun to make a garden</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as the Lawn is, or should be, a permanent
+thing, it is necessary that the greatest care be exercised to
+grade the land and to thoroughly prepare it before any
+seeds are sown. About a new building the filling should be
+allowed to settle, so that the finished surface will slope<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+gradually away from the foundations and the steps. If the
+land is very hard clay, or if the place is rather low, it is
+always well to lay tile under-drains at frequent intervals.
+Everything should be done to cause the land to be deep
+and loose, so that the grass roots will run far into the soil
+and not be pressed for lack of moisture in a dry time. If
+the land has not had applications of manure in
+recent years, it is well to plow in, or to spade
+in, a liberal quantity of well-rotted litter from
+the barnyard. Work this into the soil as deeply
+as possible. If the hardpan is rather high, it is
+well to subsoil the area or to trench it (that is,
+to spade it up two or three spades deep). If the
+land is apparently not fertile in plant-food, it is well to
+add a dressing of some commercial fertilizer to the surface
+when the grass seed is sown. This will start the grass
+quickly and allow it to get a foothold before the severe
+weather of midsummer comes.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 179px;">
+<img src="images/142-gardencorner.jpg" width="179" height="310" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A garden corner</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The kind of grass seed to sow will depend upon the region
+and also upon the personal tastes of the owner. The
+one standard Lawn grass is June grass or blue grass (<i>Poa
+pratensis</i>). The seeds of this grass are sold in
+the hulls, and therefore the bushel weighs only
+fourteen pounds. Not less than two and one-half
+to three bushels should be sown to the acre.
+In the southern states, June grass will not hold,
+and Bermuda grass is used, being sown about as
+thick as recommended for the June grass.
+There are various prepared Lawn grass
+mixtures which are excellent, but the June
+grass alone will give a very excellent Lawn
+in a short time. Whether one shall sow
+white clover in his Lawn depends mostly
+upon his personal taste. If he likes the
+white clover, it is well to put in a quart or
+two of seed to the acre, sowing it separately<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+from the June grass in order to get an even distribution.
+Some persons like to see the white clover in certain parts
+of the Lawn. It thrives very well where the land is rather
+moist. In parts of the East, Rhode Island bent grass is
+used for lawns.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;">
+<img src="images/143-nursery.jpg" width="174" height="103" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A nursery</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The grass seed should be sown in the
+cool of the year. It may be sown in September
+and thereby become established before
+winter; or it may be
+sown very early in the
+spring. In newly made Lawns, it is a
+good plan to grade the area thoroughly
+in the fall, allowing it to settle in the
+winter; and then, if the surface remains
+even, to sow the grass seed on one of the
+latest snows in spring. By sowing it on the snow, one can
+see that it is distributed evenly; and when the snow
+melts, the seed is carried into the land and does not need
+covering. It is well to sow three or four quarts per acre
+of timothy seed, for the timothy germinates very quickly,
+and makes a green area the first season, but is killed out
+as soon as the June grass gains a foothold. Timothy
+will not stand the continued cutting, whereas the June
+grass will. The timothy, therefore, serves as a temporary
+covering to the land, indicating where the borders are,
+and thereby outlining the area for the Lawn mower to
+cut. The timothy seed should be sown separately from the
+June grass in order to insure even distribution. On hard
+lands it is well to sow two or three quarts per acre of crimson
+clover seed. The long roots of this plant tend to improve
+the physical condition of the soil; and when they decay,
+they leave nitrogen in the soil for the grass to use. Since
+crimson clover is an annual plant, it will not do any permanent
+mischief in the Lawn.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 202px;">
+<img src="images/143-lawnplant.jpg" width="202" height="119" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A lawn, with planting on the sides</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first season the weeds will probably come up thickly,
+especially if the land is rich. These weeds should not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+be pulled, for whenever one is pulled out of the ground,
+many grass plants are rooted up and the surface is made
+uneven. The only way in which to keep down weeds is to
+mow them frequently with a Lawn mower. They will not
+appear in any great numbers the second year, unless there
+should be some perennial weeds, like dandelion or dock; and
+these may be pulled out the first fall or the following spring.</p>
+
+<p>It is rare that one secures a perfectly good and uniform
+sod from one sowing of seed; especially is this true if the
+soil varies in different parts of the area. If the surface
+contour is satisfactory, it is unwise to dig up the areas
+on which the seed has not caught. It is best to rake them
+over with a steel rake in fall or spring, sowing on a little
+commercial fertilizer rather rich in nitrogen, and sow more
+seed. Nearly every Lawn will need patching in this way
+from year to year. If the Lawn is attended to in fall and
+spring by sowing grass seed, the weeds will rarely do serious
+mischief. When weeds are troublesome on the Lawn,
+it means that there is not sufficient grass, and every
+effort should be made to get more grass. Therefore, when
+the perennial weeds are pulled out, sow more grass seed.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 183px;">
+<img src="images/144-rill.jpg" width="183" height="276" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A picturesque rill
+on the lawn</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When narrow-leaved plantain bothers, it is an indication
+that the land is too poor and dry for grass.
+In such cases, the land usually lacks humus
+or vegetable matter; and in various severe
+incursions of the plantain, it may be necessary
+to spade up the weedy areas and to work
+rotted manure into the soil. Usually, however,
+the plantain can be killed out by enriching
+the soil and sowing more grass seed.
+The common practice of sprinkling Lawns is
+nearly always pernicious, since the water is not
+supplied in sufficient amount to wet down very far,
+and the grass tends to make surface roots. When the
+watering is omitted the plants suffer. The more a
+Lawn is sprinkled, the more the grass depends upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+the sprinkling. If it is necessary to water the Lawn, the
+water should be allowed to run directly from the hose until
+the surface area is completely soaked. It is best to do this
+at nightfall. When the water is applied by means of a
+sprinkler, a large part of it evaporates and does no good to
+the ground. The fundamental treatment of the Lawn is to
+have the land so deep and porous that the grass roots strike
+deep into the soil and do not need the surface water. A
+Lawn which is well made will need watering only in unusually
+dry times.</p>
+
+<p>Mow the Lawn frequently when it is growing rapidly,&mdash;in
+spring and early summer. In the fall mow less
+frequently, and let it go into the winter with a long coat
+of grass. If the Lawn is mown as often as is needed,
+it will not be necessary to rake off the trimmings. In fall,
+top-dress the Lawn with commercial fertilizer at the rate of
+500 pounds to the acre. If the Lawn has not been raked
+clean of all the trimmings and decayed refuse which covers
+the surface of the ground, it is not necessary to dress it
+with stable manure; for manure is unsightly, unsavory, and
+often brings in weeds. Many persons make the mistake of
+raking the Lawn clean in late fall.</p>
+
+<p>Closely associated with the making of the Lawn is the
+general arrangement of the planting. It is the common fault
+to scatter the planting. Much better effects are secured by
+massing or grouping the planting. See <a href="#border"><i>Borders</i></a> and <a href="#flower_beds"><i>Flower
+Beds</i></a>. Particularly along the boundaries and about the
+foundations of buildings, the shrubbery and other plants may
+be massed to excellent effect. In large places there should
+be more or less mass planting along the walks and drives.
+In the curves and retreats of these plantings one will find
+many pleasant corners; and here the children may have
+their play-houses and their pets. A little brook winding
+across a corner or along one side of a Lawn may make a
+pleasant picture if it is allowed to take on a half-wild
+character.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 214px;">
+<img src="images/146-layer.jpg" width="214" height="210" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A layer</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figparts1" style="width: 88px;">
+<a href="images/146-layer2.jpg"><img class="parts" src="images/146-layer2a.jpg" width="88" height="160" alt="Several layers from one vine (top)" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<div class="figparts2" style="width: 250px;">
+<a href="images/146-layer2.jpg"><img class="parts" src="images/146-layer2b.jpg" width="250" height="62" alt="Several layers from one vine (bottom)" title="" /></a>
+<p class="caption">Several layers from one vine</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Layers</b> are parts (usually stems) of plants laid
+down on the earth while still attached to the parent, with
+the expectation that they will take root and can then be
+separated as independent plants. All
+vine-like plants can be propagated readily
+by means of Layers; so can most soft-wooded
+plants, as willows, maples, currants,
+etc. It is usual to put down the
+branches in the fall. In a year they
+should be ready to be severed
+from the parent. They may also
+be made in spring, before growth
+starts. See that the layered part
+rests in moist earth. Usually roots
+arise more freely if the shoot is cracked or notched at
+the buried point. The Layer may be held down by a
+forked stick (“pegged down”), or
+by a stone or clod. See that the
+shoot does not throw up suckers
+behind the layered part.</p>
+
+<p><b>Leek.</b> This belongs to the onion family, and is
+used mostly as flavoring for soups. Well grown Leeks have
+a very agreeable and not very strong onion flavor. Leek is of
+the easiest culture, and is usually grown as a second crop, to
+follow beets, early peas, and other early stuff. The seed
+should be sown in a seed-bed in April or early May and
+the seedlings planted out in the garden in July, in rows 2
+feet apart, the plants being 6 inches apart in the rows. The
+plants should be set deep if the neck or lower part of the
+leaves is to be used in a blanched condition. The soil may
+be drawn towards the plants in hoeing, to further the
+blanching. Being very hardy, the plants may be dug in
+late fall, and stored in the same manner as celery, in
+trenches or in a cool root-cellar. One ounce of seed to 100
+feet of drill.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+<b>Lettuce</b> is probably the most extensively grown
+salad vegetable. It is now in demand, and is procurable, every
+month in the year. The winter and early spring crops are
+grown in forcing-houses and coldframes, but a supply from
+the garden may be had from April to November, by the use
+of a cheap frame in which to grow the first and last crops,
+relying on a succession of sowings for the intermediate
+supply. Seed for the first crop may be sown in a coldframe
+in March, growing the crop thick and having many plants
+which are small and tender; or, by thinning out to the distance
+of 3 inches and allowing the plants to make a larger
+growth, the plants pulled up may be set in the open ground
+for the next crop. Sowings should be made in the garden
+from April to October, at short intervals. A
+moist location should be selected for the July
+and August sowings. The early and late sowings
+should be of some loose-growing variety,
+as they are in edible condition sooner than
+the cabbage or heading varieties.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;">
+<img src="images/147-lettuce.jpg" width="161" height="99" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Plant of heading lettuce</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cabbage varieties are far superior to the loose-growing
+kinds for salads. To be grown to perfection, they
+should have very rich soil, frequent cultivation and an occasional
+stimulant, such as liquid manure or nitrate of soda.
+The Cos Lettuce is an upright-growing type much esteemed
+in Europe, but less grown here. The leaves of the
+full grown plants are tied together, thus blanching the center,
+making it a desirable salad or garnishing variety. It
+thrives best in summer. One ounce of seed will grow 3,000
+plants or sow 100 feet of drill. In the garden, plants may
+stand 6 inches apart in the rows, and the rows may be as
+close together as the system of tillage will allow.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lily.</b> Bulbous plants of many kinds. It has
+been said of this family of plants that it has no “poor
+relations,” each of them being perfect in itself. Many of
+the choicest kinds are comparatively unknown, although<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+easy to cultivate. In fact, all of the Lilies may be grown
+with comparative ease. A light, rich, well-drained soil,
+mellow to the depth of at least 1 foot, a handful of sand
+under each bulb if the soil is inclined to be stiff, and
+planting so that the crown of the bulb will be at least 4
+inches below the surface, are the general requirements.
+One exception to the depth of planting is <i>Lilium auratum</i>,
+or Golden-Banded Lily. This should be planted deeper&mdash;at
+least 8 inches below the surface&mdash;as the new bulbs form
+over the old one and soon bring the bulbs to the surface if
+they are not planted deep.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 80px;">
+<img src="images/148-lily.jpg" width="80" height="233" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Easter Lily</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>While Lilies may have partial shade, they should never
+be planted near or under trees. The shade or protection of
+tall-growing, herbaceous plants is sufficient. In fact, the
+best results, both as to growth and effect, may be had by
+planting amongst low shrubbery or border plants. Most
+kinds are the better for remaining undisturbed for a number
+of years; but if they are to be taken up and divided, or
+moved to other quarters, they should not be allowed to become
+dry. The small bulbs, or offsets, may be planted in
+the border, and if protected will grow to flowering
+size in two or three years. In taking up bulbs for
+division it is best to do so soon after the tops die
+after blooming. At least this should be done early
+in the fall, not later than October, giving the plants
+a chance to become established before freezing
+weather. A mulch of coarse litter or evergreen boughs
+should be placed over the bulbs after the ground
+has become frozen, to be gradually removed as the
+spring advances.</p>
+
+<p>As pot-plants some Lilies are very satisfactory,
+especially those that may be forced into bloom through
+the winter. The best kinds for this purpose are <i>L. Harrisii</i>
+(Easter Lily), <i>L. longiflorum</i>, and <i>L. candidum</i>. Others
+may be forced with success, but these are the ones most
+generally used. The winter culture of these for forcing is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+the same as for Hyacinths (in pots), <a href="#hyacinths">which see</a>. The article
+on <a href="#bulbs"><i>Bulbs</i></a> gives directions for both outdoor and indoor
+growing which are directly applicable to Lilies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lily, Chinese Sacred.</b> <a href="#narcissus">See <i>Narcissus</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Lily-of-the-Valley.</b> A perfectly hardy little
+plant, bearing racemes of small white bell-shaped flowers
+in early spring. For ordinary cultivation, sods or mats of
+roots may be dug from any place in which the plant is
+colonized. Usually it thrives best in partial shade; and
+the leaves make an attractive mat on the north side of a
+building, or other shady place, in which grass will not
+grow. The plants will take care of themselves year after
+year.</p>
+
+<p>For forcing indoors, imported roots or “pips” are used,
+as the plants are grown for this particular purpose in parts
+of Europe. These roots may be planted in pots, and
+treated as recommended for winter-flowering bulbs, under
+<a href="#bulbs"><i>Bulbs</i></a>. Florists force them in greater heat, however, often
+giving them a bottom heat of 80° or 90°; but skill and
+experience are required in order to attain uniformly good
+results in this case.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 245px;">
+<img src="images/149-line.jpg" width="245" height="166" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A garden Line</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Line.</b> A garden Line is one of the most convenient
+things connected with garden operations. It is
+always wanted when long rows of seed are to be
+sown, and it is also necessary in laying out walks
+or drives. A very simple, yet handy, holder for a
+line is shown on the margin. The pin is driven in
+the soil at the starting point, and the line is unwound
+as the operator walks towards the end of
+the row. A line should be 100
+feet long for common garden
+operations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Lobelia.</b> Some of these are well-known garden
+plants, being used very freely as edging for ribbon
+beds or basket plants. They require a loose, rich soil, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+some stimulant when in full flower. The flowers continue
+through a long season. They propagate freely from seed.
+<i>Lobelia Erinus</i>, in blue, 6 inches high, is one of the most
+popular of all annual edging plants. In Europe various
+perennial Lobelias are popular, but they are seldom seen in
+American gardens.</p>
+
+<p><b>London Purple.</b> <a href="#paris_green">Discussed under <i>Paris Green</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Love-Lies-Bleeding.</b> <a href="#amarantus">See <i>Amarantus</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="M" id="M"></a><b><a name="manure" id="manure"></a>Manure</b> adds plant-food to the soil, and it also
+improves the texture or physical condition of the soil. This
+latter effect is often its greatest value. If one wants mere
+plant-food alone, he may often do better to add it in some
+more concentrated form. <a href="#fertilizers">See <i>Fertilizers</i>.</a> Manure, when
+thoroughly incorporated with the soil, makes the ground
+congenial for the plant. It is important, in garden operations,
+that the Manure be rotted or composted, or “short”
+or “fine,” as the gardeners say. It then incorporates readily
+with the soil and quickly gives up its fertility. Manure is
+composted by letting it decay in piles. The compost pile
+should be flat on top, so that it will catch the rains, and 3
+to 5 feet high.</p>
+
+<p>The most desirable Manure for the garden and for house
+plants is probably old cow Manure. It does not burn or lose
+its strength. It may be kept for a number of years if piled
+under shelter, becoming more available each year. It mixes
+well with soil and leaf-mold. When once rotted, this manure
+is very lasting and easily assimilated by plants. Horse
+Manure is very likely to become overheated, and to lose its
+value; and it is too loose and dry for many purposes. Pig
+Manure, unless well composted with soil or refuse, is usually
+too heavy and rich. Sheep Manure is at its best when used
+in a liquid form, although it is most excellent to mix with
+soil to loosen it.</p>
+
+<p>All garden refuse, such as vines, leaves, decaying vegetables,
+will make Manure if composted with soil; and if the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+wash water is thrown on the compost pile much fertility will
+be added. Wood ashes from stoves, the chip dirt from the
+woodshed&mdash;in fact, almost any substance that will decay&mdash;will
+furnish plant-food, and should be added to the compost
+pile. This pile should be turned often, to mix the material.</p>
+
+<p>When practicable, it is best to apply Manure in the fall,
+as it then has time to become incorporated with the soil before
+spring. Beds which are to be used for flowers next year
+may be dressed with Manure in the fall and deeply spaded,
+leaving the surface rough and loose. It is well to be careful
+that the Manure does not contain weed seeds.</p>
+
+<p><b>Marigold.</b> The Marigolds of the old-fashioned
+gardens are still among the best of plants for fall color.
+They are hardy annuals of the easiest culture, and are always
+certain of giving strong and excellent results. They have
+been much improved of late years. The old-fashioned
+African Marigolds grow 2 to 3 feet high, and they are useful
+for scattering in mixed borders or making large masses
+or displays of color in the remoter parts of the place. The
+French or dwarf Marigolds grow about 1 foot high and are
+more tufty in their habit. They are better adapted for edgings
+than for mass effects in the main parts of the grounds.
+All Marigolds may be sown where the plants are to stand,
+since the flowers are usually not wanted until late summer
+or early fall, at which time they usually give their best
+bloom. If they are wanted earlier, however, the seeds may
+be started in the house or hotbed. Tall varieties may be
+allowed to stand from 10 to 18 inches apart and the dwarfs
+at somewhat less distances.</p>
+
+<p><b>Matthiola</b> will be found under <a href="#stocks"><i>Stocks</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mignonette.</b> Probably no flower is more generally
+grown for its fragrance than this. The Mignonette
+needs a cool soil, only moderately rich, shade part of the
+day, and careful attention to cutting the flower-stalks before
+the seeds are ripe. If a sowing be made in late April, followed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+by a second sowing in early July, the season may be
+extended until severe frosts. There are few flowers that
+will prove as disappointing if the treatment it needs is
+omitted. Height 1 to 2 feet. Treated as a half-hardy annual.
+It can be sown in pots late in summer and had in the
+house in winter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Moon-Flowers</b> are species of Morning-Glories
+that open their flowers at night. A well-grown plant
+trained over a porch trellis, or allowed to grow at random
+over a low tree or shrub, is a striking object when in full
+flower at dusk or through a moonlit evening. In the southern
+states the Moon-Flower is a perennial, but even when
+well protected does not survive the winters in the North.
+Cuttings may be made before danger of frost and wintered
+in the house, or the plants may be grown from seed sown in
+January or February. Cuttings usually give best results in
+the northern states, as the seasons are not long enough for
+seed plants to give good bloom. Seeds should be scalded or
+filed just before sowing. The true Moon-Flower is
+<i>Ipomœa Bona-Nox</i>, white-flowered; but there are other
+kinds. This grows 20 to 30 feet where the seasons
+are long enough.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 115px;">
+<img src="images/152-morglry.jpg" width="115" height="212" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Morning-Glories</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="morning-glory" id="morning-glory"></a>Morning-Glory</b> is perhaps the most popular
+of all twining herbs, because of the ease with
+which it may be grown, the quickness with which
+it covers the object, and the quantities of bright,
+cheerful flowers it bears. Many of the kinds&mdash;in
+fact all that are generally known&mdash;may be readily
+grown from seed, flowering early in the summer.
+Tender annuals. Give rich soil and plenty of water. The
+beautiful cypress vine belongs to this group. It requires the
+same treatment as the Morning-Glory, but the seeds should
+be scalded just previous to sowing.</p>
+
+<p>Dwarf Morning-Glories (<i>Convolvulus tricolor</i>). They come
+into flower much sooner than the tall climbing varieties,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+and are covered with flowers through a long season. They
+may be used with fine effect in vases or large hanging
+baskets. Give a full sunny exposure. May thrive on soil
+that is not very rich. They grow 1 foot high. Half-hardy
+annuals.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mulberry.</b> Both for fruit and ornament the
+Mulberry should be more generally planted. Even if the
+fruit is not to the taste, the tree is naturally open-centered
+and round-headed, and is an interesting subject; some
+of the varieties have finely cut leaves. The fruits are in
+great demand by the birds, and after they begin to ripen the
+strawberry beds and cherry trees are free from robins and
+other fruit-eating birds. For this reason alone they are a
+valuable tree for the fruit-grower. Trees may be purchased
+cheaper than one can propagate them.</p>
+
+<p>If planted in orchard form, place them 25 to 30 feet
+apart. About the borders of a place they can go closer.
+The Russian varieties are often planted for windbreaks, for
+they are very hardy and thrive under the greatest neglect;
+and for this purpose they may be planted 8 to 20 feet
+apart. The Russians make excellent screens. They stand
+clipping well. New American, Trowbridge and Thorburn
+are leading kinds of fruit-bearing Mulberries for the North.
+The true Downing is not hardy in the northern states; but
+New American is often sold under this name. Mulberries
+thrive in any good soil, and need no special treatment.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="mulch" id="mulch"></a>Mulch</b> is used both in protecting plants from
+the severe freezing of winter and the severe drought of
+summer. The same material may be used in either case,
+although it is now considered best to make an earth Mulch
+to prevent evaporation and retain the moisture through the
+dry season. This earth Mulch is made by breaking the
+crust of the soil and leaving it in fine particles. This may
+be done with a horse cultivator, a hoe or a rake. In fact,
+any tool which leaves the top of the soil loose will be instrumental
+in preventing evaporation of soil water. <a href="#tillage">See
+<i>Tillage</i>.</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+The Mulching of the ground around blackberries,
+currants, gooseberries, or raspberries with straw or hay is
+often practiced to keep the fruits clean; and the winter
+Mulch of strawberry beds is used between the rows for the
+same purpose, as well as to retain moisture and to afford
+winter protection. Winter Mulch usually consists of leaves,
+straw, hay, rough manure, boughs of evergreens, or any
+coarse material that will protect the plants from severe
+freezing and the heaving caused by alternate freezing and
+thawing. This winter Mulch should be removed as spring
+advances, unless it is of such a character as to be
+worked into the soil to add fertility or to loosen heavy
+lands. Near the seacoast salt hay is considered to be an
+ideal Mulch. The winter Mulch must not contain too strong
+or heavy manures, or plants may be injured by the leaching.
+For flower borders and shrubbery, muck or peat makes a
+good winter Mulch. Ordinarily the Mulch may be placed on
+to the depth of 4 to 6 inches, and if it is of loose material it
+may be still deeper. If dry and loose, mice may nest in it
+and girdle the trees or bushes. Even perfectly hardy plants
+are benefited by a winter Mulch, because it improves the
+soil. Autumn leaves, as they drift into shrubberies, make
+an ideal Mulch; it is not always necessary to remove these
+leaves. <a href="#lawns">See <i>Lawn</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Mushroom.</b> There is no science of Mushroom
+growing. Certain conditions have been found to give
+success, but it is not known why. These conditions may be
+imitated ever so closely and complete failure result. There
+are many “systems” advised, each system the result of
+somebody’s success; but one cannot be sure of success by
+following any one of them. Good results are frequently attained
+when all rules are broken. The following paragraphs
+are from “Farmers’ Bulletin,” No. 53 (by William Falconer),
+of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (March, 1897):</p>
+
+<p>Mushrooms are a winter crop, coming in from September
+till April or May&mdash;that is, the work of preparing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+manure begins in September and ends in February, and the
+packing of the crop begins in October or November and ends
+in May. Under extraordinary conditions the season may
+begin earlier and last longer, and, in fact, it may continue
+all summer.</p>
+
+<p>Mushrooms can be grown almost anywhere out of doors,
+and also indoors where there is a dry bottom in which to set
+the beds, where a uniform and moderate
+temperature can be maintained, and where
+the beds can be protected from wet overhead,
+and from winds, drought, and direct
+sunshine. Among the most desirable places
+in which to grow Mushrooms are barns, cellars,
+closed tunnels, sheds, pits, greenhouses,
+and regular Mushroom houses. Total
+darkness is not imperative, for Mushrooms grow well in
+open light if shaded from sunshine. The temperature and
+moisture are more apt to be equable in dark places than in
+open, light ones, and it is largely for this reason that
+Mushroom houses are kept dark.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;">
+<img src="images/155-mushroom.jpg" width="173" height="130" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Mushroom</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The best fertilizer for Mushrooms, so far as the writer’s
+experience goes, is fresh horse manure. Get together a lot
+of this material (short and strawy) that has been well
+trampled and wetted in the stable. Throw it into a heap,
+wet it well if it is at all dry, and let it heat. When it begins
+to steam turn it over, shake it well so as to mix thoroughly
+and evenly, and then tramp it down solid. After this let it
+stand till it again gets quite warm, then turn, shake, trample
+as before, and add water freely if it is getting dry. Repeat
+this turning, moistening and trampling as often as it is
+needful to keep the manure from “burning.” If it gets intensely
+hot, spread it out to cool, after which again throw it
+together. After being turned in this way several times, and
+the heat in it is not apt to rise above 130° F., it should be
+ready to make up in the beds. By adding to the manure at the
+second or third turning one-fourth or one-fifth of its bulk of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+loam, the tendency to intense heating is lessened and its
+usefulness not at all impaired. Some growers prefer short
+manure exclusively, that is, the horse droppings, while others
+like a good deal of straw mixed in with this. The writer’s
+experience, however, is that, if properly prepared, it matters
+little which is used.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinarily the beds are only 8 to 10 inches deep; that is,
+they are faced with 10-inch-wide hemlock boards, and are
+only the depth of this board. In such beds put a layer of
+fresh, moist, hot manure, and trample it down firm until it
+constitutes half the depth of the bed; then fill up with the
+prepared manure, which should be rather cool (100° to 115°
+F.) when used, and pack all firmly. If desired, the beds can
+be made up entirely of the prepared manure. Shelf beds are
+usually 9 inches deep; that is, the shelf is bottomed with
+1-inch boards and faced with 10-inch-wide boards. This allows
+about 8 inches for manure, and 1 inch rising to 2 inches
+of loam on top. In filling the shelf beds the bottom half may
+be of fresh, moist or wettish, hot manure, packed down solid,
+and the top half of rather cool prepared manure, or it may
+be made up of all prepared manure. As the shelf beds can
+not be trodden and can not be beaten very firm with the back
+of the fork, a brick is used in addition to the fork.</p>
+
+<p>The beds should be spawned after the heat in them has
+fallen below 100° F. The writer considers 90° F. about the
+best temperature for spawning. If the beds have been
+covered with hay, straw, litter or mats, these should be
+removed. Break each brick into twelve or fifteen pieces.
+The rows should be, say, 1 foot apart, the first one being 6
+inches from the edge, and the pieces should be 9 inches
+apart in the row. Commencing with the first row, lift up
+each piece, raise 2 to 3 inches of the manure with the
+hand, and into this hole place the piece, covering over
+tightly with the manure. When the entire bed is spawned
+pack the surface all over. It is well to cover the beds
+again with straw, hay or mats, to keep the surface equally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+moist. The flake spawn is planted in the same way as the
+brick spawn, only not quite so deep.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of eight or nine days the mulching should be
+removed and the beds covered with a layer of good loam 2
+inches thick, so that the Mushrooms can come up in and
+through it. This gives them a firm hold, and to a large extent
+improves their quality and texture. Any fair loam will
+do. That from an ordinary field, wayside or garden is
+generally used, and it answers admirably. There exists an
+idea that garden soil surfeited with old manure is unfit for
+Mushroom beds because it is apt to produce spurious fungi.
+This, however, is not the case. In fact, it is the earth most
+commonly used. For molding the beds the loam should be
+rather fine, free and mellow, so that it can be easily and
+evenly spread and compacted firmly into the manure.</p>
+
+<p>If an even atmospheric temperature of from 55° to 60° F.
+can be maintained, and the house or cellar containing the
+Mushroom beds is kept close and free from drafts, the beds
+may be left uncovered, and should be watered if they become
+dry. But no matter where the beds are situated, it is well to
+lay some loose hay or straw or some old matting or carpet
+over them to keep them moist. The covering, however,
+should be removed just as soon as the young Mushrooms
+begin to appear above ground. If the atmosphere is dry,
+the pathways and walls should be sprinkled with water.
+The mulching should also be sprinkled, but not enough to
+cause the water to soak into the bed. However, if the bed
+should get dry, do not hesitate to water it.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 159px;">
+<img src="images/158-melon.jpg" width="159" height="90" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Muskmelon</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="melon" id="melon"></a>Muskmelon.</b> The natural soil for melons is
+a light, sandy loam, well enriched with rotted manure,
+although good crops may be grown on soil naturally heavy
+if the hills are prepared as they should be. When only
+heavy soil is available, the dirt where the seeds are to be
+planted should be thoroughly pulverized and mixed with
+fine, well rotted manure. A sprinkling of leaf-mold or
+chip-dirt will help to lighten it. On this hill from ten to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+fifteen seeds may be sown, thinning to four or five vines
+when danger of insects is over. The season may be advanced
+and the damage from insects lessened by starting the
+plants in hotbeds. This may be done by using fresh sod,
+cut into 6-inch pieces, placing them grass-side down in the
+hotbed, sowing eight to ten seeds on each piece, and covering
+with 2 inches of light soil. When all danger of frost is
+over, and the ground has become warm, these sods may be
+carefully lifted and set in the prepared hills. The plants
+usually grow without check, and fruit from two
+to four weeks ahead of those from seed planted
+directly in the hill. Old quart berry boxes are
+excellent to plant seeds in, as, when they are
+set in the ground, they very quickly decay,
+causing no restriction to the roots. Netted
+Gem, Hackensack, Emerald Gem, Montreal, Osage, and
+the Nutmeg Melon are popular varieties. One ounce of
+seed will plant about fifty hills.</p>
+
+<p>For insects, <a href="#cucumber">see <i>Cucumber</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Musk Plant</b> is an old-fashioned house plant
+of easy culture. Raise a new stock from seeds as soon as
+the plants begin to fail.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 146px;">
+<img src="images/159-narcissus.jpg" width="146" height="244" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Narcissus</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="N" id="N"></a><b><a name="narcissus" id="narcissus"></a>Narcissus.</b> Hardy bulbous plants, including
+the daffodils, jonquils, and other forms. The ease with
+which these plants may be grown, the beauty and fragrance
+of the flowers, as well as their lasting qualities when cut,
+would seem to make their culture in this country more
+popular than it is. Good bulbs planted in September or
+October are sure to bloom in April or May. The bulbs may
+remain in the ground for a number of years, although the
+best results will be had by digging them up every three
+years, and resetting in a different location. Select a moist,
+loamy soil, slightly protected from the sun. No manure
+should come directly in contact with the bulb, but if needed
+to hold moisture the manure may be spaded down to the
+depth of twelve inches.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+Narcissus may be forced into flower through the winter,
+as described under <a href="#bulbs"><i>Bulbs</i></a>. The most popular for winter
+bloom is the “Chinese Sacred Lily.” This
+grows in water without any soil whatever.
+Secure a bowl or glass dish, about three times
+the size of the bulb; put some pretty stones
+in the bottom; set in the bulb and build up
+around it with stones so as to hold it stiff when
+the leaves have grown; tuck two or three small
+pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep
+the water sweet, then fill up the dish with
+water and add a little every few days, as it
+evaporates. Set the dish in a warm, light
+place. In about six weeks
+the fragrant, fine white flowers
+will fill the room with perfume.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:173px;">
+<img src="images/159-nasturtium.jpg" width="173" height="467" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Nasturtium</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width:124px;">
+<img src="images/160-nasturtium2.jpg" width="124" height="173" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Dwarf Nasturtium</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="nasturtiums" id="nasturtiums"></a>Nasturtiums</b> (<i>Tropæolums</i>) are
+both dwarf and climbing. The Dwarf
+Nasturtiums make one of the most showy
+second-row plants for the border. The
+colors of the flowers have a wide range
+and the plants bloom profusely. It is
+not, however, the plant in flower that is
+the greatest consideration, but the flowers
+themselves as cut-flowers. No flower
+makes a finer display in vase or bowl
+than these rich colors, all harmonizing
+well and lighting up a room as very few
+of the common easily grown flowers do.
+The same may be said of the tall-growing
+Nasturtiums, although the flowers of
+these form part of their effectiveness
+as screen vines. Few climbers make a
+more rapid growth, and none are better
+adapted to hide unsightly objects in our
+yards or gardens.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For a long season of flowers and a large growth of vine
+the seed should be sown late in March or early in April,
+in boxes or pots, the plants carried along until the first
+of May, and planted out where wanted. The
+dwarf varieties bloom more freely and the flowers
+are of better color in rather poor soils, while for
+rapid growth of vine a well enriched border would
+be the best. The dwarf varieties may be planted
+2 or 3 feet apart, and the tall ones as wanted to
+make a screen. The tall kinds grow 5 to 8 feet.
+All Nasturtiums are tender.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 114px;">
+<img src="images/160-nicotiana.jpg" width="114" height="202" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Nicotiana affinis</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Nicotiana.</b> Tender annuals (or grown
+as annuals). They are fine plants for borders or
+pots, the tall-growing varieties making a very fine show
+when in flower, having pure white flowers with long, tubular
+necks, the season of bloom being from July to
+October. The seeds are very fine, and should be
+sown on the surface of the soil, in boxes or pots.
+When planted out they should be set from 2 to 5
+feet apart, according to kind. Some of the giant
+Nicotianas are excellent subjects for temporary
+screens; so is tobacco, which is also a Nicotiana.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nicotiana affinis</i> is one of the best of all garden
+flowers. Its long white flowers are fragrant at
+evening. They close in the hot sun. It is a half-hardy
+annual of easiest culture. Height 2 to 3
+feet.</p>
+
+<p><a name="O" id="O"></a><b>Œnothera.</b> <span class="smcap">Evening Primrose.</span> A very interesting
+group of plants, opening their flowers at evening.
+Many of them are fragrant and attract night insects, especially
+the large moths, seldom seen until dusk. The opening
+of the flowers of the large-flowering varieties is a source of
+pleasure and surprise, as one flower follows another in opening,
+and in a large plant the late opening flowers seem to
+burst all at one time. The perennial species may be propagated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+by division or seed, the annuals by seed. Set the
+tall kinds 2 to 3 feet apart. Height 1 to 3 feet. All
+of easy culture.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 158px;">
+<img src="images/161-okra.jpg" width="158" height="166" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Okra or Gumbo</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Okra.</b> From the green pods of this vegetable
+is made the well-known Gumbo soup of the South, where the
+plant is more extensively grown than in the North. The pods
+are also used in their green state for stews, and are dried and
+used in winter, when they are nutritious, and
+form no little part of the diet in certain sections
+of the country. The seeds are very sensitive
+to cold and moisture, and should not be sown
+until the ground has become warm&mdash;the last
+week in May or the first of June being early
+enough in New York. The seed should be sown
+in a drill 1 inch deep, the plants thinned to
+stand 12 inches in the row. Give the same culture
+as for corn. One ounce will sow 40 feet of drill.
+Dwarf varieties are best for the North. Green Density
+and Velvet are leading varieties.</p>
+
+<p><b>Oleander.</b> While there are many named varieties
+of the Oleander, but two are often seen in general
+cultivation. These are the common red and white varieties.
+Both these, as well as the named varieties, are of
+easy management and well adapted to home culture, growing
+in pots or tubs for several years without special care.
+Well-grown specimens are very effective as porch or lawn
+plants, or may be used to good advantage in mixed beds of
+tall-growing plants, plunging the pot or tub to the rim in the
+soil. The plants should be cut back after flowering. They
+should be rested in any out-of-the-way place through the
+winter. When brought out in the spring, they should be
+given sun and air in order to make a sturdy growth. Propagation
+is effected by using well-ripened wood for cuttings,
+placed in a close frame; or the slips may be rooted in
+a bottle or can of water, care being taken to supply water as
+evaporation takes place. After being rooted, they may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+potted, using soil with a large proportion of sand. Well
+established plants may be repotted in good loam and well
+rotted manure.</p>
+
+<p><b>Onions</b> are grown from seeds (“black seed”)
+for the main crop. They are also grown from sets (which
+are very small Onions, arrested in their development), from
+“tops” (which are bulblets produced in the place of flowers),
+and from multipliers or potato onions, which are compound
+bulbs.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 104px;">
+<img src="images/162-onions.jpg" width="104" height="251" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Early Onions</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The extremely early crop of Onions is grown from sets,
+and the late or fall crop is grown from seed sown in April
+or early May. The sets may be saved from the crop harvested
+the previous fall, saving no bulbs measuring over ¾
+of an inch in diameter, or, better, they may be purchased
+from the seedsman. These sets should be
+planted as early as possible in the spring, preferably
+on land that has been manured and trenched in the
+fall. Plant in rows 12 inches apart, the sets being 2
+or 3 inches in the row. Push the sets well down into
+the ground and cover with soil, firming them with the
+feet or a roller. In cultivating, the soil should be
+thrown towards the tops, as the white stems are
+usually sought as an indication of mildness. The
+crop will be in condition to use in from three to
+four weeks, and may be made to last until small
+seed Onions are to be had. Tops or multipliers
+may also be used for the early crop.</p>
+
+<p>In growing Onions from seed, it is only necessary to say
+that the seed should be in the ground very early in order
+that the bulbs make their growth before the extreme hot
+weather of August, when, for want of moisture and because
+of the heat, the bulbs will ripen up while small.
+Early in April, in New York, if the ground is in condition,
+the seed should be sown thickly in drills from 12 to 16 inches
+apart, and the ground above the seeds well firmed. Good
+cultivation and constant weeding is the price of a good crop<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+of Onions. In cultivating and hoeing, the soil should be
+kept away from the rows, not covering the growing bulbs,
+but allowing them to spread over the surface of the ground.
+When the crop is ready to be harvested, the bulbs may
+be pulled or cultivated up, left to dry in double rows for
+several days, the tops and roots taken off, and the bulbs
+stored in a dry place. Later in the season they may be
+allowed to freeze, covering with chaff or straw to hold them
+frozen, and kept until early spring; but this method is
+usually unsafe with beginners, and always so in a changeable
+climate. Onion seed should always be fresh when sown&mdash;preferably
+of the last year’s crop. One ounce of Onion
+seed will sow 100 feet of drill.</p>
+
+<p>One of the recent methods of obtaining extra large bulbs
+from seed is to sow the seed in a hotbed in February or
+early March, and transplant to the open ground in April.</p>
+
+<p>The Danvers, Prizetaker, Globe and Wethersfield are
+favorite varieties, with the addition of White Queen or
+Barletta for pickling.</p>
+
+<p><b>Oxalis.</b> A number of hardy species of this
+are excellent plants for rockwork and edging. The greenhouse
+species are very showy, growing without extra care,
+and blooming freely through the late winter and spring
+months; these are mostly increased by bulbs, a few by division
+of the root. <i>O. violacea</i> is one of the commonest of
+house-plants. Give a sunny window, for the flowers open
+only in sun or very bright light. The bulbous kinds are
+treated as recommended for <a href="#bulbs"><i>Bulbs</i></a>, except that the bulbs
+must not freeze.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 199px;">
+<img src="images/164-palm.jpg" width="199" height="146" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Palms</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="P" id="P"></a><b><a name="palms" id="palms"></a>Palms.</b> No more graceful plant for room
+decoration can be found than a well-grown specimen of
+some species of Palms. Most Palms are well adapted for
+this purpose when small, and as the growth is usually very
+slow, a plant may be used for many years. Again, the
+plants thrive better in partial shade. They may be grown
+in a sitting or drawing-room more satisfactorily than most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+house-plants. One of the frequent causes of failure in the
+culture of the Palm is the over-potting and subsequent over-watering.
+A Palm should not be repotted until the mass of
+roots fills the soil; then a pot only a size
+larger should be used. Use ample drainage
+in the bottom to carry off excess of
+water. Although the plants need a moist
+soil, water standing at their roots proves
+injurious. A soil composed of well rotted
+sod, leaf-mold and a little sand will meet
+their requirements. Among the best
+Palms for house culture are Arecas,
+<i>Cocos Weddelliana</i>, Latania, Kentia,
+Chamærops and Phœnix. Cycas may
+also be regarded as a Palm.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 225px;">
+<img src="images/164-palm2.jpg" width="225" height="236" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A table Palm</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The date Palm may be grown from
+seed of the common commercial date.
+Seed of the other varieties may be purchased
+from leading seedsmen, but, as
+the seed germinates only under favorable
+conditions, and the Palm is a very
+slow-growing plant while young, the
+best plan is to purchase the plants from
+a dealer when wanted. When the
+plants become weak or diseased, take them to a florist for
+treatment and recuperation.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="pandanus" id="pandanus"></a>Pandanus</b>, or <span class="smcap">Screw Pine</span>. The <i>Pandanus
+utilis</i> and <i>P. Veitchii</i> are exceedingly ornamental, and are
+well adapted to house culture. The singular habit of
+growth, bright, glossy leaves, and the ability to withstand
+the dust and shade of a dwelling room, make them a desirable
+addition to the house collection. They are propagated
+by the offsets or young plants that grow around the
+base of the trunk; or they may be increased by seed. If by
+the former method, the offsets should be cut off and set in
+sand, at a temperature of 65° or 70°. The cuttings root<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+slowly and the plants for a time make a very slow growth.
+The general cultural treatment is that of palms, <a href="#palms">which see</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 245px;">
+<img src="images/165-pansy.jpg" width="245" height="191" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Pansies</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Pansy</b> is without doubt the most popular spring
+flower in cultivation. The strains of seed are many, each
+containing great possibilities. The culture is simple and
+the results are sure. Seed sown in August or September, in
+boxes or a frame, will make plants large enough to reset
+in November and bloom the following March; or they may
+be left until March in open seed-beds before setting out.
+Also, if they are sown very thinly in the frames they may
+remain undisturbed through the winter, blooming very early
+the following spring. The frame
+should be protected by mats, boards
+or other covering through the severe
+cold, and as the sun gains strength,
+care should be taken to keep them
+from heaving by alternate thawing
+and freezing. Seed sown in boxes
+in January or February will make
+fine blooming plants by April, taking
+the place of those blooming
+earlier.</p>
+
+<p>The requisites for satisfactory Pansy culture are rich,
+moist, cool soil, protection from the noonday sun, and attention
+to keeping them from going to seed. As the ground
+becomes warm a mulch of leaf-mold or other light material
+should be spread over the bed to retain moisture
+and exclude heat. Spring and fall give the best bloom.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="paris_green" id="paris_green"></a>Paris Green</b> is the leading arsenical insecticide.
+It is usually applied in a water spray, at the rate of
+1 pound of the poison to 150 to 200 gallons of water. Add ½
+pound of lime to prevent injury to foliage. Potatoes will
+usually stand a stronger mixture; peaches and some other
+plants do not need one so strong. Make the Paris Green into
+a paste with water before adding it to the 200 gallons, that it
+may mix better. Paris Green may be added to Bordeaux<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+mixture with excellent results, counting the Bordeaux as if
+it were so much water; in this case it will not be necessary
+to add lime to the Paris Green. The Paris Green is
+used only for chewing insects, as worms and beetles. London
+purple is used in the same way.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 153px;">
+<img src="images/166-parsley.jpg" width="153" height="81" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Parsley grown in a box</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Parsley.</b> The curled Parsley is used almost
+exclusively as a garnish for meats and salads, although the
+flavor in soups is fine. The seed is slow to germinate, and
+often the second or third sowing is made, thinking the first
+is a failure; but usually after what would seem
+a long time the young plants will be seen.
+When sown in the open ground, it should be
+thinned to stand 3 or 4 inches in the row, the
+rows being 10 to 12 inches apart. A few plants
+in a border will give a supply for a large family,
+and with a little protection will live over winter. Roots
+may be lifted in the fall, put into boxes or old cans, and
+grown in a sunny window for winter use.</p>
+
+<p><b>Parsnips</b> are one of the vegetables that are
+the better for the winter’s freeze, although they are of good
+quality if taken up after the fall frosts and packed in soil,
+sand or moss in the cellar. The seed, which must be not
+over one year old, should be sown as early as possible in
+well prepared soil, firmed with the feet or roller. As the
+seed germinates rather slowly the ground often becomes
+crusted or baked over the seeds, in which case it should be
+broken and fined with a garden rake. This operation often
+means the success of the crop. Radish or cabbage seeds
+may be sown with the Parsnip seed to mark the row and
+break the crust. One ounce of seed will sow 200 feet of
+drill. Thin to 6 inches apart in the row.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pea.</b> Who does not long for the time when
+early Peas are fit to use? And how many know the great
+difference in quality between the smooth and the wrinkled
+Peas? The first are a little the earliest to be planted and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+to become fit for use, and on that account should be
+planted in a small way. For the kitchen-garden the dwarf
+and half-dwarf varieties are the best, as the tall kinds will
+need brush or wire to support them, causing considerable
+trouble and labor and not being as neat in appearance. The
+tall varieties yield a larger crop than the dwarfs, but as the
+rows must be made from 3 to 5 feet apart, the dwarf ones,
+which are planted only 6 to 8 inches apart, will give as
+large a yield on the same area. Always plant double rows
+of the tall varieties: that is, two rows from 4 to 6 inches
+apart, with the brush or wire between, the double rows
+being from 3 to 5 feet apart, according to varieties. The
+dwarf varieties should be planted four rows in a block, each
+row being only 6 or 8 inches apart. The Peas on the two
+center rows may be picked from the outside. Leave a
+space of 2 feet and plant the same. At the time of the first
+planting only the smooth varieties should be sown, but by
+the middle of April in New York the ground will be warm
+and dry enough for the wrinkled sorts. A succession should
+be sown that will come to maturity one after the other, extending
+the season six or eight weeks. If a further supply
+is wanted the early quick-maturing varieties may be sown
+in August, usually giving a fair crop of Peas in September
+and early October. In the hot weather of midsummer they
+often do not thrive so well. One quart of seed will plant
+about 100 feet of drill.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="pea_everlasting" id="pea_everlasting"></a>Pea, Everlasting</b> (<i>Lathyrus latifolius</i>). These
+Peas do not have the colors or fragrance of the Sweet Pea,
+but are fine for planting against rocks, stumps, or fences.
+They bloom through a long season, and, being perfectly
+hardy, will live for years. Height 2 to 6 feet. Raised from
+seeds or from cuttings, usually the former. Keep the seed
+pods picked off to lengthen period of bloom.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pea, Sweet.</b> <a href="#sweet_pea">See <i>Sweet Pea</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Peach.</b> Given the proper exposure, Peaches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+may be fruited in many sections where now it is thought
+impossible to have a crop. It is usually the practice of the
+amateur to set Peach trees in the shelter of some building,
+exposed on the south or east to the sun, and “in a pocket”
+as regards winds. This should be reversed, except in the
+close vicinity of large bodies of water. The fruit buds of
+Peaches will stand very cold weather when perfectly dormant,
+often as low as 12° or 18° below zero in New
+York; but if the buds once become swollen, comparatively
+light freezing will destroy the crop. Therefore, if the trees
+be set on elevations where a constant air drainage may be
+obtained, sheltered, if at all, on the south
+and east, from the warming influence of
+the sun, the buds will remain dormant
+until the ground becomes warm, and the
+chances of a failure will be lessened. This
+advice applies mostly to interior sections.
+A well drained, sandy loam or gravelly soil
+suits the Peach better than a heavy soil; but if the heavier
+soil is well drained, good crops may be obtained.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 182px;">
+<img src="images/168-peaches.jpg" width="182" height="103" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Peaches</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Peaches are short-lived at best, and one should be satisfied
+with three or four crops from each tree. They bear
+young, usually a partial crop the third year. If a crop may
+be had every other year until the trees are eight or ten
+years old, they will have well repaid the effort of cultivation.
+But they often bear twice this long. Young trees may be
+set every four or five years to replace older ones, thus
+having trees at a bearing age at all times on a small place.
+Trees should be set 14 to 18 feet apart each way. A good
+selection of varieties for home use would be Early York,
+Alexander, Halo Early, Mountain Rose, Early Crawford,
+Wheatland, Stump, Elberta, Stevens, Oldmixon, Late Crawford
+and Smock.</p>
+
+<p>Peach trees are always bought when they are one year
+old, that is, one year from the bud. For example, the bud
+is set in the fall of 1898. It remains dormant until the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+spring of 1899, when it pushes into vigorous growth; and in
+the fall of 1899 the tree is ready for sale. Peach trees
+which are more than a year old are scarcely worth the
+buying. It is a common practice, when setting Peach trees,
+to prune them back to a whip, leaving a stub bearing not
+more than one bud where each branch is cut off.</p>
+
+<p>The three great enemies of the Peach are the borer, the
+yellows and the curculio.</p>
+
+<p>The borer is best handled by digging it out every spring
+and fall. Trees which are attacked by the borer have an
+exudation of gum about the crown. If the borers are dug
+out twice a year they will not get sufficient start to make
+the operation very laborious. It is the only sure way.</p>
+
+<p>The yellows is a communicable disease, the cause of
+which is not definitely known. It shows itself in the fruit
+ripening prematurely, with distinct red spots which extend
+through the flesh, and later by the throwing out of fine,
+branching, twiggy tufts along the main branches. The
+only treatment is to pull out the trees and burn them.
+Other trees may be set in the same places.</p>
+
+<p>For a discussion of curculio, see the remarks under
+<a href="#plum"><i>Plum</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pear.</b> No fruit plantation should be considered
+complete without trees of various kinds of Pears, ripening
+fruits from early in August till winter. The late varieties
+are generally good keepers, and extend the season into
+February, thus supplying fruit for six or seven months.</p>
+
+<p>As the Pear grows to perfection on quince, the dwarf tree
+is peculiarly adapted to planting on small home grounds,
+and is often used as a boundary plant, or to serve the purpose
+of a screen. These dwarf trees should be set deep&mdash;4
+to 6 inches below the union&mdash;to prevent the stock from
+growing. Dwarf trees may be set as near together as 10
+to 16 feet, while the standard or tall-growing Pears should
+be set 18 to 25 feet apart. Trees are planted when two or
+three years old.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 114px;">
+<img src="images/170-pears.jpg" width="114" height="198" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Bartlett Pears</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Pear thrives on clay soil, if well underdrained, and
+for this reason may succeed in places where other fruits
+might fail. A good, steady growth should be maintained,
+but the use of nitrogenous manures should be avoided, as
+they tend to make a rank growth and invite attacks of Pear
+blight, which is the worst enemy of the Pear.
+For summer fruits: Osband’s Summer, Bartlett,
+Clapp and Manning Elizabeth are among
+the best. For autumn: Duchess, Flemish
+Beauty, Bosc, Louise Bonne, Seckel and
+Sheldon. For winter fruit: Anjou, Clairgeau,
+Lawrence and Winter Nelis are excellent.
+Kieffer is an excellent commercial fruit, but it
+is too poor to be given space in the home
+ground except as an ornamental tree.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Pear blight, Duggar writes as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“<span class="smcap">Remedies.</span> (<i>a</i>) <i>The knife and the saw.</i>&mdash;With a disease
+working as this does, it is very evident that there is
+no chance either for cure or prevention by means of spraying.
+The heroic treatment of the knife and saw must be
+adopted and vigorously pursued, as has been claimed from
+the beginning. The blackened leaves alone must not
+serve as signs of the diseased area, but one must examine
+carefully the branches and remove them 6 inches or more
+below the lowest discolorations. Often before cutting,
+pruners slice the bark downward to see where the injury
+ends. This should not be done; it is better to be sure that
+you are below the infected area, and run no such risk of
+infecting anew the tissues below. The cut surfaces of
+larger limbs and branches should be painted for protection
+against wound rots.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>b</i>) <i>When to cut.</i>&mdash;Cutting out diseased portions
+should be done whenever the disease is evident. This may
+check the injuries temporarily; but it has been shown that
+much can be done in the autumn to prevent the establishment
+of the disease the following spring. It has long been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+known that the disease may pass the winter in the branches
+by a slow growth in the neighborhood of late infections.
+Thorough work of eradication should especially be performed
+after the season of growth. Then cut out every
+diseased branch and burn, so that in the spring when the
+succulent growth begins again, there will be few places in
+which insects may come in contact with the bacterial
+exudations.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>c</i>) <i>Conditions favoring the disease.</i>&mdash;The knife is our
+only hope of extermination; but there are undoubtedly conditions
+which favor the disease. In a succulent, rapidly
+growing tree the bacteria find more favorable conditions for
+their development than in one which grows slowly, yet with
+sufficient vigor. For this reason, too much nitrogenous
+manure is dangerous; and, for the same reason, a succulent
+growth induced by severe pruning should be avoided.”</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 131px;">
+<img src="images/171-pelargonium.jpg" width="131" height="171" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Pelargonium, or
+Geranium</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="pelargoniums" id="pelargoniums"></a>Pelargoniums.</b> Here belong the plants known
+as Geraniums&mdash;the most satisfactory of house-plants, and
+extensively used as bedding plants. No plants will give
+better returns in leaf and flower; and these features, added
+to the ease of propagation, make them general favorites.
+Cuttings of partially ripened wood root very easily,
+grow to blooming size in a short time, and, either
+planted out or grown in a pot, make fine decorations.
+The common or “Fish” Geraniums are
+much more satisfactory when not more than a
+year old. Take cuttings from the old plants at
+least once a year. In four or five months the
+young plants begin to bloom. Plants may be
+taken up from the garden and potted, but they
+rarely give as much satisfaction as young, vigorous
+subjects. Repot frequently until they are in 4- to 5-inch
+pots; then let them bloom.</p>
+
+<p>The show Pelargoniums are those commonly known as
+Lady Washington Geraniums. These have but one period
+of bloom, usually in April, but they make up in size and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+coloring. This section is more difficult to manage as a
+house plant than the common Geranium, needing more direct
+light to keep it stocky, and being troubled by insects.
+Still, all the trouble taken to grow them will be well repaid
+by the handsome blossoms. Take cuttings in late spring,
+after flowering, and blooming plants may be had the following
+year. Good results are sometimes secured by keeping
+these plants two or three years. Cut back after each
+blooming season.</p>
+
+<p>For house culture the Geraniums need a rich, fibrous
+loam, with the addition of a little sand; good drainage is
+also an essential.</p>
+
+<p><b>Peony.</b> The herbaceous Peony has long had
+a place in the garden, and is now in general use as an early
+flowering plant. It is perfectly hardy, and free from the
+many diseases and insects that attack so many fine plants.
+The single and semi-double varieties are very fine, the
+flowers becoming large as the plant becomes well established.
+The herbaceous section is readily increased by division.
+The tree Peonies are increased by grafting. They grow
+in some cases to the height of 3 or more feet, and are covered
+with large, very double flowers of rich colors.
+Height 2 to 3 feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/172-pepper.jpg" width="101" height="176" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Bell Pepper</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Peppers</b> are tender while young, although
+they will endure a heavy frost in the fall. Their
+culture is that recommended for eggplants. A small
+seedsman’s packet of seed will be sufficient for a large
+number of plants, say two hundred. The large Bell
+Peppers are the mildest, and are used for making
+“stuffed Peppers” and other dishes. The small, hot
+Peppers are used for seasoning and sauces.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;">
+<img src="images/173-petunia.jpg" width="182" height="125" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Petunia</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Petunia.</b> The improvement made in the size
+and markings of the Petunia has been marked of late. Now
+almost every shade of color may be found, aside from yellow.
+A bed of Petunias makes a mass of color equaled by few other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+flowers. They also make very fine single plants for pots,
+baskets or window-boxes, blooming freely through the winter,
+and emitting a delicate fragrance. The single varieties
+grow freely from seed, but if plants of one
+special color are wanted cuttings should be
+made. These cuttings root easily and bloom
+early. Cuttings will have to be made of
+the double varieties to increase their number.
+For common Petunias, sow seeds where
+plants are to grow, in a warm, sunny place;
+or, for earlier bloom, seeds may be started
+in the house. Thin to 8 to 12 inches apart. The season
+of bloom is cut short only by frost or other causes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Phlox.</b> Both the perennial and the annual
+Phloxes are most valuable. Excepting the petunia, no plant
+will give the profusion of bloom with as little care as the
+annual Phlox (<i>Phlox Drummondii</i>). Masses of one color or
+of contrasting colors make very effective ribbon borders or
+edging beds. The perennial species are very showy, having
+almost as wide a range of color as the annuals. They grow
+to the height of 3 feet. They are most effective in the back
+row of a border. The perennials have been much improved
+of late. They are hardy.</p>
+
+<p>The annual Phlox is propagated by seed sown early in the
+spring in the border, or in March in boxes and transplanted.
+The perennial Phlox is increased by division of the roots,
+the flowers being larger and more highly colored by dividing
+at least every three years. The annual Phlox blooms early,
+and continues until late in the fall. The perennial blooms
+from July to frost.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pink.</b> See <a href="#dianthus"><i>Dianthus</i></a> and <a href="#carnations"><i>Carnation</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="plum" id="plum"></a>Plum.</b> Of Plums there are three general or
+common types: first, the common Domestica or European
+Plum, which gives rise to all the older varieties, like Lombard,
+Bradshaw, Green Gage, the Prunes, the Egg Plums,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+the Damsons, and the like; second, the Japanese Plums,
+which have become popular within the last ten years, and
+which are adapted to a wider range of country than the
+Domesticas; third, the native Plums of several species or
+types, which are adapted to the plains, the middle and
+southern states, where the Domestica Plums do not thrive,
+and some kinds to the cold North.</p>
+
+<p>Wherever the Domestica and Japanese Plums can be
+grown, the native Plums are not destined to become popular;
+but many of the natives are much hardier than others,
+and are therefore adapted to regions in which the Domestica
+and Japanese are not safe. Others of them are well adapted
+to the middle and southern states. The Domestica and
+Japanese Plums are considerably hardier than peaches, but
+not so hardy as the apple. The northern limit of their general
+cultivation is the southern peninsula of Michigan, central
+and southern Ontario, central New York and central
+New England.</p>
+
+<p>Plums thrive on a great variety of soils, but they do
+better, as a rule, on those which are rather heavy and have
+a considerable content of clay. In fact, many of the varieties
+will thrive on clay as hard as that upon which pears
+will grow. On the other hand, they often thrive well upon
+light, and even almost sandy soils.</p>
+
+<p>The trees are set when they are two and three years from
+the bud. It is preferable to have Plum trees on stocks of
+the same species, but it is not always possible to secure them
+at the nurseries. In the South, Plums are worked mostly on
+peach roots, and these make excellent trees where the
+climate is not too severe, and especially upon the lighter
+lands on which they are planted in the South. In the North
+the larger part of the Plum stocks are grown on the
+Myrobalan Plum roots. This Myrobalan is an Old World
+species of Plum, of smaller growth than the Domestica.
+This stock, therefore, tends to dwarf the tree, and it is
+also likely to throw up sprouts from the roots. Plum trees<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+are set from 12 to 18 feet apart. Many growers like to set
+them 8 feet apart in rows, and have the rows from 16 to 20
+feet apart.</p>
+
+<p>Plums are pruned much the same as apples and
+pears. That is, the top is thinned out from year to year,
+and all superfluous branches and broken or diseased wood
+are removed. If the soil is very strong and the trees are
+close together, it may be well to head them in a little each
+year, especially those varieties which grow very strong
+and robust.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 229px;">
+<img src="images/175-plums.jpg" width="229" height="196" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Plums</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The varieties of Plums are very numerous. Of the
+Domestica or European type, some of the best are Bradshaw,
+Imperial Gage, Jefferson, Reine Claude, Coe Golden
+Drop, Quackenbos, Fellemburg, German Prune, Copper.
+The Lombard is the most cosmopolitan variety, and is
+always sure to give a crop, but the quality is not so good as
+that of the others mentioned. For
+culinary purposes, some of the Damsons,
+which are very small-fruited
+varieties, are excellent. Of Japanese
+Plums, the best so far tested for the
+North are Red June, Abundance, Burbank,
+Chabot and Satsuma. For a
+very early cherry-like Plum for home
+use, the Berger is excellent. Of the
+native Plums, the most cosmopolitan
+variety is Wild Goose. Excellent
+varieties are Weaver, Quaker, Forest Garden, Wayland, and
+others.</p>
+
+<p>There are four leading difficulties in the growing of Plums&mdash;leaf
+blight, fruit rot, black knot, and curculio.</p>
+
+<p>The leaf blight usually comes on about midsummer, the
+leaves becoming spotted and dropping off. The remedy for
+this trouble is to spray thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture,
+beginning soon after the fruits have set, and before the
+trouble begins to show.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+The fruit rot may be prevented by the same means&mdash;that
+is, by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. It is usually best
+to begin just after the fruits are well set. A very important
+consideration in the checking of this disease is to thin the
+fruit so that it does not hang in clusters. If one fruit touches
+another, the rot spreads from fruit to fruit in spite of the
+spraying. Some varieties, like Lombard and Abundance,
+are susceptible to this injury.</p>
+
+<p>The black knot is best kept in check by cutting out the
+knots whenever they can be seen, and burning them. As
+soon as the leaves drop, the orchard should be gone over
+and all knots taken out. Orchards which are thoroughly
+sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for the leaf blight and fruit-rot
+fungus are less liable to attacks of black knot.</p>
+
+<p>The curculio, or the insect which is the parent of the
+worms in the fruit, is the inveterate enemy of the Plum and
+other stone fruits. The mature beetle lays the eggs in the
+fruits when they are very small, usually beginning its work
+about as soon as the flowers fall. These eggs soon hatch, and
+the little maggot bores into the fruit. Those fruits which
+are attacked whilst very young ordinarily fall from the tree,
+but those which are attacked when they are half or more
+grown may adhere to the tree, but are wormy and gummy at
+the picking time. The mature beetles are sluggish in the
+mornings, and are easily jarred from the trees. Taking advantage
+of this fact, the fruit-grower may jar them into sheets;
+or, in large orchards, into a large canvas hopper, which is
+wheeled from tree to tree upon a wheelbarrow-like frame, and
+under the apex of which is a tin can into which the insects
+roll. There is a slit or opening in one side of the hopper,
+which allows the tree to stand nearly in the middle of the
+canvas. The operator then gives the tree two or three sharp
+jars with a padded pole or mallet. The edges of the hopper
+are then quickly shaken with the hands and the insects roll
+down into the tin receptacle. In this receptacle there is
+kerosene oil, or it may be emptied from time to time. Just<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+how long this machine is to be run in the orchard will depend
+entirely upon circumstances. It is advisable to use the
+catcher soon after the blossoms fall, for the purpose of finding
+out how abundant the insects are. If a few insects are
+caught upon each tree, there is indication that there are
+enough of the pests to make serious trouble. If after a few
+days the insects seem to have disappeared, it will not be
+necessary to continue the hunt. In some years, especially in
+those succeeding a very heavy crop, it may be necessary to
+run the curculio-catcher every morning for four or five
+weeks; but, as a rule, it will not be necessary to use it
+oftener than two or three times a week during that season;
+and sometimes the season may be shortened by one-half.
+The insects fall most readily when the weather is cool, and
+it, therefore, is best to get through the whole orchard, if
+possible, before noon. Upon cloudy days, however, the
+insects may be caught all day. A smart man can attend to
+300 to 400 full-bearing trees in six hours if the ground has
+been well rolled or firmed, as it should be before the
+bugging operation begins. But whether the operation is
+troublesome or not, it is the price of Plums, and the grower
+must not expect to succeed long without it. The same
+treatment is essential to the saving of peaches and rarely,
+also, of sour cherries.</p>
+
+<p><b>Poppy.</b> These showy annuals and perennials
+should be more generally grown. Nothing will lighten up
+a corner better than the hardy oriental Poppy, or the
+solid crimson or scarlet annual Poppies. All of the varieties
+grow readily from seed, which, in most cases, should
+be sown where the plants are to bloom. The seeds of the
+oriental and the Iceland Poppy may be sown in pots, the
+plants wintered over in a frame and carefully planted
+out the second spring. The Poppy is very impatient of
+root disturbance, however, and the safest method is to sow
+the seed where wanted.</p>
+
+<p><b>Portulaca</b>, or <span class="smcap">Rose Moss</span>. Brilliant little tender<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+annuals, low-growing and sun-loving. They usually
+seed themselves, and once established will continue for
+years. Many of the varieties will produce a good percentage
+of flowers as double as roses and of many colors.
+Seed should be sown where wanted. They bloom freely in
+light, sandy soil in the full blaze of the sun.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 110px;">
+<img src="images/178-potatoes.jpg" width="110" height="233" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Potatoes</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Potato.</b> The common practice of growing
+Potatoes in ridges or elevated hills is wrong, unless the soil
+is so wet that this practice is necessary to insure proper
+drainage; but in this case the land is not adapted to the
+growing of Potatoes. If the land is elevated into ridges or
+hills, there is a great loss of moisture by means of evaporation.
+During the last cultivating the Potatoes may be
+hilled up slightly in order to cover the tubers; but the hills
+should not be made in the beginning. Land for
+Potatoes should be rather loamy in character, and
+ought to have a liberal supply of potash, either
+naturally or supplied in the drill, by means of an
+application of sulfate of potash. See that the
+land is deeply plowed or spaded, so that the roots
+can penetrate deeper. Plant the Potatoes 3 or
+4 inches below the natural surface of the ground.
+It is ordinarily best to drop the pieces in drills.
+A continuous drill may be made by means of dropping
+one piece every 6 inches, but it is usually
+thought best to drop two pieces about every 12
+to 18 inches. The drills are far enough apart to allow good
+cultivation. If horse cultivation is used, the drills should
+be at least 3 feet apart.</p>
+
+<p>Small Potatoes are considered not to be so good as large
+ones for planting. One reason is because too many sprouts
+arise from each one, and these sprouts are apt to crowd
+each other. The same is true of the tip end or seed end of
+the tuber. Even when it is cut off, the eyes are so numerous
+that one secures many weak shoots rather than two or
+three strong ones. It is ordinarily best to cut the Potatoes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+to two or three eyes, leaving as much tuber as possible
+with each piece. From seven to eight bushels of Potatoes
+are required to plant an acre.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 185px;">
+<img src="images/179-potdeep.jpg" width="185" height="248" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Too deep</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For a very early crop in the garden, tubers are sometimes
+sprouted in the cellar. When the
+sprouts are 4 to 6 inches high the tubers are
+carefully planted. It is essential that the
+sprouts are not broken in the handling.
+In this practice, also, the tubers are first
+cut into large pieces, so that they will not
+dry out too much.</p>
+
+<p>The staple remedy for the Potato bug is
+Paris green, 1 pound of poison to 150 to 200
+gallons of water, with a little lime (<a href="#paris_green">see
+<i>Paris Green</i></a>). For the blight, spray with
+Bordeaux mixture, and spray thoroughly.
+Bordeaux mixture will also keep away the
+flea beetle to a large extent.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 184px;">
+<img src="images/179-pothigh.jpg" width="184" height="287" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Plant too high</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Potato, Sweet.</b> <a href="#sweet_potato">See <i>Sweet Potato</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="potting" id="potting"></a>Potting.</b> The operation of potting
+a plant, while in itself simple, is very often
+associated with success or failure in the
+growth of the plant. The first and most
+common reason of failure is using too large
+a pot; the second, imperfect drainage;
+and the third, the poor physical condition
+of the soil.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 191px;">
+<img src="images/180-potfull.jpg" width="191" height="304" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Too full</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;">
+<img src="images/180-potcareless.jpg" width="194" height="265" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Careless</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A small-rooted cutting or a feeble plant
+should have a pot only large enough to
+hold soil sufficient to surround the roots to
+the extent of 1 or 2 inches. More soil
+would hold too much moisture, thus excluding
+the air. As the plants grow and
+the ball of dirt becomes well covered with white roots,
+and before these roots become dark in color, the plant
+should be repotted, using a pot one size larger and usually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+a little richer soil. This operation should continue until
+the plant has made the desired growth. If it is desired to
+grow a geranium, fuchsia, begonia, or
+plants of a similar character, large enough
+for a window plant&mdash;say to the height or
+breadth of two feet,&mdash;a 6-inch pot will be
+large enough, provided the soil is rich
+enough to continue the growth of the
+plant while in flower. It often happens
+that pots of the various sizes are not to
+hand; and in case the pot is too large, it
+should have the drainage increased until it
+will take up as much room in the bottom as
+the pot is too large. Bear in mind that
+the soil should not hold free water. After
+the plant has filled the pot with roots it
+will often be necessary to supply more food
+as the soil becomes exhausted. This may
+be done by digging out the top soil down
+to the young, white roots, replacing with
+new soil in which a little rotted manure,
+a pinch of bone-meal or other plant-food,
+has been added. Liquid manure
+may be used. This liquid manure is
+made from well rotted cow-, horse-, or
+sheep-manure thrown into a tub or barrel,
+covered with water, and allowed to stand
+until the strength of the manure is
+soaked out. This liquid should be diluted
+before using with clear water until it has
+the color of weak coffee. If used with
+judgment, nothing will cause a better
+growth or a greater quantity of flowers.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 196px;">
+<img src="images/181-potgood.jpg" width="196" height="288" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Good!</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The drainage may consist of any coarse material, such
+as old broken pots, small stones, pieces of charcoal, and the
+like, over which should be placed small broken sod or a little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+moss to keep the dirt from washing through and eventually
+stopping up the crevices through which the excess water
+should flow.</p>
+
+<p>A safe rule to follow in first potting the majority of
+house-plants, is to use one-third turf-loam, one-third leaf-mold
+or decayed leaves, and one-third sand, thoroughly
+mixed. Reduce the amount of leaf-mold and sand at
+successive pottings, adding a little well
+rotted manure, until, when the plants have
+been potted in 6-inch pots, at least four-fifths
+of the soil is turfy loam. Press the
+soil firmly in the pot and around the plant.
+Never fill the pot level full of soil, else the
+plant cannot be watered.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="prickly" id="prickly"></a>Prickly Poppies</b>, or <span class="smcap">Argemones</span>,
+are hardy annuals, with large, bluish
+striking foliage and yellow flowers. They
+are easily grown in a warm soil and sunny
+exposure. Sow the seeds where the plants
+are to stand. Thin to 12 to 18 inches
+apart. They grow 2 feet high.</p>
+
+<p><b>Primulas</b>, or <span class="smcap">Primroses</span>, are of
+various kinds. One of them is the Auricula (<a href="#auricula">which see</a>).
+Others are hardy border plants. The true or English cowslip
+is one of these; also the plants commonly known as
+Polyanthus. Hardy Primulas grow 6 to 10 inches high,
+sending up trusses of yellow and red flowers in early
+spring. Propagated by division, or by seed sown a year
+before the plants are wanted. Give them rich, moist soil.</p>
+
+<p>The Primula of the winter-garden is mostly the <i>P. Sinensis</i>
+(Chinese Primrose), grown very extensively by florists as a
+Christmas plant. With the exception of the full double
+varieties, it is usually grown from seed. The seed sown in
+March or April will make large flowering plants by November
+or December, if the young plants are shifted to
+larger pots as needed. The seed should be sown on the flat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+surface of the soil, composed of equal parts loam, leaf-mold
+and sand. The seed should be pressed down lightly and
+the soil watered carefully to prevent the seed from being
+washed into the soil. Very fine sphagnum moss may be
+sifted over the seed, or the box set in a moist place,
+where the soil will remain wet until the seeds germinate.
+When the plants are large enough they should be potted separately
+or pricked out into shallow boxes. Frequent pottings
+or transplantings should be given until September, when they
+should be in the pots in which they are to bloom.
+The two essentials to successful growth through
+the hot summer are shade and moisture. Height
+6 to 8 inches. Bloom in winter and spring.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 116px;">
+<img src="images/182-pruning.jpg" width="116" height="168" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Improper way to
+make the wound</p>
+
+<img src="images/182-pruning2.jpg" width="116" height="166" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Proper way</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At present the “baby Primrose” (<i>Primula
+Forbesi</i>) is popular. It is treated in essentially
+the same way as the Sinensis. All Primulas
+are impatient of a dry atmosphere and fluctuating
+conditions.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 66px;">
+<img src="images/182-pruning3.jpg" width="66" height="162" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Before</p>
+
+<img src="images/182-pruning4.jpg" width="66" height="171" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">After</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Prince’s Feather.</b> <a href="#amarantus">See <i>Amarantus</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Prunes</b> are varieties of plums with
+firm, meaty flesh, and which readily make
+dried fruit. Some of the Prunes are commercially
+grown in the East, but they are
+sold in the green state as other plums are;
+and they are adapted to all the uses of
+other plums. Prunes are cultivated like
+other plums.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="pruning" id="pruning"></a>Pruning.</b> There are two general types of
+inquiry connected with the question of Pruning:
+First, that which has to do with the healing of the
+wounds; and second, that which has to do with the
+shaping of the top and the general welfare of the tree.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 242px;">
+<img src="images/183-prunebefore.jpg" width="242" height="254" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Before pruning</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When a limb is cut off, it heals by being covered
+with callus tissue, which grows out from the cambium zone
+between the bark and wood and rolls over the face of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+wound. The hard wood itself never heals; that is, the
+cells do not have the power of making new cells; therefore
+the old wood is simply covered up, or hermetically sealed as
+a cap is put on a fruit jar. It is evident,
+therefore, that no kind of dressing
+will hasten the healing of this
+wound. The merit of a dressing is to
+keep the wound sound and healthy until
+the callus naturally covers it over.
+All things considered, the best dressing
+is probably thick linseed-oil paint.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 241px;">
+<img src="images/183-pruneafter.jpg" width="241" height="249" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">After pruning</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>So far as the wound is concerned,
+the best time for Pruning is ordinarily
+in the spring, when the vital activities
+are beginning; but the season also influences
+fruit-bearing and wood-making,
+and these questions should be considered. Those wounds
+heal best which are on strong main limbs, where there is
+a full flow of nutritious sap. The limb should be cut off so
+that the wound is parallel with the trunk upon which it sits,
+and close to it. That is to say, the longer the stub, the less
+rapid in general is the healing of the
+wound. It is the custom to cut the
+limb just outside the bulge at its base;
+but, in most cases, it is better to cut
+through this bulge, and to have the
+wound close to the main trunk.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 162px;">
+<img src="images/184-saw.jpg" width="162" height="128" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Sickle saw</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 174px;">
+<img src="images/184-saw3.jpg" width="174" height="262" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Curved Pruning
+saw</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 67px;">
+<img src="images/184-saw2.jpg" width="67" height="172" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Combined
+saw and
+knife. Goes
+on a long
+handle</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 101px;">
+<img src="images/184-saw4.jpg" width="101" height="191" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Common
+double edge
+saw</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Heavy Pruning of the top tends to
+the production of wood; therefore the
+severe Pruning of orchard trees, following
+three or four years of neglect,
+sets the trees into heavy wood-bearing,
+and makes them more vigorous.
+Such treatment generally tends away
+from fruit-bearing. This heavy Pruning is usually necessary
+in neglected orchards, however, to bring trees back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+into shape and to revitalize them; but the best Pruning-treatment
+of an orchard is to Prune it a little every year.
+It should be so Pruned that the tops of the trees
+will be open, that no two limbs will interfere
+with each other, and so that the fruit itself will
+not be so abundant as to overload the tree.
+Pruning is a means of thinning. In general,
+it is best to prune orchard trees late in winter
+or early in spring. It is ordinarily better,
+however, to leave peaches and other tender fruits until
+after the buds have swollen, or even after the flowers
+have fallen, in order that one may determine how much
+they have been injured by the winter. Grapevines should
+be Pruned in winter or not later (in New York) than the
+first of March. If Pruned later than this, they may bleed.
+The above remarks will apply to other trees as well as to
+fruits.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;">
+<img src="images/185-treepruner.jpg" width="216" height="200" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Waters’ tree Pruner&mdash;for limbs
+out of reach</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 129px;">
+<img src="images/185-shears.jpg" width="129" height="147" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Pruning shears</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 204px;">
+<img src="images/185-prunesaw.jpg" width="204" height="272" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">An excellent Pruning
+saw. The blade is
+on a swivel</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It should be borne in mind that Pruning has two objects:
+one is to merely trim the tree or to
+make it assume some designed shape; the
+other is to make the tree more vigorous or
+more fruitful, or to make some other change
+in its character. These ideals are well illustrated
+in the Pruning of ornamental shrubs.
+If one wants to have the shrubs sheared into
+some particular shape, the shearing
+may be done at almost any time of the
+year; in fact, it is better to do it two
+or three times each year in order to
+keep the trees trim and neat. If,
+however, the desire is to secure more
+flowers, the case is a very different one. Some shrubs
+and trees bear their flowers on the wood of the preceding
+year. Such, for example, are the early flowering
+shrubs like lilacs and the snowballs. The flower
+buds are made the fall before. In this case, Pruning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+the shrub in winter cuts off the flower buds. The ideal time
+for Pruning them, therefore, is just after the flowers have
+passed. The flower buds will form later in the season
+for the production of the flowers the following spring.
+Other shrubs, however (particularly those which
+blossom late in the season), bear on wood of the
+current year’s growth. That is, the clematis
+blossoms in late summer and fall on wood
+which grew that same season. The
+greater the quantity of strong wood
+which grows in any season, therefore,
+the greater the quantity of bloom in that
+season. With such shrubs, it is well to
+Prune in winter or early spring, and to Prune
+rather heavily. The abundance of new shoots
+which arise may be expected to bear flowers later
+on in the same season.</p>
+
+<p>Following are some shrubs which, for best results
+in flower-bearing, may be Pruned when dormant
+(in winter): camellia, Jackmani type of clematis,
+cornus, hibiscus (shrubby), hydrangea, many
+loniceras or honeysuckles, philadelphus or mock-orange,
+some spireas.</p>
+
+<p>Shrubs which may be Pruned when in leaf (just after
+blooming): lilac, deutzia, weigelas, exochorda, spring-flowering
+loniceras, tree peony, flowering almond, some
+spireas and viburnums, wistaria.</p>
+
+<p>The marginal illustrations show how apple,
+pear and plum trees may be Pruned when received
+from the nursery. Cut back the roots to fresh,
+unbroken wood.</p>
+
+<p>Various kinds of useful tree Pruners
+are shown in the margins. <a href="#scraping">See also
+<i>Scraping</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Pumpkin.</b> <a href="#squash">See <i>Squash</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+<b><a name="pyrethrum" id="pyrethrum"></a>Pyrethrum.</b> The little, low-growing yellow-foliaged
+Feverfew, called Golden Feather, is used extensively
+for edging and design beds. Propagated by cuttings,
+as are geraniums.</p>
+
+<p>The tall-growing species are very fine border plants,
+being easy to grow and having showy flowers, in colors
+ranging from white through lilac to crimson. Their flowers
+appear in June and last a month, when, if the plants are
+cut down, they will flower again in the fall. The Persian insect
+powder is made from the dried flower heads of some
+of these species. Propagated by seed or division. Hardy
+and fine.</p>
+
+<div class="figparts1" style="width: 100px;">
+<a href="images/186-radishes.jpg"><img class="parts" src="images/186-radishesa.jpg" width="89" height="79" alt="Radishes (top)" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<div class="figparts2" style="width: 178px;">
+<a href="images/186-radishes.jpg"><img class="parts" src="images/186-radishesb.jpg" width="167" height="90" alt="Radishes (bottom)" title="" /></a>
+<p class="caption">Spring Radishes</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="R" id="R"></a><b>Radishes</b> should be grown quickly in order to
+have them at their best. They become tough and woody if
+grown slowly or allowed to stay in the ground too
+long. A light soil, well enriched, will grow most of
+the early varieties to table size in from three to five
+weeks. To have a supply through the early months,
+sowings should be made every two weeks.
+For summer, the large white or gray varieties
+are best. The winter varieties may be
+sown in September, harvested before severe
+frosts, and stored in sand in a cool cellar.
+When they are to be used, if thrown into cold
+water for a short time they will regain their crispness.
+Sow Radishes thickly in drills, 12 to 18 inches apart.
+Thin as needed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Raspberry.</b> Both the red and black Raspberries
+are essentials of a good garden. A few plants of
+each will produce a supply of berries for a family through
+six or eight weeks, provided both early and late varieties
+are planted. A cool situation, soil that will hold moisture
+without being wet, and a thorough preparation of the
+ground, are the conditions necessary to success. The black-cap
+Raspberries should be set 3 to 4 feet apart, the rows 6<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+or 7 feet; the red varieties 3 feet apart, the rows 5 feet
+apart. Spring setting is usually preferable.</p>
+
+<p>As with blackberries and dewberries, Raspberries bear
+on last year’s canes, and these canes bear but once.
+Therefore cut out the old canes after fruiting, or before the
+following spring, thus destroying such insects and fungi as
+may have lodged on them. New canes should have grown
+in the meantime, 3 to 6 to a hill.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 172px;">
+<img src="images/187-raspberries.jpg" width="172" height="115" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Black Raspberries</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first year after the plants are set the canes should
+be pinched back when they reach the height of from 30 to
+36 inches. If a very vigorous growth has been made the
+first season two canes may be left for fruiting, but in the
+case of weak growth, only one cane should be allowed to
+fruit. In case of low-growing varieties&mdash;those that have
+been pinched back short&mdash;a mulch of straw or grass around
+the plants at fruiting time will help to hold
+the moisture, and also serve to keep the
+fruits clean in case of heavy rains. A
+Raspberry plantation will last three to five
+years. The black varieties are propagated
+by layers, the tip of a cane being laid in
+the soil in midsummer; by fall the tip
+will have taken root and may be separated. The red
+varieties are propagated by suckers from the roots. In
+nurseries both blacks and reds are often propagated by
+means of root-cuttings.</p>
+
+<p>For red rust, pull out the plant, root and branch, and
+burn it. Short rotations&mdash;fruiting the plants only two or
+three years&mdash;and burning the old canes and trimmings,
+will do much to keep Raspberry plantations healthy. Spraying
+will have some effect in combating anthracnose. Raspberries
+may be bent over to the ground so that the snow
+will protect them, in severe climates.</p>
+
+<p>Varieties are always changing in favor. Good black-caps
+are Gregg, Ohio, and Kansas. Good red and purple
+sorts are Shaffer, Cuthbert, Loudon, and others.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+<b>Rhododendrons</b> are broad-leaved evergreen
+shrubs which require a fibrous or peaty soil and protection
+from bleak winds and hot suns in winter. It is well to
+plant them amongst trees for protection. In the North,
+mulch heavily with leaves in the fall. See that the soil is
+made fibrous with leaf-mold or other material. Rhododendrons
+bloom from winter buds: therefore prune just after
+flowering, if at all.</p>
+
+<p><b>Rhubarb</b>, or <span class="smcap">Pie Plant</span>. This is usually propagated
+by division of the fleshy roots, small pieces of which
+will grow if separated from the old, established roots and
+planted in rich, mellow soil. Poor soil should be made rich
+by spading out at least 3 feet of the surface, filling with
+well rotted manure to within 1 foot of the level, throwing in
+the top soil and setting the roots with the crowns 4 inches
+below the surface, firming them with the feet. The stalks
+should not be cut for use until the second year, but the first,
+as well as the succeeding falls, some coarse manure should
+be thrown over the crowns, to be forked or spaded in lightly
+when spring opens.</p>
+
+<p>In growing seedling Rhubarb, the seed may be sown in a
+coldframe in March or April, protected from freezing, and
+in two months the plants will be ready to set in rows, 12
+inches apart. Give the plants good cultivation, and the
+following spring they may be set in a permanent place. At
+this time the plants should be set in well prepared ground,
+at a distance each way of from 4 to 5 feet, and treated as
+those set with pieces of roots.</p>
+
+<p>If given good care and well manured, the plants will live
+for years and yield abundantly. Two dozen good roots will
+supply a large family.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ricinus.</b> <a href="#castor">See <i>Castor Oil Plant</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="roses" id="roses"></a>Roses.</b> It seems to be the first desire of the home
+maker, when he considers the planting of his grounds, to
+set out Roses. As a matter of fact, it should be one of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+the last things to do. Roses are essentially flower garden
+subjects, rather than lawn subjects. That is to say, the
+flowers are their chief beauty. They have very little to
+commend them in the way of foliage or habit, and they are
+inveterately attacked by insects and sometimes by fungi.
+In order to get the best results with Roses, they should be
+placed in a bed by themselves, where they can be tilled and
+pruned and well taken care of; and they should be grown
+as specimen plants, as other flower garden plants are. The
+ordinary garden Roses should rarely be grown in mixed
+borders of shrubbery.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 158px;">
+<img src="images/189-roseswild.jpg" width="158" height="219" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Wild Roses</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If it is desired to have Roses in mixed borders, then the
+single and informal types should be chosen. The best of all
+these is <i>Rosa rugosa</i>. This has not only attractive
+flowers through the greater part of
+the season, but it also has very interesting
+foliage and a striking habit. The great profusion
+of bristles and spines gives it an individual
+and strong character. Even without the
+flowers, it is valuable to add character and
+cast to a foliage mass. The foliage is not attacked
+by insects or fungi, but remains green
+and glossy throughout the year. The fruit is
+also very large and showy, and persists on
+bushes well through the winter. Some of
+the wild Roses are also very excellent for mixing into foliage
+masses, but, as a rule, their foliage characteristics are rather
+weak, and they are liable to be attacked by thrips.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the most extensively grown class of Roses is
+the Remontant or Hybrid Perpetual. These, while not
+constant bloomers, are so easy of culture and give such
+good returns for the care and labor, that their popularity
+grows each year. The list of good varieties is very extensive,
+and while a few, such as General Jacqueminot, Paul
+Neyron, Marshall P. Wilder, Victor Verdier, Anne de Diesbach,
+and Ulrich Brunner, are seen in most collections, one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+cannot go far wrong in planting any of the list. Two of the
+Hybrid Chinese Roses may go with the Remontants, having
+the same season of bloom and being about as hardy.
+These are Magna Charta and Mme. Plantier.</p>
+
+<p>The next group in point of hardiness, and superior to
+the foregoing in continuity of bloom, are the Hybrid
+Noisettes, such as Coquette des Alpes, Coquette des
+Blanches, and Elise Boelle. The blooms of these are white,
+often tinted with pink, very double and fragrant.</p>
+
+<p>The Hybrid Tea section, containing Duchess of Albany,
+La France, Meteor and Wootton, is very fine. These are
+not hardy in the North, but if protected by a frame, or if
+grown in pots, wintered in a pit, no class of Roses will give
+more general satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>The Bourbon section contains three of the best bedding
+Roses,&mdash;Apolline, Hermosa, and Souvenir de la Malmaison.
+These will bloom continually through the fall
+months until severe frost, and with a little protection will
+prove hardy.</p>
+
+<p>The Bengal Roses, of which Agrippina is a leading variety,
+bloom through a long season, but are not hardy, and
+should be protected in a pit. They also make very fine
+pot-plants.</p>
+
+<p>The Moss Roses are well known, and are desirable in a
+general collection.</p>
+
+<p>The little Polyantha Roses, with Cecile Brunner and
+Clothilde Soupert as two of the best, are always attractive,
+either when planted out or grown in pots.</p>
+
+<p>The climbing Roses, which bloom later in the season
+than the Remontants, are very useful as pillar and screen
+plants. The old Queen of the Prairies and Baltimore Belle
+are still in favor. A newer and better variety is the Crimson
+Rambler.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 105px;">
+<img src="images/191-rosetea.jpg" width="105" height="155" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Hybrid
+Tea Rose</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Tea Roses have proved more disappointing to the
+amateur than any other. No one can resist the temptation
+to try to have a few of these highly perfumed, richly colored<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+Roses, but unless one has a conservatory or an especially
+favored location in the house, the results do not pay for the
+trouble. A few blooms may be had outdoors with plants set
+in the spring, but on the approach of winter they must be
+taken up and protected by more secure means than is taken
+with other Roses. If potted and grown in the house, they
+are the first plants to become infested with red spider; or if
+grown cool enough to escape that pest, they will be subject
+to an attack of mildew. Still, the results are well worth
+striving for, and a few persons will find the proper
+conditions; but the Tea Rose is essentially a florist’s
+flower.</p>
+
+<p>All Roses are heavy feeders and require rich, moist
+soil. A clay soil, if well enriched and having perfect
+drainage, is ideal. Pruning should be carefully done,
+preferably in the spring. All weak growth should be
+cut out and the balance well cut back. The flowers
+of all Roses, except the Yellow Persian and the
+Harrison’s Yellow, being borne on the new wood, the bushes
+should be cut back half or more of their growth.</p>
+
+<p>In the majority of cases, Roses on their own roots will
+prove more satisfactory than budded stock. On own-rooted
+stock, the suckers or shoots from below the surface of the
+soil will be of the same kind, whereas with budded Roses
+there is danger of the stock (usually Manetti or Dog Rose)
+starting into growth and, not being discovered, outgrowing
+the bud, taking possession, and finally killing out the weaker
+growth. Still, if the plants are set deep enough to prevent
+adventitious buds of the stock from starting, there is no
+question that finer Roses may be grown than from plants
+on their own roots.</p>
+
+<p>The summer insects that trouble the Rose are best
+treated by a forceful spray of clear water. This should be
+done early in the day and again at evening. Those having
+city water or good spray pumps will find this an easy
+method of keeping Rose pests in check. Those without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+these facilities may use whale oil soap, fir-tree oil, good
+soap suds, or Persian insect powder.</p>
+
+<p><b>Roses in Winter.</b> Although the growing of
+Roses under glass is a business which would better be left
+to florists, as already said, the following advice may be
+useful to those who have conservatories:</p>
+
+<p>When growing forcing Roses for winter flowers, florists
+usually provide raised beds, in the best-lighted houses
+they have. The bottom of the bed or bench is left with
+cracks between the boards for drainage; the cracks are
+covered with inverted strips of sod, and the bench is then
+covered with four or five inches of fresh, fibrous loam. This
+is made from rotted sods, with decayed manure incorporated
+at the rate of about one part in four. Sod from any
+drained pasture-land makes good soil. The plants are set
+on the bed in the spring or early summer, from 12 to 18
+inches apart, and are grown there all summer.</p>
+
+<p>During the winter they are kept at a temperature of 58°
+to 60° at night, and from 5° to 10° warmer during the day.
+The heating pipes are often run under the benches, not because
+the Rose likes bottom heat, but to economize space
+and to assist in drying out the beds in case of their becoming
+too wet. The greatest care is required in watering,
+in guarding the temperature and in ventilation. Draughts
+result in checks to the growth and in mildewed foliage.</p>
+
+<p>Dryness of the air, especially from fire heat, is followed
+by the appearance of the minute red spider on the leaves.
+The aphis, or green plant louse, appears under all conditions,
+and must be kept down by syringing with tobacco-tea
+or fumigation with tobacco stems.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 214px;">
+<img src="images/193-rose.jpg" width="214" height="316" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A Hybrid Perpetual Rose</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>An effectual and preferable method now employed for
+destroying the aphis is to fumigate with the vapor arising
+from a pan containing a gallon of water and a pint of strong
+extract of tobacco. To generate the vapor, a piece of red-hot
+iron is dropped into the pan. From one to three or four
+pans are required to a house, according to its size. For the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+red spider, the chief means of control is syringing with
+either clear or soapy water. If the plants are intelligently
+ventilated and given, at all times, as much fresh air as possible,
+the red spider is less likely to appear. For mildew,
+which is easily recognized by its white, powdery appearance
+on the foliage, accompanied with more or less distortion
+of the leaves, the remedy is sulfur
+in some form or other. The flowers of
+sulfur may be dusted thinly over the
+foliage; enough merely to slightly whiten
+the foliage is sufficient. It may be dusted
+on from the hand in a broadcast way, or
+applied with a powder-bellows, which is
+a better and less wasteful method. Again,
+a paint composed of sulfur and linseed oil
+may be applied to a portion of one of the
+steam or hot-water heating pipes. The
+fumes arising from this are not agreeable
+to breathe, but fatal to mildew. Again,
+a little sulfur may be sprinkled here and
+there on the cooler parts of the greenhouse
+flue. Under no circumstances,
+however, ignite any sulfur in a greenhouse. The vapor
+of burning sulfur is death to plants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Propagation.</i>&mdash;The writer has known women who could
+root Roses with the greatest ease. They would simply
+break off a branch of the Rose, insert it in the flower-bed,
+cover it with a bell-jar, and in a few weeks they would have
+a strong plant. Again they would resort to layering; in
+which case a branch, notched half way through on the lower
+side, was bent to the ground and pegged down so that
+the notched portion was covered with a few inches of soil.
+The layered spot was watered from time to time. After
+three or four weeks roots were sent forth from the notch and
+the branch or buds began to grow, when it was known that
+the layer had formed roots.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 184px;">
+<img src="images/194-rosevase.jpg" width="184" height="272" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Vase of Roses</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>
+Several years ago a friend took a cheese-box, filled it
+with sharp sand to the brim, supported it in a tub of water
+so that the lower half inch of the box was immersed. The
+sand was packed down, sprinkled, and single-joint
+Rose cuttings, with a bud and a leaf
+near the top, were inserted almost their
+whole length in the sand. This was in July,
+a hot month, when it is usually difficult to
+root any kind of cutting; moreover, the box
+stood on a southern slope, facing the hot
+sun, without a particle of shade. The
+only attention given the box was to keep
+the water high enough in the tub to touch
+the bottom of the cheese-box. In about
+three weeks he took out three or four dozen
+of as nicely rooted cuttings as could have
+been grown in the greenhouse.</p>
+
+<p>The “saucer system,” in which cuttings are inserted in
+wet sand contained in a saucer an inch or two deep, to
+be exposed at all times to the full sunshine, is of a similar
+nature. The essentials are, to give the cuttings the “full
+sun” and to keep the sand saturated with water.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever method is used, if cuttings are to be transplanted
+after rooting, it is important to pot them off in
+small pots as soon as they have a cluster of roots one-half
+inch or an inch long. Leaving them too long in the sand
+weakens the cutting.</p>
+
+<p><a name="S" id="S"></a><b>Sage</b> is a perennial, but best results are secured
+by resowing every two or three years. Give a warm,
+rich soil. Hardy.</p>
+
+<p><b>Salpiglossis.</b> Very fine half-hardy annuals.
+The flowers, which are borne in profusion, are of many
+colors, and rival in markings most other annuals. The
+flowers are short-lived if left on the plant, but will hold
+well if cut and placed in water. Seed should be sown in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+heat in February or March, the seedlings grown along until
+May, when they may be planted out. It is usually best to
+pinch out the centers of the plants at this time
+to cause them to branch.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 156px;">
+<img src="images/195-salsify.jpg" width="156" height="169" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Salsify</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Salsify</b>, or <span class="smcap">Vegetable Oyster</span>. Salsify
+is one of the best of winter and early spring
+vegetables, and should be grown in every garden.
+It may be cooked in several different
+ways. The seed should be sown as early in the
+spring as possible. Handle the same as parsnips
+in every way. The roots, like parsnips,
+are the better for the winter freeze, but part
+of the crop should be dug in the fall, and stored in soil
+or moss in a cellar for winter use.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 78px;">
+<img src="images/195-salvia.jpg" width="78" height="177" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Salvia coccinea</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Salvia.</b> The <span class="smcap">Scarlet Salvia</span> (or <span class="smcap">Sage</span>) is a well
+known tender perennial, blooming late in the fall and making
+a fine effect in beds or borders. It is easily transplanted,
+and large plants removed to the house continue in bloom for
+some time. The blue and white species are both
+desirable summer flowering plants, and the low-growing
+Silver Leaf Sage is well adapted for edging.
+Propagated from seed, cuttings, or by division.
+Height 2 to 3 feet.</p>
+
+<p><b>San José Scale</b> has now become a wide-spread
+pest. It has been introduced into the eastern
+states from the Pacific slope. It is a minute scale
+insect the size of a small pinhead, shield-shaped,
+with a raised center. There are various native and
+comparatively harmless scales which look very much like
+it, and an expert is usually needed to distinguish them.
+The San José Scale can usually be distinguished, however,
+by its very serious results. In favorable seasons it spreads
+with enormous rapidity, covering the branches of many
+kinds of plants, sapping their juices, and either killing or
+reducing them to such a low state of vitality as to render<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+them useless; or they are killed by the winter. The indications
+are that the scale will never be so serious in the
+moist, cool climates of the northeastern states as it is in
+the hotter and drier climates of the West. It has been
+found by careful experiments that it can be killed by a
+spray of kerosene and water (<a href="#kerosene">see <i>Kerosene</i></a>) in a proportion
+of one part of kerosene to four or five of water. This material
+is applied with a mechanical pump mixer, and the application
+should be made on a sunny day so that evaporation
+soon takes place. Spraying with kerosene in cloudy weather
+is very likely to result in injury to the plants. Some experimenters
+have found crude petroleum to be a specific for
+the San José Scale.</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be expected that the San José Scale can be
+exterminated any more than the tent caterpillar or apple
+scab can. It follows, therefore, that we should spray for
+the San José Scale as we do for other pests. It is such a
+serious pest, however, that the state or province should take
+measures to hold it in check. Some system of inspection
+should be inaugurated, and it is probably best that nursery
+stock be fumigated with hydrocyanic gas before it is sold.
+This gas is exceedingly poisonous, however, and should
+never be handled by the inexperienced. Whenever it is
+used, it should be under the control of experts. Plants or
+plantations which are badly infested with the scale would
+better be destroyed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scabiosa.</b> <span class="smcap">Mourning Bride.</span> A useful annual,
+producing a profusion of bloom through the greater part of
+the summer if not allowed to go to seed. The flowers range
+in color from white to rich purple, are borne on long
+stems, and are very lasting. The seed may be sown where
+the plants are wanted, or to hasten the season of bloom may
+be sown in boxes in February and grown along to be planted
+out in April.</p>
+
+<p><b>Scarlet Runner.</b> One of the pole or running<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+beans (<i>Phaseolus multiflorus</i>). It is a great favorite with people
+from the Old World, especially English and Germans. This
+bean is used either as an ornamental vine for porches or
+trellises, or as a screen to hide unsightly objects. The red
+flowers are very showy, either on the plant or in bouquets.
+The green pods are excellent as string beans, and the dried
+beans are of superior quality. Seed should not be sown
+until the ground has become thoroughly warm; or the plants
+may be started in the house.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="scraping" id="scraping"></a>Scraping</b> of trees is rarely to be advised, except in
+fruit plantations. The old and hanging bark on apple and
+pear trees may be taken off in order to destroy the hiding
+places of insects and the breeding places of fungi, and also
+to make the plantation look more neat and kempt. Only
+the loose outer bark should be removed, however. Trees
+should not be scraped to the quick. If there is moss on
+trees, it can be destroyed readily by a spray of Bordeaux
+mixture.</p>
+
+<p>A large part of the beauty of an ornamental tree lies in
+its characteristic bark, and it is very rare that such trees
+should be scraped.</p>
+
+<p><b>Screens.</b> <a href="#windbreaks">See <i>Windbreak</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Screw Pine.</b> <a href="#pandanus">See <i>Pandanus</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="sea-kale" id="sea-kale"></a>Sea-Kale</b> shoots are very highly prized as a
+delicacy when blanched. The seed should be sown in a hotbed
+early in the spring, plants transplanted to the garden
+when from 2 to 3 inches high, and given high cultivation
+through the season, being covered with litter on the approach
+of winter. The young stalks are blanched early the following
+spring by covering with large pots or boxes, or by banking
+with sand or other clean material. The Dwarf Green Scotch,
+Dwarf Brown, and Siberian are among the leading varieties.
+Sea-kale is eaten much as asparagus is. Highly prized by
+those who know it.</p>
+
+<p>Sea-Kale is also propagated by cuttings of the roots 4 or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+5 inches long, planted directly in the soil in spring. The
+plant is perennial, and the early shoots may be bleached
+year after year.</p>
+
+<p><b>Seed Sowing.</b> The general rule in sowing
+seeds is to cover them twice or three times their thickness.
+This rule will apply to the majority of seeds, but in many
+plants of a naturally short season of bloom or growth, an
+instance of which is the sweet pea, it may be advisable
+to sow the seed deeper, that the roots may have sufficient
+moisture and be in a cool temperature through the hot
+summer months. Also, in sowing very minute seed, as
+tobacco, petunia, begonia, and others of like size, care
+should be taken to have them only under the surface of the
+soil,&mdash;simply pressed down with a smooth surface or allowed
+to settle into the soil with the soaking in of the water. The
+soil for all seeds should be loose and porous, in order to
+allow the excessive moisture to escape and the warmth to
+penetrate, but should be firmed directly over the seeds to
+induce an upward flow of moisture. One of the most common
+mistakes in sowing seed is in sowing all kinds at the
+same time without regard to the season, thus causing a failure
+with some, while others grow freely. All tender seed
+should be sown only when the ground has become thoroughly
+warm, while seeds of the so-called hardy plants may be
+sown as early in the spring as the ground is fit to work. A
+few kinds of seed are the better for soaking, especially such
+as for some reason have been delayed in sowing. Sweet pea
+seed is benefited by soaking if not put into the ground until
+the soil is warm. Seed of canna, moonflower and others
+with hard shells may be scraped until the outer shell is
+pierced or is very thin.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally better to buy garden seeds than to grow
+them, for those who make a business of seed-growing become
+expert in the cultivation and selection of the plants.</p>
+
+<p><b>Seeds</b> of most plants should be kept dry and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+also rather cool. It is always better to rely upon fresh
+seeds. Test them in boxes in the house, if possible, before
+planting them in the open. If beans, peas, corn or other
+Seeds become buggy, pour a little bisulfide of carbon (very
+inflammable) into them. The material will not injure the
+Seeds even if poured on them. It soon evaporates. A teaspoonful
+will kill the insects in four quarts of Seeds, if the
+receptacle is tight.</p>
+
+<p>Most tree Seeds should be kept moist until planted.
+They are usually buried or kept in sand.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sensitive Plant</b> (<i>Mimosa</i>). This curious plant
+is often grown for the amusement it affords by its habit of
+closing its leaves and dropping the leaf-stalk whenever the
+plant is touched. Seed should be sown in heat early in the
+season, and the plants grown in pots or a protected border.
+The seed is sold by all seedsmen. The plant grows readily
+in a temperature suited to beans. It will not stand frost.
+The young plants are usually the most sensitive.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="trees" id="trees"></a>Shade Trees.</b> The best Shade Trees are
+usually those which are native to the particular region,
+since they are hardy and adapted to the soil and other conditions.
+Elms, maples, basswoods, and the like, are nearly
+always reliable. In regions in which there are serious
+insect enemies or fungous diseases, the trees which are
+most likely to be attacked may be omitted. For instance,
+in parts of the East the elm leaf beetle is a very serious
+pest; and it is a good plan in such places to plant other
+trees than elms. Amongst the best exotic trees for shade
+in the northern parts of the country are the Norway maple,
+European lindens, horse chestnut, and the European species
+of elm. Trees for shade should ordinarily be given sufficient
+room that they may develop into full size and
+symmetrical heads. The trees may be planted as close as
+10 or 15 feet apart for temporary effect; but as soon as they
+begin to crowd they should be thinned.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+<b>Shelter-belts.</b> <a href="#windbreaks">See <i>Windbreak</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="shrub" id="shrub"></a>Shrubbery.</b> Shrubs have two kinds of values
+or uses: first, they are useful for their own sakes or as
+individual specimens; and second, for use in the making of
+foliage masses or groups. Ordinarily they are used only for
+the former purpose in home grounds; but their greatest use
+is, nevertheless, in heavy masses about the borders of the
+place or in the angles of the building. That is to say,
+they should contribute to the general design of the place
+or to its pictorial effect. If they are planted in Shrubberies
+or masses, the flowers are still as interesting and
+as showy as they are when the bushes are planted alone.
+In fact, the flowers usually show to better advantage,
+since they have a heavy background of foliage. In the
+Shrubbery mass the bushes are more easily cared for than
+when they are scattered as single specimens over the lawn.
+The single specimen which is irregular, or ragged, or untidy,
+is an undesirable object; but such a specimen may
+contribute an indispensable part to the border mass. In the
+border they do not need the attention to pruning that they
+do in the lawn. The main part of the Shrubbery mass
+should be made of the stronger, larger growing and coarser
+Shrubs; and the more delicate ones, or those with highly
+colored leaves or showy flowers, may be placed near the
+inner edge of the plantation. Shrubs which are valued
+chiefly for their flowers or showy foliage, as, for example,
+the <i>Hydrangea paniculata</i>, may be planted just in front of a
+bold Shrubbery mass, so that they will have a background
+to show off their beauties. Further directions for the lay-out
+of the grounds will be found under the articles <a href="#lawns"><i>Lawns</i></a>
+and <a href="#border"><i>Borders</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>It is ordinarily best to plow or spade the entire area in
+which the Shrubs are to be set. For a year or two the
+ground should be tilled between the Shrubs, either by horse
+tools or by hoes and rakes. If the place looks bare, seeds of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+quick-growing flowers may be scattered about the edges of
+the mass. The larger Shrubs, like lilacs and syringas, may
+be set about 4 feet apart; but the smaller ones should be
+set about, 2 feet apart if it is desired to secure an immediate
+effect. If after a few years the mass becomes too crowded,
+some of the specimens may be removed. Throw the Shrubs
+into an irregular plantation, not in rows, and make the
+inner edge of the mass more or less undulating and broken.
+It is a good practice to mulch the plantation each fall with
+light manure, leaf-mold or other material. Even though the
+Shrubs are perfectly hardy, this mulch greatly improves the
+land and promotes growth. After the Shrub borders have
+become two or three years old, the drifting leaves of fall
+will be caught therein and will be held as a mulch. It is
+often advisable not to remove these leaves, but to allow
+them to remain year after year, where they make a fine
+covering of leaf-mold. When the Shrubs are first planted,
+they are headed back one-half or more; but after they are
+established they are not to be pruned, but allowed to take
+their own way, and after a few years the outermost ones
+will droop and meet the greensward.</p>
+
+<p>Good Shrubs are numerous. Some of the best are those
+to be found in woods and along roadsides. They are hardy.
+Of Shrubs which are generally adaptable for the North, the
+following are excellent:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Barberries.</li>
+<li>Box.</li>
+<li>Burning Bush, or Euonymus.</li>
+<li>Bush Honeysuckles.</li>
+<li>Bush Willows.</li>
+<li>Caryopteris, blooming in August and September.</li>
+<li>Cotoneasters.</li>
+<li>Desmodiums, or Lespedezas, blooming in fall.</li>
+<li>Dwarf Sumac. <i>Rhus copallina.</i></li>
+<li>Elders. Native species are excellent.</li>
+<li>Exochorda, with profuse white bloom in spring.</li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+Flowering Almond.</li>
+<li>Flowering Crabs.</li>
+<li>Flowering Currants.</li>
+<li>Forsythias, or Golden Bells.</li>
+<li>Fringe Tree, or Chionanthus.</li>
+<li>Hawthorns.</li>
+<li>Hydrangeas.</li>
+<li>Indian Currant. <i>Symphoricarpos vulgaris.</i></li>
+<li>Japanese Quince.</li>
+<li>Kerria, or Corchorus.</li>
+<li>Lilacs.</li>
+<li>Mock Orange, or Philadelphus.</li>
+<li>New Jersey Tea, or Ceanothus.</li>
+<li>Osiers, or Dogwoods.</li>
+<li>Privet.</li>
+<li>Rose Acacia.</li>
+<li>Roses (<a href="#roses">see <i>Roses</i></a>).</li>
+<li>Smoke Tree.</li>
+<li>Snowballs. The Japanese is preferable.</li>
+<li>Snowberry. <i>Symphoricarpos racemosus.</i></li>
+<li>Spireas of many kinds.</li>
+<li>Viburnums of many kinds.</li>
+<li>Weigelas.</li>
+<li>White Alder. <i>Clethra alnifolia.</i></li>
+<li>Witch Hazel. Blooms on the eve of winter.</li>
+<li>Xanthoceras sorbifolia.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><b>Silene</b>, or <span class="smcap">Catchfly</span>. Some of the Silenes are
+hardy annuals of very easy culture. Sow seeds where the
+plants are to stand; or, if early results are desired, seeds
+may be started in boxes. The plants thrive in any garden
+soil, even if it is not very rich. Colors red, or sometimes
+running to white. One foot. Let plants stand 6 to 10
+inches apart.</p>
+
+<p><b>Smilax</b> of the florists is closely allied to
+asparagus. While it cannot be recommended for house culture,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+the ease with which it may be grown and the uses to
+which the festoons of leaves may be put, entitle it to a
+place in the conservatory or greenhouse. Seed sown in pots
+or boxes in January or February, the plants shifted as
+needed until planted on the bench in August, will grow fine
+strings of green by the holidays. The plants should be set
+on low benches, giving as much room as possible overhead.
+Green-colored strings should be used for the vines to climb
+on, the vines frequently syringed to keep down the red
+spider, which is very destructive to this plant, and liquid
+manure given as the vines grow. The soil should contain a
+good proportion of sand and be enriched with well-rotted
+manure. After the first strings are cut, a second growth
+fully as good as the first may be had by cleaning up the
+plants and top-dressing the soil with rotted manure.
+Slightly shading the house through August will add to the
+color of the leaves. The odor from a vine of Smilax
+thickly covered with the small flowers is very agreeable.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="snapdragon" id="snapdragon"></a>Snapdragon</b>, or <span class="smcap">Antirrhinum</span>. An old garden
+favorite, flowering freely through a long season. The dwarf
+strain is well adapted for bedding or borders. Any light
+soil, well enriched with rotted manure, will grow Snapdragons
+to perfection. Distinct varieties should be propagated
+by cuttings, as they do not come true from seed.
+Sow seed early in the spring.</p>
+
+<p>Although bloom may be obtained the first year, late
+sown plants sometimes persist over winter and bloom early
+in the spring. Snapdragons make good window plants.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="snowdrop" id="snowdrop"></a>Snowdrop</b> (<i>Galanthus</i>). This is one of the
+earliest flowers of spring, always welcome. It should be
+planted in the edge of the border. The bulbs may be
+planted in October in any good border soil and left undisturbed
+for years; or they may be potted at that time, and
+after forming roots be gently forced into bloom in winter.</p>
+
+<p><b>Snowflake</b> (<i>Leucoium</i>). <a href="#snowdrop">Culture same as for
+<i>Snowdrop</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+<b>Sodding.</b> In general, the best way to secure a
+lawn is by the sowing of seed (<a href="#lawns">see <i>Lawn</i></a>), since it is the
+least expensive way. For small areas, and along the sides
+of walks and drives, sods may be used. The results are
+quicker. Unless the sod is of the right kind, however,
+and very carefully laid, the results are not so good as
+with seed.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 60px;">
+<img src="images/204-cutter.jpg" width="49" height="169" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Sod-cutter,
+for
+trimming
+sod edgings</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sod which is best adapted to the Sodding of lawns
+is that which comes from an old, closely grazed pasture.
+Sod from a sheep pasture is supposed to be best. Such
+sod has been so closely grazed that it has made a very
+dense mat of roots, and all the weeds have been destroyed.
+The droppings of the animals also make the
+ground rich. The sod should be cut in very thin strips.
+It should not be more than an inch and one-half or two
+inches in thickness. If it is thicker than that, it is heavy and
+bulky to handle, and is not so easily laid. Ordinarily, the
+sod is cut in strips ten inches or a foot wide. A board is
+laid on the sod and the strip is cut along either side of it
+with a sod cutter or a sharp spade. Two men then roll
+up the sod. One stands on the strip of sod with his face
+toward the man who, with the spade, cuts it loose beneath.
+As it is cut loose, the man on the strip rolls the sod so that
+the upper surface is on the inside of the roll. Strips longer
+than ten or twelve feet make rolls which
+are too heavy to handle with ease.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 186px;">
+<img src="images/204-cutting.jpg" width="186" height="100" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Cutting sod</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The soil upon which the sod is to be
+placed should be very loose, so that the sod,
+can be pounded down firmly. Some heavy
+pounder should be used, as a block of wood.
+It is usually impossible to pound down sod with the back of a
+spade sufficiently firm unless the soil is very loose. The
+sod should be pounded until the top is about level with the
+surrounding soil. This insures contact with the soil beneath,
+so that there are no air spaces and no likelihood of
+drying out. Sod pounded down as firmly as this should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+grow very readily. If a sod edging is laid along walks and
+drives, it should be pounded down an inch or more lower
+than the surrounding loose land which is seeded, because
+the loose land will finally settle; otherwise the sod border
+is likely to be higher than adjacent land after a year or two.</p>
+
+<p>If there are uneven places on the sodded area, these depressions
+can be filled in with very loose, fine soil; and the
+grass will grow through it. In dry weather, a sodded area
+may be mulched with a half inch of fine loam to protect it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Soils.</b> Soils are of many kinds. The classification
+of soils depends upon one’s point of view. Gardeners
+ordinarily call a good, friable, dark-colored, rich Soil a
+garden loam. No Soil is so good that it cannot be improved.
+It is improved in two general ways: by tilling (<a href="#tillage">see <i>Tillage</i></a>),
+and by the application of various substances.</p>
+
+<p>In considering the improvement of lands by the application
+of foreign substances, two distinct things are to be considered:
+the improvement of the physical texture, or tilth,
+of the Soil; the increasing of its plant-food. These are
+coördinate objects. In some cases one may be of prime
+importance, and in another case the other may be more
+necessary. Lands which have a fair store of available plant-food
+may be unproductive. Such lands may be very greatly
+benefited by stable manure, even though that manure may
+have lost a large part of fertility by being baptized under
+the eaves of the barn. If plant-food alone is needed, then
+some concentrated or commercial fertilizer may be the best
+thing to apply. In most cases the main or chief amelioration
+of the land is to be wrought by tillage, stable manures,
+mulches, green crops, and the like; if special results are
+desired, commercial fertilizers may be added more or less
+liberally, as the case demands (see <a href="#manure"><i>Manures</i></a>, <a href="#fertilizers"><i>Fertilizers</i></a>).</p>
+
+<p>The top-dressing of Soils is often very beneficial because
+it tends to prevent the escape of moisture, and often improves
+the physical texture. If the material contains plant-food,
+the land will also be directly enriched. The trimmings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+from lawns may be a distinct protection to lands if
+allowed to remain (<a href="#lawns">see <i>Lawns</i></a>); and the leaves which blow
+into clumps of shrubbery may often be allowed to remain
+with good results. However, if the leaves become too thick
+year after year, they tend to induce a surface rooting of the
+shrubs. This, however, may be no disadvantage unless the
+mulch were finally to be removed. One of the very best
+top-dressings for borders and shrubbery is spent tan
+bark, since it does not pile up on the ground, but
+tends to work into it. Well-rotted sawdust often
+has the same effect. These materials are much used
+by gardeners, when they can be had, since they can
+be raked into the soil in the spring, and need not be
+removed.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 76px;">
+<img src="images/206-spade.jpg" width="76" height="154" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Spade</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Solidago.</b> <a href="#goldenrod">See <i>Goldenrod</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 232px;">
+<img src="images/206-shovel.jpg" width="232" height="237" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Shovel</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Spades</b> and <b>Shovels</b> must be a part of every
+garden equipment. The common and most useful forms
+are shown in the cuts, but long-handled tools are more
+useful for the loading of earth, the making of ditches, the
+spreading of mulches, and the like. It
+pays to buy the steel tools, with strongly
+strapped handles.</p>
+
+<p><b>Spearmint</b> is prized by many
+people as a seasoning, particularly for
+the Thanksgiving and holiday cookery.
+It is a perennial and perfectly hardy,
+and will live in the open garden year
+after year. If a supply of the fresh
+herbage is wanted in winter, remove
+sods of it to the house six weeks
+before wanted. Place the sods in
+boxes, and treat as for house plants. The plants should
+have been frosted and become perfectly dormant before
+removal.</p>
+
+<p><b>Spinach.</b> Probably the most extensively grown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
+early spring vegetable, being in great demand as greens.
+The earliest crop that finds its way to market is gathered
+from seed sown in September or October, often protected
+by frames or other means through the severe winter,
+and cut soon after growth starts in early spring. Even as
+far north as New York Spinach may stand over winter without
+protection. Spinach is forced by placing sash over
+the frames in February and March, protecting the young
+leaves from severe freezing by mats or straw thrown over
+the frames. Seed may be sown in early spring for a succession;
+later in the season seed of the New Zealand Summer
+Spinach may be sown, and this will grow through the heat
+of the summer and yield a fine quality of leaves. The seed
+of this kind being very hard, should be scalded and
+allowed to soak a few hours before sowing. This seed is
+usually sown in hills about three feet apart, sowing four to
+six seeds in each hill. The spring and winter Spinach should
+be sown in drills 12 to 14 inches apart, one ounce being sufficient
+for 100 feet of drill. Remember that common
+Spinach is a cool-weather (fall and spring) crop.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="spraying" id="spraying"></a>Spraying.</b> Of late years Spraying has come to
+be one of the most important of all horticultural operations.
+Most kinds of injurious fungi and insects can be combated
+by a water spray in which various poisons or injurious substances
+are contained. There are two general classes of
+Spraying material: first, fungicides, or those which are
+used for the control of fungi or plant diseases; second, insecticides,
+or those which are used for the control of insect
+enemies.</p>
+
+<p>The fungicides usually contain copper or sulfur, or both.
+The most popular and generally useful fungicide is the
+Bordeaux mixture (<a href="#bordeaux">which see</a>). It should be borne in mind
+that most injurious fungi work on the interior of the leaf or
+stem, and only the spore-bearing parts come to the surface.
+It is therefore very important that Spraying with fungicides
+be done very early in order to prevent the fungus from getting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+a hold. It is much better to Spray once very thoroughly
+than to Spray a half dozen times carelessly. It is
+important that the entire surface of the foliage or stems be
+covered with the material in order to prevent the access of
+the fungi.</p>
+
+<p>Of insecticides, there are two general types: those
+which kill by external contact and are applied to plant lice,
+scale insects, and all other insects which suck their food;
+and the poisonous compounds which are used for the chewing
+insects, as all the tribes of worms and beetles. Of the
+former class, the most important material is kerosene in
+various forms (<a href="#kerosene">which see</a>). Of the latter kind is Paris
+green (<a href="#paris_green">which see</a>). For insects, Spray just as soon as the
+attack is evident. Paris green and Bordeaux mixture may
+be used together.</p>
+
+<p>The best pump for Spraying is the one which throws the
+stream the greatest distance with the least amount of liquid,
+and the best nozzle is that which distributes the material
+most finely and evenly. For Spraying plants close at hand,
+the Vermorel nozzle is now the most popular. If it is desired
+to reach the tops of large trees, some other nozzle
+should be used, as the McGowen, Boss, or other types.
+Every outfit should have two or three kinds of nozzles for
+different kinds of work. Get a pump with much power.</p>
+
+<p>Spray thoroughly. The general rule is to spray the entire
+plant until the material begins to drip, at which time it may
+be supposed that the plant is covered completely. When
+and how often one should Spray, and what material he
+should use, will depend entirely upon the difficulty which
+he is endeavoring to combat. Most fruit trees should be
+Sprayed before they bloom and again just afterwards. Sometimes
+they will need Spraying again.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sprekelia.</b> <a href="#amaryllis">Culture of <i>Amaryllis</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 252px;">
+<img src="images/209-hubbard.jpg" width="252" height="167" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Hubbard Squash</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="squash" id="squash"></a>Squash.</b> The time of planting, method of preparing
+the hills and after culture are the same as for cucumbers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+and melons (<a href="#cucumber">which</a> <a href="#melon">see</a>), except that for the Early
+Bush varieties the hills should be 4 or 5 feet apart, and for
+the later running varieties from 6 to
+8 feet apart. From eight to ten
+seeds should be planted in each hill,
+thinning to four plants after danger
+from bugs is over. Of the early
+Squashes, one ounce of seed will
+plant fifty hills; of the later varieties,
+one ounce will plant but
+eighteen to twenty hills. For winter
+use, varieties of the Hubbard type are best. For summer
+use, the Crooknecks and Scallop Squashes are popular. In
+growing winter Squashes in a northern climate, it is essential
+that the plants start off quickly and vigorously:
+a little chemical fertilizer will help.
+Pumpkins are grown the same as Squashes.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;">
+<img src="images/209-pattypan.jpg" width="164" height="129" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Scallop or Patty-pan
+Summer Squash</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Squills</b> (<i>Scilla</i>). <span class="smcap">Blue Bell. Wild
+Hyacinth.</span> Well-known bulbous plants, most
+of them hardy. They plant well with snowdrops
+and crocus, flowering at the same time,
+but continuing longer in bloom. The colors
+are red, pink, blue or white. The blue varieties have very
+fine shades of color. Should be planted in October and
+remain undisturbed.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="stocks" id="stocks"></a>Stocks.</b> The Ten-weeks and the biennial or
+Brompton Stocks, are found in nearly all old-fashioned gardens.
+Most gardens are thought to be incomplete without
+Stocks, and the use of the biennial flowering species as house
+plants is increasing. The Ten-weeks Stock is usually grown
+from seed sown in hotbed or boxes in March. The seedlings
+are transplanted several times previous to being planted out
+in early May. At each transplanting the soil should be made
+a little richer. The double flowers will be more numerous
+when the soil is rich.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+The biennial species should be sown the season previous
+to that in which flowers are wanted, the plants wintered over
+in a cool house, and grown on the following spring.
+They may be planted out through the summer and lifted into
+pots in August or September for winter flowering. These
+may be increased by cuttings taken from the side shoots; but
+the sowing of seed is a surer method, and unless an
+extra fine variety is to be saved, it would be the best one to
+pursue. Height 10 to 15 inches.</p>
+
+<p><b>Storing.</b> The principles which are involved in
+the Storing of perishable products, as fruits and vegetables,
+differ with the different commodities. All the root crops,
+and most fruits, need to be kept in a cool, moist and uniform
+temperature if they are to be preserved a great length of
+time. Squashes, sweet potatoes, and some other things, need
+to be kept in an intermediate and what might be called a
+high temperature; and the atmosphere should be drier than
+for most other products. The low temperature has the effect of
+arresting decomposition and the work of fungi and bacteria.
+The moist atmosphere has the effect of preventing too great
+evaporation and the consequent shriveling. In the Storing
+of any commodity, it is very important to see that the product
+is in proper condition for keeping. Discard all specimens
+which are bruised or which are likely to decay. Much of the
+decay of fruits and vegetables in Storage is not the fault of
+the Storage, but is really the work of diseases with which the
+materials are infested before they are put into Storage. For
+example, if potatoes and cabbages are affected with the rot,
+it is practically impossible to keep them any length of
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Apples, winter pears, and all roots, should be kept at a
+temperature somewhat near the freezing point. It should not
+raise above 40° Fahr. for best results. Apples can even be
+kept at one or two degrees below the freezing point if the
+temperature is kept uniform. Cellars in which there are
+heaters are likely to be too dry and the temperature too high.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+In such cases it is well to keep fresh vegetables and fruits in
+tight receptacles, and pack the roots in sand or moss in order
+to prevent shriveling. In these places, apples usually keep
+better if headed up in barrels than if kept on racks or
+shelves. In moist and cool cellars, however, it is preferable
+for the home supply to place them on shelves, not piling
+them more than five or six inches deep, for then they can be
+sorted over as occasion requires.
+In case of fruits, be
+sure that the specimens are
+not over-ripe when placed in
+storage. If apples are allowed
+to lie in the sun for a few days
+without being packed, they
+will ripen so much that it is
+very difficult to keep them.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 305px;">
+<img src="images/211-cellar.jpg" width="305" height="165" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A good out-door cellar</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Cabbages should be kept at a low and uniform temperature,
+and water should be drained away from them.
+They are Stored in many ways in the field, but success depends
+so much upon the season, particular variety, ripeness,
+and the freedom from injuries by fungi and insects,
+that uniform results are rarely secured by any method. The
+best results are to be expected when they can be kept in a
+house which is built for the purpose, in which the temperature
+can be kept uniform and the air fairly moist. When
+Stored out of doors, they are likely to freeze and thaw alternately;
+and if the water runs into the heads, mischief is
+likely to result. Sometimes they are easily Stored by being
+piled into a conical heap on well-drained soil and covered
+with dry straw, and the straw covered with boards. It does
+not matter if they are frosted, provided they do not thaw out
+frequently. Sometimes cabbages are laid head down in a
+shallow furrow plowed in well-drained land, and over them
+is thrown straw, the stumps being allowed to project through
+the cover. It is only in winters of rather uniform temperature
+that good results are to be expected from such methods.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+In the Storing of all things, especially those which have
+soft and green matter, as cabbages, it is well to provide
+for the heating of the produce. If the things are buried out
+of doors, it is important to put on a very light cover at first
+so that the heat may escape. Cover them gradually as the
+cold weather comes on. This is important with all vegetables
+that are placed in pits, as potatoes, beets and the like. If
+covered deeply at once, they are likely to heat and rot.
+All pits made out of doors should be on well-drained and
+preferably sandy land.</p>
+
+<p>When vegetables are wanted at intervals during the
+winter from pits, it is well to make compartment pits,
+each compartment holding a wagon load or whatever
+quantity will be likely to be wanted at each time. These
+pits are sunk in well-drained land, and between each
+of the two pits is left a wall of earth about a foot thick.
+One pit can then be emptied in cold weather without interfering
+with the others.</p>
+
+<p>An outside cellar is better than a house cellar in which
+there is a heater, but it is not so handy. If it is near the
+house, it need not be inconvenient, however. A house is
+usually healthier if the cellar is not used for storage. House
+cellars used for storage should have a ventilating shaft.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 214px;">
+<img src="images/212-strawb.jpg" width="214" height="146" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Strawberries</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Strawberry.</b> The saying that Strawberries will
+grow on almost any soil is misleading, although true.
+Some varieties of Strawberries will grow
+on certain soils better than other varieties.
+What these varieties are can only
+be determined by an actual test, but it is
+a safe rule to select such varieties as
+prove good in many localities. As to
+the methods of culture, so much depends
+on the size of the plot, the purpose for
+which the fruit is wanted, and the amount of care one is
+willing to give, that no set rule can be given for a garden
+in which but few plants are grown and extra care can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+given. Large fruits and a number of them may be had by
+growing to the single plant, keeping off all runners and
+relying on numerous fruit-crowns on one plant for the
+crop of berries. Or Strawberries may be grown by the narrow
+matted-row system, in which the
+runners, before rooting, should be
+turned along the rows at a distance of
+from 4 to 6 inches from the parent
+plant. These runners should be the
+first ones made by the plant and should
+not be allowed to root themselves, but
+“set in.” This is not a difficult operation;
+and if the runners are separated
+from the parent plant as soon as they
+become well established, the drain on
+that plant is not great. All other runners
+should be cut off as they start. The row should be
+about 12 inches wide at fruiting time. Each plant should
+have sufficient feeding ground, full sunlight, and a firm
+hold in the soil. This matted-row system is perhaps as
+good a method, either in a private garden or field culture,
+as could be practiced. With a little care in hoeing, weeding
+and cutting off runners, the beds
+seem to produce as large crops the
+second year as the first.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 214px;">
+<img src="images/213-well.jpg" width="214" height="235" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Well planted Strawberry</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The old way of growing a crop
+was to set the plants 10 to 12 inches
+apart, in rows 3 feet apart, and allow
+them to run and root at will,
+the results being a mass of small,
+crowded plants, each striving to obtain
+plant-food and none of them succeeding in getting
+enough. The last, or outside runners, having but the
+tips of their roots in the ground, are moved by the
+wind, heaved by the frost, or have the exposed roots
+dried out by the wind and sun.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+Ground rich in potash produces the firmest and best
+flavored berries. Excessive use of stable manure, usually
+rich in nitrogen, should be avoided, as tending to make too
+rank growth of foliage and berries of a soft texture.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 248px;">
+<img src="images/213-pot.jpg" width="248" height="163" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Pot-grown Strawberry</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Except in the case of a skillful grower in a favored
+locality, the fall setting of plants is not to be recommended.
+The preparation of the soil and care of the
+plants more than overbalance the partial crop obtained the
+following spring.</p>
+
+<p>In the single-plant or hill system the plants should be set
+12 inches apart, in rows 3 feet apart. In the narrow matted
+row system the plants should be set 18 inches apart, in rows
+3½ feet apart. The first method requires about 14,000
+plants per acre, the second about 8,000 plants.</p>
+
+<p>The winter treatment of a Strawberry bed should consist
+in covering the plants, when the ground is frozen, in November
+or December, with straw or hay. Salt marsh hay, if obtainable,
+is the best, as no weed seeds are introduced. Cover
+the soil and the plants to the depth of 3 to 6 inches. As
+soon as growth begins in spring, rake the mulch off, allowing
+it to lie between the rows; or, if the soil is hard or
+weedy, it may be taken off the patch entirely, the ground
+tilled, and then replaced for the purpose of holding moisture
+and keeping the berries clean.</p>
+
+<p>Usually, Strawberries may be fruited twice or three
+times; but on rich soil, with extra good care, the first
+crop may be very heavy, and the patch may be plowed
+up thereafter. Some varieties do not produce pollen, and
+not more than two rows of these should be planted without
+a row of a pollen-bearing kind.</p>
+
+<p>The rust and mildew may be held in check by Bordeaux
+mixture. It is usually sufficient to spray after the blooming
+season (or at any time the first year the plants are set),
+in order to secure healthy foliage for the next year.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;">
+<img src="images/215-suns.jpg" width="173" height="176" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption" style="float:left">Double<br /> Sunflower</p>
+<p class="caption" style="float:right">Orgyalis<br /> Sunflower</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="sunflower" id="sunflower"></a>Sunflower</b> (<i>Helianthus</i>). People who know
+only the coarse annual Sunflower are not aware of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+beauty which it is possible to secure with the herbaceous
+perennials belonging to that family. No border should be
+without a few of the hardy species.
+Their blooming period extends from
+early in August until heavy frost. The
+color runs from light lemon to the
+richest orange, and the range of growth
+from 3 to 10 feet, thus enabling one
+to scatter them through the border
+without any formal arrangement. They
+are of the easiest culture. Plants may
+be dug in the wild or bought of nurserymen.
+The domesticated double <i>Helianthus
+multiflorus</i> is always valuable.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 135px;">
+<img src="images/215-sunwild.jpg" width="135" height="277" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Wild Sunflower Plant</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of the annual Sunflowers, there are some
+which are not generally cultivated that should
+receive more attention. The silver-leaved
+species from Texas (<i>H. argophyllus</i>), and the
+small, light lemon-yellow variety, are two of
+the best.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 128px;">
+<img src="images/215-sunwild2.jpg" width="128" height="180" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Wild Sunflower</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Swainsona.</b> This makes a very desirable
+house plant, blooming through the late
+winter and early spring months. The blossoms,
+which resemble those of the pea,
+are borne in long racemes. The
+foliage is finely cut, resembling small
+locust leaves, and adds to the beauty of the plant,
+the whole effect being exceedingly graceful. It
+may be grown from seed or cuttings. Propagate
+a new stock each year. The flowers are large
+and pure white. The plant has been called
+the “Winter Sweet Pea,” but the flowers are
+not fragrant.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="swan_river" id="swan_river"></a>Swan River Daisy</b> (<i>Brachycome iberidifolia</i>) is
+a charming little border plant, growing to the height of 12 to
+15 inches, and bearing quantities of blue or white flowers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+The flowers last a long time when cut, and give a vase of
+flowers a light, graceful effect. The seed should be sown
+in boxes, hotbed, or windows; or, in warm garden soil, the
+seed may be sown where the plants are to stand. Only half
+hardy, and should not be planted out until settled weather.
+Annual.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sweet Corn.</b> <a href="#corn">See <i>Corn</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="sweet_herbs" id="sweet_herbs"></a>Sweet Herbs.</b> The Herb garden should find a
+place on all amateurs’ grounds. Herbs may readily be made
+profitable by disposing of the surplus to the green grocer
+and the druggist. The latter will often buy all that the
+housewife wishes to dispose of, as the general supply of
+medicinal herbs is grown by specialists, and goes into the
+hands of the wholesaler and is often old when received
+by the local dealer. The seedsmen’s catalogues mention
+upwards of forty different Herbs, medicinal and culinary.
+The majority of them are perennial, and will grow for many
+years if well taken care of. However, it is better to resow
+every three or four years. The annual kinds are raised
+from seeds each year. Beds 4 feet square of each of the
+Herbs will supply an ordinary family.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;">
+<img src="images/217-swpea.jpg" width="130" height="240" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Sweet Pea</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="sweet_pea" id="sweet_pea"></a>Sweet Pea.</b> No annual receives greater attention
+these days than the Sweet Pea. Sweet Pea exhibitions
+are held in several sections of the country, the press gives
+considerable space to the discussion of varieties, and the
+public generally is interested in the growing or buying of
+the flower. On any occasion the Sweet Pea is in place. A
+bouquet of shaded colors, with a few sprays of galium or the
+perennial gypsophila, makes one of the choicest of table
+decorations. Deep, mellow soil, early planting and heavy
+mulching suit them admirably. Sow the seeds as soon
+as the ground is fit to work in the spring, making a drill 5
+inches deep. Sow thickly and cover with 2 inches of soil.
+When the plants have made 2 or 3 inches growth above the
+soil, fill the drill nearly full, leaving a slight depression in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+which water may be caught. After the soil is thoroughly
+soaked with water, a good mulch will hold the moisture. To
+have the ground ready in early spring, it is a good plan to
+trench the soil in the fall. The top of the soil then dries out
+very quickly in the spring and is left in good physical condition.
+Frequent syringing with clear water will
+keep off the red spider that often destroys the
+foliage, and attention to picking the seed pods
+will lengthen the season of bloom. If the finest
+flowers are wanted, do not let the plants stand
+less than 8-12 inches apart.</p>
+
+<p>A succession of sowings may be made at intervals
+through May and June, and a fair fall crop
+obtained if care is taken to water and mulch;
+but the best results will be secured with the very
+early planting. In the middle and southern states,
+the seed may be planted in fall, particularly in
+lighter soils. It is easy to get soils too rich in nitrogen for
+Sweet Peas; in such case, they will run to vine at the expense
+of flowers. If the plants are watered, apply enough
+to soak the soil, and do not water frequently.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="sweet_potato" id="sweet_potato"></a>Sweet Potatoes</b> are grown from sprouts
+planted on ridges or hills, not by planting the tubers, as
+with the common or Irish potato. The method of obtaining
+these sprouts is as follows: In April, tubers of Sweet
+Potatoes are planted in a partially spent hotbed by using the
+whole tuber (or if a large one, by cutting it in two through
+the long way), covering the tubers with 2 inches of light,
+well firmed soil. The sash should be put on the frames and
+only enough ventilation given to keep the Potatoes from decaying.
+In ten or twelve days the young sprouts should
+begin to appear, and the bed should be watered if dry. The
+sprouts when pulled from the tuber will be found to have
+rootlets at the lower end and along the stems. These
+sprouts should be about 3 to 5 inches long by the time
+the ground is warm enough to plant them out. The ridges<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+or hills should be prepared by plowing out a furrow 4 to 6
+inches deep. Scatter manure in the furrow and plow back
+the soil so as to raise the center at least 6 inches above the
+level of the soil. On this ridge the plants are set, placing
+the plants well in to the leaves, and about 12 to 18 inches
+apart in the rows, the rows being from 3 to 4 feet apart.
+The after cultivation consists in stirring the soil between the
+ridges; and as the vines begin to run they should be
+lifted frequently to prevent rooting at the joints. When the
+tips of the vines have been touched by frost the crop may be
+harvested, the tubers left to dry a few days, and stored in a
+dry, warm place. To keep Sweet Potatoes, store in layers
+in barrels or boxes in dry sand, and keep them in a dry
+room. See that all bruised or chilled potatoes are thrown out.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="syringing" id="syringing"></a>Syringing</b> plants with water has two general
+offices: to clean the plants of pests or of dirt; to check
+evaporation or transpiration from the plant itself.</p>
+
+<p>Gardeners look upon water as a good insecticide. That
+is, if it can be thrown upon the plants somewhat forcibly by
+means of a syringe or pump, or by the hydrant hose, it will
+wash off the insects and drown many of them. The water
+should be applied in a fine and somewhat forcible spray.
+Care should be taken that the plant is not torn or bruised.
+The red spider is one of the most serious pests on house
+plants, and, in a dry season, on plants about the lawn.
+It thrives in a dry atmosphere. It usually lives on the
+under sides of the leaves. Syringing the plants frequently
+will destroy the pests. The thrips and slugs on rose bushes
+can nearly always be kept in check if one can spray or
+syringe his plants frequently. <a href="#spraying">See <i>Spraying</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p>Syringing to check transpiration from the foliage is
+very useful with plants which are recently transplanted.
+For instance, when carnations are taken from the field and
+placed in the house, it is well to syringe them occasionally
+until they have become established. The same is true with
+cuttings.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+In Syringing plants, it is well to take care that the
+ground does not become too wet; otherwise the plant may
+suffer at its root. In the house, plants should rarely be
+syringed except when the weather is bright, so that they
+may soon dry off. The plant should not go into the night
+with wet foliage. Out of doors in hot weather, it is best to
+syringe toward nightfall. The foliage will ordinarily not
+suffer in such cases. With plants in the house, it is necessary
+to keep the leaves dry most of the time in order that
+fungi may not breed. This is true of carnations, which are
+very liable to attacks of the rust.</p>
+
+<p>Plants are sometimes syringed or sprayed to protect them
+from frost. <a href="#frost">See <i>Frost</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="T" id="T"></a><b>Terraces</b> may be desirable for two reasons:
+to hold a very steep slope; to afford an architectural base
+for a building.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 262px;">
+<img src="images/219-slope.jpg" width="262" height="134" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A slope is better than a terrace</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is rarely necessary to make a distinct Terrace in the
+lawn. Even if the lawn is very steep, it may be better to
+make a gradual slope than to cut the place in two with a
+Terrace. A Terrace makes a place look smaller. It is always
+difficult to make and to keep
+in repair. The surface is not readily
+cut with a lawn mower. Unless
+the sod is very dense, the upper
+corner tends to wash off with the
+rains and the foot tends to fill in.
+Nature does not have straight banks
+unless they are rock. The illustration
+in the margin shows how it is possible to treat a
+sloping lawn. In the distance is a distinct, sharp-angled
+Terrace; but in the foreground this Terrace has been
+carried out into the lawn, so that the slope is an agreeable
+one.</p>
+
+<p>If it is necessary to Terrace a yard in order to hold it,
+the Terrace would better be at one side rather than in the
+middle. In that case, one is able to secure a good breadth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+of lawn. If the Terrace is at the outer side next the street,
+a perpendicular, mason-work, retaining wall may be constructed.
+If it is on the inner side of the lawn, it may be
+placed close to the building and be made to appear as a
+part of the architecture: it may be made the base of the
+building. If this is done, there should be a balustrade
+around the edge of the Terrace to give it architectural feeling.
+The descent from the Terrace to the lawn may be
+made by means of steps, so as to add to the architectural
+aspect of the place. Terraces are most in place about buildings
+which have many strong horizontal lines; they do not
+lend themselves so well to buildings in the Gothic style.
+The general tendency is to make too many Terraces. The
+cases are relatively few in which they may not be dispensed
+with.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thinning</b> of fruit has four general uses: to
+cause the remaining fruit to grow larger; to increase the
+chances of annual crops; to save the vitality of the tree;
+to enable one to combat insects and diseases by destroying
+the injured fruit.</p>
+
+<p>The Thinning of fruit is nearly always done soon after
+the fruit is thoroughly set. It is then possible to determine
+which of the fruits are likely to persist. Peaches are usually
+Thinned when they are the size of one’s thumb. If
+Thinned before this time, they are so small that it is difficult
+to pick them off; and it is not so easy to see the work of
+the curculio and thereby to select the injured fruits. Similar
+remarks will apply to other fruits. The general tendency
+is, even with those who Thin their fruits, not to Thin
+enough. It is usually safer to take off what would seem to
+be too many than not to take off enough. The remaining
+specimens are better. Varieties which tend to overbear
+profit very greatly by Thinning. This is notably the case
+with many Japanese plums, which, if not Thinned, are very
+inferior.</p>
+
+<p>Thinning may also be accomplished by pruning. If one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+knows where the fruit buds are, cutting them off will have
+the effect of removing the fruit. In the case of tender
+fruits, like peaches, however, it may not be advisable to
+Thin very heavily by means of pruning, since the fruit may
+be still further Thinned by the remaining days of winter,
+by late spring frost, or by the leaf-curl or other disease.
+However, the proper pruning of a peach tree in winter is,
+in part, a Thinning of the fruit. The peach is borne on the
+wood of the previous season’s growth. The best fruits are
+to be expected on the strongest and heaviest growth. It is
+the practice of peach-growers to remove all the weak and
+immature wood from the inside of the tree. This has the
+effect of Thinning out the inferior fruit and allowing the energy
+of the tree to be expended on the remainder. Apples
+are rarely Thinned; but in many cases, Thinning can be
+done with profit. On all home grounds, fruits should be
+Thinned whenever the trees are very full. In general, the
+best time to thin the fruit, as already said, is when the
+fruits have become large enough to be seen and handled.
+The discarded fruits should be burned if they contain insects
+or fungi.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 142px;">
+<img src="images/221-thunb.jpg" width="142" height="164" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Thunbergia alata</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Thunbergia.</b> Tender climbers, making very
+pretty low screens. They are at their best when
+grown along the ground where the moisture keeps
+them free from the attacks of red spider. Some
+of the kinds are very fine vase or basket plants.
+All may be grown easily from seed. Annuals, 4
+to 6 feet. Flowers white and yellow.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="tillage" id="tillage"></a>Tillage.</b> By Tillage is meant the stirring
+of the soil. Tillage is the fundamental operation
+in agricultural practice. Most farmers till
+for three reasons: to get the seed into the land; to keep
+the weeds down; and to get the crop out of the land. The
+real reason for Tillage, however, is to ameliorate the land;
+that is, Tillage makes the soil mellow and fine, and an
+agreeable place in which plants may grow. It enables the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+soil to hold moisture, to present the greatest feeding surface
+to roots, to allow the circulation of air, and intensifies many
+chemical activities. Tilling the soil is the first means of
+making it productive. If one understands the many forces
+that are set at work, the Tilling of the soil becomes one of
+the most interesting and exciting of all agricultural operations.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 196px;">
+<img src="images/222-tiller.jpg" width="196" height="216" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">For hand Tilling</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The exact method of Tilling the soil in any particular
+case must be determined by many circumstances. Light
+soils are handled differently from heavy soils; and much depends
+also upon the season of the year in which the Tillage
+is done. In all ordinary soils, the effort should be made to
+work them deep, so that there is a deep reservoir for the
+storage of moisture and a large area in which roots can
+work. Subsequent Tillage throughout the growing season
+is performed very largely for the purpose of keeping the top
+of the soil loose and fine so that the moisture from beneath
+cannot pass off into the atmosphere. This loose layer of
+soil, extending two or three inches from the surface, may
+itself be very dry; but it breaks up the capillary connection
+between the lower soil and the air, and thereby prevents
+evaporation. This surface layer of loose, mellow soil is often
+spoken of as the earth-mulch. It answers
+much the same purpose as a mulch of
+straw or leaves in interposing a material
+between the moist soil and the air through
+which the moisture cannot rise. If this
+mulch is repaired as often as it should be,
+weeds cannot grow; but the object of the
+Tilling is more to make and maintain the
+mulch than to destroy weeds. The surface
+should be Tilled shallow in the growing season
+as often as it tends to become compact
+or encrusted. This will be after every rain, and usually as
+often as once in ten days when there is no rain. The tools
+to be used for this surface Tillage are those which will comminute<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+or fine the soil most completely without compacting
+it or leaving it in ridges or in furrows. In garden work, a
+fine rake is the ideal thing; whereas in field work, some
+of the wire-tooth weeders or smoothing harrows are excellent.
+In fields which are hard and lumpy, however,
+it will be necessary to use heavier and rougher tools.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 66px;">
+<img src="images/223-rake.jpg" width="66" height="174" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Steel rake</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In order to break down hard clay soils, one must exercise
+great care not to work them when they are wet;
+and also not to work them very much when they are dry.
+There is a time, shortly after a rain, when clay lumps
+will break to pieces with a very slight blow. At this
+time it is well to go over them with a harrow or a
+rake. After the next rain, they can be gone over again,
+and before the end of the season the soil should be in fine
+condition. An excellent way of breaking down clay land is
+to plow or spade it in the fall and allow it to weather in
+the winter. In such cases the land should not be raked or
+harrowed, but allowed to lie rough and loose. Very hard
+clay lands sometimes run together or cement if handled in
+this way, but this will not occur if the land has stubble or
+sod or a dressing of manure, for the fibrous matter will then
+prevent it from puddling. Lime sown on clay land at the
+rate of twenty to forty bushels to the acre also has a distinct
+effect in pulverizing it. This may be sown in fall,
+or preferably in spring when the land is plowed.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important ways of ameliorating land is
+to work vegetable matter into it so as to give it humus.
+Soils which are loose, black and friable contain much of
+this vegetable mold. In many cases the chief value of
+stable manure is to add this humus to the soil. Many soils
+need humus more than they need plant-food, and hence
+stable manure gives better results in those cases than commercial
+fertilizers. The farmer secures the humus by plowing
+under stubble and sod, and occasional green crops.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;">
+<img src="images/224-tomato.jpg" width="180" height="164" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Tomato</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Tomato.</b> The early fruits are very easily
+grown by starting the plants in a greenhouse, hotbed or in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+shallow boxes placed in windows. A pinch of seed sown in
+March will give all the early plants a large family can use.
+When the plants have reached the height of two or three
+inches they should be transplanted into 3-inch flower pots,
+old berry boxes or other receptacles, and allowed to
+grow slow and stocky until time to set them out, which is
+from May 15 on (in New York). They should be set in rows
+four or five feet apart, the plants being the same distance in
+the rows. Some support should be given to keep the fruits
+off the ground and to hasten the ripening. A trellis of
+chicken-wire makes an excellent support, as does the light
+lath fencing that may be bought or made at home. Stout
+stakes, with wire strung the length of the
+rows, afford an excellent support. A very
+showy method is that of a frame made like
+an inverted V, which allows the fruits to
+hang free; with a little attention to trimming,
+the light reaches the fruits and ripens
+them perfectly. This support is made by
+leaning together two lath frames. The late
+fruits may be picked green and ripened on
+a shelf in the sun; or they will ripen if placed in a drawer.</p>
+
+<p>One ounce of seed will be enough for from twelve to
+fifteen hundred plants. A little fertilizer in the hill will
+start the plants off quickly. The rot is less serious when
+the vines are kept off the ground and the rampant suckers
+are cut out.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tools</b> of many kinds, and well chosen, are
+one of the joys of a garden. There is great satisfaction in
+a well-made, clean tool which does its work well. Keep
+the tools bright. They should be under cover, and in place,
+when not in use. A cupboard may be built by the rear
+porch, or in the barn or carriage house. See that the cupboard
+is in a dry place. Various Tools have been mentioned
+in the preceding pages, and other useful kinds are
+shown in the article on <a href="#weeds"><i>Weeds</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+<b>Transplanting.</b> This operation the gardener
+calls in one instance “pricking out.” This means taking
+young seedling plants from the seed box as soon as they are
+large enough to be handled&mdash;usually when the first “rough”
+leaves have developed&mdash;and replanting them in other boxes
+or pots, either singly or at a greater distance apart than they
+were when in the seed boxes. The term is used in the
+operation of setting out plants from the hotbed, frame or
+house to the garden; also in removing shrubs or trees.
+Transplant on a cloudy day, and just before a rain, if
+possible.</p>
+
+<p><b>Trimming</b> is a term which is ordinarily confounded
+with pruning (<a href="#pruning">which see</a>). The word “Trimming,”
+however, should be restricted to the shaping of the trees and
+not to the thinning of the tree or to pruning for wood, fruit
+or other special object. Trimming is only one of the means
+of pruning. Trimming is mostly used in the case of hedges.
+It is also used to keep evergreens in shape. Many ornamental
+plants are also Trimmed into various forms, although
+it is a question if such Trimming is usually wise. Fruit
+trees should be pruned, as a rule, rather than Trimmed:
+that is, they usually should be allowed to take their natural
+form, the pruner taking out the superfluous wood and keeping
+them within manageable bounds.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tropæolum.</b> <a href="#nasturtiums">See <i>Nasturtium</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Tuberose.</b> The Tuberose requires more heat
+to grow to perfection than it is usually possible to give
+here in the North. If planted in the border they will not
+start into growth until the ground has become thoroughly
+warm&mdash;usually after the middle of June,&mdash;making the season
+before frost too short for their perfect growth and flower.
+However, if started in loose soil or moss in a warm room or
+on benches of a greenhouse, the roots will soon start from
+the tuber and make a fine growth. If planted out in June
+with a good ball of roots they are likely to bloom before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+frost. If any danger of frost is feared they may be lifted
+into pots or boxes and taken into the house, when they will
+bloom without a check. As with other bulbs, a sandy soil
+will suit.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tuberous Begonia.</b> A large bed of these covered
+with crimson, pink, white, or yellow flowers, ranging from
+2 to 4 and even 6 inches in diameter, some double, some
+single, is a striking sight. Yet such a sight is not uncommon
+about the large eastern cities where the Tuberous Begonia
+is now used somewhat for bedding.</p>
+
+<p>Our interior summers are more trying, and so far, few in
+the west have succeeded so well with the Tuberous Begonia
+as a bedding plant. It makes a fine summer-blooming pot-plant,
+however, for the greenhouse or window, and with due
+attention to its requirements, it may be used as a bedding
+plant. It properly falls under greenhouse plants in its requirements.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;">
+<img src="images/226-tuberbeg.jpg" width="180" height="194" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Double Tuberous Begonia</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>C. L. Allen, writing of its culture in his work on “Bulbs
+and Tuberous-Rooted Plants,” says: “The principal point
+learned in regard to its culture is, that it must be treated as
+a plant and not as a bulb. The enthusiastic florist, seeing
+the many good qualities of the plant, has
+led amateurs to believe it could be treated
+as a bulb, and planted out in the same manner
+as the gladiolus or tigridia and kept
+dormant during the winter in the same
+manner. This is a great mistake, as the
+tubers will not endure as long a period of
+rest and cannot be exposed to the air for a
+long time without seriously injuring their
+vitality. The tubers must be kept in dry
+earth or sand, until they show signs of growth, which will
+be not later than the first of March; then they may be
+started into rapid growth. After the eyes are fully developed
+the tubers may be divided: each eye will make a plant.
+Then they are treated in all respects like greenhouse plants,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+and grown on until the proper season for their planting out.
+This is not before the first of June, as Begonias are quite
+sensitive to cold nights, but not at all to heat. At that
+time the plants should be fully 6 inches in height and proportionately
+strong. Such plants will make a grand display
+the entire season, rather delighting in great heat.”</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 179px;">
+<img src="images/227-tuberbeg2.jpg" width="179" height="172" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Tuberous Begonia, single.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In starting the tubers in March, they should be placed
+in moist sand or moss in a temperature of 60° to 65°, either
+in the greenhouse or window. After the buds
+are well started the tubers may be divided
+as pointed out, or planted whole. They
+prefer a rich, rather sandy soil. When
+they are well under way give them all the
+light and air they will bear, and keep
+them close to the glass to avoid “legginess”
+and to insure a firm, sturdy growth. A week
+before planting them out they should be
+given abundance of air and light to “harden off” the plants
+preparatory to setting them in sun and wind.</p>
+
+<p>The beds should be in a somewhat sheltered place where
+they will be partially shaded from the hot midday sun.
+Let the soil be well enriched with old manure or humus and
+thoroughly worked over to a depth of one foot. During dry
+periods the beds will need watering from time to time; but
+never water them when the sun is shining full on them, or
+the foliage may be scorched. A mulch of leaf-mold or old
+manure will be helpful in keeping the soil moist and the
+roots cool.</p>
+
+<p>Before frost the tubers should be carefully taken up and
+gradually dried in the shade, after which they are to be
+placed in dry sand or earth, in shallow boxes, and kept till
+time to start them in the spring. They should be kept
+in a cool place, secure from frost and away from stoves or
+heating pipes.</p>
+
+<p>For amateurs it is better to recommend buying bulbs of
+the several colors, instead of attempting to grow them from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+seeds, which are extremely small and require early sowing,
+warmth and close attention.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 103px;">
+<img src="images/228-tulip.jpg" width="103" height="169" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Tulip as a pot-plant</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="tulips" id="tulips"></a>Tulips</b> are hardy and easy to grow. The advice
+given under <a href="#bulbs"><i>Bulbs</i></a>, <a href="#crocus"><i>Crocus</i></a> and <a href="#hyacinths"><i>Hyacinth</i></a> applies to
+Tulips. They may be forced for winter bloom (<a href="#window-gardens">see
+under <i>Window-Gardens</i></a>). The garden bed will last
+several years if well cared for, but most satisfactory
+bloom is secured if the old bulbs are taken up every
+two or three years and replanted, all the inferior ones
+being cast aside. When the stock begins to run
+out, buy anew. Plant in October, 4 to 6 inches
+deep.</p>
+
+<p><b>Turnips</b> and <b>Rutabagas</b> are usually a fall
+crop, from seed sown in July and early August,
+although many kitchen gardens have them from spring
+sown seed. The culture is easy. Sow in drills 12 inches
+apart. They will become edible in from six to eight weeks.
+They are cool-weather crops, and the tops stand much
+frost. If maggots bother, do not raise them on the same
+land again for three or four years. Bordeaux mixture
+repels the flea-beetles. One ounce will sow 150 feet of
+drill.</p>
+
+<p><a name="V" id="V"></a><b>Varieties.</b> It is usually one of the first desires
+of the intending planter to inquire about Varieties. It is
+one of the secondary things to be considered, however, for
+the first thing to do is to prepare the land, to determine
+whether one’s soil and site are adapted to the plant in question,
+and to discuss other matters of a general nature.
+When all the fundamental things are settled, then the
+question of Varieties, which is a special matter, may be
+taken up. Although the selection of Varieties is a very
+special matter, it is nevertheless essential to success or
+satisfaction in the growing of any plant.</p>
+
+<p>It should first be considered that the selection of Varieties
+is very largely a personal matter. The man should grow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+the Varieties which he likes. This is especially true in the
+selection of Varieties for the home grounds, in which case
+the market ideals enter very little into the problem. Having
+satisfied one’s own mind as to what kinds of Varieties he
+would like, he may then inquire of the neighbors and of experts
+if those Varieties are adapted to the soil and climate.
+If he intends to grow for market, he should canvass the
+market demands thoroughly before choosing the Varieties.
+The lists of Varieties in books, bulletins, and seedmen’s
+catalogues are hints, not rules. As a general statement, it
+may be said that the only way to determine the best variety
+for one’s own conditions is to experiment. There is intense
+satisfaction in the experimenting itself. The best lists of
+Varieties are those which are recommended for some specific
+purpose, and which represent the combined opinions of many
+expert growers. It is rare that one man’s judgment should
+be final, particularly with respect to fruits or plants which
+are grown in general outdoor conditions. Under glass a
+gardener can make his climate and conditions, and therefore
+he can adapt his conditions to his plants. The experiment
+station test usually represents but one man’s opinion.
+It may be a more valuable opinion than that of another man,
+but it is not final. It should be studied in connection with
+other lists, particularly those made by practical growers. If
+one desires to choose Varieties, therefore, he should consult
+the best growers of those plants in his immediate neighborhood;
+he should call upon the experiment station of his
+state or province; and he should consult the most recent
+writings on the subject.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vegetable Garden.</b> It is one of the choicest
+of pleasures to raise one’s own vegetables. Make the Vegetable
+Garden ample, but economize labor. Plant the things
+in rows, not in beds. Then they can be tilled easily, either
+by horse- or hand-tools. Wheel-hoes will accomplish most
+of the labor of tillage in a small garden. Have the rows
+long, to avoid waste of time in turning and to economize<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+the land. One row can be devoted to one vegetable; or two
+or more vegetables of like requirements (as parsnips and
+salsify) may comprise a row. Have the permanent vegetables,
+as rhubarb and asparagus, at one side, where they will
+not interfere with the plowing or tilling. The annual vegetables
+should be grown on different parts of the area in succeeding
+years, thus practicing something like a rotation of
+crops. If radish or cabbage maggots or club-root become
+thoroughly established in the plantation, omit for a year or
+more the vegetables on which they live.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 258px;">
+<img src="images/230-layout.jpg" width="258" height="81" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Lay-out of a farm Vegetable Garden</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Make the soil deep, mellow and rich before the seeds are
+sown. Time and labor will be saved. Rake the surface frequently
+to keep down weeds and to prevent the soil from
+baking (<a href="#tillage">see <i>Tillage</i></a>). Radish seeds sown with celery or
+other slow-germinating seeds will
+come up quickly, breaking the
+crust and marking the rows. About
+the borders of the Vegetable Garden
+is a good place for flowers
+to be grown for the decoration
+of the house and to give to friends. Along one side of
+the area rows of bush fruits may be planted.</p>
+
+<p>A home Vegetable Garden for a family of six would require,
+exclusive of potatoes, a space not over 100 by 150
+feet. Beginning at one side of the garden and running the
+rows the short way (having each row 100 feet long) sowings
+may be made, as soon as the ground is in condition to work,
+of the following:</p>
+
+<p>Fifty feet each of parsnips and salsify.</p>
+
+<p>One hundred feet of onions, 25 feet of which may be
+potato or set onions, the balance black-seed for summer and
+fall use.</p>
+
+<p>Fifty feet of early beets, 50 feet of lettuce, with which
+radish may be sown to break the soil and be harvested before
+the lettuce needs the room.</p>
+
+<p>One hundred feet of early cabbage, the plants for which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+should be from a frame or purchased. Set the plants 18
+inches to 2 feet apart.</p>
+
+<p>One hundred feet of early cauliflower; culture same as
+for cabbage.</p>
+
+<p>Four hundred and fifty feet of peas, sown as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="planting" cellpadding="1" summary="Pea planting by type">
+<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td>feet of extra early.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td>feet of intermediate.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td>feet of late.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td>feet of extra early, sown late.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">50</td> <td>feet of dwarf varieties.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>If trellis or brush is to be avoided, frequent sowings of
+the dwarfs will maintain a supply.</p>
+
+<p>After the soil has become warm and all danger of frost
+has passed, the tender vegetables may be planted, as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>Corn in five rows 3 feet apart, three rows to be early and
+intermediate, and two rows late.</p>
+
+<p>One hundred feet of string beans, early to late varieties.</p>
+
+<p>Vines as follows:</p>
+
+<table class="planting" cellpadding="1" summary="Vine planting by type">
+<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>hills of cucumbers, 6 x 6 feet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">20</td> <td>hills of muskmelon, 6 x 6 feet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td> <td>hills of early squash, 6 x 6 feet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>hills of Hubbard, 6 x 6 feet.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>One hundred feet of okra.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty eggplants. One hundred ft. (25 plants) tomatoes.</p>
+
+<p>Six large clumps of rhubarb.</p>
+
+<p>An asparagus bed 25 feet long and 3 feet wide.</p>
+
+<p>Late cabbage, cauliflower and celery are to occupy the
+space made vacant by removing early crops of early and intermediate
+peas and string beans.</p>
+
+<p>A border on one side or end will hold all herbs, such as
+parsley, thyme, sage, hyssop, mints.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 179px;">
+<img src="images/232-verbena.jpg" width="179" height="128" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Verbena</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Verbena.</b> The Verbena is one of the most
+satisfactory garden plants, blooming early. Bloom continues
+through the dry, hot days of summer. As the cool weather
+of the fall comes on, Verbenas increase in size of plant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+and flower until killed by severe frost. Plants grown from
+seed sown in a hotbed or house early in the spring, transplanted
+into pots or boxes when large enough, and planted
+out as soon as the ground has become warm, are more vigorous
+and seem to have more fragrance than those grown from
+cuttings. Many of the strains have become so well fixed
+that the colors come true from seed. Cuttings
+are often employed, but the handling
+of stock plants is a difficult matter except
+in the hands of a professional, and when
+plants are wanted in quantity it is cheaper
+to buy them of the plantsman than to
+grow them from seed or attempt to keep
+over stock plants. Therefore, for the home garden, seed-grown
+plants are usually most satisfactory. Give a sunny
+position. Thin to 10 to 15 inches apart each way.</p>
+
+<p><b>Vinca</b>, or <span class="smcap">Periwinkle</span>. Trailing plants. Useful
+in covering unsightly places, for vases, urns or baskets.
+Some of the species (as the common evergreen, mat-like
+“running myrtle”) are hardy, but the most useful ones need
+the protection of a house through the winter. The variegated-leaved
+kinds are fine for winter decorations. Propagated
+mostly by cuttings. Perennials.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;">
+<img src="images/233-support.jpg" width="175" height="321" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A vine support for a porch</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="vines" id="vines"></a>Vines.</b> The use of Vines for screens and
+pillar decorations has increased in the last decade until now
+they may be seen in nearly all grounds. The tendency has
+been towards using the hardy Vines, of which the ampelopsis,
+or Virginia creeper, is one of the most common. It is
+a very rapid grower, and lends itself to training more readily
+than many others. The Japan ampelopsis (<i>A. tricuspidata</i>
+or <i>Veitchii</i>) is a fine clinging Vine, growing very rapidly
+when once established, and being brilliantly colored after
+the first fall frosts. It clings closer than the other, but is
+not so hardy. Either of these may be grown from cuttings
+or division of the plants. Two woody twiners of recent
+introduction are the actinidia and the akebia, both from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+Japan. They are perfectly hardy, and are rapid growers.
+The former has large, thick, glossy leaves, not affected by
+insects or disease, growing thickly along the stem and
+branches, making a perfect thatch of leaves.
+It blooms in June. The flowers, which are
+white with a purple center, are borne in clusters,
+followed by round or longish edible fruits.
+The akebia has very neat cut foliage, quaint
+purple flowers, and often bears ornamental
+fruit. Other hardy Vines are the wistaria,
+clematis, tecoma (or trumpet-flower), aristolochia
+(or Dutchman’s pipe), hedera (or ivy),
+and loniceras (or honeysuckles).</p>
+
+<p>Of the tender Vines, the nasturtiums and
+ipomœas are the most common, while the
+adlumia (<a href="#adlumia">p. 3</a>), balloon vine (<a href="#balloon">p. 28</a>), passion
+vine, and the gourds (<a href="#gourds">p. 115</a>), are frequently
+used. One of the best of recent introduction
+is the annual hop, especially the variegated
+variety. This is a very rapid growing Vine, seeding itself
+each year, and needing little care. <a href="#hop">See <i>Hop</i>.</a> All the
+tender Vines should be planted after all danger of frost
+is over.</p>
+
+<h3><i>ANNUAL HERBACEOUS CLIMBERS</i></h3>
+
+<h4><i>Tendril-climbers</i></h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Adlumia (biennial).</li>
+<li>Balloon Vine.</li>
+<li>Cobæa.</li>
+<li>Gourds.</li>
+<li>Nasturtiums.</li>
+<li>Sweet Pea.</li>
+<li>Wild Cucumber.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><i>Twiners</i></h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Beans, Flowering.</li>
+<li>Cypress Vine.</li>
+<li>Dolichos.</li>
+<li>Hop, Japanese.</li>
+<li>Ipomœa.</li>
+<li>Moonflower.</li>
+<li>Morning-glory.</li>
+<li>Thunbergia.</li>
+<li>Yam, Chinese, or Cinnamon Vine (perennial from a hardy tuber).</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><i>PERENNIAL WOODY CLIMBERS FOR THE OPEN</i></h3>
+
+<h4><i>Tendril-climbers</i></h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Ampelopsis tricuspidata.</li>
+<li>Clematis of many kinds.</li>
+<li>Grape of various kinds.</li>
+<li>Greenbrier.</li>
+<li>Ivy (by roots).</li>
+<li>Roses (scramblers).</li>
+<li>Trumpet Creeper (by roots).</li>
+<li>Virginia Creeper.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><i>Twiners</i></h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Actinidia polygama.</li>
+<li>Akebia quinata.</li>
+<li>Aristolochia, or Dutchman’s Pipe.</li>
+<li>Bittersweet, or Celastrus.</li>
+<li>Honeysuckles.</li>
+<li>Moonseed.</li>
+<li>Wistaria.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 142px;">
+<img src="images/234-violets.jpg" width="142" height="364" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Violets</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Violet.</b> While the culture of Violets as house-plants
+rarely proves successful, there is no reason why a
+good supply may not be had elsewhere through the greater
+part of the winter and the spring months. A sheltered location
+being selected, young plants from runners
+may be set in August or September. Have the
+ground rich and well drained. These plants will
+make fine crowns by December, and often will
+bloom before weather sufficiently cold to freeze
+them. In order to have flowers through the
+winter, it will be necessary to afford some protection
+to the plants. This may best be done
+by building a frame of boards large enough to
+cover the plants, making the frame in the same
+way as for a hotbed, four to six inches higher
+at the back than the front. Cover the frame
+with sash or boards, and as the weather becomes
+severe, mats or straw should be placed over
+and around the frame to protect the plants from
+freezing. Whenever the weather will permit,
+the covering should be removed and air admitted,
+but no harm will come if the frames are not disturbed
+for several weeks. A large amount of sunlight and
+a high temperature through the middle of winter are to
+be avoided, for if the plants are stimulated a shorter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+period of bloom will result. In April the frame may
+be removed, the plants yielding the later part of the crop
+without protection. Violets belong with the “cool” plants
+of florists. When well hardened off, considerable frost does
+not harm them. They should always be kept stocky. Start a
+new lot from runner-plants each year. They thrive in a
+temperature of 55° to 65°.</p>
+
+<p><a name="W" id="W"></a><b>Walks.</b> The place for a Walk is where it is
+needed. It should go directly between two points. It need
+not be straight, but if it is curved, the curve should be
+direct. That is, the pedestrian should be conscious that he
+is going in the direction in which he desires to go, and is
+not making a detour for the simple purpose of following the
+walk. Convenience should be the first thing to be considered.
+After the Walks have been laid in the most convenient
+places, the question of ornamenting the borders may
+be considered. It is always well to avoid, so far as possible,
+the bisecting of lawns by Walks, as that makes two lawns
+where there should be only one. The larger a greensward
+can be made to look, the more park-like and natural is the
+place. Avoid taking the Walks circuitously around the
+borders unless they are laid for the simple purpose of making
+a ramble to show off the grounds. All Walks which are
+designed for serious use should appear to be necessary,
+direct and convenient.</p>
+
+<p>Some soils which contain considerable loam and sand will
+pack with tramping and will make good Walks, but it is
+usually necessary to lay some material on the soil. Gravel,
+cinders, and the like, may be better than the natural surface;
+but in many cases they are worse, since the surface
+is loose and is unpleasant to walk on. In Walks which
+are on decided slopes, and down which the water is likely to
+run, any loose material is very objectionable, since it runs to
+the low places. The best material for Walks, all things
+considered, is cement, or what is called artificial stone. If
+well made, it is as durable as flagging, and is not so likely to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+get out of place. It holds its surface perfectly year
+after year.</p>
+
+<p>The only objection to cement Walks is when they are
+more or less temporary, for in such cases they cannot be
+moved. There is often very serious difficulty in securing
+good cement Walks, but the difficulties are easily overcome.
+They are chiefly two: there is not sufficient draining material
+beneath the cement; and the cement itself is not made
+strong enough. There should be at least a foot of loose
+material, as brickbats or cinders, below the cement cover;
+and if the place is low and likely to hold water, there should
+be still greater drainage. Pound the material down, or let it
+stand for some time until it becomes thoroughly settled
+together. Then lay the cement in two courses. The first
+course may be three or four inches thick and made of well
+mixed mortar, comprising three parts Portland cement,
+one part water lime, and two to three times as much sharp
+sand as Portland. When this has become partially hardened,
+but before it is set and while still moist, put on a
+finishing layer of one inch, made of one part Portland
+cement, one part water lime, and one part sharp sand. It is
+important that the materials be very thoroughly mixed. See
+that the edges of the walk are made square and true by laying
+down a form of boards lengthwise the area before the
+cement is put on. The edges should be as thick as the
+middle, for a thin crust on the edge tends to snap off. A
+walk made in this way on a well-drained foundation will last
+almost indefinitely. It is best that it be made in such season
+that it can become thoroughly set before frosty weather
+comes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wallflower.</b> A favorite plant for pots or garden,
+having a clove-like fragrance. Seed of most varieties
+should be sown the year before wanted. One kind, being an
+annual, will flower the same season the seed is sown. Hardy.
+Two to 3 feet.</p>
+
+<p><b>Washing</b> orchard trees is an old practice. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+usually results in making a tree more vigorous. One reason
+is that it destroys insects and fungi which lodge underneath
+the bark; but probably the chief reason is that it softens the
+bark and allows the trunk to expand. It is possible, also,
+that the potash from the soap or lye eventually passes into
+the ground and affords some plant-food. Trees are ordinarily
+Washed with soap suds or with a lye solution. The
+material is usually applied with an old broom or a stiff
+brush. The scrubbing of the tree is perhaps nearly or quite
+as beneficial as the application of the wash itself.</p>
+
+<p>It is customary to wash trees late in spring or early in
+summer, and again in the fall, with the idea that such Washing
+destroys the eggs and the young of borers. It no doubt
+will destroy borers if they are just getting a start, but it will
+not keep away the insects which lay the eggs, and will not
+destroy the borers which have found their way underneath
+the bark. It is perhaps quite as well to wash the trees very
+early in the spring, when they are starting into growth. It
+is an old practice to wash trees with strong lye when they
+are affected with the oyster-shell bark louse. The modern
+method of treating these pests, however, is to spray with
+some kerosene compound when the young growth is starting,
+for at that time the young insects are migrating to the new
+wood and they are very easily destroyed.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="watering" id="watering"></a>Watering House Plants.</b> It is impossible to
+give rules for the Watering of plants. Conditions that hold
+with one grower are different from those of another. Advice
+must be general. Give one good Watering at the time of
+potting, after which no water should be given until the plants
+really need it. If, on tapping the pot, it gives out a clear
+ring, it is an indication that water is needed. In the case of
+a soft-wooded plant, just before the leaves begin to show
+signs of wilt, is the time for Watering. When plants are
+taken up from the ground, or when plants have their roots
+cut back in repotting, gardeners rely, after the first copious
+Watering, on syringing the tops of the plants two or three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+times each day, until a new root-growth has started, Watering
+at the roots only when absolutely necessary. Plants that
+have been potted into larger pots will grow without the extra
+attention of syringing, but those from the borders, that have
+had their roots mutilated or shortened, should be placed in a
+cool, shady spot and be syringed often. One
+soon becomes familiar with the wants of individual
+plants, and can judge closely as to need
+of water. All soft-wooded plants with a large
+leaf-surface need more water than hard-wooded
+plants, and a plant in luxuriant growth of any
+kind more than a plant that has been cut back
+or become defoliated. When plants are grown in living-rooms,
+moisture must be supplied from some source, and if
+no arrangement has been made for having a moist air the
+plants should be syringed often. <a href="#syringing">See <i>Syringing</i>.</a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 162px;">
+<img src="images/238-water.jpg" width="162" height="121" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Watering pot</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Watermelon.</b> The culture of this is essentially
+the same as that for muskmelons (<a href="#melon">which see</a>), except
+that most varieties require a warmer place and longer period
+of growth. Give the hills a distance of from 6 to 10 feet
+apart. Choose a warm, “quick” soil and sunny exposure.
+It is essential, in the North, that the plants grow rapidly and
+come into bloom early. One ounce of seed will plant
+thirty hills.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wax Plant.</b> The Wax Plant, or <span class="smcap">Hoya</span>, is
+one of the commonest of window-garden plants, and yet it
+is one which people usually have difficulty in flowering.
+However, it is one of the easiest plants to manage if a person
+understands its nature. It is naturally a summer-blooming
+plant, and should rest during the winter time. In the
+winter, keep it just alive in a cool and rather dry place. If
+the temperature does not go above 50° Fahr., so much
+the better; neither should it go much lower. In late winter
+or spring, the plant is brought out to warm temperature,
+given water and started into growth. The old flower-stems<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+should not be cut off, since new flowers come from them as
+well as from the new wood. When it is brought out to be
+started into growth, it may be repotted, sometimes into a
+size larger pot, but always with more or less fresh earth.
+The plant should increase in value each year. In
+conservatories, it is sometimes planted out in the
+ground and allowed to run over a wall, in which
+case it will reach a height of many feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 149px;">
+<img src="images/239-weedpuller.jpg" width="149" height="218" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Potato hook and
+weed-puller</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;">
+<img src="images/239-fingerweed.jpg" width="164" height="100" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Finger-weeder</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;">
+<img src="images/239-angleweed.jpg" width="169" height="149" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Trowel and angle-weeder</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="weeds" id="weeds"></a>Weeds.</b> Many very strong Weeds
+are a compliment to one’s soil: only good soil
+produces them. But they are not a compliment
+to one’s tillage. If the soil is well prepared
+and well tilled to conserve moisture and
+to unlock plant-food (<a href="#tillage">see <i>Tillage</i></a>), Weeds will
+find little chance of growing. Stir the ground
+often: it benefits the ground and keeps out
+the Weeds. Plant vegetables in long straight
+rows rather than in beds, for thereby tillage is
+made easier. For beds and for small plants,
+the hand-weeders (as shown in the margin) are very efficient.
+They save laborious finger-work. Weed seeds are
+often distributed in manure, especially if Weeds have been
+allowed to grow and ripen on the piles. See
+that pernicious Weeds do not seed about the
+premises. For the treatment of weedy lawns,
+see the article <a href="#lawns"><i>Lawns</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b><a name="windbreaks" id="windbreaks"></a>Windbreaks.</b> There is the greatest
+difference of opinion as to the value of Windbreaks
+for fruit plantations. These differences
+arise from the fact that a Windbreak
+may be of great benefit in one place, but a disadvantage
+in another. It is always advisable to break the force of
+very strong winds, for such winds tend to injure the trees
+when laden with fruit or ice, and they blow off the fruit;
+and in dry countries they cause the soil to become parched.
+If the wind is usually warmer than the area, however, particularly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+in the winter time, it is better not to stop it, but to
+allow it to circulate through the plantation. This is the case
+in areas which lie close to large bodies of water. The wind
+coming off the water is warmer than that off the land, and
+tends thereby to protect the fruit plantation from severe cold.
+A circulation of air is desirable in late spring and early fall
+in order to avoid the still frosts. Therefore, if the area is
+very closely surrounded by dense plantations, it may have
+what the fruit-growers call “stagnant air;” but thinning out
+the Windbreak on one or two sides, or cutting holes through
+it, may allow the air to move through, thereby affording atmospheric
+drainage and insuring greater immunity from
+the light local frosts.</p>
+
+<p>It is ordinarily better to break the force of the winds than
+to stop or deflect them. That is, the Windbreak may be thin
+enough to allow the wind to take its normal direction, but its
+force is broken. A stone wall or a very dense hedge of
+evergreens may cause the wind to rise over the plantation or
+to be deflected to one side; and this, in many cases, as already
+said, may be a decided disadvantage. The philosophy of
+a good Windbreak for fruit plantations may be summed up in
+this way: the force of heavy winds should be broken;
+warm winds should be allowed to circulate freely through
+the plantation; still air should be avoided.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinarily, one or two rows of deciduous trees are sufficient
+protection. When the plantation is very much exposed
+to very cold or land winds, a thick evergreen screen
+may be a decided advantage. It is usually better to have
+the heavy Windbreak on the upper side of the area, so that it
+may not interfere with the natural drainage of the cold air
+down the slope. In making a Windbreak, it is important
+that those trees be chosen which will not become harboring
+places for orchard enemies. The wild cherry, for example,
+is inveterately attacked by the tent caterpillar, and the wild
+crabs and wild plums are likely to breed orchard insects. If
+the Windbreak is planted some time in advance of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+orchard, the row of fruit trees next the Windbreak will be
+very likely to suffer from lack of moisture and food.</p>
+
+<p>A different type of Windbreak is that which is desired for
+a shelter belt about the home grounds. The matter of atmospheric
+drainage does not enter into this problem to any
+great extent. Such shelter belt is usually placed at the extreme
+edge of the home yard, toward the heaviest or prevailing
+wind. It may be a dense plantation of evergreens.
+If so, the Norway spruce is one of the best for general purposes.
+For a lower belt, the arborvitæ is excellent. Some
+of the pines, as the Scotch or Austrian, are also to be advised,
+particularly if the belt is at some distance from the
+residence. As a rule, the coarser the tree the farther it
+should be placed from the house.</p>
+
+<p>Persons may desire to use the Windbreak as a screen to
+hide undesirable objects. If these objects are of a permanent
+character, as a barn or an unkempt property, evergreen
+trees should be used. For temporary screens, any of the
+very large-growing herbaceous plants may be used. Very
+excellent subjects are sunflowers, the large-growing nicotianas,
+castor beans, large varieties of Indian corn, and
+plants of like growth. Very efficient summer screens may
+be made with ailanthus, paulownia, basswood, sumac, and
+other plants which tend to throw up succulent shoots from
+the base. After these plants have been set a year or two,
+they are cut back nearly to the ground every winter or
+spring, and strong shoots are thrown up with great luxuriance
+during the summer, giving a dense screen and presenting
+a semi-tropical effect. For such purposes, the roots
+should be planted only two or three feet apart. If, after a
+time, the roots become so crowded that the shoots are weak,
+some of the plants may be removed. Top-dressing the area
+every fall with manure will tend to make the ground rich
+enough to afford a very heavy summer growth.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wind Flower.</b> <a href="#anemone">See <i>Anemone</i>.</a></p>
+
+<p><b><a name="window-gardens" id="window-gardens"></a>Window-Gardens.</b>
+<i>The Summer Window<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> Garden</i>.&mdash;This
+type of gardening is particularly suited to
+those who live in the crowded city, where the want of other
+space makes the Window-Garden the only one possible.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 158px;">
+<img src="images/242-window.jpg" width="158" height="236" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A summer window ledge</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Handsomely finished boxes, ornamental tiling, and
+bracket work of wood and iron suitable for fitting out windows
+for the growing of plants, are on the market; but such,
+while desirable, are by no means necessary. A stout pine
+box of a length corresponding to the width of
+the window, about 10 inches wide and 6 deep,
+answers quite as well as a finer box, since it
+will likely be some distance above the street,
+and its sides, moreover, are soon covered by the
+vines. A zinc tray of a size to fit into the
+wooden box may be ordered of the tinsmith.
+It will tend to keep the soil from drying out so
+rapidly, but it is not a necessity. A few small
+holes in the bottom of the box will provide
+for drainage; but with carefulness in watering
+these are not necessary, since the box by
+its exposed position will dry out readily during summer
+weather, unless the position is a shaded one. In the
+latter case provision for good drainage is always advisable.</p>
+
+<p>Since there is more or less cramping of roots, it will
+be necessary to make the soil richer than would be required
+were the plants to grow in the garden. The most desirable
+soil is one that does not pack hard like clay, nor contract
+much when dry, but remains porous and springy. Such a
+soil is found in the potting soil used by florists, and it may
+be obtained from them at from 50 cts. to $1 a barrel. Often
+the nature of the soil will be such as to make it desirable
+to have at hand a barrel of sharp sand for mixing with the
+soil, to make it more porous and prevent baking.</p>
+
+<p>Some pot the plants and then set them in the window-box,
+filling the spaces between the pots with moist moss.
+Again, they are planted directly in the soil. The former
+method, as a general rule, is to be preferred in the winter
+Window-Garden; the latter during the summer.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+The plants most valuable for the purpose are those of
+drooping habit, such as lobelias, tropæolums, <i>Othonna
+crassifolia</i>, Kenilworth ivy, and sweet alyssum. Such
+plants may occupy the front row, while back of them may be
+the erect-growing plants, like geraniums, heliotropes,
+begonias, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Just what plants will be most suitable will depend on
+the exposure. For the shady side of the street, the more
+delicate kinds of plants may be used. For full exposure to
+the sun, it will be necessary to select the more vigorous-growing
+kinds. In the latter position, suitable plants for
+drooping would be: *tropæolums, *passifloras, the single
+petunias, sweet alyssum, lobelias, verbenas, mesembryanthemums.
+For erect-growing plants: geraniums, heliotropes,
+etc. If the position is a shaded one, the drooping
+plants might be of the following: tradescantia, Kenilworth
+ivy, *senecio or parlor ivy, sedums, *moneywort, vinca,
+*smilax, *lygodium or climbing fern. Erect-growing
+plants would be dracænas, palms, ferns, coleus, centaurea,
+spotted calla, and others.</p>
+
+<p>For shady situations the main dependence is upon plants
+of graceful form or handsome foliage; while for the sunny
+window the selection may be of blooming plants. Of the
+plants above mentioned for these two positions, those
+marked with an asterisk (*) are of climbing habit, and may
+be trained up about the sides of the window. Others will be
+found among the climbing plants mentioned under <a href="#vines"><i>Vines</i></a>,
+<a href="#annuals"><i>Annuals</i></a> and <a href="#basket_plants"><i>Basket Plants</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>After the plants have filled the earth with roots, it will be
+desirable to give the surface of the soil among the plants a
+very light sprinkling of bone-dust or a thicker coating of
+rotted manure from time to time during the summer; or instead
+of this, a watering with weak liquid manure about
+once a week. This is not necessary, however, until the
+growth shows that the roots have about exhausted the soil.</p>
+
+<p>In the fall the box may be placed on the inside of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+window. In this case it will be desirable to thin out the
+foliage somewhat, shorten in some of the vines, and perhaps
+remove some of the plants. It will also be desirable to
+give a fresh coating of rich soil. Increased care will be
+necessary, also, in watering, since the plants will have less
+light than previously, and, moreover, there may be no provision
+for drainage.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Winter Window-Garden</i> may consist simply of a jardiniere,
+or a few choice pot-plants on a stand at the window,
+or of a considerable collection, with more or less elaborate
+arrangements for their accommodation in the way of box,
+brackets, shelves and stands. Expensive arrangements
+are by no means necessary, nor is a large collection. The
+plants and flowers themselves are the main consideration,
+and a small collection well cared for is better than a large
+one unless it can be easily accommodated and kept in
+good condition.</p>
+
+<p>The window for plants should have a southern, south-eastern
+or eastern exposure. Plants need all the light they
+can get in the winter, especially those which are expected
+to bloom. The window should be tight-fitting.
+Shutters and a curtain will be an advantage in cold
+weather.</p>
+
+<p>Plants like a certain uniformity in conditions. It is very
+trying on them, and often fatal to success, to have them snug
+and warm one night and shivering in a temperature only
+a few degrees above freezing the next. Some plants will
+live in spite of it, but they cannot be expected to prosper.
+Those whose rooms are heated with steam, hot water or hot
+air will have to guard against keeping rooms too warm
+fully as much as keeping them too cool. Rooms in brick
+dwellings that have been warm all day, if shut up and made
+snug in the evening will often keep warm over night without
+heat except in the coldest weather. Rooms in frame
+dwellings, and exposed on all sides, soon cool down.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to grow plants in rooms lighted by gas, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+the burning gas vitiates the atmosphere. Most living-rooms
+have too dry air for plants. In such cases the bow window
+may be set off from the room by glass doors; one then has a
+miniature conservatory.</p>
+
+<p>While keeping the plants at a suitable temperature, we
+must not forget that plants love moisture, or a humid atmosphere,
+and that our living-rooms ordinarily are very dry. A
+pan of water on the stove or on the register and damp moss
+among the pots, will afford plants the necessary humidity.</p>
+
+<p>The foliage will need cleansing from time to time to free
+it from dust. A bath tub provided with
+a ready outlet for the water is an excellent
+place for this purpose. The plants
+may be turned on their sides and supported
+on a small box above the bottom
+of the tub. Then they may be freely
+syringed without danger of making the
+soil too wet. It is usually advisable not
+to wet the flowers, however, especially
+the white waxen kinds, like hyacinths.
+The foliage of Rex begonias should be
+cleansed with a piece of dry or only
+slightly moist cotton. But if the leaves
+can be quickly dried off by placing them in the open air
+on mild days, or moderately near the stove, the foliage may
+be syringed.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 196px;">
+<img src="images/245-windowbox.jpg" width="196" height="242" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">A window-box</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The window-box in the room will be seen near at hand,
+so may be more or less ornamental in character. The sides
+may be covered with ornamental tile held in place by moulding;
+or a light lattice-work of wood surrounding the box
+is pretty. But a neatly made and strong box of about the
+dimensions mentioned on <a href="#Page_242">page 242</a>, with a strip of moulding
+at the top and bottom, answers just as well; and if painted
+green, or some neutral shade, only the plants will be seen or
+thought of. Brackets, jardinieres and stands may be purchased
+of any of the larger florists.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+The window-box may consist of merely the wooden box;
+but a preferable arrangement is to make it about eight
+inches deep instead of six, then have the tinsmith make a
+zinc tray to fit the box. This is provided with a false
+wooden bottom, with cracks for drainage, two inches
+above the real bottom of the tray. The plants will then
+have a vacant space below them into which drainage water
+may pass. Such a box may be thoroughly watered as the
+plants require without danger of the water running on the
+carpet. Of course, a faucet should be provided at some
+suitable point on a level with the bottom of the tray, to
+permit of its being drained every day or so if the water
+tends to accumulate. It would not do to allow the water to
+remain long; especially should it never rise to the false
+bottom, as then the soil would be kept too wet.</p>
+
+<p>Some persons attach the box to the window, or support it
+on brackets attached below the window-sill; but a preferable
+arrangement is to support the box on a low and light
+stand of suitable height provided with rollers. It may then
+be drawn back from the window, turned around from time to
+time to give the plants light on all sides, or turned with the
+handsome side in as may be desired, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Often the plants are set directly in the soil; but if they
+are kept in pots they may be rearranged, changed about to
+give those which need it more light, etc. Larger plants
+which are to stand on shelves or brackets may be in porous
+earthenware pots; but the smaller ones which are to fill the
+window-box may be placed in heavy paper pots. The sides
+of these are flexible, and the plants in them therefore may
+be crowded close together with great economy in space.
+When pots are spaced, damp sphagnum or other moss among
+them will hold them in place, keep the soil from drying out
+too rapidly, and at the same time give off moisture, so
+grateful to the foliage.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the stand, or box, a bracket for one or
+more pots on either side of the window, about one-third or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+half way up, will be desirable. The bracket should turn on
+a basal hinge or pivot, to admit of swinging it forward or
+backward. These bracket plants usually suffer for moisture,
+and are rather difficult to manage.</p>
+
+<p>Florists now usually grow plants suitable for Window-Gardens
+and winter flowering, and any intelligent florist, if
+asked, will take pleasure in making out a suitable collection.
+The plants should be ordered early in the fall; the
+florist will then not be so crowded for time and can give the
+matter better attention.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the plants suitable for the winter Window-Garden
+belong to the groups which florists grow in their medium and
+cool houses. The former are given a night temperature of
+about 60°, the latter about 50°. In each case the temperature
+is 10 to 15° higher for the daytime. Five degrees of variation
+below these temperatures will be allowable without any
+injurious effects; even more may be borne, but not without
+more or less check to the plants. In bright, sunny weather
+the day temperature may be higher than in cloudy and
+dark weather.</p>
+
+<h3><i>PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE
+OF 60°</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Upright flowering plants.</i>&mdash;Abutilons, browallias, calceolaria
+“Lincoln Park,” begonias, bouvardias, euphorbias,
+scarlet sage, richardia or calla, heliotropes, fuchsias,
+Chinese hibiscus, jasmines, single petunias, swainsona,
+billbergia, freesias, geraniums, cupheas.</p>
+
+<p><i>Upright foliage plants.</i>&mdash;Muehlenbeckia, <i>Cycas revoluta</i>,
+<i>Dracæna fragrans</i> and others, palms, cannas, <i>Farfugium
+grande</i>, achyranthes, ferns, araucaria, epiphyllums, pandanus
+or “screw pine,” <i>Pilea arborea</i>, <i>Ficus elastica</i>,
+<i>Grevillea robusta</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climbing plants.</i>&mdash;<i>Asparagus tenuissimus</i>, <i>A. plumosus</i>,
+<i>Cobæa scandens</i>, smilax, Japanese hop, Madeira vine (Boussingaultia),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+<i>Senecio mikanioides</i> and <i>S. macroglossus</i> (parlor
+ivies). See also list below.</p>
+
+<p><i>Low-growing, trailing, or drooping plants.</i>&mdash;These may be
+used for baskets and edgings. Flowering kinds are: Sweet
+alyssum, lobelia, <i>Fuchsia procumbens</i>, mesembryanthemum,
+<i>Oxalis pendula</i>, <i>O. floribunda</i> and others, <i>Russelia juncea</i>,
+<i>Mahernia odorata</i> or honey-bell.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foliage plants of drooping habit.</i>&mdash;Vincas, <i>Saxifraga sarmentosa</i>,
+Kenilworth ivy, tradescantia or Wandering Jew,
+<i>*Festuca glauca</i>, othonna, <i>*Isolepsis gracilis</i>, English ivy,
+<i>Selaginella denticulata</i> and others. Some of these plants
+flower quite freely, but the flowers are small and of secondary
+consideration. Those with an asterisk (*) droop but
+slightly.</p>
+
+<h3><i>PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE
+OF 50°</i></h3>
+
+<p><i>Upright flowering plants.</i>&mdash;Azaleas, cyclamens, carnations,
+chrysanthemums, geraniums, Chinese primroses,
+stevia, marguerite or Paris daisy, single petunias, <i>Anthemis
+coronaria</i>, camellias, ardisia (berries), cineraria, violets,
+hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, the Easter lily when in bloom,
+and others.</p>
+
+<p><i>Upright foliage plants.</i>&mdash;Pittosporum, palms, aucuba,
+euonymus (golden and silvery variegated), araucaria, pandanus,
+dusty miller.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climbing plants.</i>&mdash;English ivy, maurandia, senecio or
+parlor ivy, lygodium (climbing fern).</p>
+
+<p><i>Drooping or trailing plants.</i>&mdash;Flowering kinds are: Sweet
+alyssum, <i>Mahernia odorata</i>, Russelia and ivy geranium.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/249-windowgard.jpg" width="210" height="326" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="caption">Window-garden</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Bulbs in the Window-Garden.</i>&mdash;The single Roman hyacinth
+is an excellent house plant. Its flowers are small, but
+they are graceful and especially well suited for cutting. The
+bulbs are easily forced, and are managed like other hyacinths.
+The secret of forcing the Dutch bulbs and most
+others is to pot them and then, after watering the pots,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+set them away in a cool, dark place until the pot is filled
+with roots. They may be placed in the cellar “to root up,”
+or be buried 3 or 4 inches deep in the soil. It is well to
+delay potting them until such time as
+they can be kept cool while forming
+their roots. A temperature of about 40°
+to 45° suits them during this period. In
+most cases it is well to select pots 5 or 6
+inches in diameter and place from three
+to six bulbs in a pot, according to the
+size of the bulbs and the plants. The
+pot having been filled with soil, it is only
+necessary to press them down till the
+tip, or about one-fourth, shows above
+the soil. After this a slight jarring or
+sharp rap will settle the soil. They are
+then watered and set away, as before
+mentioned. If kept dark and cool they
+will need no more watering until they
+are brought out and begin to grow, when they may be
+watered freely.</p>
+
+<p>Hyacinths, tulips and narcissus all require about the
+same treatment. When well rooted, which will be in six or
+eight weeks, they are brought out and given a temperature
+of some 55° to 60° till the flowers appear, when they should
+be kept in a cooler temperature, say 50°.</p>
+
+<p>The Easter lily is managed the same way, only, to hasten
+its flowers, it should be kept at not lower than 60° at
+night. Warmer will be better. Lilies may be covered an
+inch or more deep.</p>
+
+<p>Freesias may be potted six or more in a pot of mellow
+soil, and then started into growth at once. At first they
+might be given a night temperature of 50°, and 55° to 60°
+when they have begun to grow.</p>
+
+<p>Bulbs like the snowdrop and crocus are planted several
+or a dozen in a pot and buried, or treated like hyacinths;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+but they are very sensitive to heat, and require only to be
+given the light when they have started to grow, without any
+forcing. Forty to 45° will be as warm as they ever need be
+kept. See the article on <a href="#bulbs"><i>Bulbs</i></a>; also, the advice given for
+the various plants under their respective names.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pests.</i>&mdash;Window-Garden pests are discussed under <a href="#insects"><i>Insects</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Winter-killing</b> is induced by a late fall growth,
+and also by a dry, unprotected soil. All tender woody plants
+should be well ripened before cold weather comes: cease
+tillage early: do not apply stimulating manures late in the
+season. Mulch all tender or half hardy plants (<a href="#mulch">see <i>Mulch</i></a>).
+Even hardy plants are benefited by a mulch. When possible,
+it is better to bend plants to the ground and cover
+them than to wrap them up as they stand; but this cannot
+be done with tall or stiff subjects. Wrapping in straw or
+burlaps affords excellent protection, but it is possible to
+wrap too heavily. A barrel, less the heads, may be set over
+small plants and then filled with leaves or other loose litter;
+or a cylinder of wire chicken-screen may be substituted for
+the barrel. Remove the protection in the spring before the
+buds start. See that mice do not nest in the barrel or
+in the mulch.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Z" id="Z"></a><b>Zinnia.</b> Showy hardy annuals. The old formal
+type of Zinnias has given place to a race of freer forms
+which are excellent plants either for color effect or for
+cutting. The colors have been varied and brightened, the
+flowers doubled and the plants dwarfed. Seed should be
+sown in a hotbed or house in March, transplanted once at
+least before planting out, and set in well enriched soil. Or,
+the seed may be sown where the plants are to grow. The
+tall varieties (3 feet) should stand 18 to 24 inches apart.
+These are best for masses at a distance.</p>
+
+<div id="ads">
+
+<div id="bbox">
+<p class="adhead"><i>The Best and Newest
+Rural Books</i></p>
+
+<p class="sm">BOOKS ON LEADING TOPICS
+CONNECTED WITH AGRICULTURAL
+AND RURAL
+LIFE ARE HERE MENTIONED.
+EACH BOOK IS THE WORK
+OF A SPECIALIST, UNDER THE
+EDITORIAL SUPERVISION OF
+PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY, OF
+THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY,
+OR BY PROFESSOR BAILEY
+HIMSELF, AND IS READABLE,
+CLEAR-CUT AND PRACTICAL.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="adhead">THE RURAL SCIENCE SERIES</p>
+
+<p>Includes books which state the underlying principles
+of agriculture in plain language. They are suitable
+for consultation alike by the amateur or professional
+tiller of the soil, the scientist or the student, and are
+freely illustrated and finely made.</p>
+
+<p>The following volumes are now ready:</p>
+
+<div class="adlist">
+<p><b>THE SOIL.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. H. King</span>, of the University of Wisconsin. 303 pp. 45
+illustrations. 75 cents.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND.</b> By <span class="smcap">I. P. Roberts</span>, of Cornell University.
+Fifth edition. 421 pp. 45 illustrations. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS.</b> By <span class="smcap">E. G. Lodeman</span>, late of Cornell University.
+399 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. H. Wing</span>, of Cornell University.
+Fifth edition. 311 pp. 43 illustrations. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. Fourth
+edition. 516 pp. 120 illustrations. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>BUSH-FRUITS.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. W. Card</span>, of Rhode Island College of Agriculture
+and Mechanic Arts. Second edition. 537 pp. 113 illustrations. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>FERTILIZERS.</b> By <span class="smcap">E. B. Voorhees</span>, of New Jersey Experiment Station.
+Third edition. 332 pp. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. Third edition.
+300 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. H. King</span>, University of Wisconsin.
+502 pp. 163 illustrations. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE FARMSTEAD.</b> By <span class="smcap">I. P. Roberts</span>. 350 pp. 138 illustrations. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE.</b> By <span class="smcap">George T. Fairchild</span>, Ex-President
+of the Agricultural College of Kansas. 381 pp. 14 charts. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>
+468 pp. 144 illustrations. $1.25.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS.</b> By <span class="smcap">W. H. Jordan</span>, of New York State
+Experiment Station. 450 pp. $1.25 net.</p>
+
+<p><b>FARM POULTRY.</b> By <span class="smcap">George C. Watson</span>, of Pennsylvania State College.
+341 pp. $1.25 net.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>New volumes will be added from time to time to
+the <span class="smcap">Rural Science Series</span>. The following are in
+preparation:</p>
+
+<div class="adlist">
+<p>PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By <span class="smcap">J. C. Arthur</span>, Purdue University.</p>
+
+<p>THE PRINCIPLES OF STOCK BREEDING. By <span class="smcap">W. H. Brewer</span>, of Yale
+University.</p>
+
+<p>PLANT PATHOLOGY. By <span class="smcap">B. T. Galloway</span> and associates, of U. S. Department
+of Agriculture.</p>
+
+<p>CARE OF ANIMALS. By <span class="smcap">N. S. Mayo</span>, of Connecticut Agricultural College.</p>
+
+<p>THE POME FRUITS (Apples, Pears, Quinces). By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>.</p>
+
+<p>THE FARMER’S BUSINESS HANDBOOK. By <span class="smcap">I. P. Roberts</span>, of Cornell
+University.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="adhead">THE GARDEN-CRAFT SERIES</p>
+
+<p>Comprises practical hand-books for the horticulturist,
+explaining and illustrating in detail the various
+important methods which experience has demonstrated
+to be the most satisfactory. They may be
+called manuals of practice, and though all are prepared
+by Professor <span class="smcap">Bailey</span>, of Cornell University,
+they include the opinions and methods of successful
+specialists in many lines, thus combining the
+results of the observations and experiences of numerous
+students in this and other lands. They are
+written in the clear, strong, concise English and in
+the entertaining style which characterize the author.
+The volumes are compact, uniform in style, clearly
+printed, and illustrated as the subject demands.
+They are of convenient shape for the pocket, and
+are substantially bound in flexible green cloth.</p>
+
+<div class="adlist">
+<p><b>THE HORTICULTURIST’S RULE-BOOK.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. Fourth
+edition. 312 pp. 75 cts.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE NURSERY-BOOK.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. Fifth edition. 365 pp. 152
+illustrations. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>PLANT-BREEDING.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. 293 pp. 20 illustrations. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE FORCING-BOOK.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. 266 pp. 88 illustrations. $1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>GARDEN-MAKING.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. Fifth edition. 417 pp. 256 illustrations.
+$1.00.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE PRUNING-BOOK.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. Fourth edition. 545 pp. 331
+illustrations. $1.50.</p>
+
+<p><b>THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK.</b> By <span class="smcap">C. E. Hunn</span> and <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>.
+250 pp. Many marginal cuts. $1.00.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="adhead2"><b>WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY</b></p>
+
+<p class="adbook">
+<span class="lg">THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE:</span>
+<span class="med-lg">A Collection of Evolution Essays Suggested
+by the Study of Domestic Plants.</span> By L. H.
+BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture in the Cornell
+University.</p>
+
+<p class="center sm"><b>FOURTH EDITION&mdash;515 PAGES&mdash;22 ILLUSTRATIONS&mdash;$2.00</b></p>
+
+<p>To those interested in the underlying philosophy
+of plant life, this volume, written in a most entertaining
+style, and fully illustrated, will prove welcome.
+It treats of the modification of plants under
+cultivation upon the evolution theory, and its attitude
+on this interesting subject is characterized
+by the author’s well-known originality and independence
+of thought. Incidentally, there is stated
+much that will be valuable and suggestive to the
+working horticulturist, as well as to the man or
+woman impelled by a love of nature to horticultural
+pursuits. It may well be called, indeed, a
+philosophy of horticulture, in which all interested
+may find inspiration and instruction.</p>
+
+<p class="sm"><span class="smcap">The Survival of the Unlike</span> comprises thirty essays touching
+upon The General Fact and Philosophy of Evolution (The Plant
+Individual, Experimental Evolution, Coxey’s Army and the Russian
+Thistle, Recent Progress, etc.); Expounding the Fact and Causes of
+Variation (The Supposed Correlations of Quality in Fruits, Natural
+History of Synonyms, Reflective Impressions, Relation of Seed-bearing
+to Cultivation, Variation after Birth, Relation between
+American and Eastern Asian Fruits, Horticultural Geography, Problems
+of Climate and Plants, American Fruits, Acclimatization, Sex
+in Fruits, Novelties, Promising Varieties, etc.); and Tracing the
+Evolution of Particular Types of Plants (the Cultivated Strawberry,
+Battle of the Plums, Grapes, Progress of the Carnation, Petunia,
+The Garden Tomato, etc.).</p>
+
+<p class="adbook pad-t1"><span class="lg">THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE
+FRUITS.</span> By L. H. BAILEY, Professor
+of Horticulture in the Cornell University.</p>
+
+<p class="center sm"><b>472 PAGES&mdash;125 ILLUSTRATIONS&mdash;$2.00</b></p>
+
+<p>In this entertaining volume, the origin and development
+of the fruits peculiar to North America
+are inquired into, and the personality of those horticultural
+pioneers whose almost forgotten labors
+have given us our most valuable fruits is touched
+upon. There has been careful research into the
+history of the various fruits, including inspection
+of the records of the great European botanists who
+have given attention to American economic botany.
+The conclusions reached, the information presented,
+and the suggestions as to future developments, cannot
+but be valuable to any thoughtful fruit-grower,
+while the terse style of the author is at its best in
+his treatment of the subject.</p>
+
+<p class="sm"><span class="smcap">The Evolution of our Native Fruits</span> discusses The Rise of
+the American Grape (North America a Natural Vineland, Attempts
+to Cultivate the European Grape, The Experiments of the Dufours,
+The Branch of Promise, John Adlum and the Catawba, Rise of
+Commercial Viticulture, Why Did the Early Vine Experiments Fail?
+Synopsis of the American Grapes); The Strange History of the Mulberries
+(The Early Silk Industry, The “Multicaulis Craze,”); Evolution
+of American Plums and Cherries (Native Plums in General,
+The Chickasaw, Hortulana, Marianna and Beach Plum Groups,
+Pacific Coast Plum, Various Other Types of Plums, Native Cherries,
+Dwarf Cherry Group); Native Apples (Indigenous Species, Amelioration
+has begun); Origin of American Raspberry-growing (Early
+American History, Present Types, Outlying Types); Evolution of
+Blackberry and Dewberry Culture (The High-bush Blackberry and
+Its Kin, The Dewberries, Botanical Names); Various Types of
+Berry-like Fruits (The Gooseberry, Native Currants, Juneberry,
+Buffalo Berry, Elderberry, High-bush Cranberry, Cranberry, Strawberry);
+Various Types of Tree Fruits (Persimmon, Custard-Apple
+Tribe, Thorn-Apples, Nut-Fruits); General Remarks on the Improvement
+of our Native Fruits (What Has Been Done, What Probably
+Should Be Done).</p>
+
+<p class="adbook pad-t1"><span class="lg">LESSONS WITH PLANTS:</span>
+<span class="med-lg">Suggestions
+for Seeing and Interpreting Some of
+the Common Forms of Vegetation.</span> By L.
+H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture in the Cornell
+University, with delineations from nature by W. S.
+HOLDSWORTH, of the Agricultural College of
+Michigan.</p>
+
+<p class="center sm"><b>SECOND EDITION&mdash;491 PAGES&mdash;446 ILLUSTRATIONS&mdash;12 MO&mdash;CLOTH&mdash;$1.10
+NET</b></p>
+
+<p>There are two ways of looking at nature. The
+<i>old way</i>, which you have found so unsatisfactory,
+was to classify everything&mdash;to consider leaves, roots,
+and whole plants as formal herbarium specimens,
+forgetting that each had its own story of growth
+and development, struggle and success, to tell.
+Nothing stifles a natural love for plants more effectually
+than that old way.</p>
+
+<p>The new way is to watch the life of every growing
+thing, to look upon each plant as a living
+creature, whose life is a story as fascinating as the
+story of any favorite hero. “Lessons with Plants”
+is a book of stories, or rather, a book of plays, for
+we can see each chapter acted out if we take the
+trouble to <i>look</i> at the actors.</p>
+
+<p class="sm">“I have spent some time in most delightful examination of it, and the
+longer I look, the better I like it. I find it not only full of interest, but
+eminently suggestive. I know of no book which begins to do so much to
+open the eyes of the student&mdash;whether pupil or teacher&mdash;to the wealth of
+meaning contained in simple plant forms. Above all else, it seems to be
+full of suggestions that help one to learn the language of plants, so they
+may talk to him.”&mdash;<span class="smcap">Darwin L. Bardwell</span>, <i>Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="sm">“It is an admirable book, and cannot fail both to awaken interest in
+the subject, and to serve as a helpful and reliable guide to young students
+of plant life. It will, I think, fill an important place in secondary schools,
+and comes at an opportune time, when helps of this kind are needed and
+eagerly sought.”&mdash;Professor <span class="smcap">V. M. Spalding</span>, <i>University of Michigan</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center lg">FIRST LESSONS WITH PLANTS</p>
+
+<p>An Abridgement of the above. <b>117 pages&mdash;116 illustrations&mdash;40
+cents net.</b></p>
+
+<p class="adbook pad-t1"><span class="lg">BOTANY:</span>
+<span class="med-lg">An Elementary Text for Schools.</span>
+By L. H. BAILEY.</p>
+
+<p class="center sm"><b>355 PAGES&mdash;500 ILLUSTRATIONS&mdash;$1.10 NET</b></p>
+
+<p>“This book is made for the pupil: ‘Lessons With Plants’
+was made to supplement the work of the teacher.” This is the
+opening sentence of the preface, showing that the book is a
+companion to “Lessons With Plants,” which has now become a
+standard teacher’s book. The present book is the handsomest
+elementary botanical text-book yet made. The illustrations
+illustrate. They are artistic. The old formal and unnatural
+Botany is being rapidly outgrown. The book disparages mere
+laboratory work of the old kind: the pupil is taught to see things
+as they grow and behave. The pupil who goes through this book
+will understand the meaning of the plants which he sees day
+by day. It is a revolt from the dry-as-dust teaching of botany.
+It cares little for science for <a name="ad-corr1" id="ad-corr1">science’s</a> sake, but its point of view
+is nature-study in its best sense. The book is divided into four
+parts, any or all of which may be used in the school: the plant
+itself; the plant in its environment; histology, or the minute
+structure of plants; the kinds of plants (with a key, and descriptions
+of 300 common species). The introduction contains
+advice to teachers. The book is brand new from start to
+finish.</p>
+
+<p class="sm">“An exceedingly attractive text-book.”&mdash;<i>Educational Review.</i></p>
+
+<p class="sm">“It is a school book of the modern methods.”&mdash;<i>The Dial.</i></p>
+
+<p class="sm">“It would be hard to find a better manual for schools or for individual
+use.”&mdash;<i>The Outlook.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 75px;">
+<img src="images/med-line-thin.png" width="75" height="1" alt="Decorative Line" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="med-lg">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</span><br />
+No. 66 Fifth Avenue <span class="smcap pad-l8">New York</span></p>
+
+<p class="adbook pad-t1"><span class="lg">THE CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN
+HORTICULTURE:</span> By L. H. BAILEY, of
+Cornell University, assisted by WILHELM MILLER,
+and many expert cultivators and botanists.</p>
+
+<p class="center sm"><b>4 VOLS.&mdash;OVER 2800 ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS&mdash;CLOTH&mdash;OCTAVO
+$20.00 NET PER SET. HALF MOROCCO, $32.00 NET PER SET</b></p>
+
+<p>This great work comprises directions for the cultivation
+of horticultural crops and original descriptions
+of all the species of fruits, vegetables, flowers
+and ornamental plants known to be in the market in
+the United States and Canada. “It has the unique
+distinction of presenting for the first time, in a carefully
+arranged and perfectly accessible form, the best
+knowledge of the best specialists in America upon
+gardening, fruit-growing, vegetable culture, forestry,
+and the like, as well as exact botanical information....
+The contributors are eminent cultivators or
+specialists, and the arrangement is very systematic,
+clear and convenient for ready reference.”</p>
+
+<p class="sm">“We have here a work which every ambitions gardener will wish to place
+on his shelf beside his Nicholson and his Loudon, and for such users of it a
+too advanced nomenclature would have been confusing to the last degree.
+With the safe names here given, there is little liability to serious perplexity.
+There is a growing impatience with much of the controversy concerning
+revision of names of organisms, whether of plants or animals. Those investigators
+who are busied with the ecological aspects of organisms, and
+also those who are chiefly concerned with the application of plants to the
+arts of agriculture, horticulture, and so on, care for the names of organisms
+under examination only so far as these aid in recognition and identification.
+To introduce unnecessary confusion is a serious blunder. Professor Bailey
+has avoided the risk of confusion. In short, in range, treatment and editing,
+the Cyclopedia appears to be emphatically useful; ... a work worthy
+of ranking by the side of the Century Dictionary.”&mdash;<i>The Nation.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>This work is sold only by subscription, and terms and
+further information may be had of the publishers.</b></p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="med-lg">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</span><br />
+No. 66 Fifth Avenue<span class="pad-l8">NEW YORK</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<div id="tn">
+<h2>Transcriber’s Note:</h2>
+
+<p>Extra, missing, or misprinted punctuation has been corrected without
+note. Variation in hyphenation (e.g. house plants vs. house-plants), and
+capitalization in some botanical names has been left as in the original.</p>
+
+<p>The following changes were made to the text:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><a href="#Page_9">p. 9</a>: couservatory to conservatory</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_12">p. 12</a>: Burridgianum to Burridgeanum (Cosmidium Burridgeanum)</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_13">p. 13</a>: autumnale to autumnalis (Adonis autumnalis.)</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_13">p. 13</a>: Callirrhöe to Callirrhoë</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_23">p. 23</a>: herbacous to herbaceous</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_41">p. 41</a>: Beaumé to Baumé (26° Baumé)</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_55">p. 55</a>: batchelor’s to bachelor’s (bachelor’s buttons)</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_56">p. 56</a>: Callirhoë to Callirrhoë</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_89">p. 89</a>: rocommended to recommended (the treatment recommended for Crocus)</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_122">p. 122</a>: establishd to established (when well established)</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_132">p. 132</a>: 80,° to 80°, (begins to fall below 80°,)</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_133">p. 133</a>: witholding to withholding (gradually withholding water)</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_207">p. 207</a>: seed to seeds (six seeds in each hill)</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_233">p. 233</a>: ipomeas to ipomœas and Ipomea to Ipomœa</li>
+<li><a href="#Page_233">p. 233</a>: Cobea to Cobæa</li>
+<li><a href="#ad-corr1">Advertisements (end of book</a>): science’ to science’s (science for
+science’s sake) and the repeated headings “WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY” removed.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Practical Garden-Book, by 
+C. E. Hunn and L. H. Bailey
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK ***
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+</body>
+</html>
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 20:01:58 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 20:01:58 -0700
commit	62fe5eaad99e7469871dadcc50897628ccc6dc15 (patch)
tree	f15d07285df98905c59374c8e6d7bc82cb458ecb /34602-h