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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/34602-0.txt b/34602-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c56ec5 --- /dev/null +++ b/34602-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9573 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Practical Garden-Book, by C. E. Hunn and L. H. Bailey + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Practical Garden-Book + Containing the Simplest Directions for the Growing of the + Commonest Things about the House and Garden + +Author: C. E. Hunn + L. H. Bailey + +Release Date: December 8, 2010 [EBook #34602] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, S.D., and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + The Garden-Craft Series + EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY + + +THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK + + + + + THE + PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK + + _CONTAINING THE SIMPLEST DIRECTIONS + FOR THE GROWING OF THE COMMONEST + THINGS ABOUT THE HOUSE AND GARDEN_ + + BY + + C. E. HUNN + + AND + + L. H. BAILEY + + _THIRD EDITION_ + + New York + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. + 1903 + _All rights reserved_ + + + COPYRIGHT, 1900 + BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + + *** + + Set up and electrotyped March, 1900 + Reprinted February, 1901, and June, 1903 + + Mount Pleasant Press + J. Horace McFarland Company + Harrisburg, Pennsylvania + + + + +Like the love of music, books and pictures, the love of gardens comes +with culture and leisure and with the ripening of the home life. The +love of gardens, as of every other beautiful and refining thing, must +increase to the end of time. More and more must the sympathies enlarge. +There must be more points of contact with the world. Life ever becomes +richer. Gardening is more than the growing of plants: it is the +expression of desire. + +As there must be many gardeners, so there must be many books. There must +be books for different persons and different ideals. The garden made by +one’s own hands is always the best garden, because it is a part of +oneself. A garden made by another may interest, but it is another +person’s individuality. A poor garden of one’s own is better than a good +garden in which one may not dig. Many a poor soul has more help in a +plant in the window than another has in a plantation made by a gardener. + +I would emphasize the home garden, made by the members of the family. I +would preach the beauty of the common plants and the familiar places. +These things are never old. Many times I have noted how intently an +audience of plant-lovers will listen to the most commonplace details +respecting the cultivation of plants with which they have been always +familiar. There was nothing new in what they heard; but they liked to +have the old story told over again, and every detail called up a memory. + +The same questions are asked every year, and they always will be +asked,--the questions about the simplest garden operations. Upon this +desire for commonplace advice the horticultural journals live. A journal +which publishes only things that are new would find little support. Some +of these common questions I have tried to answer in this little book. I +wish them answered in the simple and direct phrase of the gardener. +Therefore I asked my friend C. E. Hunn, gardener to the Horticultural +Department of Cornell University, who lives with plants, to write advice +for one who would make a garden; and this he did in a summer vacation. +These notes, edited and amplified, now make this book. + + L. H. BAILEY. + + HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT, + CORNELL UNIVERSITY. + ITHACA, N. Y., February 22, 1900. + + + + +THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK + +*** + + +ABOBRA VIRIDIFLORA. A handsome tender climber with tuberous roots, that +may be taken up in the fall and stored in a cellar. The foliage is dark +and glossy, the flowers small and inconspicuous; but the small scarlet +fruits are very effective in contrast to the leaves, making it a +desirable screen plant. It is sold by seedsmen. Seeds sown as soon as +warm weather comes will give plants which bloom in the open (in a warm +soil and exposure), and which reach a height of 5-8 ft. It is sometimes +grown as a glasshouse plant. It is cucurbitaceous (allied to melons and +gourds). + + +ABRONIA. Californian trailing perennials, but treated as hardy annuals. +They thrive in any warm, open garden soil, and are very satisfactory for +the margins of beds or borders. The little flowers are borne in +clusters. _A. latifolia_ or _arenaria_ (yellow) and _A. umbellata_ or +_grandiflora_ (pink) are the leading kinds. Usually sown where they are +to bloom. Peel the husk off the seed before sowing. + + +[Illustration: Abutilon striatum] + +ABUTILONS, or FLOWERING MAPLES as they are called by many, make fine +house or bedding plants. Common kinds may be grown from seed or from +cuttings of young wood. If the former, the seed should be sown in +February or March in a temperature of not less than 60°. The seedlings +should be potted when from four to six leaves have grown, in a rich, +sandy soil. Frequent pottings should be made to insure a rapid growth, +making plants large enough to flower by fall. Or, the seedlings may be +planted out in the border when danger of frost is over, and taken up in +the fall before frost: these plants will bloom all winter. About +one-half of the newer growth should be cut off when they are taken up, +as they are very apt to spindle up when grown in the house. When grown +from cuttings, young wood should be used, which, after being well +rooted, may be treated in the same manner as the seedlings. The +varieties with variegated leaves have been improved until the foliage +effects are equal to the flowers of some varieties; and, these are a +great addition to the conservatory or window garden. The staple +spotted-leaved type is _A. Thompsoni_. A compact form, now much used for +bedding and other outdoor work, is _Savitzii_, which is a horticultural +variety, not a distinct species. The old-fashioned green-leaved _A. +striatum_, from which _A. Thompsoni_ has probably sprung, is one of the +best. _A. megapotamicum_ or _vexillarium_ is a trailing or drooping +red-and-yellow-flowered species, which is excellent for baskets. It +propagates readily from seed. Abutilons are most satisfactory for house +plants when they are not much more than a year old. They need no special +treatment. + + +ACONITUM. MONK’S HOOD. WOLF’S BANE. Hardy herbaceous perennials allied +to larkspurs. They are showy border plants, usually flowering the first +year from seed, if the seed is started early, and bearing panicles of +quaint hood-shaped, rich flowers. The colors have a wide range, but are +usually deep blue. The improved varieties are much superior in size and +markings. Aconitums are most effective when planted in a mixed border: +the flower stalks being held well up, show the blossoms to good +advantage. Seed may be sown every two years, as the plants in their +year-old and 2-year-old stage have the largest blossoms. Sow in gentle +heat in March, transplanting to border when the weather is settled. +Roots may be divided if desired, but best results are to be expected +from seedlings. _A. Napellus_ is the commonest one. The plants are very +poisonous if eaten. Bloom in early summer. 2-3 ft. + + +ACROCLINIUM. A low-growing everlasting annual flower, white, violet, or +rose in color. Seeds should preferably be started in a hotbed or window, +and planted out when danger of frost is past; the flowers should be +gathered when half expanded and hung in the shade to dry. Half-hardy. +Plant 1 foot apart. Grow 10-15 in. high. See _Everlastings_. + + +[Illustration: Adlumia cirrhosa] + +ADLUMIA. MOUNTAIN FRINGE. ALLEGHENY VINE. One of the daintiest of +climbers, making a very rapid growth, and when once established seeding +itself and thriving for years, growing 10 or 15 feet in a season. Give +rich, rather moist soil. It is biennial, blooming the second year. +Flowers like those of the bleeding heart and other dicentras. It is +native. + + +ADONIS. A low-growing hardy annual or perennial of the easiest culture. +It makes a fine mass effect, as the flowers are a striking dark scarlet +or crimson color, and the plants are very free and continuous bloomers. +Sow early in the spring where wanted. The perennial yellow-flowered +sorts sometimes bloom the first year from seed. Adonises are very neat +in habit, and the foliage is fine and interesting. 10-15 in. + + +AGAPANTHUS. AFRICAN LILY. A tuberous-rooted, well known conservatory or +window plant. It lends itself to many conditions and proves satisfactory +a large part of the year, the leaves forming a green arch over the pot, +covering it entirely in a well grown specimen. The flowers are borne in +a large cluster on stems growing from 2 to 3 ft. high, as many as two or +three hundred bright blue flowers often forming on a single plant. A +large, well grown plant throws up a number of flower-stalks through the +early season. The one essential to free growth is an abundance of water +and an occasional application of manure water. Propagation is effected +by division of the offsets, which may be broken from the main plant in +early spring. After flowering, gradually lessen the quantity of water +until they are placed in winter quarters, which should be a position +free from frost and moderately dry. The Agapanthus, being a heavy +feeder, should be grown in strong loam to which is added well rotted +manure and a little sand. + + +[Illustration: Ageratum] + +AGERATUM. A half-hardy annual, used as a border plant, for ribbon +bedding for mass effect, or in mixed beds of geranium, coleuses and +other plants. The seeds germinate readily, but as the plant is only +half-hardy and is usually wanted in flower when planted out, it is usual +to sow the seed in boxes placed in hotbeds or windows in March, +transplanting the seedlings to small boxes or pots and growing the young +plants on until the 1st of May, when they may be planted out. Pieces of +young wood root very easily, and the gardener usually increases his +stock by cuttings. The dwarf varieties are the most desirable, and the +two colors, blue and white, may be planted together. 2-3 ft. Plants may +be taken up in the fall and set in the house; cut them back severely. + + +ALLEGHENY VINE. See _Adlumia_. + + +ALMOND is about as hardy as the peach, but it blooms so early in the +spring that it is little grown east of the Pacific slope. It is an +interesting ornamental tree, and its early bloom is a merit when the +fruit is not desired. The Almonds commonly sold by nurserymen in the +east are hard-shell varieties, and the nuts are not good enough for +commerce. The Almond fruit is a drupe, like the peach, but the flesh is +thin and hard and the pit is the “Almond” of commerce. Culture the same +as for peach. + +Flowering Almond is a very early-flowering bush, excellent for +shrub-borders. It is usually grafted on plum stock, and one must take +care to keep down the plum sprouts which sometimes spring from the root. + + +ALOE. Succulent tropical plants, sometimes seen in window gardens. Of +easy culture. See that the pots have perfect drainage. Make a soil of +sandy loam, with one-third or one-fourth part of broken brick. Pot +firmly. Water whenever needed, but the soil and drainage should be such +that the earth does not remain soggy or become sour. Aloes thrive year +after year without repotting. Usually propagated by cuttings. _A. +variegata_ is the commonest species. + + +ALONSOA. Tender annual. Not very well known, but a bright plant for +second-row border or a low bedding plant. Planted against shrubbery or +other protection after danger of frost is over, it lightens up a dark +corner. 2-3 ft. Plant 10-15 in. apart, in a warm place protected from +wind. + + +ALSTRÖMERIA. The Alströmerias belong to the amaryllis family, being +tuberous-rooted plants, having leafy stems and terminating in a cluster +of from 10 to 50 small lily-shaped flowers of rich colors. Most of the +kinds should be given pot culture, as they are easily grown and are not +hardy in the open in the north. The culture is nearly that of the +amaryllis,--a good, fibrous loam with a little sand, potting the tubers +in early spring or late fall. Start the plants slowly, giving only water +enough to cause root growth; but after growth has become established, a +quantity of water may be given. After flowering they may be treated as +are amaryllis or agapanthus. The plants grow 1-2½ ft. high. The +flowers often have odd colors. + + +ALTHÆA. See _Hollyhock_. + + +[Illustration: Sweet Alyssum] + +ALYSSUM, SWEET. A low-growing, hardy, white-flowered, very fragrant +annual which is much used for edgings, window boxes, and the like. It is +of the easiest culture in any soil, but thrives best in a garden loam of +moderate fertility. Seeds may be sown as early as the ground can be well +prepared in spring. The plant will begin to bloom when 2 or 3 inches +high, and continue to bloom, as it grows, until after the first hard +frosts. It makes a mat 1 to 2 ft. across. If immediate effects are not +desired, the plants should be thinned out or transplanted to stand half +a foot apart. It rarely stands more than a foot high. In the fall, +plants may be cut back and put into pots or boxes, and they will bloom +in the window. Better results in winter blooming are secured by starting +seeds in boxes in August, September or October. There are certain hardy +perennial yellow-flowered Alyssums which are useful for prominent +edgings and for rockwork. + + +[Illustration: Prince’s Feather] + +AMARANTUS. Decorative annuals. One species (with erect spikes) is known +as PRINCE’S FEATHER, another (with variegated foliage) as JOSEPH’S COAT, +and still another (with drooping spikes) as LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. Probably +the finest of the list is _A. salicifolius_, often called Fountain +Plant. This has graceful willow-shaped leaves, banded and tipped with +carmine, bronze and orange. The tall kinds make fine screens for +unsightly objects. They may also be used against masses of green to add +color. The Amaranths are half-hardy or tender plants, and should be sown +in boxes in March or April, to be planted out after all danger of frost +is past. Seeds may also be sown where the plants are to stand. They were +once among the most popular of garden plants, but for a few years have +been neglected. Fine colors have recently been developed, and they are +again becoming favorites. As they are rather coarse and weedy plants, do +not use them with dainty flowers. Most kinds grow 2-3 ft. high and +spread 2-3 ft. + + +AMARYLLIS. Popular name of a variety of house or conservatory tender +bulbs, but properly applied only to the Belladonna Lily. Most of them +are hippeastrums, but the culture of all is similar. They are +satisfactory house plants. The one objection to their culture is the +habit of the flower-stalk starting into growth before the leaves start. +This is caused in most cases by stimulating root growth before the bulb +has had sufficient rest. The bulbs should be dormant for four or five +months in a dry place with a temperature of about 50°. When wanted to be +brought into flower, the bulbs, if to be repotted, should have all the +dirt shaken off and potted in soil composed of fibrous loam and +leaf-mold, to which should be added a little sand. If the loam is a +heavy one, place the pot in a warm situation; a spent hotbed is a good +place. Water as needed, and as the flowers develop liquid manure may be +given. If large clumps are well established in 8- or 10-inch pots, they +may be top-dressed with new soil containing rotted manure, and as growth +increases liquid manure may be given twice a week until the flowers +open. After flowering, gradually withhold water until the leaves die. +The most popular species for window gardens is _A. Johnsoni_ (properly a +hippeastrum), with red flowers. + + +AMETHYST. See _Browallia_. + + +AMMOBIUM. A half-hardy perennial everlasting with white flowers. Thrives +best in sandy soil. Sow seeds where plants are to stand. Although +perennial, it blooms the first year from seed, and is usually treated as +an annual. 2-3 ft. high. Plant 12-18 in. apart. + + +AMMONIACAL CARBONATE OF COPPER. See under _Bordeaux Mixture_. + + +ANCHUSA. Hardy annuals and perennials, fit for heavy borders. The plants +grow to the height of 2 to 3 feet and bear purple or blue flowers, which +are showy either on the plant or in bouquets. Propagated from seed sown +in early spring, either where the plants are to stand or in boxes or +hotbeds. The common kind is annual. Blooms in summer. + + +ANEMONE. WIND FLOWER. A group of hardy perennials. The best known of +this genus is _A. Japonica alba_, or Honorine Jobert. This species +blooms from August to November, and is at that season the finest of +border plants. The pure white flowers, with lemon-colored stamens, are +held well up on stalks 2-3 ft. high. The flower stems are long and +excellent for cutting. This species may be propagated by division of the +plants or by seed. The former method should be put into practice in the +spring; the latter as soon as the seeds are ripe in the fall. Sow the +seed in boxes in a warm, sheltered situation in the border or under +glass. The seed should be covered lightly with soil containing a +quantity of sand and not allowed to become dry. A well enriched, +sheltered position in a border should be given. There are red-flowered +varieties. + +[Illustration: Spray of Anemone Japonica] + +The varieties of _A. coronaria_ are tuberous-rooted plants. The tubers +of these should be planted in the fall, late in September or early in +October, in a well enriched, sheltered border, setting the tubers 3 in. +deep and from 4-6 in. apart. The surface of the border should be mulched +with leaves or strawy manure through the severe winter weather, +uncovering the soil in March. The flowers will appear in April or May, +and in June or July the tubers should be taken up and placed in a dry +place in sand until the following fall. This section is not as well +known as it should be. The range of color is very wide. The flowers are +often 2 in. across, and are lasting. These tubers may be planted in pots +in the same manner as in the border, bringing them into the +conservatory or house at intervals through the winter, where they make +an excellent showing when in bloom. + +The little wild Wind Flowers are easily colonized in a hardy border. + + +ANNUALS. The annual flowers of the seedsmen are those which give their +best bloom in the very year in which the seeds are sown. True annuals +are those plants which complete their entire life-cycle in one season. +Some of the so-called annual flowers will continue to bloom the second +and third years, but the bloom is so poor and sparse after the first +season that it does not pay to keep them. + +Most annuals will bloom in central New York if the seeds are sown in the +open ground when the weather becomes thoroughly settled. But there are +some kinds, as Cosmos and Moonflowers, for which our season is commonly +too short to give good bloom. These kinds may be started early in the +house or in hotbeds; and similar treatment may be given any plants of +which it is desired to secure blooms before the normal time. + +[Illustration: A box garden] + +Prepare the ground thoroughly and deep. Annuals must make a quick +growth. See that the soil contains enough humus or vegetable mold to +make it rich and to enable it to hold moisture. If the ground is not +naturally rich, spade in well-rotted manure or mold from the woods. A +little commercial fertilizer may help in starting off the plants +quickly. Prepare the land as early in spring as it is in fit condition, +and prevent evaporation by keeping the surface loose by means of raking. + +If the flowers are to be grown about the edges of the lawn, make sure +that the grass roots do not run underneath them and rob them of food and +moisture. It is well to run a sharp spade deep into the ground about the +edges of the bed every two or three weeks for the purpose of cutting off +any grass roots which may have run into the bed. If beds are made in the +turf, see that they are 3 ft. or more wide, so that the grass roots will +not undermine them. Against the shrub borders, this precaution may not +be necessary. In fact, it is desirable that the flowers fill all the +space between the overhanging branches and the sod. + +Sow the seeds freely. Many will not germinate. Even if they do all +germinate, the combined strength of the rising plantlets will break the +crust on the hard soils; and in the thinning which follows, only strong +and promising plants are allowed to remain. Better effects are also +often secured when the colors are in masses, especially if the flowers +are thrown into the bays of heavy shrub borders. + +[Illustration: Flowers against a border] + +Plants continue to bloom for a longer period if they are not allowed to +produce seeds. The flowers should be picked, if possible, as soon as +they begin to fade. + +In the selection of the kinds of annuals, one’s personal preference must +be the guide. Yet there are some groups which may be considered to be +standard or general-purpose plants. They are easily grown almost +anywhere, and are sure to give satisfaction. The remaining plants are +mostly such as have secondary value, or are adapted to particular +purposes or uses. + +The groups which most strongly appeal to the writer as staple or +general-purpose types are the following: Petunias, phloxes, pinks or +dianthuses, larkspurs or delphiniums, calliopsis or coreopsis, pot +marigold or calendula, bachelor’s button or _Centaurea Cyanus_, +clarkias, zinnias, marigolds or tagetes, collinsias, gilias, California +poppies or eschscholtzias, verbenas, poppies, China asters, sweet peas, +nemophilas, portulacas, silenes, candytufts or iberis, alyssum, stocks +or matthiolas, morning-glories, nasturtiums or tropæolums. + +Annual flowers possess a great advantage over perennials in the fact +that they appeal strongly to the desire for experiment. The seeds are +sown every year, and there is sufficient element of uncertainty in the +results to make the effort interesting; and new combinations can be +tried each year. + +Do not cut the old stalks down in the fall. They will stand in the snow +all through the winter, and remind you of the bursting summer time and +the long-ripening fall; and the snow-birds will find them in the short +days of winter. + +Some of the most reliable and easily grown annuals for the north are +given in the following lists (under the common trade names): + +_WHITE FLOWERS_ + + Ageratum Mexicanum album. + Alyssum, Common Sweet. + Alyssum, Sweet, compacta. + Centranthus macrosiphon albus. + Convolvulus major. + Dianthus, Double White Margaret. + Iberis amara. + Iberis coronaria, White Rocket. + Ipomœa hederacea. + Lavatera alba. + Malope grandiflora alba. + Matthiola (Stocks), Cut and Come Again. + Matthiola, Dresden Perpetual. + Matthiola, Giant Perfection. + Matthiola, White Pearl. + Mirabilis longiflora alba. + Nigella. + Papaver (Poppy), Flag of Truce. + Papaver, Shirley. + Papaver, The Mikado. + Phlox, Dwarf Snowball. + Phlox, Leopoldii. + Zinnia. + +_YELLOW FLOWERS_ + + Cacalia lutea. + Calendula officinalis, Common. + Calendula officinalis, Meteor. + Calendula sulphurea. + Calendula suffruticosa. + Calliopsis bicolor marmorata. + Calliopsis cardaminæfolia. + Calliopsis elegans picta. + Cosmidium Burridgeanum. + Erysimum Peroffskianum. + Eschscholtzia Californica. + Hibiscus Africanus. + Hibiscus, Golden Bowl. + Ipomœa coccinea lutea. + Loasa tricolor. + Tagetes, various kinds. + Thunbergia alata Fryeri. + Thunbergia alata aurantiaca. + Tropæolum, Dwarf, Lady Bird. + Tropæolum, Tall, Schulzi. + Zinnia. + +_BLUE FLOWERS_ + + Ageratum Mexicanum. + Ageratum Mexicanum, Dwarf. + Browallia Czerniakowski. + Browallia elata. + Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact. + Centaurea Cyanus minor. + China Asters of several varieties. + Convolvulus minor. + Convolvulus minor unicaulis. + Gilia achilleæfolia. + Gilia capitata. + Iberis umbellata. + Iberis umbellata lilacina. + Kaulfussia amelloides. + Kaulfussia atroviolacea. + Lobelia Erinus. + Lobelia Erinus, Elegant. + Nigella. + Phlox variabilis atropurpurea. + Salvia farinacea. + Specularia. + Verbena, Black-blue. + Verbena cœrulea. + Verbena, Golden-leaved. + Whitlavia gloxinoides. + +_RED FLOWERS_ + + Cacalia, Scarlet. + Clarkia elegans rosea. + Convolvulus tricolor roseus. + Dianthus, Half Dwarf Early Margaret. + Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual. + Dianthus Chinensis, Double. + Gaillardia picta. + Ipomœa coccinea. + Ipomœa volubilis. + Matthiola annuus (Stocks). + Matthiola, Blood-red Ten Weeks. + Matthiola grandiflora, Dwarf. + Papaver (Poppy) cardinale. + Papaver, Double. + Papaver, Mephisto. + Phaseolus multiflorus. + Phlox, Large-flowering Dwarf. + Phlox, Dwarf Fireball. + Phlox, Black Warrior. + Salvia coccinea. + Saponaria. + Tropæolum, Dwarf, Tom Thumb. + Tropæolum, Dwarf. + Verbena hybrida. + Verbena hybrida, Scarlet Defiance. + Zinnia. + +_GOOD FOR EDGINGS OF BEDS AND WALKS_ + + Alyssum, Sweet. + Brachycome. + Collinsias. + Dianthuses or Pinks. + Gypsophila muralis. + Iberis or Candytufts. + Leptosiphons. + Lobelia Erinus. + Nigellas. + Nemophilas. + Portulacas or Rose Moss. + Saponaria Calabrica. + Specularia. + +_KINDS WHICH CONTINUE TO BLOOM AFTER FROST_ + + Abronia umbellata. + Adonis æstivalis. + Adonis autumnalis. + Argemone grandiflora. + Calendulas. + Callirrhoë. + Carduus Benedictus. + Centaurea Cyanus. + Centauridium. + Centranthus macrosiphon. + Cerinthe retorta. + Cheiranthus Cheiri. + Chrysanthemums. + Convolvulus minor. + Convolvulus tricolor. + Dianthus of various kinds. + Elscholtzia cristata. + Erysimum Peroffskianum. + Erysimum Arkansanum. + Eschscholtzias, in several varieties. + Gaillardia picta. + Gilia Achilleæfolia. + Gilia capitata. + Gilia laciniata. + Gilia tricolor. + Iberis affinis. + Lavatera alba. + Matthiolas or Stocks. + Œnothera rosea. + Œnothera Lamarckiana. + Œnothera Drummondii. + Phlox Drummondii. + Podolepis affinis. + Podolepis chrysantha. + Salvia coccinea. + Salvia farinacea. + Salvia Horminum. + Verbenas. + Vicia Gerardii. + Virginian Stocks. + Viscaria elegans. + Viscaria oculata. + Viscaria cœli-rosa. + + +ANTIRRHINUM. See _Snapdragon_. + + +APPLE, the “King of Fruits,” thrives over a wider range of territory and +under more varied conditions than any other tree fruit. This means that +it is easy to grow. In fact, it is so easy to grow that it usually is +neglected; and people wonder why the trees do not bear. + +The selection of varieties of Apples for home use is, to a large extent, +a personal matter; and no one may say what to plant. A variety that is +successfully grown in one section may prove disappointing in another. +One should study the locality in which he wishes to plant and choose +those varieties which are the most successfully grown there,--choosing +from amongst the successful kinds those which he likes best and which +seem best to meet the purposes for which he is to grow them. When the +selection is made, the trees should be procured from a near-by +nurseryman, if possible, as one is then able to select his own trees, +receive them in the shortest time, and plant them before they have +become dry. + +The land on which an orchard is to be planted should have been in +cultivation at least two years previous to setting the trees and be in a +fine physical condition. Dig the hole broad and deep enough to take in +all the roots left after pruning off the bruised ends caused by digging +up the tree, and trim back the branches at least two-thirds, making a +smooth cut. Set the trunk in the center of the hole, and sift the fine +dirt down through the roots, slightly lifting the tree once or twice in +order that the fine soil may settle under the roots, making congenial +soil for the new roots to run through. Fill in over the roots, gradually +firming the soil above with the feet. When the hole is full, firm the +soil around the trunk to prevent whipping by the wind, leaving the +surface level. If the trees are set in the fall a slight earthing up to +the trunk may be beneficial in certain soils, and if set in a dry spring +a mulch of straw or grass will benefit them. Two- or 3-year-old trees +(usually the latter) are the most desirable for planting in home +grounds. Commercial orchards are often planted exclusively with +2-year-olds. + +[Illustration: Spray of Apples] + +In orchard cultivation, Apple trees are usually planted 35 to 40 ft. +apart each way. In home grounds they may be placed somewhat closer than +this, especially if they are planted upon the boundaries, so that the +limbs may project freely in one direction. + +It is ordinarily advisable, especially in the humid climates east of the +Great Lakes, to have the body of the tree 3½ to 4½ ft. long. The limbs +should be trimmed up to this point when the tree is set. From three to +five main branches may be left to form the framework of the top. These +should be shortened back one-fourth or one-half when the tree is set. +Subsequent pruning should keep the top of the tree open and maintain it +in more or less symmetrical form. See _Pruning_. + +In orchard conditions, the trees should be kept in clean culture, +especially for the first few years; but this is not always possible in +home yards. In lieu of tillage, the sward may be mulched each fall with +stable manure, and commercial fertilizer may be applied each fall or +spring. If fruit is wanted rather than foliage and shade, care should be +taken not to make ground too rich but to keep it in such condition that +the tree is making a fairly vigorous growth, with good strong foliage, +but is not overgrowing. An Apple tree in full bearing is usually in good +condition if the twigs grow from 10 to 18 in. each season. All +leaf-eating insects may be kept off by spraying with Paris green. The +Appleworm or codlin-moth may be kept in check by spraying with Paris +green as soon as the blossoms fall, and again a week or ten days later. +The leaf blight or apple-scab fungus may be kept in check by spraying +with Bordeaux mixture just before the flowers open, and again after they +fall (see _Spraying_). A close watch should be kept for borers. Whenever +the bark appears to be dead or sunken in patches, remove it and search +for the cause. A borer will usually be found underneath the bark. About +the base of the tree the most serious injury occurs from borers, since +the insect which enters there bores into the hard wood. His presence can +be determined by the chips which are cast from his burrows. The only +remedy is to dig out the larvæ. If they have got far into the wood, they +can be killed by running a flexible wire into the burrows. + +Apple trees should begin to bear when three to five years planted, and +at ten years should be bearing good crops. With good treatment, they +should continue to bear for thirty or more years. It is cheaper to buy +trees from the nursery than to attempt to raise them for oneself. + +The dwarf Apples are secured by grafting any variety on the Paradise or +Doucin stocks, which are simply small-growing varieties of Apples. +Dwarfs are much used in the Old World. There is no reason why they +should not be used for home gardens in this country. They may be planted +8 to 10 ft. apart, and trained in various ways. The body or trunk should +not be more than 1 or 2 ft. long. The top should be headed-in each year +a third or a half of the annual growth. Dwarfs bear sooner than +standards. A dwarf in full bearing should produce from a peck to a +bushel of apples. Usually only the finer or dessert variety of Apples +should be grown on dwarf trees. + +Many of the local varieties of Apples are excellent for home use. From +the following list of dessert varieties, one can select a good +assortment for the home garden: + +_Summer._--Early Joe, Primate, Garden Royal, Summer Pearmain, Early +Harvest, Summer Rose, Sweet Bough, Summer Queen, Early Strawberry, +Williams Favorite. + +_Fall._--Chenango, Dyer, Jefferis, Jersey Sweet, Maiden Blush, +Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Mother (late fall to winter), Twenty Ounce. + +_Winter._--Newtown Pippin, Golden Russet, Bellflower, Belmont, King +(late fall S. of N. Y.), Grimes Golden, Melon, Hubbardston (Nonesuch), +Northern Spy, Jonathan, Fameuse or Snow, Lady, Rambo, Canada Red, York +Imperial, Pomme Gris, Esopus Spitzenburg, Swaar, Peck Pleasant, Rhode +Island Greening, Tallman Sweet, Sutton Beauty, Wagener, Seek-no-further. + + +APRICOT. This fruit, usually thought to be too tender for the winters in +the latitude of New York, has proved as hardy as the peach. Given the +right conditions as to soil and exposure, it will yield abundant crops, +ripening its fruits about three weeks in advance of early peaches. It +would seem that more attention should be given to its cultivation. In +western New York commercial orchards are now producing crops of as fine +fruit as that brought from California. The introduction of the Russian +varieties, a few years ago, added to the list several desirable kinds +that have proved hardier and a little later in blooming than the old +kinds. The fruits of the Russian varieties, while not as large as the +other varieties, fully equal many of them in flavor, and they are very +productive. The soil for Apricots should be rather dry; especially +should the subsoil be such that no water may stand around the roots. The +exposure should be to the north or west to retard the blooming period, +as the one great drawback to their successful fruiting is the early +blooming and subsequent freezing of the flowers or small fruits. + +The two serious difficulties in the growing of Apricots are the ravages +of the curculio (see _Plum_) and the danger to the flowers from the +spring frosts. It is usually almost impossible to secure fruits from one +or two isolated Apricot trees, because the curculios will take them all. +It is possible, also, that some of the varieties need cross-pollination. +The Apricot usually thrives best on strong soil; but otherwise the +treatment which is given the peach suits the Apricot very well. The +Russian varieties bear more profusely and with less care than the +old-fashioned and larger kinds. Amongst the best kinds of Apricots are +Montgamet, Jackson, Royal, St. Ambroise, Early Golden, Harris, Roman and +Moorepark. In the east, Apricots are commonly worked on plums, but they +also thrive on the peach. + + +AQUARIUM. A pleasant adjunct to a living room or conservatory is a large +glass globe or glass box containing water, in which plants and animals +are living and growing. A solid glass tank or globe is better than a box +with glass sides, because it does not leak, but the box must be used if +one wants a large Aquarium. For most persons it is better to buy the +Aquarium box than to attempt to make it. Four things are important in +making and keeping an Aquarium (according to Miss Rogers, in Cornell +Nature-Study Leaflet No. 11): + +“(1) The equilibrium between plant and animal life must be secured and +maintained. Animals do not thrive in water where no plants are growing. +Nature keeps plants and animals in the same pond, and we must follow her +lead. The plants have three valuable functions in the Aquarium. First, +they supply food for the herbivorous creatures. Second, they give off a +quantity of oxygen which is necessary to the life of the animals. Third, +they take up from the water the poisonous carbonic acid gas which passes +from the bodies of the animals. Just how the plants do this is another +story. (2) The Aquarium must be ventilated. Every little fish, snail and +insect wants air. A certain quantity of air is mixed with the water, and +the creatures must breathe that or come to the surface for their +supply. How does Mother Nature manage the ventilation of her aquaria, +the ponds and streams? The plants furnish part of the air, as we have +seen. The open pond, whose surface is ruffled by every passing breeze, +is constantly being provided with fresh air. A tadpole or a fish can no +more live in a long-necked bottle than a boy can live in a chimney. (3) +The temperature should be kept between 40° and 50° Fahr. Both nature and +experience teach us this. A shady corner is a better place for the +Aquarium than a sunny window on a warm day. (4) It is well to choose +such animals for the Aquarium as are adapted to life in still water. +Unless one has an arrangement of water pipes to supply a constant flow +of water through the Aquarium, it is best not to try to keep creatures +that we find in swift streams. Practical experience shows that there are +certain dangers to guard against. Perhaps the most serious results come +from overstocking. It is better to have too few plants or animals than +too many of either. A great deal of light, especially bright sunlight, +is not good for the Aquarium. A pond that is not shaded soon becomes +green with a thick growth of slime, or algæ. This does not look well in +an Aquarium, and is apt to take up so much of the plant-food that the +other plants are starved out. The plants in the school-room window will +shade the Aquarium nicely, just as the trees and shrubs on its banks +shade the pond. If we find this slime forming on the light side of our +miniature pond we put it in a darker place, shade it heavily so that the +light comes in from the top only, and put in a few more snails. These +will make quick work of the green slime, for they are fond of it, if we +are not.” + +The aquatic plants of the neighborhood may be kept in the +Aquarium,--such things as myriophyllums, charas, eel-grass, duckmeats or +lemnas, cabomba or fish grass, arrowleafs or sagittaria, and the like; +also the parrot’s feather, to be bought of florists (a species of +myriophyllum). Of animals, there are fishes (particularly minnows), +water insects, tadpoles, clams, snails. If the proper balance is +maintained between plant and animal life, it will not be necessary to +change the water so frequently. + + +AQUATICS AND BOG PLANTS. Many water plants are easily grown, and make a +fine addition to the home garden. The sedges and other bog plants, the +cyperus or umbrella plant, the common wild water lily, and in large +grounds the nelumbium or Egyptian lotus, all may be grown with ease. For +restricted grounds any of these, with the exception of the nelumbium, +may be grown in tubs made by sawing an oaken barrel in two, filling each +half from one-third to one-half with soil composed of good loam, sand +and leaf-mold, setting the plants well into the soil and filling the +tubs with water. These tubs should be sunk to the rim in the borders or +lawn, both for a good appearance and to prevent too great evaporation. +By a little care in filling with water, these plants may be well grown +through the hottest weather. Most of the foreign water lilies are not +hardy, but some of them may be grown with ease if the pond is covered in +winter. + +Native Aquatics may be colonized in streams or ponds. If artificial +ponds are to be made, do not get them too deep. A foot or 15 inches is +sufficient depth of water to stand above the crowns of the plants; and +the greatest depth of water should not be more than 2½ ft. for all +kinds of water lilies. Half this depth is often sufficient. The soil +should be 1 to 2 ft. deep, and very rich. Cow manure may be mixed with +rich loam. Roots of hardy water lilies may be planted as soon as the +pond is clear of frost, but the tender kinds (which are also to be taken +up in the fall) should not be planted till it is time to plant out +geraniums. Sink the roots into the mud so that they are just buried, and +weight them down with a stone or clod. In cold climates, protect the +pond of hardy Aquatics by throwing boards over the pond and covering +with hay, straw or evergreen boughs. It is well to supply an additional +depth of water as a further protection. + + +AQUILEGIA. COLUMBINE. These hardy perennials are general favorites for +borders and rockwork. Blooming early in the season, they may be said to +head the procession of the perennials. The ease with which they may be +cultivated, their freedom of bloom, their varied colors and odd shape +entitle them to the front rank among hardy plants. They are propagated +by division of the plants in the spring or from seed sown in the fall. +Seedlings may be expected to bloom well the second year. They require a +moist, partially sheltered situation, with exposure to the sun. The +common wild Columbine (often called “honeysuckle”) is easily grown and +is very attractive. Clumps of Columbine should stand 12-18 in. apart. +2-3 ft. high. + + +ARAUCARIA, or NORFOLK ISLAND PINE, is now sold in pots by florists as a +window plant. The common species (_A. excelsa_) is most excellent for +this purpose, making a symmetrical evergreen subject. It keeps well in a +cool window, or on the veranda in the summer. Protect it from direct +sunlight, and give plenty of room. If the plant begins to fail, return +it to the florist for recuperation. + + +ARGEMONE. See _Prickly Poppy_. + + +ARISTOLOCHIA, or DUTCHMAN’S PIPE. A strong, woody twiner with very +large, heavy leaves, forming a dense screen and having peculiarly shaped +flowers. But one species is considered hardy north, _A. Sipho_. This +will grow without special treatment and prove a satisfactory ornamental +screen or porch plant. Reaches a height of 20 or 30 ft. Young plants +need some protection in cold winters. + + +ARTICHOKE. A tall, coarse perennial of the thistle tribe, producing +flower-heads which are edible. When once established, it will last in +bearing for a number of years. While this plant is not generally grown +in this country, its merit as a supplementary vegetable for salads or +cooking is great. It is usually grown from suckers from the root, but a +start can be made by sowing the seed. Sow in a border or seed box and +transplant to the garden in early summer; and the following year a crop +may be had. The parts of the plant used are the flower-heads and the +young suckers, the former boiled or eaten raw as a salad. The young +shoots may be tied together and blanched, using them like asparagus or +Swiss chard. The fleshy scales of the head and the soft “bottom” of the +head are the parts used. But few of these plants would be needed for a +family, as they produce a number of flower-heads to a plant and a +quantity of suckers. The plants should be set from 2 to 3 ft. apart in +the row, the rows being 3 ft. apart. This vegetable is not quite hardy +in the north, but a covering of leaves or barnyard litter to the depth +of a foot will protect them well. The plant, being a perennial, will +continue to yield for a number of years under good cultivation. These +plants make no mean decorative subjects, either massed or in a mixed +border, and from the rarity of their culture are always objects of +interest. + + +ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM, is a wholly different plant from the above, +although it is commonly known as “Artichoke” in this country. It is a +species of sunflower which produces potato-like tubers. These tubers may +be used in lieu of potatoes. They are very palatable to hogs; and when +the plant becomes a weed--as it often does--it may be exterminated by +turning the hogs into it. Hardy. + + +ARUNDO, or REED, is one of the best of bold and ornamental grasses, +excellent for the center of a large formal bed, or for emphatic points +in a mixed border. It is perennial and hardy in the northern states, but +it is advisable to give it a mulch on the approach of winter. Thrives in +any rich soil, doing best where somewhat moist. 8-12 ft. The clumps +enlarge year by year. + + +ASPARAGUS. A hardy herbaceous perennial, much grown for the soft, +edible, early spring shoots. The culture of this, the finest of early +vegetables, has been simplified in the past few years, and at present +the knowledge required to successfully plant and grow a good supply need +not be that of a professional. The old method of excavating to the depth +of 3 ft. or more, throwing in from 4 to 6 in. of broken stone or bricks +for drainage, then filling to within 16 to 18 in. of the surface with +well rotted manure, with 6 in. of soil upon which to set the roots, has +given place to the simple practice of plowing or digging a trench from +14 to 16 in. deep, spreading well rotted manure in the bottom to the +depth of 3 or 4 in.; when well trodden down covering the manure with 3 +or 4 in. of good garden soil, then setting the plants, with the roots +well spread out, covering carefully with soil to the level of the +garden, and firming the soil with the feet. This will leave the crowns +of the plants from 4 to 5 in. below the surface. In setting, 1-year-old +plants will prove more satisfactory than older ones, being less liable +to suffer from injury to the root system than those which have made a +larger growth. Two years after setting the crop may be cut, but not +sooner if a lasting bed is desired, as the effort to replace the stalks +has a tendency to weaken the plant unless the roots are well +established. The yearly treatment of an Asparagus bed consists of +cleaning off tops and weeds in the fall and adding a dressing of well +rotted manure to the depth of 3 or 4 in., this manure to be lightly +forked into the bed the following spring; or, the tops may be allowed to +stand for winter protection and the mulch left off. A top-dressing of +nitrate of soda, at the rate of 200 pounds per acre, is often beneficial +as a spring stimulant, especially in the case of an old bed. Good +results will also follow an application of bone meal or superphosphate +at the rate of from 300 to 500 pounds per acre. The practice of sowing +salt on an Asparagus bed is almost universal. Still, beds that have +never received a pound of salt are found to be as productive as those +having received an annual dressing. Nevertheless, a salt dressing is +recommended. In stubborn, heavy soil the best method to pursue in making +a permanent bed would be to throw out all the dirt from the trench and +replace with good, fibrous loam. Two rows of Asparagus 25 ft. long and 3 +ft. apart would supply a large family with an abundance throughout the +season, and if well taken care of will last a number of years. Conover’s +Colossal is the variety most generally grown, and is perhaps the most +satisfactory sort. Palmetto, a variety originating at the south, is also +very popular. A newer variety, called Donald White, originating near +Elmira, N. Y., is recommended by the trade. + + +ASPERULA. Hardy annuals and perennials. The low-growing Asperula, with +its blue or white flowers, is not as often used as it should be. The +profusion of small flowers and the long season entitle it to a place in +low borders. The flowers have a pleasing fragrance. Asperulas may be +used effectively on rockwork. The common white species, or Woodruff, +grows less than 1 foot. Grown readily from seeds, and blooms the first +year. All Asperulas thrive best in a rather moist soil. + + +ASTERS, CHINA. Half-hardy annuals, of easy culture. The China Aster has +been for years a great favorite in both old-fashioned and modern +gardens. With the improvements in shapes and colors, they are now the +rivals of the chrysanthemum. As early as 1731 single white and red +Asters were grown and described in England, and by 1845 they are +mentioned as being very numerous in New England. The Germans were, +perhaps, the first to improve the Asters, and the type most admired and +sought fifty years ago was the full-quilled varieties. Now, however, the +informal type replaces the stiff, formal quilled flowers of that period. +Compare the Comet Aster of to-day with the Asters of even twenty years +ago, and note the looseness of its broad rays, giving an artistic value +far beyond the tall, stiff, purple-blue or whites of that period. + +[Illustration: China Aster] + +The early Asters will bloom in August if the seed is sown in the open +early in the season. They are represented by the Queen of the Market and +Queen of Spring, either of which, if started in a hotbed or window, will +begin to bloom the last of July. The Queen of the Market is probably the +freest of growth, and with its long stems makes a very desirable variety +for cut-flowers. In fact, in the rich, mellow soil in which Asters +delight, this variety is likely to have its large flowers on stems so +long and slender that the plants will need stakes. + +The Victoria Asters hold a well deserved place among the leading +varieties, and with high culture will generally lead in size and +profusion of bloom, the colors ranging from white to the darkest blue. +The plants are also well adapted to pot culture. The chrysanthemum-flowered +Asters, both tall and dwarf, are excellent, as are the Truffaut +Perfection and Peony-flowered. The Comet Asters are amongst the best. +The New Branching type is now in great favor. + +The culture of China Asters is easy. For early bloom the seeds should be +sown in March in boxes of light soil and covered one-quarter of an inch +with soil, the soil pressed down or firmed over them and the boxes +placed in a hotbed or a sunny window and attention given to watering. +When the seedlings are one inch high they should be transplanted to +other boxes, setting the plants 3 inches apart or put into 2-inch pots. +These should be again placed in a frame and grown along until the ground +has become comparatively warm. The soil will need to be well enriched, +mellow, and if slightly moist under the surface the results will be all +that could be wished. Asters will grow fairly well on rather light soil, +even if not very rich, but the best results can only be obtained when +the highest culture is given. If the rust attacks the plants, spray +with ammoniacal carbonate of copper. + + +[Illustration: Spray of wild Aster] + +ASTER, NATIVE. Wild Asters are one of the glories of the American +autumn. They grow almost everywhere in the north and east,--along +roadsides, in meadows and swales. Their colors range from pure white to +pink, and purple, and blue. From August until winter closes in, they are +conspicuous features of the landscape, vying with the goldenrods in form +and color, but surpassing them in color-range. Most of them are greatly +improved when transferred to the border. They become more attractive in +general habit, and the flowers are usually more profuse and sometimes +larger. They are of the easiest possible culture. They can be removed to +home grounds in the fall or spring, and, with little care until they are +established, will make most attractive displays of autumn color. The +species are numerous and much confused, and it is not necessary to make +a list of them here. Because of their free and careless habit, they are +better adapted to planting in borders than in the formal flower beds. + +[Illustration: Wild Asters] + + +AUBRIETIA DELTOIDEA. A very handsome little trailing hardy perennial, +covered with attractive purple flowers in early spring. Should be +planted in masses for best effect. Propagated by cuttings or seeds, +usually the latter. Excellent for rockwork and permanent low edgings. + + +AURICULA. A half-hardy perennial of the Primrose tribe (_Primula +Auricula_), very popular in Europe, but little grown in this country on +account of the hot, dry summers. In this country usually propagated by +seed, as for Cineraria; but special varieties are perpetuated by +offsets. Seeds sown in February or March should give blooming plants +for the next February or March. Keep the plants cool and moist, and away +from the direct sun during the summer. Gardeners usually grow them in +frames. In the fall, they are potted into 3-inch or 4-inch pots, and +made to bloom either in frames as for violets or in a cool conservatory +or greenhouse. In April, after blooming has ceased, repot the plants and +treat as the previous year. From the best plants, offsets may be taken +and treated the same as seedlings. As with most annual-blooming +perennials, best results are to be expected with year-old or 2-year-old +plants. Auriculas grow 6-8 in. high. Colors white and many shades of red +and blue. + + +AZALEAS are less grown in this country than in Europe, largely because +of our hot, dry summers and severe winters. There are two common types +or classes,--the hardy or Ghent Azaleas, and the Indian Azaleas. + +Ghent Azaleas thrive in the open along the seacoast as far north as +southern New England. They require a sandy, peaty soil, and are treated +as other shrubs are. The large flower-buds are liable to injury from the +warm suns of late winter and early spring, and to avoid this injury the +plants are often protected by covers or shades of brush. In the interior +country, little attempt is made to flower Azaleas permanently in the +open, although they may be grown if carefully tended and well protected. +Both Ghent and Indian Azaleas are excellent pot-plants, for bloom in +late winter and spring. The plants are imported in great numbers from +Europe, and it is better to buy these plants than to attempt to +propagate them. Pot them up in large-sized pots, keep them cool and +backward for a time until they are established, then take them into a +conservatory temperature, in which carnations and roses thrive. They +should be potted in a soil made of half peat or well decayed mold and +half rich loam; add a little sand. Pot firmly, and be sure to provide +sufficient drainage. Keep off red spider by syringing. After blooming, +the plants may be thinned by pruning out the straggling growths, and +repotted. Set them in a frame or in a semi-shaded place during summer, +and see that they make a good growth. The wood should be well ripened in +the fall. After cold weather sets in, keep the Indian or evergreen kinds +half-dormant by setting them in a cool, dull-lighted cellar or pit, +bringing them in when wanted for bloom. The Ghent or deciduous kinds may +be touched with frost without injury; and they may be stored in a cellar +until wanted. + + +BACHELOR’S BUTTON. _Centaurea Cyanus_ and also _Gomphrena_. Sometimes +applied to double-flowered Crowfoots. + + +[Illustration: Balloon Vine] + +BALLOON VINE, or CARDIOSPERMUM. Annual tender tendril climber of very +rapid growth. Seed should not be planted until the soil becomes warm. A +very pretty effect can be had by allowing the vine to run over some +coarser vine, or into an evergreen tree. The balloon-like capsules show +to good advantage between the leaves. It is also useful for covering +piles of brush. Grows 8-12 ft. high. Give a warm, sunny place. + + +BALSAMS, or IMPATIENS. Tender annuals, producing both single and double +flowers of many colors. These well known favorites are usually to be +found in old-fashioned gardens. They are very likely to seed themselves, +coming up in unexpected places and flourishing in neglect. They do best, +however, in rich, sandy soil. If the seed is sown in boxes late in April +and the plants transplanted several times they will be much dwarfer and +the flowers much more double. A stately, though very formal and stiff, +effect may be had by planting a row of Balsams in the rear of a low +border, pinching off all the side shoots as they start and growing the +plant to a single stem. This will become covered with the large blooms, +giving it the appearance of a perfect column of flowers. Balsams are +injured by the slightest frost. Seeds germinate quickly. Plants should +stand 12-18 in. apart. They grow 18-30 in. high. + + +BARTONIA. Hardy annual, with golden yellow, brilliant flowers. The +tall-growing Bartonia (_B. aurea_) may be used in a mixed border to good +advantage. It is a bushy plant, reaching 2-3 ft. high. The dwarf kind +may be used as a border plant or in a rock garden, or as an edging. The +fragrance of both tall and dwarf is very pronounced in the evening. The +Bartonias are very easy to grow in a warm soil and sunny exposure. Their +numerous thread-like, long stamens are very interesting. + + +BASKET PLANTS. In order to have a good hanging basket, it is necessary +that some provision be made to prevent too rapid drying out of the +earth. It is customary, therefore, to line the pot or basket with moss. +Open wire baskets, like a horse muzzle, are often lined with moss and +used for the growing of plants. Prepare the earth by mixing some well +decayed leaf-mold with rich garden loam, thereby making an earth which +will retain moisture. Hang the basket in a light place, but still not in +a direct sunlight; and, if possible, avoid putting it where it will be +exposed to drying wind. In order to water the basket, it is often +advisable to sink it into a pail or tub of water. Various plants are +well adapted to hanging baskets. Among the drooping or vine-like kinds +are the strawberry geranium, Kenilworth ivy, maurandya, German ivy, +canary-bird flower, _Asparagus Sprengeri_, ivy geranium, trailing +fuchsia, wandering Jew, and othonna. Among the erect-growing plants +which produce flowers, _Lobelia Erinus_, sweet alyssum, petunias, +oxalis, and various geraniums are to be recommended. Among foliage +plants such things as coleus, dusty miller, begonia, and some geraniums +are adaptable. + + +[Illustration: Climax basket] + +BASKETS. For the picking and handling of fruit in the home garden, the +common Climax basket, in various sizes, is the best receptacle. In +these baskets the products may be sold. When the baskets are sent to +market or to a friend, they should be neat and new looking; therefore +keep them in a dry, dark place, as in an attic or loft, to prevent them +from becoming warped and discolored. + + +BEAN. Under the general name of Bean, many kinds of plants are +cultivated. They are all tender, and the seeds, therefore, should not be +planted until the weather is thoroughly settled; and the soil should be +warm and loose. They are all annuals in northern countries, or treated +as such. + +The Bean plants may be classified in various ways. In respect to +stature, they may be thrown into three general categories; viz., the +pole or climbing Beans, the bush Beans, and the strict-growing or +upright Beans (as the Broad or Windsor Bean). In respect to their uses, +Beans again may be divided into three categories; viz., those which are +used as string or snap Beans, the entire pod being eaten; those which +are used as shell Beans, the full-size but immature Beans being shelled +from the pod and cooked; dry Beans, or those which are eaten in their +dry or winter condition. The same variety of Bean may be used for all of +these three purposes at different stages of its development; but as a +matter of fact, there are varieties which are better for one purpose +than the other. Again, Beans may be classified in respect to their +species. Those species which are best known are as follows: (1) Common +Bean, or _Phaseolus vulgaris_, of which there are both tall and bush +forms. All the common snap and string Beans belong here, as also the +Speckled Cranberry types of pole Beans, and the common field Beans. (2) +The Lima Beans, or _Phaseolus lunatus_. The larger part of these are +pole Beans, but lately dwarf or bush varieties have appeared. (3) The +Scarlet Runner, _Phaseolus multiflorus_, of which the Scarlet Runner +and White Dutch Runner are familiar examples. The Scarlet Runner is +usually grown as an ornamental vine, and it is perennial in warm +countries, but the Beans are edible as shelled Beans. The White Dutch +Runner is oftener cultivated for food. (4) The Yard-Long, or Asparagus +Bean, _Dolichos sesquipedalis_, which produces long and weak vines and +very long, slender pods. The green pods are eaten, and also the shelled +Beans. The French Yard-Long is the only variety of this type which is +commonly known in this country. This type of Bean is popular in the +Orient. (5) The Broad Beans, of which the Windsor is the common type. +These are much grown in the Old World for stock feed, and they are +sometimes used for human food. They grow to one strict, central, stiff +stalk, to a height of 2-4 or 5 ft., and they are very unlike other kinds +of Beans in appearance. In this country, they are very little grown on +account of our hot and dry summers. In Canada they are somewhat grown, +and are sometimes used in the making of ensilage. + +The culture of the Bean, while of the easiest, often proves a failure as +far as the first crop is concerned, because of planting the seed before +the ground has become warm and dry. No vegetable seed will decay quicker +than Beans, and the delay caused by waiting for the soil to become warm +and free from excessive moisture will be more than made up by the +rapidity of growth when finally they are planted. Beans will grow in +most any soil, but the best results may be obtained by having the soil +well enriched and in good physical condition. From the 5th to the 10th +of May in the latitude of central New York, it will be safe to plant +Beans for an early crop. The Beans may be dropped 2 inches deep in +shallow drills, the seeds to lie 3 inches apart. Cover to the surface of +the soil, and if the ground be dry, firm it with the foot or the back of +the hoe. For the bush varieties, allow 2 ft. between the drill-rows, but +for the dwarf Limas 2½ ft. is better. Pole Limas are usually planted +in hills 2-3 ft. apart in the rows. Dwarf Limas may be sown thinly in +drills. + +A large number of the varieties of both the green-podded and the +wax-podded Beans are used almost exclusively as snap Beans, to be eaten +with the pod while tender. The various strains of the Black Wax are the +most popular string Beans. The pole or running Beans are used either +green or dried, and the Limas, both tall and dwarf, are well known for +their superior flavor either as shelled or dry Beans. The old-fashioned +Cranberry or Horticultural Lima type (a pole form of _Phaseolus +vulgaris_) is probably the best shell Bean, but the trouble of poling +makes it unpopular. Dwarf Limas are much more desirable for small +gardens than the pole varieties, as they may be planted much closer, the +bother of procuring poles and twine is avoided, and the garden will have +a more sightly appearance. Both the dwarf Limas and pole Limas require a +longer season in which to mature than the bush varieties, and only one +planting is usually made. But the bush varieties may be planted at +intervals of two weeks from the first planting until the 10th of August. +Each planting may be made on ground previously occupied by some +early-maturing crop. Thus, the first to third plantings may be on ground +from which has been harvested a crop of spinach, early radish or +lettuce; after that, on ground where early peas have been grown; and the +later sowings where beets or early potatoes have grown. String Beans for +canning are usually taken from the last crop. One quart of seed will +plant 100 ft. of drill; or 1 quart of Limas will plant 100 hills. + +Limas are the richest of Beans, but they often fail to mature in the +northern states. The land should not be very rich in nitrogen (or stable +manure), else the plants will run too much to vine and be too late. +Select a fertile sandy or gravelly soil with warm exposure, use some +soluble commercial fertilizer to start them off, and give them the best +of culture. Aim to have the pods set before the droughts of midsummer +come. Good trellises for Beans are made by wool twine stretched between +two horizontal wires, one of which is drawn a foot above the ground and +the other 6 or 7 ft. high. + +Bean plants are not troubled by insects to any extent, but they are +sometimes attacked by blight. When this occurs, do not plant the same +ground to Beans again for a year or two. + + +BEDDING. This term is used to designate the massing of plants in the +open ground for the purpose of making a bold display of color. This +color may be obtained with flowers or with strong effects of foliage. +Bedding is ordinarily a temporary species of planting; that is, the bed +is filled anew each year. However, the term may be used to designate a +permanent plantation of plants which are heavily massed so as to give +one continuous or emphatic display of form or color. Some of the best +permanent bedding masses are made of the various hardy ornamental +grasses, as eulalias, arundo, and the like. + +Some bedding is very temporary in its effect. Especially is this true of +spring Bedding, in which the plants used are tulips, hyacinths, crocuses +or other early-flowering bulbous plants. In this case, the ground is +usually occupied later in the season by other plants. These later plants +are usually annuals, the seeds of which are sown amongst the bulbs as +soon as the season is far enough advanced; or the annuals may be started +in boxes and the plants transplanted amongst the bulbs as soon as the +weather is fit. Many of the low-growing and compact, continuous-flowering +annuals are excellent for summer Bedding effects. Some of the best +plants for this purpose are mentioned in the following list: + + Adonis æstivalis. + Adonis autumnalis. + Ageratum Mexicanum. + Ageratum Mexicanum, dwarf. + Bartonia aurea. + Cacalia. + Calendula officinalis, in several forms. + Calendula pluvialis. + Calendula Pongei. + Calendula sulphurea, fl. pl. + Calendula suffruticosa. + Calliopsis bicolor marmorata. + Calliopsis cardaminæfolia. + Calliopsis elegans picta. + Callirrhoë involucrata. + Callirrhoë pedata nana. + Callirrhoë pedata. + Centaurea Americana. + Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact. + Centaurea Cyanus minor. + Centaurea suaveolens. + Chrysanthemum Burridgeanum. + Chrysanthemum carinatum. + Chrysanthemum coronarium. + Chrysanthemum tricolor. + Convolvulus minor. + Convolvulus tricolor. + Cosmidium Burridgeanum. + Delphinium, single. + Delphinium, double. + Dianthus, Double White Half Dwarf Margaret. + Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual. + Dianthus Caryophyllus semperflorens. + Dianthus Chinensis, double. + Dianthus dentosus hybridus. + Dianthus Heddewigii. + Dianthus imperialis. + Dianthus laciniatus, Salmon Queen. + Dianthus plumarius. + Dianthus superbus, dwarf fl. pl. + Dianthus, Picotee. + Elscholtzia cristata. + Eschscholtzia Californica. + Eschscholtzia crocea. + Eschscholtzia, Mandarin. + Eschscholtzia tenuifolia. + Gaillardia picta. + Gaillardia picta Lorenziana. + Gilia achilleæfolia. + Gilia capitata. + Gilia laciniata. + Gilia linifolia. + Gilia nivalis. + Gilia tricolor. + Godetia Whitneyi. + Godetia grandiflora maculata. + Godetia rubicunda splendens. + Hibiscus Africanus. + Hibiscus, Golden Bowl. + Iberis affinis. + Iberis amara. + Iberis coronaria. + Iberis umbellata. + Impatiens or Balsam. + Lavatera alba. + Lavatera trimestris. + Linum grandiflorum. + Madia elegans. + Malope grandiflora. + Matricaria eximia plena. + Matthiola or Stock, in many forms. + Matthiola, Wallflower-leaved. + Matthiola bicornis. + Nigella or Love-in-a-Mist. + Œnothera Drummondii. + Œnothera Lamarckiana. + Œnothera rosea. + Œnothera tetraptera. + Papaver or Poppy, of many kinds. + Papaver cardinale. + Papaver glaucum. + Papaver umbrosum. + Petunia, Ring of Emerald. + Phlox Drummondii, in many varieties. + Portulaca. + Salvia farinacea. + Salvia Horminum. + Salvia splendens. + Schizanthus papilionaceus. + Schizanthus pinnatus. + Silene Armeria. + Silene pendula. + Tagetes or Marigold, in many forms. + Tagetes erecta. + Tagetes patula. + Tagetes signata. + Tropæolum, Dwarf. + Verbena auriculæflora. + Verbena Italica striata. + Verbena hybrida. + Verbena cœrulea. + Verbena, Golden-leaved. + Viscaria cœli-rosa. + Viscaria elegans picta. + Viscaria oculata. + Zinnia, Dwarf. + Zinnia elegans alba. + Zinnia, Tom Thumb. + Zinnia Haageana. + Zinnia coccinea plena. + +Summer bedding is often made by perennial plants which are carried over +from the preceding year, or better, which are propagated for that +particular purpose in February and March. Such plants as geranium, +coleus, alyssum, scarlet salvia, ageratum and heliotrope may be used for +these beds. It is a common practice to use geranium plants which are in +bloom during the winter for bedding out during the summer, but such +plants are tall and ungainly in form and have expended the greater part +of their energies. It is better to propagate new plants by taking +cuttings or slips late in the winter and setting out young, fresh, +vigorous subjects. + +Very bold and subtropical effects can be made by planting in the open +such things as palms, bananas, crotons, araucarias, caladiums and +cannas. Plants like bananas and palms, which are kept normally in pots, +would better be left in the pots and plunged to the rims rather than +turned out directly into the soil. In order to attain quick and +continuous effects, it is advisable to set the plants rather close. As +such plants are likely to be injured by strong winds, it is well to have +subtropical beds in a somewhat protected place. + +Another type of bed is that which attempts to make patterns or designs, +or carpet-bedding. There are comparatively few plants which are adapted +to this purpose, for the plants must be such as will stand shearing and +which have very strong and constant colors of foliage. The most popular +bedding plants are coleus (particularly the yellow Golden Bedder) +achyranthes, alternanthera, _Centaurea gymnocarpa_, and such succulent +plants as the house leeks. Some of the annual flowers may also be used +for strong color effects, as _Lobelia Erinus_ and sweet alyssum. +Ordinarily the making of carpet-beds should be left to professional +gardeners, since it requires much skill and care to make and keep the +beds in perfect condition; and a ragged or imperfect carpet-bed is worse +than no bed at all. Carpet-beds are really curiosities, and they have no +more legitimate place in the general pictorial landscape design area +than painted stones or sheared evergreens. Therefore, they should be +placed by themselves at one side, where they do not interfere with the +general design of the place. In public parks they make a very useful +attraction when set off by themselves, the same as zoölogical gardens or +other attractions do. + + +BEEFSTEAK GERANIUM is _Begonia_. + + +BEETS. Being one of the hardiest of spring vegetables, the seed may be +sown as early in the spring as the ground can be worked. A light, sandy +soil is the best on which to grow Beets to perfection, but any well +tilled garden soil will raise satisfactory crops. On heavy soil the +turnip Beet gives the best results, as the growth is nearly all at or +above the surface. The long varieties, having tapering roots running +deep into the soil, are apt to be misshapen unless the physical +condition of the soil is such that the roots meet with little +obstruction. A succession of sowings should be made, at intervals of +from two to three weeks, until late summer, as the Beets are much more +desirable in their young stage than when they have become old and woody. +The Mangel-Wurzel and the Sugar Beet are usually grown as a field crop, +and will not enter into the calculations of the home garden. + +[Illustration: Early Beets] + +In order to hasten the season of the extra-early crop of Beets, the +seeds may be sown in boxes or in the soil of a hotbed in February or +March, transplanting the small plants to the open ground at the time the +first sowing of seed is made. As the flat or turnip-rooted varieties +grow at the surface of the ground, the seed may be sown thickly, and as +the more advanced roots are large enough to use they may be pulled, +leaving room for the later ones to develop, thus growing a quantity in a +small area and having a long season of small Beets from one sowing. For +winter use the late July sown seed will give the best roots, growing +through the cool months of the fall to a medium size and remaining firm +without being tough or stringy. These may be dug up after light frosts +and before any severe cold weather, and stored in barrels or boxes in +the cellar, using enough dry dirt to fill spaces between the roots and +cover them to the depth of 6 inches. These roots, thus packed in a cool +cellar, will be fit to use through the entire winter months. When it can +be had, florists’ or sphagnum moss is an excellent medium in which to +pack roots for winter. + +The early round or turnip varieties are best for early and summer use. +The Long Blood Beets may be used for storing, but these require a longer +season of growth. + + +BEGONIAS. Tender bedding and house plants. Next to the geranium, +Begonias are probably the most popular for house culture of the entire +plant list. The ease of culture, profusion of bloom or richness of +foliage, together with their adaptability to shade, make them very +desirable. + +Begonias may be divided into three sections: the fibrous-rooted class, +which contains the winter-flowering varieties; the tuberous-rooted, +those which bloom through the summer, the tuber resting through the +winter; and the Rex forms, or Beefsteak Geraniums, having large +ornamental leaves. + +[Illustration: Fibrous-rooted Begonia] + +The fibrous-rooted kinds may be propagated by seed or cuttings, the +latter being the usual method. Cuttings of half-ripened wood root +easily, making a rapid growth, the plants flowering in a few months. + +The tuberous-rooted varieties are propagated by division of the tuber or +from seed, the former being rarely done except to increase the stock of +some extra fine variety. The seeds, like those of all Begonias, are very +small, and should be sown with great care. Simply sprinkle them on the +surface of the soil, which should be a mixture of leaf-mold and sand, +with the addition of a small amount of fibrous loam. Watering should be +done by setting the pot or box in which the seeds are sown in water, +allowing the moisture to ascend through the soil. When the soil has +become completely saturated, set the box in a shady situation, covering +it with glass or some other object until the tiny seedlings appear. +Never allow the soil to become dry. The seedlings should be +transplanted, as soon as they can be handled, into boxes or pots +containing the same mixture of soil, setting each plant down to the +seed-leaf. They will need three or four transplantings before they reach +the blooming stage, and at each one after the first, the amount of +fibrous loam may be increased until the soil is composed of one-third +each of loam, sand and leaf-mold. The addition of a little well rotted +manure may be made at the last transplanting. These tuberous-rooted +Begonias make superior bedding plants if given a shady situation and +deep soil; but for the amateur they are perhaps better grown as +pot-plants, for one is able to give them better conditions by that +method. The flowers are both double and single, ranging in color from +pure white and yellow to pink and red. After flowering the plants will +die down and the tubers, after drying off, may be placed in a dry, warm +place until spring. + +[Illustration: Rex Begonia] + +The Rex type, having no branches, is propagated from the leaves. The +large mature leaves are used. The leaf may be cut into sections having +at the base a union of two ribs. These pieces of leaves may be inserted +in the sand as any other cutting. Or a whole leaf may be used, cutting +through the ribs at intervals and laying the leaf flat on the +propagating bench or other warm, moist place. In a short time young +plants having roots of their own will form. These may be potted when +large enough to handle, and will soon make good sized plants. Rex +Begonias usually grow little during winter. Be sure that the pots are +well drained, so that the soil does not become sour. New plants--those a +year or so old--are usually most satisfactory. Keep them away from +direct sunlight. + +An insidious disease of Begonia leaves has recently made its appearance. +The best treatment yet known is to propagate fresh plants, throwing away +the old stock and the dirt in which it is grown. + + +BELLIS PERENNIS. See _Daisy_. + + +[Illustration: Ancient Briton Blackberry] + +BLACKBERRIES. The one essential to the successful growing of +Blackberries is a moist soil,--not one in which water will stand, but +one rich enough in humus to hold sufficient moisture to carry the crop +through the growing season. It is usually found best to plant in the +fall, earthing up slightly around the plants. The distance between the +plants should be regulated by the variety. The smaller-growing kinds (as +Early Harvest and Wilson) may be planted 4 x 7 ft., the rank-growing +varieties (as Snyder) 6 x 8 ft. Thorough cultivation throughout the +season will help in a material degree to hold the moisture necessary to +perfect a good crop. The soil should be cultivated very shallow, +however, so as not to disturb the roots, as the breaking of the roots +starts a large number of suckers that have to be cut out and destroyed. + +[Illustration: Shears for cutting out old canes] + +Blackberries, like dewberries and raspberries, bear but one crop on the +cane. That is, canes which spring up this year bear next year. From 3 to +6 canes are sufficient to be left in each hill. The superfluous ones are +thinned out soon after they start from the ground. The old canes should +be cut out soon after fruiting and burned. The new shoots should be +pinched back at the height of 2 or 3 ft. if the plants are to support +themselves. If to be fastened to wires, they may be allowed to grow +throughout the season and be cut back when tied to the wires in winter +or early spring. Tools for the cutting out of the old canes are well +represented in the pictures. Shears are used for shortening-in the +canes. + +[Illustration: Shears for heading-in bushes] + +Blackberry plants are sometimes laid down in cold climates,--the tops +being bent over and held to the ground by earth or sods thrown on their +tips. + +[Illustration: Knife hook for cutting out old canes] + +Snyder is the most popular commercial variety; but Agawam, Ancient +Briton, Taylor, and others are better in quality. A new patch should be +planted every five or six years. + + +BLUE BOTTLE. See _Centaurea Cyanus_. + + +BORDEAUX MIXTURE is a fungicide, used to combat mildews, leaf-diseases, +blights, etc. It is sprayed on the plants with a spray pump or syringe, +or it may be applied with a whisk broom. Apply enough of it so that the +foliage looks blue. It is made as follows: Copper sulfate, 6 pounds; +quicklime, 4 pounds; water, 40 to 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper +sulfate by putting it into a bag of coarse cloth and hanging this in a +vessel holding at least four gallons, so that it is just covered by the +water. Use an earthen or wooden vessel. Slake the lime in an equal +amount of water. Then mix the two and add enough water to make 40 +gallons. It is then ready for immediate use, but will keep for some +time. If the mixture is to be used on peach foliage, it is advisable to +add an extra pound of lime to the above formula. When applied to such +plants as carnations or cabbages, it will adhere better if a pound of +hard soap is dissolved in hot water and added to the mixture. For rots, +molds, mildews, and all fungous diseases. + +Whilst Bordeaux Mixture is the best general fungicide, it discolors the +plants until it washes off. On ornamental plants, therefore, a colorless +fungicide may be preferable. In such cases, use the ammoniacal carbonate +of copper solution, as follows: Copper carbonate, 1 ounce; ammonia, 1 +volume 26° Baumé, ⅞ volumes water (enough to dissolve the copper); +water, 9 gallons. The copper carbonate is best dissolved in large +bottles, where it will keep indefinitely, and it should be diluted with +water as required. For the same purposes as Bordeaux Mixture. + + +BORDER. The word border is used to designate the heavy or continuous +planting about the boundaries of a place, or along the walks and drives, +or against the buildings, in distinction from planting on the lawn or in +the interior spaces. A border receives different designations, depending +upon the kinds of plants which are grown therein; that is, it may be a +shrub border, a flower border, a hardy border for native and other +hardy plants, a vine border, and the like. As a rule, the most effective +planting is that which is thrown into masses, for one plant reinforces +the other, and the flowers have a good setting or background. Very +striking displays of foliage and flowers and plant forms can be made +when massed together. As a rule, plants are more easily grown when +planted in a border, since the whole area can be kept cultivated with +ease; and if a plant becomes weak or dies, its place is readily filled +by the neighboring plants spreading into it. Planting in masses is also +essential to the best arrangement of the yard, since the basis of any +landscape is a more or less continuous greensward (see _Lawn_). The +house occupies the central part of the area, and the sides are heavily +massed or planted so as to make a framework for the whole place. The +border may be mixed,--that is, composed of a great variety of +plants,--or it may be made up of one continuous thing. In long and very +striking borders, it is often best to have the background--that is, the +back row--of one general type of plant in order to give continuity and +strength to the whole group. In front of this a variety of plants may be +set, if one desire. + +[Illustration: Planting by the steps] + +The land should be rich. The whole ground should be plowed or spaded and +the plants set irregularly in the space; or the back row may be set in a +line. If the border is composed of shrubs, and is large, a horse +cultivator may be run in and out between the plants for the first two or +three years, since the shrubs will be set from 2 to 4 ft. apart. +Ordinarily, however, the cultivating is done by hand tools. After the +plants are once established and the border is filled, it is best to dig +up as little as possible, for the digging disturbs the roots and breaks +off the crowns. It is usually best to pull out the weeds and give the +border a top-dressing each fall of well rotted manure. If the ground is +not very rich, a sprinkling of ashes or some commercial fertilizer may +be given from time to time. The border should be planted so thick as to +allow the plants to run together, thereby giving one continuous effect. +Most shrubs should be set 3 feet apart. Things as large as lilacs may go +4 feet and sometimes even more. Common herbaceous perennials, like +bleeding heart, delphiniums, hollyhocks, and the like, should go from 12 +to 18 inches. On the front edge of the border is a very excellent place +for annual and tender flowering plants. Here, for example, one may make +a fringe of asters, geraniums, coleus, or anything else which he may +choose (see _Flower Beds_). + +The border is an excellent place in which to colonize native or other +interesting plants. A person comes across an attractive plant on his +tramp and wishes it were in his garden. Whatever the time of year, he +may break off the top close to the ground, take up the roots and plant +them in the border. If a little attention is given to the plant for the +first two or three weeks, as watering or mulching or shading, it should +become established and give satisfactory bloom the following year. +Two-thirds of the herbs which one would take up in this way, even in +midsummer, should grow. Into the heavy borders about the boundaries of +the place the autumn leaves will drift and afford an excellent mulch. If +these borders are planted with shrubs, the leaves may be left there to +decay, and not be raked off in the spring. The general outline of the +border facing the lawn should be more or less wavy or irregular, +particularly if it is on the boundary of the place. Alongside a walk or +drive, the margins may follow the general directions of the walk or +drive. + +There are three rules for the choosing of plants for a hardy border. +Choose (1) those which you like best, (2) those which are adapted to the +climate and soil, (3) those which are in place or in keeping with that +part of the grounds. See _Herbs_, _Shrubs_, _Trees_. + + +BORECOLE is _Kale_. + + +BORERS. There is no sovereign remedy for borers except to dig them out. +Do not rely upon washes or other applications. If trees are examined two +or three times a year, it is not a laborious undertaking to dig them +out, as they will not be deep in the wood. If they do get deep in the +wood, thrust a wire into the burrow. By the chips cast from the holes, +or by the dead bark, the presence of borers may be detected. Apple and +peach trees are particularly liable to attack. The flat-headed +apple-tree borer works just underneath the bark on any part of the trunk +or large branches. The round-headed apple-tree borer eats into the wood +at the crown. + + +BOXES of many sizes can be utilized in which to grow plants. Excellent +effects of bulbs and annuals may be had in old soap boxes. The boxes may +be placed in the best situations for the growth of the plants, and they +can receive better attention than the large flower bed. Vines planted +about the edge will hide the sides,--such vines as Kenilworth ivy, +moneywort, maurandya, trailing fuchsia, and the like. + + +BRACHYCOME. See _Swan River Daisy_. + + +BROCCOLI. This is almost identical with the Cauliflower, except that it +usually requires a longer season and matures in the fall. It is grown +more generally in Europe than in this country. The special merit of +Broccoli is its adaptability for late summer planting and its rapid +growth in the late fall. It is said that a large proportion of Broccoli +is used in the manufacture of pickles. The culture is the same as for +Cauliflower,--deep, moist soil well enriched, cool weather, and the +destruction of the cabbage worm. + +The young plants may be grown in a coldframe or in a well protected +border, sowing the seed about the 15th of May, transplanting into rows +in July. In sections in which early fall frosts are not to be feared, +the plants may be set two weeks later, say August 1, as all vegetables +of the cabbage family make the best growth through the cool months of +September and October. The plants should be set 18 in. apart in the +rows, the rows being from 2½ ft. to 3 ft. apart. + + +BROWALLIA ELATA is a very fine tender annual, giving a border or mixed +bed a dash of amethyst blue not often found in flowers. It is a +strong-growing plant with a profusion of bloom, and no doubt one of the +choicest plants of its color in cultivation. There are other species +with white flowers that serve as contrast, and may be grown with this. +All of the kinds may be taken up and potted in the fall, cutting the +plant well back, and a profusion of bloom may be obtained through the +winter months if attention is given to pinching off the seed pods. In +the garden, let the plants stand 12 in. apart. The plants grow 1-2 ft. +high. + + +BRUSSELS SPROUTS. This is a vegetable that should be more generally +known, as it is one of the choicest of the cabbage family, and may be +had at its best after the season for cauliflower has passed. It is the +better for being touched by the fall frosts. The parts used are the +buttons or sprouts (miniature cabbage heads) that grow thickly along the +stem. These should be cut off rather than broken. The very small hard +“sprouts” or buttons are the best. The culture is essentially the same +as for late cabbage or broccoli. One ounce will sow 100 ft. of drill, or +make upward of 2,000 plants. Set plants in field 2-3 ft. apart. They +require the entire season in which to grow. + + +BUDDING. See _Grafting_. + + +BULBS. The outdoor culture of bulbs is extremely simple. They care for +themselves throughout a greater part of the year, many of them flowering +when no other plants are able to grow and bloom out of doors. + +While all the so-called Holland bulbs will thrive in any kind of soil, +they will all do better by being planted in a deep, sandy soil well +enriched with well rotted manure. But do not let the manure come into +direct contact with the bulb. Even heavy clay soil may be fitted for the +growing of bulbs by the addition of sharp sand, either worked into the +soil or placed directly under the bulb when planted. To make a bulb bed, +choose, if possible, a sandy soil and throw out the top soil to the +depth of 6 in. Put into the bottom of the bed about 2 in. of well rotted +manure and spade it into the soil. Throw back half of the top soil, +level it off nicely, set the bulbs firmly on this bed and then cover +them with the balance of the soil; in this way one will have the bulbs +from 3 to 4 in. below the surface. In the fall months the top of the +ground is cooler than at the depth of 5 or 6 in. and the top of the bulb +will not want to grow, while the bottom, which is always in a hurry, +will send out roots, to push out the leaves and flowers the next spring. +When the weather is cold enough to freeze a hard crust on the soil, the +bed should have its winter overcoat. This may be straw, hay, cornstalks +or leaves spread over the bed to the depth of 6 in. if the material is +coarse; but if leaves are used, 3 in. will be enough, because the leaves +lay close together and may smother out the frost that is in the ground +and let the bulbs start. What we want is to keep them asleep until +spring, because if they start too early the hard freezes of March and +early April will spoil their beauty if the leaves or flowers are near or +above the surface. Early in April, in New York, the covering may be +removed gradually, and should all be off the beds before the leaves show +above the ground. + +If there is no sandy place for the beds, make them as directed, leaving +the stones in the bottom of the bed for drainage. Then, when ready to +set the bulb, place a large handful of sand where the bulb is to go and +set the bulb on it. This will keep the water from standing around the +bulb. Very fine results may be had on heavy soil by this method. + +As to kinds of bulbs, select hyacinths, tulips or narcissus or +daffodils, with snowdrops or crocuses of various colors around the edge. +For the culture of these and other bulbs, see the various articles +throughout the book. + +_The growing of flowering bulbs through the winter_ adds to the list of +house plants a charming variety. The labor, time and skill required is +much less than that of growing many of the larger plants more commonly +used for winter decorations. The larger number of winter bulbs may be +left out of doors until within four to six weeks of the time when they +are wanted in flower. Hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, and crocus can be +made to flower in the winter without difficulty. Secure the bulbs so as +to be able to pot them by the middle or last of October, or if earlier +all the better. The soil should be rich, sandy loam, if possible; if +not, the best one can get, to which add about one-fourth the bulk of +sand and mix thoroughly. If ordinary flower pots are to be used, put in +the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, charcoal or small stones for +drainage, then fill the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on +the dirt the top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot. Fill +around it with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing above the +dirt. If the soil is heavy, a good plan is to sprinkle a small handful +of sand under the bulb to carry off the water, the same as is done in +the beds outdoors. If one does not have pots he may use boxes. Starch +boxes are a good size to use, as they are not heavy to handle; and +excellent flowers are sometimes obtained from bulbs planted in old +tomato cans. If boxes or cans are used, care must be taken to have holes +in the bottoms to let the water run out. A large size hyacinth bulb +will do well in a 5-inch pot. The same size pot will do for three or +four narcissuses or eight to twelve crocuses. + +After the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles, they +should be placed in a cool place, either in a cold pit or cellar, or on +the shady side of a building, or, better yet, plunged or buried up to +the rim of the pot in a shady border. This is done to force the roots to +grow while the top stands still; as only the bulbs with good roots will +give good flowers. When the weather gets so cold that a crust is frozen +on the soil, the pots should be covered with a little straw, and as the +weather gets colder more straw must be used. In from six to eight weeks +after planting the bulbs, they should have made roots enough to grow the +plant, and they may be taken up and placed in a cool room for a week or +so, after which, if they have started into growth, they may be taken +into a warmer room where they can have plenty of light. They will grow +very rapidly now and will want lots of water, and after the flowers +begin to show, the pots may stand in a saucer of water all the time. +When just coming into bloom the plants may have full sunlight part of +the time to help bring out the color of the flowers. + + +BUSHES. See _Shrubs_. + + +CABBAGE. For an early crop, the plants must be started either in +February or early March, or the previous September and wintered over in +coldframes. This latter method was once a common practice by gardeners +near large cities, but the building of greenhouses to replace the many +hotbeds of the market-gardener has changed the practice in many +localities, and now most of the early Cabbages in the north are grown +from seed sown in January, February or March. The plants are hardened +off in March and early April and planted out as early as possible. The +private grower, or one with a small garden, may often procure his early +plants from the market-gardener much cheaper than he can grow them, as +usually only a limited number of early Cabbage plants are wanted; but +for the midseason and main crop, the seed may be sown in May or June, +setting the plants in July. + +[Illustration: Early Cabbage] + +For early planting, the number of varieties is limited to three or four. +For an intermediate crop the list is more extended, and the late +varieties are very numerous. The early list is headed by the Jersey +Wakefield, a variety which heads very quickly, and, although not one of +the solid kinds, is generally grown. The Early York and Winnigstadt are +good varieties to follow it. The latter especially is solid and of very +good quality. For the midseason, the Succession and All Season are of +the best, and for the winter supply the Drumhead, Danish Ball and Flat +Dutch types are the leaders. One of the best of the Cabbages for table +use is seldom seen in the garden--the Savoy Cabbage. It is a type with +netted leaves, making a large, low-growing head, the center of which is +very solid and of excellent flavor, especially late in the fall, when +the heads have had a slight touch of frost. Savoy should be grown in +every private garden. + +The seed-bed should be made mellow and rich. A good border will do. The +seed is sown preferably in rows, thus allowing thinning of the plants +and the pulling of any weeds that germinate. The young plants will well +repay attention to watering and thinning. The rows should be 3 or 4 in. +apart. When the plants are large enough to transplant, they may be +planted where early vegetables have been grown. Set the plants from 18 +to 24 in. apart in the row, the rows being 3 ft. apart for the +medium-growing kinds. One ounce of seed will furnish about two thousand +plants. All Cabbages require deep and rich soil, and one that holds +moisture well. + +The best remedy for the Cabbage worm is to kill the first brood on the +very young plants with Paris green. After the plants begin to head, +pyrethrum or salt water may be used. On a small area, hand-picking may +be recommended. + +The maggot is the most serious Cabbage pest. After studying the seventy +odd remedies proposed, Slingerland concludes that 6 are efficient and +practicable: growing the young plants in closely covered frames; tarred +paper cards placed snugly about the base of the plants to keep the fly +away; rubbing the eggs from the base of the plant; hand-picking of the +maggots; treating the plants with emulsion of carbolic acid; treating +them with carbon bisulfide. The insecticidal materials are injected or +poured into the soil about the base of the plant. + +Respecting these two insecticides, Slingerland remarks: “Always use the +crude carbolic acid, as it is much cheaper than the purified and is +nearly, if not quite, as effective. It will probably be safer if used as +an emulsion than if simply diluted with water. We would advise that it +be made by the follow formula: 1 pound of hard soap or 1 quart of soft +soap dissolved in 1 gallon of boiling water, into which 1 pint of crude +carbolic acid is then poured and the whole mass agitated into an +emulsion, which will remain in this condition for a long time. In +treating the plants, take one part of this standard emulsion and dilute +it with 30 equal parts of water; it probably can be used stronger +without injury to the plants. If the emulsion is cold and semi-solid, +use several parts of warm water at first. Begin the treatment early, a +day or two after the plants are up, or in the case of Cabbages and +Cauliflowers the next day after they are set in the field, and repeat it +once each week or 10 days until about May 20 in our state. While we have +little faith in the preventive effects of the early treatments, we do +believe that the emulsion will then kill many of the eggs and recently +hatched maggots. If it could be applied with some force through a +syringe or force pump, it might not be necessary to go to the trouble of +first removing some of the earth from about the plants. It must be +remembered that its success will depend on the eggs or maggots being hit +with it. None of the Cabbages in our experiment were injured in the +least by an application containing nearly twice as much of the acid, and +there is but little danger of its injuring the tenderest foliage of +radishes, turnips or onions; if any injury manifests itself on these +crops, dilute the emulsion with 40 or 50 or more parts of water, instead +of 30. A knapsack or wheelbarrow sprayer would prove a very useful +instrument in applying the emulsion on a large scale.” + +The carbon bisulfide is best injected into the soil by means of a +long-nosed syringe. Slingerland (Cornell Bulletin 78) illustrates a +specially made syringe or injector for this purpose: “Thus Cabbage +plants can be treated once, and once is usually sufficient, at the rate +of about 10 plants for 1 cent for the liquid, using about 1 teaspoonful +to each plant. As the injector will last for years, and several +neighbors might join in the purchase and use of one instrument, its cost +would practically not influence this estimate of the cost of killing the +maggots. We believe it is the cheapest, most effective, and most +practicable method yet devised for fighting this pest on crops of +Cabbages and cauliflowers; on crops of radishes, turnips, or onions it +will probably be too expensive except where choice or new varieties are +attacked. The carbolic acid emulsion will prove the most practicable on +these last crops.” + +The club-root, which causes the roots to become greatly thickened and +distorted, is difficult to manage if Cabbages or allied plants are grown +continuously on land in which diseased plants have been raised. Changing +the location of the Cabbage or Cauliflower patch is the best procedure. +If very different crops, as corn, potatoes, peas, tomatoes, etc., are +grown on the land, the disease will be starved out in two or three +years. + + +CACALIA. TASSEL FLOWER. LADIES’ PAINT BRUSH. A quaint old annual, in two +colors, scarlet and orange. It is easily grown, and makes a fine +second-row plant for a border, contrasting well with Browallia or +Ageratum. Sow where the plants are to stand. Let plants stand 10-12 +inches apart. Grow 1½-2 ft. high. + + +CACTUS. This class of plants is often seen in small collections of house +plants, to which they add interest, being altogether different from +other plants. All Cacti are easy to grow, requiring but little care and +enduring the heat and dryness of a living room much better than most +other plants. Their requirements are ample drainage and a sandy soil. +Cactus growers usually make a soil by mixing pulverized plaster or lime +refuse with garden loam, using about two-thirds of the loam. The very +fine parts, or dust, of the plaster, are blown out, else the soil is +likely to cement. They may be rested at any season by simply setting +them away in a dry place for two or three months, and bringing them into +heat and light when they are wanted. As new growth advances they should +have water occasionally, and when in bloom they should be watered +freely. Withhold water gradually after blooming until they are to be +rested. + +Some of the most common species in cultivation are the Phyllocactus +species, often called the Night-blooming Cereus. These are not the true +Night-blooming Cereuses, which have angular or cylindrical stems, +covered with bristles, while this has flat, leaf-like branches; the +flowers of these, however, are very much like the Cereus, opening at +evening and closing before morning, and as the Phyllocacti may be grown +with greater ease, blooming on smaller and younger plants, they are to +be recommended. See _Cereus_. + +The Epiphyllum, or Lobster Cactus, is one of the best of the family, +easy of culture. It bears bright-colored blossoms at the end of each +joint. When in flower, which will be through some of the winter months, +this requires a richer soil than the other Cacti. Opuntias, or prickly +pears, are often grown as border plants through the summer. In fact, all +the family may be planted out, and if a number of varieties are set in a +bed together they make a striking addition to the garden. Be very +careful not to bruise the plants. It is better to plunge them in the +pots than to turn them out of the pots. + + +[Illustration: Caladium or Colocasia] + +CALADIUM. Tuberous-rooted, tender perennial plants which are used for +conservatory decorations, and also for subtropical and bold effects in +the lawn. The plants which are commonly known under this name are really +Colocasias. The plants should be rested during the winter, being kept in +a warm cellar or under a greenhouse bench, where they are not liable to +frost or dampness. The roots are usually kept covered with earth during +the winter, but they are kept dry. Early in the spring the roots are put +into boxes or pots and are started into growth, so that by the time +settled weather comes they will be 1 or 2 feet high and ready to set +directly into soil. When set out of doors, they should be given a place +which is protected from strong winds, and one which does not receive the +full glare of direct sunlight. The soil should be rich and deep, and the +plants should have an abundance of water. Caladiums are most excellent +plants for striking effects, especially against a house, high shrubbery +or other background. If they are planted by themselves, they should be +in clumps rather than scattered as single specimens, as the effect is +better. See that they get a good start before they are planted in the +open ground. + + +CALCEOLARIA. Small greenhouse herbs which are sometimes used in the +window-garden. They are not very satisfactory plants for window +treatment, however, since they suffer from dry atmosphere and from +sudden changes of temperature. In the window-garden they should be +protected from strong, direct sunlight. They are grown from seeds. If +the seeds are sown in early summer and the young plants are transplanted +as they need, flowering specimens may be had for the late fall and early +winter. In the growing of the young plants, always avoid exposing them +to direct sunlight; but they should be given a place which has an +abundance of screened or tempered light. A new crop of plants should be +raised each year. There is a race of shrubby Calceolarias, but it is +little known in this country. One or two species are annuals which are +adaptable to cultivation in the open garden, and their little, +ladyslipper-like flowers are attractive. However, they are of secondary +importance as annual garden flowers. + + +CALENDULA. These are the well known POT MARIGOLDS, and add a bright spot +to any garden. Annual. Especially are they fine in the cool days of the +fall, when many of the annual flowers have gone to seed. The places of +short-lived plants may be filled by sowing seed of Calendulas in May, +scattering them through the border and allowing the plants to grow where +they come up. Easy of growth and hardy. 1-2 ft. high. Should stand 8-12 +in. apart. Colors, yellow and orange. + + +[Illustration: California Poppy] + +CALIFORNIA POPPY (_Eschscholtzia Californica_). Low perennial, +poppy-like plant, grown as a hardy annual. It is certainly one of the +best low-growing annuals, blooming through a long season and being at +its best through the cool days of fall, after touched by frost. Most of +the varieties have flowers of fine shades of orange or yellow, making a +bright spot in the border at all times. They are like the pot marigolds, +in that once planted they seed themselves. They are never out of place, +and should be left to bloom wherever they may be. Flowers open only in +sunshine. As cut-flowers they are excellent, a large bowl of them +glowing like a golden ball, especially if they are emphasized by a few +blue larkspurs or bachelor’s buttons. + +Propagated by seed, which would best be sown as soon as ripe, thus +giving the plant an early start, and having bloom through the season. +They make attractive mats of foliage. 12-18 in. high. Let the plants +stand 10-20 in. apart. + + +CALLA (properly _Richardia_). EGYPTIAN LILY. All things considered, this +is one of the most satisfactory of winter house plants, lending itself +to various conditions. The requirements of the Calla are rich soil and +an abundance of water, with the roots confined in as small a space as +possible. If a too large pot is used the growth of foliage will be very +rank, at the expense of the flowers, but by using a smaller sized pot +and applying liquid manure the flowers will be produced freely. A 6-inch +pot will be large enough for all but an exceptionally large bulb. If +desired, a number of bulbs may be grown together in a larger pot. The +soil should be very rich but fibrous--at least one-third well rotted +manure will be none too much, mixed with equal parts of fibrous loam and +sharp sand. The tubers should be planted firmly and the pots set in a +cool place to make roots. After the roots have partially filled the pot, +the plant may be brought into heat and given a sunny position and an +abundance of water. An occasional sponging or washing of the leaves will +free them from dust. No other treatment will be required until the +flowers appear, when liquid manure may be given. The plant will thrive +all the better at this time if the pot is placed in a saucer of water. +In fact, the Calla will grow finely in an aquarium. The Calla may be +grown through the entire year, but it will prove more satisfactory, both +in leaf and flower, if rested through part of the summer. This may be +done by laying the pots on their sides in a dry, shady place under +shrubbery, or if in the open slightly covered with straw or other litter +to keep the roots from becoming extremely dry. In September or October +they may be shaken out, cleaning off all the old soil, and repotted, as +already mentioned. The offsets may be taken off and set in small pots +and given a year’s growth, resting them the second year and having them +in flower that winter. + +The spotted Calla has variegated foliage and is a fine plant for mixed +collections. This blooms in the spring, which will lengthen the season +of Calla bloom. The treatment of this is similar to that of the common +Calla. + + +CALLIOPSIS is a garden name for _Coreopsis_. + + +CALLIRRHOË. _C. pedata_ is a hardy annual which has large, graceful +blossoms of violet or red. Is it a very free-blooming plant. Should be +started in a frame and planted out where wanted. 2-3 ft. high and grows +bushy. Plants should stand 1½-2 ft. apart. + + +CAMELLIA. Years ago Camellias were very popular, but they have been +crowded out by the informal flowers of recent times. Their time will +come again. They are half-hardy woody plants, blooming in late winter +and spring. During the blooming season keep them cool--say not over 50° +at night and a little higher by day. When blooming is done they begin to +grow, then give them more heat and plenty of water. See that they are +well ripened by winter. Always screen them from direct sunlight. Do not +try to force them in early winter, after the growth has ceased. Their +summer quarters may be in a protected place in the open air. Propagated +by cuttings in winter, which should give blooming plants in two years. +Use a porous soil for Camellias, with considerable leaf-mold. + + +CAMPANULA. BELL FLOWER. But one of the Campanulas commonly listed by +seedsmen is an annual,--_C. macrostyla_, a clean-leaved plant, growing 2 +feet high, spreading over the ground, and bearing a profusion of large, +violet, bell-shaped flowers. The Canterbury Bell is the best known. It +is biennial, but if started early and transplanted will bloom the first +season. The perennial Campanulas are most excellent for borders. _C. +Carpatica_ is particularly good for edgings. + + +CANARY BIRD FLOWER. See _Nasturtium_. + + +[Illustration: Candytuft] + +CANDYTUFT. Well known sweet-scented hardy annuals, in red, purple, and +white; easy of culture and fine for cutting. One of the best of edging +plants for the front row. The plants grow from 6 in. to 1 ft. tall. Sow +seeds where the plants are to grow, letting plants stand 6-12 in. apart. +They do not last the entire season, and successive sowings may well be +made. There are also perennial kinds. + + +CANNA is now the favorite bedding plant. The improvements made in the +past ten years, in size and markings of the flowers, have created a +liking for the plant. The tropical effect of a large bed of Cannas, +either mixed or of one color, is not surpassed by any other plant used +for bedding purposes. + +[Illustration: Canna] + +The Canna may be grown from seed and had in bloom the first year by +sowing in February or March, in boxes or pots placed in hotbeds or +warmhouse, first soaking the seeds in warm water for a short time. +Attention to transplanting as needed and removal to the ground only when +it is well warmed are the necessary requirements. The majority of +Cannas, however, are grown from pieces of the roots (rhizomes), each +piece having a bud. The roots may be divided at any time in the winter, +and if early flowers and foliage are wanted the pieces may be planted in +a hotbed or warmhouse in early April, started into growth and planted +out where wanted as soon as the ground has warmed and all danger of +frost is over. A hardening of the plants, by leaving the sash off the +hotbeds, or setting the plants in shallow boxes and placing the boxes +in a sheltered position through May, not forgetting a liberal supply of +water, will fit the plants to take kindly to the final planting out. +After frost has injured the tops, the roots may be dug, choosing, if +possible, a dry day. The soil is shaken off and the roots stored in a +warm, dry place through the winter. If the cellar is too dry the roots +are liable to shrivel, in which case it would be best to cover them with +soil or sand, filling in around the roots to exclude the drying air. + +Cannas grow 3 to 7 ft. high. For dense mass effects, plant 12-18 in. +apart. For individual plants, or for best bloom, give more room. Fine +clumps may be had by planting out the entire old root, not dividing it. +Cannas want a rich, warm soil and a sunny place. They are very easy to +grow. + + +CANTERBURY BELL is a _Campanula_. + + +CARBONATE OF COPPER. See _Bordeaux Mixture_. + + +CARDIOSPERMUM. See _Balloon Vine_. + + +CARNATIONS are of two types, the outdoor or garden varieties, and the +indoor or forcing kinds. Normally, the Carnation is a hardy perennial, +but the garden kinds, or Marguerites, are usually treated as annuals. +The forcing kinds are flowered but once, new plants being grown each +year from cuttings. + +Marguerite Carnations bloom the year the seed is sown, and with a slight +protection will bloom freely the second year. They make attractive house +plants if potted in the fall. The seeds of these Carnations should be +sown in boxes in March and the young plants set out as early as +possible, pinching out the center of the plant to make them branch +freely. Give the same space as for garden pinks. + +[Illustration: Carnation] + +The winter-flowering Carnations have become prime favorites with all +flower lovers, and a collection of winter house plants seems incomplete +without them. Carnations grow readily from cuttings made of the suckers +that form around the base of the stem, the side shoots of the flowering +stem, or the main shoots before they show flower buds. The cuttings from +the base make the best plants in most cases. These cuttings may be taken +from a plant at any time through the fall or winter, rooted in sand and +potted up, to be held in pots until the planting out time in the spring, +usually in April, or any time when the ground is ready to handle. Care +should be taken to pinch out the tops of young plants while growing in +the pot, and later while in the ground, causing them to grow stocky and +send out new growths along the stem. The young plants should be grown +cool, a temperature of 45° suiting them well. Attention should be given +to spraying the cuttings each day while in the house to keep down the +red spider, which is very partial to the Carnation. In the summer, the +plants are grown in the field, and not in pots. The soil in which they +are to be planted should be moderately rich and loose. Clean cultivation +should be given throughout the summer. Frequently pinch out the tops. +The plants are taken up in September and potted firmly, and well +watered; then set in a cool, partially shaded situation until root +growth has started, spraying the foliage often, and watering the plant +only as it shows need of water. + +[Illustration: Carnation cutting] + +The usual living-room conditions as to moisture and heat are not such as +the Carnation demands, and care must be taken to overcome the dryness by +spraying the foliage and setting the plant in a position not exposed to +the direct heat of a stove or the sun. In commercial houses, it is not +often necessary to spray established plants. Pick off most or all of the +side buds, in order to add to the size of the leading flowers. After +all is said, it is probably advisable in most cases to purchase the +plants when in bloom from a florist, and after blooming either throw +them away or store them for planting in the spring, when they will bloom +throughout the summer. + + +CARPET BEDDING. See _Bedding_. + + +[Illustration: Early Carrots] + +CARROT, while essentially a farm crop in this country, is nevertheless a +most acceptable garden vegetable. It is hardy and easily grown. The +extra-early varieties may be forced in a hotbed, or seed may be sown as +soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring. The stump-rooted, or +half-long varieties, are sown for the general garden crop. Well +enriched, mellow loam, deeply dug or plowed, is best suited to the +requirements of Carrots. The seed for the main crop may be sown as late +as July 1. Sow thickly, thinning to 3-4 in. in the row. The rows, if in +a garden that is hand-worked, may be 12 in. apart. If the cultivation is +done by a horse, the rows should be from 2 to 3 ft. apart. One ounce +will sow 100 feet of drill. + + +[Illustration: Castor Bean] + +CASTOR OIL PLANT. In the entire list of quick-growing plants there is +none that excels this for rapidity of growth, grace of foliage and rich +effect. Used either as a specimen plant, with cannas, caladiums, or for +a tropical bed, or as a screen, it gives the most satisfactory results. +Seeds sown early in the house, and the plants grown in the full light, +make fine, stocky plants to set out about the middle of May. With rich +soil and plenty of water, they will grow without a check until frost. +Height, 5-12 ft. For screens, plant 3-4 ft. apart. There are varieties +with differing shades of foliage. + + +CAULIFLOWER. The general culture of Cauliflower is much like that of +cabbage, except that the Cauliflower, being more tender, should be more +thoroughly hardened off before setting out. Still, it is essential that +the plants be set out as early as possible, as the warm weather of June +causes them to make imperfect heads unless the soil is filled with +moisture. No garden crop will as well repay the cost and time of +thorough irrigation, either by running the water between the rows or +applying it directly to the plants. When it is impossible to furnish +water, it would be a good plan to mulch heavily with straw or some other +substance. This mulch, if put on just after a heavy rain, will hold the +moisture for a long time. When the heads begin to form the outside +leaves may be brought together and tied above the head, excluding the +direct sunshine and keeping the head white and tender. No vegetable will +respond more quickly to good culture and well manured soil than the +Cauliflower, and none will prove such an utter failure when neglected. +It is imperative that care be taken to destroy all the cabbage worms +before the leaves are tied in, as after that it will be impossible to +see or reach them. Cauliflower prospers best in moist soil and a cool +climate. From 1,000 to 1,500 plants may be grown from 1 ounce of seed. +Good Cauliflower seed is very expensive. + +[Illustration: Cauliflower] + +For winter crop, seeds may be started in June or July, as for late +cabbage. + +Erfurt, Snowball and Paris are popular early varieties. Nonpareil and +Algiers are good late kinds. + + +CELERIAC, or TURNIP-ROOTED CELERY. This tuber has the celery flavor in a +pronounced degree, and is used for flavoring soups and for celery salad. +It may be served raw, sliced in vinegar and oil, or boiled. The culture +is the same as given for celery, except that no earthing or blanching is +required. About an equal number of plants are obtained from the same +weight of seed as from celery seed. Celeriac is extensively used abroad, +but, unfortunately, is little grown in America. + + +CELERY has become one of the favorite relish and salad vegetables, and +is now very generally grown. The self-blanching varieties have +simplified the culture so that the amateur, as well as the expert, may +have a supply through at least six months of the year. The so-called new +culture, which consists of setting the plants close together and causing +them to shade each other, can be recommended for the garden when a +supply of well rotted manure is to be had, and when any amount of water +is available. This method is as follows: Fork or spade into the soil a +large quantity of manure to the depth of 10-12 in., pulverize the soil +until the ground for the depth of 4-6 in. is in very fine condition. +Then set the plants in rows 10 in. apart and the plants but 5 or 6 in. +apart in the rows. It will be seen that plants set as close as this will +soon fill the soil with a mass of roots and must have large amounts of +plant-food, as well as a large quantity of water; and the making of such +a bed can be recommended only to those who can supply these needs. + +[Illustration: Celery] + +The common practice in home gardens is to plow or dig a shallow trench, +setting the plants in the bottom and hoeing in the soil as the plants +grow. The distance apart of the rows and plants will depend on the +varieties. For the dwarf varieties, such as White Plume, Golden +Self-blanching and others of that type, the rows may be as close as 3 +ft. and the plants 6 in. in the rows. For the large-growing varieties, +as Kalamazoo, Giant Pascal and, in fact, most of the late varieties, +the rows may be from 4½ to 5 ft. apart and the plants 7 or 8 in. in +the row. + +The seed for an early crop should be sown in February or early in March +in shallow boxes, which may be placed in a hotbed or sunny window, or +sown directly in the soil of a hotbed. Cover the seeds thinly and press +the soil firmly over them. When the seedling plants are about one inch +high they should be transplanted to other boxes or hotbeds, setting the +plants 1 in. apart in rows 3 in. apart. At this transplanting, as with +the following ones, the tall leaves should be cut or pinched off, +leaving only the upright growth, as with the utmost care it is almost +impossible to prevent the outside leafstalks from wilting down and +dying. The roots of the plants should also be trimmed back at each +transplanting in order to increase the feeding roots. The plants should +be set as deep as possible, care being taken, however, not to allow the +heart of the plant to be covered up. The varieties usually grown for an +early crop are the so-called self-blanching varieties. They may be made +fit for the table with much less labor than the late crop, the shade +required to blanch the stalks being much less. When only a few short +rows are grown in a private garden, screens of lath may be made by +driving stakes on each side of the row and tacking lath on, leaving +spaces of an inch or more for the light to enter; or each head may be +wrapped in paper, or a tile drain pipe may be set over the plant. In +fact, any material that will exclude the light will render the stalks +white and brittle. + +The seed for the main or fall crop should be sown in April or early May +in a seed bed prepared by forking fine, well rotted manure into a fine +soil, sowing the seed thinly in rows 8 or 10 in. apart, covering the +seed lightly and firming over the seed with the feet, hoe or back of a +spade. This seed bed should be kept moist at all times until the seed +germinates, either by close attention to watering or by a lath screen. +The use of a piece of cloth laid directly on the soil, and the bed wet +through the cloth, is often recommended, and if the cloth is always wet +and taken off the bed as soon as the seed sprouts it can be used. After +the young plants have grown to the height of 1 or 2 in. they must be +thinned out, leaving the plants so that they do not touch each other, +and transplanting those thinned--if wanted--to other ground prepared in +the same manner as the seed bed. All these plants may be sheared or cut +back to induce stockiness. + +If in a private garden, the ground on which the fall crop is usually set +will likely be land from which a crop of some early vegetable has been +taken. This land should be again well enriched with fine, well rotted +manure, to which may be added a liberal amount of wood ashes. If the +manure or ashes are not easily obtained, a small amount may be used by +plowing or digging out a furrow 8 or 12 in. deep, scattering the manure +and ashes in the bottom of the trench and filling it up almost level +with the surface. The plants should be set about the middle of July, +preferably just before a rain. The plant bed should have a thorough +soaking shortly before the plants are lifted, and each plant be trimmed, +both top and root, before setting. The plants should be set from 5 to 6 +in. apart in the rows and the earth well firmed around each one. + +The after-cultivation consists in thorough tillage until the time of +“handling” or earthing up the plants. This process of handling is +accomplished by drawing up the earth with one hand while holding the +plant with the other, packing the soil well around the stalks. This +process may be continued until only the leaves are to be seen. For the +private grower, it is much easier to blanch the Celery with boards or +paper, or if the Celery is not wanted until winter, the plants may be +dug up, packed closely in boxes, covering the roots with soil, and +placed in a dark, cool cellar, where the stalks will blanch themselves. +In this manner Celery may be stored in boxes in the house cellar. Put +earth in the bottom of a deep box, and plant the Celery in it. An ounce +of seed will furnish about three thousand plants. + + +CENTAUREA. Showy annuals and perennials. _C. Cyanus_ is the CORN FLOWER +or BACHELOR BUTTON, familiar to every flower lover, and always seen in +old-fashioned gardens. This is a fine plant for borders or mixed beds, +and also gives good flowers for bouquets. A bunch of the Corn Flower, +with a sprinkling of yellow marigolds or California poppy, makes a rich +effect. These Centaureas are easy of culture, seeding themselves after +once being planted, and coming up year after year in great profusion. +There are blue, white and rose varieties. Annuals. 2-3 ft. Hardy. + +The silver-leaved Centaureas are used only for foliage effects. They are +excellent for ribbon beds or border lines. The seed of these should be +started in a hotbed or box in March, the young plants being set out +where wanted when the ground becomes warm. These species are perennials, +and are sometimes grown from cuttings. _C. candidissima_ and _C. +gymnocarpa_ are among the best white-leaved bedders. + + +CENTRANTHUS. Low-growing hardy annuals in two colors, red and white. +They make very effective covering for low rockwork, and are also +suitable for vases or lawn baskets. Sow where the plants are to stand, +or start indoors if early bloom is wanted. 1 ft. Thin to 10-12 in. +apart. + + +CENTURY PLANT, or AGAVE. These are fine ornamental plants for the +window-garden or conservatory, requiring but little care and growing +slowly, thus needing repotting only at long intervals. When the plants +have outgrown their usefulness as house plants, they are still valuable +as porch decorations, for plunging in rockwork or about rustic nooks. +The striped-leaved variety is the most desirable, but the common type, +with its blue-gray leaves, is highly ornamental. + +There are a number of dwarf-growing species of Agave that are not so +common, although they may be grown with ease. Such plants add novelty to +a collection, and may be used through the summer as noted above or +plunged with cactus in a bed of tropical plants. All succeed well in +loam and sand in equal parts, adding a little leaf-mold in the case of +the small varieties. The more common species are propagated by suckers +from around the base of the established plants. A few kinds having no +suckers must be grown from seed. As to watering, they demand no special +care. Agaves will not stand frost. + + +CEREUS. Under the name of NIGHT-BLOOMING CEREUSES, several species of +Cacti are cultivated. The name is sometimes applied to species of +Phyllocactus, the flowers of which, in white and shades of red, +sometimes open at nightfall. Phyllocactuses are easy to grow. See +_Cactus_. The true Night-blooming Cereuses, however, are species of the +genus Cereus. The commonest one is _C. nycticalus_, but _C. +grandiflorus_, _C. triangularis_ and others are occasionally seen. These +true Night-blooming Cereuses all have long rod-like stems, which are +cylindrical or angular. These stems often reach a height of 10 to 30 +ft., and they need support. They should be trained along a pillar or +tied to a stake. They are uninteresting leafless things during a large +part of the year; but in midsummer, after they are three or more years +old, they throw out their great tubular flowers, which open at nightfall +and wither and die when the light strikes them next morning. They are +very easily grown, either in pots or planted in the natural soil in the +conservatory. The only special care they need is good drainage at the +roots, so that the soil will not become soggy. + + +CHERRY. Of Cherries there are two common types, the sweet Cherries and +the sour Cherries. The sweet Cherries are larger and taller-growing +trees. They comprise the varieties known as the Hearts, Bigarreaus and +Dukes. The sour Cherries include the various kinds of Morellos and pie +Cherries, and these usually ripen after the sweet Cherries. The sour +Cherries make low, round-headed trees. The fruits are extensively used +for canning. Cherry trees should be planted when 2 and 3 years old. Too +rich soil tends to make growth at the expense of fruit, particularly in +the sweet Cherries. For the sweet types, a strong, gravelly loam is +best. Sour Cherries thrive well on clay loams. + +Trees of the sour Cherry should be planted 18 by 18 ft. apart, in well +prepared under-drained soil. The trees may be slightly trimmed back each +year, keeping the head low and bushy. + +[Illustration: Sweet Cherry] + +The sweet Cherries have proved disappointing in many instances from the +rotting of the fruit. This may never be entirely avoided, but good +cultivation, soil not too rich in nitrogen, attention to spraying, and +picking the fruit when dry, will lessen the loss very much. In years of +severe rotting, the fruit should be picked before it becomes fully ripe, +placed in a cool, airy room and allowed to color. It will be nearly as +well flavored as if left on the tree; and, as the fungus usually attacks +only the ripe fruit, a considerable part of the crop may be saved. Set +the trees 25 or 30 ft. apart. + +[Illustration: Black Tartarian Cherry] + +Leaf-blight is readily controlled by timely spraying with Bordeaux +mixture. The curculio or fruit worm is best controlled by jarring, as +for plums (which see). + +Of sweet Cherries, Windsor is the most popular variety. Other good kinds +are Napoleon, Governor Wood, Dikeman, Black Tartarian. Of sour Cherries, +Ostheim and Early Richmond are very early and productive, but better +kinds are Montmorency and English Morello. + + +CHERVIL. The curled Chervil is a good addition to the list of garnishing +vegetables, and adds flavor to dishes when it is used to season. Sow +seeds and cultivate the same as parsley. + +The tuberous Chervil resembles a short carrot or parsnip. It is much +esteemed in France and Germany. The tubers have somewhat the flavor of a +sweet potato, perhaps a little sweeter. They are perfectly hardy, and, +like the parsnip, the better for frosts. The seed may be sown in +September or October, as it does not keep well; or as soon as the ground +is fit to work in the spring, it being slow to germinate after the +weather becomes hot and dry. One packet of seed will give all the plants +necessary. + + +CHESTNUTS. Of Chestnuts there are three types in cultivation: the +European, the Japanese, and the American. The American, or native +Chestnuts, of which there are several improved varieties, are the +hardiest and most reliable, and the nuts are the sweetest, but they are +also the smallest. The Japanese varieties are usually injured by the +winter in central New York. The European varieties are somewhat hardier, +and some of the varieties will thrive in the northern states. Chestnuts +are very easily grown. They usually bear better when two or more trees +are planted near each other. There are few really good Chestnut orchards +in North America, but Chestnut planting is now considerably agitated. +Sprouts in old Chestnut clearings are often allowed to remain, and +sometimes they are grafted to the improved varieties. The young trees +may be grafted in the spring by the whip-graft or cleft-graft method; +but the cions should be perfectly dormant, and the operation should be +very carefully done. Even with the best workmanship, a considerable +percentage of the grafts are likely to fail or to break off after two or +three years. The most popular single variety of Chestnut is the Paragon, +which bears large and excellent nuts when the tree is very young. When +the home ground is large enough, two or three of these trees should be +planted near the borders. + + +CHICORY. The Magdeburg Chicory is the variety usually spoken of, it +being the one most extensively grown. The roots of this, after being +ground and roasted, are used either as a substitute or an adulterant of +coffee. + +The Witloof, a form of Chicory, is used as a salad, or boiled and served +in the same manner as Cauliflower. The plants should be thinned to 6 in. +In the latter part of summer they should be banked up like celery, and +the leaves used after becoming white and tender. This and the common +wild Chicory are often dug in the fall, the leaves cut off, the roots +packed in sand in a cellar and watered until a new growth of leaves +starts. These leaves grow rapidly and are very tender, making a fine +salad vegetable. One packet of seed of the Witloof will furnish plants +enough for a large family. + + +[Illustration: Chrysanthemum] + +CHRYSANTHEMUMS are both annual and perennial. The annual Chrysanthemums +must not be confounded with the well known fall-flowering kinds, as they +will prove a disappointment if one expects large flowers of all colors +and shapes. The annuals are mostly coarse-growing plants, with an +abundance of bloom and a rank smell. The flowers are single in most +cases, and not very lasting. They are useful for massing and also for +cut-flowers. They are among the easiest of hardy annuals to grow. The +stoniest part of the garden will usually suit them. 1-2 ft. Colors white +and shades of yellow, the flowers daisy-like. + +Amongst perennial kinds, _Chrysanthemum frutescens_ is the well known +Paris Daisy or Marguerite, one of the most popular of the genus. This +makes a very fine pot-plant for the window-garden, blooming throughout +the winter and spring months. It is usually propagated by cuttings, +which, if taken in spring, will give large blooming plants for the next +winter. Gradually transfer to larger pots or boxes, until the plants +finally stand in 6-inch or 8-inch pots or in small soap boxes. There is +a fine yellow-flowered variety. + +[Illustration: Chrysanthemums in a box] + +In variety of form and color, and in size of bloom, the florists’ +Chrysanthemum is one of the most wonderful of plants. It is a late +autumn flower, and it needs little artificial heat to bring it to +perfection. The great blooms of the exhibitions are produced by growing +only one flower to a plant and by feeding the plant heavily. It is +hardly possible for the amateur to grow such specimen flowers as the +professional florist or gardener does; neither is it necessary. A +well-grown plant with fourteen to twenty flowers is far more +satisfactory as a window plant than a long, stiff stem with only one +immense flower at the apex. Their culture is simple, much more so than +that of many of the plants commonly grown for house decoration. Although +their season of bloom is short, the satisfaction of having a fall +display of flowers before the geraniums, begonias and other house plants +have recovered from their removal from out of doors, repays all efforts. + +[Illustration: Cutting of Chrysanthemum] + +Cuttings taken in March or April, planted out in the border in May, well +tended through the summer and lifted before frost in September, will +bloom in October or November. The ground in which they are planted +should be moderately rich and moist. The plants may be tied to stakes. +When the buds show, all but the center one of each cluster on the +leading shoots should be picked off, as also the small lateral branches. +A thrifty bushy plant thus treated will usually have flowers large +enough to show the character of the variety, also enough flowers to make +a fine display. As to the receptacle into which to put them when lifted +from the border, it need not be a flower pot. A pail or soap box, with +holes bored for drainage, will suit the plant just as well, and by +covering the box with cloth or paper the difference will not be noticed. +If cuttings are not to be had, young plants may be bought of the +florists and treated in the manner described. Buy them in midsummer or +earlier. + +[Illustration: Vase of small Chrysanthemums] + +It is best not to attempt to flower the same plant two seasons. After +the plant has bloomed, the top may be cut down, and the box set in a +cellar and kept moderately dry. In February or March, bring the plant to +the sitting-room window and let the shoots start from the root. These +shoots are taken for cuttings to grow plants for the fall bloom. + +[Illustration: Hardy Chrysanthemum] + +There is a hardy race of Chrysanthemums, very excellent for the border. +Mulch in winter. The best bloom is usually given the first and second +years. + + +CINERARIA. A tender greenhouse plant. It may be grown as a house plant, +although the conditions necessary to the best results are hard to obtain +outside of a greenhouse. The conditions for their growing are a cool +temperature, frequent repotting and guarding against the attacks of the +greenfly. Perhaps the last is the most difficult, and with one having no +facilities for fumigating, it will be almost impossible to prevent the +difficulty. A living room usually has too dry air for Cinerarias. The +seed, which is very minute, should be sown in August or September to +have plants in bloom in January or February. Sow the seed on the surface +of fine soil and water very lightly to settle the seeds into the soil. A +piece of glass or a damp cloth may be spread over the pot or box in +which the seeds are sown, to remain until the seeds are up. Always keep +the soil damp, but not wet. When the seedlings are large enough to +repot, they should be potted singly in 2- or 3-inch pots. Before the +plants have become pot-bound, they should again be repotted into larger +pots, until they are in at least a 6-inch pot in which to bloom. In all +this time, they should be grown cool and, if not possible to fumigate +them with tobacco smoke, the pots should stand on tobacco stems, which +should be moist at all times. The general practice, in order to have +bushy plants, is to pinch out the center when the flower buds show, +causing the lateral branches to start, which they are slow to do if the +central stem is allowed to grow. Plants bloom but once. + + +CIVES. These belong to the onion family, and are propagated by division +of the root. They may be planted in a permanent place in the border, +and, being hardy, will remain for years. The leaves are the parts used, +as the roots are very rank in flavor. The leaves may be cut frequently, +as they readily grow again. + + +CLARKIA. The Clarkias are among the popular hardy edging and vase +annuals, bearing rose, white or bordered flowers in great profusion. The +double-flowering varieties are the most showy, but the single ones will +prove very satisfactory. The seeds may be sown where the plants are +wanted, or started in frames for earlier flowers. 6-18 in. high. Thin to +6-12 in. apart. Plant in a warm soil and sunny place. + + +CLEMATIS. One of the best of woody climbing vines. The common _C. +Flammula_, _Virginiana_, _paniculata_ and others are used frequently to +cover division walls or fences, growing year after year without any care +and producing quantities of flowers. _C. paniculata_ is now planted very +extensively. The panicles of star-shaped flowers entirely cover the vine +and have a pleasant fragrance. One of the best of all fall-flowering +vines, and hardy North. Clings well to a chicken-wire trellis. + +The large-flowered section, of which Jackmani is perhaps the best known, +is very popular for pillar or porch climbers. The flowers of this +section are large and showy, running from pure white, through blue, to +scarlet. Of this class, the most serviceable purple is Jackmani; white, +Henryi; blue, Ramona; crimson, Madame E. André. + +The Flammula class may be propagated by division of the roots. The +large-flowered kinds are propagated by layers or root-grafting on _C. +Flammula_ and others. + +[Illustration: Clematis paniculata] + +A deep, mellow, rich soil, naturally moist, will suit the requirements +of Clematis. In dry times apply water freely, particularly for the +large-flowered kinds. Also provide trellis or other support as soon as +they begin to run. Clematis usually blooms on the wood of the season: +therefore prune in winter or early spring, in order to secure strong new +flowering shoots. The large-flowered kinds should be cut back to the +ground each year; and other kinds may be similarly treated unless they +are wanted for permanent bowers. + +The Clematis root disease is the depredation of a nematode or eel-worm. +It is seldom troublesome in ground which thoroughly freezes. + + +CLIMBERS. Treated under _Vines_. + + +COBÆA. This is most commonly seen in the greenhouse, although it is one +of the best of tender climbers for porches. Seed sown in February or +March, and grown in gentle heat, will make suitable plants for setting +out by June. It may also be grown from cuttings of the young wood, taken +in February and rooted in brisk heat. The flowers of _C. scandens_ are +shaped very much like those of the Campanulas, but are larger. They open +a greenish white and deepen to a dark purple in the course of a few +days. The vines in full bloom have a gradation of colors as the flowers +are in different stages of development. The variegated form of _C. +scandens_ should be propagated by cuttings to hold the variegation. +Grows 10-15 ft. Tender. Climbs by means of tendrils. + + +COCKSCOMB. _Celosia cristata_ is the well known Cockscomb, having combs +or heads of scarlet, crimson, rose and yellow. The combs are often +saved for winter bouquets by cutting them off before thoroughly ripe and +drying them. The feathered section comprises tall-growing plants with +plumes of various colors which, with the colored leaves of some +varieties, make a striking feature in a border. The Celosias, being +tender, should be started in a hotbed or frame, potted off when out of +the seed-leaf, and planted out in well enriched soil after danger of +frost is past, 1½-2½ ft. high. + + +COLDFRAME. A Coldframe is a simple, low structure, covered with glass or +oiled paper or cloth, in which plants are grown without artificial heat. +It differs from the hotbed in the fact that it has no bottom heat. The +atmosphere in the Coldframe is warmer than that outside, because it is +protected from the winds and because there is more or less of the sun’s +heat stored up in the earth. For the details of construction of the +Coldframe, see _Hotbed_. + +A Coldframe is ordinarily used for later work than the hotbed: that is, +seeds may be sown in a Coldframe from two to three and sometimes four +weeks in advance of their sowing in the open; whereas in a hotbed the +seeds may be started from one to three months earlier than they may be +out of doors. Coldframes are sometimes used for the wintering over of +hardy plants which are started in the fall. For example, cabbage seed +may be sown in September in a Coldframe and the young plants may be +protected therein during the winter. If they are properly grown and +hardened off, they will not be injured by the winter, even though they +freeze. Lettuce and sometimes cauliflowers are carried over in the same +way. Coldframes are also used to receive plants which have outgrown the +hotbed and must be transplanted. Plants which need hardening off may +also be transplanted from the hotbed into the Coldframe. The Coldframe +in these cases is an intermediate stage between the hotbed and the open +field. + + +COLEUS. A well known foliage plant for pot culture or bedding. It was +used very extensively at one time in ornamental bedding and ribbon +borders, but owing to its being tender has lost in favor, and its place +is largely taken by other plants. Cuttings root very readily. It may +also be grown from seed, although the types have not become fixed, and a +large number of differently marked plants may be had from the same +packet. This would not be a drawback in the window-garden, unless a +uniform effect is wished. Sow the seed in gentle heat in March. Make new +plants from cuttings each year, and throw the old ones away. + + +COLLARDS. This is a name given to a kind of kale, used when young as +greens; also to young cabbages used in the same way. The seed of any +early cabbage may be sown thickly in rows 18 inches apart, from early +spring to late fall. The plants are cut off when 6 or 8 inches high and +boiled as are other greens. The kale Collards is grown in the South, +where cabbages fail to head. It grows to the height of 2 to 6 feet, +furnishing a large quantity of leaves. + + +COLLINSIA. A hardy annual that should be sown in the fall, where wanted, +if early flowers are desired. The flowers of all the varieties are +showy, either in masses or planted in a border. Give them a position +near the front, as the plants rarely exceed 18 inches in height. + + +COLUMBINE. See _Aquilegia_. + + +COMPOST. See _Manure_. + + +CONVOLVULUS. See _Morning-Glory_. + + +COREOPSIS, or CALLIOPSIS. Very showy hardy annuals, growing from 1 to 3 +feet high, and covered throughout the season with a profusion of bloom. +The colors range from lemon-yellow to dark velvety brown. Excellent for +cutting, and very effective in mixed borders. They thrive in any garden +soil if they have full sunlight. Sow where they are to grow, letting the +plants stand 6-12 in. apart for mass effects. + + +CORN SALAD. This is one of the earliest spring salad vegetables, coming +into condition to use with spinach, and needing the same culture. Sown +in the fall, and covered with straw or hay when cold weather sets in, it +will start into rapid growth when the covering is removed in March or +April. Or the seed may be sown in early spring, and plants will be fit +to use in six or eight weeks. One packet of seed will suffice for a +small family. + + +CORN, SWEET, is not so generally used as it should be. Usually when +planted at all, only one planting of one kind is made. The ears come to +edible maturity almost simultaneously, and a short season of Sweet Corn +is the result. The first planting should be made from May 1 to 10, +planting early, intermediate and late varieties at the same time, then +at intervals of two weeks until the middle of July, when the late +varieties should be planted, thus having a succession from the first +crop until October. The soil for Corn should be rich in plant-food, and +the coarser manure left from the preparation of the ground for small +crops may be used to good advantage. Corn for the garden is better +planted in drills, the drills 3 feet apart, dropping the seed from 10 to +12 inches apart in the drills. One quart of seed will plant 200 hills. + +For extra early, Marblehead, Adams, Vermont, Minnesota and Early Cory +are favorites. For later crop, Crosby, Hickox, Shoe Peg and Stowell +Evergreen are now popular. + + +COSMOS. The Cosmos grown in a locality free from early fall frosts is +certainly a beautiful thing, but there are probably few flowers that +have caused so much disappointment to the flower lover in the North. The +seed germinates very freely. The plants grow with great vigor, and if +the season permits, an abundance of bloom may be had in September. An +early-flowering strain of dwarf Cosmos has been offered by the trade for +several years; and each year there seems to be an improvement in the +size and colors, so the time may shortly come when this will equal the +late-flowering varieties, making the culture of Cosmos more +satisfactory. Cosmos flowers are borne on long stems, and the colors are +in white and fine shades of red. The foliage is also fine. Seed should +be sown in gentle heat, in the greenhouse, hotbed or window in early +April, and the young plants transplanted when 2 inches high, setting the +plants well down in the soil and giving at least 3 inches between the +plants, as they are very likely to spindle up, with weak stems, if +crowded. When danger of frost is over, set them out in a warm, well +sheltered position, 3 feet apart. After the plants start into growth, +pinch out the top to induce a bushy growth. If situated where the wind +can whip them, they should have a stake driven close to the stem, and be +tied to it for support. Flowers of Cosmos are on the order of single +Dahlias. + + +CRANBERRY. The growing of Cranberries in artificial bogs is an American +industry. The common large Cranberry of markets is also a peculiarly +American fruit, since it is unknown in other countries except as the +fruit is shipped there. Cranberries are grown in bogs, which may be +flooded. The whole area is kept under water during the winter time, +largely to prevent the plants from winter injury by the heaving and +freezing and thawing of the bogs. Flooding is also employed at intervals +for the purpose of drowning out insects, mitigating drought, and +protecting against frost and fires. Every good Cranberry bog should have +facilities for flooding. The ordinary practice is to choose a bog which +has a creek running through it, or through which some creek or ditch may +be diverted. At the lower side of the bog flood gates are provided, so +that when the gates are shut the water backs up and floods the area. It +is best that the bog be comparatively flat, so that the water will be +of approximately equal depth over the whole area. At the shallowest +places the water should stand about a foot above the plants. The water +is usually let on the bog early in December and kept on until April or +early May. No flooding is done during the rest of the year unless there +is some particular occasion therefor. + +All the wild and turfy growth should be taken off the bog before the +vines are set. This is done either by digging it off and removing it +bodily, or by drowning it out by means of a year’s flooding. The former +method is generally considered to be the better. After the turfy growth +is removed, the bog is smoothed and covered 2 or 3 in. deep with clean +sand. The vines are now set, the lower ends of them being shoved through +the sand into the richer earth. In order to prevent a too rapid and +tangled growth of vine, it is customary to resand the bog every three or +four years to a depth of one-fourth or one-half inch. When sanding is +not practicable, the vines may be mown off when they become too +luxuriant. + +The plants for setting are merely cuttings or branches of the vines. +These cuttings may be from 5 to 10 in. long. They are inserted into the +ground in a hole made by a crowbar or stick. They are usually planted at +distances of 12 to 18 in. each way, and the vines are allowed to cover +the entire ground as with a mat. In three years a good crop should be +secured, if the weeds and wild growth are kept down. A crop ranges +between 50 to 100 barrels per acre. + + +CRESS. The Upland Cress, or the true PEPPER GRASS, may be grown on any +garden soil. Sow early in the spring. It makes a rapid growth and can be +cut from four to five weeks. Succession of sowings must be made, as it +runs quickly to seed. The curled variety is the one usually grown, as +the leaves may be used for garnishing as well as for salads. One packet +of seed will be sufficient for each sowing. Any good soil will do. Sow +thickly in drills 12-18 in. apart. In summer it runs to seed quickly, +so that it is usually grown in spring and fall. + +The Water Cress is more exacting in its culture, and can only be +successfully grown in moist places, such as edges of shallow, +slow-running creeks, open drains, or beds excavated near such streams. A +few plants for private use may be grown in a frame, provided a retentive +soil is used and attention given to watering the bed often. Water Cress +may be propagated from pieces of the stem, used as cuttings. If one is +fond of Water Cress, it is well to colonize it in some clean creek or +pool. It will take care of itself year by year. Seeds may also be used +for propagating it. + + +CROCUS. A hardy bulb, easily grown and giving good satisfaction either +in the border or scattered through the lawn. They are also forced for +winter (see _Bulbs_). They are so cheap and lasting that they may be +used in quantity. A border of them along the edges of walks, little +clumps of them in the lawn, or masses in a bed, give the first touch of +color as the spring opens. They may be forced with ease planted in pots +or shallow boxes, put away in a cool place and brought into the house at +any time through the winter. A low temperature will bring them into +bloom in perfection in about four weeks from the time they are brought +in. They can be had in the window-garden in this way. + +A sandy soil suits the Crocus admirably. Plant in the fall, in the open, +setting them 3 to 4 inches deep. When they show signs of failing, take +up the bulbs and reset them. They tend to rise out of the ground, +because the new bulb or corm forms on the top of the old one. If best +results are desired, it is well to renew the bed occasionally by buying +new bulbs. Crocus beds may be filled later in the season with +quick-growing annuals. + + +CROTON. Under this name many varieties and so-called species of Codiæum +are grown for conservatory decoration, and latterly for foliage bedding +in the open. The colors and shapes of the leaves are very various and +attractive. The Crotons make good window-garden subjects, although they +are very liable to the attack of the mealy bug. They are propagated +readily by cuttings of half-ripened wood any time during winter or +spring. The plants should be given an abundance of light in order to +bring out their fine colors; but it is usually advisable to screen them +from the direct rays of the sun when they are grown under glass. If the +red spider or the mealy bug attack them, they may be syringed with +tobacco water. Plants which are propagated indoors during the winter may +be massed in beds out of doors during the summer, where they make very +striking effects. Give them rich, deep soil, and be sure that they are +syringed frequently enough on the under side of the leaves to keep down +the red spider. If the plants have been gradually subjected to strong +light before they are taken out of doors, they will stand the full +sunlight and will develop their rich colors to perfection. In the fall +they may be taken up, cut back and used for window-garden or +conservatory subjects. Crotons are shrubs or small trees, and they may +be transferred into large pots or tubs and grown on into large tree-like +specimens. + + +CUCUMBER. For early use, the Cucumber is usually started in a hotbed or +coldframe by sowing the seed on pieces of sod 4 to 6 inches square, +turned grass side down. Three or four seeds are placed on or pushed into +each piece of sod and covered with 1 to 2 inches of fine soil. The soil +should be well watered and the glass or cloth placed over the frame. The +roots will run through the sod. When the plants are large enough to set +out, a flat trowel or a shingle may be slipped under the sod and the +plants moved to the hill without check. In place of sod, old quart berry +boxes are good; after setting in the hill the roots may force their way +through the cracks in the baskets. The baskets also decay rapidly. +Flower pots may be used. These plants from the frames may be set out +when danger of frost is over, usually by the 10th of May, and should +make a very rapid growth, yielding good-sized fruits in two months. The +hills should be made rich by forking in a quantity of well rotted +manure, and given a slight elevation above the garden--not high enough +to allow the wind to dry the soil, but slightly raised so that water +will not stand around the roots. One ounce of seed will plant fifty +hills. The hills may be 4-5 ft. apart each way. + +[Illustration: Cucumbers] + +The White Spine is the leading general-purpose variety. For very early +or pickling sorts, the Chicago, Russian, and other picklings are good. + +The striped beetle is an inveterate pest on Cucumbers and squashes. +Following is the latest advice (Hall and Sirrine, New York State +Experiment Station): “Poisons can be used with success against these +beetles for only a short time in the spring, when they begin to feed; +and again, in the fall, against beetles of the new brood. This fall +poisoning will succeed only where there is not an abundance of wild fall +flowers; for the beetles will desert any poisoned crop for the +unpoisoned flowers and will feed upon the flowers to a considerable +extent, anyhow, if they are to be found. Green arsenite, dry, gave best +results. It was found a waste of the poisons to apply them in Bordeaux +mixture, as the mixture so repelled the insects that they would not eat +the sprayed vines to secure the poison. These poisons, applied in water, +are liable to burn or stunt the plants. It is necessary, then, if we +wish to poison the beetles, to use a trap crop to attract the insects +and to apply the poison to this crop instead of to the plants we design +to protect. On small areas it may be advisable to shut in the small +plants of the growing crop by the well known cloth-topped boxes; by the +tent-like cloth covers spread over arched hoops or wires; by boxes made +from a rectangular piece of cloth and two short 6-inch boards with +cleats attached to insert in the soil and hold the boards upright; or +even 6-inch wire plate-covers. Covers, however, are too expensive on +large areas, and they have the disadvantage of frequently making the +plants weak, so that winds will snap them off or twist and ruin them +when the covers have to be removed. If covers are used alone, their +removal leaves the unprotected vines not only for feeding places but for +breeding places for the beetles. + +“Bordeaux mixture, if thoroughly and frequently applied, makes as +efficient a protection as the covers, is much cheaper, and at the same +time protects the plants from diseases. This mixture (1-to-11 formula) +should be sprayed upon the Cucumbers when they are just well up, again +when they show the third leaf, and the third time just before the plants +commence to form runners. The early application can probably best be +made with a knapsack sprayer, and later ones by any good pump sprayer. +The three applications should not cost over $2 per acre. The Bordeaux +mixture is a much better repellant, according to station tests, than +kerosene, turpentine, tobacco dust, cow manure, burdock infusion, slug +shot, bug death, or any other known compound. Indeed, all materials of +this class, supposed to drive away the beetles by their distasteful +odor, proved failures when used alone. Air-slaked lime, dusted over the +vines, will make them unpalatable to the beetles, but the lime is liable +to stunt the plants. It may be used, with care, by those whose crop is +not large enough to warrant purchase of a spraying outfit. + +“All of these appliances or applications, covers, Bordeaux mixture or +lime, merely protect the young plants until they are strong enough to +stand the injury from the beetles; they do not kill the insects. To do +this, trap crops are needed. As the squash is the beetle’s favorite food +plant, this vegetable should be planted--in single rows along the +margins of small patches, in several rows around large fields--about +four days before the Cucumbers or melon seeds are sown. When these trap +plants are up and the beetles appear about them, dust about half the +plants with green arsenite, reserving the other half for use if rain or +heavy dew makes the poison soluble and kills the vines first treated. +The beetles, attracted by their favorite tidbit, will feed upon the +squash vines and be poisoned by the arsenite. When the Cucumbers or +melons are up, unless they are protected by covers, spray with Bordeaux, +and poison more of the squash vines. When the beetles commence to pair, +the squashes may be cultivated up, leaving only a few vines for the +beetles to feed upon at flowering time, as the insects prefer the squash +flowers and will not molest the others. Beans may be used with some +success as a fall catch crop, where wild flowers are not too plentiful. +They should be planted on the Cucumber or melon fields; and when the +beetles leave the old vines to feed upon the fresh bean plants, they +should be treated to liberal doses of poison as well.” + +The mildew on the vines can be prevented by Bordeaux mixture spray. + + +[Illustration: Currants] + +CURRANTS. The Currant, being one of the hardiest and most productive of +fruits, is often neglected, the patch allowed to become foul with grass, +never thinned or trimmed, the worms eating the leaves until, in the +course of time, the plants weaken and die. Along the fence is no place +to plant Currants, or, indeed, any other fruit; plant out in the open, +at least 5 feet from anything that will interfere with cultivation. No +fruit crop will respond more readily to good care than the Currant. +Clean cultivation and a liberal use of manure or fertilizers will +certainly be followed by well paying crops. One- or two-year-old plants +may be set 4 by 6 feet. Trim the bush by cutting off most of the suckers +below the surface of the ground. If the season is dry, a mulch of straw +or leaves will assist the plants to establish themselves. + +The red and white Currants bear mostly on two-year-old or older wood. A +succession of young shoots should be allowed to grow to take the place +of the old bearing wood. Cut out the canes as they grow older. The +partial shade afforded by a young orchard suits the Currant well, and if +the ground is in good condition no bad results will follow to the +orchard, provided the Currants are removed before the trees need the +entire feeding space. + +A Currant patch should continue in good bearing for 10 to 20 years, if +properly handled. One very important point is to keep the old, weak +canes cut out, and a succession of two to four new ones coming from the +root each year. For home use, White Imperial and Moore’s Ruby are +excellent. Prince of Wales is a heavy bearer and excellent for cooking. +Wilder, Victoria, Cherry and White Grape are meritorious varieties. + +To combat the Currant worm, spray thoroughly with Paris green to kill +the first brood, just as soon as holes can be seen in the lower +leaves--usually before the plants are in bloom. For the second brood, if +it appear, spray with white hellebore. For borers, cut out and burn the +affected canes. + + +CUTTINGS. Cuttings are parts of plants which are inserted in soil or +water with the intention that they shall grow and make new plants. They +are of various kinds. They may be classified, with reference to the age +of the wood or tissue, into two classes; viz., those made from perfectly +hard or dormant wood (taken from the winter twigs of trees and bushes), +and those made from more or less immature or growing wood. They may be +classified again in respect to the part of the plants from which they +are taken, as root Cuttings, tuber Cuttings (as the ordinary “seed” +planted for potatoes), stem Cuttings and leaf Cuttings. + +[Illustration: The planting of dormant wood Cuttings] + +Dormant wood Cuttings are used for grapes, currants, gooseberries, +willows, poplars and many other kinds of soft-wooded trees and shrubs. +Cuttings are ordinarily taken in fall or winter, but cut into the proper +lengths and then buried in sand or moss where they do not freeze, in +order that the lower end may heal over or callus. In the spring these +Cuttings are set in the ground, preferably in a rather sandy and well +drained place. Usually, hardwood Cuttings are made with two to four +joints or buds, and when they are planted, only the upper bud projects +above the ground. They may be planted erect, as the picture shows, or +somewhat slanting. In order that the Cutting may reach down to moist +earth, it is desirable that it should not be less than 6 inches long; +and it is sometimes better if it is 8 to 12 inches. If the wood is +short-jointed, there may be several buds on a Cutting of this length; +and, in order to prevent too many shoots from arising from these buds, +the lowermost buds are often cut out. Roots will start as readily if the +lower buds are removed, since the buds grow into shoots and not into +roots. Cuttings of currants, grapes, gooseberries, and the like may be +set in rows which are far enough apart to admit of easy tillage either +with horse or hand tools, and the Cuttings may be placed from 3 to 8 +inches apart in the row. After the Cuttings have grown for one season, +the plants are usually transplanted and given more room for the second +year’s growth, after which time they are ready to be set in permanent +plantations. In some cases, the plants are set at the end of the first +year; but two-year plants are stronger and usually preferable. + +[Illustration: Root Cutting, which has given rise to a shoot] + +Root Cuttings are used for blackberries, raspberries, and a few other +things. They are ordinarily made of roots from the size of a lead pencil +to one’s little finger, and are cut in lengths from 3 to 5 inches long. +The Cuttings are stored the same as stem Cuttings and allowed to +callus. In the spring they are planted in a horizontal or nearly +horizontal position in moist, sandy soil, being entirely covered to a +depth of 1 or 2 inches. + +Softwood or greenwood Cuttings are always rooted under cover; that is, +in a greenhouse, coldframe or dwelling house. They are usually made of +wood which is mature enough to break when it is bent sharply. When the +wood is so soft that it will bend and not break, it is too immature, in +the majority of plants, for the making of good Cuttings. One to two +joints is the proper length of a greenwood Cutting. If of two joints, +the lower leaf should be cut off and the upper leaves cut in two, so +that they do not present their entire surface to the air and thereby +evaporate the plant juices too rapidly. If the Cutting is of only one +joint, the lower end is usually cut just above a joint. In either case, +the Cuttings are usually inserted in sand or well washed gravel, nearly +or quite up to the leaves. Keep the bed uniformly moist throughout its +depth, but avoid any soil which holds so much moisture that it becomes +muddy and sour. These Cuttings should be shaded until they begin to emit +their roots. Coleus, geraniums, fuchsias, and nearly all the common +greenhouse and house plants, are propagated by these Cuttings or slips. + +Leaf Cuttings are often used, for the fancy-leaved begonias, gloxinias, +and a few other plants. The young plant usually arises most readily from +the leaf-stalk or petiole. The leaf, therefore, is inserted into the +ground much as a green Cutting is. Begonia leaves, however, will throw +out young plants from the main veins when these veins or ribs are cut. +Therefore, well-grown and firm begonia leaves are sometimes laid flat on +the sand and the main veins cut; then the leaf is weighted down with +pebbles or pegs so that these cut surfaces come into intimate contact +with the soil beneath. The begonia leaf may be treated in various other +ways and still give good results. See _Begonia_. + +In the growing of all greenwood Cuttings, it is well to remember that +they should have a gentle bottom heat; the soil should be such that it +will hold moisture and yet not remain wet; the air about the tops should +not become close and stagnant, else the plants will damp off; and the +tops should be shaded for a time. + +[Illustration: Cuttings inserted in a double pot] + +An excellent method of starting Cuttings in the living room is to make a +double pot, as shown in the picture. Inside a 6-inch pot, set a 4-inch +pot. Fill the bottom, _a_, with gravel or bits of brick, for drainage. +Plug the hole in the inside pot. Fill the spaces between, _c_, with +earth, and in this set the Cuttings. Water may be poured into the inner +pot, _b_, to supply the moisture. + + +CUTWORMS. Probably the remedy for Cutworms most often practiced in +gardens, and which cannot fail to be effective when faithfully carried +out, is hand-picking with lanterns at night or digging them out from +around the base of the infested plants during the day. Bushels of +Cutworms have been gathered in this way, and with profit. When from some +cause success does not attend the use of the poisoned baits, discussed +next, hand-picking is the only other method yet recommended which can be +relied upon to check Cutworm depredations. + +By far the best methods yet devised for killing Cutworms in any +situation are the poisoned baits; hand-picking is usually unnecessary +where they are thoroughly used. Poisoned bunches of clover or weeds have +been thoroughly tested, even by the wagon-load, over large areas, and +nearly all have reported them very effective; lamb’s quarters (pigweed), +pepper-grass and mullein are among the weeds especially attractive to +Cutworms. On small areas the making of the baits is done by hand, but +they have been prepared on a large scale by spraying the plants in the +field, cutting them with a scythe or machine, and pitching them from +wagons in small bunches wherever desired. Distributed a few feet apart +between rows of garden plants at nightfall, they have attracted and +killed enough Cutworms often to save a large proportion of the crop; if +the bunches can be covered with a shingle, they will keep fresher much +longer. The fresher the baits, and the more thoroughly the baiting is +done, the more Cutworms one can destroy. However, it may sometimes +happen that a sufficient quantity of such green succulent plants cannot +be obtained early enough in the season in some localities. In this case, +and we are not sure but in all cases, the poisoned bran mash can be used +to the best advantage. It is easily made and applied at any time, is not +expensive, and thus far the results show that it is a very attractive +and effective bait. A tablespoonful can be quickly dropped around the +base of each cabbage or tomato plant, small amounts can be easily +scattered along the rows of onions, turnips, etc., or a little dropped +on a hill of corn, cucumbers, etc. It was used on sweet potato hills in +New Jersey last year, and “served as a complete protection, the Cutworms +preferring the bran.” It is well to apply it on the evening of the day +the plants are set out. + +The best time to apply these poisoned baits is two or three days before +any plants have come up or been set out in the garden. If the ground has +been properly prepared, the worms will have had but little to eat for +several days and they will thus seize the first opportunity to appease +their hunger upon the baits, and wholesale destruction will result. The +baits should always be applied at this time wherever Cutworms are +expected. But it is not too late usually to save most of a crop after +the pests have made their presence known by cutting off some of the +plants. Act promptly and use the baits freely.--_M. V. Slingerland._ + +[Illustration: Protection from cutworms] + +Cutworms may be kept away from plants by making a collar of stiff paper +or tin about the base, as in the picture; but this is not practicable on +a large scale. + + +CYCLAMEN. A tender greenhouse tuberous plant, sometimes seen in the +window-garden. Cyclamens may be grown from seed sown in April or +September in soil containing a large proportion of sand and leaf-mold. +If sown in September, they should be wintered in a coolhouse. In May +they should be potted into larger pots and placed in a shaded frame, and +by July will have become large enough for their flowering pot, which +should be either a 5- or 6-inch one. They should be brought into the +house before danger of frost, and grown cool until through flowering. A +temperature of 55° suits them while in flower. After flowering, they +will need a rest for a short time, but should not become very dry, or +the bulb will be injured. When they start into growth, they should have +the old soil shaken off and be potted into smaller pots. At no time +should more than half the tuber be under the soil. + +Tubers large enough to flower the first year may be obtained from the +seedsmen at moderate prices; and unless one has facilities for growing +the seedlings for a year, purchase of the tubers will give the best +satisfaction. The soil best suited to the Cyclamen is one containing two +parts leaf-mold, 1 part each of sand and loam. + + +DAFFODILS are a kind of Narcissus. They are hardy, and require the +treatment recommended for Crocus. They may be naturalized in the grass, +but they usually do not persist long on account of our hot, dry summers. +Daffodils have been much improved of late. Plant in the fall, 4-6 in. +deep. Excellent old garden plants. + + +DAHLIA. The Dahlia is an old favorite which, on account of its formal +flowers, has been in disfavor for a few years, although it has always +held a place in the rural districts. Now, however, with the advent of +the cactus and semi-cactus types (or loose-flowered forms), and the +improvement of the singles, it again has taken a front rank among late +summer flowers, coming in just in advance of the Chrysanthemum. + +[Illustration: Dahlia] + +The single varieties may be grown from seed, but the double sorts should +be grown from cuttings of young stems or from division of the roots. If +cuttings are to be made, it will be necessary to start the roots early +either in a hotbed or house. When the growth has reached 4 or 5 inches, +they may be cut from the plant and rooted in sand. Care should be taken +to cut just below the joint, as a cutting made between two joints will +not form tubers. The most rapid method of propagation of named varieties +is to grow from cuttings in this way. In growing the plants from roots, +the best plan is to place the whole root in gentle heat, covering +slightly. When the young growth has started, the roots may be taken up, +divided, and planted out 3 to 4 feet apart. This plan will ensure a +plant from each piece of root, whereas if the roots are divided while +dormant, there is danger of not having a bud at the end of each piece, +in which case no growth will start. + +[Illustration: Dahlia] + +The Dahlia flourishes best in a deep, rich, moist soil, although very +good results can be had on sandy soil, provided plant-food and moisture +are furnished. Clay should be avoided. If the plants are to be grown +without stakes, the center of each plant should be pinched out after +making two or three joints. By doing this the lateral branches will +start near the ground and be stiff enough to withstand the winds. In +most home gardens the plants are allowed to reach their full height, and +are tied to stakes if necessary. Dahlias are very susceptible to frost. +The tall kinds reach a height of 5-8 feet. + +After the first frost, lift the roots, let them dry in the sun, shake +off the dirt, trim off tops and broken parts, and store them in a +cellar as you would potatoes. Cannas may be stored in the same place. + + +DAISY. The perennial English Daisy, or _Bellis perennis_, is a prime +favorite as an edging plant. The cheerful little flowers show early in +the spring, and with a little care bloom continuously through a long +season. They should be given well enriched, moist soil, and be mulched +through hot weather. The usual method of propagation is by division of +the crowns, made in cool weather. They may also be grown from seed, but +the chances are that many inferior flowers will be produced. Set the +plants 3 or 4 inches apart. Height 3 to 5 inches. The colors are white, +pink and red. Hardy if mulched in winter, but best results are obtained +if plants are renewed frequently. + +Many other plants are called Daisy, particularly the wild Asters, the +Ox-eye Daisy or Whiteweed, and the Paris Daisy (_Chrysanthemum +frutescens_). + + +DAMPING OFF is the rotting off of cuttings or young plants near the +surface of the soil. It is the work of fungi; but these fungi are +injurious because they find conditions congenial to their rapid growth. +Prevention is worth more than cure. See that the soil is wet clear +through, not wet on top and dry beneath. Keep it as dry as possible on +the surface. Avoid soggy soils. On peaty soils, sprinkle sand or coal +ashes to keep the top dry. Give the plants free circulation of air. Give +them abundance of room. If Damping Off threatens, transplant. + + +DANDELION. This common weed would hardly be recognized if seen under +cultivation in the vegetable garden. The plants attain a large size and +the leaves are much more tender. The seed may be selected from the best +field-growing plants, but it is better to buy the French seed of the +seedsmen. + +Sow in spring in well manured soil, either in drills or in hills 1 foot +apart. A cutting of leaves may be had in September or October, and some +of the stools may stand until spring. The delicacy of the leaves may be +improved by blanching them, either by the use of boards or earth. One +trade packet of seed will supply a large number of plants. The whole +plant is destroyed when the crop of leaves is taken. + + +DATURA. BRUGMANSIA. Large-growing annuals with large, trumpet-shaped +flowers. The coloring of some of the flowers is very attractive, but the +odor of the plant is unpleasant. Plants should be set 4 feet apart. They +grow 3-4 feet high, bear large leaves, and therefore make good low +screens. Frost kills them. Sow seed where plants are to grow; or, +better, start them in the house three or four weeks before the weather +is fit for planting outside. Some of the Daturas are weeds. The great +spiny seed pods are interesting. + + +DELPHINIUM. See _Larkspur_. + + +DEWBERRY. The Dewberry may be called an early trailing blackberry. The +culture of this, as of the blackberry, is very simple; but, unlike the +latter, some support should be given to the canes, as they are very +slender and rank growers. A wire trellis or large-meshed fence-wire +answers admirably; or (and this is the better general method) they may +be tied to stakes. The fruits are large and showy, which, combined with +their earliness, makes them desirable; but they are usually deficient in +flavor. The Lucretia is the leading variety in cultivation. + +[Illustration: Lucretia Dewberry] + +Lay the canes on the ground in winter. In the spring tie all the canes +from each plant to a stake. After fruiting, cut the old canes and burn +them (as for blackberries). In the meantime, the young canes (for next +year’s fruiting) are growing. These may be tied up as they grow, to be +out of the way of the cultivator. Dewberries are one to two weeks +earlier than blackberries. + + +DIANTHUS, or PINK. Under this head are included Chinese Pinks, Sweet +William, Picotee, Carnation (which see), and the perennial or Grass +Pinks. All of them are general favorites. + +The Chinese Pinks (_Dianthus Chinensis_, or _Heddewigii_) are now very +popular. They are biennials, but flower the first year from seed, and +are treated as hardy annuals. They have a wide range of color and +markings. Some of them are as double as a rose, and are edged, splashed +or lined with other colors. The single ones are very brilliant and are +profuse bloomers. Sow seeds where plants are to stand, or if early bloom +is desired, start in the house. Set the plants 6-10 in. apart. They grow +8-15 in. high. They bloom until after frost. Of easiest culture in any +good soil, and should be even more popular. The petals are often quite +deeply and oddly cut. + +The Sweet William is an old-fashioned perennial, having flowers of many +combinations of color, growing for several years when once planted, but +being the better for renewal every two years. Raising new stock from +seeds is usually better than dividing old plants. Of late years, the +Sweet William has been much improved. + +The perennial garden or Grass Pinks are low-growing, with highly +perfumed flowers. They are very useful for permanent edgings, although +the grass is likely to run them out unless a clean strip is kept on +either side. Divide the old plants when the edging begins to fail; or +raise new plants from seed. Seedlings usually do not bloom much the +first year. Usually perfectly hardy. + + +[Illustration: Dibbers] + +DIBBERS are hand tools used for making holes in which to set plants or +to drop seeds. They are better than a hoe or a spade for most +transplanting. For small plants, as cabbages and tomatoes, a cylindrical +Dibber is generally used. (See the lower one in the cut.) It can be made +from an old spade handle or any hardwood stick. When broad holes are +wanted, the triangular iron Dibber (sold by dealers) is excellent. It is +particularly useful in hard soils. + + +DICENTRA includes the Bleeding Heart; also the native little Dutchman’s +Breeches and Squirrel Corn, and a few other species. All are hardy +perennials of the easiest culture, blooming in spring. In common with +all perennial herbs, they are benefited by a winter mulch of leaves or +litter. Propagated by dividing the clumps. + + +DICTAMNUS. FRAXINELLA or GAS PLANT. An old border plant (perennial herb) +with white or pale red flowers. The leaves of the plant emit a strong +odor when rubbed, likened to that of the lemon verbena. It has been +advertised as the Gas Plant from the fact that the plant exudes an oily +matter that may be ignited, especially in warm, dry weather. Propagated +by seeds, which should be sown as soon as ripe. The plant blooms the +third year, and improves with age. Set plants 3 feet apart. Height 2 to +3 feet. + + +DILL. An annual aromatic herb that will seed itself if seeds are left to +ripen, and an abundance of plants may always be had. The culture is of +the easiest. The seeds are often used to flavor pickles. + + +DISEASES. Diseases of plants may be caused by some physiological +disturbance to the plant system, or by the incursions of some parasitic +organism, as insects or fungi. The work of insects, however, is +ordinarily not classed with plant Diseases (see _Insects_). Of Diseases +which are caused by plant parasites or by physiological disturbances, +there are two general groups: + +(1) Parasitic fungous Diseases, such as the apple-scab, black-rot and +mildew of the grape, leaf-blight of the plum and pear, black-knot, and +the like. These Diseases are characterized by definite spots, +discolorations or excrescences, which are more or less scattered over +the surface of the leaf, fruit or branch. As a rule, the leaves and +fruits which are attacked have a tendency to drop from the tree. The +general treatment for these Diseases is to spray with some fungicidal +mixture, like the Bordeaux mixture or the ammoniacal carbonate of +copper. The treatment is useful in proportion as it is applied early and +thoroughly. After the fungus once gets into the tissues of the +host-plant, it is difficult, if not impossible, to kill it. If, however, +the fungicide is upon the plant before the fungus is, the parasite may +not be able to obtain a foothold. Even after it does obtain a foothold, +it is probable, however, that the spray will check its spread by +preventing the development of its external parts. + +(2) The physiological and bacterial Diseases, or those which are termed +constitutional troubles. In these cases there are rarely any definite +spots, as in the attacks of parasitic fungi, but the entire leaf, or +even the entire plant, or a large part of it, shows a general weakening +and Disease, as if there were some cutting off of the accustomed source +of nourishment. Such Diseases are very likely to be seen in a general +yellowing and death of the leaf, in the dying of the leaf along the main +veins and around the edges, showing that the difficulty is one which +affects the entire leaf, and not any particular part of it. In general, +there is a tendency for the foliage in plants so attacked to wither up +and hang on the tree for a time. The peach-yellows and pear blight are +Diseases of this kind. There are no specific treatments for troubles of +this sort. They must be approached by what physicians call +prophylaxis--that is, by methods of sanitation and prevention. The +diseased plants or parts are cut away and burned. All those conditions +which seem to favor the development of the Disease are removed. +Varieties which are particularly susceptible are discarded. Careful +management in matters of this sort is often much more important than any +attempt at specific treatment. + + +DOLICHOS. Mentioned under _Hyacinth Bean_. + + +DRACÆNAS of the conservatories (properly mostly CORDYLINES) are +sometimes used as house plants. Protect from direct sunlight, keep an +even and fairly high temperature, water freely when they are growing. +When the plants begin to fail, return them to the florist for +recuperation, where they may have equable conditions. They are handsome +long-leaved foliage plants, excellent for jardinieres. + + +DRAINAGE serves two purposes: first, to carry superfluous water from the +land; second, to lower the water-table or hard-pan, and to make the soil +loose and friable above. Nearly all hard clay lands are much benefited +by draining, even though they are not too wet. The region of free or +standing water is lowered and air is admitted into the soil, rendering +it fine and mellow. For carrying off mere surface water, surface or open +ditches are sufficient; but if the soil is to be ameliorated, the drain +must be beneath the surface. The best underdrains are those which use +hollow or cylindrical tiles, but very good results may be had by making +drains from stones. In regions where there are many flat stones, a very +good conduit may be laid with them, but they are likely to get out of +order. If there is considerable fall to the ditch, the bottom may be +filled for the space of 10 inches or a foot with common stones rolled +in, and the water will find its way between them. If the stones are even +deeper than this, the results will be better; and such ditches also +provide place for disposing of superfluous stones. + +The deeper the ditch the further it will draw on either side. It should +always be deep enough to be protected from freezing, particularly if +tiles are used. Three feet should be the least depth, and 3½ feet is +a good average depth. Drains as deep as this need not be placed oftener +than 2 to 3 rods apart, unless, in garden conditions, it is desired to +very thoroughly ameliorate a heavy clay soil, in which case they may be +placed every 20 feet. The better the fall the quicker the drain will act +and the more permanent it will be, as it will tend to clean itself and +not fill up with silt. It is important that the outlet be entirely free, +and it should be protected with stones or mason work. The roots of some +trees, particularly of willows and elms, are attracted by tile drains, +and often fill up the pipes. When the drain goes near such trees, +therefore, it is well to cement the joints. In general practice, +however, the joints should not be cemented, because a large part of the +drainage water enters at those places. In laying the tiles, it is well +to cover the joints with inverted sod, tarred paper, wisps of straw, +stones or other material. This prevents the fresh earth from falling in +between the joints, and by the time the material is decayed the earth +will have become so thoroughly set that no further trouble will result. +Although under-drains take off superfluous water, nevertheless an +under-drained soil will hold more moisture than one which is not +drained, particularly in the case of clay lands with high subsoils. This +is because fine, mallow soils are able to hold more moisture than very +loose and open or very dense and compact ones. A well constructed +underdrain should last indefinitely. + + +DUTCHMAN’S PIPE. See _Aristolochia_. + + +ECHEVERIA. Tender succulents largely used for carpet bedding and rock +gardens. _Echeveria secunda_ is sometimes called OLD-HEN-AND-CHICKENS, +from the little plants that grow out from the stem of the parent plant +and show around the edges of the rosette top; but the hardy +Hen-and-Chickens of old gardens is a different but closely allied plant +(_Sempervivum tectorum_). All the species are of easy culture and thrive +on sandy soil. They should not be planted out until all danger of frost +is over and the ground thoroughly warm. Propagated by the offsets. +Height 3 inches. The name Echeveria is now given up by botanists for +_Cotyledon_. + + +EGG-PLANT. GUINEA SQUASH. Unless one has a greenhouse or a very warm +hotbed, the growing of Egg-plants in the North should be left to the +professional gardener, as the young plants are very tender, and should +be grown without a check. The seed should be sown in the hotbed or +greenhouse about April 10, keeping a temperature of from 65° to 70°. +When the seedlings have made three rough leaves, they may be pricked out +into shallow boxes, or, still better, into 3-inch pots. The pots or +boxes should be plunged to the rim in soil in a hotbed or coldframe so +situated that protection may be given on chilly nights. The 10th of June +is early enough to plant them out in central New York. The soil in which +they are to grow cannot well be made too rich, as they have only a short +season in which to develop their fruits. The plants are usually set 3 +feet apart each way. A dozen plants are sufficient for the needs of a +large family, as each plant should yield from two to six large fruits. +The fruits are fit to eat at all stages of growth, from those the size +of a large egg to their largest development. One ounce of seed will +furnish 600 to 800 plants. + +[Illustration: New York Purple Egg-plant] + +The New York Improved Purple is the standard variety. Black Pekin is +good. For early, or for a short-season climate, the Early Dwarf Purple +is excellent. + + +ENDIVE. As a fall salad vegetable, this should be better known, it being +far superior to lettuce at that time and as easily grown. For fall use, +the seed may be sown from June to August, and as the plants become fit +to eat about the same time from sowing as lettuce does, a succession may +be had until cold weather. The plants will need protection from the +severe fall frosts, and this may be given by carefully lifting the +plants and transplanting to a frame, where sash or cloth may be used to +cover them in freezing weather. The leaves, which constitute practically +the whole plant, are blanched before being used, either by tying +together with some soft material or by standing boards on each side of +the row, allowing the top of the boards to meet over the center of the +row. The rows should be 1½ or 2 feet apart, the plants 1 foot apart +in the rows. One ounce of seed will sow 150 feet of drill. + + +ESCHSCHOLTZIA. See _California Poppy_. + + +EUTOCA. Hardy early-flowering annuals having pink or blue flowers, good +for masses. Sow seed early where wanted. Height 1 foot. Eutocas are +properly classed with Phacelias. + + +EVERGREENS. Evergreens are plants which hold their foliage in winter. +Ordinarily, however, in this country the word Evergreen is understood to +mean coniferous trees with persistent leaves, as pines, spruces, firs, +cedars, junipers, arborvitæ, retinosporas, and the like. These trees +have always been favorites with plant lovers, as they have very +distinctive forms and other characteristics. Many of them are of the +easiest culture. It is a common notion that, since spruces and other +conifers grow so symmetrically, they will not stand pruning; but this is +an error. They may be pruned with as good effect as other trees, and if +they tend to grow too tall the leader may be cut out without fear. A new +leader will arise, but in the meantime the upward growth of the tree +will be somewhat checked, and the effect will be to make the tree dense. +The tips of the branches may also be headed in with the same effect. The +beauty of an Evergreen lies in its natural form; therefore, it should +not be sheared into unusual shapes, but a gentle trimming back, as +suggested, will tend to prevent the Norway spruce and others from +growing open and ragged. After the tree attains some age, 4 or 5 inches +may be taken off the ends of the main branches every year or two with +good results. This slight trimming is ordinarily done with Waters’ +long-handled pruning shears. + +There is much difference of opinion as to the proper time for the +transplanting of Evergreens, which means that there is more than one +season in which they may be moved. It is ordinarily unsafe to transplant +them in the fall in northern climates or bleak situations, since the +evaporation from the foliage during the winter is likely to injure the +plant. The best results are usually secured when they are transplanted +just as new growth is beginning, rather late in the spring. Some people +also plant them in August, and the roots secure a hold of the soil +before winter. In transplanting conifers, it is very important that the +roots be not exposed to the sun. They should be moistened and covered +with burlaps or other material. The holes should be ready to receive +them. If the trees are large, or if it has been necessary to trim in the +roots, the top should be cut when the tree is set. Large Evergreens +(those 10 feet and more high) are usually best transplanted late in +winter, at a time when a large ball of earth may be moved with them. A +trench is dug around the tree, it being deepened a little day by day so +that the frost can work into the earth and hold it in shape. When the +ball is thoroughly frozen, it is hoisted onto a stone-boat and moved to +its new position. + +For low hedges or screens, one of the most serviceable Evergreens is the +arborvitæ in its various forms. Red cedars are also useful. Perhaps the +handsomest of all of them for such purposes is the ordinary hemlock +spruce; but it is usually difficult to move. Transplanted trees from +nurseries are usually safest. If the trees are taken from the wild, they +should be selected from open and sunny places. For neat and compact +effects near porches and along walks, the dwarf retinosporas are very +useful. Most of the pines and spruces are too coarse for planting very +close to the house. They are better at some distance removed, where they +serve as a background to other planting. If they are wanted for +individual specimens, they should be given plenty of room, so that the +limbs will not be crowded and the tree become misshapen. Whatever else +is done to the spruces and firs, the lower limbs should not be trimmed +up, at least not until the tree has become so old that the lowest +branches die. Some species hold their branches much longer than others. +The oriental spruce (_Picea orientalis_) is one of the best in this +respect. The occasional slight heading-in, which we have mentioned, will +tend to preserve the lower limbs, and it will not be marked enough to +alter the form of the tree. + + +EVERLASTINGS are flowers which retain their shape and usually their +color when they are dried. Most of them are members of the composite +family. In order to have them hold shape and color, cut them with very +long stems just before they are fully expanded, and hang them in an airy +place away from the sun. They are all annuals, or grown as such, and are +of very easy culture. Sow seeds where the plants are to stand. Good +kinds are Ammobium, Gomphrena or Bachelor’s Buttons, Rhodanthe, +Helichrysum, Xeranthemum, and Acroclinium. Certain wild composites may +be similarly used, particularly Anaphalis and species of Gnaphalium. +Some of the grasses make excellent additions to dry bouquets (see +_Grass_). With these dry bouquets, various seed pods look well. + + +FENZLIA. Little hardy annuals, having a profusion of bloom through the +entire summer. The flowers are a delicate pink, with yellow throat +surrounded by dark spots. A charming edging plant or window box subject. +Sow the seed in boxes or where plants are wanted, and thin to the +distance of 10 inches. Height 3 to 4 inches. Now classed with Gilia. + + +FERNS. Probably the one Fern grown most extensively as a house plant is +the small-leaved Maidenhair Fern (or _Adiantum gracillimum_). This and +other species are among the finest of house plants, when sufficient +moisture can be given. They make fine specimens, as well as serving the +purpose of greenery for cut-flowers. Other species often grown for house +plants are _A. cuneatum_ and _A. Capillus-Veneris_. All these do well in +a mixture of fibrous sod, loam, and sand, with ample drainage material. +They may be divided if an increase is wanted. + +Other Ferns for house culture include _Nephrolepis exaltata_. This is no +doubt the most easily grown of the list, flourishing in a sitting-room. +The new variety of _N. exaltata_, called the Boston Fern (see figure), +is a decided addition to this family, having a drooping habit, covering +the pot and making a fine stand or bracket plant. + +[Illustration: Boston Fern] + +Several species of Pteris, particularly _P. serrulata_, are valuable +house Ferns, but require a warmer situation than those mentioned above. +They will also thrive better in a shady or ill-lighted corner. + +Perfect drainage and care in watering have more to do with the +successful growing of Ferns than any special mixture of soils. If the +drainage material in the bottom of the pot or box is sufficient, there +is little danger of over-watering; but water-logged soil is always to be +avoided. Do not use clay soils. Ferns need protection from the direct +sunshine, and also a moist atmosphere. They thrive well in a close glass +box, or window-garden, if the conditions can be kept equable. + +The native Ferns transplant easily to the garden, and they make an +attractive addition to the side of a house, or as an admixture in a +hardy border. The Ostrich and Cinnamon Ferns are the best subjects. Give +all outdoor Ferns a place which is protected from winds, otherwise they +will shrivel and perhaps die. Screen them from the hot sun, or give them +the shady side of the building. See that the soil is uniformly moist, +and that it does not get too hot. Mulch with leaf-mold in the fall. + + +FERTILIZERS. Soil is productive when it has good physical texture, +plant-food, and a sufficient supply of moisture. Even though it has an +abundance of plant-food, if its texture is not good, it will not raise a +good crop. Soil has good texture when it is open, mellow, friable, +rather than loose and leachy, or hard and cloddy. Commercial Fertilizers +add plant-food, but usually they have only a small influence in +correcting faulty texture. Therefore, before concentrated Fertilizers +are applied to land, it should be gotten into good physical condition by +judicious tillage and by the incorporation of vegetable mold or humus. +The leading source of humus in most gardens is stable manure. See +_Manure_. + +The plant-food in commercial Fertilizers is largely in a soluble or +quickly available condition. Therefore, a little Fertilizer applied late +in the fall or early in the spring will tend to start the plants off +quickly in the spring and to cause them to become established before the +trying weather of summer. For garden purposes, it is usually advisable +to buy one of the so-called complete Fertilizers; that is, one which +contains nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. If a luxuriant growth of +stalk and foliage is wanted rather than flowers or fruit, an application +of nitrogen alone is usually advisable. The most readily available +nitrogen in commercial form is that which is afforded by nitrate of soda +and sulfate of ammonia. In garden practice this may be applied at the +rate of 300 to 400 pounds an acre, although this quantity is more than +is profitable to use in most general field or agricultural conditions. +If it is desired to have stout, stocky plants, with early and profuse +bloom, it is ordinarily advisable to use somewhat sparingly of nitrogen +and to use a little more heavily of potash and phosphoric acid. This is +especially true of the leguminous plants, which have the power of +appropriating atmospheric nitrogen, and among such plants are sweet +peas. Heavy fertilizing of sweet pea land with strong stable manure +tends to make the vines grow too tall and to bear comparatively few +flowers. For dressing of lawns, a Fertilizer which is comparatively rich +in nitrogen is usually to be advised. + +An important value of commercial Fertilizers is to use them to start off +the plants quickly in the spring. The food is available and acts at +once. When used for this purpose, the Fertilizer may be applied in the +hill; but when it is desired for the enriching of the land and for the +support of the crop throughout the season, it should be applied to the +entire surface. Always avoid putting the Fertilizer on the crown of the +plant, or directly in contact with it. It is usually better to work the +Fertilizer in lightly. For most garden operations, it is better to apply +in spring. + + +FEVERFEW. See _Pyrethrum_. + + +FIG. The Fig is little grown in the East except as a curiosity, but on +the Pacific coast it has gained more or less prominence as an orchard +fruit. The trees are usually planted at distances of about 18 to 25 feet +apart. Figs will stand considerable frost, and seedling or inferior +varieties grow out of doors without protection as far north as Virginia. +Many of the varieties fruit on young sprouts, and, inasmuch as the roots +will stand considerable cold, these varieties will often give a few Figs +in the northern states. Figs have been fruited in the open ground in +Michigan. In all frosty countries, however, the Fig should be laid down +during the winter time. The following notes from Professor Massey, of +North Carolina, indicate how this may be done: + +“The light hoar-frosts that have occurred here affected vegetation only +on low grounds, and today (November 5) our gardens on high ground show +no signs of frost. Lima beans and tomato vines are as green as in summer +time, and this morning we gathered ripe Figs from our trees in the +garden--the latest I have ever known Figs to ripen. As the early crop of +Figs ripens in July (if it escapes the winter frosts, for the fruit is +now set on the trees), and the late crop begins in August and continues +to ripen in succession till frost, it is easy to see what a desirable +fruit the Fig is. In this section it is easy to have a great abundance +of Figs, and it is possible almost anywhere in the United States to have +both early and late crops in abundance by taking a little trouble to +protect the trees in winter. Years ago the writer grew Figs in abundance +in a very cold locality in northern Maryland, and never failed to get a +good crop. Where the winter temperature seldom drops lower than 18° or +20° above zero, Figs will need no special protection if sheltered from +cold winds. In colder climates they should be branched from the ground, +and, after the leaves have fallen, be bent to the ground in four bundles +and covered with earth, making a sharp mound over the center and sloping +off like a four-pointed star or cross, as shown in the cuts, taken from +Bulletin 74 of North Carolina Experiment Station.” + +[Illustration: Branches of Fig tree pegged down] + +[Illustration: Fig branches covered with earth] + + +FLOWER BEDS. Two classes of subjects are to be considered in the +discussion of Flower Beds: those concerned with the location of the bed; +those concerned with the actual making of the bed itself. Most persons +do not consider the former subject. If one wants a flower garden in +which there is to be a collection of plants grown for the plants’ sake, +the garden should be placed at the rear or one side, and may be laid out +in regular fashion like a vegetable garden. If the flowers are to be a +part of the home picture,--that is, a part of the place itself,--then +they may be freely distributed amongst the border planting, or as +edgings along groups of shrubbery. It is rarely, if ever, allowable to +place formal beds in the lawn in home grounds. The place for +carpet-bedding is usually in parks or other public areas, in sections +which are set aside and devoted to that particular purpose, the same as +another section may be devoted to a zoölogical garden, play-ground or to +other specific use. Flowers which are grown in the middle of the lawn +have little relation to other planting, and they have no background to +show them off to good advantage. It is also difficult to grow them in +small beds in the grass, since they are exposed to sun and wind, and the +grass roots absorb the food and moisture. In the formal bed, every +effort must be made to keep it prim, otherwise it becomes displeasing; +whereas, if the flowers are planted more or less promiscuously in large, +irregular borders, or along the edge of shrubbery, the failure of one or +even of a dozen plants is not a serious matter. The growing of plants in +formal designs requires so much care and attention that a large part of +the fun of plant-growing is lost. Such plant-growing should ordinarily +be left to those who make a business of it. + +In making a Flower Bed, see that the ground is well drained; that the +subsoil is deep; that the land is in a mellow and friable condition, and +that it is rich. Each fall it may have a mulch of rotted manure or of +leaf-mold, which may be spaded under deeply in the spring; or the land +may be spaded and left rough in the fall, which is a good practice when +the soil has much clay. Make the Flower Beds as broad as possible, so +that the roots of the grass running in from either side will not meet +beneath the flowers and rob them of food and moisture. It is well to add +a little commercial fertilizer each fall or spring. + + +FLOWERING MAPLE. See _Abutilon_. + + +FORGET-ME-NOT. This old favorite grows so easily, looks so cheerful, and +with a little care will bloom so long, that it should have a place in +every collection of flowering plants. It is perennial, but the best +results may be had by dividing the roots as often as every other year; +or seedlings may be taken up from around the old plants. They require a +moist soil, with shade a part of the day. They will thrive exceedingly +if grown in a frame like pansies. Easily grown from seeds, usually +blooming the first fall. Excellent for low edgings. Height 6 inches. + + +FOUR-O’CLOCK. MIRABILIS. Tender annual, a plant of old-fashioned +gardens, and always interesting. Grows 2 to 3 feet high. Drop seeds +where the plants are to stand, thinning them to 12 to 18 inches apart. +The colors are white and pink. There are variegated-leaved forms; also +dwarfs. Excellent for the back row in a bed of annuals. + + +[Illustration: Foxglove] + +FOXGLOVE, or DIGITALIS. Foxgloves make most effective border plants, +either as a background or planted among other things. The tall +flower-spikes are covered during the blooming period with funnel-shaped +drooping flowers in various colors and with fine markings. Some of the +newer varieties have flowers that rival the Gloxinias in shadings and +markings. The plants are perfectly hardy, growing in one situation for a +number of years; but, as with many other perennials, they are all the +better for being divided at intervals. They may be grown readily from +seed. Sow in boxes under glass or in the border where wanted. They bloom +the second year. A rich, deep soil and partial shade suit their +requirements. Period of bloom, July and August. Height 2 to 4 feet. + + +FRAME. See _Hotbed_ and _Coldframe_. + + +FREESIA. One of the best and most easily handled winter-flowering bulbs. +The white or yellowish bell-shaped flowers are produced on slender +stalks just above the foliage, to the number of six to eight in a +cluster. They are very fragrant, and last for a considerable time when +picked. The bulbs are small, and look as though they could not produce a +growth of foliage and flowers, but even the smallest mature bulb will +prove satisfactory. Several bulbs should be planted together in a pot, +box or pan, in October, if wanted for the holidays, or later if wanted +at Easter. The plants bloom from ten to twelve weeks from planting, +under ordinary care. No special treatment is required; keep the plants +cool and moist through the growing season. The soil should contain a +little sand mixed with fibrous loam, and the pot should be well drained. +After flowering, gradually withhold water and the tops will die down, +after which the roots may be shaken out and rested until time to plant +in fall. Care should be taken to keep them perfectly dry. The bulbs +increase rapidly from offsets. Plants may also be grown from seed, which +should be sown as soon as ripe, giving blooming plants the second or +third year. Height 12 or 15 inches. Easy to bloom in the window. The +white form (_Freesia refracta alba_) is the best. See _Bulbs_. + + +FRITILLARIA, or FRITILLARY. Bulbous plants, the commoner species hardy. +Only the Crown Imperial is well known in this country. This is an +old-fashioned plant, which takes care of itself when once planted. The +other hardy Fritillarias are treated like tulips. + + +FROST. The light frosts of late spring and of early fall may be +prevented by any means which will keep the air in motion, or which will +fill the air with moisture or cloud-like vapor, so that there is less +radiation from the ground. When frost is expected, it is well to water +the plants and the ground thoroughly. This will ordinarily protect them +from two or three degrees of still frost. The water should be applied +just at nightfall. On larger areas, it is often practicable to make a +smudge. In order to be effective, the smudge must be rather dense and +lie over the whole area, and it should be kept up until the danger from +frost is past. Material which burns very slowly and with much smoke is +preferable. Moist manure or straw or other litter is useful. Materials +which are dry enough to blaze are of little use. Ordinarily, frost comes +towards morning. It is well to have the piles of rubbish ready at +nightfall and have them lighted toward the latter part of the night, +when the frost is expected. The smudge should be kept up until sunrise. +It is well to have these piles of smudge material on all sides of the +area; or if the area is on a slope, it may be sufficient to have them on +the upper side, for there is usually a movement of air down the hillside +and the area will thereby be covered with the smudge. For a thorough +protection, it is best to have many small piles rather than a few large +ones. If the piles are placed every ten feet around the areas, better +results are to be expected. There are especially prepared tar-like +materials for use in smudging plantations, but they are little used in +this country, although some of them are excellent. + + +[Illustration: Fuchsia] + +FUCHSIA. Well-known window or greenhouse shrub. It is readily grown from +cuttings. Soft, green wood should be used for cuttings, and it will root +in about three weeks, when the cuttings should be potted. Take care not +to have them pot-bound while in growth, but do not over-pot when bloom +is wanted. Given warmth and good soil, they will make fine plants in +three months or less. In well protected, partially shady places they may +be planted out, growing into miniature bushes by fall. Plants may be +kept on from year to year; and if the branches are well cut back after +blooming, abundant new bloom will come. But it is usually best to make +new plants each year from cuttings, since young plants usually bloom +most profusely and demand less care. Fuchsias are amongst the best of +window subjects. + + +FUMIGATION is mentioned under _Insects_. + + +FUNGI. Flowerless, leafless plants, living mostly on food (either living +or dead) which has been prepared by other plants or by animals, Molds, +mushrooms and puff-balls are familiar examples. Some of the parasitic +kinds cause great damage to the plants or animals on which they live. +Examples of these injurious parasitic kinds are apple-scab fungus, +potato mildew, grape mildew, corn smut fungus, and the like. Most of +these are combated by spraying with materials containing copper or +sulfur. + + +FUNKIA, or DAY LILY. Hardy perennial herbs, growing in dense clumps and +bearing attractive foliage. They are of the easiest culture. _F. +subcordata_, the white-flowered species, is commonest. Of blue-flowered +forms there are several, of which _F. ovata_ (or _F. cærulca_) is +perhaps the best. Funkias are excellent for borders, or as a formal +edging to long walks or drives. There are variegated forms. Funkias grow +12 to 24 inches high, and the flower clusters stand still higher. +Propagated by dividing the roots. Day Lily is a name applied also to +species of Hemerocallis, which are yellow-flowered lilies. + + +GAILLARDIAS are plants that should have a place in every garden, either +as border plants or for cutting. The flowers are very showy and lasting +in bouquets, as well as on the plants. The double form has perfect balls +of color. Gaillardias are both annual and perennial. The perennials +usually have flowers much larger than the annuals; and they bloom the +first year if seed is started early. These are also propagated by seed +or cuttings. If from seed, it should be sown under glass in February or +March, setting out the young plants where wanted when danger of frost is +over. The cuttings may be made of the new growth in the fall and +wintered over in the house. Set 2 feet apart. Height 2 feet, blooming +from July until hard frosts. The perennials are usually orange. + +[Illustration: Gaillardia picta] + +The annual kind (_Gaillardia picta_ of florists) is probably the best +kind for the home garden. It is of the easiest culture. Hardy. Two feet. +Sow seeds where plants are to bloom. The colors of the flowers are in +rich shades of yellow and red. + + +GALANTHUS. See _Snowdrop_. + + +GARLIC. An onion-like plant, the bulbs of which are used for flavoring. +Little known in this country except amongst those of foreign birth. It +is multiplied the same as multiplier onions--the bulb is broken apart +and each bulbule or “clove” makes a new compound bulb in a few weeks. +Hardy; plant in early spring, or in the South in the fall. Plant 2 to 3 +inches apart in the row. + + +GAS PLANT is _Dictamnus_. + + +GERANIUM. What are generally known as Geraniums are, strictly speaking, +Pelargoniums, which see. The true Geraniums are mostly hardy plants, and +therefore should not be confounded with the tender Pelargoniums. +Geraniums are worthy a place in a border. They are hardy perennials, and +may be transplanted early in the spring, setting them 2 feet apart. +Height 10 to 12 inches. + +The common wild Cranesbill (_Geranium maculatum_) improves under +cultivation, and is an attractive plant when it stands in front of +taller foliage. + + +GILIA. Low-growing hardy annuals, good for front borders or rockwork, +growing from seed very quickly and continuing in flower a long season. +They will do well in light soil. Sow seed in the fall or early spring +where plants are wanted. _Gilia tricolor_, blue, white and yellow, is +the best, but there are excellent white and red sorts. + + +GLADIOLUS. A popular summer-flowering bulbous plant, thriving best in +moist, sandy loam, that has had an application of well rotted manure the +previous year. No manure should be used the year of planting, as it has +a tendency to rot the bulbs. Plantings may be made from the time the +ground is in condition to work in the spring until late in June. In +planting, the bulbs should be set 3 inches deep and 8 to 10 inches +apart, unless they are to be grown in groups, when they may be planted +five or six in the space of 1 foot. Stakes should be furnished each +plant to support the flower-spike. When in groups, one stake may be +used, setting it in the middle of the circle. + +Gladioli are increased by bulblets formed around the old bulbs (or +corms), or they may be grown from seed. The bulblets should be planted +in drills in April or May, and will grow to flowering size in one or two +years. In the same way, seed sown early in drills, grown through the +summer, the little bulbs taken up and stored through the winter and +again planted out, will often make bulbs large enough to flower the +second year. + +Care should be taken to lift all bulbs before freezing weather, as most +varieties are tender. They should be harvested with the tops on, and +laid away in a cool, dry place to ripen. The tops are then cut off and +the bulbs stored in a dry place (fit for potatoes, but drier) until +wanted the following spring. See _Bulbs_. + + +GLAUCIUM, or HORNED POPPY. The kind most cultivated (_G. luteum_) has +bright yellow flowers in July and September. The flowers, contrasting +with the deep cut glaucous leaves, make a fine effect in the mixed or +ribbon border. Seed may be sown in the open ground where wanted. Thin to +12 inches apart. Height 12 to 20 inches. Perennial; but treated as a +hardy annual. + + +GLOXINIA. Choice greenhouse tuberous-rooted perennials, sometimes seen +in window gardens, but really not adapted to them. Gloxinias must have a +uniform moist and warm atmosphere and protection from the sun. They will +not stand abuse or varying conditions. Propagated often by +leaf-cuttings, which should give flowering plants in one year. From the +leaf, inserted half its length in the soil (or sometimes only the +petiole inserted) a tuber arises. This tuber, after resting until +midwinter or later, is planted and flowering plants soon arise. +Gloxinias also grow readily from seeds, which may be germinated in a +temperature of about 70°. Flowering plants may be had in a year if seeds +are sown in late winter or early spring. This is the usual method. Soil +should be porous and rich. + + +GODETIA. Very free-blooming annuals in fine colors, harmonizing well +with the California poppy. Many of the varieties are beautifully +blotched with contrasting colors. They are very satisfactory plants for +solid beds or border lines, blooming from June to October. Seed may be +sown in heat, and seedlings planted in open ground at a distance of 18 +inches apart when danger of frost is over. A rather poor soil will cause +them to bloom better than one very rich, as they are inclined to make a +rank growth. Height 1 to 2 feet. + + +GOLDEN FEATHER. See _Pyrethrum_. + + +GOLDENROD (_Solidago_ of many species). The Goldenrod of the wayside is +so familiar that the thought of bringing it into the garden is +distasteful to many persons. But if given a suitable place in a well +enriched border, no plant has greater possibilities. A large clump +against a hedge of green, or massed behind a well grown plant of the +blue-flowering wild asters, makes a striking contrast. They bloom late +in the season, and the rich yellow and golden colors and the graceful +forms are always pleasing. + +[Illustration: Goldenrod] + +Goldenrods will grow more vigorously and the blooms be larger if the +roots are divided every third or fourth year. There are several species +catalogued by nurserymen, and some of the stock is superior to the wild +type, either having a larger truss of flowers or blooming later. +Goldenrods range in height from 2 to 6 feet. All are easily propagated +by division. Transplant in the fall, if convenient, although spring +planting may be equally successful. + + +GOMPHRENA. BACHELOR’S BUTTON. GLOBE AMARANTH. A useful everlasting for +winter bouquets. Seed may be sown in heat in March, the plants +transplanted once before setting out to cause them to grow stocky and +branching; or seed may be sown in a warm place where the plants are to +grow. The flowers, to retain their colors, should be cut before fully +expanded and dried in a dark, airy place. See _Everlastings_. Set the +plants 18 inches apart. Height 12 inches. The heads resemble clover +heads. The term Bachelor’s Button is also given to the cornflower +(_Centaurea Cyanus_). + + +GOOSEBERRY. Since the advent of the practice of spraying with fungicides +to prevent mildew, the culture of the Gooseberry has increased. There is +now no reason why, with a little care, good crops of many of the best +English varieties may not be grown. The price for good fruits of +Gooseberry is usually remunerative, as the market is rarely overstocked +by the sudden ripening of the crop, since the fruits ripen through a +long season. A large part of the crop is picked green for culinary +purposes. The leading market variety is Downing, a native sort, which is +little subject to mildew. Several of the English varieties have proved +of value, having larger fruits than the natives. Whitesmith, Chautauqua, +Triumph and Industry are among the best. + +[Illustration: Gooseberries] + +The propagation of the Gooseberry is similar to that of the currant, +although the practice of earthing up a whole plant, causing every branch +thus covered to throw out roots, is common with the European varieties. +The rooted branches are cut off the following spring and planted in +nursery rows or sometimes directly in the field. In order to succeed +with this method, the plant should have been cut back to the ground so +that all the shoots are yearling. + +Pruning is essentially the same as for the currant (which see); and the +treatment of the currant worm is the same as for that fruit. + +Gooseberries should be set (either in fall or spring) 3 to 4 feet +apart; rows 5 to 7 feet apart. Select a rich, rather moist soil. The +tops need no winter protection. If mildew and worms are to be kept in +check, spraying must be begun with the very first sign of trouble and be +thoroughly done. + + +GOURDS are valuable as rapid-growing screen vines, the curious fruits of +many varieties adding much to their attractiveness. Cultivation the same +as for melons or squashes. Height 10 to 15 feet. Provide a chicken-wire +trellis; or let them run on a brush pile. + + +GRAFTING. Grafting is the operation of inserting a piece of a plant into +another plant with the intention that it shall grow. It differs from the +making of cuttings in the fact that the severed part grows in another +plant rather than in the soil. There are two general kinds of +Grafting--one of which inserts a piece of branch in the stock (Grafting +proper), and one which inserts only a bud with little or no wood +attached (budding). In both cases the success of the operation depends +upon the growing together of the cambium of the cion (or cutting) and +that of the stock. The cambium is the new and growing tissue which lies +underneath the bark and on the outside of the growing wood. Therefore, +the line of demarcation between the bark and the wood should coincide +when the cion and stock are joined. The plant upon which the severed +piece is set is called the stock. The part which is removed and set into +the stock is called a cion if it is a piece of a branch, or a bud if it +is only a single bud with a bit of tissue attached. The greater part of +Grafting and budding is done when the cion or bud is nearly or quite +dormant. That is, Grafting is usually done late in winter and early in +spring, and budding may be done then, or late in summer, when the buds +have nearly or quite matured. + +The prime object of Grafting is to perpetuate a kind of plant which will +not reproduce itself from seed or of which seed is very difficult to +obtain. Cions or buds are therefore taken from this plant and set into +whatever kind of plant is obtainable and on which they will grow. Thus, +if one wants to propagate the Baldwin apple, he does not for that +purpose sow seeds thereof, but takes cions or buds from the tree and +grafts them into some other apple tree. The stocks are usually obtained +from seeds. In the case of the apple, young plants are raised from seeds +which are obtained mostly from cider factories, without reference to the +variety from which they came. When the seedlings have grown to a certain +age, they are budded or grafted; and thereafter they bear fruit like +that of the tree from which the cions were taken. + +[Illustration: The bud severed from its twig] + +[Illustration: The bud tied] + +[Illustration: The bud inserted] + +There are many ways in which the union between cion and stock is made. +Budding may be first discussed. It consists in inserting a bud +underneath the bark of the stock, and the commonest practice is that +which is shown in the illustrations. Budding is mostly performed in +July, August and early September, when the bark is still loose or will +peel. Twigs are cut from the tree which it is desired to propagate, and +the buds are cut off with a sharp knife, a shield-shaped bit of bark +(with possibly a little wood) being left with them (see illustration). +The bud is then shoved into a slit made in the stock, and it is held in +place by tying with some soft strand. In two or three weeks the bud will +have “stuck” (that is, it will have grown fast to the stock), and the +strand is cut to prevent its strangling the stock. Ordinarily the bud +does not grow until the following spring, at which time the entire stock +or branch in which the bud is inserted is cut off an inch above the bud; +and the bud thereby receives all the energy of the stock. Budding is the +commonest Grafting operation in nurseries. Seeds of peaches may be sown +in spring, and the plants which result will be ready for budding that +same August. The following spring, or a year from the planting of the +seed, the stock is cut off just above the bud (which is inserted near +the ground), and in the fall of that year the tree is ready for sale; +that is, the top is one season old and the root is two seasons old, but +in the trade it is known as a 1-year-old tree. In apples and pears the +stock is usually two years old before it is budded, and the tree is not +sold until the top has grown two or three years. Budding may be +performed also in the spring, in which case the bud will grow the same +season. Budding is always done in young branches, preferably in those +not more than one year old. + +[Illustration: Whip-graft] + +Grafting is the insertion of a small branch (or cion), usually bearing +more than one bud. If Grafting is done on small stocks, it is customary +to employ the whip-graft, which is illustrated in the margin. Both stock +and cion are cut across diagonally, and a split made in each, so that +one fits into the other. The graft is tied securely with a string, and +then, if it is above ground, it is also waxed carefully. In larger limbs +or stocks, the common method is to employ the cleft-graft. This consists +in cutting off the stock, splitting it and inserting a wedge-shaped cion +in one or both sides of the split, taking care that the cambium layer of +the cion matches that of the stock. The exposed surfaces are then +securely covered with wax. Grafting is usually performed early in the +spring, just before the buds swell. The cions should have been cut +before this time, when they were perfectly dormant. Cions may be stored +in sand in the cellar or in the ice house, or they may be buried in the +field. The object is to keep them fresh and dormant until they are +wanted. + +[Illustration: Cleft-graft] + +[Illustration: Cleft-grafting a Cactus] + +If it is desired to change the top of an old plum, apple or pear tree to +some other variety, it is usually done by means of the cleft-graft. If +the tree is very young, budding or whip-grafting may be employed. On an +old top the cions should begin to bear when three to four years old. All +the main limbs should be grafted. It is important to keep down the +suckers or water-sprouts from around the grafts, and part of the +remaining top should be cut away each year until the top is entirely +changed over (which will result in two to four years). + +A good wax for covering the exposed parts is made as follows: Resin, 4 +parts by weight; beeswax, 2 parts; tallow, 1 part. In making the wax, +the materials are first broken up and melted together. When thoroughly +melted the liquid is poured into a pail or tub of cold water. It soon +becomes hard enough to handle, and it is then pulled and worked over +until it becomes tough or “gets a grain,” at which stage it becomes the +color of very light-colored manilla paper. When wax is applied by hand, +the hands must be well greased. Hard cake tallow is the best material +for this purpose. In top-grafting large trees, it is well to carry a +supply of tallow when waxing, by smearing the backs of the hands before +entering the tree. + + +GRAPE. One of the surest of fruit crops is the Grape, a crop each year +being reasonably certain after the third year from the time of setting +the vines. The Grape does well on any soil that is under good +cultivation and well drained. A soil with considerable clay is better +under these circumstances than a light, sandy loam. The exposure should +be to the sun; and the place should admit of cultivation on all sides. +One- or 2-year-old vines should be planted, either in the fall or early +spring. At planting the vine is cut back to 3 or 4 eyes, and the roots +are well shortened in. The hole in which the plant is to be set should +be large enough to allow a full spreading of the roots. Fine soil should +be worked around the roots and firmed with the feet. If the season +should be dry, a mulch of coarse litter may be spread around the vine. +If all the buds start, the strongest one or two may be allowed to grow. + +The canes arising from these buds should be staked and allowed to grow +through the season; or in large plantations the first-year canes may be +allowed to lie on the ground. The second year one cane should be cut +back to the same number of eyes as the first year. After growth begins +in the spring, two of the strongest buds should be allowed to remain. +These two canes now arising may be grown to a single stake through the +second summer, or they may be spread horizontally on a trellis. These +are the canes which form the permanent arms or parts of the vine. From +them start the upright shoots which, in succeeding years, are to bear +the fruits. + +[Illustration: Grape] + +In order to understand the pruning of Grapes, the operator must fully +grasp this principle: _Fruit is borne on wood of the present season, +which arises from wood of the previous season._ To illustrate: A growing +shoot, or cane of 1899, makes buds. In 1900 a shoot arises from each +bud; and near the base of this shoot the Grapes are borne (1 to 4 +clusters on each). While every bud on the 1899 shoot may produce shoots +or canes in 1900, only the strongest of these new canes will bear fruit. +The skilled Grape-grower can tell by the looks of his cane (as he prunes +it in winter) which buds will give rise to the Grape-producing wood the +following season. The larger and stronger buds usually give best +results; but if the cane itself is very big and stout, or if it is very +weak and slender, he does not expect good results from any of its buds. +A hard, well-ripened cane the diameter of a man’s little finger is the +ideal size. + +Another principle to be mastered is this: _A vine should bear only a +limited number of clusters_,--say from 30 to 80. A shoot bears clusters +near its base; beyond these clusters the shoot grows on into a long, +leafy cane. An average of two clusters may be reckoned to a shoot. If +the vine is strong enough to bear 60 clusters, 30 good buds must be left +at the pruning (which is done from December to late February). + +The essential operation of pruning a Grape vine, therefore, is each year +to cut back a limited number of good canes to a few buds, and to cut off +entirely all the remaining canes or wood of the previous season’s +growth. If a cane is cut back to 2 or 3 buds, the stub-like part which +remains is called a spur. Present systems, however, cut each cane back +to 8 or 10 buds (on strong varieties), and 3 or 4 canes are left,--all +radiating from near the head or trunk of the vine. The top of the vine +does not grow bigger from year to year, after it has once covered the +trellis, but is cut back to practically the same number of buds each +year. Since these buds are on new wood, it is evident that they are each +year farther and farther removed from the head of the vine. In order to +obviate this difficulty, new canes are taken out each year or two from +near the head of the vine, and the 2-year or 3-year-old wood is cut +away. + +The training of Grapes is a different matter. A dozen different systems +of training may be practiced on the same trellis and from the same style +of pruning,--for training is only the disposition or arrangement of the +parts. + +On arbors, it is best to carry one permanent arm or trunk from each root +over the framework to the peak. Each year the canes are cut back to +short spurs (of 2 or 3 buds) along the sides of this trunk. + +Grapes are set from 6 to 8 feet apart in rows which are 8 to 10 feet +apart. A trellis made of 2 or 3 wires is the best support. Slat +trellises catch too much wind and blow down. Avoid stimulating manures. +In very cold climates, the vines may be taken off the trellis in early +winter and laid on the ground and lightly covered with earth. Along the +boundaries of home lots, where Grapes are often planted, little is to be +expected in the way of fruit because the ground is not well tilled. For +mildew and rot, spray with Bordeaux mixture. See _Spraying_. + +Concord is the most cosmopolitan variety, but its quality is not the +best. For the home garden, a good selection may be made from the +following list: Winchell or Green Mountain, Campbell Early, Worden, +Concord, Niagara, Moore Diamond, Vergennes, Agawam, Salem, Wilder, Iona, +Brighton, Delaware. + + +GRAPERY. The European grapes rarely thrive out of doors in eastern +America. Grape houses are necessary, with or without artificial heat. +Fruit for home use may be grown very satisfactorily in a cold Grapery +(without artificial heat). A simple lean-to against the south side of a +building or wall is cheap and serviceable. When a separate building is +desired, an even-span house running north and south is preferable. There +is no advantage in having a curved roof, except as a matter of looks. A +compost of four parts rotted turf to one of manure is laid on a sloping +cement bottom outside the house, making a border 12 feet wide and 2 feet +deep. The cement may be replaced with rubble on well drained soils, but +it is a poor makeshift. Every three years the upper 6 inches of the +border should be renewed with manure. The border inside the house is +prepared likewise. Two-year-old potted vines are planted about 4 feet +apart in a single row. Part of the roots go through a crevice in the +wall to the outer border and part remain inside; or all may go outside +if the house is desired for other purposes. One strong cane is trained +to a wire trellis hanging at least 18 inches from the glass, and is cut +back to 3 feet the first year, 6 the second, and 9 the third. Do not be +in a hurry to get a long cane. Pruning is on the spur system, as +recommended for arbors on page 120. The vines are usually laid on the +ground for winter and covered with leaves or wrapped with cloth. + +As soon as the buds swell in early spring, tie the vines to the trellis +and start out one shoot from each spur, rubbing off all others. After +the berries begin to color, however, it is better to leave all further +growth to shade the fruit. Pinch back each of these laterals two joints +beyond the second bunch. To keep down red spider and thrips, the +foliage should be sprayed with water every bright morning except during +the blooming season. At least one-third of the berries should be thinned +from each bunch; do not be afraid of taking out too many. Water the +inside border frequently all through the summer, and the outside +occasionally if the season is dry. Mildew may appear in July. The best +preventives are to syringe faithfully, admit air freely, and sprinkle +sulfur on the ground. + +Fruit may be kept fresh on the vines in a warm (or artificially heated) +Grapery until late December: in a coldhouse it must be picked before +frost. After the fruit is off, ventilate from top and bottom and +withhold water, so as to thoroughly ripen the wood. Along in November +the canes are pruned, covered with straw or wrapped with mats and laid +down till spring. Black Hamburg is superior to all other varieties for a +cold Grapery; Bowood Muscat, Muscat of Alexandria and Chasselas Musque +may be added in the warmhouse. Good vines will live and bear almost +indefinitely.--_S. W. Fletcher._ + + +GRASSES of various kinds are grown for ornament, the most popular types +being the hardy perennials, which make attractive clumps in the lawn or +border. The best of the permanent kinds in the North are the various +sorts of Eulalia (properly Miscanthus). When once established they +remain for years, making large and bold clumps. The striped kind, or +zebra grass, is particularly good. These grasses thrive in any good +soil. They grow from 4 to 7 feet high. The great reed, or _Arundo +Donax_, is a bold subject and perfectly hardy. In a rich and rather +moist soil, it grows 10 to 12 feet high when well established. Pampas +Grass is most excellent in the Middle States and South. Some of the big +native grasses and sedges make attractive lawn clumps. + +Grasses are also grown for dry or everlasting bouquets. For this +purpose, small-growing delicate annual species are mostly used. Good +types are species of agrostis, briza, bromus, eragrostis, and +pennisetum. Seeds of these and of others are sold by seedsmen. With +ordinary treatment, they thrive in any garden soil. + +For notes on sod-making, see _Lawn_. + + +GREENHOUSE. In America the word Greenhouse has come to be applied to all +kinds of glass-houses in which plants are grown. Originally the word was +applied to those houses in which plants are merely preserved or kept +green during the winter. Other types of glass-houses are the +conservatory, in which plants are displayed; stove or hothouse, in which +plants are grown in a high temperature; the propagating pit, in which +the multiplication of plants is carried forward; and the houses which +have various temperatures, as cold, cool and intermediate. The +principles which underlie the construction and management of +glass-houses are too extensive to be discussed here. The reader should +refer to special books on the topic. For the general subject, Taft’s +“Greenhouse Construction” and “Greenhouse Management” are excellent. For +particular applications to floriculture, Hunt’s “How to Grow +Cut-flowers” is a standard work. For applications to the forcing of +vegetable crops, Bailey’s “Forcing-Book” may perhaps be consulted. + +The smaller the glass-house the more difficult it is to manage, because +it is likely to be more variable in temperature, moisture and other +conditions. This is particularly true if the house is a small lean-to +against the south side of a dwelling house, for it becomes very hot at +midday and comparatively cold at night. In order to moderate the heat in +these little houses, it is ordinarily advisable to use ground glass for +the roof or to whitewash it. The house conservatory may be heated by a +coal stove, but the best results are rarely to be attained in this case. +A stove is likely to leak gas, and the temperature is more or less +uneven. The best results are to be attained when the conservatory is +heated by steam or hot water, piped in the modern fashion with wrought +iron pipes, which go together with threads. If the conservatory is +heated from the heater which supplies the dwelling house, it should have +an extra amount of pipe; otherwise it will be necessary to keep the +dwelling house too hot for comfort in order to maintain the conservatory +at its proper temperature. It is always best, when practicable, to heat +the conservatory with a separate apparatus. There are various small hot +water and steam heaters, the size of coal stoves, which are excellent +for the purpose. For a small conservatory, hot water is usually +preferable to steam, since it is less likely to fluctuate. For large +establishments, however, the steam is usually the better. For further +discussions of related subjects, see _Hotbed_, _Window Garden_, +_Potting_ and _Watering_. + + +GREVILLEA. A very graceful greenhouse plant, suitable for house culture. +The plants grow freely from seed, and until they become too large are as +decorative as ferns. Grevilleas are really trees, and are valuable in +greenhouses and rooms only in their young state. They withstand much +abuse. They are now very popular as jardiniere subjects. Seeds sown in +spring will give handsome plants by the next winter. + + +GYPSOPHILA. BABY’S BREATH. _Gypsophila muralis_ is one of the dainty +little plants called Baby’s Breath. It is a low-growing annual forming +compact mounds of green, thickly covered with little pink flowers. It is +one of the most attractive border plants in cultivation. It is also a +charming pot-plant. _G. paniculata_ is a hardy perennial having panicles +of bluish white flowers. This is very graceful, and the flowers are fine +for cutting and for use with sweet pea bouquets or with other choice +flowers. The panicles are so lasting that they may be used in winter +bouquets. The annuals may be planted 1 foot apart; the perennials 3 +feet. Both are readily grown from seed, and bloom the first year. + + +HARDY. A relative term, used to denote a plant which endures the climate +(particularly the winter climate) of a given place. Half-hardy plants +are those which withstand some frost or uncongenial conditions, but will +not endure the severity of the climate. Tender plants are those which +are injured by light frosts. + + +HEDGES. Hedges are much less used in this country than in Europe, and +for several reasons. Our climate is dry, and most Hedges do not thrive +so well here as there; labor is high-priced, and the trimming is +therefore likely to be neglected; our farms are so large that much +fencing is required; timber and wire are cheaper than live Hedges. +However, they are used with good effects about the home grounds. In +order to secure a good Hedge, it is necessary to have a thoroughly +well-prepared, deep soil, to set the plants close, and to shear them at +least twice every year. For evergreen Hedges the most serviceable plant +in general is the arborvitæ. The plants may be set at distances of 1 to +2½ feet apart. For choice Hedges about the grounds, particularly +outside the northern states, some of the retinosporas are very useful. +One of the most satisfactory of all coniferous plants for Hedges is the +common hemlock, which stands shearing well and makes a very soft and +pleasing mass. The plants may be set from 1 to 3 feet apart. Other +plants which hold their leaves and are good for Hedges are the common +box and the privets. Box Hedges are the best for very low borders about +walks and flower beds. The dwarf variety can be kept down to a height of +6 inches to a foot for any number of years. The larger-growing varieties +make excellent Hedges 3, 4 and 5 feet high. The ordinary privet or prim +holds its leaves well into winter in the North. The so-called +Californian privet holds its leaves rather longer and stands better +along the seashore. In the southern states, nothing is better than +_Citrus trifoliata_. + +For Hedges of deciduous plants, the most common species are the +buckthorn, the European thorn apple or cratægus, osage orange, and +various kinds of roses. + +Hedges should be trimmed the year after they are set, although they +should not be trimmed very closely until they reach the desired or +permanent height. Thereafter they should be sheared into the desired +form in spring or fall. If the plants are allowed to grow for a year or +two without trimming, they lose their lower leaves and become open and +straggly. Osage orange and some other plants are plashed--that is, the +plants are set at an angle rather than perpendicularly, and they are +wired together in such a way that they make an impenetrable barrier just +above the surface of the ground. + + +HELIANTHUS. See _Sunflower_. + + +HELICHRYSUM. These are perhaps the most popular of the Everlastings +(which see), having large flowers of several colors. They grow readily +from seed, blooming from July to October. Height 10 inches to 2 feet. +Should be planted or thinned to stand 18 inches apart. + + +HELIOTROPE. A universal favorite house or border plant, growing readily +from cuttings or seeds, and producing quantities of fragrant violet, +purple or white flowers. One of the best methods of cultivation is to +set a strong plant in the border and peg the new growths to the ground, +where they will root and form a perfect mat, flowering profusely during +the fall months until frost. They will endure the temperature of a +living room well if the room is not too dry. Red spider is a natural +enemy of the Heliotrope, and when once it obtains a foothold is a very +difficult pest to manage, but frequent syringing with water will keep it +in check. A light, rich soil and an abundance of heat are their +requirements. Height 1 to 3 feet. Propagated by cuttings or layers. + + +HELLEBORE (White Hellebore) is often used for the killing of +currant-worms and other insects (see _Currant_). It is not so poisonous +as the arsenites, and therefore is to be preferred when it is necessary +to apply a poison to nearly ripe fruit. It is usually applied in a +spray with water, at the rate of ⅓ ounce to the gallon. It is harmless +to foliage. + + +HELLEBORUS, or CHRISTMAS ROSE, may be had in flower at the holidays if +grown in a frame and protected. The usual time for it to flower in the +open border is in March or early April. It will continue to bloom for +many years if grown in a shady place. Roots may be divided as an +increase is wanted. It may also be grown from seeds; and seedlings may +be expected to bloom a year from the spring in which they are sown. +Height 6 to 10 inches. + + +HEMEROCALLIS, or YELLOW DAY LILY. The advice given under Funkia will +apply to this. + + +HERBS are plants which die to the ground in winter. They may be annual, +biennial, or perennial. For a list of annual Herbs suitable for the +flower garden, see the articles on _Annuals_ and _Bedding_. A border or +free mass of perennial Herbs is one of the charms of any place. It is +informal, easy of care, and self-sustaining. The large part of the mass +should be composed of common and hardy things--wild or from gardens--and +incidental features may be made of the choicer and rarer exotics. In +most cases, plants look better when judiciously mixed than when planted +one kind in a bed. See _Border_. + + +HIBISCUS. Annuals and perennials, some of them shrubs, with showy, +hollyhock-like flowers. The annual Hibiscuses are very satisfactory. +They grow quickly and flower freely. The flowers are usually white or +yellow, of large size, and appear from July on. The herbaceous perennial +kinds are amongst the best of hardy border plants, blooming in late +summer and fall. The commonest of these is _Hibiscus Moscheutos_. Give +rich, moist soil. + +The greenhouse species are old favorites. They may be used in outdoor +bedding through the summer, lifted in the fall and cut back. Keep rather +dry and dormant during winter. Propagated by cuttings. + + +HIPPEASTRUM. Consult _Amaryllis_. + + +[Illustration: Common hoe] + +[Illustration: Scarifier] + +HOES should be of several patterns if the most efficient work is to be +done in the garden. The ordinary Hoe is adapted only to the rougher and +coarser Hoe-work, such as digging and fitting the ground. For much of +the subsequent tillage, some of the narrow-blade and pointed Hoes are +excellent. For cutting off weeds, the push Hoe or scarifier is +excellent. + + +[Illustration: Hollyhocks] + +HOLLYHOCK. These old garden favorites have been neglected of late years, +primarily because the Hollyhock rust has been so prevalent, destroying +the plants or making the unsightly. The double varieties seem to suffer +the most; and for that reason, and from the fact that the less formal +type is in favor, the single varieties are now the most generally grown. +Their culture is very simple. The seed is usually sown in July or +August, and the plants set where wanted the following spring. They will +bloom the same year in which they are transplanted--the year following +the seed-sowing. New plants should be set every two years, as the old +crowns are apt to rot or die after the first flowering. For rust, spray +early with Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal carbonate of copper. + + +HOP, ORNAMENTAL. _Humulus Japonicus_, or the annual HOP, is one of the +best rapid-growing screen vines in cultivation. It makes a dense canopy +of attractive foliage. The leaves are finely cut, and in one variety +variegated with white. This variegated variety is a fine vine for a +porch or front screen, always attracting attention to its markings. This +Hop is propagated by seed sown in boxes in March. When once established, +it will seed itself and start as soon as the soil becomes warm. Set +plants 4 to 8 feet apart. Height 8 to 20 feet. + + +HORSERADISH. As a kitchen garden vegetable, this is usually planted in +some out-of-the-way spot and a piece of the root dug as often as needed, +the fragments of roots being left in the soil to grow for further use. +This method results in having nothing but tough, stringy roots, very +unlike the product of a properly planted and well cared for bed. The +best roots are those planted in the spring at the time of setting early +cabbage, and dug as late the same fall as the weather will permit. It +becomes, therefore, an annual crop. The roots for planting are small +pieces, from 4 to 6 inches long, obtained when trimming the roots dug in +the fall. These pieces may be packed in sand and stored until wanted the +following spring. In planting, the roots should be set with the upper +end 3 inches below the surface of the ground, using a dibber or +sharp-pointed stick in making the holes. The crop may be planted between +rows of early-sown beets, lettuce or other crop, and given full +possession of the ground when these crops are harvested. Where the +ground is inclined to be stiff or the subsoil is near the surface, the +roots may be set in a slanting position. In fact, many gardeners +practice this method of planting, thinking that the roots make a better +growth and are more uniform in size. + + +HOTBED. A Hotbed is a frame or box which has artificial heat and a +transparent covering and in which plants are grown. It differs from a +coldframe (which see) in the fact that it has artificial bottom heat. +This bottom heat is usually supplied by fermenting organic matter, +chiefly horse manure, but hot air, hot water or steam conveyed in pipes, +may be employed. It is covered with sash of which the normal or standard +size is 3 feet wide and 6 feet long. These sashes are laid crosswise the +box or frame. The standard size of frame is 6 feet wide and 12 feet +long. A “frame,” therefore, accommodates four sashes. However, the frame +may be of any length desired. This frame is ordinarily made of boards, +and the back of it is 3 or 4 inches higher than the front, so that the +sashes slope to the sun. It is customary to have a space of 6 to 10 +inches between the earth and the sash on the lower or front side. The +manure which is used to heat the bed may be placed on top of the ground +and the frame set on the pile, or it may be placed in a pit. If the land +is warm and well drained, it is ordinarily better to have a pit from 1 +to 2 feet deep and to set the frame over it. This is especially the case +if it is desired to have a permanent Hotbed yard. The place in which the +frames are set should be protected from the cold and prevailing winds by +a rising slope, a high board fence, a building, hedge, or other +obstruction. If the frame yard is near the main buildings, it will be +much more accessible in rainy or snowy times, and the plants are likely +to have better care. Water should also be handy. + +[Illustration: Section of a Hotbed] + +The time of starting a Hotbed will depend upon the kinds of plants to be +grown, the amount of time which one wishes to gain, and something, also, +on the quality of the manure. The hardier the plant the earlier it can +be started. In the latitude of New York, from the first to the middle of +March is the usual time for starting a Hotbed. In this bed are sown +seeds of early flowers and such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower, +tomato, etc. In the raising of any plants in the Hotbed, it is very +essential that they do not become “drawn” or “leggy.” In order to +prevent this, they must be given plenty of room, thorough ventilation on +all pleasant days, and not too great heat. It is well to transplant them +once or twice before they are finally set in the field, especially if +they are started, in New York, as early as the first or middle of March. +When they are transplanted, they can be set in another Hotbed or in a +coldframe; but it is important that the succeeding frames in which they +are set should not be very much colder than the one in which they grew, +else they may become stunted. It is well, however, to transplant them +into a gradually cooler and freer atmosphere in order to harden them +off, so that they may go into the open ground without danger. On every +pleasant day, raise the sash at the upper end 1 or 2 inches, or if the +sun shines brightly and the wind does not blow, give even more air; and +eventually strip off the sashes entirely. It is very important that the +plants are not kept too close and grown too soft. It is usually +advisable to sow cabbage, lettuce and other hardy plants in different +frames from tomatoes and other tender things, in order that the proper +requirements may be given to each. At night the Hotbeds (at least early +in the season) will need more protection than the glass sash. It was +formerly the custom to use thick rye-straw mats to cover Hotbeds, but it +is now a common practice to use the straw matting which can be bought of +carpet dealers. This is rolled out on the sashes at night in one or two +thicknesses; and if the weather is sharp, board shutters, the size of +the sash, may be laid on top. As the manure heat begins to fail give +more and more air, so that the plants may be able to shift for +themselves when the bottom heat is finally exhausted. + +Fresh horse manure is the material which is commonly used for the +heating of Hotbeds. If it can be secured from livery stables, so that it +is all of nearly or quite the same age, better results may be expected. +Manure from highly fed horses usually heats better than that from horses +which receive little grain, or in which there is very much litter. Put +the manure in a pile, preferably under cover, and as soon as it shows +signs of heating, fork it over in order to mix the entire mass and to +cause it to heat evenly. When it is steaming throughout the whole mass, +it may be put in the bed. Assuming that the Hotbed has a pit beneath it, +it is well to put in 2 or 3 inches of coarse litter in order to keep the +manure off the cold ground. The manure is then put in and tramped down, +in layers of 4 to 6 inches each. If the manure is of the right +consistency, it will pack without becoming dense and soggy; that is, it +will spring a little beneath the feet. If it has too much litter, it +will fluff up under the feet and not pack well. From 18 to 24 or even 30 +inches of manure is placed in the pit. On top, an inch of dry straw or +light leaf-mold may be placed to serve as a distributor of the heat to +the earth above. From 3 to 4 inches of rich, light earth is placed upon +this, in which to sow the seed. The manure will ordinarily heat +violently for a few days. Place a soil thermometer in it, and as soon as +the temperature begins to fall below 90° the seeds of tomatoes and +egg-plants may be sown; and when it begins to fall below 80°, the seeds +of cabbages, lettuce and cauliflower may be sown. If the frame is not +placed over a pit and the manure is put on top of the ground, it will be +necessary to allow the body of manure to project 1 or 2 feet in all +directions in order to prevent the edges of the bed from freezing. + +In starting plants in a Hotbed, one must not expect to gain as much time +in the crop as he gains in the starting of the seeds: that is, if he +starts the seeds two months ahead of the normal season, he will not gain +two months in the ripening of the crop. Ordinarily, he cannot expect to +gain much more than one-half the time, particularly if the plants are +transplanted to the field from the Hotbed. + +Some plants may be grown to maturity in the Hotbed, particularly lettuce +and radishes. After Hotbeds have been emptied of their plants, the +sashes may be stored away, and the frames, with their spent manure, used +for the growing of an early summer crop of melons or cucumbers. + + +HOUSE PLANTS. See _Window-Garden_. + + +[Illustration: Hyacinth bean] + +HYACINTH BEAN (_Dolichos Lablab_). A very rapid-growing twiner, bearing +fragrant flowers of purple or white. It is a fine screen plant. Plant +seeds when the ground is warm where the plants are to grow; or they may +be started early in pots. Height 10 feet. + + +HYACINTHS are most popular winter- or spring-flowering bulbs. Hyacinths +are hardy, but they are often used as window or greenhouse plants. They +are easy to grow and very satisfactory. For winter flowering the bulbs +should be procured early in the fall, potted in October in soil composed +of loam, leaf-mold and sand. If ordinary flower pots are used, put in +the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, charcoal or small stones for +drainage; then fill the pot with dirt, so that when the bulb is planted +the top will be on a level with the rim of the pot. Fill in around the +bulb with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing. These pots of +bulbs should be placed in a cold pit, cellar or on the shady side of a +building. In all cases, plunge the pot in some cool material (as +cinders). Before the weather becomes cold enough to freeze a crust on +the ground, the pots should have a protection of straw or leaves to keep +the bulbs from severe freezing. In from six to eight weeks the bulbs +should have made roots enough to grow the plant, and the pots may be +placed in a cool room for a short time. When the plants have started +into growth, they may be placed in a warmer situation. Watering should +be carefully attended to from this time, and when the plant is in bloom +the pot may be set in a saucer or other shallow dish containing water. +After flowering, the bulbs may be ripened by gradually withholding water +until the leaves die. They may then be planted out in the border, where +they will bloom each spring for a number of years, but will never prove +satisfactory for forcing again. The open ground culture of Hyacinths is +the same as for tulips, which see. See _Bulbs_. + +_Water Culture of Hyacinths._--The Hyacinth is the most popular of the +Dutch bulbs for growing in vases. The Narcissus may be grown in water, +and do just as well, but it is not as pretty in glasses as the Hyacinth. +Glasses for Hyacinths may be had of florists who deal in supplies, and +in various shapes and colors. The usual form is tall and narrow, with a +cup-like mouth to receive the bulb. They are filled with water, so that +it will just reach the base of the bulb when it has been placed in +position in the cup above. The vessels of dark-colored glass are +preferable to those of clear glass, as roots prefer darkness. When the +glasses, or bowls as above mentioned, have been arranged, they are set +away in a cool, dark place to form roots like potted bulbs. Results are +usually secured earlier in water than in soil. To keep the water sweet, +a few lumps of charcoal may be put in the glass. As the water +evaporates, add fresh; add enough so that it runs over, and thereby +renews that in the glass. Do not disturb the roots by taking out the +bulb. + + +HYDRANGEA. One of the commonest lawn shrubs is _Hydrangea paniculata_. +The commonest fault in growing it is scattering the plants over the +lawn, where they suffer in the competition with grass roots, and do not +show off to advantage. It is far better to mass them in front of taller +things. The Hydrangea blooms on wood of the season; therefore it should +be pruned after bloom--in winter or early spring (see _Pruning_). Cut +back heavily, in order to secure the strong new shoots upon which the +flowers are borne. + + +HYSSOP. See _Sweet Herbs_. + + +ICE PLANT, or MESEMBRYANTHEMUM. Fine little plants for rockwork or +edging. The majority of the species are greenhouse and window plants, +but a few can be recommended for outdoor planting. A very sunny +location, with gravelly soil, will give the best results, either in the +open or in the house. Easily propagated by pieces of the plant laid on +moist sand in a somewhat sunny place. The common Ice Plant of +window-gardens is readily grown from seeds or slips. It is prized for +its glandular-glistening thick foliage (whence the common name). The +little flowers, which open in sunshine, are also interesting. + + +IMPATIENS SULTANI is a generally known conservatory plant, making a +charming pot subject for warm greenhouse or a room. It is readily +propagated from seed or cuttings, seed being preferable. Flowers bright +pink-red. Of easy culture in a fairly moist atmosphere. Height about 18 +inches. + + +INSECTS. For horticultural purposes, Insects might be grouped into three +general classes: borers, or those which live inside the plant tissue; +chewing Insects which live on the outside of the plant; and the sucking +Insects. + +As a general statement, it may be said that the digging out of borers is +the only complete remedy. Sometimes an application of something to the +body of the tree may keep them out, but it is always uncertain; and it +usually involves more work than to dig them out. All trees which are +subject to borers (especially apples, peaches and pears) should be +examined at least twice every year. See _Borers_. + +[Illustration: Moth of one of the borers] + +[Illustration: A beetle borer] + +The general run of chewing or biting Insects may be killed by the +arsenical poisons. Such Insects are the common types of worms and +beetles which feed on foliage. The leading poison which is now used for +this purpose is Paris green (which see). Hellebore and pyrethrum are +useful when it is not advisable to use arsenical poisons. + +The sucking Insects include all the kinds of plant lice, the squash bug +and all the scale Insects. These are dispatched by some material which +kills by external application, especially material which has kerosene or +petroleum in it. The common material heretofore used for this purpose is +kerosene and soap emulsion; but it is now believed that the emulsion of +kerosene and water is fully as efficient, and since machines have been +perfected for automatically mixing it, it is a much more practicable +remedy. See _Kerosene Emulsion_. + +[Illustration: Weevil--a chewing insect] + +In the fighting of all Insects, success depends upon taking them in +time. If something is known of the life history of the Insect, very much +will be gained, for the operator may be on hand as soon as the Insect is +expected to appear. + +_Insects on House Plants._--The most troublesome or common Insects with +which the amateur is likely to meet in the window-garden or conservatory +are the red spider, mite, mealy bug, aphis, and scale. + +The red spider is a very minute Insect with a reddish body. Its presence +may be suspected whenever plants are growing in a warm and dry place. +Usually it first appears on the under side of leaves, but it multiplies +rapidly, and will soon not be so choice of position. It sucks the juices +of the leaves, and they soon indicate the injury by a dull appearance, +and also, in many cases, by small whitish or paler areas on the upper +surfaces. The mite is of similar habits and size, but is of a pale +color, with black on its back. It appears under the same conditions as +the red spider. These pests are small, but are very serious if allowed +to multiply unchecked. They should be looked after as soon as their +presence is detected. + +The remedy is to arrange for keeping the air about the plants more +moist, and giving drenchings of the foliage with clear or soapy water. +The latter is most effective. The soap used may be simply the common +washing soap, or that sold at drug stores known as whale-oil soap. In +fighting them, care must be used not to keep the soil soaked with water, +or it will check the plants in vigor and only add to the strength of the +enemy. Even florists sometimes get into just such a predicament. +Flagging and extreme variations in dryness and humidity of the air, +checking the vigor of plants, favor the appearance and presence of the +red spider quite as much as extreme and continued dryness of the air. + +The aphids or plant lice are readily discernable when they appear on +plants, as they are sure to do under nearly all conditions. They are +small, have elongated, succulent bodies, move about slowly and +awkwardly, on rather long, hairlike legs, and are most commonly of a +pale green color, though often brown or reddish, and sometimes of other +shades. Fumigation of the plants in a closed box with burning tobacco +stems will kill them. Latterly florists evaporate a liquid extract of +tobacco (which is sold by dealers in florists’ supplies) by dropping a +hot iron into a pan of it. A tea made by soaking tobacco stems in water +for a few hours, and applied with a syringe, is effective, and a safe +remedy in inexperienced hands. A tablespoonful of tobacco sheep-dip, or +extract of tobacco, to a couple of gallons of water, also makes an +effective syringing or dipping solution. As mentioned above, we should +use care, especially in the winter time, when the soil often dries out +slowly, to avoid soaking it when already wet or sufficiently moist. + +[Illustration: One of the kind which sucks its food] + +Mealy bug has a small, flat, tortoise-shaped body, from about +one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch long. The Insects collect in +masses in the axils of the leaves. They are covered with a white mealy +or cottony substance, and are readily recognized, although persons +unfamiliar with their appearance have sometimes mistaken them for bits +of down or cotton lodged upon the foliage or in the axils of the leaves. +The young are small, and likely to escape observation unless one looks +closely. They are flat, of a creamy or pinkish tint, and lie close to +the surface of the leaves, especially on the under surface. Coleus and +bouvardias are among the plants upon which mealy bugs are most often +found. Owing to the oily nature of their covering, it is difficult to +wet their bodies with any ordinary liquid that may be applied for the +purpose of destroying them. Fir-tree oil is one of the most effective +remedies for them. This liquid is rather expensive, but for a small +collection a gallon can will last for a long time. It is also effective +against other Insects. For mealy bugs, two tablespoonfuls of the oil to +one pint of water will make an effective dipping or spraying solution. +Soft or rain-water should be used, and tin, wooden, or earthenware +vessels. Galvanized iron vessels are to be avoided. Apply forcibly with +a syringe or atomizer, preferably in the evening. If effective, the +mealy bug will turn buff-color. For other Insects, except for the scale, +mentioned below, the solution will not need to be more than half or a +fourth so strong. Where there are only a few mealy bugs, the plant may +be gone over with a soft brush and the Insects crushed. + +[Illustration: The codlin-moth] + +Scales are most commonly of a brown or whitish color, flat or +tortoise-shaped, and easily seen. They adhere closely by the under +surface of their bodies to the stems, branches, and foliage of woody +plants. The mature Insect is stationary, and its body at length becomes +a shell containing hundreds of eggs. These hatch, and the young emerge +from the shell, crawl about and settle, to develop into the familiar +form. A strong solution of fir-tree oil, like that used for mealy bugs, +is a good remedy. A strong solution of whale-oil soap, made by adding an +ounce or more of the soap to three gallons of water, even more if +necessary, is also useful in combating them. After dipping or syringing +the plants they may be allowed to stand over night, when they should be +rinsed off with clear water. Applications may need repeating every three +or four days until the Insects are gotten rid of. It is difficult, for a +time, to tell when they are dead. If killed, the bodies will fall off +easily, and in the case of the soft-shelled species shrivel up somewhat +after a time. Kerosene and water emulsion (see _Kerosene_) will kill +them. + + +INSECTICIDE. A substance which will kill insects. Insecticides are of +two general classes--those that kill by contact (see _Kerosene_), and +those that poison the insect (see _Paris Green_ and _Hellebore_). + + +IRIS. Many handsome perennials, of which the Blue Flag is familiar to +every old-fashioned garden. Most Irises thrive best in a rather moist +soil, and some of them may be colonized in the water in margins of +ponds. Gardeners usually divide them into two sections--the +tuberous-rooted or rhizomatous, and the bulbous. A third division--the +fibrous-rooted--is sometimes made. The common and most serviceable +species belong to the tuberous-rooted section. Here belongs the +beautiful and varied Japanese Iris, _Iris lævigata_ (or _I. Kæmpferi_), +which is among the most deserving of all hardy perennials. Most of these +Irises need no special care. They are propagated by division of the +rootstocks. Plant the pieces 1 foot apart if a mass effect is desired. +When the plants begin to fail, dig them up, divide the roots, discard +the old parts and grow a new stock, as before. _I. Susiana_, of this +section, is one of the oddest of Irises, but it is not quite hardy in +the North. Of the bulbous section, most species are not hardy in the +North. The bulbs should be taken up and replanted every two or three +years. The Persian and Spanish Irises belong here. The bulbs give rise +to but a single stem. + + +KALE. A low-growing, spreading plant belonging to the cabbage family and +extensively used for winter and spring greens. The same culture as given +to late cabbage is suitable. At the approach of severe freezing weather +a slight protection is given in the North. The leaves remain green +through the winter and may be gathered from under the snow at a time +when material for greens is scarce. Some of the Kales are very +ornamental because of their blue and purple curled foliage. The Scotch +Curled is the most popular variety. Kales are extensively grown at +Norfolk, Va., and southward, and shipped north in winter. Let the plants +stand 18 to 30 inches apart. Young cabbage plants are sometimes used as +Kale. See _Collards_. Borecole is a kind of Kale. Sea Kale is a wholly +different vegetable (which see). + + +KEROSENE is fatal to insects. It is likely to injure plants if applied +full strength, although if applied in full sunlight (so that evaporation +takes place rapidly) it may do no harm. It is safest to apply it in +dilution. Of late, there are pumps which mix or emulsify Kerosene and +water in definite proportions, and this mixture (in the proportion of +⅕ or ¼ Kerosene) is fatal to insects and usually harmless to plants. +The standard Kerosene emulsion is with soap, but the perfection of +mechanical devices for emulsifying it with water is probably destined to +supplant the soap emulsion. + +_Kerosene Emulsion._--Hard soap, ½ pound; boiling soft water, 1 +gallon; Kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in the water, add the +Kerosene, and churn with a pump for 5 to 10 minutes. Dilute 10 to 25 +times before applying. Use strong emulsion, diluted four times in +winter, for all scale insects. For insects which suck, as plant-lice, +mealy bugs, red spider, thrips, bark-lice or scale. Cabbage-worms, +currant-worms, and all insects which have soft bodies can also be +successfully treated. + + +KOHLRABI. This vegetable looks like a leafy turnip growing above ground. +If used when small (2 to 3 inches in diam.), and not allowed to become +hard and tough, it is of superior quality. It should be more generally +grown. The culture is very simple. A succession of sowings should be +made from early spring until the middle of summer, in drills 18 inches +to 2 feet apart, thinning the young plants to 6 or 8 inches in the rows. +It matures as quickly as turnips. One ounce of seed to 100 feet of +drill. + + +[Illustration: Lantana] + +LANTANA is a popular greenhouse pot-plant, and is occasionally seen in +window-gardens, being grown for the profusion of its orange-red, +heliotrope-shaped flowers. In the South, and sometimes in the North, it +is planted out for the summer. It is very easy to grow, and also to +propagate by means of cuttings. Although the flowers of the common +species are ill-scented, the profusion of bloom makes it desirable. + + +LARKSPUR. DELPHINIUM. The Larkspurs are among the very best hardy +plants, being free-flowering and having a good habit. They should be in +every mixed border, particularly the perennial kinds. The tall +flower-spikes, showing above the cut foliage, give the plant a striking +effect. The flowers are in shades of blue in most varieties. The plants +are propagated by division of root or from seed. The latter method will +give good results, although the resulting plants are not likely to be +the same variety as the seed plant. + +As winter approaches, a covering of coarse litter should be thrown over +the crowns of the perennial kinds. The plants will come into bloom in +late June and continue for a long season. Plants should be set 3 to 5 +feet apart if in rows, but they are seen to better advantage when mixed +with other border plants. Height of plants from 3 to 5 feet. + +The annual Larkspur may be grown from seed sown in heat and transplanted +to the ground in May; or seed may be sown where the plants are wanted +and the seedlings thinned to 1 foot. These seedlings will bloom in June, +and continue through the summer. Plants grow from 8 to 18 inches high. + + +LATHYRUS. See _Pea, Everlasting_; also, _Sweet Pea_. + + +LAWNS. In order to have a good Lawn, two things are essential: first, a +pleasing surface or contour; second, a dense, firm sod. + +Inasmuch as the Lawn is, or should be, a permanent thing, it is +necessary that the greatest care be exercised to grade the land and to +thoroughly prepare it before any seeds are sown. About a new building +the filling should be allowed to settle, so that the finished surface +will slope gradually away from the foundations and the steps. If the +land is very hard clay, or if the place is rather low, it is always well +to lay tile under-drains at frequent intervals. Everything should be +done to cause the land to be deep and loose, so that the grass roots +will run far into the soil and not be pressed for lack of moisture in a +dry time. If the land has not had applications of manure in recent +years, it is well to plow in, or to spade in, a liberal quantity of +well-rotted litter from the barnyard. Work this into the soil as deeply +as possible. If the hardpan is rather high, it is well to subsoil the +area or to trench it (that is, to spade it up two or three spades deep). +If the land is apparently not fertile in plant-food, it is well to add a +dressing of some commercial fertilizer to the surface when the grass +seed is sown. This will start the grass quickly and allow it to get a +foothold before the severe weather of midsummer comes. + +[Illustration: It is fun to make a garden] + +[Illustration: A garden corner] + +The kind of grass seed to sow will depend upon the region and also upon +the personal tastes of the owner. The one standard Lawn grass is June +grass or blue grass (_Poa pratensis_). The seeds of this grass are sold +in the hulls, and therefore the bushel weighs only fourteen pounds. Not +less than two and one-half to three bushels should be sown to the acre. +In the southern states, June grass will not hold, and Bermuda grass is +used, being sown about as thick as recommended for the June grass. There +are various prepared Lawn grass mixtures which are excellent, but the +June grass alone will give a very excellent Lawn in a short time. +Whether one shall sow white clover in his Lawn depends mostly upon his +personal taste. If he likes the white clover, it is well to put in a +quart or two of seed to the acre, sowing it separately from the June +grass in order to get an even distribution. Some persons like to see the +white clover in certain parts of the Lawn. It thrives very well where +the land is rather moist. In parts of the East, Rhode Island bent grass +is used for lawns. + +[Illustration: A nursery] + +The grass seed should be sown in the cool of the year. It may be sown in +September and thereby become established before winter; or it may be +sown very early in the spring. In newly made Lawns, it is a good plan to +grade the area thoroughly in the fall, allowing it to settle in the +winter; and then, if the surface remains even, to sow the grass seed on +one of the latest snows in spring. By sowing it on the snow, one can see +that it is distributed evenly; and when the snow melts, the seed is +carried into the land and does not need covering. It is well to sow +three or four quarts per acre of timothy seed, for the timothy +germinates very quickly, and makes a green area the first season, but is +killed out as soon as the June grass gains a foothold. Timothy will not +stand the continued cutting, whereas the June grass will. The timothy, +therefore, serves as a temporary covering to the land, indicating where +the borders are, and thereby outlining the area for the Lawn mower to +cut. The timothy seed should be sown separately from the June grass in +order to insure even distribution. On hard lands it is well to sow two +or three quarts per acre of crimson clover seed. The long roots of this +plant tend to improve the physical condition of the soil; and when they +decay, they leave nitrogen in the soil for the grass to use. Since +crimson clover is an annual plant, it will not do any permanent mischief +in the Lawn. + +[Illustration: A lawn, with planting on the sides] + +The first season the weeds will probably come up thickly, especially if +the land is rich. These weeds should not be pulled, for whenever one is +pulled out of the ground, many grass plants are rooted up and the +surface is made uneven. The only way in which to keep down weeds is to +mow them frequently with a Lawn mower. They will not appear in any great +numbers the second year, unless there should be some perennial weeds, +like dandelion or dock; and these may be pulled out the first fall or +the following spring. + +It is rare that one secures a perfectly good and uniform sod from one +sowing of seed; especially is this true if the soil varies in different +parts of the area. If the surface contour is satisfactory, it is unwise +to dig up the areas on which the seed has not caught. It is best to rake +them over with a steel rake in fall or spring, sowing on a little +commercial fertilizer rather rich in nitrogen, and sow more seed. Nearly +every Lawn will need patching in this way from year to year. If the Lawn +is attended to in fall and spring by sowing grass seed, the weeds will +rarely do serious mischief. When weeds are troublesome on the Lawn, it +means that there is not sufficient grass, and every effort should be +made to get more grass. Therefore, when the perennial weeds are pulled +out, sow more grass seed. + +[Illustration: A picturesque rill on the lawn] + +When narrow-leaved plantain bothers, it is an indication that the land +is too poor and dry for grass. In such cases, the land usually lacks +humus or vegetable matter; and in various severe incursions of the +plantain, it may be necessary to spade up the weedy areas and to work +rotted manure into the soil. Usually, however, the plantain can be +killed out by enriching the soil and sowing more grass seed. The common +practice of sprinkling Lawns is nearly always pernicious, since the +water is not supplied in sufficient amount to wet down very far, and the +grass tends to make surface roots. When the watering is omitted the +plants suffer. The more a Lawn is sprinkled, the more the grass depends +upon the sprinkling. If it is necessary to water the Lawn, the water +should be allowed to run directly from the hose until the surface area +is completely soaked. It is best to do this at nightfall. When the water +is applied by means of a sprinkler, a large part of it evaporates and +does no good to the ground. The fundamental treatment of the Lawn is to +have the land so deep and porous that the grass roots strike deep into +the soil and do not need the surface water. A Lawn which is well made +will need watering only in unusually dry times. + +Mow the Lawn frequently when it is growing rapidly,--in spring and early +summer. In the fall mow less frequently, and let it go into the winter +with a long coat of grass. If the Lawn is mown as often as is needed, it +will not be necessary to rake off the trimmings. In fall, top-dress the +Lawn with commercial fertilizer at the rate of 500 pounds to the acre. +If the Lawn has not been raked clean of all the trimmings and decayed +refuse which covers the surface of the ground, it is not necessary to +dress it with stable manure; for manure is unsightly, unsavory, and +often brings in weeds. Many persons make the mistake of raking the Lawn +clean in late fall. + +Closely associated with the making of the Lawn is the general +arrangement of the planting. It is the common fault to scatter the +planting. Much better effects are secured by massing or grouping the +planting. See _Borders_ and _Flower Beds_. Particularly along the +boundaries and about the foundations of buildings, the shrubbery and +other plants may be massed to excellent effect. In large places there +should be more or less mass planting along the walks and drives. In the +curves and retreats of these plantings one will find many pleasant +corners; and here the children may have their play-houses and their +pets. A little brook winding across a corner or along one side of a Lawn +may make a pleasant picture if it is allowed to take on a half-wild +character. + + +[Illustration: A layer] + +LAYERS are parts (usually stems) of plants laid down on the earth while +still attached to the parent, with the expectation that they will take +root and can then be separated as independent plants. All vine-like +plants can be propagated readily by means of Layers; so can most +soft-wooded plants, as willows, maples, currants, etc. It is usual to +put down the branches in the fall. In a year they should be ready to be +severed from the parent. They may also be made in spring, before growth +starts. See that the layered part rests in moist earth. Usually roots +arise more freely if the shoot is cracked or notched at the buried +point. The Layer may be held down by a forked stick (“pegged down”), or +by a stone or clod. See that the shoot does not throw up suckers behind +the layered part. + +[Illustration: Several layers from one vine] + + +LEEK. This belongs to the onion family, and is used mostly as flavoring +for soups. Well grown Leeks have a very agreeable and not very strong +onion flavor. Leek is of the easiest culture, and is usually grown as a +second crop, to follow beets, early peas, and other early stuff. The +seed should be sown in a seed-bed in April or early May and the +seedlings planted out in the garden in July, in rows 2 feet apart, the +plants being 6 inches apart in the rows. The plants should be set deep +if the neck or lower part of the leaves is to be used in a blanched +condition. The soil may be drawn towards the plants in hoeing, to +further the blanching. Being very hardy, the plants may be dug in late +fall, and stored in the same manner as celery, in trenches or in a cool +root-cellar. One ounce of seed to 100 feet of drill. + + +LETTUCE is probably the most extensively grown salad vegetable. It is +now in demand, and is procurable, every month in the year. The winter +and early spring crops are grown in forcing-houses and coldframes, but a +supply from the garden may be had from April to November, by the use of +a cheap frame in which to grow the first and last crops, relying on a +succession of sowings for the intermediate supply. Seed for the first +crop may be sown in a coldframe in March, growing the crop thick and +having many plants which are small and tender; or, by thinning out to +the distance of 3 inches and allowing the plants to make a larger +growth, the plants pulled up may be set in the open ground for the next +crop. Sowings should be made in the garden from April to October, at +short intervals. A moist location should be selected for the July and +August sowings. The early and late sowings should be of some +loose-growing variety, as they are in edible condition sooner than the +cabbage or heading varieties. + +[Illustration: Plant of heading lettuce] + +The cabbage varieties are far superior to the loose-growing kinds for +salads. To be grown to perfection, they should have very rich soil, +frequent cultivation and an occasional stimulant, such as liquid manure +or nitrate of soda. The Cos Lettuce is an upright-growing type much +esteemed in Europe, but less grown here. The leaves of the full grown +plants are tied together, thus blanching the center, making it a +desirable salad or garnishing variety. It thrives best in summer. One +ounce of seed will grow 3,000 plants or sow 100 feet of drill. In the +garden, plants may stand 6 inches apart in the rows, and the rows may be +as close together as the system of tillage will allow. + + +LILY. Bulbous plants of many kinds. It has been said of this family of +plants that it has no “poor relations,” each of them being perfect in +itself. Many of the choicest kinds are comparatively unknown, although +easy to cultivate. In fact, all of the Lilies may be grown with +comparative ease. A light, rich, well-drained soil, mellow to the depth +of at least 1 foot, a handful of sand under each bulb if the soil is +inclined to be stiff, and planting so that the crown of the bulb will be +at least 4 inches below the surface, are the general requirements. One +exception to the depth of planting is _Lilium auratum_, or Golden-Banded +Lily. This should be planted deeper--at least 8 inches below the +surface--as the new bulbs form over the old one and soon bring the bulbs +to the surface if they are not planted deep. + +While Lilies may have partial shade, they should never be planted near +or under trees. The shade or protection of tall-growing, herbaceous +plants is sufficient. In fact, the best results, both as to growth and +effect, may be had by planting amongst low shrubbery or border plants. +Most kinds are the better for remaining undisturbed for a number of +years; but if they are to be taken up and divided, or moved to other +quarters, they should not be allowed to become dry. The small bulbs, or +offsets, may be planted in the border, and if protected will grow to +flowering size in two or three years. In taking up bulbs for division it +is best to do so soon after the tops die after blooming. At least this +should be done early in the fall, not later than October, giving the +plants a chance to become established before freezing weather. A mulch +of coarse litter or evergreen boughs should be placed over the bulbs +after the ground has become frozen, to be gradually removed as the +spring advances. + +[Illustration: Easter Lily] + +As pot-plants some Lilies are very satisfactory, especially those that +may be forced into bloom through the winter. The best kinds for this +purpose are _L. Harrisii_ (Easter Lily), _L. longiflorum_, and _L. +candidum_. Others may be forced with success, but these are the ones +most generally used. The winter culture of these for forcing is the +same as for Hyacinths (in pots), which see. The article on _Bulbs_ gives +directions for both outdoor and indoor growing which are directly +applicable to Lilies. + + +LILY, CHINESE SACRED. See _Narcissus_. + + +LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. A perfectly hardy little plant, bearing racemes of +small white bell-shaped flowers in early spring. For ordinary +cultivation, sods or mats of roots may be dug from any place in which +the plant is colonized. Usually it thrives best in partial shade; and +the leaves make an attractive mat on the north side of a building, or +other shady place, in which grass will not grow. The plants will take +care of themselves year after year. + +For forcing indoors, imported roots or “pips” are used, as the plants +are grown for this particular purpose in parts of Europe. These roots +may be planted in pots, and treated as recommended for winter-flowering +bulbs, under _Bulbs_. Florists force them in greater heat, however, +often giving them a bottom heat of 80° or 90°; but skill and experience +are required in order to attain uniformly good results in this case. + + +LINE. A garden Line is one of the most convenient things connected with +garden operations. It is always wanted when long rows of seed are to be +sown, and it is also necessary in laying out walks or drives. A very +simple, yet handy, holder for a line is shown on the margin. The pin is +driven in the soil at the starting point, and the line is unwound as the +operator walks towards the end of the row. A line should be 100 feet +long for common garden operations. + +[Illustration: A garden Line] + + +LOBELIA. Some of these are well-known garden plants, being used very +freely as edging for ribbon beds or basket plants. They require a loose, +rich soil, and some stimulant when in full flower. The flowers continue +through a long season. They propagate freely from seed. _Lobelia +Erinus_, in blue, 6 inches high, is one of the most popular of all +annual edging plants. In Europe various perennial Lobelias are popular, +but they are seldom seen in American gardens. + + +LONDON PURPLE. Discussed under _Paris Green_. + + +LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. See _Amarantus_. + + +MANURE adds plant-food to the soil, and it also improves the texture or +physical condition of the soil. This latter effect is often its greatest +value. If one wants mere plant-food alone, he may often do better to add +it in some more concentrated form. See _Fertilizers_. Manure, when +thoroughly incorporated with the soil, makes the ground congenial for +the plant. It is important, in garden operations, that the Manure be +rotted or composted, or “short” or “fine,” as the gardeners say. It then +incorporates readily with the soil and quickly gives up its fertility. +Manure is composted by letting it decay in piles. The compost pile +should be flat on top, so that it will catch the rains, and 3 to 5 feet +high. + +The most desirable Manure for the garden and for house plants is +probably old cow Manure. It does not burn or lose its strength. It may +be kept for a number of years if piled under shelter, becoming more +available each year. It mixes well with soil and leaf-mold. When once +rotted, this manure is very lasting and easily assimilated by plants. +Horse Manure is very likely to become overheated, and to lose its value; +and it is too loose and dry for many purposes. Pig Manure, unless well +composted with soil or refuse, is usually too heavy and rich. Sheep +Manure is at its best when used in a liquid form, although it is most +excellent to mix with soil to loosen it. + +All garden refuse, such as vines, leaves, decaying vegetables, will make +Manure if composted with soil; and if the wash water is thrown on the +compost pile much fertility will be added. Wood ashes from stoves, the +chip dirt from the woodshed--in fact, almost any substance that will +decay--will furnish plant-food, and should be added to the compost pile. +This pile should be turned often, to mix the material. + +When practicable, it is best to apply Manure in the fall, as it then has +time to become incorporated with the soil before spring. Beds which are +to be used for flowers next year may be dressed with Manure in the fall +and deeply spaded, leaving the surface rough and loose. It is well to be +careful that the Manure does not contain weed seeds. + + +MARIGOLD. The Marigolds of the old-fashioned gardens are still among the +best of plants for fall color. They are hardy annuals of the easiest +culture, and are always certain of giving strong and excellent results. +They have been much improved of late years. The old-fashioned African +Marigolds grow 2 to 3 feet high, and they are useful for scattering in +mixed borders or making large masses or displays of color in the remoter +parts of the place. The French or dwarf Marigolds grow about 1 foot high +and are more tufty in their habit. They are better adapted for edgings +than for mass effects in the main parts of the grounds. All Marigolds +may be sown where the plants are to stand, since the flowers are usually +not wanted until late summer or early fall, at which time they usually +give their best bloom. If they are wanted earlier, however, the seeds +may be started in the house or hotbed. Tall varieties may be allowed to +stand from 10 to 18 inches apart and the dwarfs at somewhat less +distances. + + +MATTHIOLA will be found under _Stocks_. + + +MIGNONETTE. Probably no flower is more generally grown for its fragrance +than this. The Mignonette needs a cool soil, only moderately rich, shade +part of the day, and careful attention to cutting the flower-stalks +before the seeds are ripe. If a sowing be made in late April, followed +by a second sowing in early July, the season may be extended until +severe frosts. There are few flowers that will prove as disappointing if +the treatment it needs is omitted. Height 1 to 2 feet. Treated as a +half-hardy annual. It can be sown in pots late in summer and had in the +house in winter. + + +MOON-FLOWERS are species of Morning-Glories that open their flowers at +night. A well-grown plant trained over a porch trellis, or allowed to +grow at random over a low tree or shrub, is a striking object when in +full flower at dusk or through a moonlit evening. In the southern states +the Moon-Flower is a perennial, but even when well protected does not +survive the winters in the North. Cuttings may be made before danger of +frost and wintered in the house, or the plants may be grown from seed +sown in January or February. Cuttings usually give best results in the +northern states, as the seasons are not long enough for seed plants to +give good bloom. Seeds should be scalded or filed just before sowing. +The true Moon-Flower is _Ipomœa Bona-Nox_, white-flowered; but there +are other kinds. This grows 20 to 30 feet where the seasons are long +enough. + + +[Illustration: Morning-Glories] + +MORNING-GLORY is perhaps the most popular of all twining herbs, because +of the ease with which it may be grown, the quickness with which it +covers the object, and the quantities of bright, cheerful flowers it +bears. Many of the kinds--in fact all that are generally known--may be +readily grown from seed, flowering early in the summer. Tender annuals. +Give rich soil and plenty of water. The beautiful cypress vine belongs +to this group. It requires the same treatment as the Morning-Glory, but +the seeds should be scalded just previous to sowing. + +Dwarf Morning-Glories (_Convolvulus tricolor_). They come into flower +much sooner than the tall climbing varieties, and are covered with +flowers through a long season. They may be used with fine effect in +vases or large hanging baskets. Give a full sunny exposure. May thrive +on soil that is not very rich. They grow 1 foot high. Half-hardy +annuals. + + +MULBERRY. Both for fruit and ornament the Mulberry should be more +generally planted. Even if the fruit is not to the taste, the tree is +naturally open-centered and round-headed, and is an interesting subject; +some of the varieties have finely cut leaves. The fruits are in great +demand by the birds, and after they begin to ripen the strawberry beds +and cherry trees are free from robins and other fruit-eating birds. For +this reason alone they are a valuable tree for the fruit-grower. Trees +may be purchased cheaper than one can propagate them. + +If planted in orchard form, place them 25 to 30 feet apart. About the +borders of a place they can go closer. The Russian varieties are often +planted for windbreaks, for they are very hardy and thrive under the +greatest neglect; and for this purpose they may be planted 8 to 20 feet +apart. The Russians make excellent screens. They stand clipping well. +New American, Trowbridge and Thorburn are leading kinds of fruit-bearing +Mulberries for the North. The true Downing is not hardy in the northern +states; but New American is often sold under this name. Mulberries +thrive in any good soil, and need no special treatment. + + +MULCH is used both in protecting plants from the severe freezing of +winter and the severe drought of summer. The same material may be used +in either case, although it is now considered best to make an earth +Mulch to prevent evaporation and retain the moisture through the dry +season. This earth Mulch is made by breaking the crust of the soil and +leaving it in fine particles. This may be done with a horse cultivator, +a hoe or a rake. In fact, any tool which leaves the top of the soil +loose will be instrumental in preventing evaporation of soil water. See +_Tillage_. The Mulching of the ground around blackberries, currants, +gooseberries, or raspberries with straw or hay is often practiced to +keep the fruits clean; and the winter Mulch of strawberry beds is used +between the rows for the same purpose, as well as to retain moisture and +to afford winter protection. Winter Mulch usually consists of leaves, +straw, hay, rough manure, boughs of evergreens, or any coarse material +that will protect the plants from severe freezing and the heaving caused +by alternate freezing and thawing. This winter Mulch should be removed +as spring advances, unless it is of such a character as to be worked +into the soil to add fertility or to loosen heavy lands. Near the +seacoast salt hay is considered to be an ideal Mulch. The winter Mulch +must not contain too strong or heavy manures, or plants may be injured +by the leaching. For flower borders and shrubbery, muck or peat makes a +good winter Mulch. Ordinarily the Mulch may be placed on to the depth of +4 to 6 inches, and if it is of loose material it may be still deeper. If +dry and loose, mice may nest in it and girdle the trees or bushes. Even +perfectly hardy plants are benefited by a winter Mulch, because it +improves the soil. Autumn leaves, as they drift into shrubberies, make +an ideal Mulch; it is not always necessary to remove these leaves. See +_Lawn_. + + +MUSHROOM. There is no science of Mushroom growing. Certain conditions +have been found to give success, but it is not known why. These +conditions may be imitated ever so closely and complete failure result. +There are many “systems” advised, each system the result of somebody’s +success; but one cannot be sure of success by following any one of them. +Good results are frequently attained when all rules are broken. The +following paragraphs are from “Farmers’ Bulletin,” No. 53 (by William +Falconer), of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (March, 1897): + +Mushrooms are a winter crop, coming in from September till April or +May--that is, the work of preparing the manure begins in September and +ends in February, and the packing of the crop begins in October or +November and ends in May. Under extraordinary conditions the season may +begin earlier and last longer, and, in fact, it may continue all summer. + +Mushrooms can be grown almost anywhere out of doors, and also indoors +where there is a dry bottom in which to set the beds, where a uniform +and moderate temperature can be maintained, and where the beds can be +protected from wet overhead, and from winds, drought, and direct +sunshine. Among the most desirable places in which to grow Mushrooms are +barns, cellars, closed tunnels, sheds, pits, greenhouses, and regular +Mushroom houses. Total darkness is not imperative, for Mushrooms grow +well in open light if shaded from sunshine. The temperature and moisture +are more apt to be equable in dark places than in open, light ones, and +it is largely for this reason that Mushroom houses are kept dark. + +[Illustration: Mushroom] + +The best fertilizer for Mushrooms, so far as the writer’s experience +goes, is fresh horse manure. Get together a lot of this material (short +and strawy) that has been well trampled and wetted in the stable. Throw +it into a heap, wet it well if it is at all dry, and let it heat. When +it begins to steam turn it over, shake it well so as to mix thoroughly +and evenly, and then tramp it down solid. After this let it stand till +it again gets quite warm, then turn, shake, trample as before, and add +water freely if it is getting dry. Repeat this turning, moistening and +trampling as often as it is needful to keep the manure from “burning.” +If it gets intensely hot, spread it out to cool, after which again throw +it together. After being turned in this way several times, and the heat +in it is not apt to rise above 130° F., it should be ready to make up in +the beds. By adding to the manure at the second or third turning +one-fourth or one-fifth of its bulk of loam, the tendency to intense +heating is lessened and its usefulness not at all impaired. Some growers +prefer short manure exclusively, that is, the horse droppings, while +others like a good deal of straw mixed in with this. The writer’s +experience, however, is that, if properly prepared, it matters little +which is used. + +Ordinarily the beds are only 8 to 10 inches deep; that is, they are +faced with 10-inch-wide hemlock boards, and are only the depth of this +board. In such beds put a layer of fresh, moist, hot manure, and trample +it down firm until it constitutes half the depth of the bed; then fill +up with the prepared manure, which should be rather cool (100° to 115° +F.) when used, and pack all firmly. If desired, the beds can be made up +entirely of the prepared manure. Shelf beds are usually 9 inches deep; +that is, the shelf is bottomed with 1-inch boards and faced with +10-inch-wide boards. This allows about 8 inches for manure, and 1 inch +rising to 2 inches of loam on top. In filling the shelf beds the bottom +half may be of fresh, moist or wettish, hot manure, packed down solid, +and the top half of rather cool prepared manure, or it may be made up of +all prepared manure. As the shelf beds can not be trodden and can not be +beaten very firm with the back of the fork, a brick is used in addition +to the fork. + +The beds should be spawned after the heat in them has fallen below 100° +F. The writer considers 90° F. about the best temperature for spawning. +If the beds have been covered with hay, straw, litter or mats, these +should be removed. Break each brick into twelve or fifteen pieces. The +rows should be, say, 1 foot apart, the first one being 6 inches from the +edge, and the pieces should be 9 inches apart in the row. Commencing +with the first row, lift up each piece, raise 2 to 3 inches of the +manure with the hand, and into this hole place the piece, covering over +tightly with the manure. When the entire bed is spawned pack the surface +all over. It is well to cover the beds again with straw, hay or mats, to +keep the surface equally moist. The flake spawn is planted in the same +way as the brick spawn, only not quite so deep. + +At the end of eight or nine days the mulching should be removed and the +beds covered with a layer of good loam 2 inches thick, so that the +Mushrooms can come up in and through it. This gives them a firm hold, +and to a large extent improves their quality and texture. Any fair loam +will do. That from an ordinary field, wayside or garden is generally +used, and it answers admirably. There exists an idea that garden soil +surfeited with old manure is unfit for Mushroom beds because it is apt +to produce spurious fungi. This, however, is not the case. In fact, it +is the earth most commonly used. For molding the beds the loam should be +rather fine, free and mellow, so that it can be easily and evenly spread +and compacted firmly into the manure. + +If an even atmospheric temperature of from 55° to 60° F. can be +maintained, and the house or cellar containing the Mushroom beds is kept +close and free from drafts, the beds may be left uncovered, and should +be watered if they become dry. But no matter where the beds are +situated, it is well to lay some loose hay or straw or some old matting +or carpet over them to keep them moist. The covering, however, should be +removed just as soon as the young Mushrooms begin to appear above +ground. If the atmosphere is dry, the pathways and walls should be +sprinkled with water. The mulching should also be sprinkled, but not +enough to cause the water to soak into the bed. However, if the bed +should get dry, do not hesitate to water it. + + +MUSKMELON. The natural soil for melons is a light, sandy loam, well +enriched with rotted manure, although good crops may be grown on soil +naturally heavy if the hills are prepared as they should be. When only +heavy soil is available, the dirt where the seeds are to be planted +should be thoroughly pulverized and mixed with fine, well rotted manure. +A sprinkling of leaf-mold or chip-dirt will help to lighten it. On this +hill from ten to fifteen seeds may be sown, thinning to four or five +vines when danger of insects is over. The season may be advanced and the +damage from insects lessened by starting the plants in hotbeds. This may +be done by using fresh sod, cut into 6-inch pieces, placing them +grass-side down in the hotbed, sowing eight to ten seeds on each piece, +and covering with 2 inches of light soil. When all danger of frost is +over, and the ground has become warm, these sods may be carefully lifted +and set in the prepared hills. The plants usually grow without check, +and fruit from two to four weeks ahead of those from seed planted +directly in the hill. Old quart berry boxes are excellent to plant seeds +in, as, when they are set in the ground, they very quickly decay, +causing no restriction to the roots. Netted Gem, Hackensack, Emerald +Gem, Montreal, Osage, and the Nutmeg Melon are popular varieties. One +ounce of seed will plant about fifty hills. + +[Illustration: Muskmelon] + +For insects, see _Cucumber_. + + +MUSK PLANT is an old-fashioned house plant of easy culture. Raise a new +stock from seeds as soon as the plants begin to fail. + + +NARCISSUS. Hardy bulbous plants, including the daffodils, jonquils, and +other forms. The ease with which these plants may be grown, the beauty +and fragrance of the flowers, as well as their lasting qualities when +cut, would seem to make their culture in this country more popular than +it is. Good bulbs planted in September or October are sure to bloom in +April or May. The bulbs may remain in the ground for a number of years, +although the best results will be had by digging them up every three +years, and resetting in a different location. Select a moist, loamy +soil, slightly protected from the sun. No manure should come directly in +contact with the bulb, but if needed to hold moisture the manure may be +spaded down to the depth of twelve inches. + +[Illustration: Narcissus] + +Narcissus may be forced into flower through the winter, as described +under _Bulbs_. The most popular for winter bloom is the “Chinese Sacred +Lily.” This grows in water without any soil whatever. Secure a bowl or +glass dish, about three times the size of the bulb; put some pretty +stones in the bottom; set in the bulb and build up around it with stones +so as to hold it stiff when the leaves have grown; tuck two or three +small pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep the water sweet, then +fill up the dish with water and add a little every few days, as it +evaporates. Set the dish in a warm, light place. In about six weeks the +fragrant, fine white flowers will fill the room with perfume. + + +[Illustration: Nasturtium] + +NASTURTIUMS (_Tropæolums_) are both dwarf and climbing. The Dwarf +Nasturtiums make one of the most showy second-row plants for the border. +The colors of the flowers have a wide range and the plants bloom +profusely. It is not, however, the plant in flower that is the greatest +consideration, but the flowers themselves as cut-flowers. No flower +makes a finer display in vase or bowl than these rich colors, all +harmonizing well and lighting up a room as very few of the common easily +grown flowers do. The same may be said of the tall-growing Nasturtiums, +although the flowers of these form part of their effectiveness as screen +vines. Few climbers make a more rapid growth, and none are better +adapted to hide unsightly objects in our yards or gardens. + +[Illustration: Dwarf Nasturtium] + +For a long season of flowers and a large growth of vine the seed should +be sown late in March or early in April, in boxes or pots, the plants +carried along until the first of May, and planted out where wanted. The +dwarf varieties bloom more freely and the flowers are of better color in +rather poor soils, while for rapid growth of vine a well enriched border +would be the best. The dwarf varieties may be planted 2 or 3 feet apart, +and the tall ones as wanted to make a screen. The tall kinds grow 5 to 8 +feet. All Nasturtiums are tender. + + +NICOTIANA. Tender annuals (or grown as annuals). They are fine plants +for borders or pots, the tall-growing varieties making a very fine show +when in flower, having pure white flowers with long, tubular necks, the +season of bloom being from July to October. The seeds are very fine, and +should be sown on the surface of the soil, in boxes or pots. When +planted out they should be set from 2 to 5 feet apart, according to +kind. Some of the giant Nicotianas are excellent subjects for temporary +screens; so is tobacco, which is also a Nicotiana. + +[Illustration: Nicotiana affinis] + +_Nicotiana affinis_ is one of the best of all garden flowers. Its long +white flowers are fragrant at evening. They close in the hot sun. It is +a half-hardy annual of easiest culture. Height 2 to 3 feet. + + +ŒNOTHERA. EVENING PRIMROSE. A very interesting group of plants, +opening their flowers at evening. Many of them are fragrant and attract +night insects, especially the large moths, seldom seen until dusk. The +opening of the flowers of the large-flowering varieties is a source of +pleasure and surprise, as one flower follows another in opening, and in +a large plant the late opening flowers seem to burst all at one time. +The perennial species may be propagated by division or seed, the +annuals by seed. Set the tall kinds 2 to 3 feet apart. Height 1 to 3 +feet. All of easy culture. + + +[Illustration: Okra or Gumbo] + +OKRA. From the green pods of this vegetable is made the well-known Gumbo +soup of the South, where the plant is more extensively grown than in the +North. The pods are also used in their green state for stews, and are +dried and used in winter, when they are nutritious, and form no little +part of the diet in certain sections of the country. The seeds are very +sensitive to cold and moisture, and should not be sown until the ground +has become warm--the last week in May or the first of June being early +enough in New York. The seed should be sown in a drill 1 inch deep, the +plants thinned to stand 12 inches in the row. Give the same culture as +for corn. One ounce will sow 40 feet of drill. Dwarf varieties are best +for the North. Green Density and Velvet are leading varieties. + + +OLEANDER. While there are many named varieties of the Oleander, but two +are often seen in general cultivation. These are the common red and +white varieties. Both these, as well as the named varieties, are of easy +management and well adapted to home culture, growing in pots or tubs for +several years without special care. Well-grown specimens are very +effective as porch or lawn plants, or may be used to good advantage in +mixed beds of tall-growing plants, plunging the pot or tub to the rim in +the soil. The plants should be cut back after flowering. They should be +rested in any out-of-the-way place through the winter. When brought out +in the spring, they should be given sun and air in order to make a +sturdy growth. Propagation is effected by using well-ripened wood for +cuttings, placed in a close frame; or the slips may be rooted in a +bottle or can of water, care being taken to supply water as evaporation +takes place. After being rooted, they may be potted, using soil with a +large proportion of sand. Well established plants may be repotted in +good loam and well rotted manure. + + +ONIONS are grown from seeds (“black seed”) for the main crop. They are +also grown from sets (which are very small Onions, arrested in their +development), from “tops” (which are bulblets produced in the place of +flowers), and from multipliers or potato onions, which are compound +bulbs. + +[Illustration: Early Onions] + +The extremely early crop of Onions is grown from sets, and the late or +fall crop is grown from seed sown in April or early May. The sets may be +saved from the crop harvested the previous fall, saving no bulbs +measuring over ¾ of an inch in diameter, or, better, they may be +purchased from the seedsman. These sets should be planted as early as +possible in the spring, preferably on land that has been manured and +trenched in the fall. Plant in rows 12 inches apart, the sets being 2 or +3 inches in the row. Push the sets well down into the ground and cover +with soil, firming them with the feet or a roller. In cultivating, the +soil should be thrown towards the tops, as the white stems are usually +sought as an indication of mildness. The crop will be in condition to +use in from three to four weeks, and may be made to last until small +seed Onions are to be had. Tops or multipliers may also be used for the +early crop. + +In growing Onions from seed, it is only necessary to say that the seed +should be in the ground very early in order that the bulbs make their +growth before the extreme hot weather of August, when, for want of +moisture and because of the heat, the bulbs will ripen up while small. +Early in April, in New York, if the ground is in condition, the seed +should be sown thickly in drills from 12 to 16 inches apart, and the +ground above the seeds well firmed. Good cultivation and constant +weeding is the price of a good crop of Onions. In cultivating and +hoeing, the soil should be kept away from the rows, not covering the +growing bulbs, but allowing them to spread over the surface of the +ground. When the crop is ready to be harvested, the bulbs may be pulled +or cultivated up, left to dry in double rows for several days, the tops +and roots taken off, and the bulbs stored in a dry place. Later in the +season they may be allowed to freeze, covering with chaff or straw to +hold them frozen, and kept until early spring; but this method is +usually unsafe with beginners, and always so in a changeable climate. +Onion seed should always be fresh when sown--preferably of the last +year’s crop. One ounce of Onion seed will sow 100 feet of drill. + +One of the recent methods of obtaining extra large bulbs from seed is to +sow the seed in a hotbed in February or early March, and transplant to +the open ground in April. + +The Danvers, Prizetaker, Globe and Wethersfield are favorite varieties, +with the addition of White Queen or Barletta for pickling. + + +OXALIS. A number of hardy species of this are excellent plants for +rockwork and edging. The greenhouse species are very showy, growing +without extra care, and blooming freely through the late winter and +spring months; these are mostly increased by bulbs, a few by division of +the root. _O. violacea_ is one of the commonest of house-plants. Give a +sunny window, for the flowers open only in sun or very bright light. The +bulbous kinds are treated as recommended for _Bulbs_, except that the +bulbs must not freeze. + + +PALMS. No more graceful plant for room decoration can be found than a +well-grown specimen of some species of Palms. Most Palms are well +adapted for this purpose when small, and as the growth is usually very +slow, a plant may be used for many years. Again, the plants thrive +better in partial shade. They may be grown in a sitting or drawing-room +more satisfactorily than most house-plants. One of the frequent causes +of failure in the culture of the Palm is the over-potting and subsequent +over-watering. A Palm should not be repotted until the mass of roots +fills the soil; then a pot only a size larger should be used. Use ample +drainage in the bottom to carry off excess of water. Although the plants +need a moist soil, water standing at their roots proves injurious. A +soil composed of well rotted sod, leaf-mold and a little sand will meet +their requirements. Among the best Palms for house culture are Arecas, +_Cocos Weddelliana_, Latania, Kentia, Chamærops and Phœnix. Cycas may +also be regarded as a Palm. + +[Illustration: Palms] + +The date Palm may be grown from seed of the common commercial date. Seed +of the other varieties may be purchased from leading seedsmen, but, as +the seed germinates only under favorable conditions, and the Palm is a +very slow-growing plant while young, the best plan is to purchase the +plants from a dealer when wanted. When the plants become weak or +diseased, take them to a florist for treatment and recuperation. + +[Illustration: A table Palm] + + +PANDANUS, or SCREW PINE. The _Pandanus utilis_ and _P. Veitchii_ are +exceedingly ornamental, and are well adapted to house culture. The +singular habit of growth, bright, glossy leaves, and the ability to +withstand the dust and shade of a dwelling room, make them a desirable +addition to the house collection. They are propagated by the offsets or +young plants that grow around the base of the trunk; or they may be +increased by seed. If by the former method, the offsets should be cut +off and set in sand, at a temperature of 65° or 70°. The cuttings root +slowly and the plants for a time make a very slow growth. The general +cultural treatment is that of palms, which see. + + +[Illustration: Pansies] + +PANSY is without doubt the most popular spring flower in cultivation. +The strains of seed are many, each containing great possibilities. The +culture is simple and the results are sure. Seed sown in August or +September, in boxes or a frame, will make plants large enough to reset +in November and bloom the following March; or they may be left until +March in open seed-beds before setting out. Also, if they are sown very +thinly in the frames they may remain undisturbed through the winter, +blooming very early the following spring. The frame should be protected +by mats, boards or other covering through the severe cold, and as the +sun gains strength, care should be taken to keep them from heaving by +alternate thawing and freezing. Seed sown in boxes in January or +February will make fine blooming plants by April, taking the place of +those blooming earlier. + +The requisites for satisfactory Pansy culture are rich, moist, cool +soil, protection from the noonday sun, and attention to keeping them +from going to seed. As the ground becomes warm a mulch of leaf-mold or +other light material should be spread over the bed to retain moisture +and exclude heat. Spring and fall give the best bloom. + + +PARIS GREEN is the leading arsenical insecticide. It is usually applied +in a water spray, at the rate of 1 pound of the poison to 150 to 200 +gallons of water. Add ½ pound of lime to prevent injury to foliage. +Potatoes will usually stand a stronger mixture; peaches and some other +plants do not need one so strong. Make the Paris Green into a paste with +water before adding it to the 200 gallons, that it may mix better. Paris +Green may be added to Bordeaux mixture with excellent results, counting +the Bordeaux as if it were so much water; in this case it will not be +necessary to add lime to the Paris Green. The Paris Green is used only +for chewing insects, as worms and beetles. London purple is used in the +same way. + + +[Illustration: Parsley grown in a box] + +PARSLEY. The curled Parsley is used almost exclusively as a garnish for +meats and salads, although the flavor in soups is fine. The seed is slow +to germinate, and often the second or third sowing is made, thinking the +first is a failure; but usually after what would seem a long time the +young plants will be seen. When sown in the open ground, it should be +thinned to stand 3 or 4 inches in the row, the rows being 10 to 12 +inches apart. A few plants in a border will give a supply for a large +family, and with a little protection will live over winter. Roots may be +lifted in the fall, put into boxes or old cans, and grown in a sunny +window for winter use. + + +PARSNIPS are one of the vegetables that are the better for the winter’s +freeze, although they are of good quality if taken up after the fall +frosts and packed in soil, sand or moss in the cellar. The seed, which +must be not over one year old, should be sown as early as possible in +well prepared soil, firmed with the feet or roller. As the seed +germinates rather slowly the ground often becomes crusted or baked over +the seeds, in which case it should be broken and fined with a garden +rake. This operation often means the success of the crop. Radish or +cabbage seeds may be sown with the Parsnip seed to mark the row and +break the crust. One ounce of seed will sow 200 feet of drill. Thin to 6 +inches apart in the row. + + +PEA. Who does not long for the time when early Peas are fit to use? And +how many know the great difference in quality between the smooth and the +wrinkled Peas? The first are a little the earliest to be planted and to +become fit for use, and on that account should be planted in a small +way. For the kitchen-garden the dwarf and half-dwarf varieties are the +best, as the tall kinds will need brush or wire to support them, causing +considerable trouble and labor and not being as neat in appearance. The +tall varieties yield a larger crop than the dwarfs, but as the rows must +be made from 3 to 5 feet apart, the dwarf ones, which are planted only 6 +to 8 inches apart, will give as large a yield on the same area. Always +plant double rows of the tall varieties: that is, two rows from 4 to 6 +inches apart, with the brush or wire between, the double rows being from +3 to 5 feet apart, according to varieties. The dwarf varieties should be +planted four rows in a block, each row being only 6 or 8 inches apart. +The Peas on the two center rows may be picked from the outside. Leave a +space of 2 feet and plant the same. At the time of the first planting +only the smooth varieties should be sown, but by the middle of April in +New York the ground will be warm and dry enough for the wrinkled sorts. +A succession should be sown that will come to maturity one after the +other, extending the season six or eight weeks. If a further supply is +wanted the early quick-maturing varieties may be sown in August, usually +giving a fair crop of Peas in September and early October. In the hot +weather of midsummer they often do not thrive so well. One quart of seed +will plant about 100 feet of drill. + + +PEA, EVERLASTING (_Lathyrus latifolius_). These Peas do not have the +colors or fragrance of the Sweet Pea, but are fine for planting against +rocks, stumps, or fences. They bloom through a long season, and, being +perfectly hardy, will live for years. Height 2 to 6 feet. Raised from +seeds or from cuttings, usually the former. Keep the seed pods picked +off to lengthen period of bloom. + + +PEA, SWEET. See _Sweet Pea_. + + +PEACH. Given the proper exposure, Peaches may be fruited in many +sections where now it is thought impossible to have a crop. It is +usually the practice of the amateur to set Peach trees in the shelter of +some building, exposed on the south or east to the sun, and “in a +pocket” as regards winds. This should be reversed, except in the close +vicinity of large bodies of water. The fruit buds of Peaches will stand +very cold weather when perfectly dormant, often as low as 12° or 18° +below zero in New York; but if the buds once become swollen, +comparatively light freezing will destroy the crop. Therefore, if the +trees be set on elevations where a constant air drainage may be +obtained, sheltered, if at all, on the south and east, from the warming +influence of the sun, the buds will remain dormant until the ground +becomes warm, and the chances of a failure will be lessened. This advice +applies mostly to interior sections. A well drained, sandy loam or +gravelly soil suits the Peach better than a heavy soil; but if the +heavier soil is well drained, good crops may be obtained. + +[Illustration: Peaches] + +Peaches are short-lived at best, and one should be satisfied with three +or four crops from each tree. They bear young, usually a partial crop +the third year. If a crop may be had every other year until the trees +are eight or ten years old, they will have well repaid the effort of +cultivation. But they often bear twice this long. Young trees may be set +every four or five years to replace older ones, thus having trees at a +bearing age at all times on a small place. Trees should be set 14 to 18 +feet apart each way. A good selection of varieties for home use would be +Early York, Alexander, Halo Early, Mountain Rose, Early Crawford, +Wheatland, Stump, Elberta, Stevens, Oldmixon, Late Crawford and Smock. + +Peach trees are always bought when they are one year old, that is, one +year from the bud. For example, the bud is set in the fall of 1898. It +remains dormant until the spring of 1899, when it pushes into vigorous +growth; and in the fall of 1899 the tree is ready for sale. Peach trees +which are more than a year old are scarcely worth the buying. It is a +common practice, when setting Peach trees, to prune them back to a whip, +leaving a stub bearing not more than one bud where each branch is cut +off. + +The three great enemies of the Peach are the borer, the yellows and the +curculio. + +The borer is best handled by digging it out every spring and fall. Trees +which are attacked by the borer have an exudation of gum about the +crown. If the borers are dug out twice a year they will not get +sufficient start to make the operation very laborious. It is the only +sure way. + +The yellows is a communicable disease, the cause of which is not +definitely known. It shows itself in the fruit ripening prematurely, +with distinct red spots which extend through the flesh, and later by the +throwing out of fine, branching, twiggy tufts along the main branches. +The only treatment is to pull out the trees and burn them. Other trees +may be set in the same places. + +For a discussion of curculio, see the remarks under _Plum_. + + +PEAR. No fruit plantation should be considered complete without trees of +various kinds of Pears, ripening fruits from early in August till +winter. The late varieties are generally good keepers, and extend the +season into February, thus supplying fruit for six or seven months. + +As the Pear grows to perfection on quince, the dwarf tree is peculiarly +adapted to planting on small home grounds, and is often used as a +boundary plant, or to serve the purpose of a screen. These dwarf trees +should be set deep--4 to 6 inches below the union--to prevent the stock +from growing. Dwarf trees may be set as near together as 10 to 16 feet, +while the standard or tall-growing Pears should be set 18 to 25 feet +apart. Trees are planted when two or three years old. + +[Illustration: Bartlett Pears] + +The Pear thrives on clay soil, if well underdrained, and for this reason +may succeed in places where other fruits might fail. A good, steady +growth should be maintained, but the use of nitrogenous manures should +be avoided, as they tend to make a rank growth and invite attacks of +Pear blight, which is the worst enemy of the Pear. For summer fruits: +Osband’s Summer, Bartlett, Clapp and Manning Elizabeth are among the +best. For autumn: Duchess, Flemish Beauty, Bosc, Louise Bonne, Seckel +and Sheldon. For winter fruit: Anjou, Clairgeau, Lawrence and Winter +Nelis are excellent. Kieffer is an excellent commercial fruit, but it is +too poor to be given space in the home ground except as an ornamental +tree. + +Of the Pear blight, Duggar writes as follows: + +“REMEDIES. (_a_) _The knife and the saw._--With a disease working as +this does, it is very evident that there is no chance either for cure or +prevention by means of spraying. The heroic treatment of the knife and +saw must be adopted and vigorously pursued, as has been claimed from the +beginning. The blackened leaves alone must not serve as signs of the +diseased area, but one must examine carefully the branches and remove +them 6 inches or more below the lowest discolorations. Often before +cutting, pruners slice the bark downward to see where the injury ends. +This should not be done; it is better to be sure that you are below the +infected area, and run no such risk of infecting anew the tissues below. +The cut surfaces of larger limbs and branches should be painted for +protection against wound rots. + +“(_b_) _When to cut._--Cutting out diseased portions should be done +whenever the disease is evident. This may check the injuries +temporarily; but it has been shown that much can be done in the autumn +to prevent the establishment of the disease the following spring. It has +long been known that the disease may pass the winter in the branches by +a slow growth in the neighborhood of late infections. Thorough work of +eradication should especially be performed after the season of growth. +Then cut out every diseased branch and burn, so that in the spring when +the succulent growth begins again, there will be few places in which +insects may come in contact with the bacterial exudations. + +“(_c_) _Conditions favoring the disease._--The knife is our only hope of +extermination; but there are undoubtedly conditions which favor the +disease. In a succulent, rapidly growing tree the bacteria find more +favorable conditions for their development than in one which grows +slowly, yet with sufficient vigor. For this reason, too much nitrogenous +manure is dangerous; and, for the same reason, a succulent growth +induced by severe pruning should be avoided.” + + +[Illustration: Pelargonium, or Geranium] + +PELARGONIUMS. Here belong the plants known as Geraniums--the most +satisfactory of house-plants, and extensively used as bedding plants. No +plants will give better returns in leaf and flower; and these features, +added to the ease of propagation, make them general favorites. Cuttings +of partially ripened wood root very easily, grow to blooming size in a +short time, and, either planted out or grown in a pot, make fine +decorations. The common or “Fish” Geraniums are much more satisfactory +when not more than a year old. Take cuttings from the old plants at +least once a year. In four or five months the young plants begin to +bloom. Plants may be taken up from the garden and potted, but they +rarely give as much satisfaction as young, vigorous subjects. Repot +frequently until they are in 4- to 5-inch pots; then let them bloom. + +The show Pelargoniums are those commonly known as Lady Washington +Geraniums. These have but one period of bloom, usually in April, but +they make up in size and coloring. This section is more difficult to +manage as a house plant than the common Geranium, needing more direct +light to keep it stocky, and being troubled by insects. Still, all the +trouble taken to grow them will be well repaid by the handsome blossoms. +Take cuttings in late spring, after flowering, and blooming plants may +be had the following year. Good results are sometimes secured by keeping +these plants two or three years. Cut back after each blooming season. + +For house culture the Geraniums need a rich, fibrous loam, with the +addition of a little sand; good drainage is also an essential. + + +PEONY. The herbaceous Peony has long had a place in the garden, and is +now in general use as an early flowering plant. It is perfectly hardy, +and free from the many diseases and insects that attack so many fine +plants. The single and semi-double varieties are very fine, the flowers +becoming large as the plant becomes well established. The herbaceous +section is readily increased by division. The tree Peonies are increased +by grafting. They grow in some cases to the height of 3 or more feet, +and are covered with large, very double flowers of rich colors. Height 2 +to 3 feet. + + +PEPPERS are tender while young, although they will endure a heavy frost +in the fall. Their culture is that recommended for eggplants. A small +seedsman’s packet of seed will be sufficient for a large number of +plants, say two hundred. The large Bell Peppers are the mildest, and are +used for making “stuffed Peppers” and other dishes. The small, hot +Peppers are used for seasoning and sauces. + +[Illustration: Bell Pepper] + + +PETUNIA. The improvement made in the size and markings of the Petunia +has been marked of late. Now almost every shade of color may be found, +aside from yellow. A bed of Petunias makes a mass of color equaled by +few other flowers. They also make very fine single plants for pots, +baskets or window-boxes, blooming freely through the winter, and +emitting a delicate fragrance. The single varieties grow freely from +seed, but if plants of one special color are wanted cuttings should be +made. These cuttings root easily and bloom early. Cuttings will have to +be made of the double varieties to increase their number. For common +Petunias, sow seeds where plants are to grow, in a warm, sunny place; +or, for earlier bloom, seeds may be started in the house. Thin to 8 to +12 inches apart. The season of bloom is cut short only by frost or other +causes. + +[Illustration: Petunia] + + +PHLOX. Both the perennial and the annual Phloxes are most valuable. +Excepting the petunia, no plant will give the profusion of bloom with as +little care as the annual Phlox (_Phlox Drummondii_). Masses of one +color or of contrasting colors make very effective ribbon borders or +edging beds. The perennial species are very showy, having almost as wide +a range of color as the annuals. They grow to the height of 3 feet. They +are most effective in the back row of a border. The perennials have been +much improved of late. They are hardy. + +The annual Phlox is propagated by seed sown early in the spring in the +border, or in March in boxes and transplanted. The perennial Phlox is +increased by division of the roots, the flowers being larger and more +highly colored by dividing at least every three years. The annual Phlox +blooms early, and continues until late in the fall. The perennial blooms +from July to frost. + + +PINK. See _Dianthus_ and _Carnation_. + + +PLUM. Of Plums there are three general or common types: first, the +common Domestica or European Plum, which gives rise to all the older +varieties, like Lombard, Bradshaw, Green Gage, the Prunes, the Egg +Plums, the Damsons, and the like; second, the Japanese Plums, which +have become popular within the last ten years, and which are adapted to +a wider range of country than the Domesticas; third, the native Plums of +several species or types, which are adapted to the plains, the middle +and southern states, where the Domestica Plums do not thrive, and some +kinds to the cold North. + +Wherever the Domestica and Japanese Plums can be grown, the native Plums +are not destined to become popular; but many of the natives are much +hardier than others, and are therefore adapted to regions in which the +Domestica and Japanese are not safe. Others of them are well adapted to +the middle and southern states. The Domestica and Japanese Plums are +considerably hardier than peaches, but not so hardy as the apple. The +northern limit of their general cultivation is the southern peninsula of +Michigan, central and southern Ontario, central New York and central New +England. + +Plums thrive on a great variety of soils, but they do better, as a rule, +on those which are rather heavy and have a considerable content of clay. +In fact, many of the varieties will thrive on clay as hard as that upon +which pears will grow. On the other hand, they often thrive well upon +light, and even almost sandy soils. + +The trees are set when they are two and three years from the bud. It is +preferable to have Plum trees on stocks of the same species, but it is +not always possible to secure them at the nurseries. In the South, Plums +are worked mostly on peach roots, and these make excellent trees where +the climate is not too severe, and especially upon the lighter lands on +which they are planted in the South. In the North the larger part of the +Plum stocks are grown on the Myrobalan Plum roots. This Myrobalan is an +Old World species of Plum, of smaller growth than the Domestica. This +stock, therefore, tends to dwarf the tree, and it is also likely to +throw up sprouts from the roots. Plum trees are set from 12 to 18 feet +apart. Many growers like to set them 8 feet apart in rows, and have the +rows from 16 to 20 feet apart. + +Plums are pruned much the same as apples and pears. That is, the top is +thinned out from year to year, and all superfluous branches and broken +or diseased wood are removed. If the soil is very strong and the trees +are close together, it may be well to head them in a little each year, +especially those varieties which grow very strong and robust. + +The varieties of Plums are very numerous. Of the Domestica or European +type, some of the best are Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Jefferson, Reine +Claude, Coe Golden Drop, Quackenbos, Fellemburg, German Prune, Copper. +The Lombard is the most cosmopolitan variety, and is always sure to give +a crop, but the quality is not so good as that of the others mentioned. +For culinary purposes, some of the Damsons, which are very small-fruited +varieties, are excellent. Of Japanese Plums, the best so far tested for +the North are Red June, Abundance, Burbank, Chabot and Satsuma. For a +very early cherry-like Plum for home use, the Berger is excellent. Of +the native Plums, the most cosmopolitan variety is Wild Goose. Excellent +varieties are Weaver, Quaker, Forest Garden, Wayland, and others. + +[Illustration: Plums] + +There are four leading difficulties in the growing of Plums--leaf +blight, fruit rot, black knot, and curculio. + +The leaf blight usually comes on about midsummer, the leaves becoming +spotted and dropping off. The remedy for this trouble is to spray +thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture, beginning soon after the fruits have +set, and before the trouble begins to show. + +The fruit rot may be prevented by the same means--that is, by spraying +with Bordeaux mixture. It is usually best to begin just after the fruits +are well set. A very important consideration in the checking of this +disease is to thin the fruit so that it does not hang in clusters. If +one fruit touches another, the rot spreads from fruit to fruit in spite +of the spraying. Some varieties, like Lombard and Abundance, are +susceptible to this injury. + +The black knot is best kept in check by cutting out the knots whenever +they can be seen, and burning them. As soon as the leaves drop, the +orchard should be gone over and all knots taken out. Orchards which are +thoroughly sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for the leaf blight and +fruit-rot fungus are less liable to attacks of black knot. + +The curculio, or the insect which is the parent of the worms in the +fruit, is the inveterate enemy of the Plum and other stone fruits. The +mature beetle lays the eggs in the fruits when they are very small, +usually beginning its work about as soon as the flowers fall. These eggs +soon hatch, and the little maggot bores into the fruit. Those fruits +which are attacked whilst very young ordinarily fall from the tree, but +those which are attacked when they are half or more grown may adhere to +the tree, but are wormy and gummy at the picking time. The mature +beetles are sluggish in the mornings, and are easily jarred from the +trees. Taking advantage of this fact, the fruit-grower may jar them into +sheets; or, in large orchards, into a large canvas hopper, which is +wheeled from tree to tree upon a wheelbarrow-like frame, and under the +apex of which is a tin can into which the insects roll. There is a slit +or opening in one side of the hopper, which allows the tree to stand +nearly in the middle of the canvas. The operator then gives the tree two +or three sharp jars with a padded pole or mallet. The edges of the +hopper are then quickly shaken with the hands and the insects roll down +into the tin receptacle. In this receptacle there is kerosene oil, or it +may be emptied from time to time. Just how long this machine is to be +run in the orchard will depend entirely upon circumstances. It is +advisable to use the catcher soon after the blossoms fall, for the +purpose of finding out how abundant the insects are. If a few insects +are caught upon each tree, there is indication that there are enough of +the pests to make serious trouble. If after a few days the insects seem +to have disappeared, it will not be necessary to continue the hunt. In +some years, especially in those succeeding a very heavy crop, it may be +necessary to run the curculio-catcher every morning for four or five +weeks; but, as a rule, it will not be necessary to use it oftener than +two or three times a week during that season; and sometimes the season +may be shortened by one-half. The insects fall most readily when the +weather is cool, and it, therefore, is best to get through the whole +orchard, if possible, before noon. Upon cloudy days, however, the +insects may be caught all day. A smart man can attend to 300 to 400 +full-bearing trees in six hours if the ground has been well rolled or +firmed, as it should be before the bugging operation begins. But whether +the operation is troublesome or not, it is the price of Plums, and the +grower must not expect to succeed long without it. The same treatment is +essential to the saving of peaches and rarely, also, of sour cherries. + + +POPPY. These showy annuals and perennials should be more generally +grown. Nothing will lighten up a corner better than the hardy oriental +Poppy, or the solid crimson or scarlet annual Poppies. All of the +varieties grow readily from seed, which, in most cases, should be sown +where the plants are to bloom. The seeds of the oriental and the Iceland +Poppy may be sown in pots, the plants wintered over in a frame and +carefully planted out the second spring. The Poppy is very impatient of +root disturbance, however, and the safest method is to sow the seed +where wanted. + + +PORTULACA, or ROSE MOSS. Brilliant little tender annuals, low-growing +and sun-loving. They usually seed themselves, and once established will +continue for years. Many of the varieties will produce a good percentage +of flowers as double as roses and of many colors. Seed should be sown +where wanted. They bloom freely in light, sandy soil in the full blaze +of the sun. + + +POTATO. The common practice of growing Potatoes in ridges or elevated +hills is wrong, unless the soil is so wet that this practice is +necessary to insure proper drainage; but in this case the land is not +adapted to the growing of Potatoes. If the land is elevated into ridges +or hills, there is a great loss of moisture by means of evaporation. +During the last cultivating the Potatoes may be hilled up slightly in +order to cover the tubers; but the hills should not be made in the +beginning. Land for Potatoes should be rather loamy in character, and +ought to have a liberal supply of potash, either naturally or supplied +in the drill, by means of an application of sulfate of potash. See that +the land is deeply plowed or spaded, so that the roots can penetrate +deeper. Plant the Potatoes 3 or 4 inches below the natural surface of +the ground. It is ordinarily best to drop the pieces in drills. A +continuous drill may be made by means of dropping one piece every 6 +inches, but it is usually thought best to drop two pieces about every 12 +to 18 inches. The drills are far enough apart to allow good cultivation. +If horse cultivation is used, the drills should be at least 3 feet +apart. + +[Illustration: Potatoes] + +Small Potatoes are considered not to be so good as large ones for +planting. One reason is because too many sprouts arise from each one, +and these sprouts are apt to crowd each other. The same is true of the +tip end or seed end of the tuber. Even when it is cut off, the eyes are +so numerous that one secures many weak shoots rather than two or three +strong ones. It is ordinarily best to cut the Potatoes to two or three +eyes, leaving as much tuber as possible with each piece. From seven to +eight bushels of Potatoes are required to plant an acre. + +For a very early crop in the garden, tubers are sometimes sprouted in +the cellar. When the sprouts are 4 to 6 inches high the tubers are +carefully planted. It is essential that the sprouts are not broken in +the handling. In this practice, also, the tubers are first cut into +large pieces, so that they will not dry out too much. + +The staple remedy for the Potato bug is Paris green, 1 pound of poison +to 150 to 200 gallons of water, with a little lime (see _Paris Green_). +For the blight, spray with Bordeaux mixture, and spray thoroughly. +Bordeaux mixture will also keep away the flea beetle to a large extent. + + +POTATO, SWEET. See _Sweet Potato_. + + +POTTING. The operation of potting a plant, while in itself simple, is +very often associated with success or failure in the growth of the +plant. The first and most common reason of failure is using too large a +pot; the second, imperfect drainage; and the third, the poor physical +condition of the soil. + +[Illustration: Too deep] + +[Illustration: Plant too high] + +A small-rooted cutting or a feeble plant should have a pot only large +enough to hold soil sufficient to surround the roots to the extent of 1 +or 2 inches. More soil would hold too much moisture, thus excluding the +air. As the plants grow and the ball of dirt becomes well covered with +white roots, and before these roots become dark in color, the plant +should be repotted, using a pot one size larger and usually a little +richer soil. This operation should continue until the plant has made the +desired growth. If it is desired to grow a geranium, fuchsia, begonia, +or plants of a similar character, large enough for a window plant--say +to the height or breadth of two feet,--a 6-inch pot will be large +enough, provided the soil is rich enough to continue the growth of the +plant while in flower. It often happens that pots of the various sizes +are not to hand; and in case the pot is too large, it should have the +drainage increased until it will take up as much room in the bottom as +the pot is too large. Bear in mind that the soil should not hold free +water. After the plant has filled the pot with roots it will often be +necessary to supply more food as the soil becomes exhausted. This may be +done by digging out the top soil down to the young, white roots, +replacing with new soil in which a little rotted manure, a pinch of +bone-meal or other plant-food, has been added. Liquid manure may be +used. This liquid manure is made from well rotted cow-, horse-, or +sheep-manure thrown into a tub or barrel, covered with water, and +allowed to stand until the strength of the manure is soaked out. This +liquid should be diluted before using with clear water until it has the +color of weak coffee. If used with judgment, nothing will cause a better +growth or a greater quantity of flowers. + +[Illustration: Too full] + +[Illustration: Careless] + +The drainage may consist of any coarse material, such as old broken +pots, small stones, pieces of charcoal, and the like, over which should +be placed small broken sod or a little moss to keep the dirt from +washing through and eventually stopping up the crevices through which +the excess water should flow. + +[Illustration: Good!] + +A safe rule to follow in first potting the majority of house-plants, is +to use one-third turf-loam, one-third leaf-mold or decayed leaves, and +one-third sand, thoroughly mixed. Reduce the amount of leaf-mold and +sand at successive pottings, adding a little well rotted manure, until, +when the plants have been potted in 6-inch pots, at least four-fifths of +the soil is turfy loam. Press the soil firmly in the pot and around the +plant. Never fill the pot level full of soil, else the plant cannot be +watered. + + +PRICKLY POPPIES, or ARGEMONES, are hardy annuals, with large, bluish +striking foliage and yellow flowers. They are easily grown in a warm +soil and sunny exposure. Sow the seeds where the plants are to stand. +Thin to 12 to 18 inches apart. They grow 2 feet high. + + +PRIMULAS, or PRIMROSES, are of various kinds. One of them is the +Auricula (which see). Others are hardy border plants. The true or +English cowslip is one of these; also the plants commonly known as +Polyanthus. Hardy Primulas grow 6 to 10 inches high, sending up trusses +of yellow and red flowers in early spring. Propagated by division, or by +seed sown a year before the plants are wanted. Give them rich, moist +soil. + +The Primula of the winter-garden is mostly the _P. Sinensis_ (Chinese +Primrose), grown very extensively by florists as a Christmas plant. With +the exception of the full double varieties, it is usually grown from +seed. The seed sown in March or April will make large flowering plants +by November or December, if the young plants are shifted to larger pots +as needed. The seed should be sown on the flat surface of the soil, +composed of equal parts loam, leaf-mold and sand. The seed should be +pressed down lightly and the soil watered carefully to prevent the seed +from being washed into the soil. Very fine sphagnum moss may be sifted +over the seed, or the box set in a moist place, where the soil will +remain wet until the seeds germinate. When the plants are large enough +they should be potted separately or pricked out into shallow boxes. +Frequent pottings or transplantings should be given until September, +when they should be in the pots in which they are to bloom. The two +essentials to successful growth through the hot summer are shade and +moisture. Height 6 to 8 inches. Bloom in winter and spring. + +At present the “baby Primrose” (_Primula Forbesi_) is popular. It is +treated in essentially the same way as the Sinensis. All Primulas are +impatient of a dry atmosphere and fluctuating conditions. + + +PRINCE’S FEATHER. See _Amarantus_. + + +PRUNES are varieties of plums with firm, meaty flesh, and which readily +make dried fruit. Some of the Prunes are commercially grown in the East, +but they are sold in the green state as other plums are; and they are +adapted to all the uses of other plums. Prunes are cultivated like other +plums. + + +PRUNING. There are two general types of inquiry connected with the +question of Pruning: First, that which has to do with the healing of the +wounds; and second, that which has to do with the shaping of the top and +the general welfare of the tree. + +[Illustration: Improper way to make the wound] + +[Illustration: Proper way] + +[Illustration: Before] + +[Illustration: After] + +When a limb is cut off, it heals by being covered with callus tissue, +which grows out from the cambium zone between the bark and wood and +rolls over the face of the wound. The hard wood itself never heals; +that is, the cells do not have the power of making new cells; therefore +the old wood is simply covered up, or hermetically sealed as a cap is +put on a fruit jar. It is evident, therefore, that no kind of dressing +will hasten the healing of this wound. The merit of a dressing is to +keep the wound sound and healthy until the callus naturally covers it +over. All things considered, the best dressing is probably thick +linseed-oil paint. + +So far as the wound is concerned, the best time for Pruning is +ordinarily in the spring, when the vital activities are beginning; but +the season also influences fruit-bearing and wood-making, and these +questions should be considered. Those wounds heal best which are on +strong main limbs, where there is a full flow of nutritious sap. The +limb should be cut off so that the wound is parallel with the trunk upon +which it sits, and close to it. That is to say, the longer the stub, the +less rapid in general is the healing of the wound. It is the custom to +cut the limb just outside the bulge at its base; but, in most cases, it +is better to cut through this bulge, and to have the wound close to the +main trunk. + +[Illustration: Before pruning] + +[Illustration: After pruning] + +Heavy Pruning of the top tends to the production of wood; therefore the +severe Pruning of orchard trees, following three or four years of +neglect, sets the trees into heavy wood-bearing, and makes them more +vigorous. Such treatment generally tends away from fruit-bearing. This +heavy Pruning is usually necessary in neglected orchards, however, to +bring trees back into shape and to revitalize them; but the best +Pruning-treatment of an orchard is to Prune it a little every year. It +should be so Pruned that the tops of the trees will be open, that no two +limbs will interfere with each other, and so that the fruit itself will +not be so abundant as to overload the tree. Pruning is a means of +thinning. In general, it is best to prune orchard trees late in winter +or early in spring. It is ordinarily better, however, to leave peaches +and other tender fruits until after the buds have swollen, or even after +the flowers have fallen, in order that one may determine how much they +have been injured by the winter. Grapevines should be Pruned in winter +or not later (in New York) than the first of March. If Pruned later than +this, they may bleed. The above remarks will apply to other trees as +well as to fruits. + +[Illustration: Sickle saw] + +[Illustration: Combined saw and knife. Goes on a long handle] + +[Illustration: Curved Pruning saw] + +[Illustration: Common double edge saw] + +It should be borne in mind that Pruning has two objects: one is to +merely trim the tree or to make it assume some designed shape; the other +is to make the tree more vigorous or more fruitful, or to make some +other change in its character. These ideals are well illustrated in the +Pruning of ornamental shrubs. If one wants to have the shrubs sheared +into some particular shape, the shearing may be done at almost any time +of the year; in fact, it is better to do it two or three times each year +in order to keep the trees trim and neat. If, however, the desire is to +secure more flowers, the case is a very different one. Some shrubs and +trees bear their flowers on the wood of the preceding year. Such, for +example, are the early flowering shrubs like lilacs and the snowballs. +The flower buds are made the fall before. In this case, Pruning the +shrub in winter cuts off the flower buds. The ideal time for Pruning +them, therefore, is just after the flowers have passed. The flower buds +will form later in the season for the production of the flowers the +following spring. Other shrubs, however (particularly those which +blossom late in the season), bear on wood of the current year’s growth. +That is, the clematis blossoms in late summer and fall on wood which +grew that same season. The greater the quantity of strong wood which +grows in any season, therefore, the greater the quantity of bloom in +that season. With such shrubs, it is well to Prune in winter or early +spring, and to Prune rather heavily. The abundance of new shoots which +arise may be expected to bear flowers later on in the same season. + +Following are some shrubs which, for best results in flower-bearing, may +be Pruned when dormant (in winter): camellia, Jackmani type of clematis, +cornus, hibiscus (shrubby), hydrangea, many loniceras or honeysuckles, +philadelphus or mock-orange, some spireas. + +Shrubs which may be Pruned when in leaf (just after blooming): lilac, +deutzia, weigelas, exochorda, spring-flowering loniceras, tree peony, +flowering almond, some spireas and viburnums, wistaria. + +The marginal illustrations show how apple, pear and plum trees may be +Pruned when received from the nursery. Cut back the roots to fresh, +unbroken wood. + +[Illustration: Waters’ tree Pruner--for limbs out of reach] + +[Illustration: Pruning shears] + +[Illustration: An excellent Pruning saw. The blade is on a swivel] + +Various kinds of useful tree Pruners are shown in the margins. See also +_Scraping_. + + +PUMPKIN. See _Squash_. + + +PYRETHRUM. The little, low-growing yellow-foliaged Feverfew, called +Golden Feather, is used extensively for edging and design beds. +Propagated by cuttings, as are geraniums. + +The tall-growing species are very fine border plants, being easy to grow +and having showy flowers, in colors ranging from white through lilac to +crimson. Their flowers appear in June and last a month, when, if the +plants are cut down, they will flower again in the fall. The Persian +insect powder is made from the dried flower heads of some of these +species. Propagated by seed or division. Hardy and fine. + + +RADISHES should be grown quickly in order to have them at their best. +They become tough and woody if grown slowly or allowed to stay in the +ground too long. A light soil, well enriched, will grow most of the +early varieties to table size in from three to five weeks. To have a +supply through the early months, sowings should be made every two weeks. +For summer, the large white or gray varieties are best. The winter +varieties may be sown in September, harvested before severe frosts, and +stored in sand in a cool cellar. When they are to be used, if thrown +into cold water for a short time they will regain their crispness. Sow +Radishes thickly in drills, 12 to 18 inches apart. Thin as needed. + +[Illustration: Spring Radishes] + + +RASPBERRY. Both the red and black Raspberries are essentials of a good +garden. A few plants of each will produce a supply of berries for a +family through six or eight weeks, provided both early and late +varieties are planted. A cool situation, soil that will hold moisture +without being wet, and a thorough preparation of the ground, are the +conditions necessary to success. The black-cap Raspberries should be set +3 to 4 feet apart, the rows 6 or 7 feet; the red varieties 3 feet +apart, the rows 5 feet apart. Spring setting is usually preferable. + +As with blackberries and dewberries, Raspberries bear on last year’s +canes, and these canes bear but once. Therefore cut out the old canes +after fruiting, or before the following spring, thus destroying such +insects and fungi as may have lodged on them. New canes should have +grown in the meantime, 3 to 6 to a hill. + +The first year after the plants are set the canes should be pinched back +when they reach the height of from 30 to 36 inches. If a very vigorous +growth has been made the first season two canes may be left for +fruiting, but in the case of weak growth, only one cane should be +allowed to fruit. In case of low-growing varieties--those that have been +pinched back short--a mulch of straw or grass around the plants at +fruiting time will help to hold the moisture, and also serve to keep the +fruits clean in case of heavy rains. A Raspberry plantation will last +three to five years. The black varieties are propagated by layers, the +tip of a cane being laid in the soil in midsummer; by fall the tip will +have taken root and may be separated. The red varieties are propagated +by suckers from the roots. In nurseries both blacks and reds are often +propagated by means of root-cuttings. + +[Illustration: Black Raspberries] + +For red rust, pull out the plant, root and branch, and burn it. Short +rotations--fruiting the plants only two or three years--and burning the +old canes and trimmings, will do much to keep Raspberry plantations +healthy. Spraying will have some effect in combating anthracnose. +Raspberries may be bent over to the ground so that the snow will protect +them, in severe climates. + +Varieties are always changing in favor. Good black-caps are Gregg, Ohio, +and Kansas. Good red and purple sorts are Shaffer, Cuthbert, Loudon, and +others. + + +RHODODENDRONS are broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which require a fibrous +or peaty soil and protection from bleak winds and hot suns in winter. It +is well to plant them amongst trees for protection. In the North, mulch +heavily with leaves in the fall. See that the soil is made fibrous with +leaf-mold or other material. Rhododendrons bloom from winter buds: +therefore prune just after flowering, if at all. + + +RHUBARB, or PIE PLANT. This is usually propagated by division of the +fleshy roots, small pieces of which will grow if separated from the old, +established roots and planted in rich, mellow soil. Poor soil should be +made rich by spading out at least 3 feet of the surface, filling with +well rotted manure to within 1 foot of the level, throwing in the top +soil and setting the roots with the crowns 4 inches below the surface, +firming them with the feet. The stalks should not be cut for use until +the second year, but the first, as well as the succeeding falls, some +coarse manure should be thrown over the crowns, to be forked or spaded +in lightly when spring opens. + +In growing seedling Rhubarb, the seed may be sown in a coldframe in +March or April, protected from freezing, and in two months the plants +will be ready to set in rows, 12 inches apart. Give the plants good +cultivation, and the following spring they may be set in a permanent +place. At this time the plants should be set in well prepared ground, at +a distance each way of from 4 to 5 feet, and treated as those set with +pieces of roots. + +If given good care and well manured, the plants will live for years and +yield abundantly. Two dozen good roots will supply a large family. + + +RICINUS. See _Castor Oil Plant_. + + +ROSES. It seems to be the first desire of the home maker, when he +considers the planting of his grounds, to set out Roses. As a matter of +fact, it should be one of the last things to do. Roses are essentially +flower garden subjects, rather than lawn subjects. That is to say, the +flowers are their chief beauty. They have very little to commend them in +the way of foliage or habit, and they are inveterately attacked by +insects and sometimes by fungi. In order to get the best results with +Roses, they should be placed in a bed by themselves, where they can be +tilled and pruned and well taken care of; and they should be grown as +specimen plants, as other flower garden plants are. The ordinary garden +Roses should rarely be grown in mixed borders of shrubbery. + +[Illustration: Wild Roses] + +If it is desired to have Roses in mixed borders, then the single and +informal types should be chosen. The best of all these is _Rosa rugosa_. +This has not only attractive flowers through the greater part of the +season, but it also has very interesting foliage and a striking habit. +The great profusion of bristles and spines gives it an individual and +strong character. Even without the flowers, it is valuable to add +character and cast to a foliage mass. The foliage is not attacked by +insects or fungi, but remains green and glossy throughout the year. The +fruit is also very large and showy, and persists on bushes well through +the winter. Some of the wild Roses are also very excellent for mixing +into foliage masses, but, as a rule, their foliage characteristics are +rather weak, and they are liable to be attacked by thrips. + +Probably the most extensively grown class of Roses is the Remontant or +Hybrid Perpetual. These, while not constant bloomers, are so easy of +culture and give such good returns for the care and labor, that their +popularity grows each year. The list of good varieties is very +extensive, and while a few, such as General Jacqueminot, Paul Neyron, +Marshall P. Wilder, Victor Verdier, Anne de Diesbach, and Ulrich +Brunner, are seen in most collections, one cannot go far wrong in +planting any of the list. Two of the Hybrid Chinese Roses may go with +the Remontants, having the same season of bloom and being about as +hardy. These are Magna Charta and Mme. Plantier. + +The next group in point of hardiness, and superior to the foregoing in +continuity of bloom, are the Hybrid Noisettes, such as Coquette des +Alpes, Coquette des Blanches, and Elise Boelle. The blooms of these are +white, often tinted with pink, very double and fragrant. + +The Hybrid Tea section, containing Duchess of Albany, La France, Meteor +and Wootton, is very fine. These are not hardy in the North, but if +protected by a frame, or if grown in pots, wintered in a pit, no class +of Roses will give more general satisfaction. + +The Bourbon section contains three of the best bedding Roses,--Apolline, +Hermosa, and Souvenir de la Malmaison. These will bloom continually +through the fall months until severe frost, and with a little protection +will prove hardy. + +The Bengal Roses, of which Agrippina is a leading variety, bloom through +a long season, but are not hardy, and should be protected in a pit. They +also make very fine pot-plants. + +The Moss Roses are well known, and are desirable in a general +collection. + +The little Polyantha Roses, with Cecile Brunner and Clothilde Soupert as +two of the best, are always attractive, either when planted out or grown +in pots. + +The climbing Roses, which bloom later in the season than the Remontants, +are very useful as pillar and screen plants. The old Queen of the +Prairies and Baltimore Belle are still in favor. A newer and better +variety is the Crimson Rambler. + +The Tea Roses have proved more disappointing to the amateur than any +other. No one can resist the temptation to try to have a few of these +highly perfumed, richly colored Roses, but unless one has a +conservatory or an especially favored location in the house, the results +do not pay for the trouble. A few blooms may be had outdoors with plants +set in the spring, but on the approach of winter they must be taken up +and protected by more secure means than is taken with other Roses. If +potted and grown in the house, they are the first plants to become +infested with red spider; or if grown cool enough to escape that pest, +they will be subject to an attack of mildew. Still, the results are well +worth striving for, and a few persons will find the proper conditions; +but the Tea Rose is essentially a florist’s flower. + +[Illustration: Hybrid Tea Rose] + +All Roses are heavy feeders and require rich, moist soil. A clay soil, +if well enriched and having perfect drainage, is ideal. Pruning should +be carefully done, preferably in the spring. All weak growth should be +cut out and the balance well cut back. The flowers of all Roses, except +the Yellow Persian and the Harrison’s Yellow, being borne on the new +wood, the bushes should be cut back half or more of their growth. + +In the majority of cases, Roses on their own roots will prove more +satisfactory than budded stock. On own-rooted stock, the suckers or +shoots from below the surface of the soil will be of the same kind, +whereas with budded Roses there is danger of the stock (usually Manetti +or Dog Rose) starting into growth and, not being discovered, outgrowing +the bud, taking possession, and finally killing out the weaker growth. +Still, if the plants are set deep enough to prevent adventitious buds of +the stock from starting, there is no question that finer Roses may be +grown than from plants on their own roots. + +The summer insects that trouble the Rose are best treated by a forceful +spray of clear water. This should be done early in the day and again at +evening. Those having city water or good spray pumps will find this an +easy method of keeping Rose pests in check. Those without these +facilities may use whale oil soap, fir-tree oil, good soap suds, or +Persian insect powder. + + +ROSES IN WINTER. Although the growing of Roses under glass is a business +which would better be left to florists, as already said, the following +advice may be useful to those who have conservatories: + +When growing forcing Roses for winter flowers, florists usually provide +raised beds, in the best-lighted houses they have. The bottom of the bed +or bench is left with cracks between the boards for drainage; the cracks +are covered with inverted strips of sod, and the bench is then covered +with four or five inches of fresh, fibrous loam. This is made from +rotted sods, with decayed manure incorporated at the rate of about one +part in four. Sod from any drained pasture-land makes good soil. The +plants are set on the bed in the spring or early summer, from 12 to 18 +inches apart, and are grown there all summer. + +During the winter they are kept at a temperature of 58° to 60° at night, +and from 5° to 10° warmer during the day. The heating pipes are often +run under the benches, not because the Rose likes bottom heat, but to +economize space and to assist in drying out the beds in case of their +becoming too wet. The greatest care is required in watering, in guarding +the temperature and in ventilation. Draughts result in checks to the +growth and in mildewed foliage. + +Dryness of the air, especially from fire heat, is followed by the +appearance of the minute red spider on the leaves. The aphis, or green +plant louse, appears under all conditions, and must be kept down by +syringing with tobacco-tea or fumigation with tobacco stems. + +An effectual and preferable method now employed for destroying the aphis +is to fumigate with the vapor arising from a pan containing a gallon of +water and a pint of strong extract of tobacco. To generate the vapor, a +piece of red-hot iron is dropped into the pan. From one to three or four +pans are required to a house, according to its size. For the red +spider, the chief means of control is syringing with either clear or +soapy water. If the plants are intelligently ventilated and given, at +all times, as much fresh air as possible, the red spider is less likely +to appear. For mildew, which is easily recognized by its white, powdery +appearance on the foliage, accompanied with more or less distortion of +the leaves, the remedy is sulfur in some form or other. The flowers of +sulfur may be dusted thinly over the foliage; enough merely to slightly +whiten the foliage is sufficient. It may be dusted on from the hand in a +broadcast way, or applied with a powder-bellows, which is a better and +less wasteful method. Again, a paint composed of sulfur and linseed oil +may be applied to a portion of one of the steam or hot-water heating +pipes. The fumes arising from this are not agreeable to breathe, but +fatal to mildew. Again, a little sulfur may be sprinkled here and there +on the cooler parts of the greenhouse flue. Under no circumstances, +however, ignite any sulfur in a greenhouse. The vapor of burning sulfur +is death to plants. + +[Illustration: A Hybrid Perpetual Rose] + +_Propagation._--The writer has known women who could root Roses with the +greatest ease. They would simply break off a branch of the Rose, insert +it in the flower-bed, cover it with a bell-jar, and in a few weeks they +would have a strong plant. Again they would resort to layering; in which +case a branch, notched half way through on the lower side, was bent to +the ground and pegged down so that the notched portion was covered with +a few inches of soil. The layered spot was watered from time to time. +After three or four weeks roots were sent forth from the notch and the +branch or buds began to grow, when it was known that the layer had +formed roots. + +Several years ago a friend took a cheese-box, filled it with sharp sand +to the brim, supported it in a tub of water so that the lower half inch +of the box was immersed. The sand was packed down, sprinkled, and +single-joint Rose cuttings, with a bud and a leaf near the top, were +inserted almost their whole length in the sand. This was in July, a hot +month, when it is usually difficult to root any kind of cutting; +moreover, the box stood on a southern slope, facing the hot sun, without +a particle of shade. The only attention given the box was to keep the +water high enough in the tub to touch the bottom of the cheese-box. In +about three weeks he took out three or four dozen of as nicely rooted +cuttings as could have been grown in the greenhouse. + +[Illustration: Vase of Roses] + +The “saucer system,” in which cuttings are inserted in wet sand +contained in a saucer an inch or two deep, to be exposed at all times to +the full sunshine, is of a similar nature. The essentials are, to give +the cuttings the “full sun” and to keep the sand saturated with water. + +Whatever method is used, if cuttings are to be transplanted after +rooting, it is important to pot them off in small pots as soon as they +have a cluster of roots one-half inch or an inch long. Leaving them too +long in the sand weakens the cutting. + + +SAGE is a perennial, but best results are secured by resowing every two +or three years. Give a warm, rich soil. Hardy. + + +SALPIGLOSSIS. Very fine half-hardy annuals. The flowers, which are borne +in profusion, are of many colors, and rival in markings most other +annuals. The flowers are short-lived if left on the plant, but will hold +well if cut and placed in water. Seed should be sown in heat in +February or March, the seedlings grown along until May, when they may be +planted out. It is usually best to pinch out the centers of the plants +at this time to cause them to branch. + + +SALSIFY, or VEGETABLE OYSTER. Salsify is one of the best of winter and +early spring vegetables, and should be grown in every garden. It may be +cooked in several different ways. The seed should be sown as early in +the spring as possible. Handle the same as parsnips in every way. The +roots, like parsnips, are the better for the winter freeze, but part of +the crop should be dug in the fall, and stored in soil or moss in a +cellar for winter use. + +[Illustration: Salsify] + + +SALVIA. The SCARLET SALVIA (or SAGE) is a well known tender perennial, +blooming late in the fall and making a fine effect in beds or borders. +It is easily transplanted, and large plants removed to the house +continue in bloom for some time. The blue and white species are both +desirable summer flowering plants, and the low-growing Silver Leaf Sage +is well adapted for edging. Propagated from seed, cuttings, or by +division. Height 2 to 3 feet. + +[Illustration: Salvia coccinea] + + +SAN JOSÉ SCALE has now become a wide-spread pest. It has been introduced +into the eastern states from the Pacific slope. It is a minute scale +insect the size of a small pinhead, shield-shaped, with a raised center. +There are various native and comparatively harmless scales which look +very much like it, and an expert is usually needed to distinguish them. +The San José Scale can usually be distinguished, however, by its very +serious results. In favorable seasons it spreads with enormous rapidity, +covering the branches of many kinds of plants, sapping their juices, and +either killing or reducing them to such a low state of vitality as to +render them useless; or they are killed by the winter. The indications +are that the scale will never be so serious in the moist, cool climates +of the northeastern states as it is in the hotter and drier climates of +the West. It has been found by careful experiments that it can be killed +by a spray of kerosene and water (see _Kerosene_) in a proportion of one +part of kerosene to four or five of water. This material is applied with +a mechanical pump mixer, and the application should be made on a sunny +day so that evaporation soon takes place. Spraying with kerosene in +cloudy weather is very likely to result in injury to the plants. Some +experimenters have found crude petroleum to be a specific for the San +José Scale. + +It is not to be expected that the San José Scale can be exterminated any +more than the tent caterpillar or apple scab can. It follows, therefore, +that we should spray for the San José Scale as we do for other pests. It +is such a serious pest, however, that the state or province should take +measures to hold it in check. Some system of inspection should be +inaugurated, and it is probably best that nursery stock be fumigated +with hydrocyanic gas before it is sold. This gas is exceedingly +poisonous, however, and should never be handled by the inexperienced. +Whenever it is used, it should be under the control of experts. Plants +or plantations which are badly infested with the scale would better be +destroyed. + + +SCABIOSA. MOURNING BRIDE. A useful annual, producing a profusion of +bloom through the greater part of the summer if not allowed to go to +seed. The flowers range in color from white to rich purple, are borne on +long stems, and are very lasting. The seed may be sown where the plants +are wanted, or to hasten the season of bloom may be sown in boxes in +February and grown along to be planted out in April. + + +SCARLET RUNNER. One of the pole or running beans (_Phaseolus +multiflorus_). It is a great favorite with people from the Old World, +especially English and Germans. This bean is used either as an +ornamental vine for porches or trellises, or as a screen to hide +unsightly objects. The red flowers are very showy, either on the plant +or in bouquets. The green pods are excellent as string beans, and the +dried beans are of superior quality. Seed should not be sown until the +ground has become thoroughly warm; or the plants may be started in the +house. + + +SCRAPING of trees is rarely to be advised, except in fruit plantations. +The old and hanging bark on apple and pear trees may be taken off in +order to destroy the hiding places of insects and the breeding places of +fungi, and also to make the plantation look more neat and kempt. Only +the loose outer bark should be removed, however. Trees should not be +scraped to the quick. If there is moss on trees, it can be destroyed +readily by a spray of Bordeaux mixture. + +A large part of the beauty of an ornamental tree lies in its +characteristic bark, and it is very rare that such trees should be +scraped. + + +SCREENS. See _Windbreak_. + + +SCREW PINE. See _Pandanus_. + + +SEA-KALE shoots are very highly prized as a delicacy when blanched. The +seed should be sown in a hotbed early in the spring, plants transplanted +to the garden when from 2 to 3 inches high, and given high cultivation +through the season, being covered with litter on the approach of winter. +The young stalks are blanched early the following spring by covering +with large pots or boxes, or by banking with sand or other clean +material. The Dwarf Green Scotch, Dwarf Brown, and Siberian are among +the leading varieties. Sea-kale is eaten much as asparagus is. Highly +prized by those who know it. + +Sea-Kale is also propagated by cuttings of the roots 4 or 5 inches +long, planted directly in the soil in spring. The plant is perennial, +and the early shoots may be bleached year after year. + + +SEED SOWING. The general rule in sowing seeds is to cover them twice or +three times their thickness. This rule will apply to the majority of +seeds, but in many plants of a naturally short season of bloom or +growth, an instance of which is the sweet pea, it may be advisable to +sow the seed deeper, that the roots may have sufficient moisture and be +in a cool temperature through the hot summer months. Also, in sowing +very minute seed, as tobacco, petunia, begonia, and others of like size, +care should be taken to have them only under the surface of the +soil,--simply pressed down with a smooth surface or allowed to settle +into the soil with the soaking in of the water. The soil for all seeds +should be loose and porous, in order to allow the excessive moisture to +escape and the warmth to penetrate, but should be firmed directly over +the seeds to induce an upward flow of moisture. One of the most common +mistakes in sowing seed is in sowing all kinds at the same time without +regard to the season, thus causing a failure with some, while others +grow freely. All tender seed should be sown only when the ground has +become thoroughly warm, while seeds of the so-called hardy plants may be +sown as early in the spring as the ground is fit to work. A few kinds of +seed are the better for soaking, especially such as for some reason have +been delayed in sowing. Sweet pea seed is benefited by soaking if not +put into the ground until the soil is warm. Seed of canna, moonflower +and others with hard shells may be scraped until the outer shell is +pierced or is very thin. + +It is generally better to buy garden seeds than to grow them, for those +who make a business of seed-growing become expert in the cultivation and +selection of the plants. + + +SEEDS of most plants should be kept dry and also rather cool. It is +always better to rely upon fresh seeds. Test them in boxes in the house, +if possible, before planting them in the open. If beans, peas, corn or +other Seeds become buggy, pour a little bisulfide of carbon (very +inflammable) into them. The material will not injure the Seeds even if +poured on them. It soon evaporates. A teaspoonful will kill the insects +in four quarts of Seeds, if the receptacle is tight. + +Most tree Seeds should be kept moist until planted. They are usually +buried or kept in sand. + + +SENSITIVE PLANT (_Mimosa_). This curious plant is often grown for the +amusement it affords by its habit of closing its leaves and dropping the +leaf-stalk whenever the plant is touched. Seed should be sown in heat +early in the season, and the plants grown in pots or a protected border. +The seed is sold by all seedsmen. The plant grows readily in a +temperature suited to beans. It will not stand frost. The young plants +are usually the most sensitive. + + +SHADE TREES. The best Shade Trees are usually those which are native to +the particular region, since they are hardy and adapted to the soil and +other conditions. Elms, maples, basswoods, and the like, are nearly +always reliable. In regions in which there are serious insect enemies or +fungous diseases, the trees which are most likely to be attacked may be +omitted. For instance, in parts of the East the elm leaf beetle is a +very serious pest; and it is a good plan in such places to plant other +trees than elms. Amongst the best exotic trees for shade in the northern +parts of the country are the Norway maple, European lindens, horse +chestnut, and the European species of elm. Trees for shade should +ordinarily be given sufficient room that they may develop into full size +and symmetrical heads. The trees may be planted as close as 10 or 15 +feet apart for temporary effect; but as soon as they begin to crowd they +should be thinned. + + +SHELTER-BELTS. See _Windbreak_. + + +SHRUBBERY. Shrubs have two kinds of values or uses: first, they are +useful for their own sakes or as individual specimens; and second, for +use in the making of foliage masses or groups. Ordinarily they are used +only for the former purpose in home grounds; but their greatest use is, +nevertheless, in heavy masses about the borders of the place or in the +angles of the building. That is to say, they should contribute to the +general design of the place or to its pictorial effect. If they are +planted in Shrubberies or masses, the flowers are still as interesting +and as showy as they are when the bushes are planted alone. In fact, the +flowers usually show to better advantage, since they have a heavy +background of foliage. In the Shrubbery mass the bushes are more easily +cared for than when they are scattered as single specimens over the +lawn. The single specimen which is irregular, or ragged, or untidy, is +an undesirable object; but such a specimen may contribute an +indispensable part to the border mass. In the border they do not need +the attention to pruning that they do in the lawn. The main part of the +Shrubbery mass should be made of the stronger, larger growing and +coarser Shrubs; and the more delicate ones, or those with highly colored +leaves or showy flowers, may be placed near the inner edge of the +plantation. Shrubs which are valued chiefly for their flowers or showy +foliage, as, for example, the _Hydrangea paniculata_, may be planted +just in front of a bold Shrubbery mass, so that they will have a +background to show off their beauties. Further directions for the +lay-out of the grounds will be found under the articles _Lawns_ and +_Borders_. + +It is ordinarily best to plow or spade the entire area in which the +Shrubs are to be set. For a year or two the ground should be tilled +between the Shrubs, either by horse tools or by hoes and rakes. If the +place looks bare, seeds of quick-growing flowers may be scattered about +the edges of the mass. The larger Shrubs, like lilacs and syringas, may +be set about 4 feet apart; but the smaller ones should be set about, 2 +feet apart if it is desired to secure an immediate effect. If after a +few years the mass becomes too crowded, some of the specimens may be +removed. Throw the Shrubs into an irregular plantation, not in rows, and +make the inner edge of the mass more or less undulating and broken. It +is a good practice to mulch the plantation each fall with light manure, +leaf-mold or other material. Even though the Shrubs are perfectly hardy, +this mulch greatly improves the land and promotes growth. After the +Shrub borders have become two or three years old, the drifting leaves of +fall will be caught therein and will be held as a mulch. It is often +advisable not to remove these leaves, but to allow them to remain year +after year, where they make a fine covering of leaf-mold. When the +Shrubs are first planted, they are headed back one-half or more; but +after they are established they are not to be pruned, but allowed to +take their own way, and after a few years the outermost ones will droop +and meet the greensward. + +Good Shrubs are numerous. Some of the best are those to be found in +woods and along roadsides. They are hardy. Of Shrubs which are generally +adaptable for the North, the following are excellent: + + Barberries. + Box. + Burning Bush, or Euonymus. + Bush Honeysuckles. + Bush Willows. + Caryopteris, blooming in August and September. + Cotoneasters. + Desmodiums, or Lespedezas, blooming in fall. + Dwarf Sumac. _Rhus copallina._ + Elders. Native species are excellent. + Exochorda, with profuse white bloom in spring. + Flowering Almond. + Flowering Crabs. + Flowering Currants. + Forsythias, or Golden Bells. + Fringe Tree, or Chionanthus. + Hawthorns. + Hydrangeas. + Indian Currant. _Symphoricarpos vulgaris._ + Japanese Quince. + Kerria, or Corchorus. + Lilacs. + Mock Orange, or Philadelphus. + New Jersey Tea, or Ceanothus. + Osiers, or Dogwoods. + Privet. + Rose Acacia. + Roses (see _Roses_). + Smoke Tree. + Snowballs. The Japanese is preferable. + Snowberry. _Symphoricarpos racemosus._ + Spireas of many kinds. + Viburnums of many kinds. + Weigelas. + White Alder. _Clethra alnifolia._ + Witch Hazel. Blooms on the eve of winter. + Xanthoceras sorbifolia. + + +SILENE, or CATCHFLY. Some of the Silenes are hardy annuals of very easy +culture. Sow seeds where the plants are to stand; or, if early results +are desired, seeds may be started in boxes. The plants thrive in any +garden soil, even if it is not very rich. Colors red, or sometimes +running to white. One foot. Let plants stand 6 to 10 inches apart. + + +SMILAX of the florists is closely allied to asparagus. While it cannot +be recommended for house culture, the ease with which it may be grown +and the uses to which the festoons of leaves may be put, entitle it to a +place in the conservatory or greenhouse. Seed sown in pots or boxes in +January or February, the plants shifted as needed until planted on the +bench in August, will grow fine strings of green by the holidays. The +plants should be set on low benches, giving as much room as possible +overhead. Green-colored strings should be used for the vines to climb +on, the vines frequently syringed to keep down the red spider, which is +very destructive to this plant, and liquid manure given as the vines +grow. The soil should contain a good proportion of sand and be enriched +with well-rotted manure. After the first strings are cut, a second +growth fully as good as the first may be had by cleaning up the plants +and top-dressing the soil with rotted manure. Slightly shading the house +through August will add to the color of the leaves. The odor from a vine +of Smilax thickly covered with the small flowers is very agreeable. + + +SNAPDRAGON, or ANTIRRHINUM. An old garden favorite, flowering freely +through a long season. The dwarf strain is well adapted for bedding or +borders. Any light soil, well enriched with rotted manure, will grow +Snapdragons to perfection. Distinct varieties should be propagated by +cuttings, as they do not come true from seed. Sow seed early in the +spring. + +Although bloom may be obtained the first year, late sown plants +sometimes persist over winter and bloom early in the spring. Snapdragons +make good window plants. + + +SNOWDROP (_Galanthus_). This is one of the earliest flowers of spring, +always welcome. It should be planted in the edge of the border. The +bulbs may be planted in October in any good border soil and left +undisturbed for years; or they may be potted at that time, and after +forming roots be gently forced into bloom in winter. + + +SNOWFLAKE (_Leucoium_). Culture same as for _Snowdrop_. + + +SODDING. In general, the best way to secure a lawn is by the sowing of +seed (see _Lawn_), since it is the least expensive way. For small areas, +and along the sides of walks and drives, sods may be used. The results +are quicker. Unless the sod is of the right kind, however, and very +carefully laid, the results are not so good as with seed. + +[Illustration: Sod-cutter, for trimming sod edgings] + +The sod which is best adapted to the Sodding of lawns is that which +comes from an old, closely grazed pasture. Sod from a sheep pasture is +supposed to be best. Such sod has been so closely grazed that it has +made a very dense mat of roots, and all the weeds have been destroyed. +The droppings of the animals also make the ground rich. The sod should +be cut in very thin strips. It should not be more than an inch and +one-half or two inches in thickness. If it is thicker than that, it is +heavy and bulky to handle, and is not so easily laid. Ordinarily, the +sod is cut in strips ten inches or a foot wide. A board is laid on the +sod and the strip is cut along either side of it with a sod cutter or a +sharp spade. Two men then roll up the sod. One stands on the strip of +sod with his face toward the man who, with the spade, cuts it loose +beneath. As it is cut loose, the man on the strip rolls the sod so that +the upper surface is on the inside of the roll. Strips longer than ten +or twelve feet make rolls which are too heavy to handle with ease. + +[Illustration: Cutting sod] + +The soil upon which the sod is to be placed should be very loose, so +that the sod, can be pounded down firmly. Some heavy pounder should be +used, as a block of wood. It is usually impossible to pound down sod +with the back of a spade sufficiently firm unless the soil is very +loose. The sod should be pounded until the top is about level with the +surrounding soil. This insures contact with the soil beneath, so that +there are no air spaces and no likelihood of drying out. Sod pounded +down as firmly as this should grow very readily. If a sod edging is +laid along walks and drives, it should be pounded down an inch or more +lower than the surrounding loose land which is seeded, because the loose +land will finally settle; otherwise the sod border is likely to be +higher than adjacent land after a year or two. + +If there are uneven places on the sodded area, these depressions can be +filled in with very loose, fine soil; and the grass will grow through +it. In dry weather, a sodded area may be mulched with a half inch of +fine loam to protect it. + + +SOILS. Soils are of many kinds. The classification of soils depends upon +one’s point of view. Gardeners ordinarily call a good, friable, +dark-colored, rich Soil a garden loam. No Soil is so good that it cannot +be improved. It is improved in two general ways: by tilling (see +_Tillage_), and by the application of various substances. + +In considering the improvement of lands by the application of foreign +substances, two distinct things are to be considered: the improvement of +the physical texture, or tilth, of the Soil; the increasing of its +plant-food. These are coördinate objects. In some cases one may be of +prime importance, and in another case the other may be more necessary. +Lands which have a fair store of available plant-food may be +unproductive. Such lands may be very greatly benefited by stable manure, +even though that manure may have lost a large part of fertility by being +baptized under the eaves of the barn. If plant-food alone is needed, +then some concentrated or commercial fertilizer may be the best thing to +apply. In most cases the main or chief amelioration of the land is to be +wrought by tillage, stable manures, mulches, green crops, and the like; +if special results are desired, commercial fertilizers may be added more +or less liberally, as the case demands (see _Manures_, _Fertilizers_). + +The top-dressing of Soils is often very beneficial because it tends to +prevent the escape of moisture, and often improves the physical texture. +If the material contains plant-food, the land will also be directly +enriched. The trimmings from lawns may be a distinct protection to +lands if allowed to remain (see _Lawns_); and the leaves which blow into +clumps of shrubbery may often be allowed to remain with good results. +However, if the leaves become too thick year after year, they tend to +induce a surface rooting of the shrubs. This, however, may be no +disadvantage unless the mulch were finally to be removed. One of the +very best top-dressings for borders and shrubbery is spent tan bark, +since it does not pile up on the ground, but tends to work into it. +Well-rotted sawdust often has the same effect. These materials are much +used by gardeners, when they can be had, since they can be raked into +the soil in the spring, and need not be removed. + + +SOLIDAGO. See _Goldenrod_. + + +[Illustration: Spade] + +[Illustration: Shovel] + +SPADES and SHOVELS must be a part of every garden equipment. The common +and most useful forms are shown in the cuts, but long-handled tools are +more useful for the loading of earth, the making of ditches, the +spreading of mulches, and the like. It pays to buy the steel tools, with +strongly strapped handles. + + +SPEARMINT is prized by many people as a seasoning, particularly for the +Thanksgiving and holiday cookery. It is a perennial and perfectly hardy, +and will live in the open garden year after year. If a supply of the +fresh herbage is wanted in winter, remove sods of it to the house six +weeks before wanted. Place the sods in boxes, and treat as for house +plants. The plants should have been frosted and become perfectly dormant +before removal. + + +SPINACH. Probably the most extensively grown early spring vegetable, +being in great demand as greens. The earliest crop that finds its way to +market is gathered from seed sown in September or October, often +protected by frames or other means through the severe winter, and cut +soon after growth starts in early spring. Even as far north as New York +Spinach may stand over winter without protection. Spinach is forced by +placing sash over the frames in February and March, protecting the young +leaves from severe freezing by mats or straw thrown over the frames. +Seed may be sown in early spring for a succession; later in the season +seed of the New Zealand Summer Spinach may be sown, and this will grow +through the heat of the summer and yield a fine quality of leaves. The +seed of this kind being very hard, should be scalded and allowed to soak +a few hours before sowing. This seed is usually sown in hills about +three feet apart, sowing four to six seeds in each hill. The spring and +winter Spinach should be sown in drills 12 to 14 inches apart, one ounce +being sufficient for 100 feet of drill. Remember that common Spinach is +a cool-weather (fall and spring) crop. + + +SPRAYING. Of late years Spraying has come to be one of the most +important of all horticultural operations. Most kinds of injurious fungi +and insects can be combated by a water spray in which various poisons or +injurious substances are contained. There are two general classes of +Spraying material: first, fungicides, or those which are used for the +control of fungi or plant diseases; second, insecticides, or those which +are used for the control of insect enemies. + +The fungicides usually contain copper or sulfur, or both. The most +popular and generally useful fungicide is the Bordeaux mixture (which +see). It should be borne in mind that most injurious fungi work on the +interior of the leaf or stem, and only the spore-bearing parts come to +the surface. It is therefore very important that Spraying with +fungicides be done very early in order to prevent the fungus from +getting a hold. It is much better to Spray once very thoroughly than to +Spray a half dozen times carelessly. It is important that the entire +surface of the foliage or stems be covered with the material in order to +prevent the access of the fungi. + +Of insecticides, there are two general types: those which kill by +external contact and are applied to plant lice, scale insects, and all +other insects which suck their food; and the poisonous compounds which +are used for the chewing insects, as all the tribes of worms and +beetles. Of the former class, the most important material is kerosene in +various forms (which see). Of the latter kind is Paris green (which +see). For insects, Spray just as soon as the attack is evident. Paris +green and Bordeaux mixture may be used together. + +The best pump for Spraying is the one which throws the stream the +greatest distance with the least amount of liquid, and the best nozzle +is that which distributes the material most finely and evenly. For +Spraying plants close at hand, the Vermorel nozzle is now the most +popular. If it is desired to reach the tops of large trees, some other +nozzle should be used, as the McGowen, Boss, or other types. Every +outfit should have two or three kinds of nozzles for different kinds of +work. Get a pump with much power. + +Spray thoroughly. The general rule is to spray the entire plant until +the material begins to drip, at which time it may be supposed that the +plant is covered completely. When and how often one should Spray, and +what material he should use, will depend entirely upon the difficulty +which he is endeavoring to combat. Most fruit trees should be Sprayed +before they bloom and again just afterwards. Sometimes they will need +Spraying again. + + +SPREKELIA. Culture of _Amaryllis_. + + +SQUASH. The time of planting, method of preparing the hills and after +culture are the same as for cucumbers and melons (which see), except +that for the Early Bush varieties the hills should be 4 or 5 feet apart, +and for the later running varieties from 6 to 8 feet apart. From eight +to ten seeds should be planted in each hill, thinning to four plants +after danger from bugs is over. Of the early Squashes, one ounce of seed +will plant fifty hills; of the later varieties, one ounce will plant but +eighteen to twenty hills. For winter use, varieties of the Hubbard type +are best. For summer use, the Crooknecks and Scallop Squashes are +popular. In growing winter Squashes in a northern climate, it is +essential that the plants start off quickly and vigorously: a little +chemical fertilizer will help. Pumpkins are grown the same as Squashes. + +[Illustration: Hubbard Squash] + +[Illustration: Scallop or Patty-pan Summer Squash] + + +SQUILLS (_Scilla_). BLUE BELL. WILD HYACINTH. Well-known bulbous plants, +most of them hardy. They plant well with snowdrops and crocus, flowering +at the same time, but continuing longer in bloom. The colors are red, +pink, blue or white. The blue varieties have very fine shades of color. +Should be planted in October and remain undisturbed. + + +STOCKS. The Ten-weeks and the biennial or Brompton Stocks, are found in +nearly all old-fashioned gardens. Most gardens are thought to be +incomplete without Stocks, and the use of the biennial flowering species +as house plants is increasing. The Ten-weeks Stock is usually grown from +seed sown in hotbed or boxes in March. The seedlings are transplanted +several times previous to being planted out in early May. At each +transplanting the soil should be made a little richer. The double +flowers will be more numerous when the soil is rich. + +The biennial species should be sown the season previous to that in which +flowers are wanted, the plants wintered over in a cool house, and grown +on the following spring. They may be planted out through the summer and +lifted into pots in August or September for winter flowering. These may +be increased by cuttings taken from the side shoots; but the sowing of +seed is a surer method, and unless an extra fine variety is to be saved, +it would be the best one to pursue. Height 10 to 15 inches. + + +STORING. The principles which are involved in the Storing of perishable +products, as fruits and vegetables, differ with the different +commodities. All the root crops, and most fruits, need to be kept in a +cool, moist and uniform temperature if they are to be preserved a great +length of time. Squashes, sweet potatoes, and some other things, need to +be kept in an intermediate and what might be called a high temperature; +and the atmosphere should be drier than for most other products. The low +temperature has the effect of arresting decomposition and the work of +fungi and bacteria. The moist atmosphere has the effect of preventing +too great evaporation and the consequent shriveling. In the Storing of +any commodity, it is very important to see that the product is in proper +condition for keeping. Discard all specimens which are bruised or which +are likely to decay. Much of the decay of fruits and vegetables in +Storage is not the fault of the Storage, but is really the work of +diseases with which the materials are infested before they are put into +Storage. For example, if potatoes and cabbages are affected with the +rot, it is practically impossible to keep them any length of time. + +Apples, winter pears, and all roots, should be kept at a temperature +somewhat near the freezing point. It should not raise above 40° Fahr. +for best results. Apples can even be kept at one or two degrees below +the freezing point if the temperature is kept uniform. Cellars in which +there are heaters are likely to be too dry and the temperature too +high. In such cases it is well to keep fresh vegetables and fruits in +tight receptacles, and pack the roots in sand or moss in order to +prevent shriveling. In these places, apples usually keep better if +headed up in barrels than if kept on racks or shelves. In moist and cool +cellars, however, it is preferable for the home supply to place them on +shelves, not piling them more than five or six inches deep, for then +they can be sorted over as occasion requires. In case of fruits, be sure +that the specimens are not over-ripe when placed in storage. If apples +are allowed to lie in the sun for a few days without being packed, they +will ripen so much that it is very difficult to keep them. + +[Illustration: A good out-door cellar] + +Cabbages should be kept at a low and uniform temperature, and water +should be drained away from them. They are Stored in many ways in the +field, but success depends so much upon the season, particular variety, +ripeness, and the freedom from injuries by fungi and insects, that +uniform results are rarely secured by any method. The best results are +to be expected when they can be kept in a house which is built for the +purpose, in which the temperature can be kept uniform and the air fairly +moist. When Stored out of doors, they are likely to freeze and thaw +alternately; and if the water runs into the heads, mischief is likely to +result. Sometimes they are easily Stored by being piled into a conical +heap on well-drained soil and covered with dry straw, and the straw +covered with boards. It does not matter if they are frosted, provided +they do not thaw out frequently. Sometimes cabbages are laid head down +in a shallow furrow plowed in well-drained land, and over them is thrown +straw, the stumps being allowed to project through the cover. It is only +in winters of rather uniform temperature that good results are to be +expected from such methods. + +In the Storing of all things, especially those which have soft and green +matter, as cabbages, it is well to provide for the heating of the +produce. If the things are buried out of doors, it is important to put +on a very light cover at first so that the heat may escape. Cover them +gradually as the cold weather comes on. This is important with all +vegetables that are placed in pits, as potatoes, beets and the like. If +covered deeply at once, they are likely to heat and rot. All pits made +out of doors should be on well-drained and preferably sandy land. + +When vegetables are wanted at intervals during the winter from pits, it +is well to make compartment pits, each compartment holding a wagon load +or whatever quantity will be likely to be wanted at each time. These +pits are sunk in well-drained land, and between each of the two pits is +left a wall of earth about a foot thick. One pit can then be emptied in +cold weather without interfering with the others. + +An outside cellar is better than a house cellar in which there is a +heater, but it is not so handy. If it is near the house, it need not be +inconvenient, however. A house is usually healthier if the cellar is not +used for storage. House cellars used for storage should have a +ventilating shaft. + + +[Illustration: Strawberries] + +STRAWBERRY. The saying that Strawberries will grow on almost any soil is +misleading, although true. Some varieties of Strawberries will grow on +certain soils better than other varieties. What these varieties are can +only be determined by an actual test, but it is a safe rule to select +such varieties as prove good in many localities. As to the methods of +culture, so much depends on the size of the plot, the purpose for which +the fruit is wanted, and the amount of care one is willing to give, that +no set rule can be given for a garden in which but few plants are grown +and extra care can be given. Large fruits and a number of them may be +had by growing to the single plant, keeping off all runners and relying +on numerous fruit-crowns on one plant for the crop of berries. Or +Strawberries may be grown by the narrow matted-row system, in which the +runners, before rooting, should be turned along the rows at a distance +of from 4 to 6 inches from the parent plant. These runners should be the +first ones made by the plant and should not be allowed to root +themselves, but “set in.” This is not a difficult operation; and if the +runners are separated from the parent plant as soon as they become well +established, the drain on that plant is not great. All other runners +should be cut off as they start. The row should be about 12 inches wide +at fruiting time. Each plant should have sufficient feeding ground, full +sunlight, and a firm hold in the soil. This matted-row system is perhaps +as good a method, either in a private garden or field culture, as could +be practiced. With a little care in hoeing, weeding and cutting off +runners, the beds seem to produce as large crops the second year as the +first. + +[Illustration: Well planted Strawberry] + +The old way of growing a crop was to set the plants 10 to 12 inches +apart, in rows 3 feet apart, and allow them to run and root at will, the +results being a mass of small, crowded plants, each striving to obtain +plant-food and none of them succeeding in getting enough. The last, or +outside runners, having but the tips of their roots in the ground, are +moved by the wind, heaved by the frost, or have the exposed roots dried +out by the wind and sun. + +[Illustration: Pot-grown Strawberry] + +Ground rich in potash produces the firmest and best flavored berries. +Excessive use of stable manure, usually rich in nitrogen, should be +avoided, as tending to make too rank growth of foliage and berries of a +soft texture. + +Except in the case of a skillful grower in a favored locality, the fall +setting of plants is not to be recommended. The preparation of the soil +and care of the plants more than overbalance the partial crop obtained +the following spring. + +In the single-plant or hill system the plants should be set 12 inches +apart, in rows 3 feet apart. In the narrow matted row system the plants +should be set 18 inches apart, in rows 3½ feet apart. The first method +requires about 14,000 plants per acre, the second about 8,000 plants. + +The winter treatment of a Strawberry bed should consist in covering the +plants, when the ground is frozen, in November or December, with straw +or hay. Salt marsh hay, if obtainable, is the best, as no weed seeds are +introduced. Cover the soil and the plants to the depth of 3 to 6 inches. +As soon as growth begins in spring, rake the mulch off, allowing it to +lie between the rows; or, if the soil is hard or weedy, it may be taken +off the patch entirely, the ground tilled, and then replaced for the +purpose of holding moisture and keeping the berries clean. + +Usually, Strawberries may be fruited twice or three times; but on rich +soil, with extra good care, the first crop may be very heavy, and the +patch may be plowed up thereafter. Some varieties do not produce pollen, +and not more than two rows of these should be planted without a row of a +pollen-bearing kind. + +The rust and mildew may be held in check by Bordeaux mixture. It is +usually sufficient to spray after the blooming season (or at any time +the first year the plants are set), in order to secure healthy foliage +for the next year. + + +SUNFLOWER (_Helianthus_). People who know only the coarse annual +Sunflower are not aware of the beauty which it is possible to secure +with the herbaceous perennials belonging to that family. No border +should be without a few of the hardy species. Their blooming period +extends from early in August until heavy frost. The color runs from +light lemon to the richest orange, and the range of growth from 3 to 10 +feet, thus enabling one to scatter them through the border without any +formal arrangement. They are of the easiest culture. Plants may be dug +in the wild or bought of nurserymen. The domesticated double _Helianthus +multiflorus_ is always valuable. + +[Illustration: Double Sunflower] + +[Illustration: Orgyalis Sunflower] + +[Illustration: Wild Sunflower Plant] + +Of the annual Sunflowers, there are some which are not generally +cultivated that should receive more attention. The silver-leaved species +from Texas (_H. argophyllus_), and the small, light lemon-yellow +variety, are two of the best. + +[Illustration: Wild Sunflower] + + +SWAINSONA. This makes a very desirable house plant, blooming through the +late winter and early spring months. The blossoms, which resemble those +of the pea, are borne in long racemes. The foliage is finely cut, +resembling small locust leaves, and adds to the beauty of the plant, the +whole effect being exceedingly graceful. It may be grown from seed or +cuttings. Propagate a new stock each year. The flowers are large and +pure white. The plant has been called the “Winter Sweet Pea,” but the +flowers are not fragrant. + + +SWAN RIVER DAISY (_Brachycome iberidifolia_) is a charming little border +plant, growing to the height of 12 to 15 inches, and bearing quantities +of blue or white flowers. The flowers last a long time when cut, and +give a vase of flowers a light, graceful effect. The seed should be sown +in boxes, hotbed, or windows; or, in warm garden soil, the seed may be +sown where the plants are to stand. Only half hardy, and should not be +planted out until settled weather. Annual. + + +SWEET CORN. See _Corn_. + + +SWEET HERBS. The Herb garden should find a place on all amateurs’ +grounds. Herbs may readily be made profitable by disposing of the +surplus to the green grocer and the druggist. The latter will often buy +all that the housewife wishes to dispose of, as the general supply of +medicinal herbs is grown by specialists, and goes into the hands of the +wholesaler and is often old when received by the local dealer. The +seedsmen’s catalogues mention upwards of forty different Herbs, +medicinal and culinary. The majority of them are perennial, and will +grow for many years if well taken care of. However, it is better to +resow every three or four years. The annual kinds are raised from seeds +each year. Beds 4 feet square of each of the Herbs will supply an +ordinary family. + + +SWEET PEA. No annual receives greater attention these days than the +Sweet Pea. Sweet Pea exhibitions are held in several sections of the +country, the press gives considerable space to the discussion of +varieties, and the public generally is interested in the growing or +buying of the flower. On any occasion the Sweet Pea is in place. A +bouquet of shaded colors, with a few sprays of galium or the perennial +gypsophila, makes one of the choicest of table decorations. Deep, mellow +soil, early planting and heavy mulching suit them admirably. Sow the +seeds as soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring, making a drill +5 inches deep. Sow thickly and cover with 2 inches of soil. When the +plants have made 2 or 3 inches growth above the soil, fill the drill +nearly full, leaving a slight depression in which water may be caught. +After the soil is thoroughly soaked with water, a good mulch will hold +the moisture. To have the ground ready in early spring, it is a good +plan to trench the soil in the fall. The top of the soil then dries out +very quickly in the spring and is left in good physical condition. +Frequent syringing with clear water will keep off the red spider that +often destroys the foliage, and attention to picking the seed pods will +lengthen the season of bloom. If the finest flowers are wanted, do not +let the plants stand less than 8-12 inches apart. + +[Illustration: Sweet Pea] + +A succession of sowings may be made at intervals through May and June, +and a fair fall crop obtained if care is taken to water and mulch; but +the best results will be secured with the very early planting. In the +middle and southern states, the seed may be planted in fall, +particularly in lighter soils. It is easy to get soils too rich in +nitrogen for Sweet Peas; in such case, they will run to vine at the +expense of flowers. If the plants are watered, apply enough to soak the +soil, and do not water frequently. + + +SWEET POTATOES are grown from sprouts planted on ridges or hills, not by +planting the tubers, as with the common or Irish potato. The method of +obtaining these sprouts is as follows: In April, tubers of Sweet +Potatoes are planted in a partially spent hotbed by using the whole +tuber (or if a large one, by cutting it in two through the long way), +covering the tubers with 2 inches of light, well firmed soil. The sash +should be put on the frames and only enough ventilation given to keep +the Potatoes from decaying. In ten or twelve days the young sprouts +should begin to appear, and the bed should be watered if dry. The +sprouts when pulled from the tuber will be found to have rootlets at the +lower end and along the stems. These sprouts should be about 3 to 5 +inches long by the time the ground is warm enough to plant them out. The +ridges or hills should be prepared by plowing out a furrow 4 to 6 +inches deep. Scatter manure in the furrow and plow back the soil so as +to raise the center at least 6 inches above the level of the soil. On +this ridge the plants are set, placing the plants well in to the leaves, +and about 12 to 18 inches apart in the rows, the rows being from 3 to 4 +feet apart. The after cultivation consists in stirring the soil between +the ridges; and as the vines begin to run they should be lifted +frequently to prevent rooting at the joints. When the tips of the vines +have been touched by frost the crop may be harvested, the tubers left to +dry a few days, and stored in a dry, warm place. To keep Sweet Potatoes, +store in layers in barrels or boxes in dry sand, and keep them in a dry +room. See that all bruised or chilled potatoes are thrown out. + + +SYRINGING plants with water has two general offices: to clean the plants +of pests or of dirt; to check evaporation or transpiration from the +plant itself. + +Gardeners look upon water as a good insecticide. That is, if it can be +thrown upon the plants somewhat forcibly by means of a syringe or pump, +or by the hydrant hose, it will wash off the insects and drown many of +them. The water should be applied in a fine and somewhat forcible spray. +Care should be taken that the plant is not torn or bruised. The red +spider is one of the most serious pests on house plants, and, in a dry +season, on plants about the lawn. It thrives in a dry atmosphere. It +usually lives on the under sides of the leaves. Syringing the plants +frequently will destroy the pests. The thrips and slugs on rose bushes +can nearly always be kept in check if one can spray or syringe his +plants frequently. See _Spraying_. + +Syringing to check transpiration from the foliage is very useful with +plants which are recently transplanted. For instance, when carnations +are taken from the field and placed in the house, it is well to syringe +them occasionally until they have become established. The same is true +with cuttings. + +In Syringing plants, it is well to take care that the ground does not +become too wet; otherwise the plant may suffer at its root. In the +house, plants should rarely be syringed except when the weather is +bright, so that they may soon dry off. The plant should not go into the +night with wet foliage. Out of doors in hot weather, it is best to +syringe toward nightfall. The foliage will ordinarily not suffer in such +cases. With plants in the house, it is necessary to keep the leaves dry +most of the time in order that fungi may not breed. This is true of +carnations, which are very liable to attacks of the rust. + +Plants are sometimes syringed or sprayed to protect them from frost. See +_Frost_. + + +TERRACES may be desirable for two reasons: to hold a very steep slope; +to afford an architectural base for a building. + +It is rarely necessary to make a distinct Terrace in the lawn. Even if +the lawn is very steep, it may be better to make a gradual slope than to +cut the place in two with a Terrace. A Terrace makes a place look +smaller. It is always difficult to make and to keep in repair. The +surface is not readily cut with a lawn mower. Unless the sod is very +dense, the upper corner tends to wash off with the rains and the foot +tends to fill in. Nature does not have straight banks unless they are +rock. The illustration in the margin shows how it is possible to treat a +sloping lawn. In the distance is a distinct, sharp-angled Terrace; but +in the foreground this Terrace has been carried out into the lawn, so +that the slope is an agreeable one. + +[Illustration: A slope is better than a terrace] + +If it is necessary to Terrace a yard in order to hold it, the Terrace +would better be at one side rather than in the middle. In that case, one +is able to secure a good breadth of lawn. If the Terrace is at the +outer side next the street, a perpendicular, mason-work, retaining wall +may be constructed. If it is on the inner side of the lawn, it may be +placed close to the building and be made to appear as a part of the +architecture: it may be made the base of the building. If this is done, +there should be a balustrade around the edge of the Terrace to give it +architectural feeling. The descent from the Terrace to the lawn may be +made by means of steps, so as to add to the architectural aspect of the +place. Terraces are most in place about buildings which have many strong +horizontal lines; they do not lend themselves so well to buildings in +the Gothic style. The general tendency is to make too many Terraces. The +cases are relatively few in which they may not be dispensed with. + + +THINNING of fruit has four general uses: to cause the remaining fruit to +grow larger; to increase the chances of annual crops; to save the +vitality of the tree; to enable one to combat insects and diseases by +destroying the injured fruit. + +The Thinning of fruit is nearly always done soon after the fruit is +thoroughly set. It is then possible to determine which of the fruits are +likely to persist. Peaches are usually Thinned when they are the size of +one’s thumb. If Thinned before this time, they are so small that it is +difficult to pick them off; and it is not so easy to see the work of the +curculio and thereby to select the injured fruits. Similar remarks will +apply to other fruits. The general tendency is, even with those who Thin +their fruits, not to Thin enough. It is usually safer to take off what +would seem to be too many than not to take off enough. The remaining +specimens are better. Varieties which tend to overbear profit very +greatly by Thinning. This is notably the case with many Japanese plums, +which, if not Thinned, are very inferior. + +Thinning may also be accomplished by pruning. If one knows where the +fruit buds are, cutting them off will have the effect of removing the +fruit. In the case of tender fruits, like peaches, however, it may not +be advisable to Thin very heavily by means of pruning, since the fruit +may be still further Thinned by the remaining days of winter, by late +spring frost, or by the leaf-curl or other disease. However, the proper +pruning of a peach tree in winter is, in part, a Thinning of the fruit. +The peach is borne on the wood of the previous season’s growth. The best +fruits are to be expected on the strongest and heaviest growth. It is +the practice of peach-growers to remove all the weak and immature wood +from the inside of the tree. This has the effect of Thinning out the +inferior fruit and allowing the energy of the tree to be expended on the +remainder. Apples are rarely Thinned; but in many cases, Thinning can be +done with profit. On all home grounds, fruits should be Thinned whenever +the trees are very full. In general, the best time to thin the fruit, as +already said, is when the fruits have become large enough to be seen and +handled. The discarded fruits should be burned if they contain insects +or fungi. + + +THUNBERGIA. Tender climbers, making very pretty low screens. They are at +their best when grown along the ground where the moisture keeps them +free from the attacks of red spider. Some of the kinds are very fine +vase or basket plants. All may be grown easily from seed. Annuals, 4 to +6 feet. Flowers white and yellow. + +[Illustration: Thunbergia alata] + + +TILLAGE. By Tillage is meant the stirring of the soil. Tillage is the +fundamental operation in agricultural practice. Most farmers till for +three reasons: to get the seed into the land; to keep the weeds down; +and to get the crop out of the land. The real reason for Tillage, +however, is to ameliorate the land; that is, Tillage makes the soil +mellow and fine, and an agreeable place in which plants may grow. It +enables the soil to hold moisture, to present the greatest feeding +surface to roots, to allow the circulation of air, and intensifies many +chemical activities. Tilling the soil is the first means of making it +productive. If one understands the many forces that are set at work, the +Tilling of the soil becomes one of the most interesting and exciting of +all agricultural operations. + +[Illustration: For hand Tilling] + +The exact method of Tilling the soil in any particular case must be +determined by many circumstances. Light soils are handled differently +from heavy soils; and much depends also upon the season of the year in +which the Tillage is done. In all ordinary soils, the effort should be +made to work them deep, so that there is a deep reservoir for the +storage of moisture and a large area in which roots can work. Subsequent +Tillage throughout the growing season is performed very largely for the +purpose of keeping the top of the soil loose and fine so that the +moisture from beneath cannot pass off into the atmosphere. This loose +layer of soil, extending two or three inches from the surface, may +itself be very dry; but it breaks up the capillary connection between +the lower soil and the air, and thereby prevents evaporation. This +surface layer of loose, mellow soil is often spoken of as the +earth-mulch. It answers much the same purpose as a mulch of straw or +leaves in interposing a material between the moist soil and the air +through which the moisture cannot rise. If this mulch is repaired as +often as it should be, weeds cannot grow; but the object of the Tilling +is more to make and maintain the mulch than to destroy weeds. The +surface should be Tilled shallow in the growing season as often as it +tends to become compact or encrusted. This will be after every rain, and +usually as often as once in ten days when there is no rain. The tools to +be used for this surface Tillage are those which will comminute or fine +the soil most completely without compacting it or leaving it in ridges +or in furrows. In garden work, a fine rake is the ideal thing; whereas +in field work, some of the wire-tooth weeders or smoothing harrows are +excellent. In fields which are hard and lumpy, however, it will be +necessary to use heavier and rougher tools. + +[Illustration: Steel rake] + +In order to break down hard clay soils, one must exercise great care not +to work them when they are wet; and also not to work them very much when +they are dry. There is a time, shortly after a rain, when clay lumps +will break to pieces with a very slight blow. At this time it is well to +go over them with a harrow or a rake. After the next rain, they can be +gone over again, and before the end of the season the soil should be in +fine condition. An excellent way of breaking down clay land is to plow +or spade it in the fall and allow it to weather in the winter. In such +cases the land should not be raked or harrowed, but allowed to lie rough +and loose. Very hard clay lands sometimes run together or cement if +handled in this way, but this will not occur if the land has stubble or +sod or a dressing of manure, for the fibrous matter will then prevent it +from puddling. Lime sown on clay land at the rate of twenty to forty +bushels to the acre also has a distinct effect in pulverizing it. This +may be sown in fall, or preferably in spring when the land is plowed. + +One of the most important ways of ameliorating land is to work vegetable +matter into it so as to give it humus. Soils which are loose, black and +friable contain much of this vegetable mold. In many cases the chief +value of stable manure is to add this humus to the soil. Many soils need +humus more than they need plant-food, and hence stable manure gives +better results in those cases than commercial fertilizers. The farmer +secures the humus by plowing under stubble and sod, and occasional green +crops. + + +TOMATO. The early fruits are very easily grown by starting the plants in +a greenhouse, hotbed or in shallow boxes placed in windows. A pinch of +seed sown in March will give all the early plants a large family can +use. When the plants have reached the height of two or three inches they +should be transplanted into 3-inch flower pots, old berry boxes or other +receptacles, and allowed to grow slow and stocky until time to set them +out, which is from May 15 on (in New York). They should be set in rows +four or five feet apart, the plants being the same distance in the rows. +Some support should be given to keep the fruits off the ground and to +hasten the ripening. A trellis of chicken-wire makes an excellent +support, as does the light lath fencing that may be bought or made at +home. Stout stakes, with wire strung the length of the rows, afford an +excellent support. A very showy method is that of a frame made like an +inverted V, which allows the fruits to hang free; with a little +attention to trimming, the light reaches the fruits and ripens them +perfectly. This support is made by leaning together two lath frames. The +late fruits may be picked green and ripened on a shelf in the sun; or +they will ripen if placed in a drawer. + +[Illustration: Tomato] + +One ounce of seed will be enough for from twelve to fifteen hundred +plants. A little fertilizer in the hill will start the plants off +quickly. The rot is less serious when the vines are kept off the ground +and the rampant suckers are cut out. + + +TOOLS of many kinds, and well chosen, are one of the joys of a garden. +There is great satisfaction in a well-made, clean tool which does its +work well. Keep the tools bright. They should be under cover, and in +place, when not in use. A cupboard may be built by the rear porch, or in +the barn or carriage house. See that the cupboard is in a dry place. +Various Tools have been mentioned in the preceding pages, and other +useful kinds are shown in the article on _Weeds_. + + +TRANSPLANTING. This operation the gardener calls in one instance +“pricking out.” This means taking young seedling plants from the seed +box as soon as they are large enough to be handled--usually when the +first “rough” leaves have developed--and replanting them in other boxes +or pots, either singly or at a greater distance apart than they were +when in the seed boxes. The term is used in the operation of setting out +plants from the hotbed, frame or house to the garden; also in removing +shrubs or trees. Transplant on a cloudy day, and just before a rain, if +possible. + + +TRIMMING is a term which is ordinarily confounded with pruning (which +see). The word “Trimming,” however, should be restricted to the shaping +of the trees and not to the thinning of the tree or to pruning for wood, +fruit or other special object. Trimming is only one of the means of +pruning. Trimming is mostly used in the case of hedges. It is also used +to keep evergreens in shape. Many ornamental plants are also Trimmed +into various forms, although it is a question if such Trimming is +usually wise. Fruit trees should be pruned, as a rule, rather than +Trimmed: that is, they usually should be allowed to take their natural +form, the pruner taking out the superfluous wood and keeping them within +manageable bounds. + + +TROPÆOLUM. See _Nasturtium_. + + +TUBEROSE. The Tuberose requires more heat to grow to perfection than it +is usually possible to give here in the North. If planted in the border +they will not start into growth until the ground has become thoroughly +warm--usually after the middle of June,--making the season before frost +too short for their perfect growth and flower. However, if started in +loose soil or moss in a warm room or on benches of a greenhouse, the +roots will soon start from the tuber and make a fine growth. If planted +out in June with a good ball of roots they are likely to bloom before +frost. If any danger of frost is feared they may be lifted into pots or +boxes and taken into the house, when they will bloom without a check. As +with other bulbs, a sandy soil will suit. + + +TUBEROUS BEGONIA. A large bed of these covered with crimson, pink, +white, or yellow flowers, ranging from 2 to 4 and even 6 inches in +diameter, some double, some single, is a striking sight. Yet such a +sight is not uncommon about the large eastern cities where the Tuberous +Begonia is now used somewhat for bedding. + +Our interior summers are more trying, and so far, few in the west have +succeeded so well with the Tuberous Begonia as a bedding plant. It makes +a fine summer-blooming pot-plant, however, for the greenhouse or window, +and with due attention to its requirements, it may be used as a bedding +plant. It properly falls under greenhouse plants in its requirements. + +[Illustration: Double Tuberous Begonia] + +C. L. Allen, writing of its culture in his work on “Bulbs and +Tuberous-Rooted Plants,” says: “The principal point learned in regard to +its culture is, that it must be treated as a plant and not as a bulb. +The enthusiastic florist, seeing the many good qualities of the plant, +has led amateurs to believe it could be treated as a bulb, and planted +out in the same manner as the gladiolus or tigridia and kept dormant +during the winter in the same manner. This is a great mistake, as the +tubers will not endure as long a period of rest and cannot be exposed to +the air for a long time without seriously injuring their vitality. The +tubers must be kept in dry earth or sand, until they show signs of +growth, which will be not later than the first of March; then they may +be started into rapid growth. After the eyes are fully developed the +tubers may be divided: each eye will make a plant. Then they are treated +in all respects like greenhouse plants, and grown on until the proper +season for their planting out. This is not before the first of June, as +Begonias are quite sensitive to cold nights, but not at all to heat. At +that time the plants should be fully 6 inches in height and +proportionately strong. Such plants will make a grand display the entire +season, rather delighting in great heat.” + +[Illustration: Tuberous Begonia, single.] + +In starting the tubers in March, they should be placed in moist sand or +moss in a temperature of 60° to 65°, either in the greenhouse or window. +After the buds are well started the tubers may be divided as pointed +out, or planted whole. They prefer a rich, rather sandy soil. When they +are well under way give them all the light and air they will bear, and +keep them close to the glass to avoid “legginess” and to insure a firm, +sturdy growth. A week before planting them out they should be given +abundance of air and light to “harden off” the plants preparatory to +setting them in sun and wind. + +The beds should be in a somewhat sheltered place where they will be +partially shaded from the hot midday sun. Let the soil be well enriched +with old manure or humus and thoroughly worked over to a depth of one +foot. During dry periods the beds will need watering from time to time; +but never water them when the sun is shining full on them, or the +foliage may be scorched. A mulch of leaf-mold or old manure will be +helpful in keeping the soil moist and the roots cool. + +Before frost the tubers should be carefully taken up and gradually dried +in the shade, after which they are to be placed in dry sand or earth, in +shallow boxes, and kept till time to start them in the spring. They +should be kept in a cool place, secure from frost and away from stoves +or heating pipes. + +For amateurs it is better to recommend buying bulbs of the several +colors, instead of attempting to grow them from seeds, which are +extremely small and require early sowing, warmth and close attention. + + +TULIPS are hardy and easy to grow. The advice given under _Bulbs_, +_Crocus_ and _Hyacinth_ applies to Tulips. They may be forced for winter +bloom (see under _Window-Gardens_). The garden bed will last several +years if well cared for, but most satisfactory bloom is secured if the +old bulbs are taken up every two or three years and replanted, all the +inferior ones being cast aside. When the stock begins to run out, buy +anew. Plant in October, 4 to 6 inches deep. + +[Illustration: Tulip as a pot-plant] + + +TURNIPS and RUTABAGAS are usually a fall crop, from seed sown in July +and early August, although many kitchen gardens have them from spring +sown seed. The culture is easy. Sow in drills 12 inches apart. They will +become edible in from six to eight weeks. They are cool-weather crops, +and the tops stand much frost. If maggots bother, do not raise them on +the same land again for three or four years. Bordeaux mixture repels the +flea-beetles. One ounce will sow 150 feet of drill. + + +VARIETIES. It is usually one of the first desires of the intending +planter to inquire about Varieties. It is one of the secondary things to +be considered, however, for the first thing to do is to prepare the +land, to determine whether one’s soil and site are adapted to the plant +in question, and to discuss other matters of a general nature. When all +the fundamental things are settled, then the question of Varieties, +which is a special matter, may be taken up. Although the selection of +Varieties is a very special matter, it is nevertheless essential to +success or satisfaction in the growing of any plant. + +It should first be considered that the selection of Varieties is very +largely a personal matter. The man should grow the Varieties which he +likes. This is especially true in the selection of Varieties for the +home grounds, in which case the market ideals enter very little into the +problem. Having satisfied one’s own mind as to what kinds of Varieties +he would like, he may then inquire of the neighbors and of experts if +those Varieties are adapted to the soil and climate. If he intends to +grow for market, he should canvass the market demands thoroughly before +choosing the Varieties. The lists of Varieties in books, bulletins, and +seedmen’s catalogues are hints, not rules. As a general statement, it +may be said that the only way to determine the best variety for one’s +own conditions is to experiment. There is intense satisfaction in the +experimenting itself. The best lists of Varieties are those which are +recommended for some specific purpose, and which represent the combined +opinions of many expert growers. It is rare that one man’s judgment +should be final, particularly with respect to fruits or plants which are +grown in general outdoor conditions. Under glass a gardener can make his +climate and conditions, and therefore he can adapt his conditions to his +plants. The experiment station test usually represents but one man’s +opinion. It may be a more valuable opinion than that of another man, but +it is not final. It should be studied in connection with other lists, +particularly those made by practical growers. If one desires to choose +Varieties, therefore, he should consult the best growers of those plants +in his immediate neighborhood; he should call upon the experiment +station of his state or province; and he should consult the most recent +writings on the subject. + + +VEGETABLE GARDEN. It is one of the choicest of pleasures to raise one’s +own vegetables. Make the Vegetable Garden ample, but economize labor. +Plant the things in rows, not in beds. Then they can be tilled easily, +either by horse- or hand-tools. Wheel-hoes will accomplish most of the +labor of tillage in a small garden. Have the rows long, to avoid waste +of time in turning and to economize the land. One row can be devoted to +one vegetable; or two or more vegetables of like requirements (as +parsnips and salsify) may comprise a row. Have the permanent vegetables, +as rhubarb and asparagus, at one side, where they will not interfere +with the plowing or tilling. The annual vegetables should be grown on +different parts of the area in succeeding years, thus practicing +something like a rotation of crops. If radish or cabbage maggots or +club-root become thoroughly established in the plantation, omit for a +year or more the vegetables on which they live. + +[Illustration: Lay-out of a farm Vegetable Garden] + +Make the soil deep, mellow and rich before the seeds are sown. Time and +labor will be saved. Rake the surface frequently to keep down weeds and +to prevent the soil from baking (see _Tillage_). Radish seeds sown with +celery or other slow-germinating seeds will come up quickly, breaking +the crust and marking the rows. About the borders of the Vegetable +Garden is a good place for flowers to be grown for the decoration of the +house and to give to friends. Along one side of the area rows of bush +fruits may be planted. + +A home Vegetable Garden for a family of six would require, exclusive of +potatoes, a space not over 100 by 150 feet. Beginning at one side of the +garden and running the rows the short way (having each row 100 feet +long) sowings may be made, as soon as the ground is in condition to +work, of the following: + +Fifty feet each of parsnips and salsify. + +One hundred feet of onions, 25 feet of which may be potato or set +onions, the balance black-seed for summer and fall use. + +Fifty feet of early beets, 50 feet of lettuce, with which radish may be +sown to break the soil and be harvested before the lettuce needs the +room. + +One hundred feet of early cabbage, the plants for which should be from +a frame or purchased. Set the plants 18 inches to 2 feet apart. + +One hundred feet of early cauliflower; culture same as for cabbage. + +Four hundred and fifty feet of peas, sown as follows: + + 100 feet of extra early. + 100 feet of intermediate. + 100 feet of late. + 100 feet of extra early, sown late. + 50 feet of dwarf varieties. + +If trellis or brush is to be avoided, frequent sowings of the dwarfs +will maintain a supply. + +After the soil has become warm and all danger of frost has passed, the +tender vegetables may be planted, as follows: + +Corn in five rows 3 feet apart, three rows to be early and intermediate, +and two rows late. + +One hundred feet of string beans, early to late varieties. + +Vines as follows: + + 10 hills of cucumbers, 6 x 6 feet. + 20 hills of muskmelon, 6 x 6 feet. + 6 hills of early squash, 6 x 6 feet. + 10 hills of Hubbard, 6 x 6 feet. + +One hundred feet of okra. + +Twenty eggplants. One hundred ft. (25 plants) tomatoes. + +Six large clumps of rhubarb. + +An asparagus bed 25 feet long and 3 feet wide. + +Late cabbage, cauliflower and celery are to occupy the space made vacant +by removing early crops of early and intermediate peas and string beans. + +A border on one side or end will hold all herbs, such as parsley, thyme, +sage, hyssop, mints. + + +VERBENA. The Verbena is one of the most satisfactory garden plants, +blooming early. Bloom continues through the dry, hot days of summer. As +the cool weather of the fall comes on, Verbenas increase in size of +plant and flower until killed by severe frost. Plants grown from seed +sown in a hotbed or house early in the spring, transplanted into pots or +boxes when large enough, and planted out as soon as the ground has +become warm, are more vigorous and seem to have more fragrance than +those grown from cuttings. Many of the strains have become so well fixed +that the colors come true from seed. Cuttings are often employed, but +the handling of stock plants is a difficult matter except in the hands +of a professional, and when plants are wanted in quantity it is cheaper +to buy them of the plantsman than to grow them from seed or attempt to +keep over stock plants. Therefore, for the home garden, seed-grown +plants are usually most satisfactory. Give a sunny position. Thin to 10 +to 15 inches apart each way. + +[Illustration: Verbena] + + +VINCA, or PERIWINKLE. Trailing plants. Useful in covering unsightly +places, for vases, urns or baskets. Some of the species (as the common +evergreen, mat-like “running myrtle”) are hardy, but the most useful +ones need the protection of a house through the winter. The +variegated-leaved kinds are fine for winter decorations. Propagated +mostly by cuttings. Perennials. + + +VINES. The use of Vines for screens and pillar decorations has increased +in the last decade until now they may be seen in nearly all grounds. The +tendency has been towards using the hardy Vines, of which the +ampelopsis, or Virginia creeper, is one of the most common. It is a very +rapid grower, and lends itself to training more readily than many +others. The Japan ampelopsis (_A. tricuspidata_ or _Veitchii_) is a fine +clinging Vine, growing very rapidly when once established, and being +brilliantly colored after the first fall frosts. It clings closer than +the other, but is not so hardy. Either of these may be grown from +cuttings or division of the plants. Two woody twiners of recent +introduction are the actinidia and the akebia, both from Japan. They +are perfectly hardy, and are rapid growers. The former has large, thick, +glossy leaves, not affected by insects or disease, growing thickly along +the stem and branches, making a perfect thatch of leaves. It blooms in +June. The flowers, which are white with a purple center, are borne in +clusters, followed by round or longish edible fruits. The akebia has +very neat cut foliage, quaint purple flowers, and often bears ornamental +fruit. Other hardy Vines are the wistaria, clematis, tecoma (or +trumpet-flower), aristolochia (or Dutchman’s pipe), hedera (or ivy), and +loniceras (or honeysuckles). + +[Illustration: A vine support for a porch] + +Of the tender Vines, the nasturtiums and ipomœas are the most common, +while the adlumia (p. 3), balloon vine (p. 28), passion vine, and the +gourds (p. 115), are frequently used. One of the best of recent +introduction is the annual hop, especially the variegated variety. This +is a very rapid growing Vine, seeding itself each year, and needing +little care. See _Hop_. All the tender Vines should be planted after all +danger of frost is over. + +_ANNUAL HERBACEOUS CLIMBERS_ + +_Tendril-climbers_ + + Adlumia (biennial). + Balloon Vine. + Cobæa. + Gourds. + Nasturtiums. + Sweet Pea. + Wild Cucumber. + +_Twiners_ + + Beans, Flowering. + Cypress Vine. + Dolichos. + Hop, Japanese. + Ipomœa. + Moonflower. + Morning-glory. + Thunbergia. + Yam, Chinese, or Cinnamon Vine (perennial from a hardy tuber). + +_PERENNIAL WOODY CLIMBERS FOR THE OPEN_ + +_Tendril-climbers_ + + Ampelopsis tricuspidata. + Clematis of many kinds. + Grape of various kinds. + Greenbrier. + Ivy (by roots). + Roses (scramblers). + Trumpet Creeper (by roots). + Virginia Creeper. + +_Twiners_ + + Actinidia polygama. + Akebia quinata. + Aristolochia, or Dutchman’s Pipe. + Bittersweet, or Celastrus. + Honeysuckles. + Moonseed. + Wistaria. + + +[Illustration: Violets] + +VIOLET. While the culture of Violets as house-plants rarely proves +successful, there is no reason why a good supply may not be had +elsewhere through the greater part of the winter and the spring months. +A sheltered location being selected, young plants from runners may be +set in August or September. Have the ground rich and well drained. These +plants will make fine crowns by December, and often will bloom before +weather sufficiently cold to freeze them. In order to have flowers +through the winter, it will be necessary to afford some protection to +the plants. This may best be done by building a frame of boards large +enough to cover the plants, making the frame in the same way as for a +hotbed, four to six inches higher at the back than the front. Cover the +frame with sash or boards, and as the weather becomes severe, mats or +straw should be placed over and around the frame to protect the plants +from freezing. Whenever the weather will permit, the covering should be +removed and air admitted, but no harm will come if the frames are not +disturbed for several weeks. A large amount of sunlight and a high +temperature through the middle of winter are to be avoided, for if the +plants are stimulated a shorter period of bloom will result. In April +the frame may be removed, the plants yielding the later part of the crop +without protection. Violets belong with the “cool” plants of florists. +When well hardened off, considerable frost does not harm them. They +should always be kept stocky. Start a new lot from runner-plants each +year. They thrive in a temperature of 55° to 65°. + + +WALKS. The place for a Walk is where it is needed. It should go directly +between two points. It need not be straight, but if it is curved, the +curve should be direct. That is, the pedestrian should be conscious that +he is going in the direction in which he desires to go, and is not +making a detour for the simple purpose of following the walk. +Convenience should be the first thing to be considered. After the Walks +have been laid in the most convenient places, the question of +ornamenting the borders may be considered. It is always well to avoid, +so far as possible, the bisecting of lawns by Walks, as that makes two +lawns where there should be only one. The larger a greensward can be +made to look, the more park-like and natural is the place. Avoid taking +the Walks circuitously around the borders unless they are laid for the +simple purpose of making a ramble to show off the grounds. All Walks +which are designed for serious use should appear to be necessary, direct +and convenient. + +Some soils which contain considerable loam and sand will pack with +tramping and will make good Walks, but it is usually necessary to lay +some material on the soil. Gravel, cinders, and the like, may be better +than the natural surface; but in many cases they are worse, since the +surface is loose and is unpleasant to walk on. In Walks which are on +decided slopes, and down which the water is likely to run, any loose +material is very objectionable, since it runs to the low places. The +best material for Walks, all things considered, is cement, or what is +called artificial stone. If well made, it is as durable as flagging, and +is not so likely to get out of place. It holds its surface perfectly +year after year. + +The only objection to cement Walks is when they are more or less +temporary, for in such cases they cannot be moved. There is often very +serious difficulty in securing good cement Walks, but the difficulties +are easily overcome. They are chiefly two: there is not sufficient +draining material beneath the cement; and the cement itself is not made +strong enough. There should be at least a foot of loose material, as +brickbats or cinders, below the cement cover; and if the place is low +and likely to hold water, there should be still greater drainage. Pound +the material down, or let it stand for some time until it becomes +thoroughly settled together. Then lay the cement in two courses. The +first course may be three or four inches thick and made of well mixed +mortar, comprising three parts Portland cement, one part water lime, and +two to three times as much sharp sand as Portland. When this has become +partially hardened, but before it is set and while still moist, put on a +finishing layer of one inch, made of one part Portland cement, one part +water lime, and one part sharp sand. It is important that the materials +be very thoroughly mixed. See that the edges of the walk are made square +and true by laying down a form of boards lengthwise the area before the +cement is put on. The edges should be as thick as the middle, for a thin +crust on the edge tends to snap off. A walk made in this way on a +well-drained foundation will last almost indefinitely. It is best that +it be made in such season that it can become thoroughly set before +frosty weather comes. + + +WALLFLOWER. A favorite plant for pots or garden, having a clove-like +fragrance. Seed of most varieties should be sown the year before wanted. +One kind, being an annual, will flower the same season the seed is sown. +Hardy. Two to 3 feet. + + +WASHING orchard trees is an old practice. It usually results in making +a tree more vigorous. One reason is that it destroys insects and fungi +which lodge underneath the bark; but probably the chief reason is that +it softens the bark and allows the trunk to expand. It is possible, +also, that the potash from the soap or lye eventually passes into the +ground and affords some plant-food. Trees are ordinarily Washed with +soap suds or with a lye solution. The material is usually applied with +an old broom or a stiff brush. The scrubbing of the tree is perhaps +nearly or quite as beneficial as the application of the wash itself. + +It is customary to wash trees late in spring or early in summer, and +again in the fall, with the idea that such Washing destroys the eggs and +the young of borers. It no doubt will destroy borers if they are just +getting a start, but it will not keep away the insects which lay the +eggs, and will not destroy the borers which have found their way +underneath the bark. It is perhaps quite as well to wash the trees very +early in the spring, when they are starting into growth. It is an old +practice to wash trees with strong lye when they are affected with the +oyster-shell bark louse. The modern method of treating these pests, +however, is to spray with some kerosene compound when the young growth +is starting, for at that time the young insects are migrating to the new +wood and they are very easily destroyed. + + +WATERING HOUSE PLANTS. It is impossible to give rules for the Watering +of plants. Conditions that hold with one grower are different from those +of another. Advice must be general. Give one good Watering at the time +of potting, after which no water should be given until the plants really +need it. If, on tapping the pot, it gives out a clear ring, it is an +indication that water is needed. In the case of a soft-wooded plant, +just before the leaves begin to show signs of wilt, is the time for +Watering. When plants are taken up from the ground, or when plants have +their roots cut back in repotting, gardeners rely, after the first +copious Watering, on syringing the tops of the plants two or three +times each day, until a new root-growth has started, Watering at the +roots only when absolutely necessary. Plants that have been potted into +larger pots will grow without the extra attention of syringing, but +those from the borders, that have had their roots mutilated or +shortened, should be placed in a cool, shady spot and be syringed often. +One soon becomes familiar with the wants of individual plants, and can +judge closely as to need of water. All soft-wooded plants with a large +leaf-surface need more water than hard-wooded plants, and a plant in +luxuriant growth of any kind more than a plant that has been cut back or +become defoliated. When plants are grown in living-rooms, moisture must +be supplied from some source, and if no arrangement has been made for +having a moist air the plants should be syringed often. See _Syringing_. + +[Illustration: Watering pot] + + +WATERMELON. The culture of this is essentially the same as that for +muskmelons (which see), except that most varieties require a warmer +place and longer period of growth. Give the hills a distance of from 6 +to 10 feet apart. Choose a warm, “quick” soil and sunny exposure. It is +essential, in the North, that the plants grow rapidly and come into +bloom early. One ounce of seed will plant thirty hills. + + +WAX PLANT. The Wax Plant, or HOYA, is one of the commonest of +window-garden plants, and yet it is one which people usually have +difficulty in flowering. However, it is one of the easiest plants to +manage if a person understands its nature. It is naturally a +summer-blooming plant, and should rest during the winter time. In the +winter, keep it just alive in a cool and rather dry place. If the +temperature does not go above 50° Fahr., so much the better; neither +should it go much lower. In late winter or spring, the plant is brought +out to warm temperature, given water and started into growth. The old +flower-stems should not be cut off, since new flowers come from them as +well as from the new wood. When it is brought out to be started into +growth, it may be repotted, sometimes into a size larger pot, but always +with more or less fresh earth. The plant should increase in value each +year. In conservatories, it is sometimes planted out in the ground and +allowed to run over a wall, in which case it will reach a height of many +feet. + + +WEEDS. Many very strong Weeds are a compliment to one’s soil: only good +soil produces them. But they are not a compliment to one’s tillage. If +the soil is well prepared and well tilled to conserve moisture and to +unlock plant-food (see _Tillage_), Weeds will find little chance of +growing. Stir the ground often: it benefits the ground and keeps out the +Weeds. Plant vegetables in long straight rows rather than in beds, for +thereby tillage is made easier. For beds and for small plants, the +hand-weeders (as shown in the margin) are very efficient. They save +laborious finger-work. Weed seeds are often distributed in manure, +especially if Weeds have been allowed to grow and ripen on the piles. +See that pernicious Weeds do not seed about the premises. For the +treatment of weedy lawns, see the article _Lawns_. + +[Illustration: Potato hook and weed-puller] + +[Illustration: Finger-weeder] + +[Illustration: Trowel and angle-weeder] + + +WINDBREAKS. There is the greatest difference of opinion as to the value +of Windbreaks for fruit plantations. These differences arise from the +fact that a Windbreak may be of great benefit in one place, but a +disadvantage in another. It is always advisable to break the force of +very strong winds, for such winds tend to injure the trees when laden +with fruit or ice, and they blow off the fruit; and in dry countries +they cause the soil to become parched. If the wind is usually warmer +than the area, however, particularly in the winter time, it is better +not to stop it, but to allow it to circulate through the plantation. +This is the case in areas which lie close to large bodies of water. The +wind coming off the water is warmer than that off the land, and tends +thereby to protect the fruit plantation from severe cold. A circulation +of air is desirable in late spring and early fall in order to avoid the +still frosts. Therefore, if the area is very closely surrounded by dense +plantations, it may have what the fruit-growers call “stagnant air;” but +thinning out the Windbreak on one or two sides, or cutting holes through +it, may allow the air to move through, thereby affording atmospheric +drainage and insuring greater immunity from the light local frosts. + +It is ordinarily better to break the force of the winds than to stop or +deflect them. That is, the Windbreak may be thin enough to allow the +wind to take its normal direction, but its force is broken. A stone wall +or a very dense hedge of evergreens may cause the wind to rise over the +plantation or to be deflected to one side; and this, in many cases, as +already said, may be a decided disadvantage. The philosophy of a good +Windbreak for fruit plantations may be summed up in this way: the force +of heavy winds should be broken; warm winds should be allowed to +circulate freely through the plantation; still air should be avoided. + +Ordinarily, one or two rows of deciduous trees are sufficient +protection. When the plantation is very much exposed to very cold or +land winds, a thick evergreen screen may be a decided advantage. It is +usually better to have the heavy Windbreak on the upper side of the +area, so that it may not interfere with the natural drainage of the cold +air down the slope. In making a Windbreak, it is important that those +trees be chosen which will not become harboring places for orchard +enemies. The wild cherry, for example, is inveterately attacked by the +tent caterpillar, and the wild crabs and wild plums are likely to breed +orchard insects. If the Windbreak is planted some time in advance of +the orchard, the row of fruit trees next the Windbreak will be very +likely to suffer from lack of moisture and food. + +A different type of Windbreak is that which is desired for a shelter +belt about the home grounds. The matter of atmospheric drainage does not +enter into this problem to any great extent. Such shelter belt is +usually placed at the extreme edge of the home yard, toward the heaviest +or prevailing wind. It may be a dense plantation of evergreens. If so, +the Norway spruce is one of the best for general purposes. For a lower +belt, the arborvitæ is excellent. Some of the pines, as the Scotch or +Austrian, are also to be advised, particularly if the belt is at some +distance from the residence. As a rule, the coarser the tree the farther +it should be placed from the house. + +Persons may desire to use the Windbreak as a screen to hide undesirable +objects. If these objects are of a permanent character, as a barn or an +unkempt property, evergreen trees should be used. For temporary screens, +any of the very large-growing herbaceous plants may be used. Very +excellent subjects are sunflowers, the large-growing nicotianas, castor +beans, large varieties of Indian corn, and plants of like growth. Very +efficient summer screens may be made with ailanthus, paulownia, +basswood, sumac, and other plants which tend to throw up succulent +shoots from the base. After these plants have been set a year or two, +they are cut back nearly to the ground every winter or spring, and +strong shoots are thrown up with great luxuriance during the summer, +giving a dense screen and presenting a semi-tropical effect. For such +purposes, the roots should be planted only two or three feet apart. If, +after a time, the roots become so crowded that the shoots are weak, some +of the plants may be removed. Top-dressing the area every fall with +manure will tend to make the ground rich enough to afford a very heavy +summer growth. + + +WIND FLOWER. See _Anemone_. + + +WINDOW-GARDENS. _The Summer Window Garden_.--This type of gardening is +particularly suited to those who live in the crowded city, where the +want of other space makes the Window-Garden the only one possible. + +[Illustration: A summer window ledge] + +Handsomely finished boxes, ornamental tiling, and bracket work of wood +and iron suitable for fitting out windows for the growing of plants, are +on the market; but such, while desirable, are by no means necessary. A +stout pine box of a length corresponding to the width of the window, +about 10 inches wide and 6 deep, answers quite as well as a finer box, +since it will likely be some distance above the street, and its sides, +moreover, are soon covered by the vines. A zinc tray of a size to fit +into the wooden box may be ordered of the tinsmith. It will tend to keep +the soil from drying out so rapidly, but it is not a necessity. A few +small holes in the bottom of the box will provide for drainage; but with +carefulness in watering these are not necessary, since the box by its +exposed position will dry out readily during summer weather, unless the +position is a shaded one. In the latter case provision for good drainage +is always advisable. + +Since there is more or less cramping of roots, it will be necessary to +make the soil richer than would be required were the plants to grow in +the garden. The most desirable soil is one that does not pack hard like +clay, nor contract much when dry, but remains porous and springy. Such a +soil is found in the potting soil used by florists, and it may be +obtained from them at from 50 cts. to $1 a barrel. Often the nature of +the soil will be such as to make it desirable to have at hand a barrel +of sharp sand for mixing with the soil, to make it more porous and +prevent baking. + +Some pot the plants and then set them in the window-box, filling the +spaces between the pots with moist moss. Again, they are planted +directly in the soil. The former method, as a general rule, is to be +preferred in the winter Window-Garden; the latter during the summer. + +The plants most valuable for the purpose are those of drooping habit, +such as lobelias, tropæolums, _Othonna crassifolia_, Kenilworth ivy, and +sweet alyssum. Such plants may occupy the front row, while back of them +may be the erect-growing plants, like geraniums, heliotropes, begonias, +etc. + +Just what plants will be most suitable will depend on the exposure. For +the shady side of the street, the more delicate kinds of plants may be +used. For full exposure to the sun, it will be necessary to select the +more vigorous-growing kinds. In the latter position, suitable plants for +drooping would be: *tropæolums, *passifloras, the single petunias, sweet +alyssum, lobelias, verbenas, mesembryanthemums. For erect-growing +plants: geraniums, heliotropes, etc. If the position is a shaded one, +the drooping plants might be of the following: tradescantia, Kenilworth +ivy, *senecio or parlor ivy, sedums, *moneywort, vinca, *smilax, +*lygodium or climbing fern. Erect-growing plants would be dracænas, +palms, ferns, coleus, centaurea, spotted calla, and others. + +For shady situations the main dependence is upon plants of graceful form +or handsome foliage; while for the sunny window the selection may be of +blooming plants. Of the plants above mentioned for these two positions, +those marked with an asterisk (*) are of climbing habit, and may be +trained up about the sides of the window. Others will be found among the +climbing plants mentioned under _Vines_, _Annuals_ and _Basket Plants_. + +After the plants have filled the earth with roots, it will be desirable +to give the surface of the soil among the plants a very light sprinkling +of bone-dust or a thicker coating of rotted manure from time to time +during the summer; or instead of this, a watering with weak liquid +manure about once a week. This is not necessary, however, until the +growth shows that the roots have about exhausted the soil. + +In the fall the box may be placed on the inside of the window. In this +case it will be desirable to thin out the foliage somewhat, shorten in +some of the vines, and perhaps remove some of the plants. It will also +be desirable to give a fresh coating of rich soil. Increased care will +be necessary, also, in watering, since the plants will have less light +than previously, and, moreover, there may be no provision for drainage. + +_The Winter Window-Garden_ may consist simply of a jardiniere, or a few +choice pot-plants on a stand at the window, or of a considerable +collection, with more or less elaborate arrangements for their +accommodation in the way of box, brackets, shelves and stands. Expensive +arrangements are by no means necessary, nor is a large collection. The +plants and flowers themselves are the main consideration, and a small +collection well cared for is better than a large one unless it can be +easily accommodated and kept in good condition. + +The window for plants should have a southern, south-eastern or eastern +exposure. Plants need all the light they can get in the winter, +especially those which are expected to bloom. The window should be +tight-fitting. Shutters and a curtain will be an advantage in cold +weather. + +Plants like a certain uniformity in conditions. It is very trying on +them, and often fatal to success, to have them snug and warm one night +and shivering in a temperature only a few degrees above freezing the +next. Some plants will live in spite of it, but they cannot be expected +to prosper. Those whose rooms are heated with steam, hot water or hot +air will have to guard against keeping rooms too warm fully as much as +keeping them too cool. Rooms in brick dwellings that have been warm all +day, if shut up and made snug in the evening will often keep warm over +night without heat except in the coldest weather. Rooms in frame +dwellings, and exposed on all sides, soon cool down. + +It is difficult to grow plants in rooms lighted by gas, as the burning +gas vitiates the atmosphere. Most living-rooms have too dry air for +plants. In such cases the bow window may be set off from the room by +glass doors; one then has a miniature conservatory. + +While keeping the plants at a suitable temperature, we must not forget +that plants love moisture, or a humid atmosphere, and that our +living-rooms ordinarily are very dry. A pan of water on the stove or on +the register and damp moss among the pots, will afford plants the +necessary humidity. + +The foliage will need cleansing from time to time to free it from dust. +A bath tub provided with a ready outlet for the water is an excellent +place for this purpose. The plants may be turned on their sides and +supported on a small box above the bottom of the tub. Then they may be +freely syringed without danger of making the soil too wet. It is usually +advisable not to wet the flowers, however, especially the white waxen +kinds, like hyacinths. The foliage of Rex begonias should be cleansed +with a piece of dry or only slightly moist cotton. But if the leaves can +be quickly dried off by placing them in the open air on mild days, or +moderately near the stove, the foliage may be syringed. + +[Illustration: A window-box] + +The window-box in the room will be seen near at hand, so may be more or +less ornamental in character. The sides may be covered with ornamental +tile held in place by moulding; or a light lattice-work of wood +surrounding the box is pretty. But a neatly made and strong box of about +the dimensions mentioned on page 242, with a strip of moulding at the +top and bottom, answers just as well; and if painted green, or some +neutral shade, only the plants will be seen or thought of. Brackets, +jardinieres and stands may be purchased of any of the larger florists. + +The window-box may consist of merely the wooden box; but a preferable +arrangement is to make it about eight inches deep instead of six, then +have the tinsmith make a zinc tray to fit the box. This is provided with +a false wooden bottom, with cracks for drainage, two inches above the +real bottom of the tray. The plants will then have a vacant space below +them into which drainage water may pass. Such a box may be thoroughly +watered as the plants require without danger of the water running on the +carpet. Of course, a faucet should be provided at some suitable point on +a level with the bottom of the tray, to permit of its being drained +every day or so if the water tends to accumulate. It would not do to +allow the water to remain long; especially should it never rise to the +false bottom, as then the soil would be kept too wet. + +Some persons attach the box to the window, or support it on brackets +attached below the window-sill; but a preferable arrangement is to +support the box on a low and light stand of suitable height provided +with rollers. It may then be drawn back from the window, turned around +from time to time to give the plants light on all sides, or turned with +the handsome side in as may be desired, and so on. + +Often the plants are set directly in the soil; but if they are kept in +pots they may be rearranged, changed about to give those which need it +more light, etc. Larger plants which are to stand on shelves or brackets +may be in porous earthenware pots; but the smaller ones which are to +fill the window-box may be placed in heavy paper pots. The sides of +these are flexible, and the plants in them therefore may be crowded +close together with great economy in space. When pots are spaced, damp +sphagnum or other moss among them will hold them in place, keep the soil +from drying out too rapidly, and at the same time give off moisture, so +grateful to the foliage. + +In addition to the stand, or box, a bracket for one or more pots on +either side of the window, about one-third or half way up, will be +desirable. The bracket should turn on a basal hinge or pivot, to admit +of swinging it forward or backward. These bracket plants usually suffer +for moisture, and are rather difficult to manage. + +Florists now usually grow plants suitable for Window-Gardens and winter +flowering, and any intelligent florist, if asked, will take pleasure in +making out a suitable collection. The plants should be ordered early in +the fall; the florist will then not be so crowded for time and can give +the matter better attention. + +Most of the plants suitable for the winter Window-Garden belong to the +groups which florists grow in their medium and cool houses. The former +are given a night temperature of about 60°, the latter about 50°. In +each case the temperature is 10 to 15° higher for the daytime. Five +degrees of variation below these temperatures will be allowable without +any injurious effects; even more may be borne, but not without more or +less check to the plants. In bright, sunny weather the day temperature +may be higher than in cloudy and dark weather. + +_PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE OF 60°_ + +_Upright flowering plants._--Abutilons, browallias, calceolaria “Lincoln +Park,” begonias, bouvardias, euphorbias, scarlet sage, richardia or +calla, heliotropes, fuchsias, Chinese hibiscus, jasmines, single +petunias, swainsona, billbergia, freesias, geraniums, cupheas. + +_Upright foliage plants._--Muehlenbeckia, _Cycas revoluta_, _Dracæna +fragrans_ and others, palms, cannas, _Farfugium grande_, achyranthes, +ferns, araucaria, epiphyllums, pandanus or “screw pine,” _Pilea +arborea_, _Ficus elastica_, _Grevillea robusta_. + +_Climbing plants._--_Asparagus tenuissimus_, _A. plumosus_, _Cobæa +scandens_, smilax, Japanese hop, Madeira vine (Boussingaultia), +_Senecio mikanioides_ and _S. macroglossus_ (parlor ivies). See also +list below. + +_Low-growing, trailing, or drooping plants._--These may be used for +baskets and edgings. Flowering kinds are: Sweet alyssum, lobelia, +_Fuchsia procumbens_, mesembryanthemum, _Oxalis pendula_, _O. +floribunda_ and others, _Russelia juncea_, _Mahernia odorata_ or +honey-bell. + +_Foliage plants of drooping habit._--Vincas, _Saxifraga sarmentosa_, +Kenilworth ivy, tradescantia or Wandering Jew, _*Festuca glauca_, +othonna, _*Isolepsis gracilis_, English ivy, _Selaginella denticulata_ +and others. Some of these plants flower quite freely, but the flowers +are small and of secondary consideration. Those with an asterisk (*) +droop but slightly. + +_PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE OF 50°_ + +_Upright flowering plants._--Azaleas, cyclamens, carnations, +chrysanthemums, geraniums, Chinese primroses, stevia, marguerite or +Paris daisy, single petunias, _Anthemis coronaria_, camellias, ardisia +(berries), cineraria, violets, hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, the Easter +lily when in bloom, and others. + +_Upright foliage plants._--Pittosporum, palms, aucuba, euonymus (golden +and silvery variegated), araucaria, pandanus, dusty miller. + +_Climbing plants._--English ivy, maurandia, senecio or parlor ivy, +lygodium (climbing fern). + +_Drooping or trailing plants._--Flowering kinds are: Sweet alyssum, +_Mahernia odorata_, Russelia and ivy geranium. + +_Bulbs in the Window-Garden._--The single Roman hyacinth is an excellent +house plant. Its flowers are small, but they are graceful and especially +well suited for cutting. The bulbs are easily forced, and are managed +like other hyacinths. The secret of forcing the Dutch bulbs and most +others is to pot them and then, after watering the pots, set them away +in a cool, dark place until the pot is filled with roots. They may be +placed in the cellar “to root up,” or be buried 3 or 4 inches deep in +the soil. It is well to delay potting them until such time as they can +be kept cool while forming their roots. A temperature of about 40° to +45° suits them during this period. In most cases it is well to select +pots 5 or 6 inches in diameter and place from three to six bulbs in a +pot, according to the size of the bulbs and the plants. The pot having +been filled with soil, it is only necessary to press them down till the +tip, or about one-fourth, shows above the soil. After this a slight +jarring or sharp rap will settle the soil. They are then watered and set +away, as before mentioned. If kept dark and cool they will need no more +watering until they are brought out and begin to grow, when they may be +watered freely. + +[Illustration: Window-garden] + +Hyacinths, tulips and narcissus all require about the same treatment. +When well rooted, which will be in six or eight weeks, they are brought +out and given a temperature of some 55° to 60° till the flowers appear, +when they should be kept in a cooler temperature, say 50°. + +The Easter lily is managed the same way, only, to hasten its flowers, it +should be kept at not lower than 60° at night. Warmer will be better. +Lilies may be covered an inch or more deep. + +Freesias may be potted six or more in a pot of mellow soil, and then +started into growth at once. At first they might be given a night +temperature of 50°, and 55° to 60° when they have begun to grow. + +Bulbs like the snowdrop and crocus are planted several or a dozen in a +pot and buried, or treated like hyacinths; but they are very sensitive +to heat, and require only to be given the light when they have started +to grow, without any forcing. Forty to 45° will be as warm as they ever +need be kept. See the article on _Bulbs_; also, the advice given for the +various plants under their respective names. + +_Pests._--Window-Garden pests are discussed under _Insects_. + + +WINTER-KILLING is induced by a late fall growth, and also by a dry, +unprotected soil. All tender woody plants should be well ripened before +cold weather comes: cease tillage early: do not apply stimulating +manures late in the season. Mulch all tender or half hardy plants (see +_Mulch_). Even hardy plants are benefited by a mulch. When possible, it +is better to bend plants to the ground and cover them than to wrap them +up as they stand; but this cannot be done with tall or stiff subjects. +Wrapping in straw or burlaps affords excellent protection, but it is +possible to wrap too heavily. A barrel, less the heads, may be set over +small plants and then filled with leaves or other loose litter; or a +cylinder of wire chicken-screen may be substituted for the barrel. +Remove the protection in the spring before the buds start. See that mice +do not nest in the barrel or in the mulch. + + +ZINNIA. Showy hardy annuals. The old formal type of Zinnias has given +place to a race of freer forms which are excellent plants either for +color effect or for cutting. The colors have been varied and brightened, +the flowers doubled and the plants dwarfed. Seed should be sown in a +hotbed or house in March, transplanted once at least before planting +out, and set in well enriched soil. Or, the seed may be sown where the +plants are to grow. The tall varieties (3 feet) should stand 18 to 24 +inches apart. These are best for masses at a distance. + + +_The Best and Newest Rural Books_ + +BOOKS ON LEADING TOPICS CONNECTED WITH AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE ARE +HERE MENTIONED. EACH BOOK IS THE WORK OF A SPECIALIST, UNDER THE +EDITORIAL SUPERVISION OF PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY, OF THE CORNELL +UNIVERSITY, OR BY PROFESSOR BAILEY HIMSELF, AND IS READABLE, CLEAR-CUT +AND PRACTICAL. + + +THE RURAL SCIENCE SERIES + +Includes books which state the underlying principles of agriculture in +plain language. They are suitable for consultation alike by the amateur +or professional tiller of the soil, the scientist or the student, and +are freely illustrated and finely made. + +The following volumes are now ready: + +THE SOIL. By F. H. KING, of the University of Wisconsin. 303 pp. 45 +illustrations. 75 cents. + +THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND. By I. P. ROBERTS, of Cornell University. +Fifth edition. 421 pp. 45 illustrations. $1.25. + +THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. By E. G. LODEMAN, late of Cornell University. +399 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.00. + +MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. By H. H. WING, of Cornell University. Fifth +edition. 311 pp. 43 illustrations. $1.00. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 516 +pp. 120 illustrations. $1.25. + +BUSH-FRUITS. By F. W. CARD, of Rhode Island College of Agriculture and +Mechanic Arts. Second edition. 537 pp. 113 illustrations. $1.50. + +FERTILIZERS. By E. B. VOORHEES, of New Jersey Experiment Station. Third +edition. 332 pp. $1.00. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. By L. H. BAILEY. Third edition. 300 pp. +92 illustrations. $1.25. + +IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. By F. H. KING, University of Wisconsin. 502 pp. +163 illustrations. $1.50. + +THE FARMSTEAD. By I. P. ROBERTS. 350 pp. 138 illustrations. $1.25. + +RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. By GEORGE T. FAIRCHILD, Ex-President of the +Agricultural College of Kansas. 381 pp. 14 charts. $1.25. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING. By L. H. BAILEY 468 pp. 144 +illustrations. $1.25. + +THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. By W. H. JORDAN, of New York State Experiment +Station. 450 pp. $1.25 net. + +FARM POULTRY. By GEORGE C. WATSON, of Pennsylvania State College. 341 +pp. $1.25 net. + +New volumes will be added from time to time to the RURAL SCIENCE SERIES. +The following are in preparation: + +PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF STOCK BREEDING. By W. H. BREWER, of Yale University. + +PLANT PATHOLOGY. By B. T. GALLOWAY and associates, of U. S. Department +of Agriculture. + +CARE OF ANIMALS. By N. S. MAYO, of Connecticut Agricultural College. + +THE POME FRUITS (Apples, Pears, Quinces). By L. H. BAILEY. + +THE FARMER’S BUSINESS HANDBOOK. By I. P. ROBERTS, of Cornell +University. + + +THE GARDEN-CRAFT SERIES + +Comprises practical hand-books for the horticulturist, explaining and +illustrating in detail the various important methods which experience +has demonstrated to be the most satisfactory. They may be called manuals +of practice, and though all are prepared by Professor BAILEY, of Cornell +University, they include the opinions and methods of successful +specialists in many lines, thus combining the results of the +observations and experiences of numerous students in this and other +lands. They are written in the clear, strong, concise English and in the +entertaining style which characterize the author. The volumes are +compact, uniform in style, clearly printed, and illustrated as the +subject demands. They are of convenient shape for the pocket, and are +substantially bound in flexible green cloth. + +THE HORTICULTURIST’S RULE-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 312 pp. +75 cts. + +THE NURSERY-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fifth edition. 365 pp. 152 +illustrations. $1.00. + +PLANT-BREEDING. By L. H. BAILEY. 293 pp. 20 illustrations. $1.00. + +THE FORCING-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. 266 pp. 88 illustrations. $1.00. + +GARDEN-MAKING. By L. H. BAILEY. Fifth edition. 417 pp. 256 +illustrations. $1.00. + +THE PRUNING-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 545 pp. 331 +illustrations. $1.50. + +THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK. By C. E. HUNN and L. H. BAILEY. 250 pp. Many +marginal cuts. $1.00. + + +WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY + +THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE: A Collection of Evolution Essays Suggested +by the Study of Domestic Plants. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of +Horticulture in the Cornell University. + +FOURTH EDITION--515 PAGES--22 ILLUSTRATIONS--$2.00 + +To those interested in the underlying philosophy of plant life, this +volume, written in a most entertaining style, and fully illustrated, +will prove welcome. It treats of the modification of plants under +cultivation upon the evolution theory, and its attitude on this +interesting subject is characterized by the author’s well-known +originality and independence of thought. Incidentally, there is stated +much that will be valuable and suggestive to the working horticulturist, +as well as to the man or woman impelled by a love of nature to +horticultural pursuits. It may well be called, indeed, a philosophy of +horticulture, in which all interested may find inspiration and +instruction. + + THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE comprises thirty essays touching + upon The General Fact and Philosophy of Evolution (The Plant + Individual, Experimental Evolution, Coxey’s Army and the + Russian Thistle, Recent Progress, etc.); Expounding the Fact + and Causes of Variation (The Supposed Correlations of Quality + in Fruits, Natural History of Synonyms, Reflective + Impressions, Relation of Seed-bearing to Cultivation, + Variation after Birth, Relation between American and Eastern + Asian Fruits, Horticultural Geography, Problems of Climate and + Plants, American Fruits, Acclimatization, Sex in Fruits, + Novelties, Promising Varieties, etc.); and Tracing the + Evolution of Particular Types of Plants (the Cultivated + Strawberry, Battle of the Plums, Grapes, Progress of the + Carnation, Petunia, The Garden Tomato, etc.). + + +THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of +Horticulture in the Cornell University. + +472 PAGES--125 ILLUSTRATIONS--$2.00 + +In this entertaining volume, the origin and development of the fruits +peculiar to North America are inquired into, and the personality of +those horticultural pioneers whose almost forgotten labors have given us +our most valuable fruits is touched upon. There has been careful +research into the history of the various fruits, including inspection of +the records of the great European botanists who have given attention to +American economic botany. The conclusions reached, the information +presented, and the suggestions as to future developments, cannot but be +valuable to any thoughtful fruit-grower, while the terse style of the +author is at its best in his treatment of the subject. + + THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS discusses The Rise of the + American Grape (North America a Natural Vineland, Attempts to + Cultivate the European Grape, The Experiments of the Dufours, + The Branch of Promise, John Adlum and the Catawba, Rise of + Commercial Viticulture, Why Did the Early Vine Experiments + Fail? Synopsis of the American Grapes); The Strange History of + the Mulberries (The Early Silk Industry, The “Multicaulis + Craze,”); Evolution of American Plums and Cherries (Native + Plums in General, The Chickasaw, Hortulana, Marianna and Beach + Plum Groups, Pacific Coast Plum, Various Other Types of Plums, + Native Cherries, Dwarf Cherry Group); Native Apples + (Indigenous Species, Amelioration has begun); Origin of + American Raspberry-growing (Early American History, Present + Types, Outlying Types); Evolution of Blackberry and Dewberry + Culture (The High-bush Blackberry and Its Kin, The Dewberries, + Botanical Names); Various Types of Berry-like Fruits (The + Gooseberry, Native Currants, Juneberry, Buffalo Berry, + Elderberry, High-bush Cranberry, Cranberry, Strawberry); + Various Types of Tree Fruits (Persimmon, Custard-Apple Tribe, + Thorn-Apples, Nut-Fruits); General Remarks on the Improvement + of our Native Fruits (What Has Been Done, What Probably Should + Be Done). + + +LESSONS WITH PLANTS: Suggestions for Seeing and Interpreting Some of the +Common Forms of Vegetation. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture +in the Cornell University, with delineations from nature by W. S. +HOLDSWORTH, of the Agricultural College of Michigan. + +SECOND EDITION--491 PAGES--446 ILLUSTRATIONS--12 MO--CLOTH--$1.10 NET + +There are two ways of looking at nature. The _old way_, which you have +found so unsatisfactory, was to classify everything--to consider leaves, +roots, and whole plants as formal herbarium specimens, forgetting that +each had its own story of growth and development, struggle and success, +to tell. Nothing stifles a natural love for plants more effectually than +that old way. + +The new way is to watch the life of every growing thing, to look upon +each plant as a living creature, whose life is a story as fascinating as +the story of any favorite hero. “Lessons with Plants” is a book of +stories, or rather, a book of plays, for we can see each chapter acted +out if we take the trouble to _look_ at the actors. + + “I have spent some time in most delightful examination of it, + and the longer I look, the better I like it. I find it not + only full of interest, but eminently suggestive. I know of no + book which begins to do so much to open the eyes of the + student--whether pupil or teacher--to the wealth of meaning + contained in simple plant forms. Above all else, it seems to + be full of suggestions that help one to learn the language of + plants, so they may talk to him.”--DARWIN L. BARDWELL, + _Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton_. + + “It is an admirable book, and cannot fail both to awaken + interest in the subject, and to serve as a helpful and + reliable guide to young students of plant life. It will, I + think, fill an important place in secondary schools, and comes + at an opportune time, when helps of this kind are needed and + eagerly sought.”--Professor V. M. SPALDING, _University of + Michigan_. + +FIRST LESSONS WITH PLANTS + +An Abridgement of the above. 117 PAGES--116 ILLUSTRATIONS--40 CENTS +NET. + + +BOTANY: An Elementary Text for Schools. By L. H. BAILEY. + +355 PAGES--500 ILLUSTRATIONS--$1.10 NET + +“This book is made for the pupil: ‘Lessons With Plants’ was made to +supplement the work of the teacher.” This is the opening sentence of the +preface, showing that the book is a companion to “Lessons With Plants,” +which has now become a standard teacher’s book. The present book is the +handsomest elementary botanical text-book yet made. The illustrations +illustrate. They are artistic. The old formal and unnatural Botany is +being rapidly outgrown. The book disparages mere laboratory work of the +old kind: the pupil is taught to see things as they grow and behave. The +pupil who goes through this book will understand the meaning of the +plants which he sees day by day. It is a revolt from the dry-as-dust +teaching of botany. It cares little for science for science’s sake, but +its point of view is nature-study in its best sense. The book is divided +into four parts, any or all of which may be used in the school: the +plant itself; the plant in its environment; histology, or the minute +structure of plants; the kinds of plants (with a key, and descriptions +of 300 common species). The introduction contains advice to teachers. +The book is brand new from start to finish. + + “An exceedingly attractive text-book.”--_Educational Review._ + + “It is a school book of the modern methods.”--_The Dial._ + + “It would be hard to find a better manual for schools or for + individual use.”--_The Outlook._ + +*** + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + No. 66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + +THE CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURE: By L. H. BAILEY, of Cornell +University, assisted by WILHELM MILLER, and many expert cultivators and +botanists. + +4 VOLS.--OVER 2800 ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS--CLOTH--OCTAVO $20.00 NET PER +SET. HALF MOROCCO, $32.00 NET PER SET + +This great work comprises directions for the cultivation of +horticultural crops and original descriptions of all the species of +fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants known to be in the +market in the United States and Canada. “It has the unique distinction +of presenting for the first time, in a carefully arranged and perfectly +accessible form, the best knowledge of the best specialists in America +upon gardening, fruit-growing, vegetable culture, forestry, and the +like, as well as exact botanical information.... The contributors are +eminent cultivators or specialists, and the arrangement is very +systematic, clear and convenient for ready reference.” + + “We have here a work which every ambitions gardener will wish + to place on his shelf beside his Nicholson and his Loudon, and + for such users of it a too advanced nomenclature would have + been confusing to the last degree. With the safe names here + given, there is little liability to serious perplexity. There + is a growing impatience with much of the controversy + concerning revision of names of organisms, whether of plants + or animals. Those investigators who are busied with the + ecological aspects of organisms, and also those who are + chiefly concerned with the application of plants to the arts + of agriculture, horticulture, and so on, care for the names of + organisms under examination only so far as these aid in + recognition and identification. To introduce unnecessary + confusion is a serious blunder. Professor Bailey has avoided + the risk of confusion. In short, in range, treatment and + editing, the Cyclopedia appears to be emphatically useful; ... + a work worthy of ranking by the side of the Century + Dictionary.”--_The Nation._ + +THIS WORK IS SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION, AND TERMS AND FURTHER +INFORMATION MAY BE HAD OF THE PUBLISHERS. + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + No. 66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + + + +Transcriber’s Note: + + +Extra, missing, or misprinted punctuation has been corrected without +note. Variation in hyphenation (e.g. house plants vs. house-plants), and +capitalization in some botanical names has been left as in the original. + +The following changes were made to the text: + +p. 9: couservatory to conservatory + +p. 12: Burridgianum to Burridgeanum (Cosmidium Burridgeanum) + +p. 13: autumnale to autumnalis (Adonis autumnalis.) + +p. 13: Callirrhöe to Callirrhoë + +p. 23: herbacous to herbaceous + +p. 41: Beaumé to Baumé (26° Baumé) + +p. 55: batchelor’s to bachelor’s (bachelor’s buttons) + +p. 56: Callirhoë to Callirrhoë + +p. 89: rocommended to recommended (the treatment recommended for Crocus) + +p. 122: establishd to established (when well established) + +p. 132: 80,° to 80°, (begins to fall below 80°,) + +p. 133: witholding to withholding (gradually withholding water) + +p. 207: seed to seeds (six seeds in each hill) + +p. 233: ipomeas to ipomœas and Ipomea to Ipomœa + +p. 233: Cobea to Cobæa + +Advertisements (end of book): science’ to science’s (science for +science’s sake), and the repeated headings “WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY” +removed. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Practical Garden-Book, by +C. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/34602-0.zip b/34602-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4059a9c --- /dev/null +++ b/34602-0.zip diff --git a/34602-8.txt b/34602-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b5d1669 --- /dev/null +++ b/34602-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9573 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Practical Garden-Book, by C. E. Hunn and L. H. Bailey + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Practical Garden-Book + Containing the Simplest Directions for the Growing of the + Commonest Things about the House and Garden + +Author: C. E. Hunn + L. H. Bailey + +Release Date: December 8, 2010 [EBook #34602] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, S.D., and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + The Garden-Craft Series + EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY + + +THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK + + + + + THE + PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK + + _CONTAINING THE SIMPLEST DIRECTIONS + FOR THE GROWING OF THE COMMONEST + THINGS ABOUT THE HOUSE AND GARDEN_ + + BY + + C. E. HUNN + + AND + + L. H. BAILEY + + _THIRD EDITION_ + + New York + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. + 1903 + _All rights reserved_ + + + COPYRIGHT, 1900 + BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + + *** + + Set up and electrotyped March, 1900 + Reprinted February, 1901, and June, 1903 + + Mount Pleasant Press + J. Horace McFarland Company + Harrisburg, Pennsylvania + + + + +Like the love of music, books and pictures, the love of gardens comes +with culture and leisure and with the ripening of the home life. The +love of gardens, as of every other beautiful and refining thing, must +increase to the end of time. More and more must the sympathies enlarge. +There must be more points of contact with the world. Life ever becomes +richer. Gardening is more than the growing of plants: it is the +expression of desire. + +As there must be many gardeners, so there must be many books. There must +be books for different persons and different ideals. The garden made by +one's own hands is always the best garden, because it is a part of +oneself. A garden made by another may interest, but it is another +person's individuality. A poor garden of one's own is better than a good +garden in which one may not dig. Many a poor soul has more help in a +plant in the window than another has in a plantation made by a gardener. + +I would emphasize the home garden, made by the members of the family. I +would preach the beauty of the common plants and the familiar places. +These things are never old. Many times I have noted how intently an +audience of plant-lovers will listen to the most commonplace details +respecting the cultivation of plants with which they have been always +familiar. There was nothing new in what they heard; but they liked to +have the old story told over again, and every detail called up a memory. + +The same questions are asked every year, and they always will be +asked,--the questions about the simplest garden operations. Upon this +desire for commonplace advice the horticultural journals live. A journal +which publishes only things that are new would find little support. Some +of these common questions I have tried to answer in this little book. I +wish them answered in the simple and direct phrase of the gardener. +Therefore I asked my friend C. E. Hunn, gardener to the Horticultural +Department of Cornell University, who lives with plants, to write advice +for one who would make a garden; and this he did in a summer vacation. +These notes, edited and amplified, now make this book. + + L. H. BAILEY. + + HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT, + CORNELL UNIVERSITY. + ITHACA, N. Y., February 22, 1900. + + + + +THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK + +*** + + +ABOBRA VIRIDIFLORA. A handsome tender climber with tuberous roots, that +may be taken up in the fall and stored in a cellar. The foliage is dark +and glossy, the flowers small and inconspicuous; but the small scarlet +fruits are very effective in contrast to the leaves, making it a +desirable screen plant. It is sold by seedsmen. Seeds sown as soon as +warm weather comes will give plants which bloom in the open (in a warm +soil and exposure), and which reach a height of 5-8 ft. It is sometimes +grown as a glasshouse plant. It is cucurbitaceous (allied to melons and +gourds). + + +ABRONIA. Californian trailing perennials, but treated as hardy annuals. +They thrive in any warm, open garden soil, and are very satisfactory for +the margins of beds or borders. The little flowers are borne in +clusters. _A. latifolia_ or _arenaria_ (yellow) and _A. umbellata_ or +_grandiflora_ (pink) are the leading kinds. Usually sown where they are +to bloom. Peel the husk off the seed before sowing. + + +[Illustration: Abutilon striatum] + +ABUTILONS, or FLOWERING MAPLES as they are called by many, make fine +house or bedding plants. Common kinds may be grown from seed or from +cuttings of young wood. If the former, the seed should be sown in +February or March in a temperature of not less than 60. The seedlings +should be potted when from four to six leaves have grown, in a rich, +sandy soil. Frequent pottings should be made to insure a rapid growth, +making plants large enough to flower by fall. Or, the seedlings may be +planted out in the border when danger of frost is over, and taken up in +the fall before frost: these plants will bloom all winter. About +one-half of the newer growth should be cut off when they are taken up, +as they are very apt to spindle up when grown in the house. When grown +from cuttings, young wood should be used, which, after being well +rooted, may be treated in the same manner as the seedlings. The +varieties with variegated leaves have been improved until the foliage +effects are equal to the flowers of some varieties; and, these are a +great addition to the conservatory or window garden. The staple +spotted-leaved type is _A. Thompsoni_. A compact form, now much used for +bedding and other outdoor work, is _Savitzii_, which is a horticultural +variety, not a distinct species. The old-fashioned green-leaved _A. +striatum_, from which _A. Thompsoni_ has probably sprung, is one of the +best. _A. megapotamicum_ or _vexillarium_ is a trailing or drooping +red-and-yellow-flowered species, which is excellent for baskets. It +propagates readily from seed. Abutilons are most satisfactory for house +plants when they are not much more than a year old. They need no special +treatment. + + +ACONITUM. MONK'S HOOD. WOLF'S BANE. Hardy herbaceous perennials allied +to larkspurs. They are showy border plants, usually flowering the first +year from seed, if the seed is started early, and bearing panicles of +quaint hood-shaped, rich flowers. The colors have a wide range, but are +usually deep blue. The improved varieties are much superior in size and +markings. Aconitums are most effective when planted in a mixed border: +the flower stalks being held well up, show the blossoms to good +advantage. Seed may be sown every two years, as the plants in their +year-old and 2-year-old stage have the largest blossoms. Sow in gentle +heat in March, transplanting to border when the weather is settled. +Roots may be divided if desired, but best results are to be expected +from seedlings. _A. Napellus_ is the commonest one. The plants are very +poisonous if eaten. Bloom in early summer. 2-3 ft. + + +ACROCLINIUM. A low-growing everlasting annual flower, white, violet, or +rose in color. Seeds should preferably be started in a hotbed or window, +and planted out when danger of frost is past; the flowers should be +gathered when half expanded and hung in the shade to dry. Half-hardy. +Plant 1 foot apart. Grow 10-15 in. high. See _Everlastings_. + + +[Illustration: Adlumia cirrhosa] + +ADLUMIA. MOUNTAIN FRINGE. ALLEGHENY VINE. One of the daintiest of +climbers, making a very rapid growth, and when once established seeding +itself and thriving for years, growing 10 or 15 feet in a season. Give +rich, rather moist soil. It is biennial, blooming the second year. +Flowers like those of the bleeding heart and other dicentras. It is +native. + + +ADONIS. A low-growing hardy annual or perennial of the easiest culture. +It makes a fine mass effect, as the flowers are a striking dark scarlet +or crimson color, and the plants are very free and continuous bloomers. +Sow early in the spring where wanted. The perennial yellow-flowered +sorts sometimes bloom the first year from seed. Adonises are very neat +in habit, and the foliage is fine and interesting. 10-15 in. + + +AGAPANTHUS. AFRICAN LILY. A tuberous-rooted, well known conservatory or +window plant. It lends itself to many conditions and proves satisfactory +a large part of the year, the leaves forming a green arch over the pot, +covering it entirely in a well grown specimen. The flowers are borne in +a large cluster on stems growing from 2 to 3 ft. high, as many as two or +three hundred bright blue flowers often forming on a single plant. A +large, well grown plant throws up a number of flower-stalks through the +early season. The one essential to free growth is an abundance of water +and an occasional application of manure water. Propagation is effected +by division of the offsets, which may be broken from the main plant in +early spring. After flowering, gradually lessen the quantity of water +until they are placed in winter quarters, which should be a position +free from frost and moderately dry. The Agapanthus, being a heavy +feeder, should be grown in strong loam to which is added well rotted +manure and a little sand. + + +[Illustration: Ageratum] + +AGERATUM. A half-hardy annual, used as a border plant, for ribbon +bedding for mass effect, or in mixed beds of geranium, coleuses and +other plants. The seeds germinate readily, but as the plant is only +half-hardy and is usually wanted in flower when planted out, it is usual +to sow the seed in boxes placed in hotbeds or windows in March, +transplanting the seedlings to small boxes or pots and growing the young +plants on until the 1st of May, when they may be planted out. Pieces of +young wood root very easily, and the gardener usually increases his +stock by cuttings. The dwarf varieties are the most desirable, and the +two colors, blue and white, may be planted together. 2-3 ft. Plants may +be taken up in the fall and set in the house; cut them back severely. + + +ALLEGHENY VINE. See _Adlumia_. + + +ALMOND is about as hardy as the peach, but it blooms so early in the +spring that it is little grown east of the Pacific slope. It is an +interesting ornamental tree, and its early bloom is a merit when the +fruit is not desired. The Almonds commonly sold by nurserymen in the +east are hard-shell varieties, and the nuts are not good enough for +commerce. The Almond fruit is a drupe, like the peach, but the flesh is +thin and hard and the pit is the "Almond" of commerce. Culture the same +as for peach. + +Flowering Almond is a very early-flowering bush, excellent for +shrub-borders. It is usually grafted on plum stock, and one must take +care to keep down the plum sprouts which sometimes spring from the root. + + +ALOE. Succulent tropical plants, sometimes seen in window gardens. Of +easy culture. See that the pots have perfect drainage. Make a soil of +sandy loam, with one-third or one-fourth part of broken brick. Pot +firmly. Water whenever needed, but the soil and drainage should be such +that the earth does not remain soggy or become sour. Aloes thrive year +after year without repotting. Usually propagated by cuttings. _A. +variegata_ is the commonest species. + + +ALONSOA. Tender annual. Not very well known, but a bright plant for +second-row border or a low bedding plant. Planted against shrubbery or +other protection after danger of frost is over, it lightens up a dark +corner. 2-3 ft. Plant 10-15 in. apart, in a warm place protected from +wind. + + +ALSTRMERIA. The Alstrmerias belong to the amaryllis family, being +tuberous-rooted plants, having leafy stems and terminating in a cluster +of from 10 to 50 small lily-shaped flowers of rich colors. Most of the +kinds should be given pot culture, as they are easily grown and are not +hardy in the open in the north. The culture is nearly that of the +amaryllis,--a good, fibrous loam with a little sand, potting the tubers +in early spring or late fall. Start the plants slowly, giving only water +enough to cause root growth; but after growth has become established, a +quantity of water may be given. After flowering they may be treated as +are amaryllis or agapanthus. The plants grow 1-2 ft. high. The +flowers often have odd colors. + + +ALTHA. See _Hollyhock_. + + +[Illustration: Sweet Alyssum] + +ALYSSUM, SWEET. A low-growing, hardy, white-flowered, very fragrant +annual which is much used for edgings, window boxes, and the like. It is +of the easiest culture in any soil, but thrives best in a garden loam of +moderate fertility. Seeds may be sown as early as the ground can be well +prepared in spring. The plant will begin to bloom when 2 or 3 inches +high, and continue to bloom, as it grows, until after the first hard +frosts. It makes a mat 1 to 2 ft. across. If immediate effects are not +desired, the plants should be thinned out or transplanted to stand half +a foot apart. It rarely stands more than a foot high. In the fall, +plants may be cut back and put into pots or boxes, and they will bloom +in the window. Better results in winter blooming are secured by starting +seeds in boxes in August, September or October. There are certain hardy +perennial yellow-flowered Alyssums which are useful for prominent +edgings and for rockwork. + + +[Illustration: Prince's Feather] + +AMARANTUS. Decorative annuals. One species (with erect spikes) is known +as PRINCE'S FEATHER, another (with variegated foliage) as JOSEPH'S COAT, +and still another (with drooping spikes) as LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. Probably +the finest of the list is _A. salicifolius_, often called Fountain +Plant. This has graceful willow-shaped leaves, banded and tipped with +carmine, bronze and orange. The tall kinds make fine screens for +unsightly objects. They may also be used against masses of green to add +color. The Amaranths are half-hardy or tender plants, and should be sown +in boxes in March or April, to be planted out after all danger of frost +is past. Seeds may also be sown where the plants are to stand. They were +once among the most popular of garden plants, but for a few years have +been neglected. Fine colors have recently been developed, and they are +again becoming favorites. As they are rather coarse and weedy plants, do +not use them with dainty flowers. Most kinds grow 2-3 ft. high and +spread 2-3 ft. + + +AMARYLLIS. Popular name of a variety of house or conservatory tender +bulbs, but properly applied only to the Belladonna Lily. Most of them +are hippeastrums, but the culture of all is similar. They are +satisfactory house plants. The one objection to their culture is the +habit of the flower-stalk starting into growth before the leaves start. +This is caused in most cases by stimulating root growth before the bulb +has had sufficient rest. The bulbs should be dormant for four or five +months in a dry place with a temperature of about 50. When wanted to be +brought into flower, the bulbs, if to be repotted, should have all the +dirt shaken off and potted in soil composed of fibrous loam and +leaf-mold, to which should be added a little sand. If the loam is a +heavy one, place the pot in a warm situation; a spent hotbed is a good +place. Water as needed, and as the flowers develop liquid manure may be +given. If large clumps are well established in 8- or 10-inch pots, they +may be top-dressed with new soil containing rotted manure, and as growth +increases liquid manure may be given twice a week until the flowers +open. After flowering, gradually withhold water until the leaves die. +The most popular species for window gardens is _A. Johnsoni_ (properly a +hippeastrum), with red flowers. + + +AMETHYST. See _Browallia_. + + +AMMOBIUM. A half-hardy perennial everlasting with white flowers. Thrives +best in sandy soil. Sow seeds where plants are to stand. Although +perennial, it blooms the first year from seed, and is usually treated as +an annual. 2-3 ft. high. Plant 12-18 in. apart. + + +AMMONIACAL CARBONATE OF COPPER. See under _Bordeaux Mixture_. + + +ANCHUSA. Hardy annuals and perennials, fit for heavy borders. The plants +grow to the height of 2 to 3 feet and bear purple or blue flowers, which +are showy either on the plant or in bouquets. Propagated from seed sown +in early spring, either where the plants are to stand or in boxes or +hotbeds. The common kind is annual. Blooms in summer. + + +ANEMONE. WIND FLOWER. A group of hardy perennials. The best known of +this genus is _A. Japonica alba_, or Honorine Jobert. This species +blooms from August to November, and is at that season the finest of +border plants. The pure white flowers, with lemon-colored stamens, are +held well up on stalks 2-3 ft. high. The flower stems are long and +excellent for cutting. This species may be propagated by division of the +plants or by seed. The former method should be put into practice in the +spring; the latter as soon as the seeds are ripe in the fall. Sow the +seed in boxes in a warm, sheltered situation in the border or under +glass. The seed should be covered lightly with soil containing a +quantity of sand and not allowed to become dry. A well enriched, +sheltered position in a border should be given. There are red-flowered +varieties. + +[Illustration: Spray of Anemone Japonica] + +The varieties of _A. coronaria_ are tuberous-rooted plants. The tubers +of these should be planted in the fall, late in September or early in +October, in a well enriched, sheltered border, setting the tubers 3 in. +deep and from 4-6 in. apart. The surface of the border should be mulched +with leaves or strawy manure through the severe winter weather, +uncovering the soil in March. The flowers will appear in April or May, +and in June or July the tubers should be taken up and placed in a dry +place in sand until the following fall. This section is not as well +known as it should be. The range of color is very wide. The flowers are +often 2 in. across, and are lasting. These tubers may be planted in pots +in the same manner as in the border, bringing them into the +conservatory or house at intervals through the winter, where they make +an excellent showing when in bloom. + +The little wild Wind Flowers are easily colonized in a hardy border. + + +ANNUALS. The annual flowers of the seedsmen are those which give their +best bloom in the very year in which the seeds are sown. True annuals +are those plants which complete their entire life-cycle in one season. +Some of the so-called annual flowers will continue to bloom the second +and third years, but the bloom is so poor and sparse after the first +season that it does not pay to keep them. + +Most annuals will bloom in central New York if the seeds are sown in the +open ground when the weather becomes thoroughly settled. But there are +some kinds, as Cosmos and Moonflowers, for which our season is commonly +too short to give good bloom. These kinds may be started early in the +house or in hotbeds; and similar treatment may be given any plants of +which it is desired to secure blooms before the normal time. + +[Illustration: A box garden] + +Prepare the ground thoroughly and deep. Annuals must make a quick +growth. See that the soil contains enough humus or vegetable mold to +make it rich and to enable it to hold moisture. If the ground is not +naturally rich, spade in well-rotted manure or mold from the woods. A +little commercial fertilizer may help in starting off the plants +quickly. Prepare the land as early in spring as it is in fit condition, +and prevent evaporation by keeping the surface loose by means of raking. + +If the flowers are to be grown about the edges of the lawn, make sure +that the grass roots do not run underneath them and rob them of food and +moisture. It is well to run a sharp spade deep into the ground about the +edges of the bed every two or three weeks for the purpose of cutting off +any grass roots which may have run into the bed. If beds are made in the +turf, see that they are 3 ft. or more wide, so that the grass roots will +not undermine them. Against the shrub borders, this precaution may not +be necessary. In fact, it is desirable that the flowers fill all the +space between the overhanging branches and the sod. + +Sow the seeds freely. Many will not germinate. Even if they do all +germinate, the combined strength of the rising plantlets will break the +crust on the hard soils; and in the thinning which follows, only strong +and promising plants are allowed to remain. Better effects are also +often secured when the colors are in masses, especially if the flowers +are thrown into the bays of heavy shrub borders. + +[Illustration: Flowers against a border] + +Plants continue to bloom for a longer period if they are not allowed to +produce seeds. The flowers should be picked, if possible, as soon as +they begin to fade. + +In the selection of the kinds of annuals, one's personal preference must +be the guide. Yet there are some groups which may be considered to be +standard or general-purpose plants. They are easily grown almost +anywhere, and are sure to give satisfaction. The remaining plants are +mostly such as have secondary value, or are adapted to particular +purposes or uses. + +The groups which most strongly appeal to the writer as staple or +general-purpose types are the following: Petunias, phloxes, pinks or +dianthuses, larkspurs or delphiniums, calliopsis or coreopsis, pot +marigold or calendula, bachelor's button or _Centaurea Cyanus_, +clarkias, zinnias, marigolds or tagetes, collinsias, gilias, California +poppies or eschscholtzias, verbenas, poppies, China asters, sweet peas, +nemophilas, portulacas, silenes, candytufts or iberis, alyssum, stocks +or matthiolas, morning-glories, nasturtiums or tropolums. + +Annual flowers possess a great advantage over perennials in the fact +that they appeal strongly to the desire for experiment. The seeds are +sown every year, and there is sufficient element of uncertainty in the +results to make the effort interesting; and new combinations can be +tried each year. + +Do not cut the old stalks down in the fall. They will stand in the snow +all through the winter, and remind you of the bursting summer time and +the long-ripening fall; and the snow-birds will find them in the short +days of winter. + +Some of the most reliable and easily grown annuals for the north are +given in the following lists (under the common trade names): + +_WHITE FLOWERS_ + + Ageratum Mexicanum album. + Alyssum, Common Sweet. + Alyssum, Sweet, compacta. + Centranthus macrosiphon albus. + Convolvulus major. + Dianthus, Double White Margaret. + Iberis amara. + Iberis coronaria, White Rocket. + Ipomoea hederacea. + Lavatera alba. + Malope grandiflora alba. + Matthiola (Stocks), Cut and Come Again. + Matthiola, Dresden Perpetual. + Matthiola, Giant Perfection. + Matthiola, White Pearl. + Mirabilis longiflora alba. + Nigella. + Papaver (Poppy), Flag of Truce. + Papaver, Shirley. + Papaver, The Mikado. + Phlox, Dwarf Snowball. + Phlox, Leopoldii. + Zinnia. + +_YELLOW FLOWERS_ + + Cacalia lutea. + Calendula officinalis, Common. + Calendula officinalis, Meteor. + Calendula sulphurea. + Calendula suffruticosa. + Calliopsis bicolor marmorata. + Calliopsis cardaminfolia. + Calliopsis elegans picta. + Cosmidium Burridgeanum. + Erysimum Peroffskianum. + Eschscholtzia Californica. + Hibiscus Africanus. + Hibiscus, Golden Bowl. + Ipomoea coccinea lutea. + Loasa tricolor. + Tagetes, various kinds. + Thunbergia alata Fryeri. + Thunbergia alata aurantiaca. + Tropolum, Dwarf, Lady Bird. + Tropolum, Tall, Schulzi. + Zinnia. + +_BLUE FLOWERS_ + + Ageratum Mexicanum. + Ageratum Mexicanum, Dwarf. + Browallia Czerniakowski. + Browallia elata. + Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact. + Centaurea Cyanus minor. + China Asters of several varieties. + Convolvulus minor. + Convolvulus minor unicaulis. + Gilia achillefolia. + Gilia capitata. + Iberis umbellata. + Iberis umbellata lilacina. + Kaulfussia amelloides. + Kaulfussia atroviolacea. + Lobelia Erinus. + Lobelia Erinus, Elegant. + Nigella. + Phlox variabilis atropurpurea. + Salvia farinacea. + Specularia. + Verbena, Black-blue. + Verbena coerulea. + Verbena, Golden-leaved. + Whitlavia gloxinoides. + +_RED FLOWERS_ + + Cacalia, Scarlet. + Clarkia elegans rosea. + Convolvulus tricolor roseus. + Dianthus, Half Dwarf Early Margaret. + Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual. + Dianthus Chinensis, Double. + Gaillardia picta. + Ipomoea coccinea. + Ipomoea volubilis. + Matthiola annuus (Stocks). + Matthiola, Blood-red Ten Weeks. + Matthiola grandiflora, Dwarf. + Papaver (Poppy) cardinale. + Papaver, Double. + Papaver, Mephisto. + Phaseolus multiflorus. + Phlox, Large-flowering Dwarf. + Phlox, Dwarf Fireball. + Phlox, Black Warrior. + Salvia coccinea. + Saponaria. + Tropolum, Dwarf, Tom Thumb. + Tropolum, Dwarf. + Verbena hybrida. + Verbena hybrida, Scarlet Defiance. + Zinnia. + +_GOOD FOR EDGINGS OF BEDS AND WALKS_ + + Alyssum, Sweet. + Brachycome. + Collinsias. + Dianthuses or Pinks. + Gypsophila muralis. + Iberis or Candytufts. + Leptosiphons. + Lobelia Erinus. + Nigellas. + Nemophilas. + Portulacas or Rose Moss. + Saponaria Calabrica. + Specularia. + +_KINDS WHICH CONTINUE TO BLOOM AFTER FROST_ + + Abronia umbellata. + Adonis stivalis. + Adonis autumnalis. + Argemone grandiflora. + Calendulas. + Callirrho. + Carduus Benedictus. + Centaurea Cyanus. + Centauridium. + Centranthus macrosiphon. + Cerinthe retorta. + Cheiranthus Cheiri. + Chrysanthemums. + Convolvulus minor. + Convolvulus tricolor. + Dianthus of various kinds. + Elscholtzia cristata. + Erysimum Peroffskianum. + Erysimum Arkansanum. + Eschscholtzias, in several varieties. + Gaillardia picta. + Gilia Achillefolia. + Gilia capitata. + Gilia laciniata. + Gilia tricolor. + Iberis affinis. + Lavatera alba. + Matthiolas or Stocks. + Oenothera rosea. + Oenothera Lamarckiana. + Oenothera Drummondii. + Phlox Drummondii. + Podolepis affinis. + Podolepis chrysantha. + Salvia coccinea. + Salvia farinacea. + Salvia Horminum. + Verbenas. + Vicia Gerardii. + Virginian Stocks. + Viscaria elegans. + Viscaria oculata. + Viscaria coeli-rosa. + + +ANTIRRHINUM. See _Snapdragon_. + + +APPLE, the "King of Fruits," thrives over a wider range of territory and +under more varied conditions than any other tree fruit. This means that +it is easy to grow. In fact, it is so easy to grow that it usually is +neglected; and people wonder why the trees do not bear. + +The selection of varieties of Apples for home use is, to a large extent, +a personal matter; and no one may say what to plant. A variety that is +successfully grown in one section may prove disappointing in another. +One should study the locality in which he wishes to plant and choose +those varieties which are the most successfully grown there,--choosing +from amongst the successful kinds those which he likes best and which +seem best to meet the purposes for which he is to grow them. When the +selection is made, the trees should be procured from a near-by +nurseryman, if possible, as one is then able to select his own trees, +receive them in the shortest time, and plant them before they have +become dry. + +The land on which an orchard is to be planted should have been in +cultivation at least two years previous to setting the trees and be in a +fine physical condition. Dig the hole broad and deep enough to take in +all the roots left after pruning off the bruised ends caused by digging +up the tree, and trim back the branches at least two-thirds, making a +smooth cut. Set the trunk in the center of the hole, and sift the fine +dirt down through the roots, slightly lifting the tree once or twice in +order that the fine soil may settle under the roots, making congenial +soil for the new roots to run through. Fill in over the roots, gradually +firming the soil above with the feet. When the hole is full, firm the +soil around the trunk to prevent whipping by the wind, leaving the +surface level. If the trees are set in the fall a slight earthing up to +the trunk may be beneficial in certain soils, and if set in a dry spring +a mulch of straw or grass will benefit them. Two- or 3-year-old trees +(usually the latter) are the most desirable for planting in home +grounds. Commercial orchards are often planted exclusively with +2-year-olds. + +[Illustration: Spray of Apples] + +In orchard cultivation, Apple trees are usually planted 35 to 40 ft. +apart each way. In home grounds they may be placed somewhat closer than +this, especially if they are planted upon the boundaries, so that the +limbs may project freely in one direction. + +It is ordinarily advisable, especially in the humid climates east of the +Great Lakes, to have the body of the tree 3 to 4 ft. long. The limbs +should be trimmed up to this point when the tree is set. From three to +five main branches may be left to form the framework of the top. These +should be shortened back one-fourth or one-half when the tree is set. +Subsequent pruning should keep the top of the tree open and maintain it +in more or less symmetrical form. See _Pruning_. + +In orchard conditions, the trees should be kept in clean culture, +especially for the first few years; but this is not always possible in +home yards. In lieu of tillage, the sward may be mulched each fall with +stable manure, and commercial fertilizer may be applied each fall or +spring. If fruit is wanted rather than foliage and shade, care should be +taken not to make ground too rich but to keep it in such condition that +the tree is making a fairly vigorous growth, with good strong foliage, +but is not overgrowing. An Apple tree in full bearing is usually in good +condition if the twigs grow from 10 to 18 in. each season. All +leaf-eating insects may be kept off by spraying with Paris green. The +Appleworm or codlin-moth may be kept in check by spraying with Paris +green as soon as the blossoms fall, and again a week or ten days later. +The leaf blight or apple-scab fungus may be kept in check by spraying +with Bordeaux mixture just before the flowers open, and again after they +fall (see _Spraying_). A close watch should be kept for borers. Whenever +the bark appears to be dead or sunken in patches, remove it and search +for the cause. A borer will usually be found underneath the bark. About +the base of the tree the most serious injury occurs from borers, since +the insect which enters there bores into the hard wood. His presence can +be determined by the chips which are cast from his burrows. The only +remedy is to dig out the larv. If they have got far into the wood, they +can be killed by running a flexible wire into the burrows. + +Apple trees should begin to bear when three to five years planted, and +at ten years should be bearing good crops. With good treatment, they +should continue to bear for thirty or more years. It is cheaper to buy +trees from the nursery than to attempt to raise them for oneself. + +The dwarf Apples are secured by grafting any variety on the Paradise or +Doucin stocks, which are simply small-growing varieties of Apples. +Dwarfs are much used in the Old World. There is no reason why they +should not be used for home gardens in this country. They may be planted +8 to 10 ft. apart, and trained in various ways. The body or trunk should +not be more than 1 or 2 ft. long. The top should be headed-in each year +a third or a half of the annual growth. Dwarfs bear sooner than +standards. A dwarf in full bearing should produce from a peck to a +bushel of apples. Usually only the finer or dessert variety of Apples +should be grown on dwarf trees. + +Many of the local varieties of Apples are excellent for home use. From +the following list of dessert varieties, one can select a good +assortment for the home garden: + +_Summer._--Early Joe, Primate, Garden Royal, Summer Pearmain, Early +Harvest, Summer Rose, Sweet Bough, Summer Queen, Early Strawberry, +Williams Favorite. + +_Fall._--Chenango, Dyer, Jefferis, Jersey Sweet, Maiden Blush, +Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Mother (late fall to winter), Twenty Ounce. + +_Winter._--Newtown Pippin, Golden Russet, Bellflower, Belmont, King +(late fall S. of N. Y.), Grimes Golden, Melon, Hubbardston (Nonesuch), +Northern Spy, Jonathan, Fameuse or Snow, Lady, Rambo, Canada Red, York +Imperial, Pomme Gris, Esopus Spitzenburg, Swaar, Peck Pleasant, Rhode +Island Greening, Tallman Sweet, Sutton Beauty, Wagener, Seek-no-further. + + +APRICOT. This fruit, usually thought to be too tender for the winters in +the latitude of New York, has proved as hardy as the peach. Given the +right conditions as to soil and exposure, it will yield abundant crops, +ripening its fruits about three weeks in advance of early peaches. It +would seem that more attention should be given to its cultivation. In +western New York commercial orchards are now producing crops of as fine +fruit as that brought from California. The introduction of the Russian +varieties, a few years ago, added to the list several desirable kinds +that have proved hardier and a little later in blooming than the old +kinds. The fruits of the Russian varieties, while not as large as the +other varieties, fully equal many of them in flavor, and they are very +productive. The soil for Apricots should be rather dry; especially +should the subsoil be such that no water may stand around the roots. The +exposure should be to the north or west to retard the blooming period, +as the one great drawback to their successful fruiting is the early +blooming and subsequent freezing of the flowers or small fruits. + +The two serious difficulties in the growing of Apricots are the ravages +of the curculio (see _Plum_) and the danger to the flowers from the +spring frosts. It is usually almost impossible to secure fruits from one +or two isolated Apricot trees, because the curculios will take them all. +It is possible, also, that some of the varieties need cross-pollination. +The Apricot usually thrives best on strong soil; but otherwise the +treatment which is given the peach suits the Apricot very well. The +Russian varieties bear more profusely and with less care than the +old-fashioned and larger kinds. Amongst the best kinds of Apricots are +Montgamet, Jackson, Royal, St. Ambroise, Early Golden, Harris, Roman and +Moorepark. In the east, Apricots are commonly worked on plums, but they +also thrive on the peach. + + +AQUARIUM. A pleasant adjunct to a living room or conservatory is a large +glass globe or glass box containing water, in which plants and animals +are living and growing. A solid glass tank or globe is better than a box +with glass sides, because it does not leak, but the box must be used if +one wants a large Aquarium. For most persons it is better to buy the +Aquarium box than to attempt to make it. Four things are important in +making and keeping an Aquarium (according to Miss Rogers, in Cornell +Nature-Study Leaflet No. 11): + +"(1) The equilibrium between plant and animal life must be secured and +maintained. Animals do not thrive in water where no plants are growing. +Nature keeps plants and animals in the same pond, and we must follow her +lead. The plants have three valuable functions in the Aquarium. First, +they supply food for the herbivorous creatures. Second, they give off a +quantity of oxygen which is necessary to the life of the animals. Third, +they take up from the water the poisonous carbonic acid gas which passes +from the bodies of the animals. Just how the plants do this is another +story. (2) The Aquarium must be ventilated. Every little fish, snail and +insect wants air. A certain quantity of air is mixed with the water, and +the creatures must breathe that or come to the surface for their +supply. How does Mother Nature manage the ventilation of her aquaria, +the ponds and streams? The plants furnish part of the air, as we have +seen. The open pond, whose surface is ruffled by every passing breeze, +is constantly being provided with fresh air. A tadpole or a fish can no +more live in a long-necked bottle than a boy can live in a chimney. (3) +The temperature should be kept between 40 and 50 Fahr. Both nature and +experience teach us this. A shady corner is a better place for the +Aquarium than a sunny window on a warm day. (4) It is well to choose +such animals for the Aquarium as are adapted to life in still water. +Unless one has an arrangement of water pipes to supply a constant flow +of water through the Aquarium, it is best not to try to keep creatures +that we find in swift streams. Practical experience shows that there are +certain dangers to guard against. Perhaps the most serious results come +from overstocking. It is better to have too few plants or animals than +too many of either. A great deal of light, especially bright sunlight, +is not good for the Aquarium. A pond that is not shaded soon becomes +green with a thick growth of slime, or alg. This does not look well in +an Aquarium, and is apt to take up so much of the plant-food that the +other plants are starved out. The plants in the school-room window will +shade the Aquarium nicely, just as the trees and shrubs on its banks +shade the pond. If we find this slime forming on the light side of our +miniature pond we put it in a darker place, shade it heavily so that the +light comes in from the top only, and put in a few more snails. These +will make quick work of the green slime, for they are fond of it, if we +are not." + +The aquatic plants of the neighborhood may be kept in the +Aquarium,--such things as myriophyllums, charas, eel-grass, duckmeats or +lemnas, cabomba or fish grass, arrowleafs or sagittaria, and the like; +also the parrot's feather, to be bought of florists (a species of +myriophyllum). Of animals, there are fishes (particularly minnows), +water insects, tadpoles, clams, snails. If the proper balance is +maintained between plant and animal life, it will not be necessary to +change the water so frequently. + + +AQUATICS AND BOG PLANTS. Many water plants are easily grown, and make a +fine addition to the home garden. The sedges and other bog plants, the +cyperus or umbrella plant, the common wild water lily, and in large +grounds the nelumbium or Egyptian lotus, all may be grown with ease. For +restricted grounds any of these, with the exception of the nelumbium, +may be grown in tubs made by sawing an oaken barrel in two, filling each +half from one-third to one-half with soil composed of good loam, sand +and leaf-mold, setting the plants well into the soil and filling the +tubs with water. These tubs should be sunk to the rim in the borders or +lawn, both for a good appearance and to prevent too great evaporation. +By a little care in filling with water, these plants may be well grown +through the hottest weather. Most of the foreign water lilies are not +hardy, but some of them may be grown with ease if the pond is covered in +winter. + +Native Aquatics may be colonized in streams or ponds. If artificial +ponds are to be made, do not get them too deep. A foot or 15 inches is +sufficient depth of water to stand above the crowns of the plants; and +the greatest depth of water should not be more than 2 ft. for all +kinds of water lilies. Half this depth is often sufficient. The soil +should be 1 to 2 ft. deep, and very rich. Cow manure may be mixed with +rich loam. Roots of hardy water lilies may be planted as soon as the +pond is clear of frost, but the tender kinds (which are also to be taken +up in the fall) should not be planted till it is time to plant out +geraniums. Sink the roots into the mud so that they are just buried, and +weight them down with a stone or clod. In cold climates, protect the +pond of hardy Aquatics by throwing boards over the pond and covering +with hay, straw or evergreen boughs. It is well to supply an additional +depth of water as a further protection. + + +AQUILEGIA. COLUMBINE. These hardy perennials are general favorites for +borders and rockwork. Blooming early in the season, they may be said to +head the procession of the perennials. The ease with which they may be +cultivated, their freedom of bloom, their varied colors and odd shape +entitle them to the front rank among hardy plants. They are propagated +by division of the plants in the spring or from seed sown in the fall. +Seedlings may be expected to bloom well the second year. They require a +moist, partially sheltered situation, with exposure to the sun. The +common wild Columbine (often called "honeysuckle") is easily grown and +is very attractive. Clumps of Columbine should stand 12-18 in. apart. +2-3 ft. high. + + +ARAUCARIA, or NORFOLK ISLAND PINE, is now sold in pots by florists as a +window plant. The common species (_A. excelsa_) is most excellent for +this purpose, making a symmetrical evergreen subject. It keeps well in a +cool window, or on the veranda in the summer. Protect it from direct +sunlight, and give plenty of room. If the plant begins to fail, return +it to the florist for recuperation. + + +ARGEMONE. See _Prickly Poppy_. + + +ARISTOLOCHIA, or DUTCHMAN'S PIPE. A strong, woody twiner with very +large, heavy leaves, forming a dense screen and having peculiarly shaped +flowers. But one species is considered hardy north, _A. Sipho_. This +will grow without special treatment and prove a satisfactory ornamental +screen or porch plant. Reaches a height of 20 or 30 ft. Young plants +need some protection in cold winters. + + +ARTICHOKE. A tall, coarse perennial of the thistle tribe, producing +flower-heads which are edible. When once established, it will last in +bearing for a number of years. While this plant is not generally grown +in this country, its merit as a supplementary vegetable for salads or +cooking is great. It is usually grown from suckers from the root, but a +start can be made by sowing the seed. Sow in a border or seed box and +transplant to the garden in early summer; and the following year a crop +may be had. The parts of the plant used are the flower-heads and the +young suckers, the former boiled or eaten raw as a salad. The young +shoots may be tied together and blanched, using them like asparagus or +Swiss chard. The fleshy scales of the head and the soft "bottom" of the +head are the parts used. But few of these plants would be needed for a +family, as they produce a number of flower-heads to a plant and a +quantity of suckers. The plants should be set from 2 to 3 ft. apart in +the row, the rows being 3 ft. apart. This vegetable is not quite hardy +in the north, but a covering of leaves or barnyard litter to the depth +of a foot will protect them well. The plant, being a perennial, will +continue to yield for a number of years under good cultivation. These +plants make no mean decorative subjects, either massed or in a mixed +border, and from the rarity of their culture are always objects of +interest. + + +ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM, is a wholly different plant from the above, +although it is commonly known as "Artichoke" in this country. It is a +species of sunflower which produces potato-like tubers. These tubers may +be used in lieu of potatoes. They are very palatable to hogs; and when +the plant becomes a weed--as it often does--it may be exterminated by +turning the hogs into it. Hardy. + + +ARUNDO, or REED, is one of the best of bold and ornamental grasses, +excellent for the center of a large formal bed, or for emphatic points +in a mixed border. It is perennial and hardy in the northern states, but +it is advisable to give it a mulch on the approach of winter. Thrives in +any rich soil, doing best where somewhat moist. 8-12 ft. The clumps +enlarge year by year. + + +ASPARAGUS. A hardy herbaceous perennial, much grown for the soft, +edible, early spring shoots. The culture of this, the finest of early +vegetables, has been simplified in the past few years, and at present +the knowledge required to successfully plant and grow a good supply need +not be that of a professional. The old method of excavating to the depth +of 3 ft. or more, throwing in from 4 to 6 in. of broken stone or bricks +for drainage, then filling to within 16 to 18 in. of the surface with +well rotted manure, with 6 in. of soil upon which to set the roots, has +given place to the simple practice of plowing or digging a trench from +14 to 16 in. deep, spreading well rotted manure in the bottom to the +depth of 3 or 4 in.; when well trodden down covering the manure with 3 +or 4 in. of good garden soil, then setting the plants, with the roots +well spread out, covering carefully with soil to the level of the +garden, and firming the soil with the feet. This will leave the crowns +of the plants from 4 to 5 in. below the surface. In setting, 1-year-old +plants will prove more satisfactory than older ones, being less liable +to suffer from injury to the root system than those which have made a +larger growth. Two years after setting the crop may be cut, but not +sooner if a lasting bed is desired, as the effort to replace the stalks +has a tendency to weaken the plant unless the roots are well +established. The yearly treatment of an Asparagus bed consists of +cleaning off tops and weeds in the fall and adding a dressing of well +rotted manure to the depth of 3 or 4 in., this manure to be lightly +forked into the bed the following spring; or, the tops may be allowed to +stand for winter protection and the mulch left off. A top-dressing of +nitrate of soda, at the rate of 200 pounds per acre, is often beneficial +as a spring stimulant, especially in the case of an old bed. Good +results will also follow an application of bone meal or superphosphate +at the rate of from 300 to 500 pounds per acre. The practice of sowing +salt on an Asparagus bed is almost universal. Still, beds that have +never received a pound of salt are found to be as productive as those +having received an annual dressing. Nevertheless, a salt dressing is +recommended. In stubborn, heavy soil the best method to pursue in making +a permanent bed would be to throw out all the dirt from the trench and +replace with good, fibrous loam. Two rows of Asparagus 25 ft. long and 3 +ft. apart would supply a large family with an abundance throughout the +season, and if well taken care of will last a number of years. Conover's +Colossal is the variety most generally grown, and is perhaps the most +satisfactory sort. Palmetto, a variety originating at the south, is also +very popular. A newer variety, called Donald White, originating near +Elmira, N. Y., is recommended by the trade. + + +ASPERULA. Hardy annuals and perennials. The low-growing Asperula, with +its blue or white flowers, is not as often used as it should be. The +profusion of small flowers and the long season entitle it to a place in +low borders. The flowers have a pleasing fragrance. Asperulas may be +used effectively on rockwork. The common white species, or Woodruff, +grows less than 1 foot. Grown readily from seeds, and blooms the first +year. All Asperulas thrive best in a rather moist soil. + + +ASTERS, CHINA. Half-hardy annuals, of easy culture. The China Aster has +been for years a great favorite in both old-fashioned and modern +gardens. With the improvements in shapes and colors, they are now the +rivals of the chrysanthemum. As early as 1731 single white and red +Asters were grown and described in England, and by 1845 they are +mentioned as being very numerous in New England. The Germans were, +perhaps, the first to improve the Asters, and the type most admired and +sought fifty years ago was the full-quilled varieties. Now, however, the +informal type replaces the stiff, formal quilled flowers of that period. +Compare the Comet Aster of to-day with the Asters of even twenty years +ago, and note the looseness of its broad rays, giving an artistic value +far beyond the tall, stiff, purple-blue or whites of that period. + +[Illustration: China Aster] + +The early Asters will bloom in August if the seed is sown in the open +early in the season. They are represented by the Queen of the Market and +Queen of Spring, either of which, if started in a hotbed or window, will +begin to bloom the last of July. The Queen of the Market is probably the +freest of growth, and with its long stems makes a very desirable variety +for cut-flowers. In fact, in the rich, mellow soil in which Asters +delight, this variety is likely to have its large flowers on stems so +long and slender that the plants will need stakes. + +The Victoria Asters hold a well deserved place among the leading +varieties, and with high culture will generally lead in size and +profusion of bloom, the colors ranging from white to the darkest blue. +The plants are also well adapted to pot culture. The chrysanthemum-flowered +Asters, both tall and dwarf, are excellent, as are the Truffaut +Perfection and Peony-flowered. The Comet Asters are amongst the best. +The New Branching type is now in great favor. + +The culture of China Asters is easy. For early bloom the seeds should be +sown in March in boxes of light soil and covered one-quarter of an inch +with soil, the soil pressed down or firmed over them and the boxes +placed in a hotbed or a sunny window and attention given to watering. +When the seedlings are one inch high they should be transplanted to +other boxes, setting the plants 3 inches apart or put into 2-inch pots. +These should be again placed in a frame and grown along until the ground +has become comparatively warm. The soil will need to be well enriched, +mellow, and if slightly moist under the surface the results will be all +that could be wished. Asters will grow fairly well on rather light soil, +even if not very rich, but the best results can only be obtained when +the highest culture is given. If the rust attacks the plants, spray +with ammoniacal carbonate of copper. + + +[Illustration: Spray of wild Aster] + +ASTER, NATIVE. Wild Asters are one of the glories of the American +autumn. They grow almost everywhere in the north and east,--along +roadsides, in meadows and swales. Their colors range from pure white to +pink, and purple, and blue. From August until winter closes in, they are +conspicuous features of the landscape, vying with the goldenrods in form +and color, but surpassing them in color-range. Most of them are greatly +improved when transferred to the border. They become more attractive in +general habit, and the flowers are usually more profuse and sometimes +larger. They are of the easiest possible culture. They can be removed to +home grounds in the fall or spring, and, with little care until they are +established, will make most attractive displays of autumn color. The +species are numerous and much confused, and it is not necessary to make +a list of them here. Because of their free and careless habit, they are +better adapted to planting in borders than in the formal flower beds. + +[Illustration: Wild Asters] + + +AUBRIETIA DELTOIDEA. A very handsome little trailing hardy perennial, +covered with attractive purple flowers in early spring. Should be +planted in masses for best effect. Propagated by cuttings or seeds, +usually the latter. Excellent for rockwork and permanent low edgings. + + +AURICULA. A half-hardy perennial of the Primrose tribe (_Primula +Auricula_), very popular in Europe, but little grown in this country on +account of the hot, dry summers. In this country usually propagated by +seed, as for Cineraria; but special varieties are perpetuated by +offsets. Seeds sown in February or March should give blooming plants +for the next February or March. Keep the plants cool and moist, and away +from the direct sun during the summer. Gardeners usually grow them in +frames. In the fall, they are potted into 3-inch or 4-inch pots, and +made to bloom either in frames as for violets or in a cool conservatory +or greenhouse. In April, after blooming has ceased, repot the plants and +treat as the previous year. From the best plants, offsets may be taken +and treated the same as seedlings. As with most annual-blooming +perennials, best results are to be expected with year-old or 2-year-old +plants. Auriculas grow 6-8 in. high. Colors white and many shades of red +and blue. + + +AZALEAS are less grown in this country than in Europe, largely because +of our hot, dry summers and severe winters. There are two common types +or classes,--the hardy or Ghent Azaleas, and the Indian Azaleas. + +Ghent Azaleas thrive in the open along the seacoast as far north as +southern New England. They require a sandy, peaty soil, and are treated +as other shrubs are. The large flower-buds are liable to injury from the +warm suns of late winter and early spring, and to avoid this injury the +plants are often protected by covers or shades of brush. In the interior +country, little attempt is made to flower Azaleas permanently in the +open, although they may be grown if carefully tended and well protected. +Both Ghent and Indian Azaleas are excellent pot-plants, for bloom in +late winter and spring. The plants are imported in great numbers from +Europe, and it is better to buy these plants than to attempt to +propagate them. Pot them up in large-sized pots, keep them cool and +backward for a time until they are established, then take them into a +conservatory temperature, in which carnations and roses thrive. They +should be potted in a soil made of half peat or well decayed mold and +half rich loam; add a little sand. Pot firmly, and be sure to provide +sufficient drainage. Keep off red spider by syringing. After blooming, +the plants may be thinned by pruning out the straggling growths, and +repotted. Set them in a frame or in a semi-shaded place during summer, +and see that they make a good growth. The wood should be well ripened in +the fall. After cold weather sets in, keep the Indian or evergreen kinds +half-dormant by setting them in a cool, dull-lighted cellar or pit, +bringing them in when wanted for bloom. The Ghent or deciduous kinds may +be touched with frost without injury; and they may be stored in a cellar +until wanted. + + +BACHELOR'S BUTTON. _Centaurea Cyanus_ and also _Gomphrena_. Sometimes +applied to double-flowered Crowfoots. + + +[Illustration: Balloon Vine] + +BALLOON VINE, or CARDIOSPERMUM. Annual tender tendril climber of very +rapid growth. Seed should not be planted until the soil becomes warm. A +very pretty effect can be had by allowing the vine to run over some +coarser vine, or into an evergreen tree. The balloon-like capsules show +to good advantage between the leaves. It is also useful for covering +piles of brush. Grows 8-12 ft. high. Give a warm, sunny place. + + +BALSAMS, or IMPATIENS. Tender annuals, producing both single and double +flowers of many colors. These well known favorites are usually to be +found in old-fashioned gardens. They are very likely to seed themselves, +coming up in unexpected places and flourishing in neglect. They do best, +however, in rich, sandy soil. If the seed is sown in boxes late in April +and the plants transplanted several times they will be much dwarfer and +the flowers much more double. A stately, though very formal and stiff, +effect may be had by planting a row of Balsams in the rear of a low +border, pinching off all the side shoots as they start and growing the +plant to a single stem. This will become covered with the large blooms, +giving it the appearance of a perfect column of flowers. Balsams are +injured by the slightest frost. Seeds germinate quickly. Plants should +stand 12-18 in. apart. They grow 18-30 in. high. + + +BARTONIA. Hardy annual, with golden yellow, brilliant flowers. The +tall-growing Bartonia (_B. aurea_) may be used in a mixed border to good +advantage. It is a bushy plant, reaching 2-3 ft. high. The dwarf kind +may be used as a border plant or in a rock garden, or as an edging. The +fragrance of both tall and dwarf is very pronounced in the evening. The +Bartonias are very easy to grow in a warm soil and sunny exposure. Their +numerous thread-like, long stamens are very interesting. + + +BASKET PLANTS. In order to have a good hanging basket, it is necessary +that some provision be made to prevent too rapid drying out of the +earth. It is customary, therefore, to line the pot or basket with moss. +Open wire baskets, like a horse muzzle, are often lined with moss and +used for the growing of plants. Prepare the earth by mixing some well +decayed leaf-mold with rich garden loam, thereby making an earth which +will retain moisture. Hang the basket in a light place, but still not in +a direct sunlight; and, if possible, avoid putting it where it will be +exposed to drying wind. In order to water the basket, it is often +advisable to sink it into a pail or tub of water. Various plants are +well adapted to hanging baskets. Among the drooping or vine-like kinds +are the strawberry geranium, Kenilworth ivy, maurandya, German ivy, +canary-bird flower, _Asparagus Sprengeri_, ivy geranium, trailing +fuchsia, wandering Jew, and othonna. Among the erect-growing plants +which produce flowers, _Lobelia Erinus_, sweet alyssum, petunias, +oxalis, and various geraniums are to be recommended. Among foliage +plants such things as coleus, dusty miller, begonia, and some geraniums +are adaptable. + + +[Illustration: Climax basket] + +BASKETS. For the picking and handling of fruit in the home garden, the +common Climax basket, in various sizes, is the best receptacle. In +these baskets the products may be sold. When the baskets are sent to +market or to a friend, they should be neat and new looking; therefore +keep them in a dry, dark place, as in an attic or loft, to prevent them +from becoming warped and discolored. + + +BEAN. Under the general name of Bean, many kinds of plants are +cultivated. They are all tender, and the seeds, therefore, should not be +planted until the weather is thoroughly settled; and the soil should be +warm and loose. They are all annuals in northern countries, or treated +as such. + +The Bean plants may be classified in various ways. In respect to +stature, they may be thrown into three general categories; viz., the +pole or climbing Beans, the bush Beans, and the strict-growing or +upright Beans (as the Broad or Windsor Bean). In respect to their uses, +Beans again may be divided into three categories; viz., those which are +used as string or snap Beans, the entire pod being eaten; those which +are used as shell Beans, the full-size but immature Beans being shelled +from the pod and cooked; dry Beans, or those which are eaten in their +dry or winter condition. The same variety of Bean may be used for all of +these three purposes at different stages of its development; but as a +matter of fact, there are varieties which are better for one purpose +than the other. Again, Beans may be classified in respect to their +species. Those species which are best known are as follows: (1) Common +Bean, or _Phaseolus vulgaris_, of which there are both tall and bush +forms. All the common snap and string Beans belong here, as also the +Speckled Cranberry types of pole Beans, and the common field Beans. (2) +The Lima Beans, or _Phaseolus lunatus_. The larger part of these are +pole Beans, but lately dwarf or bush varieties have appeared. (3) The +Scarlet Runner, _Phaseolus multiflorus_, of which the Scarlet Runner +and White Dutch Runner are familiar examples. The Scarlet Runner is +usually grown as an ornamental vine, and it is perennial in warm +countries, but the Beans are edible as shelled Beans. The White Dutch +Runner is oftener cultivated for food. (4) The Yard-Long, or Asparagus +Bean, _Dolichos sesquipedalis_, which produces long and weak vines and +very long, slender pods. The green pods are eaten, and also the shelled +Beans. The French Yard-Long is the only variety of this type which is +commonly known in this country. This type of Bean is popular in the +Orient. (5) The Broad Beans, of which the Windsor is the common type. +These are much grown in the Old World for stock feed, and they are +sometimes used for human food. They grow to one strict, central, stiff +stalk, to a height of 2-4 or 5 ft., and they are very unlike other kinds +of Beans in appearance. In this country, they are very little grown on +account of our hot and dry summers. In Canada they are somewhat grown, +and are sometimes used in the making of ensilage. + +The culture of the Bean, while of the easiest, often proves a failure as +far as the first crop is concerned, because of planting the seed before +the ground has become warm and dry. No vegetable seed will decay quicker +than Beans, and the delay caused by waiting for the soil to become warm +and free from excessive moisture will be more than made up by the +rapidity of growth when finally they are planted. Beans will grow in +most any soil, but the best results may be obtained by having the soil +well enriched and in good physical condition. From the 5th to the 10th +of May in the latitude of central New York, it will be safe to plant +Beans for an early crop. The Beans may be dropped 2 inches deep in +shallow drills, the seeds to lie 3 inches apart. Cover to the surface of +the soil, and if the ground be dry, firm it with the foot or the back of +the hoe. For the bush varieties, allow 2 ft. between the drill-rows, but +for the dwarf Limas 2 ft. is better. Pole Limas are usually planted +in hills 2-3 ft. apart in the rows. Dwarf Limas may be sown thinly in +drills. + +A large number of the varieties of both the green-podded and the +wax-podded Beans are used almost exclusively as snap Beans, to be eaten +with the pod while tender. The various strains of the Black Wax are the +most popular string Beans. The pole or running Beans are used either +green or dried, and the Limas, both tall and dwarf, are well known for +their superior flavor either as shelled or dry Beans. The old-fashioned +Cranberry or Horticultural Lima type (a pole form of _Phaseolus +vulgaris_) is probably the best shell Bean, but the trouble of poling +makes it unpopular. Dwarf Limas are much more desirable for small +gardens than the pole varieties, as they may be planted much closer, the +bother of procuring poles and twine is avoided, and the garden will have +a more sightly appearance. Both the dwarf Limas and pole Limas require a +longer season in which to mature than the bush varieties, and only one +planting is usually made. But the bush varieties may be planted at +intervals of two weeks from the first planting until the 10th of August. +Each planting may be made on ground previously occupied by some +early-maturing crop. Thus, the first to third plantings may be on ground +from which has been harvested a crop of spinach, early radish or +lettuce; after that, on ground where early peas have been grown; and the +later sowings where beets or early potatoes have grown. String Beans for +canning are usually taken from the last crop. One quart of seed will +plant 100 ft. of drill; or 1 quart of Limas will plant 100 hills. + +Limas are the richest of Beans, but they often fail to mature in the +northern states. The land should not be very rich in nitrogen (or stable +manure), else the plants will run too much to vine and be too late. +Select a fertile sandy or gravelly soil with warm exposure, use some +soluble commercial fertilizer to start them off, and give them the best +of culture. Aim to have the pods set before the droughts of midsummer +come. Good trellises for Beans are made by wool twine stretched between +two horizontal wires, one of which is drawn a foot above the ground and +the other 6 or 7 ft. high. + +Bean plants are not troubled by insects to any extent, but they are +sometimes attacked by blight. When this occurs, do not plant the same +ground to Beans again for a year or two. + + +BEDDING. This term is used to designate the massing of plants in the +open ground for the purpose of making a bold display of color. This +color may be obtained with flowers or with strong effects of foliage. +Bedding is ordinarily a temporary species of planting; that is, the bed +is filled anew each year. However, the term may be used to designate a +permanent plantation of plants which are heavily massed so as to give +one continuous or emphatic display of form or color. Some of the best +permanent bedding masses are made of the various hardy ornamental +grasses, as eulalias, arundo, and the like. + +Some bedding is very temporary in its effect. Especially is this true of +spring Bedding, in which the plants used are tulips, hyacinths, crocuses +or other early-flowering bulbous plants. In this case, the ground is +usually occupied later in the season by other plants. These later plants +are usually annuals, the seeds of which are sown amongst the bulbs as +soon as the season is far enough advanced; or the annuals may be started +in boxes and the plants transplanted amongst the bulbs as soon as the +weather is fit. Many of the low-growing and compact, continuous-flowering +annuals are excellent for summer Bedding effects. Some of the best +plants for this purpose are mentioned in the following list: + + Adonis stivalis. + Adonis autumnalis. + Ageratum Mexicanum. + Ageratum Mexicanum, dwarf. + Bartonia aurea. + Cacalia. + Calendula officinalis, in several forms. + Calendula pluvialis. + Calendula Pongei. + Calendula sulphurea, fl. pl. + Calendula suffruticosa. + Calliopsis bicolor marmorata. + Calliopsis cardaminfolia. + Calliopsis elegans picta. + Callirrho involucrata. + Callirrho pedata nana. + Callirrho pedata. + Centaurea Americana. + Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact. + Centaurea Cyanus minor. + Centaurea suaveolens. + Chrysanthemum Burridgeanum. + Chrysanthemum carinatum. + Chrysanthemum coronarium. + Chrysanthemum tricolor. + Convolvulus minor. + Convolvulus tricolor. + Cosmidium Burridgeanum. + Delphinium, single. + Delphinium, double. + Dianthus, Double White Half Dwarf Margaret. + Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual. + Dianthus Caryophyllus semperflorens. + Dianthus Chinensis, double. + Dianthus dentosus hybridus. + Dianthus Heddewigii. + Dianthus imperialis. + Dianthus laciniatus, Salmon Queen. + Dianthus plumarius. + Dianthus superbus, dwarf fl. pl. + Dianthus, Picotee. + Elscholtzia cristata. + Eschscholtzia Californica. + Eschscholtzia crocea. + Eschscholtzia, Mandarin. + Eschscholtzia tenuifolia. + Gaillardia picta. + Gaillardia picta Lorenziana. + Gilia achillefolia. + Gilia capitata. + Gilia laciniata. + Gilia linifolia. + Gilia nivalis. + Gilia tricolor. + Godetia Whitneyi. + Godetia grandiflora maculata. + Godetia rubicunda splendens. + Hibiscus Africanus. + Hibiscus, Golden Bowl. + Iberis affinis. + Iberis amara. + Iberis coronaria. + Iberis umbellata. + Impatiens or Balsam. + Lavatera alba. + Lavatera trimestris. + Linum grandiflorum. + Madia elegans. + Malope grandiflora. + Matricaria eximia plena. + Matthiola or Stock, in many forms. + Matthiola, Wallflower-leaved. + Matthiola bicornis. + Nigella or Love-in-a-Mist. + Oenothera Drummondii. + Oenothera Lamarckiana. + Oenothera rosea. + Oenothera tetraptera. + Papaver or Poppy, of many kinds. + Papaver cardinale. + Papaver glaucum. + Papaver umbrosum. + Petunia, Ring of Emerald. + Phlox Drummondii, in many varieties. + Portulaca. + Salvia farinacea. + Salvia Horminum. + Salvia splendens. + Schizanthus papilionaceus. + Schizanthus pinnatus. + Silene Armeria. + Silene pendula. + Tagetes or Marigold, in many forms. + Tagetes erecta. + Tagetes patula. + Tagetes signata. + Tropolum, Dwarf. + Verbena auriculflora. + Verbena Italica striata. + Verbena hybrida. + Verbena coerulea. + Verbena, Golden-leaved. + Viscaria coeli-rosa. + Viscaria elegans picta. + Viscaria oculata. + Zinnia, Dwarf. + Zinnia elegans alba. + Zinnia, Tom Thumb. + Zinnia Haageana. + Zinnia coccinea plena. + +Summer bedding is often made by perennial plants which are carried over +from the preceding year, or better, which are propagated for that +particular purpose in February and March. Such plants as geranium, +coleus, alyssum, scarlet salvia, ageratum and heliotrope may be used for +these beds. It is a common practice to use geranium plants which are in +bloom during the winter for bedding out during the summer, but such +plants are tall and ungainly in form and have expended the greater part +of their energies. It is better to propagate new plants by taking +cuttings or slips late in the winter and setting out young, fresh, +vigorous subjects. + +Very bold and subtropical effects can be made by planting in the open +such things as palms, bananas, crotons, araucarias, caladiums and +cannas. Plants like bananas and palms, which are kept normally in pots, +would better be left in the pots and plunged to the rims rather than +turned out directly into the soil. In order to attain quick and +continuous effects, it is advisable to set the plants rather close. As +such plants are likely to be injured by strong winds, it is well to have +subtropical beds in a somewhat protected place. + +Another type of bed is that which attempts to make patterns or designs, +or carpet-bedding. There are comparatively few plants which are adapted +to this purpose, for the plants must be such as will stand shearing and +which have very strong and constant colors of foliage. The most popular +bedding plants are coleus (particularly the yellow Golden Bedder) +achyranthes, alternanthera, _Centaurea gymnocarpa_, and such succulent +plants as the house leeks. Some of the annual flowers may also be used +for strong color effects, as _Lobelia Erinus_ and sweet alyssum. +Ordinarily the making of carpet-beds should be left to professional +gardeners, since it requires much skill and care to make and keep the +beds in perfect condition; and a ragged or imperfect carpet-bed is worse +than no bed at all. Carpet-beds are really curiosities, and they have no +more legitimate place in the general pictorial landscape design area +than painted stones or sheared evergreens. Therefore, they should be +placed by themselves at one side, where they do not interfere with the +general design of the place. In public parks they make a very useful +attraction when set off by themselves, the same as zological gardens or +other attractions do. + + +BEEFSTEAK GERANIUM is _Begonia_. + + +BEETS. Being one of the hardiest of spring vegetables, the seed may be +sown as early in the spring as the ground can be worked. A light, sandy +soil is the best on which to grow Beets to perfection, but any well +tilled garden soil will raise satisfactory crops. On heavy soil the +turnip Beet gives the best results, as the growth is nearly all at or +above the surface. The long varieties, having tapering roots running +deep into the soil, are apt to be misshapen unless the physical +condition of the soil is such that the roots meet with little +obstruction. A succession of sowings should be made, at intervals of +from two to three weeks, until late summer, as the Beets are much more +desirable in their young stage than when they have become old and woody. +The Mangel-Wurzel and the Sugar Beet are usually grown as a field crop, +and will not enter into the calculations of the home garden. + +[Illustration: Early Beets] + +In order to hasten the season of the extra-early crop of Beets, the +seeds may be sown in boxes or in the soil of a hotbed in February or +March, transplanting the small plants to the open ground at the time the +first sowing of seed is made. As the flat or turnip-rooted varieties +grow at the surface of the ground, the seed may be sown thickly, and as +the more advanced roots are large enough to use they may be pulled, +leaving room for the later ones to develop, thus growing a quantity in a +small area and having a long season of small Beets from one sowing. For +winter use the late July sown seed will give the best roots, growing +through the cool months of the fall to a medium size and remaining firm +without being tough or stringy. These may be dug up after light frosts +and before any severe cold weather, and stored in barrels or boxes in +the cellar, using enough dry dirt to fill spaces between the roots and +cover them to the depth of 6 inches. These roots, thus packed in a cool +cellar, will be fit to use through the entire winter months. When it can +be had, florists' or sphagnum moss is an excellent medium in which to +pack roots for winter. + +The early round or turnip varieties are best for early and summer use. +The Long Blood Beets may be used for storing, but these require a longer +season of growth. + + +BEGONIAS. Tender bedding and house plants. Next to the geranium, +Begonias are probably the most popular for house culture of the entire +plant list. The ease of culture, profusion of bloom or richness of +foliage, together with their adaptability to shade, make them very +desirable. + +Begonias may be divided into three sections: the fibrous-rooted class, +which contains the winter-flowering varieties; the tuberous-rooted, +those which bloom through the summer, the tuber resting through the +winter; and the Rex forms, or Beefsteak Geraniums, having large +ornamental leaves. + +[Illustration: Fibrous-rooted Begonia] + +The fibrous-rooted kinds may be propagated by seed or cuttings, the +latter being the usual method. Cuttings of half-ripened wood root +easily, making a rapid growth, the plants flowering in a few months. + +The tuberous-rooted varieties are propagated by division of the tuber or +from seed, the former being rarely done except to increase the stock of +some extra fine variety. The seeds, like those of all Begonias, are very +small, and should be sown with great care. Simply sprinkle them on the +surface of the soil, which should be a mixture of leaf-mold and sand, +with the addition of a small amount of fibrous loam. Watering should be +done by setting the pot or box in which the seeds are sown in water, +allowing the moisture to ascend through the soil. When the soil has +become completely saturated, set the box in a shady situation, covering +it with glass or some other object until the tiny seedlings appear. +Never allow the soil to become dry. The seedlings should be +transplanted, as soon as they can be handled, into boxes or pots +containing the same mixture of soil, setting each plant down to the +seed-leaf. They will need three or four transplantings before they reach +the blooming stage, and at each one after the first, the amount of +fibrous loam may be increased until the soil is composed of one-third +each of loam, sand and leaf-mold. The addition of a little well rotted +manure may be made at the last transplanting. These tuberous-rooted +Begonias make superior bedding plants if given a shady situation and +deep soil; but for the amateur they are perhaps better grown as +pot-plants, for one is able to give them better conditions by that +method. The flowers are both double and single, ranging in color from +pure white and yellow to pink and red. After flowering the plants will +die down and the tubers, after drying off, may be placed in a dry, warm +place until spring. + +[Illustration: Rex Begonia] + +The Rex type, having no branches, is propagated from the leaves. The +large mature leaves are used. The leaf may be cut into sections having +at the base a union of two ribs. These pieces of leaves may be inserted +in the sand as any other cutting. Or a whole leaf may be used, cutting +through the ribs at intervals and laying the leaf flat on the +propagating bench or other warm, moist place. In a short time young +plants having roots of their own will form. These may be potted when +large enough to handle, and will soon make good sized plants. Rex +Begonias usually grow little during winter. Be sure that the pots are +well drained, so that the soil does not become sour. New plants--those a +year or so old--are usually most satisfactory. Keep them away from +direct sunlight. + +An insidious disease of Begonia leaves has recently made its appearance. +The best treatment yet known is to propagate fresh plants, throwing away +the old stock and the dirt in which it is grown. + + +BELLIS PERENNIS. See _Daisy_. + + +[Illustration: Ancient Briton Blackberry] + +BLACKBERRIES. The one essential to the successful growing of +Blackberries is a moist soil,--not one in which water will stand, but +one rich enough in humus to hold sufficient moisture to carry the crop +through the growing season. It is usually found best to plant in the +fall, earthing up slightly around the plants. The distance between the +plants should be regulated by the variety. The smaller-growing kinds (as +Early Harvest and Wilson) may be planted 4 x 7 ft., the rank-growing +varieties (as Snyder) 6 x 8 ft. Thorough cultivation throughout the +season will help in a material degree to hold the moisture necessary to +perfect a good crop. The soil should be cultivated very shallow, +however, so as not to disturb the roots, as the breaking of the roots +starts a large number of suckers that have to be cut out and destroyed. + +[Illustration: Shears for cutting out old canes] + +Blackberries, like dewberries and raspberries, bear but one crop on the +cane. That is, canes which spring up this year bear next year. From 3 to +6 canes are sufficient to be left in each hill. The superfluous ones are +thinned out soon after they start from the ground. The old canes should +be cut out soon after fruiting and burned. The new shoots should be +pinched back at the height of 2 or 3 ft. if the plants are to support +themselves. If to be fastened to wires, they may be allowed to grow +throughout the season and be cut back when tied to the wires in winter +or early spring. Tools for the cutting out of the old canes are well +represented in the pictures. Shears are used for shortening-in the +canes. + +[Illustration: Shears for heading-in bushes] + +Blackberry plants are sometimes laid down in cold climates,--the tops +being bent over and held to the ground by earth or sods thrown on their +tips. + +[Illustration: Knife hook for cutting out old canes] + +Snyder is the most popular commercial variety; but Agawam, Ancient +Briton, Taylor, and others are better in quality. A new patch should be +planted every five or six years. + + +BLUE BOTTLE. See _Centaurea Cyanus_. + + +BORDEAUX MIXTURE is a fungicide, used to combat mildews, leaf-diseases, +blights, etc. It is sprayed on the plants with a spray pump or syringe, +or it may be applied with a whisk broom. Apply enough of it so that the +foliage looks blue. It is made as follows: Copper sulfate, 6 pounds; +quicklime, 4 pounds; water, 40 to 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper +sulfate by putting it into a bag of coarse cloth and hanging this in a +vessel holding at least four gallons, so that it is just covered by the +water. Use an earthen or wooden vessel. Slake the lime in an equal +amount of water. Then mix the two and add enough water to make 40 +gallons. It is then ready for immediate use, but will keep for some +time. If the mixture is to be used on peach foliage, it is advisable to +add an extra pound of lime to the above formula. When applied to such +plants as carnations or cabbages, it will adhere better if a pound of +hard soap is dissolved in hot water and added to the mixture. For rots, +molds, mildews, and all fungous diseases. + +Whilst Bordeaux Mixture is the best general fungicide, it discolors the +plants until it washes off. On ornamental plants, therefore, a colorless +fungicide may be preferable. In such cases, use the ammoniacal carbonate +of copper solution, as follows: Copper carbonate, 1 ounce; ammonia, 1 +volume 26 Baum, 7/8 volumes water (enough to dissolve the copper); +water, 9 gallons. The copper carbonate is best dissolved in large +bottles, where it will keep indefinitely, and it should be diluted with +water as required. For the same purposes as Bordeaux Mixture. + + +BORDER. The word border is used to designate the heavy or continuous +planting about the boundaries of a place, or along the walks and drives, +or against the buildings, in distinction from planting on the lawn or in +the interior spaces. A border receives different designations, depending +upon the kinds of plants which are grown therein; that is, it may be a +shrub border, a flower border, a hardy border for native and other +hardy plants, a vine border, and the like. As a rule, the most effective +planting is that which is thrown into masses, for one plant reinforces +the other, and the flowers have a good setting or background. Very +striking displays of foliage and flowers and plant forms can be made +when massed together. As a rule, plants are more easily grown when +planted in a border, since the whole area can be kept cultivated with +ease; and if a plant becomes weak or dies, its place is readily filled +by the neighboring plants spreading into it. Planting in masses is also +essential to the best arrangement of the yard, since the basis of any +landscape is a more or less continuous greensward (see _Lawn_). The +house occupies the central part of the area, and the sides are heavily +massed or planted so as to make a framework for the whole place. The +border may be mixed,--that is, composed of a great variety of +plants,--or it may be made up of one continuous thing. In long and very +striking borders, it is often best to have the background--that is, the +back row--of one general type of plant in order to give continuity and +strength to the whole group. In front of this a variety of plants may be +set, if one desire. + +[Illustration: Planting by the steps] + +The land should be rich. The whole ground should be plowed or spaded and +the plants set irregularly in the space; or the back row may be set in a +line. If the border is composed of shrubs, and is large, a horse +cultivator may be run in and out between the plants for the first two or +three years, since the shrubs will be set from 2 to 4 ft. apart. +Ordinarily, however, the cultivating is done by hand tools. After the +plants are once established and the border is filled, it is best to dig +up as little as possible, for the digging disturbs the roots and breaks +off the crowns. It is usually best to pull out the weeds and give the +border a top-dressing each fall of well rotted manure. If the ground is +not very rich, a sprinkling of ashes or some commercial fertilizer may +be given from time to time. The border should be planted so thick as to +allow the plants to run together, thereby giving one continuous effect. +Most shrubs should be set 3 feet apart. Things as large as lilacs may go +4 feet and sometimes even more. Common herbaceous perennials, like +bleeding heart, delphiniums, hollyhocks, and the like, should go from 12 +to 18 inches. On the front edge of the border is a very excellent place +for annual and tender flowering plants. Here, for example, one may make +a fringe of asters, geraniums, coleus, or anything else which he may +choose (see _Flower Beds_). + +The border is an excellent place in which to colonize native or other +interesting plants. A person comes across an attractive plant on his +tramp and wishes it were in his garden. Whatever the time of year, he +may break off the top close to the ground, take up the roots and plant +them in the border. If a little attention is given to the plant for the +first two or three weeks, as watering or mulching or shading, it should +become established and give satisfactory bloom the following year. +Two-thirds of the herbs which one would take up in this way, even in +midsummer, should grow. Into the heavy borders about the boundaries of +the place the autumn leaves will drift and afford an excellent mulch. If +these borders are planted with shrubs, the leaves may be left there to +decay, and not be raked off in the spring. The general outline of the +border facing the lawn should be more or less wavy or irregular, +particularly if it is on the boundary of the place. Alongside a walk or +drive, the margins may follow the general directions of the walk or +drive. + +There are three rules for the choosing of plants for a hardy border. +Choose (1) those which you like best, (2) those which are adapted to the +climate and soil, (3) those which are in place or in keeping with that +part of the grounds. See _Herbs_, _Shrubs_, _Trees_. + + +BORECOLE is _Kale_. + + +BORERS. There is no sovereign remedy for borers except to dig them out. +Do not rely upon washes or other applications. If trees are examined two +or three times a year, it is not a laborious undertaking to dig them +out, as they will not be deep in the wood. If they do get deep in the +wood, thrust a wire into the burrow. By the chips cast from the holes, +or by the dead bark, the presence of borers may be detected. Apple and +peach trees are particularly liable to attack. The flat-headed +apple-tree borer works just underneath the bark on any part of the trunk +or large branches. The round-headed apple-tree borer eats into the wood +at the crown. + + +BOXES of many sizes can be utilized in which to grow plants. Excellent +effects of bulbs and annuals may be had in old soap boxes. The boxes may +be placed in the best situations for the growth of the plants, and they +can receive better attention than the large flower bed. Vines planted +about the edge will hide the sides,--such vines as Kenilworth ivy, +moneywort, maurandya, trailing fuchsia, and the like. + + +BRACHYCOME. See _Swan River Daisy_. + + +BROCCOLI. This is almost identical with the Cauliflower, except that it +usually requires a longer season and matures in the fall. It is grown +more generally in Europe than in this country. The special merit of +Broccoli is its adaptability for late summer planting and its rapid +growth in the late fall. It is said that a large proportion of Broccoli +is used in the manufacture of pickles. The culture is the same as for +Cauliflower,--deep, moist soil well enriched, cool weather, and the +destruction of the cabbage worm. + +The young plants may be grown in a coldframe or in a well protected +border, sowing the seed about the 15th of May, transplanting into rows +in July. In sections in which early fall frosts are not to be feared, +the plants may be set two weeks later, say August 1, as all vegetables +of the cabbage family make the best growth through the cool months of +September and October. The plants should be set 18 in. apart in the +rows, the rows being from 2 ft. to 3 ft. apart. + + +BROWALLIA ELATA is a very fine tender annual, giving a border or mixed +bed a dash of amethyst blue not often found in flowers. It is a +strong-growing plant with a profusion of bloom, and no doubt one of the +choicest plants of its color in cultivation. There are other species +with white flowers that serve as contrast, and may be grown with this. +All of the kinds may be taken up and potted in the fall, cutting the +plant well back, and a profusion of bloom may be obtained through the +winter months if attention is given to pinching off the seed pods. In +the garden, let the plants stand 12 in. apart. The plants grow 1-2 ft. +high. + + +BRUSSELS SPROUTS. This is a vegetable that should be more generally +known, as it is one of the choicest of the cabbage family, and may be +had at its best after the season for cauliflower has passed. It is the +better for being touched by the fall frosts. The parts used are the +buttons or sprouts (miniature cabbage heads) that grow thickly along the +stem. These should be cut off rather than broken. The very small hard +"sprouts" or buttons are the best. The culture is essentially the same +as for late cabbage or broccoli. One ounce will sow 100 ft. of drill, or +make upward of 2,000 plants. Set plants in field 2-3 ft. apart. They +require the entire season in which to grow. + + +BUDDING. See _Grafting_. + + +BULBS. The outdoor culture of bulbs is extremely simple. They care for +themselves throughout a greater part of the year, many of them flowering +when no other plants are able to grow and bloom out of doors. + +While all the so-called Holland bulbs will thrive in any kind of soil, +they will all do better by being planted in a deep, sandy soil well +enriched with well rotted manure. But do not let the manure come into +direct contact with the bulb. Even heavy clay soil may be fitted for the +growing of bulbs by the addition of sharp sand, either worked into the +soil or placed directly under the bulb when planted. To make a bulb bed, +choose, if possible, a sandy soil and throw out the top soil to the +depth of 6 in. Put into the bottom of the bed about 2 in. of well rotted +manure and spade it into the soil. Throw back half of the top soil, +level it off nicely, set the bulbs firmly on this bed and then cover +them with the balance of the soil; in this way one will have the bulbs +from 3 to 4 in. below the surface. In the fall months the top of the +ground is cooler than at the depth of 5 or 6 in. and the top of the bulb +will not want to grow, while the bottom, which is always in a hurry, +will send out roots, to push out the leaves and flowers the next spring. +When the weather is cold enough to freeze a hard crust on the soil, the +bed should have its winter overcoat. This may be straw, hay, cornstalks +or leaves spread over the bed to the depth of 6 in. if the material is +coarse; but if leaves are used, 3 in. will be enough, because the leaves +lay close together and may smother out the frost that is in the ground +and let the bulbs start. What we want is to keep them asleep until +spring, because if they start too early the hard freezes of March and +early April will spoil their beauty if the leaves or flowers are near or +above the surface. Early in April, in New York, the covering may be +removed gradually, and should all be off the beds before the leaves show +above the ground. + +If there is no sandy place for the beds, make them as directed, leaving +the stones in the bottom of the bed for drainage. Then, when ready to +set the bulb, place a large handful of sand where the bulb is to go and +set the bulb on it. This will keep the water from standing around the +bulb. Very fine results may be had on heavy soil by this method. + +As to kinds of bulbs, select hyacinths, tulips or narcissus or +daffodils, with snowdrops or crocuses of various colors around the edge. +For the culture of these and other bulbs, see the various articles +throughout the book. + +_The growing of flowering bulbs through the winter_ adds to the list of +house plants a charming variety. The labor, time and skill required is +much less than that of growing many of the larger plants more commonly +used for winter decorations. The larger number of winter bulbs may be +left out of doors until within four to six weeks of the time when they +are wanted in flower. Hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, and crocus can be +made to flower in the winter without difficulty. Secure the bulbs so as +to be able to pot them by the middle or last of October, or if earlier +all the better. The soil should be rich, sandy loam, if possible; if +not, the best one can get, to which add about one-fourth the bulk of +sand and mix thoroughly. If ordinary flower pots are to be used, put in +the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, charcoal or small stones for +drainage, then fill the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on +the dirt the top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot. Fill +around it with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing above the +dirt. If the soil is heavy, a good plan is to sprinkle a small handful +of sand under the bulb to carry off the water, the same as is done in +the beds outdoors. If one does not have pots he may use boxes. Starch +boxes are a good size to use, as they are not heavy to handle; and +excellent flowers are sometimes obtained from bulbs planted in old +tomato cans. If boxes or cans are used, care must be taken to have holes +in the bottoms to let the water run out. A large size hyacinth bulb +will do well in a 5-inch pot. The same size pot will do for three or +four narcissuses or eight to twelve crocuses. + +After the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles, they +should be placed in a cool place, either in a cold pit or cellar, or on +the shady side of a building, or, better yet, plunged or buried up to +the rim of the pot in a shady border. This is done to force the roots to +grow while the top stands still; as only the bulbs with good roots will +give good flowers. When the weather gets so cold that a crust is frozen +on the soil, the pots should be covered with a little straw, and as the +weather gets colder more straw must be used. In from six to eight weeks +after planting the bulbs, they should have made roots enough to grow the +plant, and they may be taken up and placed in a cool room for a week or +so, after which, if they have started into growth, they may be taken +into a warmer room where they can have plenty of light. They will grow +very rapidly now and will want lots of water, and after the flowers +begin to show, the pots may stand in a saucer of water all the time. +When just coming into bloom the plants may have full sunlight part of +the time to help bring out the color of the flowers. + + +BUSHES. See _Shrubs_. + + +CABBAGE. For an early crop, the plants must be started either in +February or early March, or the previous September and wintered over in +coldframes. This latter method was once a common practice by gardeners +near large cities, but the building of greenhouses to replace the many +hotbeds of the market-gardener has changed the practice in many +localities, and now most of the early Cabbages in the north are grown +from seed sown in January, February or March. The plants are hardened +off in March and early April and planted out as early as possible. The +private grower, or one with a small garden, may often procure his early +plants from the market-gardener much cheaper than he can grow them, as +usually only a limited number of early Cabbage plants are wanted; but +for the midseason and main crop, the seed may be sown in May or June, +setting the plants in July. + +[Illustration: Early Cabbage] + +For early planting, the number of varieties is limited to three or four. +For an intermediate crop the list is more extended, and the late +varieties are very numerous. The early list is headed by the Jersey +Wakefield, a variety which heads very quickly, and, although not one of +the solid kinds, is generally grown. The Early York and Winnigstadt are +good varieties to follow it. The latter especially is solid and of very +good quality. For the midseason, the Succession and All Season are of +the best, and for the winter supply the Drumhead, Danish Ball and Flat +Dutch types are the leaders. One of the best of the Cabbages for table +use is seldom seen in the garden--the Savoy Cabbage. It is a type with +netted leaves, making a large, low-growing head, the center of which is +very solid and of excellent flavor, especially late in the fall, when +the heads have had a slight touch of frost. Savoy should be grown in +every private garden. + +The seed-bed should be made mellow and rich. A good border will do. The +seed is sown preferably in rows, thus allowing thinning of the plants +and the pulling of any weeds that germinate. The young plants will well +repay attention to watering and thinning. The rows should be 3 or 4 in. +apart. When the plants are large enough to transplant, they may be +planted where early vegetables have been grown. Set the plants from 18 +to 24 in. apart in the row, the rows being 3 ft. apart for the +medium-growing kinds. One ounce of seed will furnish about two thousand +plants. All Cabbages require deep and rich soil, and one that holds +moisture well. + +The best remedy for the Cabbage worm is to kill the first brood on the +very young plants with Paris green. After the plants begin to head, +pyrethrum or salt water may be used. On a small area, hand-picking may +be recommended. + +The maggot is the most serious Cabbage pest. After studying the seventy +odd remedies proposed, Slingerland concludes that 6 are efficient and +practicable: growing the young plants in closely covered frames; tarred +paper cards placed snugly about the base of the plants to keep the fly +away; rubbing the eggs from the base of the plant; hand-picking of the +maggots; treating the plants with emulsion of carbolic acid; treating +them with carbon bisulfide. The insecticidal materials are injected or +poured into the soil about the base of the plant. + +Respecting these two insecticides, Slingerland remarks: "Always use the +crude carbolic acid, as it is much cheaper than the purified and is +nearly, if not quite, as effective. It will probably be safer if used as +an emulsion than if simply diluted with water. We would advise that it +be made by the follow formula: 1 pound of hard soap or 1 quart of soft +soap dissolved in 1 gallon of boiling water, into which 1 pint of crude +carbolic acid is then poured and the whole mass agitated into an +emulsion, which will remain in this condition for a long time. In +treating the plants, take one part of this standard emulsion and dilute +it with 30 equal parts of water; it probably can be used stronger +without injury to the plants. If the emulsion is cold and semi-solid, +use several parts of warm water at first. Begin the treatment early, a +day or two after the plants are up, or in the case of Cabbages and +Cauliflowers the next day after they are set in the field, and repeat it +once each week or 10 days until about May 20 in our state. While we have +little faith in the preventive effects of the early treatments, we do +believe that the emulsion will then kill many of the eggs and recently +hatched maggots. If it could be applied with some force through a +syringe or force pump, it might not be necessary to go to the trouble of +first removing some of the earth from about the plants. It must be +remembered that its success will depend on the eggs or maggots being hit +with it. None of the Cabbages in our experiment were injured in the +least by an application containing nearly twice as much of the acid, and +there is but little danger of its injuring the tenderest foliage of +radishes, turnips or onions; if any injury manifests itself on these +crops, dilute the emulsion with 40 or 50 or more parts of water, instead +of 30. A knapsack or wheelbarrow sprayer would prove a very useful +instrument in applying the emulsion on a large scale." + +The carbon bisulfide is best injected into the soil by means of a +long-nosed syringe. Slingerland (Cornell Bulletin 78) illustrates a +specially made syringe or injector for this purpose: "Thus Cabbage +plants can be treated once, and once is usually sufficient, at the rate +of about 10 plants for 1 cent for the liquid, using about 1 teaspoonful +to each plant. As the injector will last for years, and several +neighbors might join in the purchase and use of one instrument, its cost +would practically not influence this estimate of the cost of killing the +maggots. We believe it is the cheapest, most effective, and most +practicable method yet devised for fighting this pest on crops of +Cabbages and cauliflowers; on crops of radishes, turnips, or onions it +will probably be too expensive except where choice or new varieties are +attacked. The carbolic acid emulsion will prove the most practicable on +these last crops." + +The club-root, which causes the roots to become greatly thickened and +distorted, is difficult to manage if Cabbages or allied plants are grown +continuously on land in which diseased plants have been raised. Changing +the location of the Cabbage or Cauliflower patch is the best procedure. +If very different crops, as corn, potatoes, peas, tomatoes, etc., are +grown on the land, the disease will be starved out in two or three +years. + + +CACALIA. TASSEL FLOWER. LADIES' PAINT BRUSH. A quaint old annual, in two +colors, scarlet and orange. It is easily grown, and makes a fine +second-row plant for a border, contrasting well with Browallia or +Ageratum. Sow where the plants are to stand. Let plants stand 10-12 +inches apart. Grow 1-2 ft. high. + + +CACTUS. This class of plants is often seen in small collections of house +plants, to which they add interest, being altogether different from +other plants. All Cacti are easy to grow, requiring but little care and +enduring the heat and dryness of a living room much better than most +other plants. Their requirements are ample drainage and a sandy soil. +Cactus growers usually make a soil by mixing pulverized plaster or lime +refuse with garden loam, using about two-thirds of the loam. The very +fine parts, or dust, of the plaster, are blown out, else the soil is +likely to cement. They may be rested at any season by simply setting +them away in a dry place for two or three months, and bringing them into +heat and light when they are wanted. As new growth advances they should +have water occasionally, and when in bloom they should be watered +freely. Withhold water gradually after blooming until they are to be +rested. + +Some of the most common species in cultivation are the Phyllocactus +species, often called the Night-blooming Cereus. These are not the true +Night-blooming Cereuses, which have angular or cylindrical stems, +covered with bristles, while this has flat, leaf-like branches; the +flowers of these, however, are very much like the Cereus, opening at +evening and closing before morning, and as the Phyllocacti may be grown +with greater ease, blooming on smaller and younger plants, they are to +be recommended. See _Cereus_. + +The Epiphyllum, or Lobster Cactus, is one of the best of the family, +easy of culture. It bears bright-colored blossoms at the end of each +joint. When in flower, which will be through some of the winter months, +this requires a richer soil than the other Cacti. Opuntias, or prickly +pears, are often grown as border plants through the summer. In fact, all +the family may be planted out, and if a number of varieties are set in a +bed together they make a striking addition to the garden. Be very +careful not to bruise the plants. It is better to plunge them in the +pots than to turn them out of the pots. + + +[Illustration: Caladium or Colocasia] + +CALADIUM. Tuberous-rooted, tender perennial plants which are used for +conservatory decorations, and also for subtropical and bold effects in +the lawn. The plants which are commonly known under this name are really +Colocasias. The plants should be rested during the winter, being kept in +a warm cellar or under a greenhouse bench, where they are not liable to +frost or dampness. The roots are usually kept covered with earth during +the winter, but they are kept dry. Early in the spring the roots are put +into boxes or pots and are started into growth, so that by the time +settled weather comes they will be 1 or 2 feet high and ready to set +directly into soil. When set out of doors, they should be given a place +which is protected from strong winds, and one which does not receive the +full glare of direct sunlight. The soil should be rich and deep, and the +plants should have an abundance of water. Caladiums are most excellent +plants for striking effects, especially against a house, high shrubbery +or other background. If they are planted by themselves, they should be +in clumps rather than scattered as single specimens, as the effect is +better. See that they get a good start before they are planted in the +open ground. + + +CALCEOLARIA. Small greenhouse herbs which are sometimes used in the +window-garden. They are not very satisfactory plants for window +treatment, however, since they suffer from dry atmosphere and from +sudden changes of temperature. In the window-garden they should be +protected from strong, direct sunlight. They are grown from seeds. If +the seeds are sown in early summer and the young plants are transplanted +as they need, flowering specimens may be had for the late fall and early +winter. In the growing of the young plants, always avoid exposing them +to direct sunlight; but they should be given a place which has an +abundance of screened or tempered light. A new crop of plants should be +raised each year. There is a race of shrubby Calceolarias, but it is +little known in this country. One or two species are annuals which are +adaptable to cultivation in the open garden, and their little, +ladyslipper-like flowers are attractive. However, they are of secondary +importance as annual garden flowers. + + +CALENDULA. These are the well known POT MARIGOLDS, and add a bright spot +to any garden. Annual. Especially are they fine in the cool days of the +fall, when many of the annual flowers have gone to seed. The places of +short-lived plants may be filled by sowing seed of Calendulas in May, +scattering them through the border and allowing the plants to grow where +they come up. Easy of growth and hardy. 1-2 ft. high. Should stand 8-12 +in. apart. Colors, yellow and orange. + + +[Illustration: California Poppy] + +CALIFORNIA POPPY (_Eschscholtzia Californica_). Low perennial, +poppy-like plant, grown as a hardy annual. It is certainly one of the +best low-growing annuals, blooming through a long season and being at +its best through the cool days of fall, after touched by frost. Most of +the varieties have flowers of fine shades of orange or yellow, making a +bright spot in the border at all times. They are like the pot marigolds, +in that once planted they seed themselves. They are never out of place, +and should be left to bloom wherever they may be. Flowers open only in +sunshine. As cut-flowers they are excellent, a large bowl of them +glowing like a golden ball, especially if they are emphasized by a few +blue larkspurs or bachelor's buttons. + +Propagated by seed, which would best be sown as soon as ripe, thus +giving the plant an early start, and having bloom through the season. +They make attractive mats of foliage. 12-18 in. high. Let the plants +stand 10-20 in. apart. + + +CALLA (properly _Richardia_). EGYPTIAN LILY. All things considered, this +is one of the most satisfactory of winter house plants, lending itself +to various conditions. The requirements of the Calla are rich soil and +an abundance of water, with the roots confined in as small a space as +possible. If a too large pot is used the growth of foliage will be very +rank, at the expense of the flowers, but by using a smaller sized pot +and applying liquid manure the flowers will be produced freely. A 6-inch +pot will be large enough for all but an exceptionally large bulb. If +desired, a number of bulbs may be grown together in a larger pot. The +soil should be very rich but fibrous--at least one-third well rotted +manure will be none too much, mixed with equal parts of fibrous loam and +sharp sand. The tubers should be planted firmly and the pots set in a +cool place to make roots. After the roots have partially filled the pot, +the plant may be brought into heat and given a sunny position and an +abundance of water. An occasional sponging or washing of the leaves will +free them from dust. No other treatment will be required until the +flowers appear, when liquid manure may be given. The plant will thrive +all the better at this time if the pot is placed in a saucer of water. +In fact, the Calla will grow finely in an aquarium. The Calla may be +grown through the entire year, but it will prove more satisfactory, both +in leaf and flower, if rested through part of the summer. This may be +done by laying the pots on their sides in a dry, shady place under +shrubbery, or if in the open slightly covered with straw or other litter +to keep the roots from becoming extremely dry. In September or October +they may be shaken out, cleaning off all the old soil, and repotted, as +already mentioned. The offsets may be taken off and set in small pots +and given a year's growth, resting them the second year and having them +in flower that winter. + +The spotted Calla has variegated foliage and is a fine plant for mixed +collections. This blooms in the spring, which will lengthen the season +of Calla bloom. The treatment of this is similar to that of the common +Calla. + + +CALLIOPSIS is a garden name for _Coreopsis_. + + +CALLIRRHO. _C. pedata_ is a hardy annual which has large, graceful +blossoms of violet or red. Is it a very free-blooming plant. Should be +started in a frame and planted out where wanted. 2-3 ft. high and grows +bushy. Plants should stand 1-2 ft. apart. + + +CAMELLIA. Years ago Camellias were very popular, but they have been +crowded out by the informal flowers of recent times. Their time will +come again. They are half-hardy woody plants, blooming in late winter +and spring. During the blooming season keep them cool--say not over 50 +at night and a little higher by day. When blooming is done they begin to +grow, then give them more heat and plenty of water. See that they are +well ripened by winter. Always screen them from direct sunlight. Do not +try to force them in early winter, after the growth has ceased. Their +summer quarters may be in a protected place in the open air. Propagated +by cuttings in winter, which should give blooming plants in two years. +Use a porous soil for Camellias, with considerable leaf-mold. + + +CAMPANULA. BELL FLOWER. But one of the Campanulas commonly listed by +seedsmen is an annual,--_C. macrostyla_, a clean-leaved plant, growing 2 +feet high, spreading over the ground, and bearing a profusion of large, +violet, bell-shaped flowers. The Canterbury Bell is the best known. It +is biennial, but if started early and transplanted will bloom the first +season. The perennial Campanulas are most excellent for borders. _C. +Carpatica_ is particularly good for edgings. + + +CANARY BIRD FLOWER. See _Nasturtium_. + + +[Illustration: Candytuft] + +CANDYTUFT. Well known sweet-scented hardy annuals, in red, purple, and +white; easy of culture and fine for cutting. One of the best of edging +plants for the front row. The plants grow from 6 in. to 1 ft. tall. Sow +seeds where the plants are to grow, letting plants stand 6-12 in. apart. +They do not last the entire season, and successive sowings may well be +made. There are also perennial kinds. + + +CANNA is now the favorite bedding plant. The improvements made in the +past ten years, in size and markings of the flowers, have created a +liking for the plant. The tropical effect of a large bed of Cannas, +either mixed or of one color, is not surpassed by any other plant used +for bedding purposes. + +[Illustration: Canna] + +The Canna may be grown from seed and had in bloom the first year by +sowing in February or March, in boxes or pots placed in hotbeds or +warmhouse, first soaking the seeds in warm water for a short time. +Attention to transplanting as needed and removal to the ground only when +it is well warmed are the necessary requirements. The majority of +Cannas, however, are grown from pieces of the roots (rhizomes), each +piece having a bud. The roots may be divided at any time in the winter, +and if early flowers and foliage are wanted the pieces may be planted in +a hotbed or warmhouse in early April, started into growth and planted +out where wanted as soon as the ground has warmed and all danger of +frost is over. A hardening of the plants, by leaving the sash off the +hotbeds, or setting the plants in shallow boxes and placing the boxes +in a sheltered position through May, not forgetting a liberal supply of +water, will fit the plants to take kindly to the final planting out. +After frost has injured the tops, the roots may be dug, choosing, if +possible, a dry day. The soil is shaken off and the roots stored in a +warm, dry place through the winter. If the cellar is too dry the roots +are liable to shrivel, in which case it would be best to cover them with +soil or sand, filling in around the roots to exclude the drying air. + +Cannas grow 3 to 7 ft. high. For dense mass effects, plant 12-18 in. +apart. For individual plants, or for best bloom, give more room. Fine +clumps may be had by planting out the entire old root, not dividing it. +Cannas want a rich, warm soil and a sunny place. They are very easy to +grow. + + +CANTERBURY BELL is a _Campanula_. + + +CARBONATE OF COPPER. See _Bordeaux Mixture_. + + +CARDIOSPERMUM. See _Balloon Vine_. + + +CARNATIONS are of two types, the outdoor or garden varieties, and the +indoor or forcing kinds. Normally, the Carnation is a hardy perennial, +but the garden kinds, or Marguerites, are usually treated as annuals. +The forcing kinds are flowered but once, new plants being grown each +year from cuttings. + +Marguerite Carnations bloom the year the seed is sown, and with a slight +protection will bloom freely the second year. They make attractive house +plants if potted in the fall. The seeds of these Carnations should be +sown in boxes in March and the young plants set out as early as +possible, pinching out the center of the plant to make them branch +freely. Give the same space as for garden pinks. + +[Illustration: Carnation] + +The winter-flowering Carnations have become prime favorites with all +flower lovers, and a collection of winter house plants seems incomplete +without them. Carnations grow readily from cuttings made of the suckers +that form around the base of the stem, the side shoots of the flowering +stem, or the main shoots before they show flower buds. The cuttings from +the base make the best plants in most cases. These cuttings may be taken +from a plant at any time through the fall or winter, rooted in sand and +potted up, to be held in pots until the planting out time in the spring, +usually in April, or any time when the ground is ready to handle. Care +should be taken to pinch out the tops of young plants while growing in +the pot, and later while in the ground, causing them to grow stocky and +send out new growths along the stem. The young plants should be grown +cool, a temperature of 45 suiting them well. Attention should be given +to spraying the cuttings each day while in the house to keep down the +red spider, which is very partial to the Carnation. In the summer, the +plants are grown in the field, and not in pots. The soil in which they +are to be planted should be moderately rich and loose. Clean cultivation +should be given throughout the summer. Frequently pinch out the tops. +The plants are taken up in September and potted firmly, and well +watered; then set in a cool, partially shaded situation until root +growth has started, spraying the foliage often, and watering the plant +only as it shows need of water. + +[Illustration: Carnation cutting] + +The usual living-room conditions as to moisture and heat are not such as +the Carnation demands, and care must be taken to overcome the dryness by +spraying the foliage and setting the plant in a position not exposed to +the direct heat of a stove or the sun. In commercial houses, it is not +often necessary to spray established plants. Pick off most or all of the +side buds, in order to add to the size of the leading flowers. After +all is said, it is probably advisable in most cases to purchase the +plants when in bloom from a florist, and after blooming either throw +them away or store them for planting in the spring, when they will bloom +throughout the summer. + + +CARPET BEDDING. See _Bedding_. + + +[Illustration: Early Carrots] + +CARROT, while essentially a farm crop in this country, is nevertheless a +most acceptable garden vegetable. It is hardy and easily grown. The +extra-early varieties may be forced in a hotbed, or seed may be sown as +soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring. The stump-rooted, or +half-long varieties, are sown for the general garden crop. Well +enriched, mellow loam, deeply dug or plowed, is best suited to the +requirements of Carrots. The seed for the main crop may be sown as late +as July 1. Sow thickly, thinning to 3-4 in. in the row. The rows, if in +a garden that is hand-worked, may be 12 in. apart. If the cultivation is +done by a horse, the rows should be from 2 to 3 ft. apart. One ounce +will sow 100 feet of drill. + + +[Illustration: Castor Bean] + +CASTOR OIL PLANT. In the entire list of quick-growing plants there is +none that excels this for rapidity of growth, grace of foliage and rich +effect. Used either as a specimen plant, with cannas, caladiums, or for +a tropical bed, or as a screen, it gives the most satisfactory results. +Seeds sown early in the house, and the plants grown in the full light, +make fine, stocky plants to set out about the middle of May. With rich +soil and plenty of water, they will grow without a check until frost. +Height, 5-12 ft. For screens, plant 3-4 ft. apart. There are varieties +with differing shades of foliage. + + +CAULIFLOWER. The general culture of Cauliflower is much like that of +cabbage, except that the Cauliflower, being more tender, should be more +thoroughly hardened off before setting out. Still, it is essential that +the plants be set out as early as possible, as the warm weather of June +causes them to make imperfect heads unless the soil is filled with +moisture. No garden crop will as well repay the cost and time of +thorough irrigation, either by running the water between the rows or +applying it directly to the plants. When it is impossible to furnish +water, it would be a good plan to mulch heavily with straw or some other +substance. This mulch, if put on just after a heavy rain, will hold the +moisture for a long time. When the heads begin to form the outside +leaves may be brought together and tied above the head, excluding the +direct sunshine and keeping the head white and tender. No vegetable will +respond more quickly to good culture and well manured soil than the +Cauliflower, and none will prove such an utter failure when neglected. +It is imperative that care be taken to destroy all the cabbage worms +before the leaves are tied in, as after that it will be impossible to +see or reach them. Cauliflower prospers best in moist soil and a cool +climate. From 1,000 to 1,500 plants may be grown from 1 ounce of seed. +Good Cauliflower seed is very expensive. + +[Illustration: Cauliflower] + +For winter crop, seeds may be started in June or July, as for late +cabbage. + +Erfurt, Snowball and Paris are popular early varieties. Nonpareil and +Algiers are good late kinds. + + +CELERIAC, or TURNIP-ROOTED CELERY. This tuber has the celery flavor in a +pronounced degree, and is used for flavoring soups and for celery salad. +It may be served raw, sliced in vinegar and oil, or boiled. The culture +is the same as given for celery, except that no earthing or blanching is +required. About an equal number of plants are obtained from the same +weight of seed as from celery seed. Celeriac is extensively used abroad, +but, unfortunately, is little grown in America. + + +CELERY has become one of the favorite relish and salad vegetables, and +is now very generally grown. The self-blanching varieties have +simplified the culture so that the amateur, as well as the expert, may +have a supply through at least six months of the year. The so-called new +culture, which consists of setting the plants close together and causing +them to shade each other, can be recommended for the garden when a +supply of well rotted manure is to be had, and when any amount of water +is available. This method is as follows: Fork or spade into the soil a +large quantity of manure to the depth of 10-12 in., pulverize the soil +until the ground for the depth of 4-6 in. is in very fine condition. +Then set the plants in rows 10 in. apart and the plants but 5 or 6 in. +apart in the rows. It will be seen that plants set as close as this will +soon fill the soil with a mass of roots and must have large amounts of +plant-food, as well as a large quantity of water; and the making of such +a bed can be recommended only to those who can supply these needs. + +[Illustration: Celery] + +The common practice in home gardens is to plow or dig a shallow trench, +setting the plants in the bottom and hoeing in the soil as the plants +grow. The distance apart of the rows and plants will depend on the +varieties. For the dwarf varieties, such as White Plume, Golden +Self-blanching and others of that type, the rows may be as close as 3 +ft. and the plants 6 in. in the rows. For the large-growing varieties, +as Kalamazoo, Giant Pascal and, in fact, most of the late varieties, +the rows may be from 4 to 5 ft. apart and the plants 7 or 8 in. in +the row. + +The seed for an early crop should be sown in February or early in March +in shallow boxes, which may be placed in a hotbed or sunny window, or +sown directly in the soil of a hotbed. Cover the seeds thinly and press +the soil firmly over them. When the seedling plants are about one inch +high they should be transplanted to other boxes or hotbeds, setting the +plants 1 in. apart in rows 3 in. apart. At this transplanting, as with +the following ones, the tall leaves should be cut or pinched off, +leaving only the upright growth, as with the utmost care it is almost +impossible to prevent the outside leafstalks from wilting down and +dying. The roots of the plants should also be trimmed back at each +transplanting in order to increase the feeding roots. The plants should +be set as deep as possible, care being taken, however, not to allow the +heart of the plant to be covered up. The varieties usually grown for an +early crop are the so-called self-blanching varieties. They may be made +fit for the table with much less labor than the late crop, the shade +required to blanch the stalks being much less. When only a few short +rows are grown in a private garden, screens of lath may be made by +driving stakes on each side of the row and tacking lath on, leaving +spaces of an inch or more for the light to enter; or each head may be +wrapped in paper, or a tile drain pipe may be set over the plant. In +fact, any material that will exclude the light will render the stalks +white and brittle. + +The seed for the main or fall crop should be sown in April or early May +in a seed bed prepared by forking fine, well rotted manure into a fine +soil, sowing the seed thinly in rows 8 or 10 in. apart, covering the +seed lightly and firming over the seed with the feet, hoe or back of a +spade. This seed bed should be kept moist at all times until the seed +germinates, either by close attention to watering or by a lath screen. +The use of a piece of cloth laid directly on the soil, and the bed wet +through the cloth, is often recommended, and if the cloth is always wet +and taken off the bed as soon as the seed sprouts it can be used. After +the young plants have grown to the height of 1 or 2 in. they must be +thinned out, leaving the plants so that they do not touch each other, +and transplanting those thinned--if wanted--to other ground prepared in +the same manner as the seed bed. All these plants may be sheared or cut +back to induce stockiness. + +If in a private garden, the ground on which the fall crop is usually set +will likely be land from which a crop of some early vegetable has been +taken. This land should be again well enriched with fine, well rotted +manure, to which may be added a liberal amount of wood ashes. If the +manure or ashes are not easily obtained, a small amount may be used by +plowing or digging out a furrow 8 or 12 in. deep, scattering the manure +and ashes in the bottom of the trench and filling it up almost level +with the surface. The plants should be set about the middle of July, +preferably just before a rain. The plant bed should have a thorough +soaking shortly before the plants are lifted, and each plant be trimmed, +both top and root, before setting. The plants should be set from 5 to 6 +in. apart in the rows and the earth well firmed around each one. + +The after-cultivation consists in thorough tillage until the time of +"handling" or earthing up the plants. This process of handling is +accomplished by drawing up the earth with one hand while holding the +plant with the other, packing the soil well around the stalks. This +process may be continued until only the leaves are to be seen. For the +private grower, it is much easier to blanch the Celery with boards or +paper, or if the Celery is not wanted until winter, the plants may be +dug up, packed closely in boxes, covering the roots with soil, and +placed in a dark, cool cellar, where the stalks will blanch themselves. +In this manner Celery may be stored in boxes in the house cellar. Put +earth in the bottom of a deep box, and plant the Celery in it. An ounce +of seed will furnish about three thousand plants. + + +CENTAUREA. Showy annuals and perennials. _C. Cyanus_ is the CORN FLOWER +or BACHELOR BUTTON, familiar to every flower lover, and always seen in +old-fashioned gardens. This is a fine plant for borders or mixed beds, +and also gives good flowers for bouquets. A bunch of the Corn Flower, +with a sprinkling of yellow marigolds or California poppy, makes a rich +effect. These Centaureas are easy of culture, seeding themselves after +once being planted, and coming up year after year in great profusion. +There are blue, white and rose varieties. Annuals. 2-3 ft. Hardy. + +The silver-leaved Centaureas are used only for foliage effects. They are +excellent for ribbon beds or border lines. The seed of these should be +started in a hotbed or box in March, the young plants being set out +where wanted when the ground becomes warm. These species are perennials, +and are sometimes grown from cuttings. _C. candidissima_ and _C. +gymnocarpa_ are among the best white-leaved bedders. + + +CENTRANTHUS. Low-growing hardy annuals in two colors, red and white. +They make very effective covering for low rockwork, and are also +suitable for vases or lawn baskets. Sow where the plants are to stand, +or start indoors if early bloom is wanted. 1 ft. Thin to 10-12 in. +apart. + + +CENTURY PLANT, or AGAVE. These are fine ornamental plants for the +window-garden or conservatory, requiring but little care and growing +slowly, thus needing repotting only at long intervals. When the plants +have outgrown their usefulness as house plants, they are still valuable +as porch decorations, for plunging in rockwork or about rustic nooks. +The striped-leaved variety is the most desirable, but the common type, +with its blue-gray leaves, is highly ornamental. + +There are a number of dwarf-growing species of Agave that are not so +common, although they may be grown with ease. Such plants add novelty to +a collection, and may be used through the summer as noted above or +plunged with cactus in a bed of tropical plants. All succeed well in +loam and sand in equal parts, adding a little leaf-mold in the case of +the small varieties. The more common species are propagated by suckers +from around the base of the established plants. A few kinds having no +suckers must be grown from seed. As to watering, they demand no special +care. Agaves will not stand frost. + + +CEREUS. Under the name of NIGHT-BLOOMING CEREUSES, several species of +Cacti are cultivated. The name is sometimes applied to species of +Phyllocactus, the flowers of which, in white and shades of red, +sometimes open at nightfall. Phyllocactuses are easy to grow. See +_Cactus_. The true Night-blooming Cereuses, however, are species of the +genus Cereus. The commonest one is _C. nycticalus_, but _C. +grandiflorus_, _C. triangularis_ and others are occasionally seen. These +true Night-blooming Cereuses all have long rod-like stems, which are +cylindrical or angular. These stems often reach a height of 10 to 30 +ft., and they need support. They should be trained along a pillar or +tied to a stake. They are uninteresting leafless things during a large +part of the year; but in midsummer, after they are three or more years +old, they throw out their great tubular flowers, which open at nightfall +and wither and die when the light strikes them next morning. They are +very easily grown, either in pots or planted in the natural soil in the +conservatory. The only special care they need is good drainage at the +roots, so that the soil will not become soggy. + + +CHERRY. Of Cherries there are two common types, the sweet Cherries and +the sour Cherries. The sweet Cherries are larger and taller-growing +trees. They comprise the varieties known as the Hearts, Bigarreaus and +Dukes. The sour Cherries include the various kinds of Morellos and pie +Cherries, and these usually ripen after the sweet Cherries. The sour +Cherries make low, round-headed trees. The fruits are extensively used +for canning. Cherry trees should be planted when 2 and 3 years old. Too +rich soil tends to make growth at the expense of fruit, particularly in +the sweet Cherries. For the sweet types, a strong, gravelly loam is +best. Sour Cherries thrive well on clay loams. + +Trees of the sour Cherry should be planted 18 by 18 ft. apart, in well +prepared under-drained soil. The trees may be slightly trimmed back each +year, keeping the head low and bushy. + +[Illustration: Sweet Cherry] + +The sweet Cherries have proved disappointing in many instances from the +rotting of the fruit. This may never be entirely avoided, but good +cultivation, soil not too rich in nitrogen, attention to spraying, and +picking the fruit when dry, will lessen the loss very much. In years of +severe rotting, the fruit should be picked before it becomes fully ripe, +placed in a cool, airy room and allowed to color. It will be nearly as +well flavored as if left on the tree; and, as the fungus usually attacks +only the ripe fruit, a considerable part of the crop may be saved. Set +the trees 25 or 30 ft. apart. + +[Illustration: Black Tartarian Cherry] + +Leaf-blight is readily controlled by timely spraying with Bordeaux +mixture. The curculio or fruit worm is best controlled by jarring, as +for plums (which see). + +Of sweet Cherries, Windsor is the most popular variety. Other good kinds +are Napoleon, Governor Wood, Dikeman, Black Tartarian. Of sour Cherries, +Ostheim and Early Richmond are very early and productive, but better +kinds are Montmorency and English Morello. + + +CHERVIL. The curled Chervil is a good addition to the list of garnishing +vegetables, and adds flavor to dishes when it is used to season. Sow +seeds and cultivate the same as parsley. + +The tuberous Chervil resembles a short carrot or parsnip. It is much +esteemed in France and Germany. The tubers have somewhat the flavor of a +sweet potato, perhaps a little sweeter. They are perfectly hardy, and, +like the parsnip, the better for frosts. The seed may be sown in +September or October, as it does not keep well; or as soon as the ground +is fit to work in the spring, it being slow to germinate after the +weather becomes hot and dry. One packet of seed will give all the plants +necessary. + + +CHESTNUTS. Of Chestnuts there are three types in cultivation: the +European, the Japanese, and the American. The American, or native +Chestnuts, of which there are several improved varieties, are the +hardiest and most reliable, and the nuts are the sweetest, but they are +also the smallest. The Japanese varieties are usually injured by the +winter in central New York. The European varieties are somewhat hardier, +and some of the varieties will thrive in the northern states. Chestnuts +are very easily grown. They usually bear better when two or more trees +are planted near each other. There are few really good Chestnut orchards +in North America, but Chestnut planting is now considerably agitated. +Sprouts in old Chestnut clearings are often allowed to remain, and +sometimes they are grafted to the improved varieties. The young trees +may be grafted in the spring by the whip-graft or cleft-graft method; +but the cions should be perfectly dormant, and the operation should be +very carefully done. Even with the best workmanship, a considerable +percentage of the grafts are likely to fail or to break off after two or +three years. The most popular single variety of Chestnut is the Paragon, +which bears large and excellent nuts when the tree is very young. When +the home ground is large enough, two or three of these trees should be +planted near the borders. + + +CHICORY. The Magdeburg Chicory is the variety usually spoken of, it +being the one most extensively grown. The roots of this, after being +ground and roasted, are used either as a substitute or an adulterant of +coffee. + +The Witloof, a form of Chicory, is used as a salad, or boiled and served +in the same manner as Cauliflower. The plants should be thinned to 6 in. +In the latter part of summer they should be banked up like celery, and +the leaves used after becoming white and tender. This and the common +wild Chicory are often dug in the fall, the leaves cut off, the roots +packed in sand in a cellar and watered until a new growth of leaves +starts. These leaves grow rapidly and are very tender, making a fine +salad vegetable. One packet of seed of the Witloof will furnish plants +enough for a large family. + + +[Illustration: Chrysanthemum] + +CHRYSANTHEMUMS are both annual and perennial. The annual Chrysanthemums +must not be confounded with the well known fall-flowering kinds, as they +will prove a disappointment if one expects large flowers of all colors +and shapes. The annuals are mostly coarse-growing plants, with an +abundance of bloom and a rank smell. The flowers are single in most +cases, and not very lasting. They are useful for massing and also for +cut-flowers. They are among the easiest of hardy annuals to grow. The +stoniest part of the garden will usually suit them. 1-2 ft. Colors white +and shades of yellow, the flowers daisy-like. + +Amongst perennial kinds, _Chrysanthemum frutescens_ is the well known +Paris Daisy or Marguerite, one of the most popular of the genus. This +makes a very fine pot-plant for the window-garden, blooming throughout +the winter and spring months. It is usually propagated by cuttings, +which, if taken in spring, will give large blooming plants for the next +winter. Gradually transfer to larger pots or boxes, until the plants +finally stand in 6-inch or 8-inch pots or in small soap boxes. There is +a fine yellow-flowered variety. + +[Illustration: Chrysanthemums in a box] + +In variety of form and color, and in size of bloom, the florists' +Chrysanthemum is one of the most wonderful of plants. It is a late +autumn flower, and it needs little artificial heat to bring it to +perfection. The great blooms of the exhibitions are produced by growing +only one flower to a plant and by feeding the plant heavily. It is +hardly possible for the amateur to grow such specimen flowers as the +professional florist or gardener does; neither is it necessary. A +well-grown plant with fourteen to twenty flowers is far more +satisfactory as a window plant than a long, stiff stem with only one +immense flower at the apex. Their culture is simple, much more so than +that of many of the plants commonly grown for house decoration. Although +their season of bloom is short, the satisfaction of having a fall +display of flowers before the geraniums, begonias and other house plants +have recovered from their removal from out of doors, repays all efforts. + +[Illustration: Cutting of Chrysanthemum] + +Cuttings taken in March or April, planted out in the border in May, well +tended through the summer and lifted before frost in September, will +bloom in October or November. The ground in which they are planted +should be moderately rich and moist. The plants may be tied to stakes. +When the buds show, all but the center one of each cluster on the +leading shoots should be picked off, as also the small lateral branches. +A thrifty bushy plant thus treated will usually have flowers large +enough to show the character of the variety, also enough flowers to make +a fine display. As to the receptacle into which to put them when lifted +from the border, it need not be a flower pot. A pail or soap box, with +holes bored for drainage, will suit the plant just as well, and by +covering the box with cloth or paper the difference will not be noticed. +If cuttings are not to be had, young plants may be bought of the +florists and treated in the manner described. Buy them in midsummer or +earlier. + +[Illustration: Vase of small Chrysanthemums] + +It is best not to attempt to flower the same plant two seasons. After +the plant has bloomed, the top may be cut down, and the box set in a +cellar and kept moderately dry. In February or March, bring the plant to +the sitting-room window and let the shoots start from the root. These +shoots are taken for cuttings to grow plants for the fall bloom. + +[Illustration: Hardy Chrysanthemum] + +There is a hardy race of Chrysanthemums, very excellent for the border. +Mulch in winter. The best bloom is usually given the first and second +years. + + +CINERARIA. A tender greenhouse plant. It may be grown as a house plant, +although the conditions necessary to the best results are hard to obtain +outside of a greenhouse. The conditions for their growing are a cool +temperature, frequent repotting and guarding against the attacks of the +greenfly. Perhaps the last is the most difficult, and with one having no +facilities for fumigating, it will be almost impossible to prevent the +difficulty. A living room usually has too dry air for Cinerarias. The +seed, which is very minute, should be sown in August or September to +have plants in bloom in January or February. Sow the seed on the surface +of fine soil and water very lightly to settle the seeds into the soil. A +piece of glass or a damp cloth may be spread over the pot or box in +which the seeds are sown, to remain until the seeds are up. Always keep +the soil damp, but not wet. When the seedlings are large enough to +repot, they should be potted singly in 2- or 3-inch pots. Before the +plants have become pot-bound, they should again be repotted into larger +pots, until they are in at least a 6-inch pot in which to bloom. In all +this time, they should be grown cool and, if not possible to fumigate +them with tobacco smoke, the pots should stand on tobacco stems, which +should be moist at all times. The general practice, in order to have +bushy plants, is to pinch out the center when the flower buds show, +causing the lateral branches to start, which they are slow to do if the +central stem is allowed to grow. Plants bloom but once. + + +CIVES. These belong to the onion family, and are propagated by division +of the root. They may be planted in a permanent place in the border, +and, being hardy, will remain for years. The leaves are the parts used, +as the roots are very rank in flavor. The leaves may be cut frequently, +as they readily grow again. + + +CLARKIA. The Clarkias are among the popular hardy edging and vase +annuals, bearing rose, white or bordered flowers in great profusion. The +double-flowering varieties are the most showy, but the single ones will +prove very satisfactory. The seeds may be sown where the plants are +wanted, or started in frames for earlier flowers. 6-18 in. high. Thin to +6-12 in. apart. Plant in a warm soil and sunny place. + + +CLEMATIS. One of the best of woody climbing vines. The common _C. +Flammula_, _Virginiana_, _paniculata_ and others are used frequently to +cover division walls or fences, growing year after year without any care +and producing quantities of flowers. _C. paniculata_ is now planted very +extensively. The panicles of star-shaped flowers entirely cover the vine +and have a pleasant fragrance. One of the best of all fall-flowering +vines, and hardy North. Clings well to a chicken-wire trellis. + +The large-flowered section, of which Jackmani is perhaps the best known, +is very popular for pillar or porch climbers. The flowers of this +section are large and showy, running from pure white, through blue, to +scarlet. Of this class, the most serviceable purple is Jackmani; white, +Henryi; blue, Ramona; crimson, Madame E. Andr. + +The Flammula class may be propagated by division of the roots. The +large-flowered kinds are propagated by layers or root-grafting on _C. +Flammula_ and others. + +[Illustration: Clematis paniculata] + +A deep, mellow, rich soil, naturally moist, will suit the requirements +of Clematis. In dry times apply water freely, particularly for the +large-flowered kinds. Also provide trellis or other support as soon as +they begin to run. Clematis usually blooms on the wood of the season: +therefore prune in winter or early spring, in order to secure strong new +flowering shoots. The large-flowered kinds should be cut back to the +ground each year; and other kinds may be similarly treated unless they +are wanted for permanent bowers. + +The Clematis root disease is the depredation of a nematode or eel-worm. +It is seldom troublesome in ground which thoroughly freezes. + + +CLIMBERS. Treated under _Vines_. + + +COBA. This is most commonly seen in the greenhouse, although it is one +of the best of tender climbers for porches. Seed sown in February or +March, and grown in gentle heat, will make suitable plants for setting +out by June. It may also be grown from cuttings of the young wood, taken +in February and rooted in brisk heat. The flowers of _C. scandens_ are +shaped very much like those of the Campanulas, but are larger. They open +a greenish white and deepen to a dark purple in the course of a few +days. The vines in full bloom have a gradation of colors as the flowers +are in different stages of development. The variegated form of _C. +scandens_ should be propagated by cuttings to hold the variegation. +Grows 10-15 ft. Tender. Climbs by means of tendrils. + + +COCKSCOMB. _Celosia cristata_ is the well known Cockscomb, having combs +or heads of scarlet, crimson, rose and yellow. The combs are often +saved for winter bouquets by cutting them off before thoroughly ripe and +drying them. The feathered section comprises tall-growing plants with +plumes of various colors which, with the colored leaves of some +varieties, make a striking feature in a border. The Celosias, being +tender, should be started in a hotbed or frame, potted off when out of +the seed-leaf, and planted out in well enriched soil after danger of +frost is past, 1-2 ft. high. + + +COLDFRAME. A Coldframe is a simple, low structure, covered with glass or +oiled paper or cloth, in which plants are grown without artificial heat. +It differs from the hotbed in the fact that it has no bottom heat. The +atmosphere in the Coldframe is warmer than that outside, because it is +protected from the winds and because there is more or less of the sun's +heat stored up in the earth. For the details of construction of the +Coldframe, see _Hotbed_. + +A Coldframe is ordinarily used for later work than the hotbed: that is, +seeds may be sown in a Coldframe from two to three and sometimes four +weeks in advance of their sowing in the open; whereas in a hotbed the +seeds may be started from one to three months earlier than they may be +out of doors. Coldframes are sometimes used for the wintering over of +hardy plants which are started in the fall. For example, cabbage seed +may be sown in September in a Coldframe and the young plants may be +protected therein during the winter. If they are properly grown and +hardened off, they will not be injured by the winter, even though they +freeze. Lettuce and sometimes cauliflowers are carried over in the same +way. Coldframes are also used to receive plants which have outgrown the +hotbed and must be transplanted. Plants which need hardening off may +also be transplanted from the hotbed into the Coldframe. The Coldframe +in these cases is an intermediate stage between the hotbed and the open +field. + + +COLEUS. A well known foliage plant for pot culture or bedding. It was +used very extensively at one time in ornamental bedding and ribbon +borders, but owing to its being tender has lost in favor, and its place +is largely taken by other plants. Cuttings root very readily. It may +also be grown from seed, although the types have not become fixed, and a +large number of differently marked plants may be had from the same +packet. This would not be a drawback in the window-garden, unless a +uniform effect is wished. Sow the seed in gentle heat in March. Make new +plants from cuttings each year, and throw the old ones away. + + +COLLARDS. This is a name given to a kind of kale, used when young as +greens; also to young cabbages used in the same way. The seed of any +early cabbage may be sown thickly in rows 18 inches apart, from early +spring to late fall. The plants are cut off when 6 or 8 inches high and +boiled as are other greens. The kale Collards is grown in the South, +where cabbages fail to head. It grows to the height of 2 to 6 feet, +furnishing a large quantity of leaves. + + +COLLINSIA. A hardy annual that should be sown in the fall, where wanted, +if early flowers are desired. The flowers of all the varieties are +showy, either in masses or planted in a border. Give them a position +near the front, as the plants rarely exceed 18 inches in height. + + +COLUMBINE. See _Aquilegia_. + + +COMPOST. See _Manure_. + + +CONVOLVULUS. See _Morning-Glory_. + + +COREOPSIS, or CALLIOPSIS. Very showy hardy annuals, growing from 1 to 3 +feet high, and covered throughout the season with a profusion of bloom. +The colors range from lemon-yellow to dark velvety brown. Excellent for +cutting, and very effective in mixed borders. They thrive in any garden +soil if they have full sunlight. Sow where they are to grow, letting the +plants stand 6-12 in. apart for mass effects. + + +CORN SALAD. This is one of the earliest spring salad vegetables, coming +into condition to use with spinach, and needing the same culture. Sown +in the fall, and covered with straw or hay when cold weather sets in, it +will start into rapid growth when the covering is removed in March or +April. Or the seed may be sown in early spring, and plants will be fit +to use in six or eight weeks. One packet of seed will suffice for a +small family. + + +CORN, SWEET, is not so generally used as it should be. Usually when +planted at all, only one planting of one kind is made. The ears come to +edible maturity almost simultaneously, and a short season of Sweet Corn +is the result. The first planting should be made from May 1 to 10, +planting early, intermediate and late varieties at the same time, then +at intervals of two weeks until the middle of July, when the late +varieties should be planted, thus having a succession from the first +crop until October. The soil for Corn should be rich in plant-food, and +the coarser manure left from the preparation of the ground for small +crops may be used to good advantage. Corn for the garden is better +planted in drills, the drills 3 feet apart, dropping the seed from 10 to +12 inches apart in the drills. One quart of seed will plant 200 hills. + +For extra early, Marblehead, Adams, Vermont, Minnesota and Early Cory +are favorites. For later crop, Crosby, Hickox, Shoe Peg and Stowell +Evergreen are now popular. + + +COSMOS. The Cosmos grown in a locality free from early fall frosts is +certainly a beautiful thing, but there are probably few flowers that +have caused so much disappointment to the flower lover in the North. The +seed germinates very freely. The plants grow with great vigor, and if +the season permits, an abundance of bloom may be had in September. An +early-flowering strain of dwarf Cosmos has been offered by the trade for +several years; and each year there seems to be an improvement in the +size and colors, so the time may shortly come when this will equal the +late-flowering varieties, making the culture of Cosmos more +satisfactory. Cosmos flowers are borne on long stems, and the colors are +in white and fine shades of red. The foliage is also fine. Seed should +be sown in gentle heat, in the greenhouse, hotbed or window in early +April, and the young plants transplanted when 2 inches high, setting the +plants well down in the soil and giving at least 3 inches between the +plants, as they are very likely to spindle up, with weak stems, if +crowded. When danger of frost is over, set them out in a warm, well +sheltered position, 3 feet apart. After the plants start into growth, +pinch out the top to induce a bushy growth. If situated where the wind +can whip them, they should have a stake driven close to the stem, and be +tied to it for support. Flowers of Cosmos are on the order of single +Dahlias. + + +CRANBERRY. The growing of Cranberries in artificial bogs is an American +industry. The common large Cranberry of markets is also a peculiarly +American fruit, since it is unknown in other countries except as the +fruit is shipped there. Cranberries are grown in bogs, which may be +flooded. The whole area is kept under water during the winter time, +largely to prevent the plants from winter injury by the heaving and +freezing and thawing of the bogs. Flooding is also employed at intervals +for the purpose of drowning out insects, mitigating drought, and +protecting against frost and fires. Every good Cranberry bog should have +facilities for flooding. The ordinary practice is to choose a bog which +has a creek running through it, or through which some creek or ditch may +be diverted. At the lower side of the bog flood gates are provided, so +that when the gates are shut the water backs up and floods the area. It +is best that the bog be comparatively flat, so that the water will be +of approximately equal depth over the whole area. At the shallowest +places the water should stand about a foot above the plants. The water +is usually let on the bog early in December and kept on until April or +early May. No flooding is done during the rest of the year unless there +is some particular occasion therefor. + +All the wild and turfy growth should be taken off the bog before the +vines are set. This is done either by digging it off and removing it +bodily, or by drowning it out by means of a year's flooding. The former +method is generally considered to be the better. After the turfy growth +is removed, the bog is smoothed and covered 2 or 3 in. deep with clean +sand. The vines are now set, the lower ends of them being shoved through +the sand into the richer earth. In order to prevent a too rapid and +tangled growth of vine, it is customary to resand the bog every three or +four years to a depth of one-fourth or one-half inch. When sanding is +not practicable, the vines may be mown off when they become too +luxuriant. + +The plants for setting are merely cuttings or branches of the vines. +These cuttings may be from 5 to 10 in. long. They are inserted into the +ground in a hole made by a crowbar or stick. They are usually planted at +distances of 12 to 18 in. each way, and the vines are allowed to cover +the entire ground as with a mat. In three years a good crop should be +secured, if the weeds and wild growth are kept down. A crop ranges +between 50 to 100 barrels per acre. + + +CRESS. The Upland Cress, or the true PEPPER GRASS, may be grown on any +garden soil. Sow early in the spring. It makes a rapid growth and can be +cut from four to five weeks. Succession of sowings must be made, as it +runs quickly to seed. The curled variety is the one usually grown, as +the leaves may be used for garnishing as well as for salads. One packet +of seed will be sufficient for each sowing. Any good soil will do. Sow +thickly in drills 12-18 in. apart. In summer it runs to seed quickly, +so that it is usually grown in spring and fall. + +The Water Cress is more exacting in its culture, and can only be +successfully grown in moist places, such as edges of shallow, +slow-running creeks, open drains, or beds excavated near such streams. A +few plants for private use may be grown in a frame, provided a retentive +soil is used and attention given to watering the bed often. Water Cress +may be propagated from pieces of the stem, used as cuttings. If one is +fond of Water Cress, it is well to colonize it in some clean creek or +pool. It will take care of itself year by year. Seeds may also be used +for propagating it. + + +CROCUS. A hardy bulb, easily grown and giving good satisfaction either +in the border or scattered through the lawn. They are also forced for +winter (see _Bulbs_). They are so cheap and lasting that they may be +used in quantity. A border of them along the edges of walks, little +clumps of them in the lawn, or masses in a bed, give the first touch of +color as the spring opens. They may be forced with ease planted in pots +or shallow boxes, put away in a cool place and brought into the house at +any time through the winter. A low temperature will bring them into +bloom in perfection in about four weeks from the time they are brought +in. They can be had in the window-garden in this way. + +A sandy soil suits the Crocus admirably. Plant in the fall, in the open, +setting them 3 to 4 inches deep. When they show signs of failing, take +up the bulbs and reset them. They tend to rise out of the ground, +because the new bulb or corm forms on the top of the old one. If best +results are desired, it is well to renew the bed occasionally by buying +new bulbs. Crocus beds may be filled later in the season with +quick-growing annuals. + + +CROTON. Under this name many varieties and so-called species of Codium +are grown for conservatory decoration, and latterly for foliage bedding +in the open. The colors and shapes of the leaves are very various and +attractive. The Crotons make good window-garden subjects, although they +are very liable to the attack of the mealy bug. They are propagated +readily by cuttings of half-ripened wood any time during winter or +spring. The plants should be given an abundance of light in order to +bring out their fine colors; but it is usually advisable to screen them +from the direct rays of the sun when they are grown under glass. If the +red spider or the mealy bug attack them, they may be syringed with +tobacco water. Plants which are propagated indoors during the winter may +be massed in beds out of doors during the summer, where they make very +striking effects. Give them rich, deep soil, and be sure that they are +syringed frequently enough on the under side of the leaves to keep down +the red spider. If the plants have been gradually subjected to strong +light before they are taken out of doors, they will stand the full +sunlight and will develop their rich colors to perfection. In the fall +they may be taken up, cut back and used for window-garden or +conservatory subjects. Crotons are shrubs or small trees, and they may +be transferred into large pots or tubs and grown on into large tree-like +specimens. + + +CUCUMBER. For early use, the Cucumber is usually started in a hotbed or +coldframe by sowing the seed on pieces of sod 4 to 6 inches square, +turned grass side down. Three or four seeds are placed on or pushed into +each piece of sod and covered with 1 to 2 inches of fine soil. The soil +should be well watered and the glass or cloth placed over the frame. The +roots will run through the sod. When the plants are large enough to set +out, a flat trowel or a shingle may be slipped under the sod and the +plants moved to the hill without check. In place of sod, old quart berry +boxes are good; after setting in the hill the roots may force their way +through the cracks in the baskets. The baskets also decay rapidly. +Flower pots may be used. These plants from the frames may be set out +when danger of frost is over, usually by the 10th of May, and should +make a very rapid growth, yielding good-sized fruits in two months. The +hills should be made rich by forking in a quantity of well rotted +manure, and given a slight elevation above the garden--not high enough +to allow the wind to dry the soil, but slightly raised so that water +will not stand around the roots. One ounce of seed will plant fifty +hills. The hills may be 4-5 ft. apart each way. + +[Illustration: Cucumbers] + +The White Spine is the leading general-purpose variety. For very early +or pickling sorts, the Chicago, Russian, and other picklings are good. + +The striped beetle is an inveterate pest on Cucumbers and squashes. +Following is the latest advice (Hall and Sirrine, New York State +Experiment Station): "Poisons can be used with success against these +beetles for only a short time in the spring, when they begin to feed; +and again, in the fall, against beetles of the new brood. This fall +poisoning will succeed only where there is not an abundance of wild fall +flowers; for the beetles will desert any poisoned crop for the +unpoisoned flowers and will feed upon the flowers to a considerable +extent, anyhow, if they are to be found. Green arsenite, dry, gave best +results. It was found a waste of the poisons to apply them in Bordeaux +mixture, as the mixture so repelled the insects that they would not eat +the sprayed vines to secure the poison. These poisons, applied in water, +are liable to burn or stunt the plants. It is necessary, then, if we +wish to poison the beetles, to use a trap crop to attract the insects +and to apply the poison to this crop instead of to the plants we design +to protect. On small areas it may be advisable to shut in the small +plants of the growing crop by the well known cloth-topped boxes; by the +tent-like cloth covers spread over arched hoops or wires; by boxes made +from a rectangular piece of cloth and two short 6-inch boards with +cleats attached to insert in the soil and hold the boards upright; or +even 6-inch wire plate-covers. Covers, however, are too expensive on +large areas, and they have the disadvantage of frequently making the +plants weak, so that winds will snap them off or twist and ruin them +when the covers have to be removed. If covers are used alone, their +removal leaves the unprotected vines not only for feeding places but for +breeding places for the beetles. + +"Bordeaux mixture, if thoroughly and frequently applied, makes as +efficient a protection as the covers, is much cheaper, and at the same +time protects the plants from diseases. This mixture (1-to-11 formula) +should be sprayed upon the Cucumbers when they are just well up, again +when they show the third leaf, and the third time just before the plants +commence to form runners. The early application can probably best be +made with a knapsack sprayer, and later ones by any good pump sprayer. +The three applications should not cost over $2 per acre. The Bordeaux +mixture is a much better repellant, according to station tests, than +kerosene, turpentine, tobacco dust, cow manure, burdock infusion, slug +shot, bug death, or any other known compound. Indeed, all materials of +this class, supposed to drive away the beetles by their distasteful +odor, proved failures when used alone. Air-slaked lime, dusted over the +vines, will make them unpalatable to the beetles, but the lime is liable +to stunt the plants. It may be used, with care, by those whose crop is +not large enough to warrant purchase of a spraying outfit. + +"All of these appliances or applications, covers, Bordeaux mixture or +lime, merely protect the young plants until they are strong enough to +stand the injury from the beetles; they do not kill the insects. To do +this, trap crops are needed. As the squash is the beetle's favorite food +plant, this vegetable should be planted--in single rows along the +margins of small patches, in several rows around large fields--about +four days before the Cucumbers or melon seeds are sown. When these trap +plants are up and the beetles appear about them, dust about half the +plants with green arsenite, reserving the other half for use if rain or +heavy dew makes the poison soluble and kills the vines first treated. +The beetles, attracted by their favorite tidbit, will feed upon the +squash vines and be poisoned by the arsenite. When the Cucumbers or +melons are up, unless they are protected by covers, spray with Bordeaux, +and poison more of the squash vines. When the beetles commence to pair, +the squashes may be cultivated up, leaving only a few vines for the +beetles to feed upon at flowering time, as the insects prefer the squash +flowers and will not molest the others. Beans may be used with some +success as a fall catch crop, where wild flowers are not too plentiful. +They should be planted on the Cucumber or melon fields; and when the +beetles leave the old vines to feed upon the fresh bean plants, they +should be treated to liberal doses of poison as well." + +The mildew on the vines can be prevented by Bordeaux mixture spray. + + +[Illustration: Currants] + +CURRANTS. The Currant, being one of the hardiest and most productive of +fruits, is often neglected, the patch allowed to become foul with grass, +never thinned or trimmed, the worms eating the leaves until, in the +course of time, the plants weaken and die. Along the fence is no place +to plant Currants, or, indeed, any other fruit; plant out in the open, +at least 5 feet from anything that will interfere with cultivation. No +fruit crop will respond more readily to good care than the Currant. +Clean cultivation and a liberal use of manure or fertilizers will +certainly be followed by well paying crops. One- or two-year-old plants +may be set 4 by 6 feet. Trim the bush by cutting off most of the suckers +below the surface of the ground. If the season is dry, a mulch of straw +or leaves will assist the plants to establish themselves. + +The red and white Currants bear mostly on two-year-old or older wood. A +succession of young shoots should be allowed to grow to take the place +of the old bearing wood. Cut out the canes as they grow older. The +partial shade afforded by a young orchard suits the Currant well, and if +the ground is in good condition no bad results will follow to the +orchard, provided the Currants are removed before the trees need the +entire feeding space. + +A Currant patch should continue in good bearing for 10 to 20 years, if +properly handled. One very important point is to keep the old, weak +canes cut out, and a succession of two to four new ones coming from the +root each year. For home use, White Imperial and Moore's Ruby are +excellent. Prince of Wales is a heavy bearer and excellent for cooking. +Wilder, Victoria, Cherry and White Grape are meritorious varieties. + +To combat the Currant worm, spray thoroughly with Paris green to kill +the first brood, just as soon as holes can be seen in the lower +leaves--usually before the plants are in bloom. For the second brood, if +it appear, spray with white hellebore. For borers, cut out and burn the +affected canes. + + +CUTTINGS. Cuttings are parts of plants which are inserted in soil or +water with the intention that they shall grow and make new plants. They +are of various kinds. They may be classified, with reference to the age +of the wood or tissue, into two classes; viz., those made from perfectly +hard or dormant wood (taken from the winter twigs of trees and bushes), +and those made from more or less immature or growing wood. They may be +classified again in respect to the part of the plants from which they +are taken, as root Cuttings, tuber Cuttings (as the ordinary "seed" +planted for potatoes), stem Cuttings and leaf Cuttings. + +[Illustration: The planting of dormant wood Cuttings] + +Dormant wood Cuttings are used for grapes, currants, gooseberries, +willows, poplars and many other kinds of soft-wooded trees and shrubs. +Cuttings are ordinarily taken in fall or winter, but cut into the proper +lengths and then buried in sand or moss where they do not freeze, in +order that the lower end may heal over or callus. In the spring these +Cuttings are set in the ground, preferably in a rather sandy and well +drained place. Usually, hardwood Cuttings are made with two to four +joints or buds, and when they are planted, only the upper bud projects +above the ground. They may be planted erect, as the picture shows, or +somewhat slanting. In order that the Cutting may reach down to moist +earth, it is desirable that it should not be less than 6 inches long; +and it is sometimes better if it is 8 to 12 inches. If the wood is +short-jointed, there may be several buds on a Cutting of this length; +and, in order to prevent too many shoots from arising from these buds, +the lowermost buds are often cut out. Roots will start as readily if the +lower buds are removed, since the buds grow into shoots and not into +roots. Cuttings of currants, grapes, gooseberries, and the like may be +set in rows which are far enough apart to admit of easy tillage either +with horse or hand tools, and the Cuttings may be placed from 3 to 8 +inches apart in the row. After the Cuttings have grown for one season, +the plants are usually transplanted and given more room for the second +year's growth, after which time they are ready to be set in permanent +plantations. In some cases, the plants are set at the end of the first +year; but two-year plants are stronger and usually preferable. + +[Illustration: Root Cutting, which has given rise to a shoot] + +Root Cuttings are used for blackberries, raspberries, and a few other +things. They are ordinarily made of roots from the size of a lead pencil +to one's little finger, and are cut in lengths from 3 to 5 inches long. +The Cuttings are stored the same as stem Cuttings and allowed to +callus. In the spring they are planted in a horizontal or nearly +horizontal position in moist, sandy soil, being entirely covered to a +depth of 1 or 2 inches. + +Softwood or greenwood Cuttings are always rooted under cover; that is, +in a greenhouse, coldframe or dwelling house. They are usually made of +wood which is mature enough to break when it is bent sharply. When the +wood is so soft that it will bend and not break, it is too immature, in +the majority of plants, for the making of good Cuttings. One to two +joints is the proper length of a greenwood Cutting. If of two joints, +the lower leaf should be cut off and the upper leaves cut in two, so +that they do not present their entire surface to the air and thereby +evaporate the plant juices too rapidly. If the Cutting is of only one +joint, the lower end is usually cut just above a joint. In either case, +the Cuttings are usually inserted in sand or well washed gravel, nearly +or quite up to the leaves. Keep the bed uniformly moist throughout its +depth, but avoid any soil which holds so much moisture that it becomes +muddy and sour. These Cuttings should be shaded until they begin to emit +their roots. Coleus, geraniums, fuchsias, and nearly all the common +greenhouse and house plants, are propagated by these Cuttings or slips. + +Leaf Cuttings are often used, for the fancy-leaved begonias, gloxinias, +and a few other plants. The young plant usually arises most readily from +the leaf-stalk or petiole. The leaf, therefore, is inserted into the +ground much as a green Cutting is. Begonia leaves, however, will throw +out young plants from the main veins when these veins or ribs are cut. +Therefore, well-grown and firm begonia leaves are sometimes laid flat on +the sand and the main veins cut; then the leaf is weighted down with +pebbles or pegs so that these cut surfaces come into intimate contact +with the soil beneath. The begonia leaf may be treated in various other +ways and still give good results. See _Begonia_. + +In the growing of all greenwood Cuttings, it is well to remember that +they should have a gentle bottom heat; the soil should be such that it +will hold moisture and yet not remain wet; the air about the tops should +not become close and stagnant, else the plants will damp off; and the +tops should be shaded for a time. + +[Illustration: Cuttings inserted in a double pot] + +An excellent method of starting Cuttings in the living room is to make a +double pot, as shown in the picture. Inside a 6-inch pot, set a 4-inch +pot. Fill the bottom, _a_, with gravel or bits of brick, for drainage. +Plug the hole in the inside pot. Fill the spaces between, _c_, with +earth, and in this set the Cuttings. Water may be poured into the inner +pot, _b_, to supply the moisture. + + +CUTWORMS. Probably the remedy for Cutworms most often practiced in +gardens, and which cannot fail to be effective when faithfully carried +out, is hand-picking with lanterns at night or digging them out from +around the base of the infested plants during the day. Bushels of +Cutworms have been gathered in this way, and with profit. When from some +cause success does not attend the use of the poisoned baits, discussed +next, hand-picking is the only other method yet recommended which can be +relied upon to check Cutworm depredations. + +By far the best methods yet devised for killing Cutworms in any +situation are the poisoned baits; hand-picking is usually unnecessary +where they are thoroughly used. Poisoned bunches of clover or weeds have +been thoroughly tested, even by the wagon-load, over large areas, and +nearly all have reported them very effective; lamb's quarters (pigweed), +pepper-grass and mullein are among the weeds especially attractive to +Cutworms. On small areas the making of the baits is done by hand, but +they have been prepared on a large scale by spraying the plants in the +field, cutting them with a scythe or machine, and pitching them from +wagons in small bunches wherever desired. Distributed a few feet apart +between rows of garden plants at nightfall, they have attracted and +killed enough Cutworms often to save a large proportion of the crop; if +the bunches can be covered with a shingle, they will keep fresher much +longer. The fresher the baits, and the more thoroughly the baiting is +done, the more Cutworms one can destroy. However, it may sometimes +happen that a sufficient quantity of such green succulent plants cannot +be obtained early enough in the season in some localities. In this case, +and we are not sure but in all cases, the poisoned bran mash can be used +to the best advantage. It is easily made and applied at any time, is not +expensive, and thus far the results show that it is a very attractive +and effective bait. A tablespoonful can be quickly dropped around the +base of each cabbage or tomato plant, small amounts can be easily +scattered along the rows of onions, turnips, etc., or a little dropped +on a hill of corn, cucumbers, etc. It was used on sweet potato hills in +New Jersey last year, and "served as a complete protection, the Cutworms +preferring the bran." It is well to apply it on the evening of the day +the plants are set out. + +The best time to apply these poisoned baits is two or three days before +any plants have come up or been set out in the garden. If the ground has +been properly prepared, the worms will have had but little to eat for +several days and they will thus seize the first opportunity to appease +their hunger upon the baits, and wholesale destruction will result. The +baits should always be applied at this time wherever Cutworms are +expected. But it is not too late usually to save most of a crop after +the pests have made their presence known by cutting off some of the +plants. Act promptly and use the baits freely.--_M. V. Slingerland._ + +[Illustration: Protection from cutworms] + +Cutworms may be kept away from plants by making a collar of stiff paper +or tin about the base, as in the picture; but this is not practicable on +a large scale. + + +CYCLAMEN. A tender greenhouse tuberous plant, sometimes seen in the +window-garden. Cyclamens may be grown from seed sown in April or +September in soil containing a large proportion of sand and leaf-mold. +If sown in September, they should be wintered in a coolhouse. In May +they should be potted into larger pots and placed in a shaded frame, and +by July will have become large enough for their flowering pot, which +should be either a 5- or 6-inch one. They should be brought into the +house before danger of frost, and grown cool until through flowering. A +temperature of 55 suits them while in flower. After flowering, they +will need a rest for a short time, but should not become very dry, or +the bulb will be injured. When they start into growth, they should have +the old soil shaken off and be potted into smaller pots. At no time +should more than half the tuber be under the soil. + +Tubers large enough to flower the first year may be obtained from the +seedsmen at moderate prices; and unless one has facilities for growing +the seedlings for a year, purchase of the tubers will give the best +satisfaction. The soil best suited to the Cyclamen is one containing two +parts leaf-mold, 1 part each of sand and loam. + + +DAFFODILS are a kind of Narcissus. They are hardy, and require the +treatment recommended for Crocus. They may be naturalized in the grass, +but they usually do not persist long on account of our hot, dry summers. +Daffodils have been much improved of late. Plant in the fall, 4-6 in. +deep. Excellent old garden plants. + + +DAHLIA. The Dahlia is an old favorite which, on account of its formal +flowers, has been in disfavor for a few years, although it has always +held a place in the rural districts. Now, however, with the advent of +the cactus and semi-cactus types (or loose-flowered forms), and the +improvement of the singles, it again has taken a front rank among late +summer flowers, coming in just in advance of the Chrysanthemum. + +[Illustration: Dahlia] + +The single varieties may be grown from seed, but the double sorts should +be grown from cuttings of young stems or from division of the roots. If +cuttings are to be made, it will be necessary to start the roots early +either in a hotbed or house. When the growth has reached 4 or 5 inches, +they may be cut from the plant and rooted in sand. Care should be taken +to cut just below the joint, as a cutting made between two joints will +not form tubers. The most rapid method of propagation of named varieties +is to grow from cuttings in this way. In growing the plants from roots, +the best plan is to place the whole root in gentle heat, covering +slightly. When the young growth has started, the roots may be taken up, +divided, and planted out 3 to 4 feet apart. This plan will ensure a +plant from each piece of root, whereas if the roots are divided while +dormant, there is danger of not having a bud at the end of each piece, +in which case no growth will start. + +[Illustration: Dahlia] + +The Dahlia flourishes best in a deep, rich, moist soil, although very +good results can be had on sandy soil, provided plant-food and moisture +are furnished. Clay should be avoided. If the plants are to be grown +without stakes, the center of each plant should be pinched out after +making two or three joints. By doing this the lateral branches will +start near the ground and be stiff enough to withstand the winds. In +most home gardens the plants are allowed to reach their full height, and +are tied to stakes if necessary. Dahlias are very susceptible to frost. +The tall kinds reach a height of 5-8 feet. + +After the first frost, lift the roots, let them dry in the sun, shake +off the dirt, trim off tops and broken parts, and store them in a +cellar as you would potatoes. Cannas may be stored in the same place. + + +DAISY. The perennial English Daisy, or _Bellis perennis_, is a prime +favorite as an edging plant. The cheerful little flowers show early in +the spring, and with a little care bloom continuously through a long +season. They should be given well enriched, moist soil, and be mulched +through hot weather. The usual method of propagation is by division of +the crowns, made in cool weather. They may also be grown from seed, but +the chances are that many inferior flowers will be produced. Set the +plants 3 or 4 inches apart. Height 3 to 5 inches. The colors are white, +pink and red. Hardy if mulched in winter, but best results are obtained +if plants are renewed frequently. + +Many other plants are called Daisy, particularly the wild Asters, the +Ox-eye Daisy or Whiteweed, and the Paris Daisy (_Chrysanthemum +frutescens_). + + +DAMPING OFF is the rotting off of cuttings or young plants near the +surface of the soil. It is the work of fungi; but these fungi are +injurious because they find conditions congenial to their rapid growth. +Prevention is worth more than cure. See that the soil is wet clear +through, not wet on top and dry beneath. Keep it as dry as possible on +the surface. Avoid soggy soils. On peaty soils, sprinkle sand or coal +ashes to keep the top dry. Give the plants free circulation of air. Give +them abundance of room. If Damping Off threatens, transplant. + + +DANDELION. This common weed would hardly be recognized if seen under +cultivation in the vegetable garden. The plants attain a large size and +the leaves are much more tender. The seed may be selected from the best +field-growing plants, but it is better to buy the French seed of the +seedsmen. + +Sow in spring in well manured soil, either in drills or in hills 1 foot +apart. A cutting of leaves may be had in September or October, and some +of the stools may stand until spring. The delicacy of the leaves may be +improved by blanching them, either by the use of boards or earth. One +trade packet of seed will supply a large number of plants. The whole +plant is destroyed when the crop of leaves is taken. + + +DATURA. BRUGMANSIA. Large-growing annuals with large, trumpet-shaped +flowers. The coloring of some of the flowers is very attractive, but the +odor of the plant is unpleasant. Plants should be set 4 feet apart. They +grow 3-4 feet high, bear large leaves, and therefore make good low +screens. Frost kills them. Sow seed where plants are to grow; or, +better, start them in the house three or four weeks before the weather +is fit for planting outside. Some of the Daturas are weeds. The great +spiny seed pods are interesting. + + +DELPHINIUM. See _Larkspur_. + + +DEWBERRY. The Dewberry may be called an early trailing blackberry. The +culture of this, as of the blackberry, is very simple; but, unlike the +latter, some support should be given to the canes, as they are very +slender and rank growers. A wire trellis or large-meshed fence-wire +answers admirably; or (and this is the better general method) they may +be tied to stakes. The fruits are large and showy, which, combined with +their earliness, makes them desirable; but they are usually deficient in +flavor. The Lucretia is the leading variety in cultivation. + +[Illustration: Lucretia Dewberry] + +Lay the canes on the ground in winter. In the spring tie all the canes +from each plant to a stake. After fruiting, cut the old canes and burn +them (as for blackberries). In the meantime, the young canes (for next +year's fruiting) are growing. These may be tied up as they grow, to be +out of the way of the cultivator. Dewberries are one to two weeks +earlier than blackberries. + + +DIANTHUS, or PINK. Under this head are included Chinese Pinks, Sweet +William, Picotee, Carnation (which see), and the perennial or Grass +Pinks. All of them are general favorites. + +The Chinese Pinks (_Dianthus Chinensis_, or _Heddewigii_) are now very +popular. They are biennials, but flower the first year from seed, and +are treated as hardy annuals. They have a wide range of color and +markings. Some of them are as double as a rose, and are edged, splashed +or lined with other colors. The single ones are very brilliant and are +profuse bloomers. Sow seeds where plants are to stand, or if early bloom +is desired, start in the house. Set the plants 6-10 in. apart. They grow +8-15 in. high. They bloom until after frost. Of easiest culture in any +good soil, and should be even more popular. The petals are often quite +deeply and oddly cut. + +The Sweet William is an old-fashioned perennial, having flowers of many +combinations of color, growing for several years when once planted, but +being the better for renewal every two years. Raising new stock from +seeds is usually better than dividing old plants. Of late years, the +Sweet William has been much improved. + +The perennial garden or Grass Pinks are low-growing, with highly +perfumed flowers. They are very useful for permanent edgings, although +the grass is likely to run them out unless a clean strip is kept on +either side. Divide the old plants when the edging begins to fail; or +raise new plants from seed. Seedlings usually do not bloom much the +first year. Usually perfectly hardy. + + +[Illustration: Dibbers] + +DIBBERS are hand tools used for making holes in which to set plants or +to drop seeds. They are better than a hoe or a spade for most +transplanting. For small plants, as cabbages and tomatoes, a cylindrical +Dibber is generally used. (See the lower one in the cut.) It can be made +from an old spade handle or any hardwood stick. When broad holes are +wanted, the triangular iron Dibber (sold by dealers) is excellent. It is +particularly useful in hard soils. + + +DICENTRA includes the Bleeding Heart; also the native little Dutchman's +Breeches and Squirrel Corn, and a few other species. All are hardy +perennials of the easiest culture, blooming in spring. In common with +all perennial herbs, they are benefited by a winter mulch of leaves or +litter. Propagated by dividing the clumps. + + +DICTAMNUS. FRAXINELLA or GAS PLANT. An old border plant (perennial herb) +with white or pale red flowers. The leaves of the plant emit a strong +odor when rubbed, likened to that of the lemon verbena. It has been +advertised as the Gas Plant from the fact that the plant exudes an oily +matter that may be ignited, especially in warm, dry weather. Propagated +by seeds, which should be sown as soon as ripe. The plant blooms the +third year, and improves with age. Set plants 3 feet apart. Height 2 to +3 feet. + + +DILL. An annual aromatic herb that will seed itself if seeds are left to +ripen, and an abundance of plants may always be had. The culture is of +the easiest. The seeds are often used to flavor pickles. + + +DISEASES. Diseases of plants may be caused by some physiological +disturbance to the plant system, or by the incursions of some parasitic +organism, as insects or fungi. The work of insects, however, is +ordinarily not classed with plant Diseases (see _Insects_). Of Diseases +which are caused by plant parasites or by physiological disturbances, +there are two general groups: + +(1) Parasitic fungous Diseases, such as the apple-scab, black-rot and +mildew of the grape, leaf-blight of the plum and pear, black-knot, and +the like. These Diseases are characterized by definite spots, +discolorations or excrescences, which are more or less scattered over +the surface of the leaf, fruit or branch. As a rule, the leaves and +fruits which are attacked have a tendency to drop from the tree. The +general treatment for these Diseases is to spray with some fungicidal +mixture, like the Bordeaux mixture or the ammoniacal carbonate of +copper. The treatment is useful in proportion as it is applied early and +thoroughly. After the fungus once gets into the tissues of the +host-plant, it is difficult, if not impossible, to kill it. If, however, +the fungicide is upon the plant before the fungus is, the parasite may +not be able to obtain a foothold. Even after it does obtain a foothold, +it is probable, however, that the spray will check its spread by +preventing the development of its external parts. + +(2) The physiological and bacterial Diseases, or those which are termed +constitutional troubles. In these cases there are rarely any definite +spots, as in the attacks of parasitic fungi, but the entire leaf, or +even the entire plant, or a large part of it, shows a general weakening +and Disease, as if there were some cutting off of the accustomed source +of nourishment. Such Diseases are very likely to be seen in a general +yellowing and death of the leaf, in the dying of the leaf along the main +veins and around the edges, showing that the difficulty is one which +affects the entire leaf, and not any particular part of it. In general, +there is a tendency for the foliage in plants so attacked to wither up +and hang on the tree for a time. The peach-yellows and pear blight are +Diseases of this kind. There are no specific treatments for troubles of +this sort. They must be approached by what physicians call +prophylaxis--that is, by methods of sanitation and prevention. The +diseased plants or parts are cut away and burned. All those conditions +which seem to favor the development of the Disease are removed. +Varieties which are particularly susceptible are discarded. Careful +management in matters of this sort is often much more important than any +attempt at specific treatment. + + +DOLICHOS. Mentioned under _Hyacinth Bean_. + + +DRACNAS of the conservatories (properly mostly CORDYLINES) are +sometimes used as house plants. Protect from direct sunlight, keep an +even and fairly high temperature, water freely when they are growing. +When the plants begin to fail, return them to the florist for +recuperation, where they may have equable conditions. They are handsome +long-leaved foliage plants, excellent for jardinieres. + + +DRAINAGE serves two purposes: first, to carry superfluous water from the +land; second, to lower the water-table or hard-pan, and to make the soil +loose and friable above. Nearly all hard clay lands are much benefited +by draining, even though they are not too wet. The region of free or +standing water is lowered and air is admitted into the soil, rendering +it fine and mellow. For carrying off mere surface water, surface or open +ditches are sufficient; but if the soil is to be ameliorated, the drain +must be beneath the surface. The best underdrains are those which use +hollow or cylindrical tiles, but very good results may be had by making +drains from stones. In regions where there are many flat stones, a very +good conduit may be laid with them, but they are likely to get out of +order. If there is considerable fall to the ditch, the bottom may be +filled for the space of 10 inches or a foot with common stones rolled +in, and the water will find its way between them. If the stones are even +deeper than this, the results will be better; and such ditches also +provide place for disposing of superfluous stones. + +The deeper the ditch the further it will draw on either side. It should +always be deep enough to be protected from freezing, particularly if +tiles are used. Three feet should be the least depth, and 3 feet is +a good average depth. Drains as deep as this need not be placed oftener +than 2 to 3 rods apart, unless, in garden conditions, it is desired to +very thoroughly ameliorate a heavy clay soil, in which case they may be +placed every 20 feet. The better the fall the quicker the drain will act +and the more permanent it will be, as it will tend to clean itself and +not fill up with silt. It is important that the outlet be entirely free, +and it should be protected with stones or mason work. The roots of some +trees, particularly of willows and elms, are attracted by tile drains, +and often fill up the pipes. When the drain goes near such trees, +therefore, it is well to cement the joints. In general practice, +however, the joints should not be cemented, because a large part of the +drainage water enters at those places. In laying the tiles, it is well +to cover the joints with inverted sod, tarred paper, wisps of straw, +stones or other material. This prevents the fresh earth from falling in +between the joints, and by the time the material is decayed the earth +will have become so thoroughly set that no further trouble will result. +Although under-drains take off superfluous water, nevertheless an +under-drained soil will hold more moisture than one which is not +drained, particularly in the case of clay lands with high subsoils. This +is because fine, mallow soils are able to hold more moisture than very +loose and open or very dense and compact ones. A well constructed +underdrain should last indefinitely. + + +DUTCHMAN'S PIPE. See _Aristolochia_. + + +ECHEVERIA. Tender succulents largely used for carpet bedding and rock +gardens. _Echeveria secunda_ is sometimes called OLD-HEN-AND-CHICKENS, +from the little plants that grow out from the stem of the parent plant +and show around the edges of the rosette top; but the hardy +Hen-and-Chickens of old gardens is a different but closely allied plant +(_Sempervivum tectorum_). All the species are of easy culture and thrive +on sandy soil. They should not be planted out until all danger of frost +is over and the ground thoroughly warm. Propagated by the offsets. +Height 3 inches. The name Echeveria is now given up by botanists for +_Cotyledon_. + + +EGG-PLANT. GUINEA SQUASH. Unless one has a greenhouse or a very warm +hotbed, the growing of Egg-plants in the North should be left to the +professional gardener, as the young plants are very tender, and should +be grown without a check. The seed should be sown in the hotbed or +greenhouse about April 10, keeping a temperature of from 65 to 70. +When the seedlings have made three rough leaves, they may be pricked out +into shallow boxes, or, still better, into 3-inch pots. The pots or +boxes should be plunged to the rim in soil in a hotbed or coldframe so +situated that protection may be given on chilly nights. The 10th of June +is early enough to plant them out in central New York. The soil in which +they are to grow cannot well be made too rich, as they have only a short +season in which to develop their fruits. The plants are usually set 3 +feet apart each way. A dozen plants are sufficient for the needs of a +large family, as each plant should yield from two to six large fruits. +The fruits are fit to eat at all stages of growth, from those the size +of a large egg to their largest development. One ounce of seed will +furnish 600 to 800 plants. + +[Illustration: New York Purple Egg-plant] + +The New York Improved Purple is the standard variety. Black Pekin is +good. For early, or for a short-season climate, the Early Dwarf Purple +is excellent. + + +ENDIVE. As a fall salad vegetable, this should be better known, it being +far superior to lettuce at that time and as easily grown. For fall use, +the seed may be sown from June to August, and as the plants become fit +to eat about the same time from sowing as lettuce does, a succession may +be had until cold weather. The plants will need protection from the +severe fall frosts, and this may be given by carefully lifting the +plants and transplanting to a frame, where sash or cloth may be used to +cover them in freezing weather. The leaves, which constitute practically +the whole plant, are blanched before being used, either by tying +together with some soft material or by standing boards on each side of +the row, allowing the top of the boards to meet over the center of the +row. The rows should be 1 or 2 feet apart, the plants 1 foot apart +in the rows. One ounce of seed will sow 150 feet of drill. + + +ESCHSCHOLTZIA. See _California Poppy_. + + +EUTOCA. Hardy early-flowering annuals having pink or blue flowers, good +for masses. Sow seed early where wanted. Height 1 foot. Eutocas are +properly classed with Phacelias. + + +EVERGREENS. Evergreens are plants which hold their foliage in winter. +Ordinarily, however, in this country the word Evergreen is understood to +mean coniferous trees with persistent leaves, as pines, spruces, firs, +cedars, junipers, arborvit, retinosporas, and the like. These trees +have always been favorites with plant lovers, as they have very +distinctive forms and other characteristics. Many of them are of the +easiest culture. It is a common notion that, since spruces and other +conifers grow so symmetrically, they will not stand pruning; but this is +an error. They may be pruned with as good effect as other trees, and if +they tend to grow too tall the leader may be cut out without fear. A new +leader will arise, but in the meantime the upward growth of the tree +will be somewhat checked, and the effect will be to make the tree dense. +The tips of the branches may also be headed in with the same effect. The +beauty of an Evergreen lies in its natural form; therefore, it should +not be sheared into unusual shapes, but a gentle trimming back, as +suggested, will tend to prevent the Norway spruce and others from +growing open and ragged. After the tree attains some age, 4 or 5 inches +may be taken off the ends of the main branches every year or two with +good results. This slight trimming is ordinarily done with Waters' +long-handled pruning shears. + +There is much difference of opinion as to the proper time for the +transplanting of Evergreens, which means that there is more than one +season in which they may be moved. It is ordinarily unsafe to transplant +them in the fall in northern climates or bleak situations, since the +evaporation from the foliage during the winter is likely to injure the +plant. The best results are usually secured when they are transplanted +just as new growth is beginning, rather late in the spring. Some people +also plant them in August, and the roots secure a hold of the soil +before winter. In transplanting conifers, it is very important that the +roots be not exposed to the sun. They should be moistened and covered +with burlaps or other material. The holes should be ready to receive +them. If the trees are large, or if it has been necessary to trim in the +roots, the top should be cut when the tree is set. Large Evergreens +(those 10 feet and more high) are usually best transplanted late in +winter, at a time when a large ball of earth may be moved with them. A +trench is dug around the tree, it being deepened a little day by day so +that the frost can work into the earth and hold it in shape. When the +ball is thoroughly frozen, it is hoisted onto a stone-boat and moved to +its new position. + +For low hedges or screens, one of the most serviceable Evergreens is the +arborvit in its various forms. Red cedars are also useful. Perhaps the +handsomest of all of them for such purposes is the ordinary hemlock +spruce; but it is usually difficult to move. Transplanted trees from +nurseries are usually safest. If the trees are taken from the wild, they +should be selected from open and sunny places. For neat and compact +effects near porches and along walks, the dwarf retinosporas are very +useful. Most of the pines and spruces are too coarse for planting very +close to the house. They are better at some distance removed, where they +serve as a background to other planting. If they are wanted for +individual specimens, they should be given plenty of room, so that the +limbs will not be crowded and the tree become misshapen. Whatever else +is done to the spruces and firs, the lower limbs should not be trimmed +up, at least not until the tree has become so old that the lowest +branches die. Some species hold their branches much longer than others. +The oriental spruce (_Picea orientalis_) is one of the best in this +respect. The occasional slight heading-in, which we have mentioned, will +tend to preserve the lower limbs, and it will not be marked enough to +alter the form of the tree. + + +EVERLASTINGS are flowers which retain their shape and usually their +color when they are dried. Most of them are members of the composite +family. In order to have them hold shape and color, cut them with very +long stems just before they are fully expanded, and hang them in an airy +place away from the sun. They are all annuals, or grown as such, and are +of very easy culture. Sow seeds where the plants are to stand. Good +kinds are Ammobium, Gomphrena or Bachelor's Buttons, Rhodanthe, +Helichrysum, Xeranthemum, and Acroclinium. Certain wild composites may +be similarly used, particularly Anaphalis and species of Gnaphalium. +Some of the grasses make excellent additions to dry bouquets (see +_Grass_). With these dry bouquets, various seed pods look well. + + +FENZLIA. Little hardy annuals, having a profusion of bloom through the +entire summer. The flowers are a delicate pink, with yellow throat +surrounded by dark spots. A charming edging plant or window box subject. +Sow the seed in boxes or where plants are wanted, and thin to the +distance of 10 inches. Height 3 to 4 inches. Now classed with Gilia. + + +FERNS. Probably the one Fern grown most extensively as a house plant is +the small-leaved Maidenhair Fern (or _Adiantum gracillimum_). This and +other species are among the finest of house plants, when sufficient +moisture can be given. They make fine specimens, as well as serving the +purpose of greenery for cut-flowers. Other species often grown for house +plants are _A. cuneatum_ and _A. Capillus-Veneris_. All these do well in +a mixture of fibrous sod, loam, and sand, with ample drainage material. +They may be divided if an increase is wanted. + +Other Ferns for house culture include _Nephrolepis exaltata_. This is no +doubt the most easily grown of the list, flourishing in a sitting-room. +The new variety of _N. exaltata_, called the Boston Fern (see figure), +is a decided addition to this family, having a drooping habit, covering +the pot and making a fine stand or bracket plant. + +[Illustration: Boston Fern] + +Several species of Pteris, particularly _P. serrulata_, are valuable +house Ferns, but require a warmer situation than those mentioned above. +They will also thrive better in a shady or ill-lighted corner. + +Perfect drainage and care in watering have more to do with the +successful growing of Ferns than any special mixture of soils. If the +drainage material in the bottom of the pot or box is sufficient, there +is little danger of over-watering; but water-logged soil is always to be +avoided. Do not use clay soils. Ferns need protection from the direct +sunshine, and also a moist atmosphere. They thrive well in a close glass +box, or window-garden, if the conditions can be kept equable. + +The native Ferns transplant easily to the garden, and they make an +attractive addition to the side of a house, or as an admixture in a +hardy border. The Ostrich and Cinnamon Ferns are the best subjects. Give +all outdoor Ferns a place which is protected from winds, otherwise they +will shrivel and perhaps die. Screen them from the hot sun, or give them +the shady side of the building. See that the soil is uniformly moist, +and that it does not get too hot. Mulch with leaf-mold in the fall. + + +FERTILIZERS. Soil is productive when it has good physical texture, +plant-food, and a sufficient supply of moisture. Even though it has an +abundance of plant-food, if its texture is not good, it will not raise a +good crop. Soil has good texture when it is open, mellow, friable, +rather than loose and leachy, or hard and cloddy. Commercial Fertilizers +add plant-food, but usually they have only a small influence in +correcting faulty texture. Therefore, before concentrated Fertilizers +are applied to land, it should be gotten into good physical condition by +judicious tillage and by the incorporation of vegetable mold or humus. +The leading source of humus in most gardens is stable manure. See +_Manure_. + +The plant-food in commercial Fertilizers is largely in a soluble or +quickly available condition. Therefore, a little Fertilizer applied late +in the fall or early in the spring will tend to start the plants off +quickly in the spring and to cause them to become established before the +trying weather of summer. For garden purposes, it is usually advisable +to buy one of the so-called complete Fertilizers; that is, one which +contains nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. If a luxuriant growth of +stalk and foliage is wanted rather than flowers or fruit, an application +of nitrogen alone is usually advisable. The most readily available +nitrogen in commercial form is that which is afforded by nitrate of soda +and sulfate of ammonia. In garden practice this may be applied at the +rate of 300 to 400 pounds an acre, although this quantity is more than +is profitable to use in most general field or agricultural conditions. +If it is desired to have stout, stocky plants, with early and profuse +bloom, it is ordinarily advisable to use somewhat sparingly of nitrogen +and to use a little more heavily of potash and phosphoric acid. This is +especially true of the leguminous plants, which have the power of +appropriating atmospheric nitrogen, and among such plants are sweet +peas. Heavy fertilizing of sweet pea land with strong stable manure +tends to make the vines grow too tall and to bear comparatively few +flowers. For dressing of lawns, a Fertilizer which is comparatively rich +in nitrogen is usually to be advised. + +An important value of commercial Fertilizers is to use them to start off +the plants quickly in the spring. The food is available and acts at +once. When used for this purpose, the Fertilizer may be applied in the +hill; but when it is desired for the enriching of the land and for the +support of the crop throughout the season, it should be applied to the +entire surface. Always avoid putting the Fertilizer on the crown of the +plant, or directly in contact with it. It is usually better to work the +Fertilizer in lightly. For most garden operations, it is better to apply +in spring. + + +FEVERFEW. See _Pyrethrum_. + + +FIG. The Fig is little grown in the East except as a curiosity, but on +the Pacific coast it has gained more or less prominence as an orchard +fruit. The trees are usually planted at distances of about 18 to 25 feet +apart. Figs will stand considerable frost, and seedling or inferior +varieties grow out of doors without protection as far north as Virginia. +Many of the varieties fruit on young sprouts, and, inasmuch as the roots +will stand considerable cold, these varieties will often give a few Figs +in the northern states. Figs have been fruited in the open ground in +Michigan. In all frosty countries, however, the Fig should be laid down +during the winter time. The following notes from Professor Massey, of +North Carolina, indicate how this may be done: + +"The light hoar-frosts that have occurred here affected vegetation only +on low grounds, and today (November 5) our gardens on high ground show +no signs of frost. Lima beans and tomato vines are as green as in summer +time, and this morning we gathered ripe Figs from our trees in the +garden--the latest I have ever known Figs to ripen. As the early crop of +Figs ripens in July (if it escapes the winter frosts, for the fruit is +now set on the trees), and the late crop begins in August and continues +to ripen in succession till frost, it is easy to see what a desirable +fruit the Fig is. In this section it is easy to have a great abundance +of Figs, and it is possible almost anywhere in the United States to have +both early and late crops in abundance by taking a little trouble to +protect the trees in winter. Years ago the writer grew Figs in abundance +in a very cold locality in northern Maryland, and never failed to get a +good crop. Where the winter temperature seldom drops lower than 18 or +20 above zero, Figs will need no special protection if sheltered from +cold winds. In colder climates they should be branched from the ground, +and, after the leaves have fallen, be bent to the ground in four bundles +and covered with earth, making a sharp mound over the center and sloping +off like a four-pointed star or cross, as shown in the cuts, taken from +Bulletin 74 of North Carolina Experiment Station." + +[Illustration: Branches of Fig tree pegged down] + +[Illustration: Fig branches covered with earth] + + +FLOWER BEDS. Two classes of subjects are to be considered in the +discussion of Flower Beds: those concerned with the location of the bed; +those concerned with the actual making of the bed itself. Most persons +do not consider the former subject. If one wants a flower garden in +which there is to be a collection of plants grown for the plants' sake, +the garden should be placed at the rear or one side, and may be laid out +in regular fashion like a vegetable garden. If the flowers are to be a +part of the home picture,--that is, a part of the place itself,--then +they may be freely distributed amongst the border planting, or as +edgings along groups of shrubbery. It is rarely, if ever, allowable to +place formal beds in the lawn in home grounds. The place for +carpet-bedding is usually in parks or other public areas, in sections +which are set aside and devoted to that particular purpose, the same as +another section may be devoted to a zological garden, play-ground or to +other specific use. Flowers which are grown in the middle of the lawn +have little relation to other planting, and they have no background to +show them off to good advantage. It is also difficult to grow them in +small beds in the grass, since they are exposed to sun and wind, and the +grass roots absorb the food and moisture. In the formal bed, every +effort must be made to keep it prim, otherwise it becomes displeasing; +whereas, if the flowers are planted more or less promiscuously in large, +irregular borders, or along the edge of shrubbery, the failure of one or +even of a dozen plants is not a serious matter. The growing of plants in +formal designs requires so much care and attention that a large part of +the fun of plant-growing is lost. Such plant-growing should ordinarily +be left to those who make a business of it. + +In making a Flower Bed, see that the ground is well drained; that the +subsoil is deep; that the land is in a mellow and friable condition, and +that it is rich. Each fall it may have a mulch of rotted manure or of +leaf-mold, which may be spaded under deeply in the spring; or the land +may be spaded and left rough in the fall, which is a good practice when +the soil has much clay. Make the Flower Beds as broad as possible, so +that the roots of the grass running in from either side will not meet +beneath the flowers and rob them of food and moisture. It is well to add +a little commercial fertilizer each fall or spring. + + +FLOWERING MAPLE. See _Abutilon_. + + +FORGET-ME-NOT. This old favorite grows so easily, looks so cheerful, and +with a little care will bloom so long, that it should have a place in +every collection of flowering plants. It is perennial, but the best +results may be had by dividing the roots as often as every other year; +or seedlings may be taken up from around the old plants. They require a +moist soil, with shade a part of the day. They will thrive exceedingly +if grown in a frame like pansies. Easily grown from seeds, usually +blooming the first fall. Excellent for low edgings. Height 6 inches. + + +FOUR-O'CLOCK. MIRABILIS. Tender annual, a plant of old-fashioned +gardens, and always interesting. Grows 2 to 3 feet high. Drop seeds +where the plants are to stand, thinning them to 12 to 18 inches apart. +The colors are white and pink. There are variegated-leaved forms; also +dwarfs. Excellent for the back row in a bed of annuals. + + +[Illustration: Foxglove] + +FOXGLOVE, or DIGITALIS. Foxgloves make most effective border plants, +either as a background or planted among other things. The tall +flower-spikes are covered during the blooming period with funnel-shaped +drooping flowers in various colors and with fine markings. Some of the +newer varieties have flowers that rival the Gloxinias in shadings and +markings. The plants are perfectly hardy, growing in one situation for a +number of years; but, as with many other perennials, they are all the +better for being divided at intervals. They may be grown readily from +seed. Sow in boxes under glass or in the border where wanted. They bloom +the second year. A rich, deep soil and partial shade suit their +requirements. Period of bloom, July and August. Height 2 to 4 feet. + + +FRAME. See _Hotbed_ and _Coldframe_. + + +FREESIA. One of the best and most easily handled winter-flowering bulbs. +The white or yellowish bell-shaped flowers are produced on slender +stalks just above the foliage, to the number of six to eight in a +cluster. They are very fragrant, and last for a considerable time when +picked. The bulbs are small, and look as though they could not produce a +growth of foliage and flowers, but even the smallest mature bulb will +prove satisfactory. Several bulbs should be planted together in a pot, +box or pan, in October, if wanted for the holidays, or later if wanted +at Easter. The plants bloom from ten to twelve weeks from planting, +under ordinary care. No special treatment is required; keep the plants +cool and moist through the growing season. The soil should contain a +little sand mixed with fibrous loam, and the pot should be well drained. +After flowering, gradually withhold water and the tops will die down, +after which the roots may be shaken out and rested until time to plant +in fall. Care should be taken to keep them perfectly dry. The bulbs +increase rapidly from offsets. Plants may also be grown from seed, which +should be sown as soon as ripe, giving blooming plants the second or +third year. Height 12 or 15 inches. Easy to bloom in the window. The +white form (_Freesia refracta alba_) is the best. See _Bulbs_. + + +FRITILLARIA, or FRITILLARY. Bulbous plants, the commoner species hardy. +Only the Crown Imperial is well known in this country. This is an +old-fashioned plant, which takes care of itself when once planted. The +other hardy Fritillarias are treated like tulips. + + +FROST. The light frosts of late spring and of early fall may be +prevented by any means which will keep the air in motion, or which will +fill the air with moisture or cloud-like vapor, so that there is less +radiation from the ground. When frost is expected, it is well to water +the plants and the ground thoroughly. This will ordinarily protect them +from two or three degrees of still frost. The water should be applied +just at nightfall. On larger areas, it is often practicable to make a +smudge. In order to be effective, the smudge must be rather dense and +lie over the whole area, and it should be kept up until the danger from +frost is past. Material which burns very slowly and with much smoke is +preferable. Moist manure or straw or other litter is useful. Materials +which are dry enough to blaze are of little use. Ordinarily, frost comes +towards morning. It is well to have the piles of rubbish ready at +nightfall and have them lighted toward the latter part of the night, +when the frost is expected. The smudge should be kept up until sunrise. +It is well to have these piles of smudge material on all sides of the +area; or if the area is on a slope, it may be sufficient to have them on +the upper side, for there is usually a movement of air down the hillside +and the area will thereby be covered with the smudge. For a thorough +protection, it is best to have many small piles rather than a few large +ones. If the piles are placed every ten feet around the areas, better +results are to be expected. There are especially prepared tar-like +materials for use in smudging plantations, but they are little used in +this country, although some of them are excellent. + + +[Illustration: Fuchsia] + +FUCHSIA. Well-known window or greenhouse shrub. It is readily grown from +cuttings. Soft, green wood should be used for cuttings, and it will root +in about three weeks, when the cuttings should be potted. Take care not +to have them pot-bound while in growth, but do not over-pot when bloom +is wanted. Given warmth and good soil, they will make fine plants in +three months or less. In well protected, partially shady places they may +be planted out, growing into miniature bushes by fall. Plants may be +kept on from year to year; and if the branches are well cut back after +blooming, abundant new bloom will come. But it is usually best to make +new plants each year from cuttings, since young plants usually bloom +most profusely and demand less care. Fuchsias are amongst the best of +window subjects. + + +FUMIGATION is mentioned under _Insects_. + + +FUNGI. Flowerless, leafless plants, living mostly on food (either living +or dead) which has been prepared by other plants or by animals, Molds, +mushrooms and puff-balls are familiar examples. Some of the parasitic +kinds cause great damage to the plants or animals on which they live. +Examples of these injurious parasitic kinds are apple-scab fungus, +potato mildew, grape mildew, corn smut fungus, and the like. Most of +these are combated by spraying with materials containing copper or +sulfur. + + +FUNKIA, or DAY LILY. Hardy perennial herbs, growing in dense clumps and +bearing attractive foliage. They are of the easiest culture. _F. +subcordata_, the white-flowered species, is commonest. Of blue-flowered +forms there are several, of which _F. ovata_ (or _F. crulca_) is +perhaps the best. Funkias are excellent for borders, or as a formal +edging to long walks or drives. There are variegated forms. Funkias grow +12 to 24 inches high, and the flower clusters stand still higher. +Propagated by dividing the roots. Day Lily is a name applied also to +species of Hemerocallis, which are yellow-flowered lilies. + + +GAILLARDIAS are plants that should have a place in every garden, either +as border plants or for cutting. The flowers are very showy and lasting +in bouquets, as well as on the plants. The double form has perfect balls +of color. Gaillardias are both annual and perennial. The perennials +usually have flowers much larger than the annuals; and they bloom the +first year if seed is started early. These are also propagated by seed +or cuttings. If from seed, it should be sown under glass in February or +March, setting out the young plants where wanted when danger of frost is +over. The cuttings may be made of the new growth in the fall and +wintered over in the house. Set 2 feet apart. Height 2 feet, blooming +from July until hard frosts. The perennials are usually orange. + +[Illustration: Gaillardia picta] + +The annual kind (_Gaillardia picta_ of florists) is probably the best +kind for the home garden. It is of the easiest culture. Hardy. Two feet. +Sow seeds where plants are to bloom. The colors of the flowers are in +rich shades of yellow and red. + + +GALANTHUS. See _Snowdrop_. + + +GARLIC. An onion-like plant, the bulbs of which are used for flavoring. +Little known in this country except amongst those of foreign birth. It +is multiplied the same as multiplier onions--the bulb is broken apart +and each bulbule or "clove" makes a new compound bulb in a few weeks. +Hardy; plant in early spring, or in the South in the fall. Plant 2 to 3 +inches apart in the row. + + +GAS PLANT is _Dictamnus_. + + +GERANIUM. What are generally known as Geraniums are, strictly speaking, +Pelargoniums, which see. The true Geraniums are mostly hardy plants, and +therefore should not be confounded with the tender Pelargoniums. +Geraniums are worthy a place in a border. They are hardy perennials, and +may be transplanted early in the spring, setting them 2 feet apart. +Height 10 to 12 inches. + +The common wild Cranesbill (_Geranium maculatum_) improves under +cultivation, and is an attractive plant when it stands in front of +taller foliage. + + +GILIA. Low-growing hardy annuals, good for front borders or rockwork, +growing from seed very quickly and continuing in flower a long season. +They will do well in light soil. Sow seed in the fall or early spring +where plants are wanted. _Gilia tricolor_, blue, white and yellow, is +the best, but there are excellent white and red sorts. + + +GLADIOLUS. A popular summer-flowering bulbous plant, thriving best in +moist, sandy loam, that has had an application of well rotted manure the +previous year. No manure should be used the year of planting, as it has +a tendency to rot the bulbs. Plantings may be made from the time the +ground is in condition to work in the spring until late in June. In +planting, the bulbs should be set 3 inches deep and 8 to 10 inches +apart, unless they are to be grown in groups, when they may be planted +five or six in the space of 1 foot. Stakes should be furnished each +plant to support the flower-spike. When in groups, one stake may be +used, setting it in the middle of the circle. + +Gladioli are increased by bulblets formed around the old bulbs (or +corms), or they may be grown from seed. The bulblets should be planted +in drills in April or May, and will grow to flowering size in one or two +years. In the same way, seed sown early in drills, grown through the +summer, the little bulbs taken up and stored through the winter and +again planted out, will often make bulbs large enough to flower the +second year. + +Care should be taken to lift all bulbs before freezing weather, as most +varieties are tender. They should be harvested with the tops on, and +laid away in a cool, dry place to ripen. The tops are then cut off and +the bulbs stored in a dry place (fit for potatoes, but drier) until +wanted the following spring. See _Bulbs_. + + +GLAUCIUM, or HORNED POPPY. The kind most cultivated (_G. luteum_) has +bright yellow flowers in July and September. The flowers, contrasting +with the deep cut glaucous leaves, make a fine effect in the mixed or +ribbon border. Seed may be sown in the open ground where wanted. Thin to +12 inches apart. Height 12 to 20 inches. Perennial; but treated as a +hardy annual. + + +GLOXINIA. Choice greenhouse tuberous-rooted perennials, sometimes seen +in window gardens, but really not adapted to them. Gloxinias must have a +uniform moist and warm atmosphere and protection from the sun. They will +not stand abuse or varying conditions. Propagated often by +leaf-cuttings, which should give flowering plants in one year. From the +leaf, inserted half its length in the soil (or sometimes only the +petiole inserted) a tuber arises. This tuber, after resting until +midwinter or later, is planted and flowering plants soon arise. +Gloxinias also grow readily from seeds, which may be germinated in a +temperature of about 70. Flowering plants may be had in a year if seeds +are sown in late winter or early spring. This is the usual method. Soil +should be porous and rich. + + +GODETIA. Very free-blooming annuals in fine colors, harmonizing well +with the California poppy. Many of the varieties are beautifully +blotched with contrasting colors. They are very satisfactory plants for +solid beds or border lines, blooming from June to October. Seed may be +sown in heat, and seedlings planted in open ground at a distance of 18 +inches apart when danger of frost is over. A rather poor soil will cause +them to bloom better than one very rich, as they are inclined to make a +rank growth. Height 1 to 2 feet. + + +GOLDEN FEATHER. See _Pyrethrum_. + + +GOLDENROD (_Solidago_ of many species). The Goldenrod of the wayside is +so familiar that the thought of bringing it into the garden is +distasteful to many persons. But if given a suitable place in a well +enriched border, no plant has greater possibilities. A large clump +against a hedge of green, or massed behind a well grown plant of the +blue-flowering wild asters, makes a striking contrast. They bloom late +in the season, and the rich yellow and golden colors and the graceful +forms are always pleasing. + +[Illustration: Goldenrod] + +Goldenrods will grow more vigorously and the blooms be larger if the +roots are divided every third or fourth year. There are several species +catalogued by nurserymen, and some of the stock is superior to the wild +type, either having a larger truss of flowers or blooming later. +Goldenrods range in height from 2 to 6 feet. All are easily propagated +by division. Transplant in the fall, if convenient, although spring +planting may be equally successful. + + +GOMPHRENA. BACHELOR'S BUTTON. GLOBE AMARANTH. A useful everlasting for +winter bouquets. Seed may be sown in heat in March, the plants +transplanted once before setting out to cause them to grow stocky and +branching; or seed may be sown in a warm place where the plants are to +grow. The flowers, to retain their colors, should be cut before fully +expanded and dried in a dark, airy place. See _Everlastings_. Set the +plants 18 inches apart. Height 12 inches. The heads resemble clover +heads. The term Bachelor's Button is also given to the cornflower +(_Centaurea Cyanus_). + + +GOOSEBERRY. Since the advent of the practice of spraying with fungicides +to prevent mildew, the culture of the Gooseberry has increased. There is +now no reason why, with a little care, good crops of many of the best +English varieties may not be grown. The price for good fruits of +Gooseberry is usually remunerative, as the market is rarely overstocked +by the sudden ripening of the crop, since the fruits ripen through a +long season. A large part of the crop is picked green for culinary +purposes. The leading market variety is Downing, a native sort, which is +little subject to mildew. Several of the English varieties have proved +of value, having larger fruits than the natives. Whitesmith, Chautauqua, +Triumph and Industry are among the best. + +[Illustration: Gooseberries] + +The propagation of the Gooseberry is similar to that of the currant, +although the practice of earthing up a whole plant, causing every branch +thus covered to throw out roots, is common with the European varieties. +The rooted branches are cut off the following spring and planted in +nursery rows or sometimes directly in the field. In order to succeed +with this method, the plant should have been cut back to the ground so +that all the shoots are yearling. + +Pruning is essentially the same as for the currant (which see); and the +treatment of the currant worm is the same as for that fruit. + +Gooseberries should be set (either in fall or spring) 3 to 4 feet +apart; rows 5 to 7 feet apart. Select a rich, rather moist soil. The +tops need no winter protection. If mildew and worms are to be kept in +check, spraying must be begun with the very first sign of trouble and be +thoroughly done. + + +GOURDS are valuable as rapid-growing screen vines, the curious fruits of +many varieties adding much to their attractiveness. Cultivation the same +as for melons or squashes. Height 10 to 15 feet. Provide a chicken-wire +trellis; or let them run on a brush pile. + + +GRAFTING. Grafting is the operation of inserting a piece of a plant into +another plant with the intention that it shall grow. It differs from the +making of cuttings in the fact that the severed part grows in another +plant rather than in the soil. There are two general kinds of +Grafting--one of which inserts a piece of branch in the stock (Grafting +proper), and one which inserts only a bud with little or no wood +attached (budding). In both cases the success of the operation depends +upon the growing together of the cambium of the cion (or cutting) and +that of the stock. The cambium is the new and growing tissue which lies +underneath the bark and on the outside of the growing wood. Therefore, +the line of demarcation between the bark and the wood should coincide +when the cion and stock are joined. The plant upon which the severed +piece is set is called the stock. The part which is removed and set into +the stock is called a cion if it is a piece of a branch, or a bud if it +is only a single bud with a bit of tissue attached. The greater part of +Grafting and budding is done when the cion or bud is nearly or quite +dormant. That is, Grafting is usually done late in winter and early in +spring, and budding may be done then, or late in summer, when the buds +have nearly or quite matured. + +The prime object of Grafting is to perpetuate a kind of plant which will +not reproduce itself from seed or of which seed is very difficult to +obtain. Cions or buds are therefore taken from this plant and set into +whatever kind of plant is obtainable and on which they will grow. Thus, +if one wants to propagate the Baldwin apple, he does not for that +purpose sow seeds thereof, but takes cions or buds from the tree and +grafts them into some other apple tree. The stocks are usually obtained +from seeds. In the case of the apple, young plants are raised from seeds +which are obtained mostly from cider factories, without reference to the +variety from which they came. When the seedlings have grown to a certain +age, they are budded or grafted; and thereafter they bear fruit like +that of the tree from which the cions were taken. + +[Illustration: The bud severed from its twig] + +[Illustration: The bud tied] + +[Illustration: The bud inserted] + +There are many ways in which the union between cion and stock is made. +Budding may be first discussed. It consists in inserting a bud +underneath the bark of the stock, and the commonest practice is that +which is shown in the illustrations. Budding is mostly performed in +July, August and early September, when the bark is still loose or will +peel. Twigs are cut from the tree which it is desired to propagate, and +the buds are cut off with a sharp knife, a shield-shaped bit of bark +(with possibly a little wood) being left with them (see illustration). +The bud is then shoved into a slit made in the stock, and it is held in +place by tying with some soft strand. In two or three weeks the bud will +have "stuck" (that is, it will have grown fast to the stock), and the +strand is cut to prevent its strangling the stock. Ordinarily the bud +does not grow until the following spring, at which time the entire stock +or branch in which the bud is inserted is cut off an inch above the bud; +and the bud thereby receives all the energy of the stock. Budding is the +commonest Grafting operation in nurseries. Seeds of peaches may be sown +in spring, and the plants which result will be ready for budding that +same August. The following spring, or a year from the planting of the +seed, the stock is cut off just above the bud (which is inserted near +the ground), and in the fall of that year the tree is ready for sale; +that is, the top is one season old and the root is two seasons old, but +in the trade it is known as a 1-year-old tree. In apples and pears the +stock is usually two years old before it is budded, and the tree is not +sold until the top has grown two or three years. Budding may be +performed also in the spring, in which case the bud will grow the same +season. Budding is always done in young branches, preferably in those +not more than one year old. + +[Illustration: Whip-graft] + +Grafting is the insertion of a small branch (or cion), usually bearing +more than one bud. If Grafting is done on small stocks, it is customary +to employ the whip-graft, which is illustrated in the margin. Both stock +and cion are cut across diagonally, and a split made in each, so that +one fits into the other. The graft is tied securely with a string, and +then, if it is above ground, it is also waxed carefully. In larger limbs +or stocks, the common method is to employ the cleft-graft. This consists +in cutting off the stock, splitting it and inserting a wedge-shaped cion +in one or both sides of the split, taking care that the cambium layer of +the cion matches that of the stock. The exposed surfaces are then +securely covered with wax. Grafting is usually performed early in the +spring, just before the buds swell. The cions should have been cut +before this time, when they were perfectly dormant. Cions may be stored +in sand in the cellar or in the ice house, or they may be buried in the +field. The object is to keep them fresh and dormant until they are +wanted. + +[Illustration: Cleft-graft] + +[Illustration: Cleft-grafting a Cactus] + +If it is desired to change the top of an old plum, apple or pear tree to +some other variety, it is usually done by means of the cleft-graft. If +the tree is very young, budding or whip-grafting may be employed. On an +old top the cions should begin to bear when three to four years old. All +the main limbs should be grafted. It is important to keep down the +suckers or water-sprouts from around the grafts, and part of the +remaining top should be cut away each year until the top is entirely +changed over (which will result in two to four years). + +A good wax for covering the exposed parts is made as follows: Resin, 4 +parts by weight; beeswax, 2 parts; tallow, 1 part. In making the wax, +the materials are first broken up and melted together. When thoroughly +melted the liquid is poured into a pail or tub of cold water. It soon +becomes hard enough to handle, and it is then pulled and worked over +until it becomes tough or "gets a grain," at which stage it becomes the +color of very light-colored manilla paper. When wax is applied by hand, +the hands must be well greased. Hard cake tallow is the best material +for this purpose. In top-grafting large trees, it is well to carry a +supply of tallow when waxing, by smearing the backs of the hands before +entering the tree. + + +GRAPE. One of the surest of fruit crops is the Grape, a crop each year +being reasonably certain after the third year from the time of setting +the vines. The Grape does well on any soil that is under good +cultivation and well drained. A soil with considerable clay is better +under these circumstances than a light, sandy loam. The exposure should +be to the sun; and the place should admit of cultivation on all sides. +One- or 2-year-old vines should be planted, either in the fall or early +spring. At planting the vine is cut back to 3 or 4 eyes, and the roots +are well shortened in. The hole in which the plant is to be set should +be large enough to allow a full spreading of the roots. Fine soil should +be worked around the roots and firmed with the feet. If the season +should be dry, a mulch of coarse litter may be spread around the vine. +If all the buds start, the strongest one or two may be allowed to grow. + +The canes arising from these buds should be staked and allowed to grow +through the season; or in large plantations the first-year canes may be +allowed to lie on the ground. The second year one cane should be cut +back to the same number of eyes as the first year. After growth begins +in the spring, two of the strongest buds should be allowed to remain. +These two canes now arising may be grown to a single stake through the +second summer, or they may be spread horizontally on a trellis. These +are the canes which form the permanent arms or parts of the vine. From +them start the upright shoots which, in succeeding years, are to bear +the fruits. + +[Illustration: Grape] + +In order to understand the pruning of Grapes, the operator must fully +grasp this principle: _Fruit is borne on wood of the present season, +which arises from wood of the previous season._ To illustrate: A growing +shoot, or cane of 1899, makes buds. In 1900 a shoot arises from each +bud; and near the base of this shoot the Grapes are borne (1 to 4 +clusters on each). While every bud on the 1899 shoot may produce shoots +or canes in 1900, only the strongest of these new canes will bear fruit. +The skilled Grape-grower can tell by the looks of his cane (as he prunes +it in winter) which buds will give rise to the Grape-producing wood the +following season. The larger and stronger buds usually give best +results; but if the cane itself is very big and stout, or if it is very +weak and slender, he does not expect good results from any of its buds. +A hard, well-ripened cane the diameter of a man's little finger is the +ideal size. + +Another principle to be mastered is this: _A vine should bear only a +limited number of clusters_,--say from 30 to 80. A shoot bears clusters +near its base; beyond these clusters the shoot grows on into a long, +leafy cane. An average of two clusters may be reckoned to a shoot. If +the vine is strong enough to bear 60 clusters, 30 good buds must be left +at the pruning (which is done from December to late February). + +The essential operation of pruning a Grape vine, therefore, is each year +to cut back a limited number of good canes to a few buds, and to cut off +entirely all the remaining canes or wood of the previous season's +growth. If a cane is cut back to 2 or 3 buds, the stub-like part which +remains is called a spur. Present systems, however, cut each cane back +to 8 or 10 buds (on strong varieties), and 3 or 4 canes are left,--all +radiating from near the head or trunk of the vine. The top of the vine +does not grow bigger from year to year, after it has once covered the +trellis, but is cut back to practically the same number of buds each +year. Since these buds are on new wood, it is evident that they are each +year farther and farther removed from the head of the vine. In order to +obviate this difficulty, new canes are taken out each year or two from +near the head of the vine, and the 2-year or 3-year-old wood is cut +away. + +The training of Grapes is a different matter. A dozen different systems +of training may be practiced on the same trellis and from the same style +of pruning,--for training is only the disposition or arrangement of the +parts. + +On arbors, it is best to carry one permanent arm or trunk from each root +over the framework to the peak. Each year the canes are cut back to +short spurs (of 2 or 3 buds) along the sides of this trunk. + +Grapes are set from 6 to 8 feet apart in rows which are 8 to 10 feet +apart. A trellis made of 2 or 3 wires is the best support. Slat +trellises catch too much wind and blow down. Avoid stimulating manures. +In very cold climates, the vines may be taken off the trellis in early +winter and laid on the ground and lightly covered with earth. Along the +boundaries of home lots, where Grapes are often planted, little is to be +expected in the way of fruit because the ground is not well tilled. For +mildew and rot, spray with Bordeaux mixture. See _Spraying_. + +Concord is the most cosmopolitan variety, but its quality is not the +best. For the home garden, a good selection may be made from the +following list: Winchell or Green Mountain, Campbell Early, Worden, +Concord, Niagara, Moore Diamond, Vergennes, Agawam, Salem, Wilder, Iona, +Brighton, Delaware. + + +GRAPERY. The European grapes rarely thrive out of doors in eastern +America. Grape houses are necessary, with or without artificial heat. +Fruit for home use may be grown very satisfactorily in a cold Grapery +(without artificial heat). A simple lean-to against the south side of a +building or wall is cheap and serviceable. When a separate building is +desired, an even-span house running north and south is preferable. There +is no advantage in having a curved roof, except as a matter of looks. A +compost of four parts rotted turf to one of manure is laid on a sloping +cement bottom outside the house, making a border 12 feet wide and 2 feet +deep. The cement may be replaced with rubble on well drained soils, but +it is a poor makeshift. Every three years the upper 6 inches of the +border should be renewed with manure. The border inside the house is +prepared likewise. Two-year-old potted vines are planted about 4 feet +apart in a single row. Part of the roots go through a crevice in the +wall to the outer border and part remain inside; or all may go outside +if the house is desired for other purposes. One strong cane is trained +to a wire trellis hanging at least 18 inches from the glass, and is cut +back to 3 feet the first year, 6 the second, and 9 the third. Do not be +in a hurry to get a long cane. Pruning is on the spur system, as +recommended for arbors on page 120. The vines are usually laid on the +ground for winter and covered with leaves or wrapped with cloth. + +As soon as the buds swell in early spring, tie the vines to the trellis +and start out one shoot from each spur, rubbing off all others. After +the berries begin to color, however, it is better to leave all further +growth to shade the fruit. Pinch back each of these laterals two joints +beyond the second bunch. To keep down red spider and thrips, the +foliage should be sprayed with water every bright morning except during +the blooming season. At least one-third of the berries should be thinned +from each bunch; do not be afraid of taking out too many. Water the +inside border frequently all through the summer, and the outside +occasionally if the season is dry. Mildew may appear in July. The best +preventives are to syringe faithfully, admit air freely, and sprinkle +sulfur on the ground. + +Fruit may be kept fresh on the vines in a warm (or artificially heated) +Grapery until late December: in a coldhouse it must be picked before +frost. After the fruit is off, ventilate from top and bottom and +withhold water, so as to thoroughly ripen the wood. Along in November +the canes are pruned, covered with straw or wrapped with mats and laid +down till spring. Black Hamburg is superior to all other varieties for a +cold Grapery; Bowood Muscat, Muscat of Alexandria and Chasselas Musque +may be added in the warmhouse. Good vines will live and bear almost +indefinitely.--_S. W. Fletcher._ + + +GRASSES of various kinds are grown for ornament, the most popular types +being the hardy perennials, which make attractive clumps in the lawn or +border. The best of the permanent kinds in the North are the various +sorts of Eulalia (properly Miscanthus). When once established they +remain for years, making large and bold clumps. The striped kind, or +zebra grass, is particularly good. These grasses thrive in any good +soil. They grow from 4 to 7 feet high. The great reed, or _Arundo +Donax_, is a bold subject and perfectly hardy. In a rich and rather +moist soil, it grows 10 to 12 feet high when well established. Pampas +Grass is most excellent in the Middle States and South. Some of the big +native grasses and sedges make attractive lawn clumps. + +Grasses are also grown for dry or everlasting bouquets. For this +purpose, small-growing delicate annual species are mostly used. Good +types are species of agrostis, briza, bromus, eragrostis, and +pennisetum. Seeds of these and of others are sold by seedsmen. With +ordinary treatment, they thrive in any garden soil. + +For notes on sod-making, see _Lawn_. + + +GREENHOUSE. In America the word Greenhouse has come to be applied to all +kinds of glass-houses in which plants are grown. Originally the word was +applied to those houses in which plants are merely preserved or kept +green during the winter. Other types of glass-houses are the +conservatory, in which plants are displayed; stove or hothouse, in which +plants are grown in a high temperature; the propagating pit, in which +the multiplication of plants is carried forward; and the houses which +have various temperatures, as cold, cool and intermediate. The +principles which underlie the construction and management of +glass-houses are too extensive to be discussed here. The reader should +refer to special books on the topic. For the general subject, Taft's +"Greenhouse Construction" and "Greenhouse Management" are excellent. For +particular applications to floriculture, Hunt's "How to Grow +Cut-flowers" is a standard work. For applications to the forcing of +vegetable crops, Bailey's "Forcing-Book" may perhaps be consulted. + +The smaller the glass-house the more difficult it is to manage, because +it is likely to be more variable in temperature, moisture and other +conditions. This is particularly true if the house is a small lean-to +against the south side of a dwelling house, for it becomes very hot at +midday and comparatively cold at night. In order to moderate the heat in +these little houses, it is ordinarily advisable to use ground glass for +the roof or to whitewash it. The house conservatory may be heated by a +coal stove, but the best results are rarely to be attained in this case. +A stove is likely to leak gas, and the temperature is more or less +uneven. The best results are to be attained when the conservatory is +heated by steam or hot water, piped in the modern fashion with wrought +iron pipes, which go together with threads. If the conservatory is +heated from the heater which supplies the dwelling house, it should have +an extra amount of pipe; otherwise it will be necessary to keep the +dwelling house too hot for comfort in order to maintain the conservatory +at its proper temperature. It is always best, when practicable, to heat +the conservatory with a separate apparatus. There are various small hot +water and steam heaters, the size of coal stoves, which are excellent +for the purpose. For a small conservatory, hot water is usually +preferable to steam, since it is less likely to fluctuate. For large +establishments, however, the steam is usually the better. For further +discussions of related subjects, see _Hotbed_, _Window Garden_, +_Potting_ and _Watering_. + + +GREVILLEA. A very graceful greenhouse plant, suitable for house culture. +The plants grow freely from seed, and until they become too large are as +decorative as ferns. Grevilleas are really trees, and are valuable in +greenhouses and rooms only in their young state. They withstand much +abuse. They are now very popular as jardiniere subjects. Seeds sown in +spring will give handsome plants by the next winter. + + +GYPSOPHILA. BABY'S BREATH. _Gypsophila muralis_ is one of the dainty +little plants called Baby's Breath. It is a low-growing annual forming +compact mounds of green, thickly covered with little pink flowers. It is +one of the most attractive border plants in cultivation. It is also a +charming pot-plant. _G. paniculata_ is a hardy perennial having panicles +of bluish white flowers. This is very graceful, and the flowers are fine +for cutting and for use with sweet pea bouquets or with other choice +flowers. The panicles are so lasting that they may be used in winter +bouquets. The annuals may be planted 1 foot apart; the perennials 3 +feet. Both are readily grown from seed, and bloom the first year. + + +HARDY. A relative term, used to denote a plant which endures the climate +(particularly the winter climate) of a given place. Half-hardy plants +are those which withstand some frost or uncongenial conditions, but will +not endure the severity of the climate. Tender plants are those which +are injured by light frosts. + + +HEDGES. Hedges are much less used in this country than in Europe, and +for several reasons. Our climate is dry, and most Hedges do not thrive +so well here as there; labor is high-priced, and the trimming is +therefore likely to be neglected; our farms are so large that much +fencing is required; timber and wire are cheaper than live Hedges. +However, they are used with good effects about the home grounds. In +order to secure a good Hedge, it is necessary to have a thoroughly +well-prepared, deep soil, to set the plants close, and to shear them at +least twice every year. For evergreen Hedges the most serviceable plant +in general is the arborvit. The plants may be set at distances of 1 to +2 feet apart. For choice Hedges about the grounds, particularly +outside the northern states, some of the retinosporas are very useful. +One of the most satisfactory of all coniferous plants for Hedges is the +common hemlock, which stands shearing well and makes a very soft and +pleasing mass. The plants may be set from 1 to 3 feet apart. Other +plants which hold their leaves and are good for Hedges are the common +box and the privets. Box Hedges are the best for very low borders about +walks and flower beds. The dwarf variety can be kept down to a height of +6 inches to a foot for any number of years. The larger-growing varieties +make excellent Hedges 3, 4 and 5 feet high. The ordinary privet or prim +holds its leaves well into winter in the North. The so-called +Californian privet holds its leaves rather longer and stands better +along the seashore. In the southern states, nothing is better than +_Citrus trifoliata_. + +For Hedges of deciduous plants, the most common species are the +buckthorn, the European thorn apple or cratgus, osage orange, and +various kinds of roses. + +Hedges should be trimmed the year after they are set, although they +should not be trimmed very closely until they reach the desired or +permanent height. Thereafter they should be sheared into the desired +form in spring or fall. If the plants are allowed to grow for a year or +two without trimming, they lose their lower leaves and become open and +straggly. Osage orange and some other plants are plashed--that is, the +plants are set at an angle rather than perpendicularly, and they are +wired together in such a way that they make an impenetrable barrier just +above the surface of the ground. + + +HELIANTHUS. See _Sunflower_. + + +HELICHRYSUM. These are perhaps the most popular of the Everlastings +(which see), having large flowers of several colors. They grow readily +from seed, blooming from July to October. Height 10 inches to 2 feet. +Should be planted or thinned to stand 18 inches apart. + + +HELIOTROPE. A universal favorite house or border plant, growing readily +from cuttings or seeds, and producing quantities of fragrant violet, +purple or white flowers. One of the best methods of cultivation is to +set a strong plant in the border and peg the new growths to the ground, +where they will root and form a perfect mat, flowering profusely during +the fall months until frost. They will endure the temperature of a +living room well if the room is not too dry. Red spider is a natural +enemy of the Heliotrope, and when once it obtains a foothold is a very +difficult pest to manage, but frequent syringing with water will keep it +in check. A light, rich soil and an abundance of heat are their +requirements. Height 1 to 3 feet. Propagated by cuttings or layers. + + +HELLEBORE (White Hellebore) is often used for the killing of +currant-worms and other insects (see _Currant_). It is not so poisonous +as the arsenites, and therefore is to be preferred when it is necessary +to apply a poison to nearly ripe fruit. It is usually applied in a +spray with water, at the rate of 1/3 ounce to the gallon. It is harmless +to foliage. + + +HELLEBORUS, or CHRISTMAS ROSE, may be had in flower at the holidays if +grown in a frame and protected. The usual time for it to flower in the +open border is in March or early April. It will continue to bloom for +many years if grown in a shady place. Roots may be divided as an +increase is wanted. It may also be grown from seeds; and seedlings may +be expected to bloom a year from the spring in which they are sown. +Height 6 to 10 inches. + + +HEMEROCALLIS, or YELLOW DAY LILY. The advice given under Funkia will +apply to this. + + +HERBS are plants which die to the ground in winter. They may be annual, +biennial, or perennial. For a list of annual Herbs suitable for the +flower garden, see the articles on _Annuals_ and _Bedding_. A border or +free mass of perennial Herbs is one of the charms of any place. It is +informal, easy of care, and self-sustaining. The large part of the mass +should be composed of common and hardy things--wild or from gardens--and +incidental features may be made of the choicer and rarer exotics. In +most cases, plants look better when judiciously mixed than when planted +one kind in a bed. See _Border_. + + +HIBISCUS. Annuals and perennials, some of them shrubs, with showy, +hollyhock-like flowers. The annual Hibiscuses are very satisfactory. +They grow quickly and flower freely. The flowers are usually white or +yellow, of large size, and appear from July on. The herbaceous perennial +kinds are amongst the best of hardy border plants, blooming in late +summer and fall. The commonest of these is _Hibiscus Moscheutos_. Give +rich, moist soil. + +The greenhouse species are old favorites. They may be used in outdoor +bedding through the summer, lifted in the fall and cut back. Keep rather +dry and dormant during winter. Propagated by cuttings. + + +HIPPEASTRUM. Consult _Amaryllis_. + + +[Illustration: Common hoe] + +[Illustration: Scarifier] + +HOES should be of several patterns if the most efficient work is to be +done in the garden. The ordinary Hoe is adapted only to the rougher and +coarser Hoe-work, such as digging and fitting the ground. For much of +the subsequent tillage, some of the narrow-blade and pointed Hoes are +excellent. For cutting off weeds, the push Hoe or scarifier is +excellent. + + +[Illustration: Hollyhocks] + +HOLLYHOCK. These old garden favorites have been neglected of late years, +primarily because the Hollyhock rust has been so prevalent, destroying +the plants or making the unsightly. The double varieties seem to suffer +the most; and for that reason, and from the fact that the less formal +type is in favor, the single varieties are now the most generally grown. +Their culture is very simple. The seed is usually sown in July or +August, and the plants set where wanted the following spring. They will +bloom the same year in which they are transplanted--the year following +the seed-sowing. New plants should be set every two years, as the old +crowns are apt to rot or die after the first flowering. For rust, spray +early with Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal carbonate of copper. + + +HOP, ORNAMENTAL. _Humulus Japonicus_, or the annual HOP, is one of the +best rapid-growing screen vines in cultivation. It makes a dense canopy +of attractive foliage. The leaves are finely cut, and in one variety +variegated with white. This variegated variety is a fine vine for a +porch or front screen, always attracting attention to its markings. This +Hop is propagated by seed sown in boxes in March. When once established, +it will seed itself and start as soon as the soil becomes warm. Set +plants 4 to 8 feet apart. Height 8 to 20 feet. + + +HORSERADISH. As a kitchen garden vegetable, this is usually planted in +some out-of-the-way spot and a piece of the root dug as often as needed, +the fragments of roots being left in the soil to grow for further use. +This method results in having nothing but tough, stringy roots, very +unlike the product of a properly planted and well cared for bed. The +best roots are those planted in the spring at the time of setting early +cabbage, and dug as late the same fall as the weather will permit. It +becomes, therefore, an annual crop. The roots for planting are small +pieces, from 4 to 6 inches long, obtained when trimming the roots dug in +the fall. These pieces may be packed in sand and stored until wanted the +following spring. In planting, the roots should be set with the upper +end 3 inches below the surface of the ground, using a dibber or +sharp-pointed stick in making the holes. The crop may be planted between +rows of early-sown beets, lettuce or other crop, and given full +possession of the ground when these crops are harvested. Where the +ground is inclined to be stiff or the subsoil is near the surface, the +roots may be set in a slanting position. In fact, many gardeners +practice this method of planting, thinking that the roots make a better +growth and are more uniform in size. + + +HOTBED. A Hotbed is a frame or box which has artificial heat and a +transparent covering and in which plants are grown. It differs from a +coldframe (which see) in the fact that it has artificial bottom heat. +This bottom heat is usually supplied by fermenting organic matter, +chiefly horse manure, but hot air, hot water or steam conveyed in pipes, +may be employed. It is covered with sash of which the normal or standard +size is 3 feet wide and 6 feet long. These sashes are laid crosswise the +box or frame. The standard size of frame is 6 feet wide and 12 feet +long. A "frame," therefore, accommodates four sashes. However, the frame +may be of any length desired. This frame is ordinarily made of boards, +and the back of it is 3 or 4 inches higher than the front, so that the +sashes slope to the sun. It is customary to have a space of 6 to 10 +inches between the earth and the sash on the lower or front side. The +manure which is used to heat the bed may be placed on top of the ground +and the frame set on the pile, or it may be placed in a pit. If the land +is warm and well drained, it is ordinarily better to have a pit from 1 +to 2 feet deep and to set the frame over it. This is especially the case +if it is desired to have a permanent Hotbed yard. The place in which the +frames are set should be protected from the cold and prevailing winds by +a rising slope, a high board fence, a building, hedge, or other +obstruction. If the frame yard is near the main buildings, it will be +much more accessible in rainy or snowy times, and the plants are likely +to have better care. Water should also be handy. + +[Illustration: Section of a Hotbed] + +The time of starting a Hotbed will depend upon the kinds of plants to be +grown, the amount of time which one wishes to gain, and something, also, +on the quality of the manure. The hardier the plant the earlier it can +be started. In the latitude of New York, from the first to the middle of +March is the usual time for starting a Hotbed. In this bed are sown +seeds of early flowers and such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower, +tomato, etc. In the raising of any plants in the Hotbed, it is very +essential that they do not become "drawn" or "leggy." In order to +prevent this, they must be given plenty of room, thorough ventilation on +all pleasant days, and not too great heat. It is well to transplant them +once or twice before they are finally set in the field, especially if +they are started, in New York, as early as the first or middle of March. +When they are transplanted, they can be set in another Hotbed or in a +coldframe; but it is important that the succeeding frames in which they +are set should not be very much colder than the one in which they grew, +else they may become stunted. It is well, however, to transplant them +into a gradually cooler and freer atmosphere in order to harden them +off, so that they may go into the open ground without danger. On every +pleasant day, raise the sash at the upper end 1 or 2 inches, or if the +sun shines brightly and the wind does not blow, give even more air; and +eventually strip off the sashes entirely. It is very important that the +plants are not kept too close and grown too soft. It is usually +advisable to sow cabbage, lettuce and other hardy plants in different +frames from tomatoes and other tender things, in order that the proper +requirements may be given to each. At night the Hotbeds (at least early +in the season) will need more protection than the glass sash. It was +formerly the custom to use thick rye-straw mats to cover Hotbeds, but it +is now a common practice to use the straw matting which can be bought of +carpet dealers. This is rolled out on the sashes at night in one or two +thicknesses; and if the weather is sharp, board shutters, the size of +the sash, may be laid on top. As the manure heat begins to fail give +more and more air, so that the plants may be able to shift for +themselves when the bottom heat is finally exhausted. + +Fresh horse manure is the material which is commonly used for the +heating of Hotbeds. If it can be secured from livery stables, so that it +is all of nearly or quite the same age, better results may be expected. +Manure from highly fed horses usually heats better than that from horses +which receive little grain, or in which there is very much litter. Put +the manure in a pile, preferably under cover, and as soon as it shows +signs of heating, fork it over in order to mix the entire mass and to +cause it to heat evenly. When it is steaming throughout the whole mass, +it may be put in the bed. Assuming that the Hotbed has a pit beneath it, +it is well to put in 2 or 3 inches of coarse litter in order to keep the +manure off the cold ground. The manure is then put in and tramped down, +in layers of 4 to 6 inches each. If the manure is of the right +consistency, it will pack without becoming dense and soggy; that is, it +will spring a little beneath the feet. If it has too much litter, it +will fluff up under the feet and not pack well. From 18 to 24 or even 30 +inches of manure is placed in the pit. On top, an inch of dry straw or +light leaf-mold may be placed to serve as a distributor of the heat to +the earth above. From 3 to 4 inches of rich, light earth is placed upon +this, in which to sow the seed. The manure will ordinarily heat +violently for a few days. Place a soil thermometer in it, and as soon as +the temperature begins to fall below 90 the seeds of tomatoes and +egg-plants may be sown; and when it begins to fall below 80, the seeds +of cabbages, lettuce and cauliflower may be sown. If the frame is not +placed over a pit and the manure is put on top of the ground, it will be +necessary to allow the body of manure to project 1 or 2 feet in all +directions in order to prevent the edges of the bed from freezing. + +In starting plants in a Hotbed, one must not expect to gain as much time +in the crop as he gains in the starting of the seeds: that is, if he +starts the seeds two months ahead of the normal season, he will not gain +two months in the ripening of the crop. Ordinarily, he cannot expect to +gain much more than one-half the time, particularly if the plants are +transplanted to the field from the Hotbed. + +Some plants may be grown to maturity in the Hotbed, particularly lettuce +and radishes. After Hotbeds have been emptied of their plants, the +sashes may be stored away, and the frames, with their spent manure, used +for the growing of an early summer crop of melons or cucumbers. + + +HOUSE PLANTS. See _Window-Garden_. + + +[Illustration: Hyacinth bean] + +HYACINTH BEAN (_Dolichos Lablab_). A very rapid-growing twiner, bearing +fragrant flowers of purple or white. It is a fine screen plant. Plant +seeds when the ground is warm where the plants are to grow; or they may +be started early in pots. Height 10 feet. + + +HYACINTHS are most popular winter- or spring-flowering bulbs. Hyacinths +are hardy, but they are often used as window or greenhouse plants. They +are easy to grow and very satisfactory. For winter flowering the bulbs +should be procured early in the fall, potted in October in soil composed +of loam, leaf-mold and sand. If ordinary flower pots are used, put in +the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, charcoal or small stones for +drainage; then fill the pot with dirt, so that when the bulb is planted +the top will be on a level with the rim of the pot. Fill in around the +bulb with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing. These pots of +bulbs should be placed in a cold pit, cellar or on the shady side of a +building. In all cases, plunge the pot in some cool material (as +cinders). Before the weather becomes cold enough to freeze a crust on +the ground, the pots should have a protection of straw or leaves to keep +the bulbs from severe freezing. In from six to eight weeks the bulbs +should have made roots enough to grow the plant, and the pots may be +placed in a cool room for a short time. When the plants have started +into growth, they may be placed in a warmer situation. Watering should +be carefully attended to from this time, and when the plant is in bloom +the pot may be set in a saucer or other shallow dish containing water. +After flowering, the bulbs may be ripened by gradually withholding water +until the leaves die. They may then be planted out in the border, where +they will bloom each spring for a number of years, but will never prove +satisfactory for forcing again. The open ground culture of Hyacinths is +the same as for tulips, which see. See _Bulbs_. + +_Water Culture of Hyacinths._--The Hyacinth is the most popular of the +Dutch bulbs for growing in vases. The Narcissus may be grown in water, +and do just as well, but it is not as pretty in glasses as the Hyacinth. +Glasses for Hyacinths may be had of florists who deal in supplies, and +in various shapes and colors. The usual form is tall and narrow, with a +cup-like mouth to receive the bulb. They are filled with water, so that +it will just reach the base of the bulb when it has been placed in +position in the cup above. The vessels of dark-colored glass are +preferable to those of clear glass, as roots prefer darkness. When the +glasses, or bowls as above mentioned, have been arranged, they are set +away in a cool, dark place to form roots like potted bulbs. Results are +usually secured earlier in water than in soil. To keep the water sweet, +a few lumps of charcoal may be put in the glass. As the water +evaporates, add fresh; add enough so that it runs over, and thereby +renews that in the glass. Do not disturb the roots by taking out the +bulb. + + +HYDRANGEA. One of the commonest lawn shrubs is _Hydrangea paniculata_. +The commonest fault in growing it is scattering the plants over the +lawn, where they suffer in the competition with grass roots, and do not +show off to advantage. It is far better to mass them in front of taller +things. The Hydrangea blooms on wood of the season; therefore it should +be pruned after bloom--in winter or early spring (see _Pruning_). Cut +back heavily, in order to secure the strong new shoots upon which the +flowers are borne. + + +HYSSOP. See _Sweet Herbs_. + + +ICE PLANT, or MESEMBRYANTHEMUM. Fine little plants for rockwork or +edging. The majority of the species are greenhouse and window plants, +but a few can be recommended for outdoor planting. A very sunny +location, with gravelly soil, will give the best results, either in the +open or in the house. Easily propagated by pieces of the plant laid on +moist sand in a somewhat sunny place. The common Ice Plant of +window-gardens is readily grown from seeds or slips. It is prized for +its glandular-glistening thick foliage (whence the common name). The +little flowers, which open in sunshine, are also interesting. + + +IMPATIENS SULTANI is a generally known conservatory plant, making a +charming pot subject for warm greenhouse or a room. It is readily +propagated from seed or cuttings, seed being preferable. Flowers bright +pink-red. Of easy culture in a fairly moist atmosphere. Height about 18 +inches. + + +INSECTS. For horticultural purposes, Insects might be grouped into three +general classes: borers, or those which live inside the plant tissue; +chewing Insects which live on the outside of the plant; and the sucking +Insects. + +As a general statement, it may be said that the digging out of borers is +the only complete remedy. Sometimes an application of something to the +body of the tree may keep them out, but it is always uncertain; and it +usually involves more work than to dig them out. All trees which are +subject to borers (especially apples, peaches and pears) should be +examined at least twice every year. See _Borers_. + +[Illustration: Moth of one of the borers] + +[Illustration: A beetle borer] + +The general run of chewing or biting Insects may be killed by the +arsenical poisons. Such Insects are the common types of worms and +beetles which feed on foliage. The leading poison which is now used for +this purpose is Paris green (which see). Hellebore and pyrethrum are +useful when it is not advisable to use arsenical poisons. + +The sucking Insects include all the kinds of plant lice, the squash bug +and all the scale Insects. These are dispatched by some material which +kills by external application, especially material which has kerosene or +petroleum in it. The common material heretofore used for this purpose is +kerosene and soap emulsion; but it is now believed that the emulsion of +kerosene and water is fully as efficient, and since machines have been +perfected for automatically mixing it, it is a much more practicable +remedy. See _Kerosene Emulsion_. + +[Illustration: Weevil--a chewing insect] + +In the fighting of all Insects, success depends upon taking them in +time. If something is known of the life history of the Insect, very much +will be gained, for the operator may be on hand as soon as the Insect is +expected to appear. + +_Insects on House Plants._--The most troublesome or common Insects with +which the amateur is likely to meet in the window-garden or conservatory +are the red spider, mite, mealy bug, aphis, and scale. + +The red spider is a very minute Insect with a reddish body. Its presence +may be suspected whenever plants are growing in a warm and dry place. +Usually it first appears on the under side of leaves, but it multiplies +rapidly, and will soon not be so choice of position. It sucks the juices +of the leaves, and they soon indicate the injury by a dull appearance, +and also, in many cases, by small whitish or paler areas on the upper +surfaces. The mite is of similar habits and size, but is of a pale +color, with black on its back. It appears under the same conditions as +the red spider. These pests are small, but are very serious if allowed +to multiply unchecked. They should be looked after as soon as their +presence is detected. + +The remedy is to arrange for keeping the air about the plants more +moist, and giving drenchings of the foliage with clear or soapy water. +The latter is most effective. The soap used may be simply the common +washing soap, or that sold at drug stores known as whale-oil soap. In +fighting them, care must be used not to keep the soil soaked with water, +or it will check the plants in vigor and only add to the strength of the +enemy. Even florists sometimes get into just such a predicament. +Flagging and extreme variations in dryness and humidity of the air, +checking the vigor of plants, favor the appearance and presence of the +red spider quite as much as extreme and continued dryness of the air. + +The aphids or plant lice are readily discernable when they appear on +plants, as they are sure to do under nearly all conditions. They are +small, have elongated, succulent bodies, move about slowly and +awkwardly, on rather long, hairlike legs, and are most commonly of a +pale green color, though often brown or reddish, and sometimes of other +shades. Fumigation of the plants in a closed box with burning tobacco +stems will kill them. Latterly florists evaporate a liquid extract of +tobacco (which is sold by dealers in florists' supplies) by dropping a +hot iron into a pan of it. A tea made by soaking tobacco stems in water +for a few hours, and applied with a syringe, is effective, and a safe +remedy in inexperienced hands. A tablespoonful of tobacco sheep-dip, or +extract of tobacco, to a couple of gallons of water, also makes an +effective syringing or dipping solution. As mentioned above, we should +use care, especially in the winter time, when the soil often dries out +slowly, to avoid soaking it when already wet or sufficiently moist. + +[Illustration: One of the kind which sucks its food] + +Mealy bug has a small, flat, tortoise-shaped body, from about +one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch long. The Insects collect in +masses in the axils of the leaves. They are covered with a white mealy +or cottony substance, and are readily recognized, although persons +unfamiliar with their appearance have sometimes mistaken them for bits +of down or cotton lodged upon the foliage or in the axils of the leaves. +The young are small, and likely to escape observation unless one looks +closely. They are flat, of a creamy or pinkish tint, and lie close to +the surface of the leaves, especially on the under surface. Coleus and +bouvardias are among the plants upon which mealy bugs are most often +found. Owing to the oily nature of their covering, it is difficult to +wet their bodies with any ordinary liquid that may be applied for the +purpose of destroying them. Fir-tree oil is one of the most effective +remedies for them. This liquid is rather expensive, but for a small +collection a gallon can will last for a long time. It is also effective +against other Insects. For mealy bugs, two tablespoonfuls of the oil to +one pint of water will make an effective dipping or spraying solution. +Soft or rain-water should be used, and tin, wooden, or earthenware +vessels. Galvanized iron vessels are to be avoided. Apply forcibly with +a syringe or atomizer, preferably in the evening. If effective, the +mealy bug will turn buff-color. For other Insects, except for the scale, +mentioned below, the solution will not need to be more than half or a +fourth so strong. Where there are only a few mealy bugs, the plant may +be gone over with a soft brush and the Insects crushed. + +[Illustration: The codlin-moth] + +Scales are most commonly of a brown or whitish color, flat or +tortoise-shaped, and easily seen. They adhere closely by the under +surface of their bodies to the stems, branches, and foliage of woody +plants. The mature Insect is stationary, and its body at length becomes +a shell containing hundreds of eggs. These hatch, and the young emerge +from the shell, crawl about and settle, to develop into the familiar +form. A strong solution of fir-tree oil, like that used for mealy bugs, +is a good remedy. A strong solution of whale-oil soap, made by adding an +ounce or more of the soap to three gallons of water, even more if +necessary, is also useful in combating them. After dipping or syringing +the plants they may be allowed to stand over night, when they should be +rinsed off with clear water. Applications may need repeating every three +or four days until the Insects are gotten rid of. It is difficult, for a +time, to tell when they are dead. If killed, the bodies will fall off +easily, and in the case of the soft-shelled species shrivel up somewhat +after a time. Kerosene and water emulsion (see _Kerosene_) will kill +them. + + +INSECTICIDE. A substance which will kill insects. Insecticides are of +two general classes--those that kill by contact (see _Kerosene_), and +those that poison the insect (see _Paris Green_ and _Hellebore_). + + +IRIS. Many handsome perennials, of which the Blue Flag is familiar to +every old-fashioned garden. Most Irises thrive best in a rather moist +soil, and some of them may be colonized in the water in margins of +ponds. Gardeners usually divide them into two sections--the +tuberous-rooted or rhizomatous, and the bulbous. A third division--the +fibrous-rooted--is sometimes made. The common and most serviceable +species belong to the tuberous-rooted section. Here belongs the +beautiful and varied Japanese Iris, _Iris lvigata_ (or _I. Kmpferi_), +which is among the most deserving of all hardy perennials. Most of these +Irises need no special care. They are propagated by division of the +rootstocks. Plant the pieces 1 foot apart if a mass effect is desired. +When the plants begin to fail, dig them up, divide the roots, discard +the old parts and grow a new stock, as before. _I. Susiana_, of this +section, is one of the oddest of Irises, but it is not quite hardy in +the North. Of the bulbous section, most species are not hardy in the +North. The bulbs should be taken up and replanted every two or three +years. The Persian and Spanish Irises belong here. The bulbs give rise +to but a single stem. + + +KALE. A low-growing, spreading plant belonging to the cabbage family and +extensively used for winter and spring greens. The same culture as given +to late cabbage is suitable. At the approach of severe freezing weather +a slight protection is given in the North. The leaves remain green +through the winter and may be gathered from under the snow at a time +when material for greens is scarce. Some of the Kales are very +ornamental because of their blue and purple curled foliage. The Scotch +Curled is the most popular variety. Kales are extensively grown at +Norfolk, Va., and southward, and shipped north in winter. Let the plants +stand 18 to 30 inches apart. Young cabbage plants are sometimes used as +Kale. See _Collards_. Borecole is a kind of Kale. Sea Kale is a wholly +different vegetable (which see). + + +KEROSENE is fatal to insects. It is likely to injure plants if applied +full strength, although if applied in full sunlight (so that evaporation +takes place rapidly) it may do no harm. It is safest to apply it in +dilution. Of late, there are pumps which mix or emulsify Kerosene and +water in definite proportions, and this mixture (in the proportion of +1/5 or Kerosene) is fatal to insects and usually harmless to plants. +The standard Kerosene emulsion is with soap, but the perfection of +mechanical devices for emulsifying it with water is probably destined to +supplant the soap emulsion. + +_Kerosene Emulsion._--Hard soap, pound; boiling soft water, 1 +gallon; Kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in the water, add the +Kerosene, and churn with a pump for 5 to 10 minutes. Dilute 10 to 25 +times before applying. Use strong emulsion, diluted four times in +winter, for all scale insects. For insects which suck, as plant-lice, +mealy bugs, red spider, thrips, bark-lice or scale. Cabbage-worms, +currant-worms, and all insects which have soft bodies can also be +successfully treated. + + +KOHLRABI. This vegetable looks like a leafy turnip growing above ground. +If used when small (2 to 3 inches in diam.), and not allowed to become +hard and tough, it is of superior quality. It should be more generally +grown. The culture is very simple. A succession of sowings should be +made from early spring until the middle of summer, in drills 18 inches +to 2 feet apart, thinning the young plants to 6 or 8 inches in the rows. +It matures as quickly as turnips. One ounce of seed to 100 feet of +drill. + + +[Illustration: Lantana] + +LANTANA is a popular greenhouse pot-plant, and is occasionally seen in +window-gardens, being grown for the profusion of its orange-red, +heliotrope-shaped flowers. In the South, and sometimes in the North, it +is planted out for the summer. It is very easy to grow, and also to +propagate by means of cuttings. Although the flowers of the common +species are ill-scented, the profusion of bloom makes it desirable. + + +LARKSPUR. DELPHINIUM. The Larkspurs are among the very best hardy +plants, being free-flowering and having a good habit. They should be in +every mixed border, particularly the perennial kinds. The tall +flower-spikes, showing above the cut foliage, give the plant a striking +effect. The flowers are in shades of blue in most varieties. The plants +are propagated by division of root or from seed. The latter method will +give good results, although the resulting plants are not likely to be +the same variety as the seed plant. + +As winter approaches, a covering of coarse litter should be thrown over +the crowns of the perennial kinds. The plants will come into bloom in +late June and continue for a long season. Plants should be set 3 to 5 +feet apart if in rows, but they are seen to better advantage when mixed +with other border plants. Height of plants from 3 to 5 feet. + +The annual Larkspur may be grown from seed sown in heat and transplanted +to the ground in May; or seed may be sown where the plants are wanted +and the seedlings thinned to 1 foot. These seedlings will bloom in June, +and continue through the summer. Plants grow from 8 to 18 inches high. + + +LATHYRUS. See _Pea, Everlasting_; also, _Sweet Pea_. + + +LAWNS. In order to have a good Lawn, two things are essential: first, a +pleasing surface or contour; second, a dense, firm sod. + +Inasmuch as the Lawn is, or should be, a permanent thing, it is +necessary that the greatest care be exercised to grade the land and to +thoroughly prepare it before any seeds are sown. About a new building +the filling should be allowed to settle, so that the finished surface +will slope gradually away from the foundations and the steps. If the +land is very hard clay, or if the place is rather low, it is always well +to lay tile under-drains at frequent intervals. Everything should be +done to cause the land to be deep and loose, so that the grass roots +will run far into the soil and not be pressed for lack of moisture in a +dry time. If the land has not had applications of manure in recent +years, it is well to plow in, or to spade in, a liberal quantity of +well-rotted litter from the barnyard. Work this into the soil as deeply +as possible. If the hardpan is rather high, it is well to subsoil the +area or to trench it (that is, to spade it up two or three spades deep). +If the land is apparently not fertile in plant-food, it is well to add a +dressing of some commercial fertilizer to the surface when the grass +seed is sown. This will start the grass quickly and allow it to get a +foothold before the severe weather of midsummer comes. + +[Illustration: It is fun to make a garden] + +[Illustration: A garden corner] + +The kind of grass seed to sow will depend upon the region and also upon +the personal tastes of the owner. The one standard Lawn grass is June +grass or blue grass (_Poa pratensis_). The seeds of this grass are sold +in the hulls, and therefore the bushel weighs only fourteen pounds. Not +less than two and one-half to three bushels should be sown to the acre. +In the southern states, June grass will not hold, and Bermuda grass is +used, being sown about as thick as recommended for the June grass. There +are various prepared Lawn grass mixtures which are excellent, but the +June grass alone will give a very excellent Lawn in a short time. +Whether one shall sow white clover in his Lawn depends mostly upon his +personal taste. If he likes the white clover, it is well to put in a +quart or two of seed to the acre, sowing it separately from the June +grass in order to get an even distribution. Some persons like to see the +white clover in certain parts of the Lawn. It thrives very well where +the land is rather moist. In parts of the East, Rhode Island bent grass +is used for lawns. + +[Illustration: A nursery] + +The grass seed should be sown in the cool of the year. It may be sown in +September and thereby become established before winter; or it may be +sown very early in the spring. In newly made Lawns, it is a good plan to +grade the area thoroughly in the fall, allowing it to settle in the +winter; and then, if the surface remains even, to sow the grass seed on +one of the latest snows in spring. By sowing it on the snow, one can see +that it is distributed evenly; and when the snow melts, the seed is +carried into the land and does not need covering. It is well to sow +three or four quarts per acre of timothy seed, for the timothy +germinates very quickly, and makes a green area the first season, but is +killed out as soon as the June grass gains a foothold. Timothy will not +stand the continued cutting, whereas the June grass will. The timothy, +therefore, serves as a temporary covering to the land, indicating where +the borders are, and thereby outlining the area for the Lawn mower to +cut. The timothy seed should be sown separately from the June grass in +order to insure even distribution. On hard lands it is well to sow two +or three quarts per acre of crimson clover seed. The long roots of this +plant tend to improve the physical condition of the soil; and when they +decay, they leave nitrogen in the soil for the grass to use. Since +crimson clover is an annual plant, it will not do any permanent mischief +in the Lawn. + +[Illustration: A lawn, with planting on the sides] + +The first season the weeds will probably come up thickly, especially if +the land is rich. These weeds should not be pulled, for whenever one is +pulled out of the ground, many grass plants are rooted up and the +surface is made uneven. The only way in which to keep down weeds is to +mow them frequently with a Lawn mower. They will not appear in any great +numbers the second year, unless there should be some perennial weeds, +like dandelion or dock; and these may be pulled out the first fall or +the following spring. + +It is rare that one secures a perfectly good and uniform sod from one +sowing of seed; especially is this true if the soil varies in different +parts of the area. If the surface contour is satisfactory, it is unwise +to dig up the areas on which the seed has not caught. It is best to rake +them over with a steel rake in fall or spring, sowing on a little +commercial fertilizer rather rich in nitrogen, and sow more seed. Nearly +every Lawn will need patching in this way from year to year. If the Lawn +is attended to in fall and spring by sowing grass seed, the weeds will +rarely do serious mischief. When weeds are troublesome on the Lawn, it +means that there is not sufficient grass, and every effort should be +made to get more grass. Therefore, when the perennial weeds are pulled +out, sow more grass seed. + +[Illustration: A picturesque rill on the lawn] + +When narrow-leaved plantain bothers, it is an indication that the land +is too poor and dry for grass. In such cases, the land usually lacks +humus or vegetable matter; and in various severe incursions of the +plantain, it may be necessary to spade up the weedy areas and to work +rotted manure into the soil. Usually, however, the plantain can be +killed out by enriching the soil and sowing more grass seed. The common +practice of sprinkling Lawns is nearly always pernicious, since the +water is not supplied in sufficient amount to wet down very far, and the +grass tends to make surface roots. When the watering is omitted the +plants suffer. The more a Lawn is sprinkled, the more the grass depends +upon the sprinkling. If it is necessary to water the Lawn, the water +should be allowed to run directly from the hose until the surface area +is completely soaked. It is best to do this at nightfall. When the water +is applied by means of a sprinkler, a large part of it evaporates and +does no good to the ground. The fundamental treatment of the Lawn is to +have the land so deep and porous that the grass roots strike deep into +the soil and do not need the surface water. A Lawn which is well made +will need watering only in unusually dry times. + +Mow the Lawn frequently when it is growing rapidly,--in spring and early +summer. In the fall mow less frequently, and let it go into the winter +with a long coat of grass. If the Lawn is mown as often as is needed, it +will not be necessary to rake off the trimmings. In fall, top-dress the +Lawn with commercial fertilizer at the rate of 500 pounds to the acre. +If the Lawn has not been raked clean of all the trimmings and decayed +refuse which covers the surface of the ground, it is not necessary to +dress it with stable manure; for manure is unsightly, unsavory, and +often brings in weeds. Many persons make the mistake of raking the Lawn +clean in late fall. + +Closely associated with the making of the Lawn is the general +arrangement of the planting. It is the common fault to scatter the +planting. Much better effects are secured by massing or grouping the +planting. See _Borders_ and _Flower Beds_. Particularly along the +boundaries and about the foundations of buildings, the shrubbery and +other plants may be massed to excellent effect. In large places there +should be more or less mass planting along the walks and drives. In the +curves and retreats of these plantings one will find many pleasant +corners; and here the children may have their play-houses and their +pets. A little brook winding across a corner or along one side of a Lawn +may make a pleasant picture if it is allowed to take on a half-wild +character. + + +[Illustration: A layer] + +LAYERS are parts (usually stems) of plants laid down on the earth while +still attached to the parent, with the expectation that they will take +root and can then be separated as independent plants. All vine-like +plants can be propagated readily by means of Layers; so can most +soft-wooded plants, as willows, maples, currants, etc. It is usual to +put down the branches in the fall. In a year they should be ready to be +severed from the parent. They may also be made in spring, before growth +starts. See that the layered part rests in moist earth. Usually roots +arise more freely if the shoot is cracked or notched at the buried +point. The Layer may be held down by a forked stick ("pegged down"), or +by a stone or clod. See that the shoot does not throw up suckers behind +the layered part. + +[Illustration: Several layers from one vine] + + +LEEK. This belongs to the onion family, and is used mostly as flavoring +for soups. Well grown Leeks have a very agreeable and not very strong +onion flavor. Leek is of the easiest culture, and is usually grown as a +second crop, to follow beets, early peas, and other early stuff. The +seed should be sown in a seed-bed in April or early May and the +seedlings planted out in the garden in July, in rows 2 feet apart, the +plants being 6 inches apart in the rows. The plants should be set deep +if the neck or lower part of the leaves is to be used in a blanched +condition. The soil may be drawn towards the plants in hoeing, to +further the blanching. Being very hardy, the plants may be dug in late +fall, and stored in the same manner as celery, in trenches or in a cool +root-cellar. One ounce of seed to 100 feet of drill. + + +LETTUCE is probably the most extensively grown salad vegetable. It is +now in demand, and is procurable, every month in the year. The winter +and early spring crops are grown in forcing-houses and coldframes, but a +supply from the garden may be had from April to November, by the use of +a cheap frame in which to grow the first and last crops, relying on a +succession of sowings for the intermediate supply. Seed for the first +crop may be sown in a coldframe in March, growing the crop thick and +having many plants which are small and tender; or, by thinning out to +the distance of 3 inches and allowing the plants to make a larger +growth, the plants pulled up may be set in the open ground for the next +crop. Sowings should be made in the garden from April to October, at +short intervals. A moist location should be selected for the July and +August sowings. The early and late sowings should be of some +loose-growing variety, as they are in edible condition sooner than the +cabbage or heading varieties. + +[Illustration: Plant of heading lettuce] + +The cabbage varieties are far superior to the loose-growing kinds for +salads. To be grown to perfection, they should have very rich soil, +frequent cultivation and an occasional stimulant, such as liquid manure +or nitrate of soda. The Cos Lettuce is an upright-growing type much +esteemed in Europe, but less grown here. The leaves of the full grown +plants are tied together, thus blanching the center, making it a +desirable salad or garnishing variety. It thrives best in summer. One +ounce of seed will grow 3,000 plants or sow 100 feet of drill. In the +garden, plants may stand 6 inches apart in the rows, and the rows may be +as close together as the system of tillage will allow. + + +LILY. Bulbous plants of many kinds. It has been said of this family of +plants that it has no "poor relations," each of them being perfect in +itself. Many of the choicest kinds are comparatively unknown, although +easy to cultivate. In fact, all of the Lilies may be grown with +comparative ease. A light, rich, well-drained soil, mellow to the depth +of at least 1 foot, a handful of sand under each bulb if the soil is +inclined to be stiff, and planting so that the crown of the bulb will be +at least 4 inches below the surface, are the general requirements. One +exception to the depth of planting is _Lilium auratum_, or Golden-Banded +Lily. This should be planted deeper--at least 8 inches below the +surface--as the new bulbs form over the old one and soon bring the bulbs +to the surface if they are not planted deep. + +While Lilies may have partial shade, they should never be planted near +or under trees. The shade or protection of tall-growing, herbaceous +plants is sufficient. In fact, the best results, both as to growth and +effect, may be had by planting amongst low shrubbery or border plants. +Most kinds are the better for remaining undisturbed for a number of +years; but if they are to be taken up and divided, or moved to other +quarters, they should not be allowed to become dry. The small bulbs, or +offsets, may be planted in the border, and if protected will grow to +flowering size in two or three years. In taking up bulbs for division it +is best to do so soon after the tops die after blooming. At least this +should be done early in the fall, not later than October, giving the +plants a chance to become established before freezing weather. A mulch +of coarse litter or evergreen boughs should be placed over the bulbs +after the ground has become frozen, to be gradually removed as the +spring advances. + +[Illustration: Easter Lily] + +As pot-plants some Lilies are very satisfactory, especially those that +may be forced into bloom through the winter. The best kinds for this +purpose are _L. Harrisii_ (Easter Lily), _L. longiflorum_, and _L. +candidum_. Others may be forced with success, but these are the ones +most generally used. The winter culture of these for forcing is the +same as for Hyacinths (in pots), which see. The article on _Bulbs_ gives +directions for both outdoor and indoor growing which are directly +applicable to Lilies. + + +LILY, CHINESE SACRED. See _Narcissus_. + + +LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. A perfectly hardy little plant, bearing racemes of +small white bell-shaped flowers in early spring. For ordinary +cultivation, sods or mats of roots may be dug from any place in which +the plant is colonized. Usually it thrives best in partial shade; and +the leaves make an attractive mat on the north side of a building, or +other shady place, in which grass will not grow. The plants will take +care of themselves year after year. + +For forcing indoors, imported roots or "pips" are used, as the plants +are grown for this particular purpose in parts of Europe. These roots +may be planted in pots, and treated as recommended for winter-flowering +bulbs, under _Bulbs_. Florists force them in greater heat, however, +often giving them a bottom heat of 80 or 90; but skill and experience +are required in order to attain uniformly good results in this case. + + +LINE. A garden Line is one of the most convenient things connected with +garden operations. It is always wanted when long rows of seed are to be +sown, and it is also necessary in laying out walks or drives. A very +simple, yet handy, holder for a line is shown on the margin. The pin is +driven in the soil at the starting point, and the line is unwound as the +operator walks towards the end of the row. A line should be 100 feet +long for common garden operations. + +[Illustration: A garden Line] + + +LOBELIA. Some of these are well-known garden plants, being used very +freely as edging for ribbon beds or basket plants. They require a loose, +rich soil, and some stimulant when in full flower. The flowers continue +through a long season. They propagate freely from seed. _Lobelia +Erinus_, in blue, 6 inches high, is one of the most popular of all +annual edging plants. In Europe various perennial Lobelias are popular, +but they are seldom seen in American gardens. + + +LONDON PURPLE. Discussed under _Paris Green_. + + +LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. See _Amarantus_. + + +MANURE adds plant-food to the soil, and it also improves the texture or +physical condition of the soil. This latter effect is often its greatest +value. If one wants mere plant-food alone, he may often do better to add +it in some more concentrated form. See _Fertilizers_. Manure, when +thoroughly incorporated with the soil, makes the ground congenial for +the plant. It is important, in garden operations, that the Manure be +rotted or composted, or "short" or "fine," as the gardeners say. It then +incorporates readily with the soil and quickly gives up its fertility. +Manure is composted by letting it decay in piles. The compost pile +should be flat on top, so that it will catch the rains, and 3 to 5 feet +high. + +The most desirable Manure for the garden and for house plants is +probably old cow Manure. It does not burn or lose its strength. It may +be kept for a number of years if piled under shelter, becoming more +available each year. It mixes well with soil and leaf-mold. When once +rotted, this manure is very lasting and easily assimilated by plants. +Horse Manure is very likely to become overheated, and to lose its value; +and it is too loose and dry for many purposes. Pig Manure, unless well +composted with soil or refuse, is usually too heavy and rich. Sheep +Manure is at its best when used in a liquid form, although it is most +excellent to mix with soil to loosen it. + +All garden refuse, such as vines, leaves, decaying vegetables, will make +Manure if composted with soil; and if the wash water is thrown on the +compost pile much fertility will be added. Wood ashes from stoves, the +chip dirt from the woodshed--in fact, almost any substance that will +decay--will furnish plant-food, and should be added to the compost pile. +This pile should be turned often, to mix the material. + +When practicable, it is best to apply Manure in the fall, as it then has +time to become incorporated with the soil before spring. Beds which are +to be used for flowers next year may be dressed with Manure in the fall +and deeply spaded, leaving the surface rough and loose. It is well to be +careful that the Manure does not contain weed seeds. + + +MARIGOLD. The Marigolds of the old-fashioned gardens are still among the +best of plants for fall color. They are hardy annuals of the easiest +culture, and are always certain of giving strong and excellent results. +They have been much improved of late years. The old-fashioned African +Marigolds grow 2 to 3 feet high, and they are useful for scattering in +mixed borders or making large masses or displays of color in the remoter +parts of the place. The French or dwarf Marigolds grow about 1 foot high +and are more tufty in their habit. They are better adapted for edgings +than for mass effects in the main parts of the grounds. All Marigolds +may be sown where the plants are to stand, since the flowers are usually +not wanted until late summer or early fall, at which time they usually +give their best bloom. If they are wanted earlier, however, the seeds +may be started in the house or hotbed. Tall varieties may be allowed to +stand from 10 to 18 inches apart and the dwarfs at somewhat less +distances. + + +MATTHIOLA will be found under _Stocks_. + + +MIGNONETTE. Probably no flower is more generally grown for its fragrance +than this. The Mignonette needs a cool soil, only moderately rich, shade +part of the day, and careful attention to cutting the flower-stalks +before the seeds are ripe. If a sowing be made in late April, followed +by a second sowing in early July, the season may be extended until +severe frosts. There are few flowers that will prove as disappointing if +the treatment it needs is omitted. Height 1 to 2 feet. Treated as a +half-hardy annual. It can be sown in pots late in summer and had in the +house in winter. + + +MOON-FLOWERS are species of Morning-Glories that open their flowers at +night. A well-grown plant trained over a porch trellis, or allowed to +grow at random over a low tree or shrub, is a striking object when in +full flower at dusk or through a moonlit evening. In the southern states +the Moon-Flower is a perennial, but even when well protected does not +survive the winters in the North. Cuttings may be made before danger of +frost and wintered in the house, or the plants may be grown from seed +sown in January or February. Cuttings usually give best results in the +northern states, as the seasons are not long enough for seed plants to +give good bloom. Seeds should be scalded or filed just before sowing. +The true Moon-Flower is _Ipomoea Bona-Nox_, white-flowered; but there +are other kinds. This grows 20 to 30 feet where the seasons are long +enough. + + +[Illustration: Morning-Glories] + +MORNING-GLORY is perhaps the most popular of all twining herbs, because +of the ease with which it may be grown, the quickness with which it +covers the object, and the quantities of bright, cheerful flowers it +bears. Many of the kinds--in fact all that are generally known--may be +readily grown from seed, flowering early in the summer. Tender annuals. +Give rich soil and plenty of water. The beautiful cypress vine belongs +to this group. It requires the same treatment as the Morning-Glory, but +the seeds should be scalded just previous to sowing. + +Dwarf Morning-Glories (_Convolvulus tricolor_). They come into flower +much sooner than the tall climbing varieties, and are covered with +flowers through a long season. They may be used with fine effect in +vases or large hanging baskets. Give a full sunny exposure. May thrive +on soil that is not very rich. They grow 1 foot high. Half-hardy +annuals. + + +MULBERRY. Both for fruit and ornament the Mulberry should be more +generally planted. Even if the fruit is not to the taste, the tree is +naturally open-centered and round-headed, and is an interesting subject; +some of the varieties have finely cut leaves. The fruits are in great +demand by the birds, and after they begin to ripen the strawberry beds +and cherry trees are free from robins and other fruit-eating birds. For +this reason alone they are a valuable tree for the fruit-grower. Trees +may be purchased cheaper than one can propagate them. + +If planted in orchard form, place them 25 to 30 feet apart. About the +borders of a place they can go closer. The Russian varieties are often +planted for windbreaks, for they are very hardy and thrive under the +greatest neglect; and for this purpose they may be planted 8 to 20 feet +apart. The Russians make excellent screens. They stand clipping well. +New American, Trowbridge and Thorburn are leading kinds of fruit-bearing +Mulberries for the North. The true Downing is not hardy in the northern +states; but New American is often sold under this name. Mulberries +thrive in any good soil, and need no special treatment. + + +MULCH is used both in protecting plants from the severe freezing of +winter and the severe drought of summer. The same material may be used +in either case, although it is now considered best to make an earth +Mulch to prevent evaporation and retain the moisture through the dry +season. This earth Mulch is made by breaking the crust of the soil and +leaving it in fine particles. This may be done with a horse cultivator, +a hoe or a rake. In fact, any tool which leaves the top of the soil +loose will be instrumental in preventing evaporation of soil water. See +_Tillage_. The Mulching of the ground around blackberries, currants, +gooseberries, or raspberries with straw or hay is often practiced to +keep the fruits clean; and the winter Mulch of strawberry beds is used +between the rows for the same purpose, as well as to retain moisture and +to afford winter protection. Winter Mulch usually consists of leaves, +straw, hay, rough manure, boughs of evergreens, or any coarse material +that will protect the plants from severe freezing and the heaving caused +by alternate freezing and thawing. This winter Mulch should be removed +as spring advances, unless it is of such a character as to be worked +into the soil to add fertility or to loosen heavy lands. Near the +seacoast salt hay is considered to be an ideal Mulch. The winter Mulch +must not contain too strong or heavy manures, or plants may be injured +by the leaching. For flower borders and shrubbery, muck or peat makes a +good winter Mulch. Ordinarily the Mulch may be placed on to the depth of +4 to 6 inches, and if it is of loose material it may be still deeper. If +dry and loose, mice may nest in it and girdle the trees or bushes. Even +perfectly hardy plants are benefited by a winter Mulch, because it +improves the soil. Autumn leaves, as they drift into shrubberies, make +an ideal Mulch; it is not always necessary to remove these leaves. See +_Lawn_. + + +MUSHROOM. There is no science of Mushroom growing. Certain conditions +have been found to give success, but it is not known why. These +conditions may be imitated ever so closely and complete failure result. +There are many "systems" advised, each system the result of somebody's +success; but one cannot be sure of success by following any one of them. +Good results are frequently attained when all rules are broken. The +following paragraphs are from "Farmers' Bulletin," No. 53 (by William +Falconer), of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (March, 1897): + +Mushrooms are a winter crop, coming in from September till April or +May--that is, the work of preparing the manure begins in September and +ends in February, and the packing of the crop begins in October or +November and ends in May. Under extraordinary conditions the season may +begin earlier and last longer, and, in fact, it may continue all summer. + +Mushrooms can be grown almost anywhere out of doors, and also indoors +where there is a dry bottom in which to set the beds, where a uniform +and moderate temperature can be maintained, and where the beds can be +protected from wet overhead, and from winds, drought, and direct +sunshine. Among the most desirable places in which to grow Mushrooms are +barns, cellars, closed tunnels, sheds, pits, greenhouses, and regular +Mushroom houses. Total darkness is not imperative, for Mushrooms grow +well in open light if shaded from sunshine. The temperature and moisture +are more apt to be equable in dark places than in open, light ones, and +it is largely for this reason that Mushroom houses are kept dark. + +[Illustration: Mushroom] + +The best fertilizer for Mushrooms, so far as the writer's experience +goes, is fresh horse manure. Get together a lot of this material (short +and strawy) that has been well trampled and wetted in the stable. Throw +it into a heap, wet it well if it is at all dry, and let it heat. When +it begins to steam turn it over, shake it well so as to mix thoroughly +and evenly, and then tramp it down solid. After this let it stand till +it again gets quite warm, then turn, shake, trample as before, and add +water freely if it is getting dry. Repeat this turning, moistening and +trampling as often as it is needful to keep the manure from "burning." +If it gets intensely hot, spread it out to cool, after which again throw +it together. After being turned in this way several times, and the heat +in it is not apt to rise above 130 F., it should be ready to make up in +the beds. By adding to the manure at the second or third turning +one-fourth or one-fifth of its bulk of loam, the tendency to intense +heating is lessened and its usefulness not at all impaired. Some growers +prefer short manure exclusively, that is, the horse droppings, while +others like a good deal of straw mixed in with this. The writer's +experience, however, is that, if properly prepared, it matters little +which is used. + +Ordinarily the beds are only 8 to 10 inches deep; that is, they are +faced with 10-inch-wide hemlock boards, and are only the depth of this +board. In such beds put a layer of fresh, moist, hot manure, and trample +it down firm until it constitutes half the depth of the bed; then fill +up with the prepared manure, which should be rather cool (100 to 115 +F.) when used, and pack all firmly. If desired, the beds can be made up +entirely of the prepared manure. Shelf beds are usually 9 inches deep; +that is, the shelf is bottomed with 1-inch boards and faced with +10-inch-wide boards. This allows about 8 inches for manure, and 1 inch +rising to 2 inches of loam on top. In filling the shelf beds the bottom +half may be of fresh, moist or wettish, hot manure, packed down solid, +and the top half of rather cool prepared manure, or it may be made up of +all prepared manure. As the shelf beds can not be trodden and can not be +beaten very firm with the back of the fork, a brick is used in addition +to the fork. + +The beds should be spawned after the heat in them has fallen below 100 +F. The writer considers 90 F. about the best temperature for spawning. +If the beds have been covered with hay, straw, litter or mats, these +should be removed. Break each brick into twelve or fifteen pieces. The +rows should be, say, 1 foot apart, the first one being 6 inches from the +edge, and the pieces should be 9 inches apart in the row. Commencing +with the first row, lift up each piece, raise 2 to 3 inches of the +manure with the hand, and into this hole place the piece, covering over +tightly with the manure. When the entire bed is spawned pack the surface +all over. It is well to cover the beds again with straw, hay or mats, to +keep the surface equally moist. The flake spawn is planted in the same +way as the brick spawn, only not quite so deep. + +At the end of eight or nine days the mulching should be removed and the +beds covered with a layer of good loam 2 inches thick, so that the +Mushrooms can come up in and through it. This gives them a firm hold, +and to a large extent improves their quality and texture. Any fair loam +will do. That from an ordinary field, wayside or garden is generally +used, and it answers admirably. There exists an idea that garden soil +surfeited with old manure is unfit for Mushroom beds because it is apt +to produce spurious fungi. This, however, is not the case. In fact, it +is the earth most commonly used. For molding the beds the loam should be +rather fine, free and mellow, so that it can be easily and evenly spread +and compacted firmly into the manure. + +If an even atmospheric temperature of from 55 to 60 F. can be +maintained, and the house or cellar containing the Mushroom beds is kept +close and free from drafts, the beds may be left uncovered, and should +be watered if they become dry. But no matter where the beds are +situated, it is well to lay some loose hay or straw or some old matting +or carpet over them to keep them moist. The covering, however, should be +removed just as soon as the young Mushrooms begin to appear above +ground. If the atmosphere is dry, the pathways and walls should be +sprinkled with water. The mulching should also be sprinkled, but not +enough to cause the water to soak into the bed. However, if the bed +should get dry, do not hesitate to water it. + + +MUSKMELON. The natural soil for melons is a light, sandy loam, well +enriched with rotted manure, although good crops may be grown on soil +naturally heavy if the hills are prepared as they should be. When only +heavy soil is available, the dirt where the seeds are to be planted +should be thoroughly pulverized and mixed with fine, well rotted manure. +A sprinkling of leaf-mold or chip-dirt will help to lighten it. On this +hill from ten to fifteen seeds may be sown, thinning to four or five +vines when danger of insects is over. The season may be advanced and the +damage from insects lessened by starting the plants in hotbeds. This may +be done by using fresh sod, cut into 6-inch pieces, placing them +grass-side down in the hotbed, sowing eight to ten seeds on each piece, +and covering with 2 inches of light soil. When all danger of frost is +over, and the ground has become warm, these sods may be carefully lifted +and set in the prepared hills. The plants usually grow without check, +and fruit from two to four weeks ahead of those from seed planted +directly in the hill. Old quart berry boxes are excellent to plant seeds +in, as, when they are set in the ground, they very quickly decay, +causing no restriction to the roots. Netted Gem, Hackensack, Emerald +Gem, Montreal, Osage, and the Nutmeg Melon are popular varieties. One +ounce of seed will plant about fifty hills. + +[Illustration: Muskmelon] + +For insects, see _Cucumber_. + + +MUSK PLANT is an old-fashioned house plant of easy culture. Raise a new +stock from seeds as soon as the plants begin to fail. + + +NARCISSUS. Hardy bulbous plants, including the daffodils, jonquils, and +other forms. The ease with which these plants may be grown, the beauty +and fragrance of the flowers, as well as their lasting qualities when +cut, would seem to make their culture in this country more popular than +it is. Good bulbs planted in September or October are sure to bloom in +April or May. The bulbs may remain in the ground for a number of years, +although the best results will be had by digging them up every three +years, and resetting in a different location. Select a moist, loamy +soil, slightly protected from the sun. No manure should come directly in +contact with the bulb, but if needed to hold moisture the manure may be +spaded down to the depth of twelve inches. + +[Illustration: Narcissus] + +Narcissus may be forced into flower through the winter, as described +under _Bulbs_. The most popular for winter bloom is the "Chinese Sacred +Lily." This grows in water without any soil whatever. Secure a bowl or +glass dish, about three times the size of the bulb; put some pretty +stones in the bottom; set in the bulb and build up around it with stones +so as to hold it stiff when the leaves have grown; tuck two or three +small pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep the water sweet, then +fill up the dish with water and add a little every few days, as it +evaporates. Set the dish in a warm, light place. In about six weeks the +fragrant, fine white flowers will fill the room with perfume. + + +[Illustration: Nasturtium] + +NASTURTIUMS (_Tropolums_) are both dwarf and climbing. The Dwarf +Nasturtiums make one of the most showy second-row plants for the border. +The colors of the flowers have a wide range and the plants bloom +profusely. It is not, however, the plant in flower that is the greatest +consideration, but the flowers themselves as cut-flowers. No flower +makes a finer display in vase or bowl than these rich colors, all +harmonizing well and lighting up a room as very few of the common easily +grown flowers do. The same may be said of the tall-growing Nasturtiums, +although the flowers of these form part of their effectiveness as screen +vines. Few climbers make a more rapid growth, and none are better +adapted to hide unsightly objects in our yards or gardens. + +[Illustration: Dwarf Nasturtium] + +For a long season of flowers and a large growth of vine the seed should +be sown late in March or early in April, in boxes or pots, the plants +carried along until the first of May, and planted out where wanted. The +dwarf varieties bloom more freely and the flowers are of better color in +rather poor soils, while for rapid growth of vine a well enriched border +would be the best. The dwarf varieties may be planted 2 or 3 feet apart, +and the tall ones as wanted to make a screen. The tall kinds grow 5 to 8 +feet. All Nasturtiums are tender. + + +NICOTIANA. Tender annuals (or grown as annuals). They are fine plants +for borders or pots, the tall-growing varieties making a very fine show +when in flower, having pure white flowers with long, tubular necks, the +season of bloom being from July to October. The seeds are very fine, and +should be sown on the surface of the soil, in boxes or pots. When +planted out they should be set from 2 to 5 feet apart, according to +kind. Some of the giant Nicotianas are excellent subjects for temporary +screens; so is tobacco, which is also a Nicotiana. + +[Illustration: Nicotiana affinis] + +_Nicotiana affinis_ is one of the best of all garden flowers. Its long +white flowers are fragrant at evening. They close in the hot sun. It is +a half-hardy annual of easiest culture. Height 2 to 3 feet. + + +OeNOTHERA. EVENING PRIMROSE. A very interesting group of plants, +opening their flowers at evening. Many of them are fragrant and attract +night insects, especially the large moths, seldom seen until dusk. The +opening of the flowers of the large-flowering varieties is a source of +pleasure and surprise, as one flower follows another in opening, and in +a large plant the late opening flowers seem to burst all at one time. +The perennial species may be propagated by division or seed, the +annuals by seed. Set the tall kinds 2 to 3 feet apart. Height 1 to 3 +feet. All of easy culture. + + +[Illustration: Okra or Gumbo] + +OKRA. From the green pods of this vegetable is made the well-known Gumbo +soup of the South, where the plant is more extensively grown than in the +North. The pods are also used in their green state for stews, and are +dried and used in winter, when they are nutritious, and form no little +part of the diet in certain sections of the country. The seeds are very +sensitive to cold and moisture, and should not be sown until the ground +has become warm--the last week in May or the first of June being early +enough in New York. The seed should be sown in a drill 1 inch deep, the +plants thinned to stand 12 inches in the row. Give the same culture as +for corn. One ounce will sow 40 feet of drill. Dwarf varieties are best +for the North. Green Density and Velvet are leading varieties. + + +OLEANDER. While there are many named varieties of the Oleander, but two +are often seen in general cultivation. These are the common red and +white varieties. Both these, as well as the named varieties, are of easy +management and well adapted to home culture, growing in pots or tubs for +several years without special care. Well-grown specimens are very +effective as porch or lawn plants, or may be used to good advantage in +mixed beds of tall-growing plants, plunging the pot or tub to the rim in +the soil. The plants should be cut back after flowering. They should be +rested in any out-of-the-way place through the winter. When brought out +in the spring, they should be given sun and air in order to make a +sturdy growth. Propagation is effected by using well-ripened wood for +cuttings, placed in a close frame; or the slips may be rooted in a +bottle or can of water, care being taken to supply water as evaporation +takes place. After being rooted, they may be potted, using soil with a +large proportion of sand. Well established plants may be repotted in +good loam and well rotted manure. + + +ONIONS are grown from seeds ("black seed") for the main crop. They are +also grown from sets (which are very small Onions, arrested in their +development), from "tops" (which are bulblets produced in the place of +flowers), and from multipliers or potato onions, which are compound +bulbs. + +[Illustration: Early Onions] + +The extremely early crop of Onions is grown from sets, and the late or +fall crop is grown from seed sown in April or early May. The sets may be +saved from the crop harvested the previous fall, saving no bulbs +measuring over of an inch in diameter, or, better, they may be +purchased from the seedsman. These sets should be planted as early as +possible in the spring, preferably on land that has been manured and +trenched in the fall. Plant in rows 12 inches apart, the sets being 2 or +3 inches in the row. Push the sets well down into the ground and cover +with soil, firming them with the feet or a roller. In cultivating, the +soil should be thrown towards the tops, as the white stems are usually +sought as an indication of mildness. The crop will be in condition to +use in from three to four weeks, and may be made to last until small +seed Onions are to be had. Tops or multipliers may also be used for the +early crop. + +In growing Onions from seed, it is only necessary to say that the seed +should be in the ground very early in order that the bulbs make their +growth before the extreme hot weather of August, when, for want of +moisture and because of the heat, the bulbs will ripen up while small. +Early in April, in New York, if the ground is in condition, the seed +should be sown thickly in drills from 12 to 16 inches apart, and the +ground above the seeds well firmed. Good cultivation and constant +weeding is the price of a good crop of Onions. In cultivating and +hoeing, the soil should be kept away from the rows, not covering the +growing bulbs, but allowing them to spread over the surface of the +ground. When the crop is ready to be harvested, the bulbs may be pulled +or cultivated up, left to dry in double rows for several days, the tops +and roots taken off, and the bulbs stored in a dry place. Later in the +season they may be allowed to freeze, covering with chaff or straw to +hold them frozen, and kept until early spring; but this method is +usually unsafe with beginners, and always so in a changeable climate. +Onion seed should always be fresh when sown--preferably of the last +year's crop. One ounce of Onion seed will sow 100 feet of drill. + +One of the recent methods of obtaining extra large bulbs from seed is to +sow the seed in a hotbed in February or early March, and transplant to +the open ground in April. + +The Danvers, Prizetaker, Globe and Wethersfield are favorite varieties, +with the addition of White Queen or Barletta for pickling. + + +OXALIS. A number of hardy species of this are excellent plants for +rockwork and edging. The greenhouse species are very showy, growing +without extra care, and blooming freely through the late winter and +spring months; these are mostly increased by bulbs, a few by division of +the root. _O. violacea_ is one of the commonest of house-plants. Give a +sunny window, for the flowers open only in sun or very bright light. The +bulbous kinds are treated as recommended for _Bulbs_, except that the +bulbs must not freeze. + + +PALMS. No more graceful plant for room decoration can be found than a +well-grown specimen of some species of Palms. Most Palms are well +adapted for this purpose when small, and as the growth is usually very +slow, a plant may be used for many years. Again, the plants thrive +better in partial shade. They may be grown in a sitting or drawing-room +more satisfactorily than most house-plants. One of the frequent causes +of failure in the culture of the Palm is the over-potting and subsequent +over-watering. A Palm should not be repotted until the mass of roots +fills the soil; then a pot only a size larger should be used. Use ample +drainage in the bottom to carry off excess of water. Although the plants +need a moist soil, water standing at their roots proves injurious. A +soil composed of well rotted sod, leaf-mold and a little sand will meet +their requirements. Among the best Palms for house culture are Arecas, +_Cocos Weddelliana_, Latania, Kentia, Chamrops and Phoenix. Cycas may +also be regarded as a Palm. + +[Illustration: Palms] + +The date Palm may be grown from seed of the common commercial date. Seed +of the other varieties may be purchased from leading seedsmen, but, as +the seed germinates only under favorable conditions, and the Palm is a +very slow-growing plant while young, the best plan is to purchase the +plants from a dealer when wanted. When the plants become weak or +diseased, take them to a florist for treatment and recuperation. + +[Illustration: A table Palm] + + +PANDANUS, or SCREW PINE. The _Pandanus utilis_ and _P. Veitchii_ are +exceedingly ornamental, and are well adapted to house culture. The +singular habit of growth, bright, glossy leaves, and the ability to +withstand the dust and shade of a dwelling room, make them a desirable +addition to the house collection. They are propagated by the offsets or +young plants that grow around the base of the trunk; or they may be +increased by seed. If by the former method, the offsets should be cut +off and set in sand, at a temperature of 65 or 70. The cuttings root +slowly and the plants for a time make a very slow growth. The general +cultural treatment is that of palms, which see. + + +[Illustration: Pansies] + +PANSY is without doubt the most popular spring flower in cultivation. +The strains of seed are many, each containing great possibilities. The +culture is simple and the results are sure. Seed sown in August or +September, in boxes or a frame, will make plants large enough to reset +in November and bloom the following March; or they may be left until +March in open seed-beds before setting out. Also, if they are sown very +thinly in the frames they may remain undisturbed through the winter, +blooming very early the following spring. The frame should be protected +by mats, boards or other covering through the severe cold, and as the +sun gains strength, care should be taken to keep them from heaving by +alternate thawing and freezing. Seed sown in boxes in January or +February will make fine blooming plants by April, taking the place of +those blooming earlier. + +The requisites for satisfactory Pansy culture are rich, moist, cool +soil, protection from the noonday sun, and attention to keeping them +from going to seed. As the ground becomes warm a mulch of leaf-mold or +other light material should be spread over the bed to retain moisture +and exclude heat. Spring and fall give the best bloom. + + +PARIS GREEN is the leading arsenical insecticide. It is usually applied +in a water spray, at the rate of 1 pound of the poison to 150 to 200 +gallons of water. Add pound of lime to prevent injury to foliage. +Potatoes will usually stand a stronger mixture; peaches and some other +plants do not need one so strong. Make the Paris Green into a paste with +water before adding it to the 200 gallons, that it may mix better. Paris +Green may be added to Bordeaux mixture with excellent results, counting +the Bordeaux as if it were so much water; in this case it will not be +necessary to add lime to the Paris Green. The Paris Green is used only +for chewing insects, as worms and beetles. London purple is used in the +same way. + + +[Illustration: Parsley grown in a box] + +PARSLEY. The curled Parsley is used almost exclusively as a garnish for +meats and salads, although the flavor in soups is fine. The seed is slow +to germinate, and often the second or third sowing is made, thinking the +first is a failure; but usually after what would seem a long time the +young plants will be seen. When sown in the open ground, it should be +thinned to stand 3 or 4 inches in the row, the rows being 10 to 12 +inches apart. A few plants in a border will give a supply for a large +family, and with a little protection will live over winter. Roots may be +lifted in the fall, put into boxes or old cans, and grown in a sunny +window for winter use. + + +PARSNIPS are one of the vegetables that are the better for the winter's +freeze, although they are of good quality if taken up after the fall +frosts and packed in soil, sand or moss in the cellar. The seed, which +must be not over one year old, should be sown as early as possible in +well prepared soil, firmed with the feet or roller. As the seed +germinates rather slowly the ground often becomes crusted or baked over +the seeds, in which case it should be broken and fined with a garden +rake. This operation often means the success of the crop. Radish or +cabbage seeds may be sown with the Parsnip seed to mark the row and +break the crust. One ounce of seed will sow 200 feet of drill. Thin to 6 +inches apart in the row. + + +PEA. Who does not long for the time when early Peas are fit to use? And +how many know the great difference in quality between the smooth and the +wrinkled Peas? The first are a little the earliest to be planted and to +become fit for use, and on that account should be planted in a small +way. For the kitchen-garden the dwarf and half-dwarf varieties are the +best, as the tall kinds will need brush or wire to support them, causing +considerable trouble and labor and not being as neat in appearance. The +tall varieties yield a larger crop than the dwarfs, but as the rows must +be made from 3 to 5 feet apart, the dwarf ones, which are planted only 6 +to 8 inches apart, will give as large a yield on the same area. Always +plant double rows of the tall varieties: that is, two rows from 4 to 6 +inches apart, with the brush or wire between, the double rows being from +3 to 5 feet apart, according to varieties. The dwarf varieties should be +planted four rows in a block, each row being only 6 or 8 inches apart. +The Peas on the two center rows may be picked from the outside. Leave a +space of 2 feet and plant the same. At the time of the first planting +only the smooth varieties should be sown, but by the middle of April in +New York the ground will be warm and dry enough for the wrinkled sorts. +A succession should be sown that will come to maturity one after the +other, extending the season six or eight weeks. If a further supply is +wanted the early quick-maturing varieties may be sown in August, usually +giving a fair crop of Peas in September and early October. In the hot +weather of midsummer they often do not thrive so well. One quart of seed +will plant about 100 feet of drill. + + +PEA, EVERLASTING (_Lathyrus latifolius_). These Peas do not have the +colors or fragrance of the Sweet Pea, but are fine for planting against +rocks, stumps, or fences. They bloom through a long season, and, being +perfectly hardy, will live for years. Height 2 to 6 feet. Raised from +seeds or from cuttings, usually the former. Keep the seed pods picked +off to lengthen period of bloom. + + +PEA, SWEET. See _Sweet Pea_. + + +PEACH. Given the proper exposure, Peaches may be fruited in many +sections where now it is thought impossible to have a crop. It is +usually the practice of the amateur to set Peach trees in the shelter of +some building, exposed on the south or east to the sun, and "in a +pocket" as regards winds. This should be reversed, except in the close +vicinity of large bodies of water. The fruit buds of Peaches will stand +very cold weather when perfectly dormant, often as low as 12 or 18 +below zero in New York; but if the buds once become swollen, +comparatively light freezing will destroy the crop. Therefore, if the +trees be set on elevations where a constant air drainage may be +obtained, sheltered, if at all, on the south and east, from the warming +influence of the sun, the buds will remain dormant until the ground +becomes warm, and the chances of a failure will be lessened. This advice +applies mostly to interior sections. A well drained, sandy loam or +gravelly soil suits the Peach better than a heavy soil; but if the +heavier soil is well drained, good crops may be obtained. + +[Illustration: Peaches] + +Peaches are short-lived at best, and one should be satisfied with three +or four crops from each tree. They bear young, usually a partial crop +the third year. If a crop may be had every other year until the trees +are eight or ten years old, they will have well repaid the effort of +cultivation. But they often bear twice this long. Young trees may be set +every four or five years to replace older ones, thus having trees at a +bearing age at all times on a small place. Trees should be set 14 to 18 +feet apart each way. A good selection of varieties for home use would be +Early York, Alexander, Halo Early, Mountain Rose, Early Crawford, +Wheatland, Stump, Elberta, Stevens, Oldmixon, Late Crawford and Smock. + +Peach trees are always bought when they are one year old, that is, one +year from the bud. For example, the bud is set in the fall of 1898. It +remains dormant until the spring of 1899, when it pushes into vigorous +growth; and in the fall of 1899 the tree is ready for sale. Peach trees +which are more than a year old are scarcely worth the buying. It is a +common practice, when setting Peach trees, to prune them back to a whip, +leaving a stub bearing not more than one bud where each branch is cut +off. + +The three great enemies of the Peach are the borer, the yellows and the +curculio. + +The borer is best handled by digging it out every spring and fall. Trees +which are attacked by the borer have an exudation of gum about the +crown. If the borers are dug out twice a year they will not get +sufficient start to make the operation very laborious. It is the only +sure way. + +The yellows is a communicable disease, the cause of which is not +definitely known. It shows itself in the fruit ripening prematurely, +with distinct red spots which extend through the flesh, and later by the +throwing out of fine, branching, twiggy tufts along the main branches. +The only treatment is to pull out the trees and burn them. Other trees +may be set in the same places. + +For a discussion of curculio, see the remarks under _Plum_. + + +PEAR. No fruit plantation should be considered complete without trees of +various kinds of Pears, ripening fruits from early in August till +winter. The late varieties are generally good keepers, and extend the +season into February, thus supplying fruit for six or seven months. + +As the Pear grows to perfection on quince, the dwarf tree is peculiarly +adapted to planting on small home grounds, and is often used as a +boundary plant, or to serve the purpose of a screen. These dwarf trees +should be set deep--4 to 6 inches below the union--to prevent the stock +from growing. Dwarf trees may be set as near together as 10 to 16 feet, +while the standard or tall-growing Pears should be set 18 to 25 feet +apart. Trees are planted when two or three years old. + +[Illustration: Bartlett Pears] + +The Pear thrives on clay soil, if well underdrained, and for this reason +may succeed in places where other fruits might fail. A good, steady +growth should be maintained, but the use of nitrogenous manures should +be avoided, as they tend to make a rank growth and invite attacks of +Pear blight, which is the worst enemy of the Pear. For summer fruits: +Osband's Summer, Bartlett, Clapp and Manning Elizabeth are among the +best. For autumn: Duchess, Flemish Beauty, Bosc, Louise Bonne, Seckel +and Sheldon. For winter fruit: Anjou, Clairgeau, Lawrence and Winter +Nelis are excellent. Kieffer is an excellent commercial fruit, but it is +too poor to be given space in the home ground except as an ornamental +tree. + +Of the Pear blight, Duggar writes as follows: + +"REMEDIES. (_a_) _The knife and the saw._--With a disease working as +this does, it is very evident that there is no chance either for cure or +prevention by means of spraying. The heroic treatment of the knife and +saw must be adopted and vigorously pursued, as has been claimed from the +beginning. The blackened leaves alone must not serve as signs of the +diseased area, but one must examine carefully the branches and remove +them 6 inches or more below the lowest discolorations. Often before +cutting, pruners slice the bark downward to see where the injury ends. +This should not be done; it is better to be sure that you are below the +infected area, and run no such risk of infecting anew the tissues below. +The cut surfaces of larger limbs and branches should be painted for +protection against wound rots. + +"(_b_) _When to cut._--Cutting out diseased portions should be done +whenever the disease is evident. This may check the injuries +temporarily; but it has been shown that much can be done in the autumn +to prevent the establishment of the disease the following spring. It has +long been known that the disease may pass the winter in the branches by +a slow growth in the neighborhood of late infections. Thorough work of +eradication should especially be performed after the season of growth. +Then cut out every diseased branch and burn, so that in the spring when +the succulent growth begins again, there will be few places in which +insects may come in contact with the bacterial exudations. + +"(_c_) _Conditions favoring the disease._--The knife is our only hope of +extermination; but there are undoubtedly conditions which favor the +disease. In a succulent, rapidly growing tree the bacteria find more +favorable conditions for their development than in one which grows +slowly, yet with sufficient vigor. For this reason, too much nitrogenous +manure is dangerous; and, for the same reason, a succulent growth +induced by severe pruning should be avoided." + + +[Illustration: Pelargonium, or Geranium] + +PELARGONIUMS. Here belong the plants known as Geraniums--the most +satisfactory of house-plants, and extensively used as bedding plants. No +plants will give better returns in leaf and flower; and these features, +added to the ease of propagation, make them general favorites. Cuttings +of partially ripened wood root very easily, grow to blooming size in a +short time, and, either planted out or grown in a pot, make fine +decorations. The common or "Fish" Geraniums are much more satisfactory +when not more than a year old. Take cuttings from the old plants at +least once a year. In four or five months the young plants begin to +bloom. Plants may be taken up from the garden and potted, but they +rarely give as much satisfaction as young, vigorous subjects. Repot +frequently until they are in 4- to 5-inch pots; then let them bloom. + +The show Pelargoniums are those commonly known as Lady Washington +Geraniums. These have but one period of bloom, usually in April, but +they make up in size and coloring. This section is more difficult to +manage as a house plant than the common Geranium, needing more direct +light to keep it stocky, and being troubled by insects. Still, all the +trouble taken to grow them will be well repaid by the handsome blossoms. +Take cuttings in late spring, after flowering, and blooming plants may +be had the following year. Good results are sometimes secured by keeping +these plants two or three years. Cut back after each blooming season. + +For house culture the Geraniums need a rich, fibrous loam, with the +addition of a little sand; good drainage is also an essential. + + +PEONY. The herbaceous Peony has long had a place in the garden, and is +now in general use as an early flowering plant. It is perfectly hardy, +and free from the many diseases and insects that attack so many fine +plants. The single and semi-double varieties are very fine, the flowers +becoming large as the plant becomes well established. The herbaceous +section is readily increased by division. The tree Peonies are increased +by grafting. They grow in some cases to the height of 3 or more feet, +and are covered with large, very double flowers of rich colors. Height 2 +to 3 feet. + + +PEPPERS are tender while young, although they will endure a heavy frost +in the fall. Their culture is that recommended for eggplants. A small +seedsman's packet of seed will be sufficient for a large number of +plants, say two hundred. The large Bell Peppers are the mildest, and are +used for making "stuffed Peppers" and other dishes. The small, hot +Peppers are used for seasoning and sauces. + +[Illustration: Bell Pepper] + + +PETUNIA. The improvement made in the size and markings of the Petunia +has been marked of late. Now almost every shade of color may be found, +aside from yellow. A bed of Petunias makes a mass of color equaled by +few other flowers. They also make very fine single plants for pots, +baskets or window-boxes, blooming freely through the winter, and +emitting a delicate fragrance. The single varieties grow freely from +seed, but if plants of one special color are wanted cuttings should be +made. These cuttings root easily and bloom early. Cuttings will have to +be made of the double varieties to increase their number. For common +Petunias, sow seeds where plants are to grow, in a warm, sunny place; +or, for earlier bloom, seeds may be started in the house. Thin to 8 to +12 inches apart. The season of bloom is cut short only by frost or other +causes. + +[Illustration: Petunia] + + +PHLOX. Both the perennial and the annual Phloxes are most valuable. +Excepting the petunia, no plant will give the profusion of bloom with as +little care as the annual Phlox (_Phlox Drummondii_). Masses of one +color or of contrasting colors make very effective ribbon borders or +edging beds. The perennial species are very showy, having almost as wide +a range of color as the annuals. They grow to the height of 3 feet. They +are most effective in the back row of a border. The perennials have been +much improved of late. They are hardy. + +The annual Phlox is propagated by seed sown early in the spring in the +border, or in March in boxes and transplanted. The perennial Phlox is +increased by division of the roots, the flowers being larger and more +highly colored by dividing at least every three years. The annual Phlox +blooms early, and continues until late in the fall. The perennial blooms +from July to frost. + + +PINK. See _Dianthus_ and _Carnation_. + + +PLUM. Of Plums there are three general or common types: first, the +common Domestica or European Plum, which gives rise to all the older +varieties, like Lombard, Bradshaw, Green Gage, the Prunes, the Egg +Plums, the Damsons, and the like; second, the Japanese Plums, which +have become popular within the last ten years, and which are adapted to +a wider range of country than the Domesticas; third, the native Plums of +several species or types, which are adapted to the plains, the middle +and southern states, where the Domestica Plums do not thrive, and some +kinds to the cold North. + +Wherever the Domestica and Japanese Plums can be grown, the native Plums +are not destined to become popular; but many of the natives are much +hardier than others, and are therefore adapted to regions in which the +Domestica and Japanese are not safe. Others of them are well adapted to +the middle and southern states. The Domestica and Japanese Plums are +considerably hardier than peaches, but not so hardy as the apple. The +northern limit of their general cultivation is the southern peninsula of +Michigan, central and southern Ontario, central New York and central New +England. + +Plums thrive on a great variety of soils, but they do better, as a rule, +on those which are rather heavy and have a considerable content of clay. +In fact, many of the varieties will thrive on clay as hard as that upon +which pears will grow. On the other hand, they often thrive well upon +light, and even almost sandy soils. + +The trees are set when they are two and three years from the bud. It is +preferable to have Plum trees on stocks of the same species, but it is +not always possible to secure them at the nurseries. In the South, Plums +are worked mostly on peach roots, and these make excellent trees where +the climate is not too severe, and especially upon the lighter lands on +which they are planted in the South. In the North the larger part of the +Plum stocks are grown on the Myrobalan Plum roots. This Myrobalan is an +Old World species of Plum, of smaller growth than the Domestica. This +stock, therefore, tends to dwarf the tree, and it is also likely to +throw up sprouts from the roots. Plum trees are set from 12 to 18 feet +apart. Many growers like to set them 8 feet apart in rows, and have the +rows from 16 to 20 feet apart. + +Plums are pruned much the same as apples and pears. That is, the top is +thinned out from year to year, and all superfluous branches and broken +or diseased wood are removed. If the soil is very strong and the trees +are close together, it may be well to head them in a little each year, +especially those varieties which grow very strong and robust. + +The varieties of Plums are very numerous. Of the Domestica or European +type, some of the best are Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Jefferson, Reine +Claude, Coe Golden Drop, Quackenbos, Fellemburg, German Prune, Copper. +The Lombard is the most cosmopolitan variety, and is always sure to give +a crop, but the quality is not so good as that of the others mentioned. +For culinary purposes, some of the Damsons, which are very small-fruited +varieties, are excellent. Of Japanese Plums, the best so far tested for +the North are Red June, Abundance, Burbank, Chabot and Satsuma. For a +very early cherry-like Plum for home use, the Berger is excellent. Of +the native Plums, the most cosmopolitan variety is Wild Goose. Excellent +varieties are Weaver, Quaker, Forest Garden, Wayland, and others. + +[Illustration: Plums] + +There are four leading difficulties in the growing of Plums--leaf +blight, fruit rot, black knot, and curculio. + +The leaf blight usually comes on about midsummer, the leaves becoming +spotted and dropping off. The remedy for this trouble is to spray +thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture, beginning soon after the fruits have +set, and before the trouble begins to show. + +The fruit rot may be prevented by the same means--that is, by spraying +with Bordeaux mixture. It is usually best to begin just after the fruits +are well set. A very important consideration in the checking of this +disease is to thin the fruit so that it does not hang in clusters. If +one fruit touches another, the rot spreads from fruit to fruit in spite +of the spraying. Some varieties, like Lombard and Abundance, are +susceptible to this injury. + +The black knot is best kept in check by cutting out the knots whenever +they can be seen, and burning them. As soon as the leaves drop, the +orchard should be gone over and all knots taken out. Orchards which are +thoroughly sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for the leaf blight and +fruit-rot fungus are less liable to attacks of black knot. + +The curculio, or the insect which is the parent of the worms in the +fruit, is the inveterate enemy of the Plum and other stone fruits. The +mature beetle lays the eggs in the fruits when they are very small, +usually beginning its work about as soon as the flowers fall. These eggs +soon hatch, and the little maggot bores into the fruit. Those fruits +which are attacked whilst very young ordinarily fall from the tree, but +those which are attacked when they are half or more grown may adhere to +the tree, but are wormy and gummy at the picking time. The mature +beetles are sluggish in the mornings, and are easily jarred from the +trees. Taking advantage of this fact, the fruit-grower may jar them into +sheets; or, in large orchards, into a large canvas hopper, which is +wheeled from tree to tree upon a wheelbarrow-like frame, and under the +apex of which is a tin can into which the insects roll. There is a slit +or opening in one side of the hopper, which allows the tree to stand +nearly in the middle of the canvas. The operator then gives the tree two +or three sharp jars with a padded pole or mallet. The edges of the +hopper are then quickly shaken with the hands and the insects roll down +into the tin receptacle. In this receptacle there is kerosene oil, or it +may be emptied from time to time. Just how long this machine is to be +run in the orchard will depend entirely upon circumstances. It is +advisable to use the catcher soon after the blossoms fall, for the +purpose of finding out how abundant the insects are. If a few insects +are caught upon each tree, there is indication that there are enough of +the pests to make serious trouble. If after a few days the insects seem +to have disappeared, it will not be necessary to continue the hunt. In +some years, especially in those succeeding a very heavy crop, it may be +necessary to run the curculio-catcher every morning for four or five +weeks; but, as a rule, it will not be necessary to use it oftener than +two or three times a week during that season; and sometimes the season +may be shortened by one-half. The insects fall most readily when the +weather is cool, and it, therefore, is best to get through the whole +orchard, if possible, before noon. Upon cloudy days, however, the +insects may be caught all day. A smart man can attend to 300 to 400 +full-bearing trees in six hours if the ground has been well rolled or +firmed, as it should be before the bugging operation begins. But whether +the operation is troublesome or not, it is the price of Plums, and the +grower must not expect to succeed long without it. The same treatment is +essential to the saving of peaches and rarely, also, of sour cherries. + + +POPPY. These showy annuals and perennials should be more generally +grown. Nothing will lighten up a corner better than the hardy oriental +Poppy, or the solid crimson or scarlet annual Poppies. All of the +varieties grow readily from seed, which, in most cases, should be sown +where the plants are to bloom. The seeds of the oriental and the Iceland +Poppy may be sown in pots, the plants wintered over in a frame and +carefully planted out the second spring. The Poppy is very impatient of +root disturbance, however, and the safest method is to sow the seed +where wanted. + + +PORTULACA, or ROSE MOSS. Brilliant little tender annuals, low-growing +and sun-loving. They usually seed themselves, and once established will +continue for years. Many of the varieties will produce a good percentage +of flowers as double as roses and of many colors. Seed should be sown +where wanted. They bloom freely in light, sandy soil in the full blaze +of the sun. + + +POTATO. The common practice of growing Potatoes in ridges or elevated +hills is wrong, unless the soil is so wet that this practice is +necessary to insure proper drainage; but in this case the land is not +adapted to the growing of Potatoes. If the land is elevated into ridges +or hills, there is a great loss of moisture by means of evaporation. +During the last cultivating the Potatoes may be hilled up slightly in +order to cover the tubers; but the hills should not be made in the +beginning. Land for Potatoes should be rather loamy in character, and +ought to have a liberal supply of potash, either naturally or supplied +in the drill, by means of an application of sulfate of potash. See that +the land is deeply plowed or spaded, so that the roots can penetrate +deeper. Plant the Potatoes 3 or 4 inches below the natural surface of +the ground. It is ordinarily best to drop the pieces in drills. A +continuous drill may be made by means of dropping one piece every 6 +inches, but it is usually thought best to drop two pieces about every 12 +to 18 inches. The drills are far enough apart to allow good cultivation. +If horse cultivation is used, the drills should be at least 3 feet +apart. + +[Illustration: Potatoes] + +Small Potatoes are considered not to be so good as large ones for +planting. One reason is because too many sprouts arise from each one, +and these sprouts are apt to crowd each other. The same is true of the +tip end or seed end of the tuber. Even when it is cut off, the eyes are +so numerous that one secures many weak shoots rather than two or three +strong ones. It is ordinarily best to cut the Potatoes to two or three +eyes, leaving as much tuber as possible with each piece. From seven to +eight bushels of Potatoes are required to plant an acre. + +For a very early crop in the garden, tubers are sometimes sprouted in +the cellar. When the sprouts are 4 to 6 inches high the tubers are +carefully planted. It is essential that the sprouts are not broken in +the handling. In this practice, also, the tubers are first cut into +large pieces, so that they will not dry out too much. + +The staple remedy for the Potato bug is Paris green, 1 pound of poison +to 150 to 200 gallons of water, with a little lime (see _Paris Green_). +For the blight, spray with Bordeaux mixture, and spray thoroughly. +Bordeaux mixture will also keep away the flea beetle to a large extent. + + +POTATO, SWEET. See _Sweet Potato_. + + +POTTING. The operation of potting a plant, while in itself simple, is +very often associated with success or failure in the growth of the +plant. The first and most common reason of failure is using too large a +pot; the second, imperfect drainage; and the third, the poor physical +condition of the soil. + +[Illustration: Too deep] + +[Illustration: Plant too high] + +A small-rooted cutting or a feeble plant should have a pot only large +enough to hold soil sufficient to surround the roots to the extent of 1 +or 2 inches. More soil would hold too much moisture, thus excluding the +air. As the plants grow and the ball of dirt becomes well covered with +white roots, and before these roots become dark in color, the plant +should be repotted, using a pot one size larger and usually a little +richer soil. This operation should continue until the plant has made the +desired growth. If it is desired to grow a geranium, fuchsia, begonia, +or plants of a similar character, large enough for a window plant--say +to the height or breadth of two feet,--a 6-inch pot will be large +enough, provided the soil is rich enough to continue the growth of the +plant while in flower. It often happens that pots of the various sizes +are not to hand; and in case the pot is too large, it should have the +drainage increased until it will take up as much room in the bottom as +the pot is too large. Bear in mind that the soil should not hold free +water. After the plant has filled the pot with roots it will often be +necessary to supply more food as the soil becomes exhausted. This may be +done by digging out the top soil down to the young, white roots, +replacing with new soil in which a little rotted manure, a pinch of +bone-meal or other plant-food, has been added. Liquid manure may be +used. This liquid manure is made from well rotted cow-, horse-, or +sheep-manure thrown into a tub or barrel, covered with water, and +allowed to stand until the strength of the manure is soaked out. This +liquid should be diluted before using with clear water until it has the +color of weak coffee. If used with judgment, nothing will cause a better +growth or a greater quantity of flowers. + +[Illustration: Too full] + +[Illustration: Careless] + +The drainage may consist of any coarse material, such as old broken +pots, small stones, pieces of charcoal, and the like, over which should +be placed small broken sod or a little moss to keep the dirt from +washing through and eventually stopping up the crevices through which +the excess water should flow. + +[Illustration: Good!] + +A safe rule to follow in first potting the majority of house-plants, is +to use one-third turf-loam, one-third leaf-mold or decayed leaves, and +one-third sand, thoroughly mixed. Reduce the amount of leaf-mold and +sand at successive pottings, adding a little well rotted manure, until, +when the plants have been potted in 6-inch pots, at least four-fifths of +the soil is turfy loam. Press the soil firmly in the pot and around the +plant. Never fill the pot level full of soil, else the plant cannot be +watered. + + +PRICKLY POPPIES, or ARGEMONES, are hardy annuals, with large, bluish +striking foliage and yellow flowers. They are easily grown in a warm +soil and sunny exposure. Sow the seeds where the plants are to stand. +Thin to 12 to 18 inches apart. They grow 2 feet high. + + +PRIMULAS, or PRIMROSES, are of various kinds. One of them is the +Auricula (which see). Others are hardy border plants. The true or +English cowslip is one of these; also the plants commonly known as +Polyanthus. Hardy Primulas grow 6 to 10 inches high, sending up trusses +of yellow and red flowers in early spring. Propagated by division, or by +seed sown a year before the plants are wanted. Give them rich, moist +soil. + +The Primula of the winter-garden is mostly the _P. Sinensis_ (Chinese +Primrose), grown very extensively by florists as a Christmas plant. With +the exception of the full double varieties, it is usually grown from +seed. The seed sown in March or April will make large flowering plants +by November or December, if the young plants are shifted to larger pots +as needed. The seed should be sown on the flat surface of the soil, +composed of equal parts loam, leaf-mold and sand. The seed should be +pressed down lightly and the soil watered carefully to prevent the seed +from being washed into the soil. Very fine sphagnum moss may be sifted +over the seed, or the box set in a moist place, where the soil will +remain wet until the seeds germinate. When the plants are large enough +they should be potted separately or pricked out into shallow boxes. +Frequent pottings or transplantings should be given until September, +when they should be in the pots in which they are to bloom. The two +essentials to successful growth through the hot summer are shade and +moisture. Height 6 to 8 inches. Bloom in winter and spring. + +At present the "baby Primrose" (_Primula Forbesi_) is popular. It is +treated in essentially the same way as the Sinensis. All Primulas are +impatient of a dry atmosphere and fluctuating conditions. + + +PRINCE'S FEATHER. See _Amarantus_. + + +PRUNES are varieties of plums with firm, meaty flesh, and which readily +make dried fruit. Some of the Prunes are commercially grown in the East, +but they are sold in the green state as other plums are; and they are +adapted to all the uses of other plums. Prunes are cultivated like other +plums. + + +PRUNING. There are two general types of inquiry connected with the +question of Pruning: First, that which has to do with the healing of the +wounds; and second, that which has to do with the shaping of the top and +the general welfare of the tree. + +[Illustration: Improper way to make the wound] + +[Illustration: Proper way] + +[Illustration: Before] + +[Illustration: After] + +When a limb is cut off, it heals by being covered with callus tissue, +which grows out from the cambium zone between the bark and wood and +rolls over the face of the wound. The hard wood itself never heals; +that is, the cells do not have the power of making new cells; therefore +the old wood is simply covered up, or hermetically sealed as a cap is +put on a fruit jar. It is evident, therefore, that no kind of dressing +will hasten the healing of this wound. The merit of a dressing is to +keep the wound sound and healthy until the callus naturally covers it +over. All things considered, the best dressing is probably thick +linseed-oil paint. + +So far as the wound is concerned, the best time for Pruning is +ordinarily in the spring, when the vital activities are beginning; but +the season also influences fruit-bearing and wood-making, and these +questions should be considered. Those wounds heal best which are on +strong main limbs, where there is a full flow of nutritious sap. The +limb should be cut off so that the wound is parallel with the trunk upon +which it sits, and close to it. That is to say, the longer the stub, the +less rapid in general is the healing of the wound. It is the custom to +cut the limb just outside the bulge at its base; but, in most cases, it +is better to cut through this bulge, and to have the wound close to the +main trunk. + +[Illustration: Before pruning] + +[Illustration: After pruning] + +Heavy Pruning of the top tends to the production of wood; therefore the +severe Pruning of orchard trees, following three or four years of +neglect, sets the trees into heavy wood-bearing, and makes them more +vigorous. Such treatment generally tends away from fruit-bearing. This +heavy Pruning is usually necessary in neglected orchards, however, to +bring trees back into shape and to revitalize them; but the best +Pruning-treatment of an orchard is to Prune it a little every year. It +should be so Pruned that the tops of the trees will be open, that no two +limbs will interfere with each other, and so that the fruit itself will +not be so abundant as to overload the tree. Pruning is a means of +thinning. In general, it is best to prune orchard trees late in winter +or early in spring. It is ordinarily better, however, to leave peaches +and other tender fruits until after the buds have swollen, or even after +the flowers have fallen, in order that one may determine how much they +have been injured by the winter. Grapevines should be Pruned in winter +or not later (in New York) than the first of March. If Pruned later than +this, they may bleed. The above remarks will apply to other trees as +well as to fruits. + +[Illustration: Sickle saw] + +[Illustration: Combined saw and knife. Goes on a long handle] + +[Illustration: Curved Pruning saw] + +[Illustration: Common double edge saw] + +It should be borne in mind that Pruning has two objects: one is to +merely trim the tree or to make it assume some designed shape; the other +is to make the tree more vigorous or more fruitful, or to make some +other change in its character. These ideals are well illustrated in the +Pruning of ornamental shrubs. If one wants to have the shrubs sheared +into some particular shape, the shearing may be done at almost any time +of the year; in fact, it is better to do it two or three times each year +in order to keep the trees trim and neat. If, however, the desire is to +secure more flowers, the case is a very different one. Some shrubs and +trees bear their flowers on the wood of the preceding year. Such, for +example, are the early flowering shrubs like lilacs and the snowballs. +The flower buds are made the fall before. In this case, Pruning the +shrub in winter cuts off the flower buds. The ideal time for Pruning +them, therefore, is just after the flowers have passed. The flower buds +will form later in the season for the production of the flowers the +following spring. Other shrubs, however (particularly those which +blossom late in the season), bear on wood of the current year's growth. +That is, the clematis blossoms in late summer and fall on wood which +grew that same season. The greater the quantity of strong wood which +grows in any season, therefore, the greater the quantity of bloom in +that season. With such shrubs, it is well to Prune in winter or early +spring, and to Prune rather heavily. The abundance of new shoots which +arise may be expected to bear flowers later on in the same season. + +Following are some shrubs which, for best results in flower-bearing, may +be Pruned when dormant (in winter): camellia, Jackmani type of clematis, +cornus, hibiscus (shrubby), hydrangea, many loniceras or honeysuckles, +philadelphus or mock-orange, some spireas. + +Shrubs which may be Pruned when in leaf (just after blooming): lilac, +deutzia, weigelas, exochorda, spring-flowering loniceras, tree peony, +flowering almond, some spireas and viburnums, wistaria. + +The marginal illustrations show how apple, pear and plum trees may be +Pruned when received from the nursery. Cut back the roots to fresh, +unbroken wood. + +[Illustration: Waters' tree Pruner--for limbs out of reach] + +[Illustration: Pruning shears] + +[Illustration: An excellent Pruning saw. The blade is on a swivel] + +Various kinds of useful tree Pruners are shown in the margins. See also +_Scraping_. + + +PUMPKIN. See _Squash_. + + +PYRETHRUM. The little, low-growing yellow-foliaged Feverfew, called +Golden Feather, is used extensively for edging and design beds. +Propagated by cuttings, as are geraniums. + +The tall-growing species are very fine border plants, being easy to grow +and having showy flowers, in colors ranging from white through lilac to +crimson. Their flowers appear in June and last a month, when, if the +plants are cut down, they will flower again in the fall. The Persian +insect powder is made from the dried flower heads of some of these +species. Propagated by seed or division. Hardy and fine. + + +RADISHES should be grown quickly in order to have them at their best. +They become tough and woody if grown slowly or allowed to stay in the +ground too long. A light soil, well enriched, will grow most of the +early varieties to table size in from three to five weeks. To have a +supply through the early months, sowings should be made every two weeks. +For summer, the large white or gray varieties are best. The winter +varieties may be sown in September, harvested before severe frosts, and +stored in sand in a cool cellar. When they are to be used, if thrown +into cold water for a short time they will regain their crispness. Sow +Radishes thickly in drills, 12 to 18 inches apart. Thin as needed. + +[Illustration: Spring Radishes] + + +RASPBERRY. Both the red and black Raspberries are essentials of a good +garden. A few plants of each will produce a supply of berries for a +family through six or eight weeks, provided both early and late +varieties are planted. A cool situation, soil that will hold moisture +without being wet, and a thorough preparation of the ground, are the +conditions necessary to success. The black-cap Raspberries should be set +3 to 4 feet apart, the rows 6 or 7 feet; the red varieties 3 feet +apart, the rows 5 feet apart. Spring setting is usually preferable. + +As with blackberries and dewberries, Raspberries bear on last year's +canes, and these canes bear but once. Therefore cut out the old canes +after fruiting, or before the following spring, thus destroying such +insects and fungi as may have lodged on them. New canes should have +grown in the meantime, 3 to 6 to a hill. + +The first year after the plants are set the canes should be pinched back +when they reach the height of from 30 to 36 inches. If a very vigorous +growth has been made the first season two canes may be left for +fruiting, but in the case of weak growth, only one cane should be +allowed to fruit. In case of low-growing varieties--those that have been +pinched back short--a mulch of straw or grass around the plants at +fruiting time will help to hold the moisture, and also serve to keep the +fruits clean in case of heavy rains. A Raspberry plantation will last +three to five years. The black varieties are propagated by layers, the +tip of a cane being laid in the soil in midsummer; by fall the tip will +have taken root and may be separated. The red varieties are propagated +by suckers from the roots. In nurseries both blacks and reds are often +propagated by means of root-cuttings. + +[Illustration: Black Raspberries] + +For red rust, pull out the plant, root and branch, and burn it. Short +rotations--fruiting the plants only two or three years--and burning the +old canes and trimmings, will do much to keep Raspberry plantations +healthy. Spraying will have some effect in combating anthracnose. +Raspberries may be bent over to the ground so that the snow will protect +them, in severe climates. + +Varieties are always changing in favor. Good black-caps are Gregg, Ohio, +and Kansas. Good red and purple sorts are Shaffer, Cuthbert, Loudon, and +others. + + +RHODODENDRONS are broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which require a fibrous +or peaty soil and protection from bleak winds and hot suns in winter. It +is well to plant them amongst trees for protection. In the North, mulch +heavily with leaves in the fall. See that the soil is made fibrous with +leaf-mold or other material. Rhododendrons bloom from winter buds: +therefore prune just after flowering, if at all. + + +RHUBARB, or PIE PLANT. This is usually propagated by division of the +fleshy roots, small pieces of which will grow if separated from the old, +established roots and planted in rich, mellow soil. Poor soil should be +made rich by spading out at least 3 feet of the surface, filling with +well rotted manure to within 1 foot of the level, throwing in the top +soil and setting the roots with the crowns 4 inches below the surface, +firming them with the feet. The stalks should not be cut for use until +the second year, but the first, as well as the succeeding falls, some +coarse manure should be thrown over the crowns, to be forked or spaded +in lightly when spring opens. + +In growing seedling Rhubarb, the seed may be sown in a coldframe in +March or April, protected from freezing, and in two months the plants +will be ready to set in rows, 12 inches apart. Give the plants good +cultivation, and the following spring they may be set in a permanent +place. At this time the plants should be set in well prepared ground, at +a distance each way of from 4 to 5 feet, and treated as those set with +pieces of roots. + +If given good care and well manured, the plants will live for years and +yield abundantly. Two dozen good roots will supply a large family. + + +RICINUS. See _Castor Oil Plant_. + + +ROSES. It seems to be the first desire of the home maker, when he +considers the planting of his grounds, to set out Roses. As a matter of +fact, it should be one of the last things to do. Roses are essentially +flower garden subjects, rather than lawn subjects. That is to say, the +flowers are their chief beauty. They have very little to commend them in +the way of foliage or habit, and they are inveterately attacked by +insects and sometimes by fungi. In order to get the best results with +Roses, they should be placed in a bed by themselves, where they can be +tilled and pruned and well taken care of; and they should be grown as +specimen plants, as other flower garden plants are. The ordinary garden +Roses should rarely be grown in mixed borders of shrubbery. + +[Illustration: Wild Roses] + +If it is desired to have Roses in mixed borders, then the single and +informal types should be chosen. The best of all these is _Rosa rugosa_. +This has not only attractive flowers through the greater part of the +season, but it also has very interesting foliage and a striking habit. +The great profusion of bristles and spines gives it an individual and +strong character. Even without the flowers, it is valuable to add +character and cast to a foliage mass. The foliage is not attacked by +insects or fungi, but remains green and glossy throughout the year. The +fruit is also very large and showy, and persists on bushes well through +the winter. Some of the wild Roses are also very excellent for mixing +into foliage masses, but, as a rule, their foliage characteristics are +rather weak, and they are liable to be attacked by thrips. + +Probably the most extensively grown class of Roses is the Remontant or +Hybrid Perpetual. These, while not constant bloomers, are so easy of +culture and give such good returns for the care and labor, that their +popularity grows each year. The list of good varieties is very +extensive, and while a few, such as General Jacqueminot, Paul Neyron, +Marshall P. Wilder, Victor Verdier, Anne de Diesbach, and Ulrich +Brunner, are seen in most collections, one cannot go far wrong in +planting any of the list. Two of the Hybrid Chinese Roses may go with +the Remontants, having the same season of bloom and being about as +hardy. These are Magna Charta and Mme. Plantier. + +The next group in point of hardiness, and superior to the foregoing in +continuity of bloom, are the Hybrid Noisettes, such as Coquette des +Alpes, Coquette des Blanches, and Elise Boelle. The blooms of these are +white, often tinted with pink, very double and fragrant. + +The Hybrid Tea section, containing Duchess of Albany, La France, Meteor +and Wootton, is very fine. These are not hardy in the North, but if +protected by a frame, or if grown in pots, wintered in a pit, no class +of Roses will give more general satisfaction. + +The Bourbon section contains three of the best bedding Roses,--Apolline, +Hermosa, and Souvenir de la Malmaison. These will bloom continually +through the fall months until severe frost, and with a little protection +will prove hardy. + +The Bengal Roses, of which Agrippina is a leading variety, bloom through +a long season, but are not hardy, and should be protected in a pit. They +also make very fine pot-plants. + +The Moss Roses are well known, and are desirable in a general +collection. + +The little Polyantha Roses, with Cecile Brunner and Clothilde Soupert as +two of the best, are always attractive, either when planted out or grown +in pots. + +The climbing Roses, which bloom later in the season than the Remontants, +are very useful as pillar and screen plants. The old Queen of the +Prairies and Baltimore Belle are still in favor. A newer and better +variety is the Crimson Rambler. + +The Tea Roses have proved more disappointing to the amateur than any +other. No one can resist the temptation to try to have a few of these +highly perfumed, richly colored Roses, but unless one has a +conservatory or an especially favored location in the house, the results +do not pay for the trouble. A few blooms may be had outdoors with plants +set in the spring, but on the approach of winter they must be taken up +and protected by more secure means than is taken with other Roses. If +potted and grown in the house, they are the first plants to become +infested with red spider; or if grown cool enough to escape that pest, +they will be subject to an attack of mildew. Still, the results are well +worth striving for, and a few persons will find the proper conditions; +but the Tea Rose is essentially a florist's flower. + +[Illustration: Hybrid Tea Rose] + +All Roses are heavy feeders and require rich, moist soil. A clay soil, +if well enriched and having perfect drainage, is ideal. Pruning should +be carefully done, preferably in the spring. All weak growth should be +cut out and the balance well cut back. The flowers of all Roses, except +the Yellow Persian and the Harrison's Yellow, being borne on the new +wood, the bushes should be cut back half or more of their growth. + +In the majority of cases, Roses on their own roots will prove more +satisfactory than budded stock. On own-rooted stock, the suckers or +shoots from below the surface of the soil will be of the same kind, +whereas with budded Roses there is danger of the stock (usually Manetti +or Dog Rose) starting into growth and, not being discovered, outgrowing +the bud, taking possession, and finally killing out the weaker growth. +Still, if the plants are set deep enough to prevent adventitious buds of +the stock from starting, there is no question that finer Roses may be +grown than from plants on their own roots. + +The summer insects that trouble the Rose are best treated by a forceful +spray of clear water. This should be done early in the day and again at +evening. Those having city water or good spray pumps will find this an +easy method of keeping Rose pests in check. Those without these +facilities may use whale oil soap, fir-tree oil, good soap suds, or +Persian insect powder. + + +ROSES IN WINTER. Although the growing of Roses under glass is a business +which would better be left to florists, as already said, the following +advice may be useful to those who have conservatories: + +When growing forcing Roses for winter flowers, florists usually provide +raised beds, in the best-lighted houses they have. The bottom of the bed +or bench is left with cracks between the boards for drainage; the cracks +are covered with inverted strips of sod, and the bench is then covered +with four or five inches of fresh, fibrous loam. This is made from +rotted sods, with decayed manure incorporated at the rate of about one +part in four. Sod from any drained pasture-land makes good soil. The +plants are set on the bed in the spring or early summer, from 12 to 18 +inches apart, and are grown there all summer. + +During the winter they are kept at a temperature of 58 to 60 at night, +and from 5 to 10 warmer during the day. The heating pipes are often +run under the benches, not because the Rose likes bottom heat, but to +economize space and to assist in drying out the beds in case of their +becoming too wet. The greatest care is required in watering, in guarding +the temperature and in ventilation. Draughts result in checks to the +growth and in mildewed foliage. + +Dryness of the air, especially from fire heat, is followed by the +appearance of the minute red spider on the leaves. The aphis, or green +plant louse, appears under all conditions, and must be kept down by +syringing with tobacco-tea or fumigation with tobacco stems. + +An effectual and preferable method now employed for destroying the aphis +is to fumigate with the vapor arising from a pan containing a gallon of +water and a pint of strong extract of tobacco. To generate the vapor, a +piece of red-hot iron is dropped into the pan. From one to three or four +pans are required to a house, according to its size. For the red +spider, the chief means of control is syringing with either clear or +soapy water. If the plants are intelligently ventilated and given, at +all times, as much fresh air as possible, the red spider is less likely +to appear. For mildew, which is easily recognized by its white, powdery +appearance on the foliage, accompanied with more or less distortion of +the leaves, the remedy is sulfur in some form or other. The flowers of +sulfur may be dusted thinly over the foliage; enough merely to slightly +whiten the foliage is sufficient. It may be dusted on from the hand in a +broadcast way, or applied with a powder-bellows, which is a better and +less wasteful method. Again, a paint composed of sulfur and linseed oil +may be applied to a portion of one of the steam or hot-water heating +pipes. The fumes arising from this are not agreeable to breathe, but +fatal to mildew. Again, a little sulfur may be sprinkled here and there +on the cooler parts of the greenhouse flue. Under no circumstances, +however, ignite any sulfur in a greenhouse. The vapor of burning sulfur +is death to plants. + +[Illustration: A Hybrid Perpetual Rose] + +_Propagation._--The writer has known women who could root Roses with the +greatest ease. They would simply break off a branch of the Rose, insert +it in the flower-bed, cover it with a bell-jar, and in a few weeks they +would have a strong plant. Again they would resort to layering; in which +case a branch, notched half way through on the lower side, was bent to +the ground and pegged down so that the notched portion was covered with +a few inches of soil. The layered spot was watered from time to time. +After three or four weeks roots were sent forth from the notch and the +branch or buds began to grow, when it was known that the layer had +formed roots. + +Several years ago a friend took a cheese-box, filled it with sharp sand +to the brim, supported it in a tub of water so that the lower half inch +of the box was immersed. The sand was packed down, sprinkled, and +single-joint Rose cuttings, with a bud and a leaf near the top, were +inserted almost their whole length in the sand. This was in July, a hot +month, when it is usually difficult to root any kind of cutting; +moreover, the box stood on a southern slope, facing the hot sun, without +a particle of shade. The only attention given the box was to keep the +water high enough in the tub to touch the bottom of the cheese-box. In +about three weeks he took out three or four dozen of as nicely rooted +cuttings as could have been grown in the greenhouse. + +[Illustration: Vase of Roses] + +The "saucer system," in which cuttings are inserted in wet sand +contained in a saucer an inch or two deep, to be exposed at all times to +the full sunshine, is of a similar nature. The essentials are, to give +the cuttings the "full sun" and to keep the sand saturated with water. + +Whatever method is used, if cuttings are to be transplanted after +rooting, it is important to pot them off in small pots as soon as they +have a cluster of roots one-half inch or an inch long. Leaving them too +long in the sand weakens the cutting. + + +SAGE is a perennial, but best results are secured by resowing every two +or three years. Give a warm, rich soil. Hardy. + + +SALPIGLOSSIS. Very fine half-hardy annuals. The flowers, which are borne +in profusion, are of many colors, and rival in markings most other +annuals. The flowers are short-lived if left on the plant, but will hold +well if cut and placed in water. Seed should be sown in heat in +February or March, the seedlings grown along until May, when they may be +planted out. It is usually best to pinch out the centers of the plants +at this time to cause them to branch. + + +SALSIFY, or VEGETABLE OYSTER. Salsify is one of the best of winter and +early spring vegetables, and should be grown in every garden. It may be +cooked in several different ways. The seed should be sown as early in +the spring as possible. Handle the same as parsnips in every way. The +roots, like parsnips, are the better for the winter freeze, but part of +the crop should be dug in the fall, and stored in soil or moss in a +cellar for winter use. + +[Illustration: Salsify] + + +SALVIA. The SCARLET SALVIA (or SAGE) is a well known tender perennial, +blooming late in the fall and making a fine effect in beds or borders. +It is easily transplanted, and large plants removed to the house +continue in bloom for some time. The blue and white species are both +desirable summer flowering plants, and the low-growing Silver Leaf Sage +is well adapted for edging. Propagated from seed, cuttings, or by +division. Height 2 to 3 feet. + +[Illustration: Salvia coccinea] + + +SAN JOS SCALE has now become a wide-spread pest. It has been introduced +into the eastern states from the Pacific slope. It is a minute scale +insect the size of a small pinhead, shield-shaped, with a raised center. +There are various native and comparatively harmless scales which look +very much like it, and an expert is usually needed to distinguish them. +The San Jos Scale can usually be distinguished, however, by its very +serious results. In favorable seasons it spreads with enormous rapidity, +covering the branches of many kinds of plants, sapping their juices, and +either killing or reducing them to such a low state of vitality as to +render them useless; or they are killed by the winter. The indications +are that the scale will never be so serious in the moist, cool climates +of the northeastern states as it is in the hotter and drier climates of +the West. It has been found by careful experiments that it can be killed +by a spray of kerosene and water (see _Kerosene_) in a proportion of one +part of kerosene to four or five of water. This material is applied with +a mechanical pump mixer, and the application should be made on a sunny +day so that evaporation soon takes place. Spraying with kerosene in +cloudy weather is very likely to result in injury to the plants. Some +experimenters have found crude petroleum to be a specific for the San +Jos Scale. + +It is not to be expected that the San Jos Scale can be exterminated any +more than the tent caterpillar or apple scab can. It follows, therefore, +that we should spray for the San Jos Scale as we do for other pests. It +is such a serious pest, however, that the state or province should take +measures to hold it in check. Some system of inspection should be +inaugurated, and it is probably best that nursery stock be fumigated +with hydrocyanic gas before it is sold. This gas is exceedingly +poisonous, however, and should never be handled by the inexperienced. +Whenever it is used, it should be under the control of experts. Plants +or plantations which are badly infested with the scale would better be +destroyed. + + +SCABIOSA. MOURNING BRIDE. A useful annual, producing a profusion of +bloom through the greater part of the summer if not allowed to go to +seed. The flowers range in color from white to rich purple, are borne on +long stems, and are very lasting. The seed may be sown where the plants +are wanted, or to hasten the season of bloom may be sown in boxes in +February and grown along to be planted out in April. + + +SCARLET RUNNER. One of the pole or running beans (_Phaseolus +multiflorus_). It is a great favorite with people from the Old World, +especially English and Germans. This bean is used either as an +ornamental vine for porches or trellises, or as a screen to hide +unsightly objects. The red flowers are very showy, either on the plant +or in bouquets. The green pods are excellent as string beans, and the +dried beans are of superior quality. Seed should not be sown until the +ground has become thoroughly warm; or the plants may be started in the +house. + + +SCRAPING of trees is rarely to be advised, except in fruit plantations. +The old and hanging bark on apple and pear trees may be taken off in +order to destroy the hiding places of insects and the breeding places of +fungi, and also to make the plantation look more neat and kempt. Only +the loose outer bark should be removed, however. Trees should not be +scraped to the quick. If there is moss on trees, it can be destroyed +readily by a spray of Bordeaux mixture. + +A large part of the beauty of an ornamental tree lies in its +characteristic bark, and it is very rare that such trees should be +scraped. + + +SCREENS. See _Windbreak_. + + +SCREW PINE. See _Pandanus_. + + +SEA-KALE shoots are very highly prized as a delicacy when blanched. The +seed should be sown in a hotbed early in the spring, plants transplanted +to the garden when from 2 to 3 inches high, and given high cultivation +through the season, being covered with litter on the approach of winter. +The young stalks are blanched early the following spring by covering +with large pots or boxes, or by banking with sand or other clean +material. The Dwarf Green Scotch, Dwarf Brown, and Siberian are among +the leading varieties. Sea-kale is eaten much as asparagus is. Highly +prized by those who know it. + +Sea-Kale is also propagated by cuttings of the roots 4 or 5 inches +long, planted directly in the soil in spring. The plant is perennial, +and the early shoots may be bleached year after year. + + +SEED SOWING. The general rule in sowing seeds is to cover them twice or +three times their thickness. This rule will apply to the majority of +seeds, but in many plants of a naturally short season of bloom or +growth, an instance of which is the sweet pea, it may be advisable to +sow the seed deeper, that the roots may have sufficient moisture and be +in a cool temperature through the hot summer months. Also, in sowing +very minute seed, as tobacco, petunia, begonia, and others of like size, +care should be taken to have them only under the surface of the +soil,--simply pressed down with a smooth surface or allowed to settle +into the soil with the soaking in of the water. The soil for all seeds +should be loose and porous, in order to allow the excessive moisture to +escape and the warmth to penetrate, but should be firmed directly over +the seeds to induce an upward flow of moisture. One of the most common +mistakes in sowing seed is in sowing all kinds at the same time without +regard to the season, thus causing a failure with some, while others +grow freely. All tender seed should be sown only when the ground has +become thoroughly warm, while seeds of the so-called hardy plants may be +sown as early in the spring as the ground is fit to work. A few kinds of +seed are the better for soaking, especially such as for some reason have +been delayed in sowing. Sweet pea seed is benefited by soaking if not +put into the ground until the soil is warm. Seed of canna, moonflower +and others with hard shells may be scraped until the outer shell is +pierced or is very thin. + +It is generally better to buy garden seeds than to grow them, for those +who make a business of seed-growing become expert in the cultivation and +selection of the plants. + + +SEEDS of most plants should be kept dry and also rather cool. It is +always better to rely upon fresh seeds. Test them in boxes in the house, +if possible, before planting them in the open. If beans, peas, corn or +other Seeds become buggy, pour a little bisulfide of carbon (very +inflammable) into them. The material will not injure the Seeds even if +poured on them. It soon evaporates. A teaspoonful will kill the insects +in four quarts of Seeds, if the receptacle is tight. + +Most tree Seeds should be kept moist until planted. They are usually +buried or kept in sand. + + +SENSITIVE PLANT (_Mimosa_). This curious plant is often grown for the +amusement it affords by its habit of closing its leaves and dropping the +leaf-stalk whenever the plant is touched. Seed should be sown in heat +early in the season, and the plants grown in pots or a protected border. +The seed is sold by all seedsmen. The plant grows readily in a +temperature suited to beans. It will not stand frost. The young plants +are usually the most sensitive. + + +SHADE TREES. The best Shade Trees are usually those which are native to +the particular region, since they are hardy and adapted to the soil and +other conditions. Elms, maples, basswoods, and the like, are nearly +always reliable. In regions in which there are serious insect enemies or +fungous diseases, the trees which are most likely to be attacked may be +omitted. For instance, in parts of the East the elm leaf beetle is a +very serious pest; and it is a good plan in such places to plant other +trees than elms. Amongst the best exotic trees for shade in the northern +parts of the country are the Norway maple, European lindens, horse +chestnut, and the European species of elm. Trees for shade should +ordinarily be given sufficient room that they may develop into full size +and symmetrical heads. The trees may be planted as close as 10 or 15 +feet apart for temporary effect; but as soon as they begin to crowd they +should be thinned. + + +SHELTER-BELTS. See _Windbreak_. + + +SHRUBBERY. Shrubs have two kinds of values or uses: first, they are +useful for their own sakes or as individual specimens; and second, for +use in the making of foliage masses or groups. Ordinarily they are used +only for the former purpose in home grounds; but their greatest use is, +nevertheless, in heavy masses about the borders of the place or in the +angles of the building. That is to say, they should contribute to the +general design of the place or to its pictorial effect. If they are +planted in Shrubberies or masses, the flowers are still as interesting +and as showy as they are when the bushes are planted alone. In fact, the +flowers usually show to better advantage, since they have a heavy +background of foliage. In the Shrubbery mass the bushes are more easily +cared for than when they are scattered as single specimens over the +lawn. The single specimen which is irregular, or ragged, or untidy, is +an undesirable object; but such a specimen may contribute an +indispensable part to the border mass. In the border they do not need +the attention to pruning that they do in the lawn. The main part of the +Shrubbery mass should be made of the stronger, larger growing and +coarser Shrubs; and the more delicate ones, or those with highly colored +leaves or showy flowers, may be placed near the inner edge of the +plantation. Shrubs which are valued chiefly for their flowers or showy +foliage, as, for example, the _Hydrangea paniculata_, may be planted +just in front of a bold Shrubbery mass, so that they will have a +background to show off their beauties. Further directions for the +lay-out of the grounds will be found under the articles _Lawns_ and +_Borders_. + +It is ordinarily best to plow or spade the entire area in which the +Shrubs are to be set. For a year or two the ground should be tilled +between the Shrubs, either by horse tools or by hoes and rakes. If the +place looks bare, seeds of quick-growing flowers may be scattered about +the edges of the mass. The larger Shrubs, like lilacs and syringas, may +be set about 4 feet apart; but the smaller ones should be set about, 2 +feet apart if it is desired to secure an immediate effect. If after a +few years the mass becomes too crowded, some of the specimens may be +removed. Throw the Shrubs into an irregular plantation, not in rows, and +make the inner edge of the mass more or less undulating and broken. It +is a good practice to mulch the plantation each fall with light manure, +leaf-mold or other material. Even though the Shrubs are perfectly hardy, +this mulch greatly improves the land and promotes growth. After the +Shrub borders have become two or three years old, the drifting leaves of +fall will be caught therein and will be held as a mulch. It is often +advisable not to remove these leaves, but to allow them to remain year +after year, where they make a fine covering of leaf-mold. When the +Shrubs are first planted, they are headed back one-half or more; but +after they are established they are not to be pruned, but allowed to +take their own way, and after a few years the outermost ones will droop +and meet the greensward. + +Good Shrubs are numerous. Some of the best are those to be found in +woods and along roadsides. They are hardy. Of Shrubs which are generally +adaptable for the North, the following are excellent: + + Barberries. + Box. + Burning Bush, or Euonymus. + Bush Honeysuckles. + Bush Willows. + Caryopteris, blooming in August and September. + Cotoneasters. + Desmodiums, or Lespedezas, blooming in fall. + Dwarf Sumac. _Rhus copallina._ + Elders. Native species are excellent. + Exochorda, with profuse white bloom in spring. + Flowering Almond. + Flowering Crabs. + Flowering Currants. + Forsythias, or Golden Bells. + Fringe Tree, or Chionanthus. + Hawthorns. + Hydrangeas. + Indian Currant. _Symphoricarpos vulgaris._ + Japanese Quince. + Kerria, or Corchorus. + Lilacs. + Mock Orange, or Philadelphus. + New Jersey Tea, or Ceanothus. + Osiers, or Dogwoods. + Privet. + Rose Acacia. + Roses (see _Roses_). + Smoke Tree. + Snowballs. The Japanese is preferable. + Snowberry. _Symphoricarpos racemosus._ + Spireas of many kinds. + Viburnums of many kinds. + Weigelas. + White Alder. _Clethra alnifolia._ + Witch Hazel. Blooms on the eve of winter. + Xanthoceras sorbifolia. + + +SILENE, or CATCHFLY. Some of the Silenes are hardy annuals of very easy +culture. Sow seeds where the plants are to stand; or, if early results +are desired, seeds may be started in boxes. The plants thrive in any +garden soil, even if it is not very rich. Colors red, or sometimes +running to white. One foot. Let plants stand 6 to 10 inches apart. + + +SMILAX of the florists is closely allied to asparagus. While it cannot +be recommended for house culture, the ease with which it may be grown +and the uses to which the festoons of leaves may be put, entitle it to a +place in the conservatory or greenhouse. Seed sown in pots or boxes in +January or February, the plants shifted as needed until planted on the +bench in August, will grow fine strings of green by the holidays. The +plants should be set on low benches, giving as much room as possible +overhead. Green-colored strings should be used for the vines to climb +on, the vines frequently syringed to keep down the red spider, which is +very destructive to this plant, and liquid manure given as the vines +grow. The soil should contain a good proportion of sand and be enriched +with well-rotted manure. After the first strings are cut, a second +growth fully as good as the first may be had by cleaning up the plants +and top-dressing the soil with rotted manure. Slightly shading the house +through August will add to the color of the leaves. The odor from a vine +of Smilax thickly covered with the small flowers is very agreeable. + + +SNAPDRAGON, or ANTIRRHINUM. An old garden favorite, flowering freely +through a long season. The dwarf strain is well adapted for bedding or +borders. Any light soil, well enriched with rotted manure, will grow +Snapdragons to perfection. Distinct varieties should be propagated by +cuttings, as they do not come true from seed. Sow seed early in the +spring. + +Although bloom may be obtained the first year, late sown plants +sometimes persist over winter and bloom early in the spring. Snapdragons +make good window plants. + + +SNOWDROP (_Galanthus_). This is one of the earliest flowers of spring, +always welcome. It should be planted in the edge of the border. The +bulbs may be planted in October in any good border soil and left +undisturbed for years; or they may be potted at that time, and after +forming roots be gently forced into bloom in winter. + + +SNOWFLAKE (_Leucoium_). Culture same as for _Snowdrop_. + + +SODDING. In general, the best way to secure a lawn is by the sowing of +seed (see _Lawn_), since it is the least expensive way. For small areas, +and along the sides of walks and drives, sods may be used. The results +are quicker. Unless the sod is of the right kind, however, and very +carefully laid, the results are not so good as with seed. + +[Illustration: Sod-cutter, for trimming sod edgings] + +The sod which is best adapted to the Sodding of lawns is that which +comes from an old, closely grazed pasture. Sod from a sheep pasture is +supposed to be best. Such sod has been so closely grazed that it has +made a very dense mat of roots, and all the weeds have been destroyed. +The droppings of the animals also make the ground rich. The sod should +be cut in very thin strips. It should not be more than an inch and +one-half or two inches in thickness. If it is thicker than that, it is +heavy and bulky to handle, and is not so easily laid. Ordinarily, the +sod is cut in strips ten inches or a foot wide. A board is laid on the +sod and the strip is cut along either side of it with a sod cutter or a +sharp spade. Two men then roll up the sod. One stands on the strip of +sod with his face toward the man who, with the spade, cuts it loose +beneath. As it is cut loose, the man on the strip rolls the sod so that +the upper surface is on the inside of the roll. Strips longer than ten +or twelve feet make rolls which are too heavy to handle with ease. + +[Illustration: Cutting sod] + +The soil upon which the sod is to be placed should be very loose, so +that the sod, can be pounded down firmly. Some heavy pounder should be +used, as a block of wood. It is usually impossible to pound down sod +with the back of a spade sufficiently firm unless the soil is very +loose. The sod should be pounded until the top is about level with the +surrounding soil. This insures contact with the soil beneath, so that +there are no air spaces and no likelihood of drying out. Sod pounded +down as firmly as this should grow very readily. If a sod edging is +laid along walks and drives, it should be pounded down an inch or more +lower than the surrounding loose land which is seeded, because the loose +land will finally settle; otherwise the sod border is likely to be +higher than adjacent land after a year or two. + +If there are uneven places on the sodded area, these depressions can be +filled in with very loose, fine soil; and the grass will grow through +it. In dry weather, a sodded area may be mulched with a half inch of +fine loam to protect it. + + +SOILS. Soils are of many kinds. The classification of soils depends upon +one's point of view. Gardeners ordinarily call a good, friable, +dark-colored, rich Soil a garden loam. No Soil is so good that it cannot +be improved. It is improved in two general ways: by tilling (see +_Tillage_), and by the application of various substances. + +In considering the improvement of lands by the application of foreign +substances, two distinct things are to be considered: the improvement of +the physical texture, or tilth, of the Soil; the increasing of its +plant-food. These are cordinate objects. In some cases one may be of +prime importance, and in another case the other may be more necessary. +Lands which have a fair store of available plant-food may be +unproductive. Such lands may be very greatly benefited by stable manure, +even though that manure may have lost a large part of fertility by being +baptized under the eaves of the barn. If plant-food alone is needed, +then some concentrated or commercial fertilizer may be the best thing to +apply. In most cases the main or chief amelioration of the land is to be +wrought by tillage, stable manures, mulches, green crops, and the like; +if special results are desired, commercial fertilizers may be added more +or less liberally, as the case demands (see _Manures_, _Fertilizers_). + +The top-dressing of Soils is often very beneficial because it tends to +prevent the escape of moisture, and often improves the physical texture. +If the material contains plant-food, the land will also be directly +enriched. The trimmings from lawns may be a distinct protection to +lands if allowed to remain (see _Lawns_); and the leaves which blow into +clumps of shrubbery may often be allowed to remain with good results. +However, if the leaves become too thick year after year, they tend to +induce a surface rooting of the shrubs. This, however, may be no +disadvantage unless the mulch were finally to be removed. One of the +very best top-dressings for borders and shrubbery is spent tan bark, +since it does not pile up on the ground, but tends to work into it. +Well-rotted sawdust often has the same effect. These materials are much +used by gardeners, when they can be had, since they can be raked into +the soil in the spring, and need not be removed. + + +SOLIDAGO. See _Goldenrod_. + + +[Illustration: Spade] + +[Illustration: Shovel] + +SPADES and SHOVELS must be a part of every garden equipment. The common +and most useful forms are shown in the cuts, but long-handled tools are +more useful for the loading of earth, the making of ditches, the +spreading of mulches, and the like. It pays to buy the steel tools, with +strongly strapped handles. + + +SPEARMINT is prized by many people as a seasoning, particularly for the +Thanksgiving and holiday cookery. It is a perennial and perfectly hardy, +and will live in the open garden year after year. If a supply of the +fresh herbage is wanted in winter, remove sods of it to the house six +weeks before wanted. Place the sods in boxes, and treat as for house +plants. The plants should have been frosted and become perfectly dormant +before removal. + + +SPINACH. Probably the most extensively grown early spring vegetable, +being in great demand as greens. The earliest crop that finds its way to +market is gathered from seed sown in September or October, often +protected by frames or other means through the severe winter, and cut +soon after growth starts in early spring. Even as far north as New York +Spinach may stand over winter without protection. Spinach is forced by +placing sash over the frames in February and March, protecting the young +leaves from severe freezing by mats or straw thrown over the frames. +Seed may be sown in early spring for a succession; later in the season +seed of the New Zealand Summer Spinach may be sown, and this will grow +through the heat of the summer and yield a fine quality of leaves. The +seed of this kind being very hard, should be scalded and allowed to soak +a few hours before sowing. This seed is usually sown in hills about +three feet apart, sowing four to six seeds in each hill. The spring and +winter Spinach should be sown in drills 12 to 14 inches apart, one ounce +being sufficient for 100 feet of drill. Remember that common Spinach is +a cool-weather (fall and spring) crop. + + +SPRAYING. Of late years Spraying has come to be one of the most +important of all horticultural operations. Most kinds of injurious fungi +and insects can be combated by a water spray in which various poisons or +injurious substances are contained. There are two general classes of +Spraying material: first, fungicides, or those which are used for the +control of fungi or plant diseases; second, insecticides, or those which +are used for the control of insect enemies. + +The fungicides usually contain copper or sulfur, or both. The most +popular and generally useful fungicide is the Bordeaux mixture (which +see). It should be borne in mind that most injurious fungi work on the +interior of the leaf or stem, and only the spore-bearing parts come to +the surface. It is therefore very important that Spraying with +fungicides be done very early in order to prevent the fungus from +getting a hold. It is much better to Spray once very thoroughly than to +Spray a half dozen times carelessly. It is important that the entire +surface of the foliage or stems be covered with the material in order to +prevent the access of the fungi. + +Of insecticides, there are two general types: those which kill by +external contact and are applied to plant lice, scale insects, and all +other insects which suck their food; and the poisonous compounds which +are used for the chewing insects, as all the tribes of worms and +beetles. Of the former class, the most important material is kerosene in +various forms (which see). Of the latter kind is Paris green (which +see). For insects, Spray just as soon as the attack is evident. Paris +green and Bordeaux mixture may be used together. + +The best pump for Spraying is the one which throws the stream the +greatest distance with the least amount of liquid, and the best nozzle +is that which distributes the material most finely and evenly. For +Spraying plants close at hand, the Vermorel nozzle is now the most +popular. If it is desired to reach the tops of large trees, some other +nozzle should be used, as the McGowen, Boss, or other types. Every +outfit should have two or three kinds of nozzles for different kinds of +work. Get a pump with much power. + +Spray thoroughly. The general rule is to spray the entire plant until +the material begins to drip, at which time it may be supposed that the +plant is covered completely. When and how often one should Spray, and +what material he should use, will depend entirely upon the difficulty +which he is endeavoring to combat. Most fruit trees should be Sprayed +before they bloom and again just afterwards. Sometimes they will need +Spraying again. + + +SPREKELIA. Culture of _Amaryllis_. + + +SQUASH. The time of planting, method of preparing the hills and after +culture are the same as for cucumbers and melons (which see), except +that for the Early Bush varieties the hills should be 4 or 5 feet apart, +and for the later running varieties from 6 to 8 feet apart. From eight +to ten seeds should be planted in each hill, thinning to four plants +after danger from bugs is over. Of the early Squashes, one ounce of seed +will plant fifty hills; of the later varieties, one ounce will plant but +eighteen to twenty hills. For winter use, varieties of the Hubbard type +are best. For summer use, the Crooknecks and Scallop Squashes are +popular. In growing winter Squashes in a northern climate, it is +essential that the plants start off quickly and vigorously: a little +chemical fertilizer will help. Pumpkins are grown the same as Squashes. + +[Illustration: Hubbard Squash] + +[Illustration: Scallop or Patty-pan Summer Squash] + + +SQUILLS (_Scilla_). BLUE BELL. WILD HYACINTH. Well-known bulbous plants, +most of them hardy. They plant well with snowdrops and crocus, flowering +at the same time, but continuing longer in bloom. The colors are red, +pink, blue or white. The blue varieties have very fine shades of color. +Should be planted in October and remain undisturbed. + + +STOCKS. The Ten-weeks and the biennial or Brompton Stocks, are found in +nearly all old-fashioned gardens. Most gardens are thought to be +incomplete without Stocks, and the use of the biennial flowering species +as house plants is increasing. The Ten-weeks Stock is usually grown from +seed sown in hotbed or boxes in March. The seedlings are transplanted +several times previous to being planted out in early May. At each +transplanting the soil should be made a little richer. The double +flowers will be more numerous when the soil is rich. + +The biennial species should be sown the season previous to that in which +flowers are wanted, the plants wintered over in a cool house, and grown +on the following spring. They may be planted out through the summer and +lifted into pots in August or September for winter flowering. These may +be increased by cuttings taken from the side shoots; but the sowing of +seed is a surer method, and unless an extra fine variety is to be saved, +it would be the best one to pursue. Height 10 to 15 inches. + + +STORING. The principles which are involved in the Storing of perishable +products, as fruits and vegetables, differ with the different +commodities. All the root crops, and most fruits, need to be kept in a +cool, moist and uniform temperature if they are to be preserved a great +length of time. Squashes, sweet potatoes, and some other things, need to +be kept in an intermediate and what might be called a high temperature; +and the atmosphere should be drier than for most other products. The low +temperature has the effect of arresting decomposition and the work of +fungi and bacteria. The moist atmosphere has the effect of preventing +too great evaporation and the consequent shriveling. In the Storing of +any commodity, it is very important to see that the product is in proper +condition for keeping. Discard all specimens which are bruised or which +are likely to decay. Much of the decay of fruits and vegetables in +Storage is not the fault of the Storage, but is really the work of +diseases with which the materials are infested before they are put into +Storage. For example, if potatoes and cabbages are affected with the +rot, it is practically impossible to keep them any length of time. + +Apples, winter pears, and all roots, should be kept at a temperature +somewhat near the freezing point. It should not raise above 40 Fahr. +for best results. Apples can even be kept at one or two degrees below +the freezing point if the temperature is kept uniform. Cellars in which +there are heaters are likely to be too dry and the temperature too +high. In such cases it is well to keep fresh vegetables and fruits in +tight receptacles, and pack the roots in sand or moss in order to +prevent shriveling. In these places, apples usually keep better if +headed up in barrels than if kept on racks or shelves. In moist and cool +cellars, however, it is preferable for the home supply to place them on +shelves, not piling them more than five or six inches deep, for then +they can be sorted over as occasion requires. In case of fruits, be sure +that the specimens are not over-ripe when placed in storage. If apples +are allowed to lie in the sun for a few days without being packed, they +will ripen so much that it is very difficult to keep them. + +[Illustration: A good out-door cellar] + +Cabbages should be kept at a low and uniform temperature, and water +should be drained away from them. They are Stored in many ways in the +field, but success depends so much upon the season, particular variety, +ripeness, and the freedom from injuries by fungi and insects, that +uniform results are rarely secured by any method. The best results are +to be expected when they can be kept in a house which is built for the +purpose, in which the temperature can be kept uniform and the air fairly +moist. When Stored out of doors, they are likely to freeze and thaw +alternately; and if the water runs into the heads, mischief is likely to +result. Sometimes they are easily Stored by being piled into a conical +heap on well-drained soil and covered with dry straw, and the straw +covered with boards. It does not matter if they are frosted, provided +they do not thaw out frequently. Sometimes cabbages are laid head down +in a shallow furrow plowed in well-drained land, and over them is thrown +straw, the stumps being allowed to project through the cover. It is only +in winters of rather uniform temperature that good results are to be +expected from such methods. + +In the Storing of all things, especially those which have soft and green +matter, as cabbages, it is well to provide for the heating of the +produce. If the things are buried out of doors, it is important to put +on a very light cover at first so that the heat may escape. Cover them +gradually as the cold weather comes on. This is important with all +vegetables that are placed in pits, as potatoes, beets and the like. If +covered deeply at once, they are likely to heat and rot. All pits made +out of doors should be on well-drained and preferably sandy land. + +When vegetables are wanted at intervals during the winter from pits, it +is well to make compartment pits, each compartment holding a wagon load +or whatever quantity will be likely to be wanted at each time. These +pits are sunk in well-drained land, and between each of the two pits is +left a wall of earth about a foot thick. One pit can then be emptied in +cold weather without interfering with the others. + +An outside cellar is better than a house cellar in which there is a +heater, but it is not so handy. If it is near the house, it need not be +inconvenient, however. A house is usually healthier if the cellar is not +used for storage. House cellars used for storage should have a +ventilating shaft. + + +[Illustration: Strawberries] + +STRAWBERRY. The saying that Strawberries will grow on almost any soil is +misleading, although true. Some varieties of Strawberries will grow on +certain soils better than other varieties. What these varieties are can +only be determined by an actual test, but it is a safe rule to select +such varieties as prove good in many localities. As to the methods of +culture, so much depends on the size of the plot, the purpose for which +the fruit is wanted, and the amount of care one is willing to give, that +no set rule can be given for a garden in which but few plants are grown +and extra care can be given. Large fruits and a number of them may be +had by growing to the single plant, keeping off all runners and relying +on numerous fruit-crowns on one plant for the crop of berries. Or +Strawberries may be grown by the narrow matted-row system, in which the +runners, before rooting, should be turned along the rows at a distance +of from 4 to 6 inches from the parent plant. These runners should be the +first ones made by the plant and should not be allowed to root +themselves, but "set in." This is not a difficult operation; and if the +runners are separated from the parent plant as soon as they become well +established, the drain on that plant is not great. All other runners +should be cut off as they start. The row should be about 12 inches wide +at fruiting time. Each plant should have sufficient feeding ground, full +sunlight, and a firm hold in the soil. This matted-row system is perhaps +as good a method, either in a private garden or field culture, as could +be practiced. With a little care in hoeing, weeding and cutting off +runners, the beds seem to produce as large crops the second year as the +first. + +[Illustration: Well planted Strawberry] + +The old way of growing a crop was to set the plants 10 to 12 inches +apart, in rows 3 feet apart, and allow them to run and root at will, the +results being a mass of small, crowded plants, each striving to obtain +plant-food and none of them succeeding in getting enough. The last, or +outside runners, having but the tips of their roots in the ground, are +moved by the wind, heaved by the frost, or have the exposed roots dried +out by the wind and sun. + +[Illustration: Pot-grown Strawberry] + +Ground rich in potash produces the firmest and best flavored berries. +Excessive use of stable manure, usually rich in nitrogen, should be +avoided, as tending to make too rank growth of foliage and berries of a +soft texture. + +Except in the case of a skillful grower in a favored locality, the fall +setting of plants is not to be recommended. The preparation of the soil +and care of the plants more than overbalance the partial crop obtained +the following spring. + +In the single-plant or hill system the plants should be set 12 inches +apart, in rows 3 feet apart. In the narrow matted row system the plants +should be set 18 inches apart, in rows 3 feet apart. The first method +requires about 14,000 plants per acre, the second about 8,000 plants. + +The winter treatment of a Strawberry bed should consist in covering the +plants, when the ground is frozen, in November or December, with straw +or hay. Salt marsh hay, if obtainable, is the best, as no weed seeds are +introduced. Cover the soil and the plants to the depth of 3 to 6 inches. +As soon as growth begins in spring, rake the mulch off, allowing it to +lie between the rows; or, if the soil is hard or weedy, it may be taken +off the patch entirely, the ground tilled, and then replaced for the +purpose of holding moisture and keeping the berries clean. + +Usually, Strawberries may be fruited twice or three times; but on rich +soil, with extra good care, the first crop may be very heavy, and the +patch may be plowed up thereafter. Some varieties do not produce pollen, +and not more than two rows of these should be planted without a row of a +pollen-bearing kind. + +The rust and mildew may be held in check by Bordeaux mixture. It is +usually sufficient to spray after the blooming season (or at any time +the first year the plants are set), in order to secure healthy foliage +for the next year. + + +SUNFLOWER (_Helianthus_). People who know only the coarse annual +Sunflower are not aware of the beauty which it is possible to secure +with the herbaceous perennials belonging to that family. No border +should be without a few of the hardy species. Their blooming period +extends from early in August until heavy frost. The color runs from +light lemon to the richest orange, and the range of growth from 3 to 10 +feet, thus enabling one to scatter them through the border without any +formal arrangement. They are of the easiest culture. Plants may be dug +in the wild or bought of nurserymen. The domesticated double _Helianthus +multiflorus_ is always valuable. + +[Illustration: Double Sunflower] + +[Illustration: Orgyalis Sunflower] + +[Illustration: Wild Sunflower Plant] + +Of the annual Sunflowers, there are some which are not generally +cultivated that should receive more attention. The silver-leaved species +from Texas (_H. argophyllus_), and the small, light lemon-yellow +variety, are two of the best. + +[Illustration: Wild Sunflower] + + +SWAINSONA. This makes a very desirable house plant, blooming through the +late winter and early spring months. The blossoms, which resemble those +of the pea, are borne in long racemes. The foliage is finely cut, +resembling small locust leaves, and adds to the beauty of the plant, the +whole effect being exceedingly graceful. It may be grown from seed or +cuttings. Propagate a new stock each year. The flowers are large and +pure white. The plant has been called the "Winter Sweet Pea," but the +flowers are not fragrant. + + +SWAN RIVER DAISY (_Brachycome iberidifolia_) is a charming little border +plant, growing to the height of 12 to 15 inches, and bearing quantities +of blue or white flowers. The flowers last a long time when cut, and +give a vase of flowers a light, graceful effect. The seed should be sown +in boxes, hotbed, or windows; or, in warm garden soil, the seed may be +sown where the plants are to stand. Only half hardy, and should not be +planted out until settled weather. Annual. + + +SWEET CORN. See _Corn_. + + +SWEET HERBS. The Herb garden should find a place on all amateurs' +grounds. Herbs may readily be made profitable by disposing of the +surplus to the green grocer and the druggist. The latter will often buy +all that the housewife wishes to dispose of, as the general supply of +medicinal herbs is grown by specialists, and goes into the hands of the +wholesaler and is often old when received by the local dealer. The +seedsmen's catalogues mention upwards of forty different Herbs, +medicinal and culinary. The majority of them are perennial, and will +grow for many years if well taken care of. However, it is better to +resow every three or four years. The annual kinds are raised from seeds +each year. Beds 4 feet square of each of the Herbs will supply an +ordinary family. + + +SWEET PEA. No annual receives greater attention these days than the +Sweet Pea. Sweet Pea exhibitions are held in several sections of the +country, the press gives considerable space to the discussion of +varieties, and the public generally is interested in the growing or +buying of the flower. On any occasion the Sweet Pea is in place. A +bouquet of shaded colors, with a few sprays of galium or the perennial +gypsophila, makes one of the choicest of table decorations. Deep, mellow +soil, early planting and heavy mulching suit them admirably. Sow the +seeds as soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring, making a drill +5 inches deep. Sow thickly and cover with 2 inches of soil. When the +plants have made 2 or 3 inches growth above the soil, fill the drill +nearly full, leaving a slight depression in which water may be caught. +After the soil is thoroughly soaked with water, a good mulch will hold +the moisture. To have the ground ready in early spring, it is a good +plan to trench the soil in the fall. The top of the soil then dries out +very quickly in the spring and is left in good physical condition. +Frequent syringing with clear water will keep off the red spider that +often destroys the foliage, and attention to picking the seed pods will +lengthen the season of bloom. If the finest flowers are wanted, do not +let the plants stand less than 8-12 inches apart. + +[Illustration: Sweet Pea] + +A succession of sowings may be made at intervals through May and June, +and a fair fall crop obtained if care is taken to water and mulch; but +the best results will be secured with the very early planting. In the +middle and southern states, the seed may be planted in fall, +particularly in lighter soils. It is easy to get soils too rich in +nitrogen for Sweet Peas; in such case, they will run to vine at the +expense of flowers. If the plants are watered, apply enough to soak the +soil, and do not water frequently. + + +SWEET POTATOES are grown from sprouts planted on ridges or hills, not by +planting the tubers, as with the common or Irish potato. The method of +obtaining these sprouts is as follows: In April, tubers of Sweet +Potatoes are planted in a partially spent hotbed by using the whole +tuber (or if a large one, by cutting it in two through the long way), +covering the tubers with 2 inches of light, well firmed soil. The sash +should be put on the frames and only enough ventilation given to keep +the Potatoes from decaying. In ten or twelve days the young sprouts +should begin to appear, and the bed should be watered if dry. The +sprouts when pulled from the tuber will be found to have rootlets at the +lower end and along the stems. These sprouts should be about 3 to 5 +inches long by the time the ground is warm enough to plant them out. The +ridges or hills should be prepared by plowing out a furrow 4 to 6 +inches deep. Scatter manure in the furrow and plow back the soil so as +to raise the center at least 6 inches above the level of the soil. On +this ridge the plants are set, placing the plants well in to the leaves, +and about 12 to 18 inches apart in the rows, the rows being from 3 to 4 +feet apart. The after cultivation consists in stirring the soil between +the ridges; and as the vines begin to run they should be lifted +frequently to prevent rooting at the joints. When the tips of the vines +have been touched by frost the crop may be harvested, the tubers left to +dry a few days, and stored in a dry, warm place. To keep Sweet Potatoes, +store in layers in barrels or boxes in dry sand, and keep them in a dry +room. See that all bruised or chilled potatoes are thrown out. + + +SYRINGING plants with water has two general offices: to clean the plants +of pests or of dirt; to check evaporation or transpiration from the +plant itself. + +Gardeners look upon water as a good insecticide. That is, if it can be +thrown upon the plants somewhat forcibly by means of a syringe or pump, +or by the hydrant hose, it will wash off the insects and drown many of +them. The water should be applied in a fine and somewhat forcible spray. +Care should be taken that the plant is not torn or bruised. The red +spider is one of the most serious pests on house plants, and, in a dry +season, on plants about the lawn. It thrives in a dry atmosphere. It +usually lives on the under sides of the leaves. Syringing the plants +frequently will destroy the pests. The thrips and slugs on rose bushes +can nearly always be kept in check if one can spray or syringe his +plants frequently. See _Spraying_. + +Syringing to check transpiration from the foliage is very useful with +plants which are recently transplanted. For instance, when carnations +are taken from the field and placed in the house, it is well to syringe +them occasionally until they have become established. The same is true +with cuttings. + +In Syringing plants, it is well to take care that the ground does not +become too wet; otherwise the plant may suffer at its root. In the +house, plants should rarely be syringed except when the weather is +bright, so that they may soon dry off. The plant should not go into the +night with wet foliage. Out of doors in hot weather, it is best to +syringe toward nightfall. The foliage will ordinarily not suffer in such +cases. With plants in the house, it is necessary to keep the leaves dry +most of the time in order that fungi may not breed. This is true of +carnations, which are very liable to attacks of the rust. + +Plants are sometimes syringed or sprayed to protect them from frost. See +_Frost_. + + +TERRACES may be desirable for two reasons: to hold a very steep slope; +to afford an architectural base for a building. + +It is rarely necessary to make a distinct Terrace in the lawn. Even if +the lawn is very steep, it may be better to make a gradual slope than to +cut the place in two with a Terrace. A Terrace makes a place look +smaller. It is always difficult to make and to keep in repair. The +surface is not readily cut with a lawn mower. Unless the sod is very +dense, the upper corner tends to wash off with the rains and the foot +tends to fill in. Nature does not have straight banks unless they are +rock. The illustration in the margin shows how it is possible to treat a +sloping lawn. In the distance is a distinct, sharp-angled Terrace; but +in the foreground this Terrace has been carried out into the lawn, so +that the slope is an agreeable one. + +[Illustration: A slope is better than a terrace] + +If it is necessary to Terrace a yard in order to hold it, the Terrace +would better be at one side rather than in the middle. In that case, one +is able to secure a good breadth of lawn. If the Terrace is at the +outer side next the street, a perpendicular, mason-work, retaining wall +may be constructed. If it is on the inner side of the lawn, it may be +placed close to the building and be made to appear as a part of the +architecture: it may be made the base of the building. If this is done, +there should be a balustrade around the edge of the Terrace to give it +architectural feeling. The descent from the Terrace to the lawn may be +made by means of steps, so as to add to the architectural aspect of the +place. Terraces are most in place about buildings which have many strong +horizontal lines; they do not lend themselves so well to buildings in +the Gothic style. The general tendency is to make too many Terraces. The +cases are relatively few in which they may not be dispensed with. + + +THINNING of fruit has four general uses: to cause the remaining fruit to +grow larger; to increase the chances of annual crops; to save the +vitality of the tree; to enable one to combat insects and diseases by +destroying the injured fruit. + +The Thinning of fruit is nearly always done soon after the fruit is +thoroughly set. It is then possible to determine which of the fruits are +likely to persist. Peaches are usually Thinned when they are the size of +one's thumb. If Thinned before this time, they are so small that it is +difficult to pick them off; and it is not so easy to see the work of the +curculio and thereby to select the injured fruits. Similar remarks will +apply to other fruits. The general tendency is, even with those who Thin +their fruits, not to Thin enough. It is usually safer to take off what +would seem to be too many than not to take off enough. The remaining +specimens are better. Varieties which tend to overbear profit very +greatly by Thinning. This is notably the case with many Japanese plums, +which, if not Thinned, are very inferior. + +Thinning may also be accomplished by pruning. If one knows where the +fruit buds are, cutting them off will have the effect of removing the +fruit. In the case of tender fruits, like peaches, however, it may not +be advisable to Thin very heavily by means of pruning, since the fruit +may be still further Thinned by the remaining days of winter, by late +spring frost, or by the leaf-curl or other disease. However, the proper +pruning of a peach tree in winter is, in part, a Thinning of the fruit. +The peach is borne on the wood of the previous season's growth. The best +fruits are to be expected on the strongest and heaviest growth. It is +the practice of peach-growers to remove all the weak and immature wood +from the inside of the tree. This has the effect of Thinning out the +inferior fruit and allowing the energy of the tree to be expended on the +remainder. Apples are rarely Thinned; but in many cases, Thinning can be +done with profit. On all home grounds, fruits should be Thinned whenever +the trees are very full. In general, the best time to thin the fruit, as +already said, is when the fruits have become large enough to be seen and +handled. The discarded fruits should be burned if they contain insects +or fungi. + + +THUNBERGIA. Tender climbers, making very pretty low screens. They are at +their best when grown along the ground where the moisture keeps them +free from the attacks of red spider. Some of the kinds are very fine +vase or basket plants. All may be grown easily from seed. Annuals, 4 to +6 feet. Flowers white and yellow. + +[Illustration: Thunbergia alata] + + +TILLAGE. By Tillage is meant the stirring of the soil. Tillage is the +fundamental operation in agricultural practice. Most farmers till for +three reasons: to get the seed into the land; to keep the weeds down; +and to get the crop out of the land. The real reason for Tillage, +however, is to ameliorate the land; that is, Tillage makes the soil +mellow and fine, and an agreeable place in which plants may grow. It +enables the soil to hold moisture, to present the greatest feeding +surface to roots, to allow the circulation of air, and intensifies many +chemical activities. Tilling the soil is the first means of making it +productive. If one understands the many forces that are set at work, the +Tilling of the soil becomes one of the most interesting and exciting of +all agricultural operations. + +[Illustration: For hand Tilling] + +The exact method of Tilling the soil in any particular case must be +determined by many circumstances. Light soils are handled differently +from heavy soils; and much depends also upon the season of the year in +which the Tillage is done. In all ordinary soils, the effort should be +made to work them deep, so that there is a deep reservoir for the +storage of moisture and a large area in which roots can work. Subsequent +Tillage throughout the growing season is performed very largely for the +purpose of keeping the top of the soil loose and fine so that the +moisture from beneath cannot pass off into the atmosphere. This loose +layer of soil, extending two or three inches from the surface, may +itself be very dry; but it breaks up the capillary connection between +the lower soil and the air, and thereby prevents evaporation. This +surface layer of loose, mellow soil is often spoken of as the +earth-mulch. It answers much the same purpose as a mulch of straw or +leaves in interposing a material between the moist soil and the air +through which the moisture cannot rise. If this mulch is repaired as +often as it should be, weeds cannot grow; but the object of the Tilling +is more to make and maintain the mulch than to destroy weeds. The +surface should be Tilled shallow in the growing season as often as it +tends to become compact or encrusted. This will be after every rain, and +usually as often as once in ten days when there is no rain. The tools to +be used for this surface Tillage are those which will comminute or fine +the soil most completely without compacting it or leaving it in ridges +or in furrows. In garden work, a fine rake is the ideal thing; whereas +in field work, some of the wire-tooth weeders or smoothing harrows are +excellent. In fields which are hard and lumpy, however, it will be +necessary to use heavier and rougher tools. + +[Illustration: Steel rake] + +In order to break down hard clay soils, one must exercise great care not +to work them when they are wet; and also not to work them very much when +they are dry. There is a time, shortly after a rain, when clay lumps +will break to pieces with a very slight blow. At this time it is well to +go over them with a harrow or a rake. After the next rain, they can be +gone over again, and before the end of the season the soil should be in +fine condition. An excellent way of breaking down clay land is to plow +or spade it in the fall and allow it to weather in the winter. In such +cases the land should not be raked or harrowed, but allowed to lie rough +and loose. Very hard clay lands sometimes run together or cement if +handled in this way, but this will not occur if the land has stubble or +sod or a dressing of manure, for the fibrous matter will then prevent it +from puddling. Lime sown on clay land at the rate of twenty to forty +bushels to the acre also has a distinct effect in pulverizing it. This +may be sown in fall, or preferably in spring when the land is plowed. + +One of the most important ways of ameliorating land is to work vegetable +matter into it so as to give it humus. Soils which are loose, black and +friable contain much of this vegetable mold. In many cases the chief +value of stable manure is to add this humus to the soil. Many soils need +humus more than they need plant-food, and hence stable manure gives +better results in those cases than commercial fertilizers. The farmer +secures the humus by plowing under stubble and sod, and occasional green +crops. + + +TOMATO. The early fruits are very easily grown by starting the plants in +a greenhouse, hotbed or in shallow boxes placed in windows. A pinch of +seed sown in March will give all the early plants a large family can +use. When the plants have reached the height of two or three inches they +should be transplanted into 3-inch flower pots, old berry boxes or other +receptacles, and allowed to grow slow and stocky until time to set them +out, which is from May 15 on (in New York). They should be set in rows +four or five feet apart, the plants being the same distance in the rows. +Some support should be given to keep the fruits off the ground and to +hasten the ripening. A trellis of chicken-wire makes an excellent +support, as does the light lath fencing that may be bought or made at +home. Stout stakes, with wire strung the length of the rows, afford an +excellent support. A very showy method is that of a frame made like an +inverted V, which allows the fruits to hang free; with a little +attention to trimming, the light reaches the fruits and ripens them +perfectly. This support is made by leaning together two lath frames. The +late fruits may be picked green and ripened on a shelf in the sun; or +they will ripen if placed in a drawer. + +[Illustration: Tomato] + +One ounce of seed will be enough for from twelve to fifteen hundred +plants. A little fertilizer in the hill will start the plants off +quickly. The rot is less serious when the vines are kept off the ground +and the rampant suckers are cut out. + + +TOOLS of many kinds, and well chosen, are one of the joys of a garden. +There is great satisfaction in a well-made, clean tool which does its +work well. Keep the tools bright. They should be under cover, and in +place, when not in use. A cupboard may be built by the rear porch, or in +the barn or carriage house. See that the cupboard is in a dry place. +Various Tools have been mentioned in the preceding pages, and other +useful kinds are shown in the article on _Weeds_. + + +TRANSPLANTING. This operation the gardener calls in one instance +"pricking out." This means taking young seedling plants from the seed +box as soon as they are large enough to be handled--usually when the +first "rough" leaves have developed--and replanting them in other boxes +or pots, either singly or at a greater distance apart than they were +when in the seed boxes. The term is used in the operation of setting out +plants from the hotbed, frame or house to the garden; also in removing +shrubs or trees. Transplant on a cloudy day, and just before a rain, if +possible. + + +TRIMMING is a term which is ordinarily confounded with pruning (which +see). The word "Trimming," however, should be restricted to the shaping +of the trees and not to the thinning of the tree or to pruning for wood, +fruit or other special object. Trimming is only one of the means of +pruning. Trimming is mostly used in the case of hedges. It is also used +to keep evergreens in shape. Many ornamental plants are also Trimmed +into various forms, although it is a question if such Trimming is +usually wise. Fruit trees should be pruned, as a rule, rather than +Trimmed: that is, they usually should be allowed to take their natural +form, the pruner taking out the superfluous wood and keeping them within +manageable bounds. + + +TROPOLUM. See _Nasturtium_. + + +TUBEROSE. The Tuberose requires more heat to grow to perfection than it +is usually possible to give here in the North. If planted in the border +they will not start into growth until the ground has become thoroughly +warm--usually after the middle of June,--making the season before frost +too short for their perfect growth and flower. However, if started in +loose soil or moss in a warm room or on benches of a greenhouse, the +roots will soon start from the tuber and make a fine growth. If planted +out in June with a good ball of roots they are likely to bloom before +frost. If any danger of frost is feared they may be lifted into pots or +boxes and taken into the house, when they will bloom without a check. As +with other bulbs, a sandy soil will suit. + + +TUBEROUS BEGONIA. A large bed of these covered with crimson, pink, +white, or yellow flowers, ranging from 2 to 4 and even 6 inches in +diameter, some double, some single, is a striking sight. Yet such a +sight is not uncommon about the large eastern cities where the Tuberous +Begonia is now used somewhat for bedding. + +Our interior summers are more trying, and so far, few in the west have +succeeded so well with the Tuberous Begonia as a bedding plant. It makes +a fine summer-blooming pot-plant, however, for the greenhouse or window, +and with due attention to its requirements, it may be used as a bedding +plant. It properly falls under greenhouse plants in its requirements. + +[Illustration: Double Tuberous Begonia] + +C. L. Allen, writing of its culture in his work on "Bulbs and +Tuberous-Rooted Plants," says: "The principal point learned in regard to +its culture is, that it must be treated as a plant and not as a bulb. +The enthusiastic florist, seeing the many good qualities of the plant, +has led amateurs to believe it could be treated as a bulb, and planted +out in the same manner as the gladiolus or tigridia and kept dormant +during the winter in the same manner. This is a great mistake, as the +tubers will not endure as long a period of rest and cannot be exposed to +the air for a long time without seriously injuring their vitality. The +tubers must be kept in dry earth or sand, until they show signs of +growth, which will be not later than the first of March; then they may +be started into rapid growth. After the eyes are fully developed the +tubers may be divided: each eye will make a plant. Then they are treated +in all respects like greenhouse plants, and grown on until the proper +season for their planting out. This is not before the first of June, as +Begonias are quite sensitive to cold nights, but not at all to heat. At +that time the plants should be fully 6 inches in height and +proportionately strong. Such plants will make a grand display the entire +season, rather delighting in great heat." + +[Illustration: Tuberous Begonia, single.] + +In starting the tubers in March, they should be placed in moist sand or +moss in a temperature of 60 to 65, either in the greenhouse or window. +After the buds are well started the tubers may be divided as pointed +out, or planted whole. They prefer a rich, rather sandy soil. When they +are well under way give them all the light and air they will bear, and +keep them close to the glass to avoid "legginess" and to insure a firm, +sturdy growth. A week before planting them out they should be given +abundance of air and light to "harden off" the plants preparatory to +setting them in sun and wind. + +The beds should be in a somewhat sheltered place where they will be +partially shaded from the hot midday sun. Let the soil be well enriched +with old manure or humus and thoroughly worked over to a depth of one +foot. During dry periods the beds will need watering from time to time; +but never water them when the sun is shining full on them, or the +foliage may be scorched. A mulch of leaf-mold or old manure will be +helpful in keeping the soil moist and the roots cool. + +Before frost the tubers should be carefully taken up and gradually dried +in the shade, after which they are to be placed in dry sand or earth, in +shallow boxes, and kept till time to start them in the spring. They +should be kept in a cool place, secure from frost and away from stoves +or heating pipes. + +For amateurs it is better to recommend buying bulbs of the several +colors, instead of attempting to grow them from seeds, which are +extremely small and require early sowing, warmth and close attention. + + +TULIPS are hardy and easy to grow. The advice given under _Bulbs_, +_Crocus_ and _Hyacinth_ applies to Tulips. They may be forced for winter +bloom (see under _Window-Gardens_). The garden bed will last several +years if well cared for, but most satisfactory bloom is secured if the +old bulbs are taken up every two or three years and replanted, all the +inferior ones being cast aside. When the stock begins to run out, buy +anew. Plant in October, 4 to 6 inches deep. + +[Illustration: Tulip as a pot-plant] + + +TURNIPS and RUTABAGAS are usually a fall crop, from seed sown in July +and early August, although many kitchen gardens have them from spring +sown seed. The culture is easy. Sow in drills 12 inches apart. They will +become edible in from six to eight weeks. They are cool-weather crops, +and the tops stand much frost. If maggots bother, do not raise them on +the same land again for three or four years. Bordeaux mixture repels the +flea-beetles. One ounce will sow 150 feet of drill. + + +VARIETIES. It is usually one of the first desires of the intending +planter to inquire about Varieties. It is one of the secondary things to +be considered, however, for the first thing to do is to prepare the +land, to determine whether one's soil and site are adapted to the plant +in question, and to discuss other matters of a general nature. When all +the fundamental things are settled, then the question of Varieties, +which is a special matter, may be taken up. Although the selection of +Varieties is a very special matter, it is nevertheless essential to +success or satisfaction in the growing of any plant. + +It should first be considered that the selection of Varieties is very +largely a personal matter. The man should grow the Varieties which he +likes. This is especially true in the selection of Varieties for the +home grounds, in which case the market ideals enter very little into the +problem. Having satisfied one's own mind as to what kinds of Varieties +he would like, he may then inquire of the neighbors and of experts if +those Varieties are adapted to the soil and climate. If he intends to +grow for market, he should canvass the market demands thoroughly before +choosing the Varieties. The lists of Varieties in books, bulletins, and +seedmen's catalogues are hints, not rules. As a general statement, it +may be said that the only way to determine the best variety for one's +own conditions is to experiment. There is intense satisfaction in the +experimenting itself. The best lists of Varieties are those which are +recommended for some specific purpose, and which represent the combined +opinions of many expert growers. It is rare that one man's judgment +should be final, particularly with respect to fruits or plants which are +grown in general outdoor conditions. Under glass a gardener can make his +climate and conditions, and therefore he can adapt his conditions to his +plants. The experiment station test usually represents but one man's +opinion. It may be a more valuable opinion than that of another man, but +it is not final. It should be studied in connection with other lists, +particularly those made by practical growers. If one desires to choose +Varieties, therefore, he should consult the best growers of those plants +in his immediate neighborhood; he should call upon the experiment +station of his state or province; and he should consult the most recent +writings on the subject. + + +VEGETABLE GARDEN. It is one of the choicest of pleasures to raise one's +own vegetables. Make the Vegetable Garden ample, but economize labor. +Plant the things in rows, not in beds. Then they can be tilled easily, +either by horse- or hand-tools. Wheel-hoes will accomplish most of the +labor of tillage in a small garden. Have the rows long, to avoid waste +of time in turning and to economize the land. One row can be devoted to +one vegetable; or two or more vegetables of like requirements (as +parsnips and salsify) may comprise a row. Have the permanent vegetables, +as rhubarb and asparagus, at one side, where they will not interfere +with the plowing or tilling. The annual vegetables should be grown on +different parts of the area in succeeding years, thus practicing +something like a rotation of crops. If radish or cabbage maggots or +club-root become thoroughly established in the plantation, omit for a +year or more the vegetables on which they live. + +[Illustration: Lay-out of a farm Vegetable Garden] + +Make the soil deep, mellow and rich before the seeds are sown. Time and +labor will be saved. Rake the surface frequently to keep down weeds and +to prevent the soil from baking (see _Tillage_). Radish seeds sown with +celery or other slow-germinating seeds will come up quickly, breaking +the crust and marking the rows. About the borders of the Vegetable +Garden is a good place for flowers to be grown for the decoration of the +house and to give to friends. Along one side of the area rows of bush +fruits may be planted. + +A home Vegetable Garden for a family of six would require, exclusive of +potatoes, a space not over 100 by 150 feet. Beginning at one side of the +garden and running the rows the short way (having each row 100 feet +long) sowings may be made, as soon as the ground is in condition to +work, of the following: + +Fifty feet each of parsnips and salsify. + +One hundred feet of onions, 25 feet of which may be potato or set +onions, the balance black-seed for summer and fall use. + +Fifty feet of early beets, 50 feet of lettuce, with which radish may be +sown to break the soil and be harvested before the lettuce needs the +room. + +One hundred feet of early cabbage, the plants for which should be from +a frame or purchased. Set the plants 18 inches to 2 feet apart. + +One hundred feet of early cauliflower; culture same as for cabbage. + +Four hundred and fifty feet of peas, sown as follows: + + 100 feet of extra early. + 100 feet of intermediate. + 100 feet of late. + 100 feet of extra early, sown late. + 50 feet of dwarf varieties. + +If trellis or brush is to be avoided, frequent sowings of the dwarfs +will maintain a supply. + +After the soil has become warm and all danger of frost has passed, the +tender vegetables may be planted, as follows: + +Corn in five rows 3 feet apart, three rows to be early and intermediate, +and two rows late. + +One hundred feet of string beans, early to late varieties. + +Vines as follows: + + 10 hills of cucumbers, 6 x 6 feet. + 20 hills of muskmelon, 6 x 6 feet. + 6 hills of early squash, 6 x 6 feet. + 10 hills of Hubbard, 6 x 6 feet. + +One hundred feet of okra. + +Twenty eggplants. One hundred ft. (25 plants) tomatoes. + +Six large clumps of rhubarb. + +An asparagus bed 25 feet long and 3 feet wide. + +Late cabbage, cauliflower and celery are to occupy the space made vacant +by removing early crops of early and intermediate peas and string beans. + +A border on one side or end will hold all herbs, such as parsley, thyme, +sage, hyssop, mints. + + +VERBENA. The Verbena is one of the most satisfactory garden plants, +blooming early. Bloom continues through the dry, hot days of summer. As +the cool weather of the fall comes on, Verbenas increase in size of +plant and flower until killed by severe frost. Plants grown from seed +sown in a hotbed or house early in the spring, transplanted into pots or +boxes when large enough, and planted out as soon as the ground has +become warm, are more vigorous and seem to have more fragrance than +those grown from cuttings. Many of the strains have become so well fixed +that the colors come true from seed. Cuttings are often employed, but +the handling of stock plants is a difficult matter except in the hands +of a professional, and when plants are wanted in quantity it is cheaper +to buy them of the plantsman than to grow them from seed or attempt to +keep over stock plants. Therefore, for the home garden, seed-grown +plants are usually most satisfactory. Give a sunny position. Thin to 10 +to 15 inches apart each way. + +[Illustration: Verbena] + + +VINCA, or PERIWINKLE. Trailing plants. Useful in covering unsightly +places, for vases, urns or baskets. Some of the species (as the common +evergreen, mat-like "running myrtle") are hardy, but the most useful +ones need the protection of a house through the winter. The +variegated-leaved kinds are fine for winter decorations. Propagated +mostly by cuttings. Perennials. + + +VINES. The use of Vines for screens and pillar decorations has increased +in the last decade until now they may be seen in nearly all grounds. The +tendency has been towards using the hardy Vines, of which the +ampelopsis, or Virginia creeper, is one of the most common. It is a very +rapid grower, and lends itself to training more readily than many +others. The Japan ampelopsis (_A. tricuspidata_ or _Veitchii_) is a fine +clinging Vine, growing very rapidly when once established, and being +brilliantly colored after the first fall frosts. It clings closer than +the other, but is not so hardy. Either of these may be grown from +cuttings or division of the plants. Two woody twiners of recent +introduction are the actinidia and the akebia, both from Japan. They +are perfectly hardy, and are rapid growers. The former has large, thick, +glossy leaves, not affected by insects or disease, growing thickly along +the stem and branches, making a perfect thatch of leaves. It blooms in +June. The flowers, which are white with a purple center, are borne in +clusters, followed by round or longish edible fruits. The akebia has +very neat cut foliage, quaint purple flowers, and often bears ornamental +fruit. Other hardy Vines are the wistaria, clematis, tecoma (or +trumpet-flower), aristolochia (or Dutchman's pipe), hedera (or ivy), and +loniceras (or honeysuckles). + +[Illustration: A vine support for a porch] + +Of the tender Vines, the nasturtiums and ipomoeas are the most common, +while the adlumia (p. 3), balloon vine (p. 28), passion vine, and the +gourds (p. 115), are frequently used. One of the best of recent +introduction is the annual hop, especially the variegated variety. This +is a very rapid growing Vine, seeding itself each year, and needing +little care. See _Hop_. All the tender Vines should be planted after all +danger of frost is over. + +_ANNUAL HERBACEOUS CLIMBERS_ + +_Tendril-climbers_ + + Adlumia (biennial). + Balloon Vine. + Coba. + Gourds. + Nasturtiums. + Sweet Pea. + Wild Cucumber. + +_Twiners_ + + Beans, Flowering. + Cypress Vine. + Dolichos. + Hop, Japanese. + Ipomoea. + Moonflower. + Morning-glory. + Thunbergia. + Yam, Chinese, or Cinnamon Vine (perennial from a hardy tuber). + +_PERENNIAL WOODY CLIMBERS FOR THE OPEN_ + +_Tendril-climbers_ + + Ampelopsis tricuspidata. + Clematis of many kinds. + Grape of various kinds. + Greenbrier. + Ivy (by roots). + Roses (scramblers). + Trumpet Creeper (by roots). + Virginia Creeper. + +_Twiners_ + + Actinidia polygama. + Akebia quinata. + Aristolochia, or Dutchman's Pipe. + Bittersweet, or Celastrus. + Honeysuckles. + Moonseed. + Wistaria. + + +[Illustration: Violets] + +VIOLET. While the culture of Violets as house-plants rarely proves +successful, there is no reason why a good supply may not be had +elsewhere through the greater part of the winter and the spring months. +A sheltered location being selected, young plants from runners may be +set in August or September. Have the ground rich and well drained. These +plants will make fine crowns by December, and often will bloom before +weather sufficiently cold to freeze them. In order to have flowers +through the winter, it will be necessary to afford some protection to +the plants. This may best be done by building a frame of boards large +enough to cover the plants, making the frame in the same way as for a +hotbed, four to six inches higher at the back than the front. Cover the +frame with sash or boards, and as the weather becomes severe, mats or +straw should be placed over and around the frame to protect the plants +from freezing. Whenever the weather will permit, the covering should be +removed and air admitted, but no harm will come if the frames are not +disturbed for several weeks. A large amount of sunlight and a high +temperature through the middle of winter are to be avoided, for if the +plants are stimulated a shorter period of bloom will result. In April +the frame may be removed, the plants yielding the later part of the crop +without protection. Violets belong with the "cool" plants of florists. +When well hardened off, considerable frost does not harm them. They +should always be kept stocky. Start a new lot from runner-plants each +year. They thrive in a temperature of 55 to 65. + + +WALKS. The place for a Walk is where it is needed. It should go directly +between two points. It need not be straight, but if it is curved, the +curve should be direct. That is, the pedestrian should be conscious that +he is going in the direction in which he desires to go, and is not +making a detour for the simple purpose of following the walk. +Convenience should be the first thing to be considered. After the Walks +have been laid in the most convenient places, the question of +ornamenting the borders may be considered. It is always well to avoid, +so far as possible, the bisecting of lawns by Walks, as that makes two +lawns where there should be only one. The larger a greensward can be +made to look, the more park-like and natural is the place. Avoid taking +the Walks circuitously around the borders unless they are laid for the +simple purpose of making a ramble to show off the grounds. All Walks +which are designed for serious use should appear to be necessary, direct +and convenient. + +Some soils which contain considerable loam and sand will pack with +tramping and will make good Walks, but it is usually necessary to lay +some material on the soil. Gravel, cinders, and the like, may be better +than the natural surface; but in many cases they are worse, since the +surface is loose and is unpleasant to walk on. In Walks which are on +decided slopes, and down which the water is likely to run, any loose +material is very objectionable, since it runs to the low places. The +best material for Walks, all things considered, is cement, or what is +called artificial stone. If well made, it is as durable as flagging, and +is not so likely to get out of place. It holds its surface perfectly +year after year. + +The only objection to cement Walks is when they are more or less +temporary, for in such cases they cannot be moved. There is often very +serious difficulty in securing good cement Walks, but the difficulties +are easily overcome. They are chiefly two: there is not sufficient +draining material beneath the cement; and the cement itself is not made +strong enough. There should be at least a foot of loose material, as +brickbats or cinders, below the cement cover; and if the place is low +and likely to hold water, there should be still greater drainage. Pound +the material down, or let it stand for some time until it becomes +thoroughly settled together. Then lay the cement in two courses. The +first course may be three or four inches thick and made of well mixed +mortar, comprising three parts Portland cement, one part water lime, and +two to three times as much sharp sand as Portland. When this has become +partially hardened, but before it is set and while still moist, put on a +finishing layer of one inch, made of one part Portland cement, one part +water lime, and one part sharp sand. It is important that the materials +be very thoroughly mixed. See that the edges of the walk are made square +and true by laying down a form of boards lengthwise the area before the +cement is put on. The edges should be as thick as the middle, for a thin +crust on the edge tends to snap off. A walk made in this way on a +well-drained foundation will last almost indefinitely. It is best that +it be made in such season that it can become thoroughly set before +frosty weather comes. + + +WALLFLOWER. A favorite plant for pots or garden, having a clove-like +fragrance. Seed of most varieties should be sown the year before wanted. +One kind, being an annual, will flower the same season the seed is sown. +Hardy. Two to 3 feet. + + +WASHING orchard trees is an old practice. It usually results in making +a tree more vigorous. One reason is that it destroys insects and fungi +which lodge underneath the bark; but probably the chief reason is that +it softens the bark and allows the trunk to expand. It is possible, +also, that the potash from the soap or lye eventually passes into the +ground and affords some plant-food. Trees are ordinarily Washed with +soap suds or with a lye solution. The material is usually applied with +an old broom or a stiff brush. The scrubbing of the tree is perhaps +nearly or quite as beneficial as the application of the wash itself. + +It is customary to wash trees late in spring or early in summer, and +again in the fall, with the idea that such Washing destroys the eggs and +the young of borers. It no doubt will destroy borers if they are just +getting a start, but it will not keep away the insects which lay the +eggs, and will not destroy the borers which have found their way +underneath the bark. It is perhaps quite as well to wash the trees very +early in the spring, when they are starting into growth. It is an old +practice to wash trees with strong lye when they are affected with the +oyster-shell bark louse. The modern method of treating these pests, +however, is to spray with some kerosene compound when the young growth +is starting, for at that time the young insects are migrating to the new +wood and they are very easily destroyed. + + +WATERING HOUSE PLANTS. It is impossible to give rules for the Watering +of plants. Conditions that hold with one grower are different from those +of another. Advice must be general. Give one good Watering at the time +of potting, after which no water should be given until the plants really +need it. If, on tapping the pot, it gives out a clear ring, it is an +indication that water is needed. In the case of a soft-wooded plant, +just before the leaves begin to show signs of wilt, is the time for +Watering. When plants are taken up from the ground, or when plants have +their roots cut back in repotting, gardeners rely, after the first +copious Watering, on syringing the tops of the plants two or three +times each day, until a new root-growth has started, Watering at the +roots only when absolutely necessary. Plants that have been potted into +larger pots will grow without the extra attention of syringing, but +those from the borders, that have had their roots mutilated or +shortened, should be placed in a cool, shady spot and be syringed often. +One soon becomes familiar with the wants of individual plants, and can +judge closely as to need of water. All soft-wooded plants with a large +leaf-surface need more water than hard-wooded plants, and a plant in +luxuriant growth of any kind more than a plant that has been cut back or +become defoliated. When plants are grown in living-rooms, moisture must +be supplied from some source, and if no arrangement has been made for +having a moist air the plants should be syringed often. See _Syringing_. + +[Illustration: Watering pot] + + +WATERMELON. The culture of this is essentially the same as that for +muskmelons (which see), except that most varieties require a warmer +place and longer period of growth. Give the hills a distance of from 6 +to 10 feet apart. Choose a warm, "quick" soil and sunny exposure. It is +essential, in the North, that the plants grow rapidly and come into +bloom early. One ounce of seed will plant thirty hills. + + +WAX PLANT. The Wax Plant, or HOYA, is one of the commonest of +window-garden plants, and yet it is one which people usually have +difficulty in flowering. However, it is one of the easiest plants to +manage if a person understands its nature. It is naturally a +summer-blooming plant, and should rest during the winter time. In the +winter, keep it just alive in a cool and rather dry place. If the +temperature does not go above 50 Fahr., so much the better; neither +should it go much lower. In late winter or spring, the plant is brought +out to warm temperature, given water and started into growth. The old +flower-stems should not be cut off, since new flowers come from them as +well as from the new wood. When it is brought out to be started into +growth, it may be repotted, sometimes into a size larger pot, but always +with more or less fresh earth. The plant should increase in value each +year. In conservatories, it is sometimes planted out in the ground and +allowed to run over a wall, in which case it will reach a height of many +feet. + + +WEEDS. Many very strong Weeds are a compliment to one's soil: only good +soil produces them. But they are not a compliment to one's tillage. If +the soil is well prepared and well tilled to conserve moisture and to +unlock plant-food (see _Tillage_), Weeds will find little chance of +growing. Stir the ground often: it benefits the ground and keeps out the +Weeds. Plant vegetables in long straight rows rather than in beds, for +thereby tillage is made easier. For beds and for small plants, the +hand-weeders (as shown in the margin) are very efficient. They save +laborious finger-work. Weed seeds are often distributed in manure, +especially if Weeds have been allowed to grow and ripen on the piles. +See that pernicious Weeds do not seed about the premises. For the +treatment of weedy lawns, see the article _Lawns_. + +[Illustration: Potato hook and weed-puller] + +[Illustration: Finger-weeder] + +[Illustration: Trowel and angle-weeder] + + +WINDBREAKS. There is the greatest difference of opinion as to the value +of Windbreaks for fruit plantations. These differences arise from the +fact that a Windbreak may be of great benefit in one place, but a +disadvantage in another. It is always advisable to break the force of +very strong winds, for such winds tend to injure the trees when laden +with fruit or ice, and they blow off the fruit; and in dry countries +they cause the soil to become parched. If the wind is usually warmer +than the area, however, particularly in the winter time, it is better +not to stop it, but to allow it to circulate through the plantation. +This is the case in areas which lie close to large bodies of water. The +wind coming off the water is warmer than that off the land, and tends +thereby to protect the fruit plantation from severe cold. A circulation +of air is desirable in late spring and early fall in order to avoid the +still frosts. Therefore, if the area is very closely surrounded by dense +plantations, it may have what the fruit-growers call "stagnant air;" but +thinning out the Windbreak on one or two sides, or cutting holes through +it, may allow the air to move through, thereby affording atmospheric +drainage and insuring greater immunity from the light local frosts. + +It is ordinarily better to break the force of the winds than to stop or +deflect them. That is, the Windbreak may be thin enough to allow the +wind to take its normal direction, but its force is broken. A stone wall +or a very dense hedge of evergreens may cause the wind to rise over the +plantation or to be deflected to one side; and this, in many cases, as +already said, may be a decided disadvantage. The philosophy of a good +Windbreak for fruit plantations may be summed up in this way: the force +of heavy winds should be broken; warm winds should be allowed to +circulate freely through the plantation; still air should be avoided. + +Ordinarily, one or two rows of deciduous trees are sufficient +protection. When the plantation is very much exposed to very cold or +land winds, a thick evergreen screen may be a decided advantage. It is +usually better to have the heavy Windbreak on the upper side of the +area, so that it may not interfere with the natural drainage of the cold +air down the slope. In making a Windbreak, it is important that those +trees be chosen which will not become harboring places for orchard +enemies. The wild cherry, for example, is inveterately attacked by the +tent caterpillar, and the wild crabs and wild plums are likely to breed +orchard insects. If the Windbreak is planted some time in advance of +the orchard, the row of fruit trees next the Windbreak will be very +likely to suffer from lack of moisture and food. + +A different type of Windbreak is that which is desired for a shelter +belt about the home grounds. The matter of atmospheric drainage does not +enter into this problem to any great extent. Such shelter belt is +usually placed at the extreme edge of the home yard, toward the heaviest +or prevailing wind. It may be a dense plantation of evergreens. If so, +the Norway spruce is one of the best for general purposes. For a lower +belt, the arborvit is excellent. Some of the pines, as the Scotch or +Austrian, are also to be advised, particularly if the belt is at some +distance from the residence. As a rule, the coarser the tree the farther +it should be placed from the house. + +Persons may desire to use the Windbreak as a screen to hide undesirable +objects. If these objects are of a permanent character, as a barn or an +unkempt property, evergreen trees should be used. For temporary screens, +any of the very large-growing herbaceous plants may be used. Very +excellent subjects are sunflowers, the large-growing nicotianas, castor +beans, large varieties of Indian corn, and plants of like growth. Very +efficient summer screens may be made with ailanthus, paulownia, +basswood, sumac, and other plants which tend to throw up succulent +shoots from the base. After these plants have been set a year or two, +they are cut back nearly to the ground every winter or spring, and +strong shoots are thrown up with great luxuriance during the summer, +giving a dense screen and presenting a semi-tropical effect. For such +purposes, the roots should be planted only two or three feet apart. If, +after a time, the roots become so crowded that the shoots are weak, some +of the plants may be removed. Top-dressing the area every fall with +manure will tend to make the ground rich enough to afford a very heavy +summer growth. + + +WIND FLOWER. See _Anemone_. + + +WINDOW-GARDENS. _The Summer Window Garden_.--This type of gardening is +particularly suited to those who live in the crowded city, where the +want of other space makes the Window-Garden the only one possible. + +[Illustration: A summer window ledge] + +Handsomely finished boxes, ornamental tiling, and bracket work of wood +and iron suitable for fitting out windows for the growing of plants, are +on the market; but such, while desirable, are by no means necessary. A +stout pine box of a length corresponding to the width of the window, +about 10 inches wide and 6 deep, answers quite as well as a finer box, +since it will likely be some distance above the street, and its sides, +moreover, are soon covered by the vines. A zinc tray of a size to fit +into the wooden box may be ordered of the tinsmith. It will tend to keep +the soil from drying out so rapidly, but it is not a necessity. A few +small holes in the bottom of the box will provide for drainage; but with +carefulness in watering these are not necessary, since the box by its +exposed position will dry out readily during summer weather, unless the +position is a shaded one. In the latter case provision for good drainage +is always advisable. + +Since there is more or less cramping of roots, it will be necessary to +make the soil richer than would be required were the plants to grow in +the garden. The most desirable soil is one that does not pack hard like +clay, nor contract much when dry, but remains porous and springy. Such a +soil is found in the potting soil used by florists, and it may be +obtained from them at from 50 cts. to $1 a barrel. Often the nature of +the soil will be such as to make it desirable to have at hand a barrel +of sharp sand for mixing with the soil, to make it more porous and +prevent baking. + +Some pot the plants and then set them in the window-box, filling the +spaces between the pots with moist moss. Again, they are planted +directly in the soil. The former method, as a general rule, is to be +preferred in the winter Window-Garden; the latter during the summer. + +The plants most valuable for the purpose are those of drooping habit, +such as lobelias, tropolums, _Othonna crassifolia_, Kenilworth ivy, and +sweet alyssum. Such plants may occupy the front row, while back of them +may be the erect-growing plants, like geraniums, heliotropes, begonias, +etc. + +Just what plants will be most suitable will depend on the exposure. For +the shady side of the street, the more delicate kinds of plants may be +used. For full exposure to the sun, it will be necessary to select the +more vigorous-growing kinds. In the latter position, suitable plants for +drooping would be: *tropolums, *passifloras, the single petunias, sweet +alyssum, lobelias, verbenas, mesembryanthemums. For erect-growing +plants: geraniums, heliotropes, etc. If the position is a shaded one, +the drooping plants might be of the following: tradescantia, Kenilworth +ivy, *senecio or parlor ivy, sedums, *moneywort, vinca, *smilax, +*lygodium or climbing fern. Erect-growing plants would be dracnas, +palms, ferns, coleus, centaurea, spotted calla, and others. + +For shady situations the main dependence is upon plants of graceful form +or handsome foliage; while for the sunny window the selection may be of +blooming plants. Of the plants above mentioned for these two positions, +those marked with an asterisk (*) are of climbing habit, and may be +trained up about the sides of the window. Others will be found among the +climbing plants mentioned under _Vines_, _Annuals_ and _Basket Plants_. + +After the plants have filled the earth with roots, it will be desirable +to give the surface of the soil among the plants a very light sprinkling +of bone-dust or a thicker coating of rotted manure from time to time +during the summer; or instead of this, a watering with weak liquid +manure about once a week. This is not necessary, however, until the +growth shows that the roots have about exhausted the soil. + +In the fall the box may be placed on the inside of the window. In this +case it will be desirable to thin out the foliage somewhat, shorten in +some of the vines, and perhaps remove some of the plants. It will also +be desirable to give a fresh coating of rich soil. Increased care will +be necessary, also, in watering, since the plants will have less light +than previously, and, moreover, there may be no provision for drainage. + +_The Winter Window-Garden_ may consist simply of a jardiniere, or a few +choice pot-plants on a stand at the window, or of a considerable +collection, with more or less elaborate arrangements for their +accommodation in the way of box, brackets, shelves and stands. Expensive +arrangements are by no means necessary, nor is a large collection. The +plants and flowers themselves are the main consideration, and a small +collection well cared for is better than a large one unless it can be +easily accommodated and kept in good condition. + +The window for plants should have a southern, south-eastern or eastern +exposure. Plants need all the light they can get in the winter, +especially those which are expected to bloom. The window should be +tight-fitting. Shutters and a curtain will be an advantage in cold +weather. + +Plants like a certain uniformity in conditions. It is very trying on +them, and often fatal to success, to have them snug and warm one night +and shivering in a temperature only a few degrees above freezing the +next. Some plants will live in spite of it, but they cannot be expected +to prosper. Those whose rooms are heated with steam, hot water or hot +air will have to guard against keeping rooms too warm fully as much as +keeping them too cool. Rooms in brick dwellings that have been warm all +day, if shut up and made snug in the evening will often keep warm over +night without heat except in the coldest weather. Rooms in frame +dwellings, and exposed on all sides, soon cool down. + +It is difficult to grow plants in rooms lighted by gas, as the burning +gas vitiates the atmosphere. Most living-rooms have too dry air for +plants. In such cases the bow window may be set off from the room by +glass doors; one then has a miniature conservatory. + +While keeping the plants at a suitable temperature, we must not forget +that plants love moisture, or a humid atmosphere, and that our +living-rooms ordinarily are very dry. A pan of water on the stove or on +the register and damp moss among the pots, will afford plants the +necessary humidity. + +The foliage will need cleansing from time to time to free it from dust. +A bath tub provided with a ready outlet for the water is an excellent +place for this purpose. The plants may be turned on their sides and +supported on a small box above the bottom of the tub. Then they may be +freely syringed without danger of making the soil too wet. It is usually +advisable not to wet the flowers, however, especially the white waxen +kinds, like hyacinths. The foliage of Rex begonias should be cleansed +with a piece of dry or only slightly moist cotton. But if the leaves can +be quickly dried off by placing them in the open air on mild days, or +moderately near the stove, the foliage may be syringed. + +[Illustration: A window-box] + +The window-box in the room will be seen near at hand, so may be more or +less ornamental in character. The sides may be covered with ornamental +tile held in place by moulding; or a light lattice-work of wood +surrounding the box is pretty. But a neatly made and strong box of about +the dimensions mentioned on page 242, with a strip of moulding at the +top and bottom, answers just as well; and if painted green, or some +neutral shade, only the plants will be seen or thought of. Brackets, +jardinieres and stands may be purchased of any of the larger florists. + +The window-box may consist of merely the wooden box; but a preferable +arrangement is to make it about eight inches deep instead of six, then +have the tinsmith make a zinc tray to fit the box. This is provided with +a false wooden bottom, with cracks for drainage, two inches above the +real bottom of the tray. The plants will then have a vacant space below +them into which drainage water may pass. Such a box may be thoroughly +watered as the plants require without danger of the water running on the +carpet. Of course, a faucet should be provided at some suitable point on +a level with the bottom of the tray, to permit of its being drained +every day or so if the water tends to accumulate. It would not do to +allow the water to remain long; especially should it never rise to the +false bottom, as then the soil would be kept too wet. + +Some persons attach the box to the window, or support it on brackets +attached below the window-sill; but a preferable arrangement is to +support the box on a low and light stand of suitable height provided +with rollers. It may then be drawn back from the window, turned around +from time to time to give the plants light on all sides, or turned with +the handsome side in as may be desired, and so on. + +Often the plants are set directly in the soil; but if they are kept in +pots they may be rearranged, changed about to give those which need it +more light, etc. Larger plants which are to stand on shelves or brackets +may be in porous earthenware pots; but the smaller ones which are to +fill the window-box may be placed in heavy paper pots. The sides of +these are flexible, and the plants in them therefore may be crowded +close together with great economy in space. When pots are spaced, damp +sphagnum or other moss among them will hold them in place, keep the soil +from drying out too rapidly, and at the same time give off moisture, so +grateful to the foliage. + +In addition to the stand, or box, a bracket for one or more pots on +either side of the window, about one-third or half way up, will be +desirable. The bracket should turn on a basal hinge or pivot, to admit +of swinging it forward or backward. These bracket plants usually suffer +for moisture, and are rather difficult to manage. + +Florists now usually grow plants suitable for Window-Gardens and winter +flowering, and any intelligent florist, if asked, will take pleasure in +making out a suitable collection. The plants should be ordered early in +the fall; the florist will then not be so crowded for time and can give +the matter better attention. + +Most of the plants suitable for the winter Window-Garden belong to the +groups which florists grow in their medium and cool houses. The former +are given a night temperature of about 60, the latter about 50. In +each case the temperature is 10 to 15 higher for the daytime. Five +degrees of variation below these temperatures will be allowable without +any injurious effects; even more may be borne, but not without more or +less check to the plants. In bright, sunny weather the day temperature +may be higher than in cloudy and dark weather. + +_PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE OF 60_ + +_Upright flowering plants._--Abutilons, browallias, calceolaria "Lincoln +Park," begonias, bouvardias, euphorbias, scarlet sage, richardia or +calla, heliotropes, fuchsias, Chinese hibiscus, jasmines, single +petunias, swainsona, billbergia, freesias, geraniums, cupheas. + +_Upright foliage plants._--Muehlenbeckia, _Cycas revoluta_, _Dracna +fragrans_ and others, palms, cannas, _Farfugium grande_, achyranthes, +ferns, araucaria, epiphyllums, pandanus or "screw pine," _Pilea +arborea_, _Ficus elastica_, _Grevillea robusta_. + +_Climbing plants._--_Asparagus tenuissimus_, _A. plumosus_, _Coba +scandens_, smilax, Japanese hop, Madeira vine (Boussingaultia), +_Senecio mikanioides_ and _S. macroglossus_ (parlor ivies). See also +list below. + +_Low-growing, trailing, or drooping plants._--These may be used for +baskets and edgings. Flowering kinds are: Sweet alyssum, lobelia, +_Fuchsia procumbens_, mesembryanthemum, _Oxalis pendula_, _O. +floribunda_ and others, _Russelia juncea_, _Mahernia odorata_ or +honey-bell. + +_Foliage plants of drooping habit._--Vincas, _Saxifraga sarmentosa_, +Kenilworth ivy, tradescantia or Wandering Jew, _*Festuca glauca_, +othonna, _*Isolepsis gracilis_, English ivy, _Selaginella denticulata_ +and others. Some of these plants flower quite freely, but the flowers +are small and of secondary consideration. Those with an asterisk (*) +droop but slightly. + +_PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE OF 50_ + +_Upright flowering plants._--Azaleas, cyclamens, carnations, +chrysanthemums, geraniums, Chinese primroses, stevia, marguerite or +Paris daisy, single petunias, _Anthemis coronaria_, camellias, ardisia +(berries), cineraria, violets, hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, the Easter +lily when in bloom, and others. + +_Upright foliage plants._--Pittosporum, palms, aucuba, euonymus (golden +and silvery variegated), araucaria, pandanus, dusty miller. + +_Climbing plants._--English ivy, maurandia, senecio or parlor ivy, +lygodium (climbing fern). + +_Drooping or trailing plants._--Flowering kinds are: Sweet alyssum, +_Mahernia odorata_, Russelia and ivy geranium. + +_Bulbs in the Window-Garden._--The single Roman hyacinth is an excellent +house plant. Its flowers are small, but they are graceful and especially +well suited for cutting. The bulbs are easily forced, and are managed +like other hyacinths. The secret of forcing the Dutch bulbs and most +others is to pot them and then, after watering the pots, set them away +in a cool, dark place until the pot is filled with roots. They may be +placed in the cellar "to root up," or be buried 3 or 4 inches deep in +the soil. It is well to delay potting them until such time as they can +be kept cool while forming their roots. A temperature of about 40 to +45 suits them during this period. In most cases it is well to select +pots 5 or 6 inches in diameter and place from three to six bulbs in a +pot, according to the size of the bulbs and the plants. The pot having +been filled with soil, it is only necessary to press them down till the +tip, or about one-fourth, shows above the soil. After this a slight +jarring or sharp rap will settle the soil. They are then watered and set +away, as before mentioned. If kept dark and cool they will need no more +watering until they are brought out and begin to grow, when they may be +watered freely. + +[Illustration: Window-garden] + +Hyacinths, tulips and narcissus all require about the same treatment. +When well rooted, which will be in six or eight weeks, they are brought +out and given a temperature of some 55 to 60 till the flowers appear, +when they should be kept in a cooler temperature, say 50. + +The Easter lily is managed the same way, only, to hasten its flowers, it +should be kept at not lower than 60 at night. Warmer will be better. +Lilies may be covered an inch or more deep. + +Freesias may be potted six or more in a pot of mellow soil, and then +started into growth at once. At first they might be given a night +temperature of 50, and 55 to 60 when they have begun to grow. + +Bulbs like the snowdrop and crocus are planted several or a dozen in a +pot and buried, or treated like hyacinths; but they are very sensitive +to heat, and require only to be given the light when they have started +to grow, without any forcing. Forty to 45 will be as warm as they ever +need be kept. See the article on _Bulbs_; also, the advice given for the +various plants under their respective names. + +_Pests._--Window-Garden pests are discussed under _Insects_. + + +WINTER-KILLING is induced by a late fall growth, and also by a dry, +unprotected soil. All tender woody plants should be well ripened before +cold weather comes: cease tillage early: do not apply stimulating +manures late in the season. Mulch all tender or half hardy plants (see +_Mulch_). Even hardy plants are benefited by a mulch. When possible, it +is better to bend plants to the ground and cover them than to wrap them +up as they stand; but this cannot be done with tall or stiff subjects. +Wrapping in straw or burlaps affords excellent protection, but it is +possible to wrap too heavily. A barrel, less the heads, may be set over +small plants and then filled with leaves or other loose litter; or a +cylinder of wire chicken-screen may be substituted for the barrel. +Remove the protection in the spring before the buds start. See that mice +do not nest in the barrel or in the mulch. + + +ZINNIA. Showy hardy annuals. The old formal type of Zinnias has given +place to a race of freer forms which are excellent plants either for +color effect or for cutting. The colors have been varied and brightened, +the flowers doubled and the plants dwarfed. Seed should be sown in a +hotbed or house in March, transplanted once at least before planting +out, and set in well enriched soil. Or, the seed may be sown where the +plants are to grow. The tall varieties (3 feet) should stand 18 to 24 +inches apart. These are best for masses at a distance. + + +_The Best and Newest Rural Books_ + +BOOKS ON LEADING TOPICS CONNECTED WITH AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE ARE +HERE MENTIONED. EACH BOOK IS THE WORK OF A SPECIALIST, UNDER THE +EDITORIAL SUPERVISION OF PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY, OF THE CORNELL +UNIVERSITY, OR BY PROFESSOR BAILEY HIMSELF, AND IS READABLE, CLEAR-CUT +AND PRACTICAL. + + +THE RURAL SCIENCE SERIES + +Includes books which state the underlying principles of agriculture in +plain language. They are suitable for consultation alike by the amateur +or professional tiller of the soil, the scientist or the student, and +are freely illustrated and finely made. + +The following volumes are now ready: + +THE SOIL. By F. H. KING, of the University of Wisconsin. 303 pp. 45 +illustrations. 75 cents. + +THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND. By I. P. ROBERTS, of Cornell University. +Fifth edition. 421 pp. 45 illustrations. $1.25. + +THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. By E. G. LODEMAN, late of Cornell University. +399 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.00. + +MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. By H. H. WING, of Cornell University. Fifth +edition. 311 pp. 43 illustrations. $1.00. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 516 +pp. 120 illustrations. $1.25. + +BUSH-FRUITS. By F. W. CARD, of Rhode Island College of Agriculture and +Mechanic Arts. Second edition. 537 pp. 113 illustrations. $1.50. + +FERTILIZERS. By E. B. VOORHEES, of New Jersey Experiment Station. Third +edition. 332 pp. $1.00. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. By L. H. BAILEY. Third edition. 300 pp. +92 illustrations. $1.25. + +IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. By F. H. KING, University of Wisconsin. 502 pp. +163 illustrations. $1.50. + +THE FARMSTEAD. By I. P. ROBERTS. 350 pp. 138 illustrations. $1.25. + +RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. By GEORGE T. FAIRCHILD, Ex-President of the +Agricultural College of Kansas. 381 pp. 14 charts. $1.25. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING. By L. H. BAILEY 468 pp. 144 +illustrations. $1.25. + +THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. By W. H. JORDAN, of New York State Experiment +Station. 450 pp. $1.25 net. + +FARM POULTRY. By GEORGE C. WATSON, of Pennsylvania State College. 341 +pp. $1.25 net. + +New volumes will be added from time to time to the RURAL SCIENCE SERIES. +The following are in preparation: + +PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF STOCK BREEDING. By W. H. BREWER, of Yale University. + +PLANT PATHOLOGY. By B. T. GALLOWAY and associates, of U. S. Department +of Agriculture. + +CARE OF ANIMALS. By N. S. MAYO, of Connecticut Agricultural College. + +THE POME FRUITS (Apples, Pears, Quinces). By L. H. BAILEY. + +THE FARMER'S BUSINESS HANDBOOK. By I. P. ROBERTS, of Cornell +University. + + +THE GARDEN-CRAFT SERIES + +Comprises practical hand-books for the horticulturist, explaining and +illustrating in detail the various important methods which experience +has demonstrated to be the most satisfactory. They may be called manuals +of practice, and though all are prepared by Professor BAILEY, of Cornell +University, they include the opinions and methods of successful +specialists in many lines, thus combining the results of the +observations and experiences of numerous students in this and other +lands. They are written in the clear, strong, concise English and in the +entertaining style which characterize the author. The volumes are +compact, uniform in style, clearly printed, and illustrated as the +subject demands. They are of convenient shape for the pocket, and are +substantially bound in flexible green cloth. + +THE HORTICULTURIST'S RULE-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 312 pp. +75 cts. + +THE NURSERY-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fifth edition. 365 pp. 152 +illustrations. $1.00. + +PLANT-BREEDING. By L. H. BAILEY. 293 pp. 20 illustrations. $1.00. + +THE FORCING-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. 266 pp. 88 illustrations. $1.00. + +GARDEN-MAKING. By L. H. BAILEY. Fifth edition. 417 pp. 256 +illustrations. $1.00. + +THE PRUNING-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 545 pp. 331 +illustrations. $1.50. + +THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK. By C. E. HUNN and L. H. BAILEY. 250 pp. Many +marginal cuts. $1.00. + + +WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY + +THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE: A Collection of Evolution Essays Suggested +by the Study of Domestic Plants. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of +Horticulture in the Cornell University. + +FOURTH EDITION--515 PAGES--22 ILLUSTRATIONS--$2.00 + +To those interested in the underlying philosophy of plant life, this +volume, written in a most entertaining style, and fully illustrated, +will prove welcome. It treats of the modification of plants under +cultivation upon the evolution theory, and its attitude on this +interesting subject is characterized by the author's well-known +originality and independence of thought. Incidentally, there is stated +much that will be valuable and suggestive to the working horticulturist, +as well as to the man or woman impelled by a love of nature to +horticultural pursuits. It may well be called, indeed, a philosophy of +horticulture, in which all interested may find inspiration and +instruction. + + THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE comprises thirty essays touching + upon The General Fact and Philosophy of Evolution (The Plant + Individual, Experimental Evolution, Coxey's Army and the + Russian Thistle, Recent Progress, etc.); Expounding the Fact + and Causes of Variation (The Supposed Correlations of Quality + in Fruits, Natural History of Synonyms, Reflective + Impressions, Relation of Seed-bearing to Cultivation, + Variation after Birth, Relation between American and Eastern + Asian Fruits, Horticultural Geography, Problems of Climate and + Plants, American Fruits, Acclimatization, Sex in Fruits, + Novelties, Promising Varieties, etc.); and Tracing the + Evolution of Particular Types of Plants (the Cultivated + Strawberry, Battle of the Plums, Grapes, Progress of the + Carnation, Petunia, The Garden Tomato, etc.). + + +THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of +Horticulture in the Cornell University. + +472 PAGES--125 ILLUSTRATIONS--$2.00 + +In this entertaining volume, the origin and development of the fruits +peculiar to North America are inquired into, and the personality of +those horticultural pioneers whose almost forgotten labors have given us +our most valuable fruits is touched upon. There has been careful +research into the history of the various fruits, including inspection of +the records of the great European botanists who have given attention to +American economic botany. The conclusions reached, the information +presented, and the suggestions as to future developments, cannot but be +valuable to any thoughtful fruit-grower, while the terse style of the +author is at its best in his treatment of the subject. + + THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS discusses The Rise of the + American Grape (North America a Natural Vineland, Attempts to + Cultivate the European Grape, The Experiments of the Dufours, + The Branch of Promise, John Adlum and the Catawba, Rise of + Commercial Viticulture, Why Did the Early Vine Experiments + Fail? Synopsis of the American Grapes); The Strange History of + the Mulberries (The Early Silk Industry, The "Multicaulis + Craze,"); Evolution of American Plums and Cherries (Native + Plums in General, The Chickasaw, Hortulana, Marianna and Beach + Plum Groups, Pacific Coast Plum, Various Other Types of Plums, + Native Cherries, Dwarf Cherry Group); Native Apples + (Indigenous Species, Amelioration has begun); Origin of + American Raspberry-growing (Early American History, Present + Types, Outlying Types); Evolution of Blackberry and Dewberry + Culture (The High-bush Blackberry and Its Kin, The Dewberries, + Botanical Names); Various Types of Berry-like Fruits (The + Gooseberry, Native Currants, Juneberry, Buffalo Berry, + Elderberry, High-bush Cranberry, Cranberry, Strawberry); + Various Types of Tree Fruits (Persimmon, Custard-Apple Tribe, + Thorn-Apples, Nut-Fruits); General Remarks on the Improvement + of our Native Fruits (What Has Been Done, What Probably Should + Be Done). + + +LESSONS WITH PLANTS: Suggestions for Seeing and Interpreting Some of the +Common Forms of Vegetation. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture +in the Cornell University, with delineations from nature by W. S. +HOLDSWORTH, of the Agricultural College of Michigan. + +SECOND EDITION--491 PAGES--446 ILLUSTRATIONS--12 MO--CLOTH--$1.10 NET + +There are two ways of looking at nature. The _old way_, which you have +found so unsatisfactory, was to classify everything--to consider leaves, +roots, and whole plants as formal herbarium specimens, forgetting that +each had its own story of growth and development, struggle and success, +to tell. Nothing stifles a natural love for plants more effectually than +that old way. + +The new way is to watch the life of every growing thing, to look upon +each plant as a living creature, whose life is a story as fascinating as +the story of any favorite hero. "Lessons with Plants" is a book of +stories, or rather, a book of plays, for we can see each chapter acted +out if we take the trouble to _look_ at the actors. + + "I have spent some time in most delightful examination of it, + and the longer I look, the better I like it. I find it not + only full of interest, but eminently suggestive. I know of no + book which begins to do so much to open the eyes of the + student--whether pupil or teacher--to the wealth of meaning + contained in simple plant forms. Above all else, it seems to + be full of suggestions that help one to learn the language of + plants, so they may talk to him."--DARWIN L. BARDWELL, + _Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton_. + + "It is an admirable book, and cannot fail both to awaken + interest in the subject, and to serve as a helpful and + reliable guide to young students of plant life. It will, I + think, fill an important place in secondary schools, and comes + at an opportune time, when helps of this kind are needed and + eagerly sought."--Professor V. M. SPALDING, _University of + Michigan_. + +FIRST LESSONS WITH PLANTS + +An Abridgement of the above. 117 PAGES--116 ILLUSTRATIONS--40 CENTS +NET. + + +BOTANY: An Elementary Text for Schools. By L. H. BAILEY. + +355 PAGES--500 ILLUSTRATIONS--$1.10 NET + +"This book is made for the pupil: 'Lessons With Plants' was made to +supplement the work of the teacher." This is the opening sentence of the +preface, showing that the book is a companion to "Lessons With Plants," +which has now become a standard teacher's book. The present book is the +handsomest elementary botanical text-book yet made. The illustrations +illustrate. They are artistic. The old formal and unnatural Botany is +being rapidly outgrown. The book disparages mere laboratory work of the +old kind: the pupil is taught to see things as they grow and behave. The +pupil who goes through this book will understand the meaning of the +plants which he sees day by day. It is a revolt from the dry-as-dust +teaching of botany. It cares little for science for science's sake, but +its point of view is nature-study in its best sense. The book is divided +into four parts, any or all of which may be used in the school: the +plant itself; the plant in its environment; histology, or the minute +structure of plants; the kinds of plants (with a key, and descriptions +of 300 common species). The introduction contains advice to teachers. +The book is brand new from start to finish. + + "An exceedingly attractive text-book."--_Educational Review._ + + "It is a school book of the modern methods."--_The Dial._ + + "It would be hard to find a better manual for schools or for + individual use."--_The Outlook._ + +*** + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + No. 66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + +THE CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURE: By L. H. BAILEY, of Cornell +University, assisted by WILHELM MILLER, and many expert cultivators and +botanists. + +4 VOLS.--OVER 2800 ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS--CLOTH--OCTAVO $20.00 NET PER +SET. HALF MOROCCO, $32.00 NET PER SET + +This great work comprises directions for the cultivation of +horticultural crops and original descriptions of all the species of +fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants known to be in the +market in the United States and Canada. "It has the unique distinction +of presenting for the first time, in a carefully arranged and perfectly +accessible form, the best knowledge of the best specialists in America +upon gardening, fruit-growing, vegetable culture, forestry, and the +like, as well as exact botanical information.... The contributors are +eminent cultivators or specialists, and the arrangement is very +systematic, clear and convenient for ready reference." + + "We have here a work which every ambitions gardener will wish + to place on his shelf beside his Nicholson and his Loudon, and + for such users of it a too advanced nomenclature would have + been confusing to the last degree. With the safe names here + given, there is little liability to serious perplexity. There + is a growing impatience with much of the controversy + concerning revision of names of organisms, whether of plants + or animals. Those investigators who are busied with the + ecological aspects of organisms, and also those who are + chiefly concerned with the application of plants to the arts + of agriculture, horticulture, and so on, care for the names of + organisms under examination only so far as these aid in + recognition and identification. To introduce unnecessary + confusion is a serious blunder. Professor Bailey has avoided + the risk of confusion. In short, in range, treatment and + editing, the Cyclopedia appears to be emphatically useful; ... + a work worthy of ranking by the side of the Century + Dictionary."--_The Nation._ + +THIS WORK IS SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION, AND TERMS AND FURTHER +INFORMATION MAY BE HAD OF THE PUBLISHERS. + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + No. 66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + +Extra, missing, or misprinted punctuation has been corrected without +note. Variation in hyphenation (e.g. house plants vs. house-plants), and +capitalization in some botanical names has been left as in the original. + +The following changes were made to the text: + +p. 9: couservatory to conservatory + +p. 12: Burridgianum to Burridgeanum (Cosmidium Burridgeanum) + +p. 13: autumnale to autumnalis (Adonis autumnalis.) + +p. 13: Callirrhe to Callirrho + +p. 23: herbacous to herbaceous + +p. 41: Beaum to Baum (26 Baum) + +p. 55: batchelor's to bachelor's (bachelor's buttons) + +p. 56: Callirho to Callirrho + +p. 89: rocommended to recommended (the treatment recommended for Crocus) + +p. 122: establishd to established (when well established) + +p. 132: 80, to 80, (begins to fall below 80,) + +p. 133: witholding to withholding (gradually withholding water) + +p. 207: seed to seeds (six seeds in each hill) + +p. 233: ipomeas to ipomoeas and Ipomea to Ipomoea + +p. 233: Cobea to Coba + +Advertisements (end of book): science' to science's (science for +science's sake), and the repeated headings "WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY" +removed. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Practical Garden-Book, by +C. E. Hunn and L. H. Bailey + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK *** + +***** This file should be named 34602-8.txt or 34602-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/6/0/34602/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, S.D., and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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E. Hunn and L. H. Bailey + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Practical Garden-Book + Containing the Simplest Directions for the Growing of the + Commonest Things about the House and Garden + +Author: C. E. Hunn + L. H. Bailey + +Release Date: December 8, 2010 [EBook #34602] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, S.D., and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div id="front"> +<p><span class="lg">The Garden-Craft Series</span><br /> +<span class="ind2 smcap">Edited by L. H. Bailey</span> +</p> + +<p class="center xlg pad-tb">THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter pad-tb" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/macmillian-style1-sm.png" width="150" height="53" alt="Publisher Logo" title="" /> +</div> + +<div id="title-page"> +<h1>THE<br /> +PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK</h1> + +<p class="center med"><i>CONTAINING THE SIMPLEST DIRECTIONS<br /> +FOR THE GROWING OF THE COMMONEST<br /> +THINGS ABOUT THE HOUSE AND GARDEN</i></p> + +<p class="center pad-tb"><span class="sm">BY</span><br /> +<span class="lg">C. E. HUNN</span><br /> +<span class="sm">AND</span><br /> +<span class="lg">L. H. BAILEY</span></p> + +<p class="center med"><i>THIRD EDITION</i></p> + +<p class="center pad-tb">New York<br /> +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> +<span class="smcap sm">LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd.</span><br /> +1903<br /> +<span class="sm"><i>All rights reserved</i></span></p> +</div> + +<p class="center sm"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1900<br /> +By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 75px;"> +<img src="images/med-line-thin.png" width="75" height="1" alt="Decorative Line" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="center sm">Set up and electrotyped March, 1900<br /> +Reprinted February, 1901, and June, 1903</p> + +<p class="center sm pad-t2">Mount Pleasant Press<br /> +J. Horace McFarland Company<br /> +Harrisburg, Pennsylvania</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> +<p id="preface">Like the love of music, books and pictures, +the love of gardens comes with culture and leisure +and with the ripening of the home life. +The love of gardens, as of every other beautiful +and refining thing, must increase to the end of +time. More and more must the sympathies +enlarge. There must be more points of contact +with the world. Life ever becomes richer. +Gardening is more than the growing of plants: +it is the expression of desire.</p> + +<p>As there must be many gardeners, so there +must be many books. There must be books for +different persons and different ideals. The garden +made by one’s own hands is always the best +garden, because it is a part of oneself. A garden +made by another may interest, but it is another +person’s individuality. A poor garden of +one’s own is better than a good garden in which +one may not dig. Many a poor soul has more +help in a plant in the window than another has +in a plantation made by a gardener.</p> + +<p>I would emphasize the home garden, made by +the members of the family. I would preach the +beauty of the common plants and the familiar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> +places. These things are never old. Many +times I have noted how intently an audience of +plant-lovers will listen to the most commonplace +details respecting the cultivation of plants with +which they have been always familiar. There +was nothing new in what they heard; but they +liked to have the old story told over again, and +every detail called up a memory.</p> + +<p>The same questions are asked every year, and +they always will be asked,—the questions about +the simplest garden operations. Upon this desire +for commonplace advice the horticultural +journals live. A journal which publishes only +things that are new would find little support. +Some of these common questions I have tried to +answer in this little book. I wish them answered +in the simple and direct phrase of the gardener. +Therefore I asked my friend C. E. Hunn, gardener +to the Horticultural Department of Cornell +University, who lives with plants, to write advice +for one who would make a garden; and +this he did in a summer vacation. These notes, +edited and amplified, now make this book.</p> + +<p class="ralign">L. H. BAILEY.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><span class="ind1">Horticultural Department,</span><br /> +<span class="ind2">Cornell University.</span></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Ithaca, N. Y.</span>, February 22, 1900.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<h2>THE<br /> +PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK</h2> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 75px;"> +<img src="images/med-line-thin.png" width="75" height="1" alt="Decorative Line" title="" /> +</div> + +<table id="nav" cellpadding="10" summary="Alphabetical Navigation Table"> +<tr> +<td><a href="#A">A</a></td><td><a href="#B">B</a></td> +<td><a href="#C">C</a></td><td><a href="#D">D</a></td> +<td><a href="#E">E</a></td><td><a href="#F">F</a></td> +<td><a href="#G">G</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#H">H</a></td><td><a href="#I">I</a></td> +<td><a href="#K">K</a></td><td><a href="#L">L</a></td> +<td><a href="#M">M</a></td><td><a href="#N">N</a></td> +<td><a href="#O">O</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td><a href="#P">P</a></td><td><a href="#R">R</a></td> +<td><a href="#S">S</a></td><td><a href="#T">T</a></td> +<td><a href="#V">V</a></td><td><a href="#W">W</a></td> +<td><a href="#Z">Z</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="A" id="A"></a><b>Abobra viridiflora.</b> A handsome tender climber +with tuberous roots, that may be taken up in the fall and +stored in a cellar. The foliage is dark and glossy, the flowers +small and inconspicuous; but the small scarlet fruits are +very effective in contrast to the leaves, making it a desirable +screen plant. It is sold by seedsmen. Seeds sown as soon +as warm weather comes will give plants which bloom in the +open (in a warm soil and exposure), and which reach a +height of 5-8 ft. It is sometimes grown as a glasshouse +plant. It is cucurbitaceous (allied to melons and gourds).</p> + +<p><b>Abronia.</b> Californian trailing perennials, but +treated as hardy annuals. They thrive in any warm, open garden +soil, and are very satisfactory for the margins of beds or +borders. The little flowers are borne in clusters. <i>A. latifolia</i> +or <i>arenaria</i> (yellow) and <i>A. umbellata</i> or <i>grandiflora</i> +(pink) are the leading kinds. Usually sown where they +are to bloom. Peel the husk off the seed before sowing.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 161px;"> +<img src="images/001-abutilon.jpg" width="161" height="170" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Abutilon striatum</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="abutilon" id="abutilon"></a>Abutilons</b>, or <span class="smcap">Flowering Maples</span> as they are +called by many, make fine house or bedding plants. Common +kinds may be grown from seed or from cuttings of +young wood. If the former, the seed should be sown in +February or March in a temperature of not less than 60°. +The seedlings should be potted when from four to six leaves +have grown, in a rich, sandy soil. Frequent pottings should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +be made to insure a rapid growth, making plants large +enough to flower by fall. Or, the seedlings may be planted +out in the border when danger of frost is over, and taken up +in the fall before frost: these plants will bloom all winter. +About one-half of the newer growth should be cut off when +they are taken up, as they are very apt to spindle up when +grown in the house. When grown from cuttings, young +wood should be used, which, after being well rooted, may +be treated in the same manner as the seedlings. +The varieties with variegated leaves have been +improved until the foliage effects are equal to +the flowers of some varieties; and, these are a +great addition to the conservatory or window +garden. The staple spotted-leaved type is <i>A. +Thompsoni</i>. A compact form, now much used +for bedding and other outdoor work, is <i>Savitzii</i>, +which is a horticultural variety, not a distinct +species. The old-fashioned green-leaved <i>A. striatum</i>, from +which <i>A. Thompsoni</i> has probably sprung, is one of the +best. <i>A. megapotamicum</i> or <i>vexillarium</i> is a trailing or +drooping red-and-yellow-flowered species, which is excellent +for baskets. It propagates readily from seed. Abutilons +are most satisfactory for house plants when they are +not much more than a year old. They need no special +treatment.</p> + +<p><b>Aconitum.</b> <span class="smcap">Monk’s Hood. Wolf’s Bane.</span> +Hardy herbaceous perennials allied to larkspurs. They are +showy border plants, usually flowering the first year from +seed, if the seed is started early, and bearing panicles of +quaint hood-shaped, rich flowers. The colors have a wide +range, but are usually deep blue. The improved varieties +are much superior in size and markings. Aconitums are +most effective when planted in a mixed border: the flower +stalks being held well up, show the blossoms to good advantage. +Seed may be sown every two years, as the plants +in their year-old and 2-year-old stage have the largest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +blossoms. Sow in gentle heat in March, transplanting to +border when the weather is settled. Roots may be divided +if desired, but best results are to be expected from seedlings. +<i>A. Napellus</i> is the commonest one. The plants are +very poisonous if eaten. Bloom in early summer. 2-3 ft.</p> + +<p><b>Acroclinium.</b> A low-growing everlasting annual +flower, white, violet, or rose in color. Seeds should +preferably be started in a hotbed or window, and planted +out when danger of frost is past; the flowers should be +gathered when half expanded and hung +in the shade to dry. Half-hardy. +Plant 1 foot apart. Grow 10-15 in. +high. <a href="#everlastings">See <i>Everlastings</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 226px;"> +<img src="images/003-adlumia.jpg" width="226" height="269" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Adlumia cirrhosa</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="adlumia" id="adlumia"></a>Adlumia.</b> <span class="smcap">Mountain Fringe. +Allegheny Vine.</span> One of the daintiest +of climbers, making a very rapid growth, +and when once established seeding itself +and thriving for years, growing 10 or +15 feet in a season. Give rich, rather +moist soil. It is biennial, blooming the +second year. Flowers like those of the +bleeding heart and other dicentras. It is native.</p> + +<p><b>Adonis.</b> A low-growing hardy annual or perennial +of the easiest culture. It makes a fine mass effect, +as the flowers are a striking dark scarlet or crimson color, +and the plants are very free and continuous bloomers. +Sow early in the spring where wanted. The perennial +yellow-flowered sorts sometimes bloom the first year from +seed. Adonises are very neat in habit, and the foliage is +fine and interesting. 10-15 in.</p> + +<p><b>Agapanthus.</b> <span class="smcap">African Lily.</span> A tuberous-rooted, +well known conservatory or window plant. It lends +itself to many conditions and proves satisfactory a large part +of the year, the leaves forming a green arch over the pot, +covering it entirely in a well grown specimen. The flowers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +are borne in a large cluster on stems growing from 2 to 3 +ft. high, as many as two or three hundred bright blue flowers +often forming on a single plant. A large, well grown +plant throws up a number of flower-stalks through the +early season. The one essential to free growth is an abundance +of water and an occasional application of manure +water. Propagation is effected by division of the offsets, +which may be broken from the main plant in early spring. +After flowering, gradually lessen the quantity of water until +they are placed in winter quarters, which should be a position +free from frost and moderately dry. The Agapanthus, +being a heavy feeder, should be grown in strong loam to +which is added well rotted manure and a little sand.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 70px;"> +<img src="images/004-ageratum.jpg" width="70" height="173" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Ageratum</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Ageratum.</b> A half-hardy annual, used as a +border plant, for ribbon bedding for mass effect, or in +mixed beds of geranium, coleuses and other plants. The +seeds germinate readily, but as the plant is only +half-hardy and is usually wanted in flower when +planted out, it is usual to sow the seed in boxes +placed in hotbeds or windows in March, transplanting +the seedlings to small boxes or pots and +growing the young plants on until the 1st of May, +when they may be planted out. Pieces of young +wood root very easily, and the gardener usually +increases his stock by cuttings. The dwarf varieties +are the most desirable, and the two colors, +blue and white, may be planted together. 2-3 ft. Plants +may be taken up in the fall and set in the house; cut them +back severely.</p> + +<p><b>Allegheny Vine.</b> <a href="#adlumia">See <i>Adlumia</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Almond</b> is about as hardy as the peach, but it +blooms so early in the spring that it is little grown east of +the Pacific slope. It is an interesting ornamental tree, and +its early bloom is a merit when the fruit is not desired. +The Almonds commonly sold by nurserymen in the east are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +hard-shell varieties, and the nuts are not good enough for +commerce. The Almond fruit is a drupe, like the peach, +but the flesh is thin and hard and the pit is the “Almond” +of commerce. Culture the same as for peach.</p> + +<p>Flowering Almond is a very early-flowering bush, excellent +for shrub-borders. It is usually grafted on plum +stock, and one must take care to keep down the plum sprouts +which sometimes spring from the root.</p> + +<p><b>Aloe.</b> Succulent tropical plants, sometimes seen +in window gardens. Of easy culture. See that the pots +have perfect drainage. Make a soil of sandy loam, with +one-third or one-fourth part of broken brick. Pot firmly. +Water whenever needed, but the soil and drainage should +be such that the earth does not remain soggy or become +sour. Aloes thrive year after year without repotting. +Usually propagated by cuttings. <i>A. variegata</i> is the commonest +species.</p> + +<p><b>Alonsoa.</b> Tender annual. Not very well known, +but a bright plant for second-row border or a low bedding +plant. Planted against shrubbery or other protection after +danger of frost is over, it lightens up a dark corner. 2-3 ft. +Plant 10-15 in. apart, in a warm place protected from wind.</p> + +<p><b>Alströmeria.</b> The Alströmerias belong to the +amaryllis family, being tuberous-rooted plants, having leafy +stems and terminating in a cluster of from 10 to 50 small +lily-shaped flowers of rich colors. Most of the kinds should +be given pot culture, as they are easily grown and are not +hardy in the open in the north. The culture is nearly that of +the amaryllis,—a good, fibrous loam with a little sand, potting +the tubers in early spring or late fall. Start the plants +slowly, giving only water enough to cause root growth; but +after growth has become established, a quantity of water may +be given. After flowering they may be treated as are amaryllis +or agapanthus. The plants grow 1-2½ ft. high. The +flowers often have odd colors.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +<b>Althæa.</b> <a href="#hollyhock">See <i>Hollyhock</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 148px;"> +<img src="images/006-alyssum.jpg" width="148" height="253" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Sweet Alyssum</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Alyssum, Sweet.</b> A low-growing, hardy, white-flowered, +very fragrant annual which is much used for edgings, +window boxes, and the like. It is of the easiest culture +in any soil, but thrives best in a garden loam of moderate +fertility. Seeds may be sown as early as the +ground can be well prepared in spring. The plant +will begin to bloom when 2 or 3 inches high, and +continue to bloom, as it grows, until after the +first hard frosts. It makes a mat 1 to 2 ft. +across. If immediate effects are not desired, +the plants should be thinned out or transplanted +to stand half a foot apart. It rarely stands more +than a foot high. In the fall, plants may be cut +back and put into pots or boxes, and they will +bloom in the window. Better results in winter +blooming are secured by starting seeds in boxes in August, +September or October. There are certain hardy perennial +yellow-flowered Alyssums which are useful for prominent +edgings and for rockwork.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 126px;"> +<img src="images/006-prince.jpg" width="126" height="159" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Prince’s Feather</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="amarantus" id="amarantus"></a>Amarantus.</b> Decorative annuals. One species +(with erect spikes) is known as <span class="smcap">Prince’s Feather</span>, another +(with variegated foliage) as <span class="smcap">Joseph’s Coat</span>, and still another +(with drooping spikes) as <span class="smcap">Love-lies-bleeding</span>. +Probably the finest of the list is <i>A. salicifolius</i>, +often called Fountain Plant. This has graceful +willow-shaped leaves, banded and tipped with +carmine, bronze and orange. The tall kinds +make fine screens for unsightly objects. They +may also be used against masses of green to add +color. The Amaranths are half-hardy or tender +plants, and should be sown in boxes in March or +April, to be planted out after all danger of frost is past. +Seeds may also be sown where the plants are to stand. +They were once among the most popular of garden plants,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +but for a few years have been neglected. Fine colors have +recently been developed, and they are again becoming favorites. +As they are rather coarse and weedy plants, do not +use them with dainty flowers. Most kinds grow 2-3 ft. high +and spread 2-3 ft.</p> + +<p><b><a name="amaryllis" id="amaryllis"></a>Amaryllis.</b> Popular name of a variety of house +or conservatory tender bulbs, but properly applied only to +the Belladonna Lily. Most of them are hippeastrums, but +the culture of all is similar. They are satisfactory house +plants. The one objection to their culture is the habit of +the flower-stalk starting into growth before the leaves start. +This is caused in most cases by stimulating root growth before +the bulb has had sufficient rest. The bulbs should be +dormant for four or five months in a dry place with a temperature +of about 50°. When wanted to be brought into flower, +the bulbs, if to be repotted, should have all the dirt shaken +off and potted in soil composed of fibrous loam and leaf-mold, +to which should be added a little sand. If the loam +is a heavy one, place the pot in a warm situation; a spent +hotbed is a good place. Water as needed, and as the flowers +develop liquid manure may be given. If large clumps are +well established in 8- or 10-inch pots, they may be top-dressed +with new soil containing rotted manure, and as growth increases +liquid manure may be given twice a week until the +flowers open. After flowering, gradually withhold water until +the leaves die. The most popular species for window gardens +is <i>A. Johnsoni</i> (properly a hippeastrum), with red flowers.</p> + +<p><b>Amethyst.</b> <a href="#browallia">See <i>Browallia</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Ammobium.</b> A half-hardy perennial everlasting +with white flowers. Thrives best in sandy soil. Sow +seeds where plants are to stand. Although perennial, it +blooms the first year from seed, and is usually treated as an +annual. 2-3 ft. high. Plant 12-18 in. apart.</p> + +<p><b>Ammoniacal Carbonate of Copper.</b> <a href="#bordeaux">See under +<i>Bordeaux Mixture</i>.</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +<b>Anchusa.</b> Hardy annuals and perennials, fit +for heavy borders. The plants grow to the height of 2 to 3 +feet and bear purple or blue flowers, which are showy either +on the plant or in bouquets. Propagated from seed sown in +early spring, either where the plants are to stand or in boxes +or hotbeds. The common kind is annual. Blooms in +summer.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 74px;"> +<img src="images/008-anemone.jpg" width="74" height="162" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Spray of Anemone Japonica</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="anemone" id="anemone"></a>Anemone.</b> <span class="smcap">Wind Flower.</span> A group of hardy +perennials. The best known of this genus is <i>A. Japonica +alba</i>, or Honorine Jobert. This species blooms from +August to November, and is at that season the finest +of border plants. The pure white flowers, with +lemon-colored stamens, are held well up on stalks +2-3 ft. high. The flower stems are long and excellent +for cutting. This species may be propagated +by division of the plants or by seed. The +former method should be put into practice in the +spring; the latter as soon as the seeds are ripe in +the fall. Sow the seed in boxes in a warm, sheltered +situation in the border or under glass. The seed +should be covered lightly with soil containing a quantity +of sand and not allowed to become dry. A well enriched, +sheltered position in a border should be given. There are +red-flowered varieties.</p> + +<p>The varieties of <i>A. coronaria</i> are tuberous-rooted plants. +The tubers of these should be planted in the fall, late in +September or early in October, in a well enriched, sheltered +border, setting the tubers 3 in. deep and from 4-6 in. apart. +The surface of the border should be mulched with leaves or +strawy manure through the severe winter weather, uncovering +the soil in March. The flowers will appear in April or +May, and in June or July the tubers should be taken up and +placed in a dry place in sand until the following fall. This +section is not as well known as it should be. The range +of color is very wide. The flowers are often 2 in. across, +and are lasting. These tubers may be planted in pots in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +the same manner as in the border, bringing them into the +conservatory or house at intervals through the winter, +where they make an excellent showing when in bloom.</p> + +<p>The little wild Wind Flowers are easily colonized in a +hardy border.</p> + +<p><b><a name="annuals" id="annuals"></a>Annuals.</b> The annual flowers of the seedsmen +are those which give their best bloom in the very year +in which the seeds are sown. True annuals are those +plants which complete their entire life-cycle in one season. +Some of the so-called annual flowers will continue to bloom +the second and third years, but the bloom is so poor and +sparse after the first season that it does not pay to keep +them.</p> + +<p>Most annuals will bloom in central New York if the seeds +are sown in the open ground when the weather becomes +thoroughly settled. But there are some kinds, as Cosmos +and Moonflowers, for which our season is commonly too +short to give good bloom. These kinds may be started early +in the house or in hotbeds; and similar treatment may be +given any plants of which it is desired +to secure blooms before the normal time.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/009-box.jpg" width="250" height="259" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A box garden</p> +</div> + +<p>Prepare the ground thoroughly and +deep. Annuals must make a quick +growth. See that the soil contains +enough humus or vegetable mold to +make it rich and to enable it to +hold moisture. If the ground is +not naturally rich, spade in well-rotted +manure or mold from the +woods. A little commercial fertilizer +may help in starting off the +plants quickly. Prepare the land +as early in spring as it is in fit condition, and prevent +evaporation by keeping the surface loose by means of +raking.</p> + +<p>If the flowers are to be grown about the edges of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +lawn, make sure that the grass roots do not run underneath +them and rob them of food and moisture. It is well to run +a sharp spade deep into the ground about the edges of the +bed every two or three weeks for the purpose of cutting +off any grass roots which may have run into the +bed. If beds are made in the turf, see that they are +3 ft. or more wide, so that the grass roots will not +undermine them. Against the shrub borders, +this precaution may not be necessary. In fact, +it is desirable that the flowers fill all the +space between the overhanging branches and +the sod.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 142px;"> +<img src="images/010-border.jpg" width="142" height="188" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Flowers against a border</p> +</div> + +<p>Sow the seeds freely. Many will not germinate. +Even if they do all germinate, the combined +strength of the rising plantlets will break the crust on +the hard soils; and in the thinning which follows, only strong +and promising plants are allowed to remain. Better effects +are also often secured when the colors are in masses, especially +if the flowers are thrown into the bays of heavy shrub +borders.</p> + +<p>Plants continue to bloom for a longer period if they are +not allowed to produce seeds. The flowers should be picked, +if possible, as soon as they begin to fade.</p> + +<p>In the selection of the kinds of annuals, one’s personal +preference must be the guide. Yet there are some groups +which may be considered to be standard or general-purpose +plants. They are easily grown almost anywhere, and are +sure to give satisfaction. The remaining plants are mostly +such as have secondary value, or are adapted to particular +purposes or uses.</p> + +<p>The groups which most strongly appeal to the writer as +staple or general-purpose types are the following: Petunias, +phloxes, pinks or dianthuses, larkspurs or delphiniums, +calliopsis or coreopsis, pot marigold or calendula, bachelor’s +button or <i>Centaurea Cyanus</i>, clarkias, zinnias, marigolds or +tagetes, collinsias, gilias, California poppies or eschscholtzias,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +verbenas, poppies, China asters, sweet peas, nemophilas, +portulacas, silenes, candytufts or iberis, alyssum, stocks or +matthiolas, morning-glories, nasturtiums or tropæolums.</p> + +<p>Annual flowers possess a great advantage over perennials +in the fact that they appeal strongly to the desire for experiment. +The seeds are sown every year, and there is sufficient +element of uncertainty in the results to make the effort +interesting; and new combinations can be tried each year.</p> + +<p>Do not cut the old stalks down in the fall. They will +stand in the snow all through the winter, and remind you of +the bursting summer time and the long-ripening fall; and +the snow-birds will find them in the short days of winter.</p> + +<p>Some of the most reliable and easily grown annuals for +the north are given in the following lists (under the common +trade names):</p> + +<h3><i>WHITE FLOWERS</i></h3> + +<ul> +<li>Ageratum Mexicanum album.</li> +<li>Alyssum, Common Sweet.</li> +<li>Alyssum, Sweet, compacta.</li> +<li>Centranthus macrosiphon albus.</li> +<li>Convolvulus major.</li> +<li>Dianthus, Double White Margaret.</li> +<li>Iberis amara.</li> +<li>Iberis coronaria, White Rocket.</li> +<li>Ipomœa hederacea.</li> +<li>Lavatera alba.</li> +<li>Malope grandiflora alba.</li> +<li>Matthiola (Stocks), Cut and Come Again.</li> +<li>Matthiola, Dresden Perpetual.</li> +<li>Matthiola, Giant Perfection.</li> +<li>Matthiola, White Pearl.</li> +<li>Mirabilis longiflora alba.</li> +<li>Nigella.</li> +<li>Papaver (Poppy), Flag of Truce.</li> +<li>Papaver, Shirley.</li> +<li>Papaver, The Mikado.</li> +<li>Phlox, Dwarf Snowball.</li> +<li>Phlox, Leopoldii.</li> +<li>Zinnia.</li> +</ul> + +<h3><i>YELLOW FLOWERS</i></h3> + +<ul> +<li>Cacalia lutea.</li> +<li>Calendula officinalis, Common.</li> +<li>Calendula officinalis, Meteor.</li> +<li>Calendula sulphurea.</li> +<li>Calendula suffruticosa.</li> +<li>Calliopsis bicolor marmorata.</li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +Calliopsis cardaminæfolia.</li> +<li>Calliopsis elegans picta.</li> +<li>Cosmidium Burridgeanum.</li> +<li>Erysimum Peroffskianum.</li> +<li>Eschscholtzia Californica.</li> +<li>Hibiscus Africanus.</li> +<li>Hibiscus, Golden Bowl.</li> +<li>Ipomœa coccinea lutea.</li> +<li>Loasa tricolor.</li> +<li>Tagetes, various kinds.</li> +<li>Thunbergia alata Fryeri.</li> +<li>Thunbergia alata aurantiaca.</li> +<li>Tropæolum, Dwarf, Lady Bird.</li> +<li>Tropæolum, Tall, Schulzi.</li> +<li>Zinnia.</li> +</ul> + +<h3><i>BLUE FLOWERS</i></h3> + +<ul> +<li>Ageratum Mexicanum.</li> +<li>Ageratum Mexicanum, Dwarf.</li> +<li>Browallia Czerniakowski.</li> +<li>Browallia elata.</li> +<li>Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact.</li> +<li>Centaurea Cyanus minor.</li> +<li>China Asters of several varieties.</li> +<li>Convolvulus minor.</li> +<li>Convolvulus minor unicaulis.</li> +<li>Gilia achilleæfolia.</li> +<li>Gilia capitata.</li> +<li>Iberis umbellata.</li> +<li>Iberis umbellata lilacina.</li> +<li>Kaulfussia amelloides.</li> +<li>Kaulfussia atroviolacea.</li> +<li>Lobelia Erinus.</li> +<li>Lobelia Erinus, Elegant.</li> +<li>Nigella.</li> +<li>Phlox variabilis atropurpurea.</li> +<li>Salvia farinacea.</li> +<li>Specularia.</li> +<li>Verbena, Black-blue.</li> +<li>Verbena cœrulea.</li> +<li>Verbena, Golden-leaved.</li> +<li>Whitlavia gloxinoides.</li> +</ul> + +<h3><i>RED FLOWERS</i></h3> + +<ul> +<li>Cacalia, Scarlet.</li> +<li>Clarkia elegans rosea.</li> +<li>Convolvulus tricolor roseus.</li> +<li>Dianthus, Half Dwarf Early Margaret.</li> +<li>Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual.</li> +<li>Dianthus Chinensis, Double.</li> +<li>Gaillardia picta.</li> +<li>Ipomœa coccinea.</li> +<li>Ipomœa volubilis.</li> +<li>Matthiola annuus (Stocks).</li> +<li>Matthiola, Blood-red Ten Weeks.</li> +<li>Matthiola grandiflora, Dwarf.</li> +<li>Papaver (Poppy) cardinale.</li> +<li>Papaver, Double.</li> +<li>Papaver, Mephisto.</li> +<li>Phaseolus multiflorus.</li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +Phlox, Large-flowering Dwarf.</li> +<li>Phlox, Dwarf Fireball.</li> +<li>Phlox, Black Warrior.</li> +<li>Salvia coccinea.</li> +<li>Saponaria.</li> +<li>Tropæolum, Dwarf, Tom Thumb.</li> +<li>Tropæolum, Dwarf.</li> +<li>Verbena hybrida.</li> +<li>Verbena hybrida, Scarlet Defiance.</li> +<li>Zinnia.</li> +</ul> + +<h3><i>GOOD FOR EDGINGS OF BEDS AND WALKS</i></h3> + +<ul> +<li>Alyssum, Sweet.</li> +<li>Brachycome.</li> +<li>Collinsias.</li> +<li>Dianthuses or Pinks.</li> +<li>Gypsophila muralis.</li> +<li>Iberis or Candytufts.</li> +<li>Leptosiphons.</li> +<li>Lobelia Erinus.</li> +<li>Nigellas.</li> +<li>Nemophilas.</li> +<li>Portulacas or Rose Moss.</li> +<li>Saponaria Calabrica.</li> +<li>Specularia.</li> +</ul> + +<h3><i>KINDS WHICH CONTINUE TO BLOOM AFTER FROST</i></h3> + +<ul> +<li>Abronia umbellata.</li> +<li>Adonis æstivalis.</li> +<li>Adonis autumnalis.</li> +<li>Argemone grandiflora.</li> +<li>Calendulas.</li> +<li>Callirrhoë.</li> +<li>Carduus Benedictus.</li> +<li>Centaurea Cyanus.</li> +<li>Centauridium.</li> +<li>Centranthus macrosiphon.</li> +<li>Cerinthe retorta.</li> +<li>Cheiranthus Cheiri.</li> +<li>Chrysanthemums.</li> +<li>Convolvulus minor.</li> +<li>Convolvulus tricolor.</li> +<li>Dianthus of various kinds.</li> +<li>Elscholtzia cristata.</li> +<li>Erysimum Peroffskianum.</li> +<li>Erysimum Arkansanum.</li> +<li>Eschscholtzias, in several varieties.</li> +<li>Gaillardia picta.</li> +<li>Gilia Achilleæfolia.</li> +<li>Gilia capitata.</li> +<li>Gilia laciniata.</li> +<li>Gilia tricolor.</li> +<li>Iberis affinis.</li> +<li>Lavatera alba.</li> +<li>Matthiolas or Stocks.</li> +<li>Œnothera rosea.</li> +<li>Œnothera Lamarckiana.</li> +<li>Œnothera Drummondii.</li> +<li>Phlox Drummondii.</li> +<li>Podolepis affinis.</li> +<li>Podolepis chrysantha.</li> +<li>Salvia coccinea.</li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +Salvia farinacea.</li> +<li>Salvia Horminum.</li> +<li>Verbenas.</li> +<li>Vicia Gerardii.</li> +<li>Virginian Stocks.</li> +<li>Viscaria elegans.</li> +<li>Viscaria oculata.</li> +<li>Viscaria cœli-rosa.</li> +</ul> + +<p><b>Antirrhinum.</b> <a href="#snapdragon">See <i>Snapdragon</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Apple</b>, the “King of Fruits,” thrives over a +wider range of territory and under more varied conditions +than any other tree fruit. This means that it is easy to +grow. In fact, it is so easy to grow that it usually is +neglected; and people wonder why the trees do not bear.</p> + +<p>The selection of varieties of Apples for home use is, to a +large extent, a personal matter; and no one may say what +to plant. A variety that is successfully grown in one section +may prove disappointing in another. One should study +the locality in which he wishes to plant and choose those +varieties which are the most successfully grown there,—choosing +from amongst the successful kinds those which he +likes best and which seem best to meet the purposes for +which he is to grow them. When the selection is made, the +trees should be procured from a near-by nurseryman, if +possible, as one is then able to select his own trees, receive +them in the shortest time, and plant them before they have +become dry.</p> + +<p>The land on which an orchard is to be planted should +have been in cultivation at least two years previous to setting +the trees and be in a fine physical condition. Dig +the hole broad and deep enough to take in all the roots left +after pruning off the bruised ends caused by digging up the +tree, and trim back the branches at least two-thirds, making a +smooth cut. Set the trunk in the center of the hole, and +sift the fine dirt down through the roots, slightly lifting the +tree once or twice in order that the fine soil may settle under +the roots, making congenial soil for the new roots to run +through. Fill in over the roots, gradually firming the soil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +above with the feet. When the hole is full, firm the +soil around the trunk to prevent whipping by the +wind, leaving the surface level. If the trees are set in the +fall a slight earthing up to the trunk may be beneficial +in certain soils, and if set in a dry +spring a mulch of straw or grass +will benefit them. Two- or 3-year-old +trees (usually the latter) are +the most desirable for planting +in home grounds. Commercial +orchards are often planted exclusively +with 2-year-olds.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 264px;"> +<img src="images/015-apples.jpg" width="264" height="155" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Spray of Apples</p> +</div> + +<p>In orchard cultivation, Apple trees are usually planted +35 to 40 ft. apart each way. In home grounds they may be +placed somewhat closer than this, especially if they are +planted upon the boundaries, so that the limbs may project +freely in one direction.</p> + +<p>It is ordinarily advisable, especially in the humid climates +east of the Great Lakes, to have the body of the tree 3½ to +4½ ft. long. The limbs should be trimmed up to this point +when the tree is set. From three to five main branches +may be left to form the framework of the top. These should +be shortened back one-fourth or one-half when the tree is set. +Subsequent pruning should keep the top of the tree open +and maintain it in more or less symmetrical form. <a href="#pruning">See +<i>Pruning</i>.</a></p> + +<p>In orchard conditions, the trees should be kept in clean +culture, especially for the first few years; but this is not +always possible in home yards. In lieu of tillage, the sward +may be mulched each fall with stable manure, and commercial +fertilizer may be applied each fall or spring. If fruit is +wanted rather than foliage and shade, care should be taken +not to make ground too rich but to keep it in such condition that +the tree is making a fairly vigorous growth, with good strong +foliage, but is not overgrowing. An Apple tree in full bearing +is usually in good condition if the twigs grow from 10 to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +18 in. each season. All leaf-eating insects may be kept off +by spraying with Paris green. The Appleworm or codlin-moth +may be kept in check by spraying with Paris green as +soon as the blossoms fall, and again a week or ten days +later. The leaf blight or apple-scab fungus may be kept in +check by spraying with Bordeaux mixture just before the +flowers open, and again after they fall (<a href="#spraying">see <i>Spraying</i></a>). A +close watch should be kept for borers. Whenever the bark +appears to be dead or sunken in patches, remove it and +search for the cause. A borer will usually be found underneath +the bark. About the base of the tree the most serious +injury occurs from borers, since the insect which enters +there bores into the hard wood. His presence can be determined +by the chips which are cast from his burrows. The +only remedy is to dig out the larvæ. If they have got far +into the wood, they can be killed by running a flexible wire +into the burrows.</p> + +<p>Apple trees should begin to bear when three to five years +planted, and at ten years should be bearing good crops. +With good treatment, they should continue to bear for thirty +or more years. It is cheaper to buy trees from the nursery +than to attempt to raise them for oneself.</p> + +<p>The dwarf Apples are secured by grafting any variety +on the Paradise or Doucin stocks, which are simply small-growing +varieties of Apples. Dwarfs are much used in the Old +World. There is no reason why they should not be used for +home gardens in this country. They may be planted 8 to +10 ft. apart, and trained in various ways. The body or +trunk should not be more than 1 or 2 ft. long. The top +should be headed-in each year a third or a half of the annual +growth. Dwarfs bear sooner than standards. A dwarf in +full bearing should produce from a peck to a bushel of +apples. Usually only the finer or dessert variety of Apples +should be grown on dwarf trees.</p> + +<p>Many of the local varieties of Apples are excellent +for home use. From the following list of dessert varieties,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +one can select a good assortment for the home +garden:</p> + +<p><i>Summer.</i>—Early Joe, Primate, Garden Royal, Summer +Pearmain, Early Harvest, Summer Rose, Sweet Bough, Summer +Queen, Early Strawberry, Williams Favorite.</p> + +<p><i>Fall.</i>—Chenango, Dyer, Jefferis, Jersey Sweet, Maiden +Blush, Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Mother (late fall to winter), +Twenty Ounce.</p> + +<p><i>Winter.</i>—Newtown Pippin, Golden Russet, Bellflower, +Belmont, King (late fall S. of N. Y.), Grimes Golden, Melon, +Hubbardston (Nonesuch), Northern Spy, Jonathan, Fameuse +or Snow, Lady, Rambo, Canada Red, York Imperial, Pomme +Gris, Esopus Spitzenburg, Swaar, Peck Pleasant, Rhode +Island Greening, Tallman Sweet, Sutton Beauty, Wagener, +Seek-no-further.</p> + +<p><b>Apricot.</b> This fruit, usually thought to be too +tender for the winters in the latitude of New York, has +proved as hardy as the peach. Given the right conditions +as to soil and exposure, it will yield abundant crops, ripening +its fruits about three weeks in advance of early peaches. +It would seem that more attention should be given to its +cultivation. In western New York commercial orchards are +now producing crops of as fine fruit as that brought from +California. The introduction of the Russian varieties, a few +years ago, added to the list several desirable kinds that have +proved hardier and a little later in blooming than the old +kinds. The fruits of the Russian varieties, while not as +large as the other varieties, fully equal many of them in +flavor, and they are very productive. The soil for Apricots +should be rather dry; especially should the subsoil be +such that no water may stand around the roots. The exposure +should be to the north or west to retard the blooming +period, as the one great drawback to their successful fruiting +is the early blooming and subsequent freezing of the flowers +or small fruits.</p> + +<p>The two serious difficulties in the growing of Apricots<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +are the ravages of the curculio (<a href="#plum">see <i>Plum</i></a>) and the danger +to the flowers from the spring frosts. It is usually almost +impossible to secure fruits from one or two isolated Apricot +trees, because the curculios will take them all. It is possible, +also, that some of the varieties need cross-pollination. +The Apricot usually thrives best on strong soil; but otherwise +the treatment which is given the peach suits the Apricot +very well. The Russian varieties bear more profusely +and with less care than the old-fashioned and larger kinds. +Amongst the best kinds of Apricots are Montgamet, Jackson, +Royal, St. Ambroise, Early Golden, Harris, Roman and +Moorepark. In the east, Apricots are commonly worked on +plums, but they also thrive on the peach.</p> + +<p><b>Aquarium.</b> A pleasant adjunct to a living +room or conservatory is a large glass globe or glass box +containing water, in which plants and animals are living +and growing. A solid glass tank or globe is better than +a box with glass sides, because it does not leak, but the +box must be used if one wants a large Aquarium. For +most persons it is better to buy the Aquarium box than to +attempt to make it. Four things are important in making +and keeping an Aquarium (according to Miss Rogers, in +Cornell Nature-Study Leaflet No. 11):</p> + +<p>“(1) The equilibrium between plant and animal life +must be secured and maintained. Animals do not thrive in +water where no plants are growing. Nature keeps plants +and animals in the same pond, and we must follow her lead. +The plants have three valuable functions in the Aquarium. +First, they supply food for the herbivorous creatures. +Second, they give off a quantity of oxygen which is necessary +to the life of the animals. Third, they take up from +the water the poisonous carbonic acid gas which passes +from the bodies of the animals. Just how the plants do +this is another story. (2) The Aquarium must be ventilated. +Every little fish, snail and insect wants air. A +certain quantity of air is mixed with the water, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +creatures must breathe that or come to the surface for their +supply. How does Mother Nature manage the ventilation +of her aquaria, the ponds and streams? The plants furnish +part of the air, as we have seen. The open pond, +whose surface is ruffled by every passing breeze, is constantly +being provided with fresh air. A tadpole or a fish +can no more live in a long-necked bottle than a boy can +live in a chimney. (3) The temperature should be kept +between 40° and 50° Fahr. Both nature and experience +teach us this. A shady corner is a better place for the +Aquarium than a sunny window on a warm day. (4) It is +well to choose such animals for the Aquarium as are +adapted to life in still water. Unless one has an arrangement +of water pipes to supply a constant flow of water +through the Aquarium, it is best not to try to keep creatures +that we find in swift streams. Practical experience shows +that there are certain dangers to guard against. Perhaps +the most serious results come from overstocking. It is +better to have too few plants or animals than too many of +either. A great deal of light, especially bright sunlight, is +not good for the Aquarium. A pond that is not shaded +soon becomes green with a thick growth of slime, or algæ. +This does not look well in an Aquarium, and is apt to take +up so much of the plant-food that the other plants are +starved out. The plants in the school-room window will +shade the Aquarium nicely, just as the trees and shrubs on +its banks shade the pond. If we find this slime forming +on the light side of our miniature pond we put it in a darker +place, shade it heavily so that the light comes in from the +top only, and put in a few more snails. These will make +quick work of the green slime, for they are fond of it, if we +are not.”</p> + +<p>The aquatic plants of the neighborhood may be kept in +the Aquarium,—such things as myriophyllums, charas, eel-grass, +duckmeats or lemnas, cabomba or fish grass, arrowleafs +or sagittaria, and the like; also the parrot’s feather,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +to be bought of florists (a species of myriophyllum). Of animals, +there are fishes (particularly minnows), water insects, +tadpoles, clams, snails. If the proper balance is maintained +between plant and animal life, it will not be necessary +to change the water so frequently.</p> + +<p><b>Aquatics and Bog Plants.</b> Many water plants +are easily grown, and make a fine addition to the home +garden. The sedges and other bog plants, the cyperus or +umbrella plant, the common wild water lily, and in large +grounds the nelumbium or Egyptian lotus, all may be grown +with ease. For restricted grounds any of these, with the +exception of the nelumbium, may be grown in tubs made by +sawing an oaken barrel in two, filling each half from one-third +to one-half with soil composed of good loam, sand +and leaf-mold, setting the plants well into the soil and filling +the tubs with water. These tubs should be sunk to the +rim in the borders or lawn, both for a good appearance and +to prevent too great evaporation. By a little care in filling +with water, these plants may be well grown through the +hottest weather. Most of the foreign water lilies are not +hardy, but some of them may be grown with ease if the +pond is covered in winter.</p> + +<p>Native Aquatics may be colonized in streams or ponds. +If artificial ponds are to be made, do not get them too deep. +A foot or 15 inches is sufficient depth of water to stand +above the crowns of the plants; and the greatest depth of +water should not be more than 2½ ft. for all kinds of +water lilies. Half this depth is often sufficient. The soil +should be 1 to 2 ft. deep, and very rich. Cow manure may +be mixed with rich loam. Roots of hardy water lilies may +be planted as soon as the pond is clear of frost, but the +tender kinds (which are also to be taken up in the fall) +should not be planted till it is time to plant out geraniums. +Sink the roots into the mud so that they are just buried, and +weight them down with a stone or clod. In cold climates, +protect the pond of hardy Aquatics by throwing boards over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +the pond and covering with hay, straw or evergreen boughs. +It is well to supply an additional depth of water as a further +protection.</p> + +<p><b><a name="aquilegia" id="aquilegia"></a>Aquilegia.</b> <span class="smcap">Columbine.</span> These hardy perennials +are general favorites for borders and rockwork. +Blooming early in the season, they may be said to head the +procession of the perennials. The ease with which they +may be cultivated, their freedom of bloom, their varied +colors and odd shape entitle them to the front rank among +hardy plants. They are propagated by division of the +plants in the spring or from seed sown in the fall. Seedlings +may be expected to bloom well the second year. They +require a moist, partially sheltered situation, with exposure +to the sun. The common wild Columbine (often called +“honeysuckle”) is easily grown and is very attractive. +Clumps of Columbine should stand 12-18 in. apart. 2-3 ft. +high.</p> + +<p><b>Araucaria</b>, or <span class="smcap">Norfolk Island Pine</span>, is now +sold in pots by florists as a window plant. The common +species (<i>A. excelsa</i>) is most excellent for this purpose, making +a symmetrical evergreen subject. It keeps well in +a cool window, or on the veranda in the summer. Protect +it from direct sunlight, and give plenty of room. If the +plant begins to fail, return it to the florist for recuperation.</p> + +<p><b>Argemone.</b> <a href="#prickly">See <i>Prickly Poppy</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b><a name="aristolochia" id="aristolochia"></a>Aristolochia</b>, or <span class="smcap">Dutchman’s Pipe</span>. A strong, +woody twiner with very large, heavy leaves, forming a dense +screen and having peculiarly shaped flowers. But one +species is considered hardy north, <i>A. Sipho</i>. This will grow +without special treatment and prove a satisfactory ornamental +screen or porch plant. Reaches a height of 20 or 30 +ft. Young plants need some protection in cold winters.</p> + +<p><b>Artichoke.</b> A tall, coarse perennial of the thistle +tribe, producing flower-heads which are edible. When once +established, it will last in bearing for a number of years.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +While this plant is not generally grown in this country, +its merit as a supplementary vegetable for salads or cooking +is great. It is usually grown from suckers from the root, +but a start can be made by sowing the seed. Sow in a +border or seed box and transplant to the garden in early +summer; and the following year a crop may be had. The +parts of the plant used are the flower-heads and the young +suckers, the former boiled or eaten raw as a salad. The young +shoots may be tied together and blanched, using them like +asparagus or Swiss chard. The fleshy scales of the head +and the soft “bottom” of the head are the parts used. But +few of these plants would be needed for a family, as they +produce a number of flower-heads to a plant and a quantity +of suckers. The plants should be set from 2 to 3 ft. apart +in the row, the rows being 3 ft. apart. This vegetable is +not quite hardy in the north, but a covering of leaves or +barnyard litter to the depth of a foot will protect them well. +The plant, being a perennial, will continue to yield for a +number of years under good cultivation. These plants make +no mean decorative subjects, either massed or in a mixed +border, and from the rarity of their culture are always objects +of interest.</p> + +<p><b>Artichoke, Jerusalem</b>, is a wholly different +plant from the above, although it is commonly known as +“Artichoke” in this country. It is a species of sunflower +which produces potato-like tubers. These tubers may be +used in lieu of potatoes. They are very palatable to hogs; +and when the plant becomes a weed—as it often does—it +may be exterminated by turning the hogs into it. Hardy.</p> + +<p><b>Arundo</b>, or <span class="smcap">Reed</span>, is one of the best of bold and +ornamental grasses, excellent for the center of a large formal +bed, or for emphatic points in a mixed border. It is perennial +and hardy in the northern states, but it is advisable +to give it a mulch on the approach of winter. Thrives in +any rich soil, doing best where somewhat moist. 8-12 ft. +The clumps enlarge year by year.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +<b>Asparagus.</b> A hardy herbaceous perennial, +much grown for the soft, edible, early spring shoots. The +culture of this, the finest of early vegetables, has been simplified +in the past few years, and at present the knowledge +required to successfully plant and grow a good supply need +not be that of a professional. The old method of excavating +to the depth of 3 ft. or more, throwing in from 4 to 6 in. +of broken stone or bricks for drainage, then filling to within +16 to 18 in. of the surface with well rotted manure, with 6 +in. of soil upon which to set the roots, has given place to +the simple practice of plowing or digging a trench from 14 +to 16 in. deep, spreading well rotted manure in the bottom +to the depth of 3 or 4 in.; when well trodden down covering +the manure with 3 or 4 in. of good garden soil, then setting +the plants, with the roots well spread out, covering carefully +with soil to the level of the garden, and firming the soil +with the feet. This will leave the crowns of the plants from +4 to 5 in. below the surface. In setting, 1-year-old plants +will prove more satisfactory than older ones, being less +liable to suffer from injury to the root system than those +which have made a larger growth. Two years after setting +the crop may be cut, but not sooner if a lasting bed is desired, +as the effort to replace the stalks has a tendency to +weaken the plant unless the roots are well established. The +yearly treatment of an Asparagus bed consists of cleaning +off tops and weeds in the fall and adding a dressing of well +rotted manure to the depth of 3 or 4 in., this manure to be +lightly forked into the bed the following spring; or, the +tops may be allowed to stand for winter protection and the +mulch left off. A top-dressing of nitrate of soda, at the +rate of 200 pounds per acre, is often beneficial as a spring +stimulant, especially in the case of an old bed. Good results +will also follow an application of bone meal or superphosphate +at the rate of from 300 to 500 pounds per +acre. The practice of sowing salt on an Asparagus bed is +almost universal. Still, beds that have never received a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +pound of salt are found to be as productive as those having +received an annual dressing. Nevertheless, a salt dressing +is recommended. In stubborn, heavy soil the best method +to pursue in making a permanent bed would be to throw out +all the dirt from the trench and replace with good, fibrous +loam. Two rows of Asparagus 25 ft. long and 3 ft. apart would +supply a large family with an abundance throughout the +season, and if well taken care of will last a number of years. +Conover’s Colossal is the variety most generally grown, +and is perhaps the most satisfactory sort. Palmetto, a +variety originating at the south, is also very popular. A +newer variety, called Donald White, originating near Elmira, +N. Y., is recommended by the trade.</p> + +<p><b>Asperula.</b> Hardy annuals and perennials. +The low-growing Asperula, with its blue or white flowers, +is not as often used as it should be. The profusion of small +flowers and the long season entitle it to a place in low borders. +The flowers have a pleasing fragrance. Asperulas may be +used effectively on rockwork. The common white species, or +Woodruff, grows less than 1 foot. Grown readily from +seeds, and blooms the first year. All Asperulas thrive best +in a rather moist soil.</p> + +<p><b>Asters, China.</b> Half-hardy annuals, of easy +culture. The China Aster has been for years a great +favorite in both old-fashioned and modern gardens. With +the improvements in shapes and colors, they are now +the rivals of the chrysanthemum. As early as 1731 single +white and red Asters were grown and described in England, +and by 1845 they are mentioned as being very numerous +in New England. The Germans were, perhaps, the +first to improve the Asters, and the type most admired and +sought fifty years ago was the full-quilled varieties. Now, +however, the informal type replaces the stiff, formal quilled +flowers of that period. Compare the Comet Aster of to-day +with the Asters of even twenty years ago, and note the +looseness of its broad rays, giving an artistic value<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +far beyond the tall, stiff, purple-blue or whites of that +period.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 126px;"> +<img src="images/025-asters.jpg" width="126" height="165" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">China Aster</p> +</div> + +<p>The early Asters will bloom in August if the seed is +sown in the open early in the season. They are represented +by the Queen of the Market and Queen of Spring, +either of which, if started in a hotbed or window, +will begin to bloom the last of July. The Queen +of the Market is probably the freest of growth, +and with its long stems makes a very desirable +variety for cut-flowers. In fact, in the rich, mellow +soil in which Asters delight, this variety is +likely to have its large flowers on stems so long +and slender that the plants will need stakes.</p> + +<p>The Victoria Asters hold a well deserved place +among the leading varieties, and with high culture will +generally lead in size and profusion of bloom, the colors +ranging from white to the darkest blue. The plants are +also well adapted to pot culture. The chrysanthemum-flowered +Asters, both tall and dwarf, are excellent, as are +the Truffaut Perfection and Peony-flowered. The Comet +Asters are amongst the best. The New Branching type is +now in great favor.</p> + +<p>The culture of China Asters is easy. For early bloom +the seeds should be sown in March in boxes of light soil and +covered one-quarter of an inch with soil, the soil pressed +down or firmed over them and the boxes placed in a hotbed +or a sunny window and attention given to watering. When +the seedlings are one inch high they should be transplanted +to other boxes, setting the plants 3 inches apart or +put into 2-inch pots. These should be again placed in a +frame and grown along until the ground has become comparatively +warm. The soil will need to be well enriched, +mellow, and if slightly moist under the surface the results +will be all that could be wished. Asters will grow fairly +well on rather light soil, even if not very rich, but the best +results can only be obtained when the highest culture is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +given. If the rust attacks the plants, spray with ammoniacal +carbonate of copper.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 171px;"> +<img src="images/026-asters2.jpg" width="171" height="159" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Spray of wild Aster</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 143px;"> +<img src="images/026-asters3.jpg" width="143" height="192" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Wild Asters</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Aster, Native.</b> Wild Asters are one of the +glories of the American autumn. They grow almost everywhere +in the north and east,—along roadsides, +in meadows and swales. Their colors +range from pure white to pink, and purple, +and blue. From August until winter closes +in, they are conspicuous features of the landscape, +vying with the goldenrods in form and +color, but surpassing them in color-range. +Most of them are greatly improved when +transferred to the border. They become +more attractive in general habit, and the flowers are usually +more profuse and sometimes larger. They are of the easiest +possible culture. They can be removed to home grounds in +the fall or spring, and, with little care until they are established, +will make most attractive displays of +autumn color. The species are numerous and +much confused, and it is not necessary to make +a list of them here. Because of their free and +careless habit, they are better adapted to +planting in borders than in the formal flower +beds.</p> + +<p><b>Aubrietia deltoidea.</b> A very handsome +little trailing hardy perennial, covered +with attractive purple flowers in early spring. +Should be planted in masses for best effect. +Propagated by cuttings or seeds, usually the latter. Excellent +for rockwork and permanent low edgings.</p> + +<p><b><a name="auricula" id="auricula"></a>Auricula.</b> A half-hardy perennial of the +Primrose tribe (<i>Primula Auricula</i>), very popular in Europe, +but little grown in this country on account of the hot, dry +summers. In this country usually propagated by seed, as +for Cineraria; but special varieties are perpetuated by offsets.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +Seeds sown in February or March should give blooming +plants for the next February or March. Keep the +plants cool and moist, and away from the direct sun during +the summer. Gardeners usually grow them in frames. +In the fall, they are potted into 3-inch or 4-inch pots, and +made to bloom either in frames as for violets or in a cool +conservatory or greenhouse. In April, after blooming has +ceased, repot the plants and treat as the previous year. +From the best plants, offsets may be taken and treated the +same as seedlings. As with most annual-blooming perennials, +best results are to be expected with year-old or 2-year-old +plants. Auriculas grow 6-8 in. high. Colors white +and many shades of red and blue.</p> + +<p><b>Azaleas</b> are less grown in this country than +in Europe, largely because of our hot, dry summers and +severe winters. There are two common types or classes,—the +hardy or Ghent Azaleas, and the Indian Azaleas.</p> + +<p>Ghent Azaleas thrive in the open along the seacoast as +far north as southern New England. They require a sandy, +peaty soil, and are treated as other shrubs are. The large +flower-buds are liable to injury from the warm suns of late +winter and early spring, and to avoid this injury the plants +are often protected by covers or shades of brush. In the +interior country, little attempt is made to flower Azaleas +permanently in the open, although they may be grown if +carefully tended and well protected. Both Ghent and Indian +Azaleas are excellent pot-plants, for bloom in late +winter and spring. The plants are imported in great numbers +from Europe, and it is better to buy these plants than +to attempt to propagate them. Pot them up in large-sized +pots, keep them cool and backward for a time until they are +established, then take them into a conservatory temperature, +in which carnations and roses thrive. They should be +potted in a soil made of half peat or well decayed mold and +half rich loam; add a little sand. Pot firmly, and be sure +to provide sufficient drainage. Keep off red spider by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +syringing. After blooming, the plants may be thinned by +pruning out the straggling growths, and repotted. Set them +in a frame or in a semi-shaded place during summer, and see +that they make a good growth. The wood should be well +ripened in the fall. After cold weather sets in, keep the +Indian or evergreen kinds half-dormant by setting them in +a cool, dull-lighted cellar or pit, bringing them in when +wanted for bloom. The Ghent or deciduous kinds may be +touched with frost without injury; and they may be stored +in a cellar until wanted.</p> + +<p><a name="B" id="B"></a><b>Bachelor’s Button.</b> <a href="#centaurea"><i>Centaurea Cyanus</i></a> +and also <a href="#gomphrena"><i>Gomphrena</i></a>. Sometimes applied +to double-flowered Crowfoots.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 172px;"> +<img src="images/028-balloon.jpg" width="172" height="233" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Balloon Vine</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="balloon" id="balloon"></a>Balloon Vine</b>, or <span class="smcap">Cardiospermum</span>. Annual +tender tendril climber of very rapid growth. +Seed should not be planted until the soil becomes +warm. A very pretty effect can be had by allowing +the vine to run over some coarser vine, or into an +evergreen tree. The balloon-like capsules show to +good advantage between the leaves. It is also useful +for covering piles of brush. Grows 8-12 ft. high. +Give a warm, sunny place.</p> + +<p><b>Balsams</b>, or <span class="smcap">Impatiens</span>. Tender annuals, producing +both single and double flowers of many colors. +These well known favorites are usually to be found in old-fashioned +gardens. They are very likely to seed themselves, +coming up in unexpected places and flourishing in neglect. +They do best, however, in rich, sandy soil. If the seed is +sown in boxes late in April and the plants transplanted several +times they will be much dwarfer and the flowers much +more double. A stately, though very formal and stiff, effect +may be had by planting a row of Balsams in the rear of a +low border, pinching off all the side shoots as they start and +growing the plant to a single stem. This will become covered +with the large blooms, giving it the appearance of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +perfect column of flowers. Balsams are injured by the +slightest frost. Seeds germinate quickly. Plants should +stand 12-18 in. apart. They grow 18-30 in. high.</p> + +<p><b>Bartonia.</b> Hardy annual, with golden yellow, +brilliant flowers. The tall-growing Bartonia (<i>B. aurea</i>) +may be used in a mixed border to good advantage. It is a +bushy plant, reaching 2-3 ft. high. The dwarf kind may +be used as a border plant or in a rock garden, or as an +edging. The fragrance of both tall and dwarf is very pronounced +in the evening. The Bartonias are very easy to +grow in a warm soil and sunny exposure. Their numerous +thread-like, long stamens are very interesting.</p> + +<p><b><a name="basket_plants" id="basket_plants"></a>Basket Plants.</b> In order to have a good hanging +basket, it is necessary that some provision be made +to prevent too rapid drying out of the earth. It is customary, +therefore, to line the pot or basket with moss. Open +wire baskets, like a horse muzzle, are often lined with moss +and used for the growing of plants. Prepare the earth by +mixing some well decayed leaf-mold with rich garden loam, +thereby making an earth which will retain moisture. Hang +the basket in a light place, but still not in a direct sunlight; +and, if possible, avoid putting it where it will be exposed to +drying wind. In order to water the basket, it is often advisable +to sink it into a pail or tub of water. Various +plants are well adapted to hanging baskets. Among the +drooping or vine-like kinds are the strawberry geranium, +Kenilworth ivy, maurandya, German ivy, canary-bird flower, +<i>Asparagus Sprengeri</i>, ivy geranium, trailing fuchsia, wandering +Jew, and othonna. Among the erect-growing plants +which produce flowers, <i>Lobelia Erinus</i>, sweet alyssum, +petunias, oxalis, and various geraniums are to be recommended. +Among foliage plants such things as coleus, dusty +miller, begonia, and some geraniums are adaptable.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 172px;"> +<img src="images/030-basket.jpg" width="172" height="139" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Climax basket</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Baskets.</b> For the picking and handling of +fruit in the home garden, the common Climax basket, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +various sizes, is the best receptacle. In these baskets the +products may be sold. When the baskets are sent to +market or to a friend, they should be neat and new looking; +therefore keep them in a dry, dark place, as +in an attic or loft, to prevent them from +becoming warped and discolored.</p> + +<p><b>Bean.</b> Under the general name of +Bean, many kinds of plants are cultivated. +They are all tender, and the seeds, therefore, +should not be planted until the weather is +thoroughly settled; and the soil should be +warm and loose. They are all annuals in northern countries, +or treated as such.</p> + +<p>The Bean plants may be classified in various ways. In +respect to stature, they may be thrown into three general +categories; viz., the pole or climbing Beans, the bush +Beans, and the strict-growing or upright Beans (as the +Broad or Windsor Bean). In respect to their uses, Beans +again may be divided into three categories; viz., those +which are used as string or snap Beans, the entire pod +being eaten; those which are used as shell Beans, the +full-size but immature Beans being shelled from the pod +and cooked; dry Beans, or those which are eaten in their +dry or winter condition. The same variety of Bean may be +used for all of these three purposes at different stages of its +development; but as a matter of fact, there are varieties +which are better for one purpose than the other. Again, +Beans may be classified in respect to their species. Those +species which are best known are as follows: (1) Common +Bean, or <i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i>, of which there are both +tall and bush forms. All the common snap and string Beans +belong here, as also the Speckled Cranberry types of pole +Beans, and the common field Beans. (2) The Lima Beans, +or <i>Phaseolus lunatus</i>. The larger part of these are pole +Beans, but lately dwarf or bush varieties have appeared. +(3) The Scarlet Runner, <i>Phaseolus multiflorus</i>, of which the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +Scarlet Runner and White Dutch Runner are familiar examples. +The Scarlet Runner is usually grown as an ornamental +vine, and it is perennial in warm countries, but the +Beans are edible as shelled Beans. The White Dutch +Runner is oftener cultivated for food. (4) The Yard-Long, +or Asparagus Bean, <i>Dolichos sesquipedalis</i>, which produces +long and weak vines and very long, slender pods. The +green pods are eaten, and also the shelled Beans. The +French Yard-Long is the only variety of this type which is +commonly known in this country. This type of Bean is +popular in the Orient. (5) The Broad Beans, of which the +Windsor is the common type. These are much grown in +the Old World for stock feed, and they are sometimes used +for human food. They grow to one strict, central, stiff +stalk, to a height of 2-4 or 5 ft., and they are very unlike +other kinds of Beans in appearance. In this country, they +are very little grown on account of our hot and dry summers. +In Canada they are somewhat grown, and are sometimes +used in the making of ensilage.</p> + +<p>The culture of the Bean, while of the easiest, often +proves a failure as far as the first crop is concerned, because +of planting the seed before the ground has become +warm and dry. No vegetable seed will decay quicker than +Beans, and the delay caused by waiting for the soil to become +warm and free from excessive moisture will be more +than made up by the rapidity of growth when finally they +are planted. Beans will grow in most any soil, but the best +results may be obtained by having the soil well enriched +and in good physical condition. From the 5th to the 10th +of May in the latitude of central New York, it will be safe +to plant Beans for an early crop. The Beans may be +dropped 2 inches deep in shallow drills, the seeds to lie 3 +inches apart. Cover to the surface of the soil, and if the +ground be dry, firm it with the foot or the back of the hoe. +For the bush varieties, allow 2 ft. between the drill-rows, +but for the dwarf Limas 2½ ft. is better. Pole Limas are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +usually planted in hills 2-3 ft. apart in the rows. Dwarf +Limas may be sown thinly in drills.</p> + +<p>A large number of the varieties of both the green-podded +and the wax-podded Beans are used almost exclusively as +snap Beans, to be eaten with the pod while tender. The +various strains of the Black Wax are the most popular +string Beans. The pole or running Beans are used either +green or dried, and the Limas, both tall and dwarf, are +well known for their superior flavor either as shelled or +dry Beans. The old-fashioned Cranberry or Horticultural +Lima type (a pole form of <i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i>) is probably +the best shell Bean, but the trouble of poling makes it +unpopular. Dwarf Limas are much more desirable for +small gardens than the pole varieties, as they may be +planted much closer, the bother of procuring poles and +twine is avoided, and the garden will have a more sightly +appearance. Both the dwarf Limas and pole Limas require +a longer season in which to mature than the bush varieties, +and only one planting is usually made. But the bush varieties +may be planted at intervals of two weeks from the +first planting until the 10th of August. Each planting may +be made on ground previously occupied by some early-maturing +crop. Thus, the first to third plantings may be on +ground from which has been harvested a crop of spinach, +early radish or lettuce; after that, on ground where early +peas have been grown; and the later sowings where beets +or early potatoes have grown. String Beans for canning +are usually taken from the last crop. One quart of seed +will plant 100 ft. of drill; or 1 quart of Limas will plant +100 hills.</p> + +<p>Limas are the richest of Beans, but they often fail to +mature in the northern states. The land should not be +very rich in nitrogen (or stable manure), else the plants +will run too much to vine and be too late. Select a fertile +sandy or gravelly soil with warm exposure, use some soluble +commercial fertilizer to start them off, and give them the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +best of culture. Aim to have the pods set before the +droughts of midsummer come. Good trellises for Beans +are made by wool twine stretched between two horizontal +wires, one of which is drawn a foot above the ground and +the other 6 or 7 ft. high.</p> + +<p>Bean plants are not troubled by insects to any extent, +but they are sometimes attacked by blight. When this occurs, +do not plant the same ground to Beans again for +a year or two.</p> + +<p><b><a name="bedding" id="bedding"></a>Bedding.</b> This term is used to designate the +massing of plants in the open ground for the purpose of +making a bold display of color. This color may be obtained +with flowers or with strong effects of foliage. Bedding is +ordinarily a temporary species of planting; that is, the bed +is filled anew each year. However, the term may be used +to designate a permanent plantation of plants which are +heavily massed so as to give one continuous or emphatic +display of form or color. Some of the best permanent bedding +masses are made of the various hardy ornamental +grasses, as eulalias, arundo, and the like.</p> + +<p>Some bedding is very temporary in its effect. Especially +is this true of spring Bedding, in which the plants used are +tulips, hyacinths, crocuses or other early-flowering bulbous +plants. In this case, the ground is usually occupied later in +the season by other plants. These later plants are usually +annuals, the seeds of which are sown amongst the bulbs as +soon as the season is far enough advanced; or the annuals +may be started in boxes and the plants transplanted amongst +the bulbs as soon as the weather is fit. Many of the low-growing +and compact, continuous-flowering annuals are excellent +for summer Bedding effects. Some of the best plants +for this purpose are mentioned in the following list:</p> + +<ul> +<li>Adonis æstivalis.</li> +<li>Adonis autumnalis.</li> +<li>Ageratum Mexicanum.</li> +<li>Ageratum Mexicanum, dwarf.</li> +<li>Bartonia aurea.</li> +<li>Cacalia.</li> +<li>Calendula officinalis, in several forms.</li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +Calendula pluvialis.</li> +<li>Calendula Pongei.</li> +<li>Calendula sulphurea, fl. pl.</li> +<li>Calendula suffruticosa.</li> +<li>Calliopsis bicolor marmorata.</li> +<li>Calliopsis cardaminæfolia.</li> +<li>Calliopsis elegans picta.</li> +<li>Callirrhoë involucrata.</li> +<li>Callirrhoë pedata nana.</li> +<li>Callirrhoë pedata.</li> +<li>Centaurea Americana.</li> +<li>Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact.</li> +<li>Centaurea Cyanus minor.</li> +<li>Centaurea suaveolens.</li> +<li>Chrysanthemum Burridgeanum.</li> +<li>Chrysanthemum carinatum.</li> +<li>Chrysanthemum coronarium.</li> +<li>Chrysanthemum tricolor.</li> +<li>Convolvulus minor.</li> +<li>Convolvulus tricolor.</li> +<li>Cosmidium Burridgeanum.</li> +<li>Delphinium, single.</li> +<li>Delphinium, double.</li> +<li>Dianthus, Double White Half Dwarf Margaret.</li> +<li>Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual.</li> +<li>Dianthus Caryophyllus semperflorens.</li> +<li>Dianthus Chinensis, double.</li> +<li>Dianthus dentosus hybridus.</li> +<li>Dianthus Heddewigii.</li> +<li>Dianthus imperialis.</li> +<li>Dianthus laciniatus, Salmon Queen.</li> +<li>Dianthus plumarius.</li> +<li>Dianthus superbus, dwarf fl. pl.</li> +<li>Dianthus, Picotee.</li> +<li>Elscholtzia cristata.</li> +<li>Eschscholtzia Californica.</li> +<li>Eschscholtzia crocea.</li> +<li>Eschscholtzia, Mandarin.</li> +<li>Eschscholtzia tenuifolia.</li> +<li>Gaillardia picta.</li> +<li>Gaillardia picta Lorenziana.</li> +<li>Gilia achilleæfolia.</li> +<li>Gilia capitata.</li> +<li>Gilia laciniata.</li> +<li>Gilia linifolia.</li> +<li>Gilia nivalis.</li> +<li>Gilia tricolor.</li> +<li>Godetia Whitneyi.</li> +<li>Godetia grandiflora maculata.</li> +<li>Godetia rubicunda splendens.</li> +<li>Hibiscus Africanus.</li> +<li>Hibiscus, Golden Bowl.</li> +<li>Iberis affinis.</li> +<li>Iberis amara.</li> +<li>Iberis coronaria.</li> +<li>Iberis umbellata.</li> +<li>Impatiens or Balsam.</li> +<li>Lavatera alba.</li> +<li>Lavatera trimestris.</li> +<li>Linum grandiflorum.</li> +<li>Madia elegans.</li> +<li>Malope grandiflora.</li> +<li>Matricaria eximia plena.</li> +<li>Matthiola or Stock, in many forms.</li> +<li>Matthiola, Wallflower-leaved.</li> +<li>Matthiola bicornis.</li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +Nigella or Love-in-a-Mist.</li> +<li>Œnothera Drummondii.</li> +<li>Œnothera Lamarckiana.</li> +<li>Œnothera rosea.</li> +<li>Œnothera tetraptera.</li> +<li>Papaver or Poppy, of many kinds.</li> +<li>Papaver cardinale.</li> +<li>Papaver glaucum.</li> +<li>Papaver umbrosum.</li> +<li>Petunia, Ring of Emerald.</li> +<li>Phlox Drummondii, in many varieties.</li> +<li>Portulaca.</li> +<li>Salvia farinacea.</li> +<li>Salvia Horminum.</li> +<li>Salvia splendens.</li> +<li>Schizanthus papilionaceus.</li> +<li>Schizanthus pinnatus.</li> +<li>Silene Armeria.</li> +<li>Silene pendula.</li> +<li>Tagetes or Marigold, in many forms.</li> +<li>Tagetes erecta.</li> +<li>Tagetes patula.</li> +<li>Tagetes signata.</li> +<li>Tropæolum, Dwarf.</li> +<li>Verbena auriculæflora.</li> +<li>Verbena Italica striata.</li> +<li>Verbena hybrida.</li> +<li>Verbena cœrulea.</li> +<li>Verbena, Golden-leaved.</li> +<li>Viscaria cœli-rosa.</li> +<li>Viscaria elegans picta.</li> +<li>Viscaria oculata.</li> +<li>Zinnia, Dwarf.</li> +<li>Zinnia elegans alba.</li> +<li>Zinnia, Tom Thumb.</li> +<li>Zinnia Haageana.</li> +<li>Zinnia coccinea plena.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Summer bedding is often made by perennial plants which +are carried over from the preceding year, or better, which +are propagated for that particular purpose in February and +March. Such plants as geranium, coleus, alyssum, scarlet +salvia, ageratum and heliotrope may be used for these beds. +It is a common practice to use geranium plants which are in +bloom during the winter for bedding out during the summer, +but such plants are tall and ungainly in form and have +expended the greater part of their energies. It is better to +propagate new plants by taking cuttings or slips late in the +winter and setting out young, fresh, vigorous subjects.</p> + +<p>Very bold and subtropical effects can be made by planting +in the open such things as palms, bananas, crotons, +araucarias, caladiums and cannas. Plants like bananas and +palms, which are kept normally in pots, would better be left +in the pots and plunged to the rims rather than turned out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +directly into the soil. In order to attain quick and continuous +effects, it is advisable to set the plants rather close. +As such plants are likely to be injured by strong winds, it +is well to have subtropical beds in a somewhat protected +place.</p> + +<p>Another type of bed is that which attempts to make +patterns or designs, or carpet-bedding. There are comparatively +few plants which are adapted to this purpose, +for the plants must be such as will stand shearing and which +have very strong and constant colors of foliage. The most +popular bedding plants are coleus (particularly the yellow +Golden Bedder) achyranthes, alternanthera, <i>Centaurea +gymnocarpa</i>, and such succulent plants as the house leeks. +Some of the annual flowers may also be used for strong +color effects, as <i>Lobelia Erinus</i> and sweet alyssum. Ordinarily +the making of carpet-beds should be left to professional +gardeners, since it requires much skill and care to +make and keep the beds in perfect condition; and a ragged +or imperfect carpet-bed is worse than no bed at all. Carpet-beds +are really curiosities, and they have no more legitimate +place in the general pictorial landscape design area than +painted stones or sheared evergreens. Therefore, they +should be placed by themselves at one side, where they do not +interfere with the general design of the place. In public +parks they make a very useful attraction when set off by +themselves, the same as zoölogical gardens or other attractions +do.</p> + +<p><b>Beefsteak Geranium</b> is <a href="#begonias"><i>Begonia</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Beets.</b> Being one of the hardiest of spring +vegetables, the seed may be sown as early in the spring as +the ground can be worked. A light, sandy soil is the best +on which to grow Beets to perfection, but any well tilled +garden soil will raise satisfactory crops. On heavy soil the +turnip Beet gives the best results, as the growth is nearly +all at or above the surface. The long varieties, having +tapering roots running deep into the soil, are apt to be misshapen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +unless the physical condition of the soil is such that +the roots meet with little obstruction. A succession of sowings +should be made, at intervals of from two to three weeks, +until late summer, as the Beets are much more desirable +in their young stage than when they have become old and +woody. The Mangel-Wurzel and the Sugar Beet are usually +grown as a field crop, and will not enter into the calculations +of the home garden.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 138px;"> +<img src="images/037-beets.jpg" width="138" height="245" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Early Beets</p> +</div> + +<p>In order to hasten the season of the extra-early crop of +Beets, the seeds may be sown in boxes or in the soil of a +hotbed in February or March, transplanting the small plants +to the open ground at the time the first sowing of seed is +made. As the flat or turnip-rooted varieties grow at the +surface of the ground, the seed may be sown thickly, and as +the more advanced roots are large enough to use they may +be pulled, leaving room for the later ones to develop, thus +growing a quantity in a small area and having a long season +of small Beets from one sowing. For winter use +the late July sown seed will give the best roots, +growing through the cool months of the fall to a +medium size and remaining firm without being +tough or stringy. These may be dug up after +light frosts and before any severe cold weather, +and stored in barrels or boxes in the cellar, using +enough dry dirt to fill spaces between the roots +and cover them to the depth of 6 inches. These +roots, thus packed in a cool cellar, will be fit to +use through the entire winter months. When it +can be had, florists’ or sphagnum moss is an excellent +medium in which to pack roots for winter.</p> + +<p>The early round or turnip varieties are best for early and +summer use. The Long Blood Beets may be used for storing, +but these require a longer season of growth.</p> + +<p><b><a name="begonias" id="begonias"></a>Begonias.</b> Tender bedding and house plants. +Next to the geranium, Begonias are probably the most popular +for house culture of the entire plant list. The ease of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +culture, profusion of bloom or richness of foliage, together +with their adaptability to shade, make them very desirable.</p> + +<p>Begonias may be divided into three sections: the fibrous-rooted +class, which contains the winter-flowering varieties; +the tuberous-rooted, those which +bloom through the summer, the +tuber resting through the winter; +and the Rex forms, or Beefsteak +Geraniums, having large ornamental +leaves.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 245px;"> +<img src="images/038-begonia.jpg" width="245" height="220" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Fibrous-rooted Begonia</p> +</div> + +<p>The fibrous-rooted kinds may be +propagated by seed or cuttings, the +latter being the usual method. Cuttings +of half-ripened wood root easily, +making a rapid growth, the +plants flowering in a few months.</p> + +<p>The tuberous-rooted varieties are propagated by division +of the tuber or from seed, the former being rarely done except +to increase the stock of some extra fine variety. The +seeds, like those of all Begonias, are very small, and +should be sown with great care. Simply sprinkle them on +the surface of the soil, which should be a mixture of leaf-mold +and sand, with the addition of a small amount of fibrous +loam. Watering should be done by setting the pot or box +in which the seeds are sown in water, allowing the moisture +to ascend through the soil. When the soil has become completely +saturated, set the box in a shady situation, covering +it with glass or some other object until the tiny seedlings +appear. Never allow the soil to become dry. The seedlings +should be transplanted, as soon as they can be handled, into +boxes or pots containing the same mixture of soil, setting +each plant down to the seed-leaf. They will need three or +four transplantings before they reach the blooming stage, +and at each one after the first, the amount of fibrous loam +may be increased until the soil is composed of one-third +each of loam, sand and leaf-mold. The addition of a little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +well rotted manure may be made at the last transplanting. +These tuberous-rooted Begonias make superior bedding +plants if given a shady situation and deep soil; but for the +amateur they are perhaps better grown as pot-plants, for +one is able to give them better conditions by that method. +The flowers are both double and single, +ranging in color from pure white and yellow +to pink and red. After flowering the plants +will die down and the tubers, after drying +off, may be placed in a dry, warm place +until spring.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 168px;"> +<img src="images/039-begonia2.jpg" width="168" height="160" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Rex Begonia</p> +</div> + +<p>The Rex type, having no branches, is +propagated from the leaves. The large mature +leaves are used. The leaf may be cut +into sections having at the base a union of +two ribs. These pieces of leaves may be inserted in the sand +as any other cutting. Or a whole leaf may be used, cutting +through the ribs at intervals and laying the leaf flat on the +propagating bench or other warm, moist place. In a short +time young plants having roots of their own will form. +These may be potted when large enough to handle, and will +soon make good sized plants. Rex Begonias usually grow +little during winter. Be sure that the pots are well drained, +so that the soil does not become sour. New plants—those +a year or so old—are usually most satisfactory. Keep them +away from direct sunlight.</p> + +<p>An insidious disease of Begonia leaves has recently made +its appearance. The best treatment yet known is to propagate +fresh plants, throwing away the old stock +and the dirt in which it is grown.</p> + +<p><b>Bellis perennis.</b> <a href="#daisy">See <i>Daisy</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;"> +<img src="images/039-blkberry.jpg" width="164" height="167" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Ancient Briton Blackberry</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Blackberries.</b> The one essential to +the successful growing of Blackberries is a +moist soil,—not one in which water will stand, +but one rich enough in humus to hold sufficient +moisture to carry the crop through the growing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +season. It is usually found best to plant in the fall, +earthing up slightly around the plants. The distance between +the plants should be regulated by the variety. The +smaller-growing kinds (as Early Harvest and Wilson) may +be planted 4 x 7 ft., the rank-growing varieties +(as Snyder) 6 x 8 ft. Thorough cultivation +throughout the season will help in a material +degree to hold the moisture necessary to perfect +a good crop. The soil should be cultivated +very shallow, however, so as not to disturb +the roots, as the breaking of the roots +starts a large number of suckers that have to +be cut out and destroyed.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 163px;"> +<img src="images/040-shears.jpg" width="163" height="170" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Shears for cutting out +old canes</p> +</div> + +<p>Blackberries, like dewberries and raspberries, +bear but one crop on the cane. That is, +canes which spring up this year bear next year. +From 3 to 6 canes are sufficient to be left in each +hill. The superfluous ones are thinned out soon +after they start from the ground. The old canes +should be cut out soon after fruiting and burned. +The new shoots should be pinched back at the +height of 2 or 3 ft. if the plants are to support +themselves. If to be fastened to wires, they may +be allowed to grow throughout the season and be +cut back when tied to the wires in winter or early +spring. Tools for the cutting out of the old canes +are well represented in the pictures. Shears are used +for shortening-in the canes.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 172px;"> +<img src="images/040-shears2.jpg" width="172" height="187" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Shears for heading-in +bushes</p> +</div> + +<p>Blackberry plants are sometimes laid down in cold +climates,—the tops being bent over and held to the +ground by earth or sods thrown on their tips.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 96px;"> +<img src="images/040-hook.jpg" width="96" height="160" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Knife hook for cutting out +old canes</p> +</div> +<p>Snyder is the most popular commercial variety; +but Agawam, Ancient Briton, Taylor, and others are +better in quality. A new patch should be planted +every five or six years.</p> + +<p><b>Blue Bottle.</b> <a href="#centaurea">See <i>Centaurea Cyanus</i>.</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +<b><a name="bordeaux" id="bordeaux"></a>Bordeaux Mixture</b> is a fungicide, used to combat +mildews, leaf-diseases, blights, etc. It is sprayed on +the plants with a spray pump or syringe, or it may be applied +with a whisk broom. Apply enough of it so that the +foliage looks blue. It is made as follows: Copper sulfate, +6 pounds; quicklime, 4 pounds; water, 40 to 50 gallons. +Dissolve the copper sulfate by putting it into a bag of coarse +cloth and hanging this in a vessel holding at least four gallons, +so that it is just covered by the water. Use an +earthen or wooden vessel. Slake the lime in an equal +amount of water. Then mix the two and add enough +water to make 40 gallons. It is then ready for immediate +use, but will keep for some time. If the mixture +is to be used on peach foliage, it is advisable to add an +extra pound of lime to the above formula. When applied +to such plants as carnations or cabbages, it will +adhere better if a pound of hard soap is dissolved in +hot water and added to the mixture. For rots, molds, +mildews, and all fungous diseases.</p> + +<p>Whilst Bordeaux Mixture is the best general fungicide, +it discolors the plants until it washes off. On ornamental +plants, therefore, a colorless fungicide may be preferable. +In such cases, use the ammoniacal carbonate of copper +solution, as follows: Copper carbonate, 1 ounce; ammonia, +1 volume 26° Baumé, ⅞ volumes water (enough to dissolve +the copper); water, 9 gallons. The copper carbonate is best +dissolved in large bottles, where it will keep indefinitely, +and it should be diluted with water as required. For the +same purposes as Bordeaux Mixture.</p> + +<p><b><a name="border" id="border"></a>Border.</b> The word border is used to designate +the heavy or continuous planting about the boundaries of a +place, or along the walks and drives, or against the buildings, +in distinction from planting on the lawn or in the interior +spaces. A border receives different designations, +depending upon the kinds of plants which are grown +therein; that is, it may be a shrub border, a flower<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +border, a hardy border for native and other hardy plants, +a vine border, and the like. As a rule, the most effective +planting is that which is thrown into masses, for one plant +reinforces the other, and the flowers have a good setting +or background. Very striking displays of foliage and flowers +and plant forms can be made when massed together. As a +rule, plants are more easily grown when planted in a border, +since the whole area can be kept cultivated with ease; and +if a plant becomes weak or dies, its place is readily filled +by the neighboring plants spreading into it. Planting in +masses is also essential to the best arrangement of the +yard, since the basis of any landscape is +a more or less continuous greensward (<a href="#lawns">see +<i>Lawn</i></a>). The house occupies the central +part of the area, and the sides are heavily +massed or planted so as to make a framework +for the whole place. The border +may be mixed,—that is, composed of a great +variety of plants,—or it may be made up of +one continuous thing. In long and very +striking borders, it is often best to have the +background—that is, the back row—of one general type of +plant in order to give continuity and strength to the whole +group. In front of this a variety of plants may be set, if +one desire.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 184px;"> +<img src="images/042-steps.jpg" width="184" height="177" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Planting by the steps</p> +</div> + +<p>The land should be rich. The whole ground should be +plowed or spaded and the plants set irregularly in the +space; or the back row may be set in a line. If the border +is composed of shrubs, and is large, a horse cultivator may +be run in and out between the plants for the first two or +three years, since the shrubs will be set from 2 to 4 ft. +apart. Ordinarily, however, the cultivating is done by hand +tools. After the plants are once established and the border +is filled, it is best to dig up as little as possible, for the +digging disturbs the roots and breaks off the crowns. It is +usually best to pull out the weeds and give the border a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +top-dressing each fall of well rotted manure. If the ground +is not very rich, a sprinkling of ashes or some commercial +fertilizer may be given from time to time. The border +should be planted so thick as to allow the plants to run +together, thereby giving one continuous effect. Most +shrubs should be set 3 feet apart. Things as large as +lilacs may go 4 feet and sometimes even more. Common +herbaceous perennials, like bleeding heart, delphiniums, +hollyhocks, and the like, should go from 12 to 18 inches. +On the front edge of the border is a very excellent +place for annual and tender flowering plants. Here, +for example, one may make a fringe of asters, geraniums, +coleus, or anything else which he may choose (<a href="#flower_beds">see +<i>Flower Beds</i></a>).</p> + +<p>The border is an excellent place in which to colonize +native or other interesting plants. A person comes across +an attractive plant on his tramp and wishes it were in his +garden. Whatever the time of year, he may break off the +top close to the ground, take up the roots and plant them +in the border. If a little attention is given to the plant for +the first two or three weeks, as watering or mulching or +shading, it should become established and give satisfactory +bloom the following year. Two-thirds of the herbs +which one would take up in this way, even in midsummer, +should grow. Into the heavy borders about the boundaries +of the place the autumn leaves will drift and afford an excellent +mulch. If these borders are planted with shrubs, +the leaves may be left there to decay, and not be raked off in +the spring. The general outline of the border facing the +lawn should be more or less wavy or irregular, particularly +if it is on the boundary of the place. Alongside a walk or +drive, the margins may follow the general directions of the +walk or drive.</p> + +<p>There are three rules for the choosing of plants for a +hardy border. Choose (1) those which you like best, (2) +those which are adapted to the climate and soil, (3) those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +which are in place or in keeping with that part of the +grounds. See <a href="#herbs"><i>Herbs</i></a>, <a href="#shrub"><i>Shrubs</i></a>, <a href="#trees"><i>Trees</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Borecole</b> is <a href="#kale"><i>Kale</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b><a name="borers" id="borers"></a>Borers.</b> There is no sovereign remedy for +borers except to dig them out. Do not rely upon washes or +other applications. If trees are examined two or three +times a year, it is not a laborious undertaking to dig them +out, as they will not be deep in the wood. If they do get +deep in the wood, thrust a wire into the burrow. By the +chips cast from the holes, or by the dead bark, the presence +of borers may be detected. Apple and peach trees are particularly +liable to attack. The flat-headed apple-tree borer +works just underneath the bark on any part of the trunk or +large branches. The round-headed apple-tree borer eats +into the wood at the crown.</p> + +<p><b>Boxes</b> of many sizes can be utilized in which +to grow plants. Excellent effects of bulbs and annuals may +be had in old soap boxes. The boxes may be placed in +the best situations for the growth of the plants, and they +can receive better attention than the large flower bed. +Vines planted about the edge will hide the sides,—such +vines as Kenilworth ivy, moneywort, maurandya, trailing +fuchsia, and the like.</p> + +<p><b>Brachycome.</b> <a href="#swan_river">See <i>Swan River Daisy</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Broccoli.</b> This is almost identical with the +Cauliflower, except that it usually requires a longer season +and matures in the fall. It is grown more generally in +Europe than in this country. The special merit of Broccoli +is its adaptability for late summer planting and its +rapid growth in the late fall. It is said that a large +proportion of Broccoli is used in the manufacture of +pickles. The culture is the same as for Cauliflower,—deep, +moist soil well enriched, cool weather, and the destruction +of the cabbage worm.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +The young plants may be grown in a coldframe or in a +well protected border, sowing the seed about the 15th of +May, transplanting into rows in July. In sections in which +early fall frosts are not to be feared, the plants may be set +two weeks later, say August 1, as all vegetables of the +cabbage family make the best growth through the cool +months of September and October. The plants should be +set 18 in. apart in the rows, the rows being from 2½ ft. to 3 +ft. apart.</p> + +<p><b><a name="browallia" id="browallia"></a>Browallia elata</b> is a very fine tender annual, +giving a border or mixed bed a dash of amethyst blue not +often found in flowers. It is a strong-growing plant with a +profusion of bloom, and no doubt one of the choicest plants +of its color in cultivation. There are other species with +white flowers that serve as contrast, and may be grown +with this. All of the kinds may be taken up and potted +in the fall, cutting the plant well back, and a profusion +of bloom may be obtained through the winter months if +attention is given to pinching off the seed pods. In the +garden, let the plants stand 12 in. apart. The plants grow +1-2 ft. high.</p> + +<p><b>Brussels Sprouts.</b> This is a vegetable that +should be more generally known, as it is one of the +choicest of the cabbage family, and may be had at its +best after the season for cauliflower has passed. It is +the better for being touched by the fall frosts. The +parts used are the buttons or sprouts (miniature cabbage +heads) that grow thickly along the stem. These should +be cut off rather than broken. The very small hard +“sprouts” or buttons are the best. The culture is essentially +the same as for late cabbage or broccoli. One ounce +will sow 100 ft. of drill, or make upward of 2,000 plants. +Set plants in field 2-3 ft. apart. They require the entire +season in which to grow.</p> + +<p><b>Budding.</b> <a href="#grafting">See <i>Grafting</i>.</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +<b><a name="bulbs" id="bulbs"></a>Bulbs.</b> The outdoor culture of bulbs is extremely +simple. They care for themselves throughout a +greater part of the year, many of them flowering when no +other plants are able to grow and bloom out of doors.</p> + +<p>While all the so-called Holland bulbs will thrive in any +kind of soil, they will all do better by being planted in a +deep, sandy soil well enriched with well rotted manure. +But do not let the manure come into direct contact with the +bulb. Even heavy clay soil may be fitted for the growing of +bulbs by the addition of sharp sand, either worked into the +soil or placed directly under the bulb when planted. To +make a bulb bed, choose, if possible, a sandy soil and throw +out the top soil to the depth of 6 in. Put into the bottom +of the bed about 2 in. of well rotted manure and spade it +into the soil. Throw back half of the top soil, level it off +nicely, set the bulbs firmly on this bed and then cover them +with the balance of the soil; in this way one will have the +bulbs from 3 to 4 in. below the surface. In the fall months +the top of the ground is cooler than at the depth of 5 or 6 +in. and the top of the bulb will not want to grow, while the +bottom, which is always in a hurry, will send out roots, +to push out the leaves and flowers the next spring. When +the weather is cold enough to freeze a hard crust on the +soil, the bed should have its winter overcoat. This may be +straw, hay, cornstalks or leaves spread over the bed to the +depth of 6 in. if the material is coarse; but if leaves +are used, 3 in. will be enough, because the leaves lay close +together and may smother out the frost that is in the +ground and let the bulbs start. What we want is to keep +them asleep until spring, because if they start too early the +hard freezes of March and early April will spoil their beauty +if the leaves or flowers are near or above the surface. +Early in April, in New York, the covering may be removed +gradually, and should all be off the beds before the leaves +show above the ground.</p> + +<p>If there is no sandy place for the beds, make them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +as directed, leaving the stones in the bottom of the bed +for drainage. Then, when ready to set the bulb, place +a large handful of sand where the bulb is to go and set the +bulb on it. This will keep the water from standing around +the bulb. Very fine results may be had on heavy soil by +this method.</p> + +<p>As to kinds of bulbs, select hyacinths, tulips or narcissus +or daffodils, with snowdrops or crocuses of various +colors around the edge. For the culture of these and other +bulbs, see the various articles throughout the book.</p> + +<p><i>The growing of flowering bulbs through the winter</i> adds +to the list of house plants a charming variety. The labor, +time and skill required is much less than that of growing +many of the larger plants more commonly used for winter +decorations. The larger number of winter bulbs may +be left out of doors until within four to six weeks of the +time when they are wanted in flower. Hyacinths, narcissus, +tulips, and crocus can be made to flower in the winter +without difficulty. Secure the bulbs so as to be able to pot +them by the middle or last of October, or if earlier all the +better. The soil should be rich, sandy loam, if possible; if +not, the best one can get, to which add about one-fourth +the bulk of sand and mix thoroughly. If ordinary flower +pots are to be used, put in the bottom a few pieces of +broken pots, charcoal or small stones for drainage, then fill +the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on the dirt +the top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot. Fill +around it with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing +above the dirt. If the soil is heavy, a good plan is to +sprinkle a small handful of sand under the bulb to carry off +the water, the same as is done in the beds outdoors. If one +does not have pots he may use boxes. Starch boxes are a +good size to use, as they are not heavy to handle; and excellent +flowers are sometimes obtained from bulbs planted +in old tomato cans. If boxes or cans are used, care must +be taken to have holes in the bottoms to let the water run<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +out. A large size hyacinth bulb will do well in a 5-inch +pot. The same size pot will do for three or four narcissuses +or eight to twelve crocuses.</p> + +<p>After the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles, +they should be placed in a cool place, either in a +cold pit or cellar, or on the shady side of a building, or, +better yet, plunged or buried up to the rim of the pot in a +shady border. This is done to force the roots to grow +while the top stands still; as only the bulbs with good roots +will give good flowers. When the weather gets so cold that +a crust is frozen on the soil, the pots should be covered +with a little straw, and as the weather gets colder more +straw must be used. In from six to eight weeks after +planting the bulbs, they should have made roots enough to +grow the plant, and they may be taken up and placed in a +cool room for a week or so, after which, if they have +started into growth, they may be taken into a warmer room +where they can have plenty of light. They will grow very +rapidly now and will want lots of water, and after the +flowers begin to show, the pots may stand in a saucer of +water all the time. When just coming into bloom the +plants may have full sunlight part of the time to help +bring out the color of the flowers.</p> + +<p><b>Bushes.</b> <a href="#shrub">See <i>Shrubs</i>.</a></p> + +<p><a name="C" id="C"></a><b>Cabbage.</b> For an early crop, the plants must be +started either in February or early March, or the previous +September and wintered over in coldframes. This latter +method was once a common practice by gardeners near large +cities, but the building of greenhouses to replace the many +hotbeds of the market-gardener has changed the practice +in many localities, and now most of the early Cabbages +in the north are grown from seed sown in January, February +or March. The plants are hardened off in March and +early April and planted out as early as possible. The private +grower, or one with a small garden, may often procure +his early plants from the market-gardener much cheaper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +than he can grow them, as usually only a limited number of +early Cabbage plants are wanted; but for the midseason and +main crop, the seed may be sown in May or June, setting +the plants in July.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 224px;"> +<img src="images/049-cabbage.jpg" width="224" height="150" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Early Cabbage</p> +</div> + +<p>For early planting, the number of varieties is limited to +three or four. For an intermediate crop the list is more +extended, and the late varieties are very numerous. The +early list is headed by the Jersey Wakefield, a variety which +heads very quickly, and, although not one of the solid +kinds, is generally grown. The Early +York and Winnigstadt are good varieties +to follow it. The latter especially +is solid and of very good quality. For +the midseason, the Succession and All +Season are of the best, and for the winter +supply the Drumhead, Danish Ball +and Flat Dutch types are the leaders. +One of the best of the Cabbages for +table use is seldom seen in the garden—the Savoy Cabbage. +It is a type with netted leaves, making a large, low-growing +head, the center of which is very solid and of excellent +flavor, especially late in the fall, when the heads have had +a slight touch of frost. Savoy should be grown in every +private garden.</p> + +<p>The seed-bed should be made mellow and rich. A good +border will do. The seed is sown preferably in rows, thus +allowing thinning of the plants and the pulling of any +weeds that germinate. The young plants will well repay +attention to watering and thinning. The rows should be 3 +or 4 in. apart. When the plants are large enough to transplant, +they may be planted where early vegetables have +been grown. Set the plants from 18 to 24 in. apart in the +row, the rows being 3 ft. apart for the medium-growing +kinds. One ounce of seed will furnish about two thousand +plants. All Cabbages require deep and rich soil, and one +that holds moisture well.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +The best remedy for the Cabbage worm is to kill the +first brood on the very young plants with Paris green. +After the plants begin to head, pyrethrum or salt water +may be used. On a small area, hand-picking may be +recommended.</p> + +<p>The maggot is the most serious Cabbage pest. After +studying the seventy odd remedies proposed, Slingerland +concludes that 6 are efficient and practicable: growing the +young plants in closely covered frames; tarred paper cards +placed snugly about the base of the plants to keep the fly +away; rubbing the eggs from the base of the plant; hand-picking +of the maggots; treating the plants with emulsion +of carbolic acid; treating them with carbon bisulfide. The +insecticidal materials are injected or poured into the soil +about the base of the plant.</p> + +<p>Respecting these two insecticides, Slingerland remarks: +“Always use the crude carbolic acid, as it is much cheaper +than the purified and is nearly, if not quite, as effective. +It will probably be safer if used as an emulsion than if +simply diluted with water. We would advise that it be +made by the follow formula: 1 pound of hard soap or 1 +quart of soft soap dissolved in 1 gallon of boiling water, into +which 1 pint of crude carbolic acid is then poured and the +whole mass agitated into an emulsion, which will remain in +this condition for a long time. In treating the plants, take +one part of this standard emulsion and dilute it with 30 +equal parts of water; it probably can be used stronger without +injury to the plants. If the emulsion is cold and semi-solid, +use several parts of warm water at first. Begin the +treatment early, a day or two after the plants are up, or in +the case of Cabbages and Cauliflowers the next day after +they are set in the field, and repeat it once each week or 10 +days until about May 20 in our state. While we have little +faith in the preventive effects of the early treatments, we do +believe that the emulsion will then kill many of the eggs +and recently hatched maggots. If it could be applied with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +some force through a syringe or force pump, it might not be +necessary to go to the trouble of first removing some of the +earth from about the plants. It must be remembered that +its success will depend on the eggs or maggots being hit +with it. None of the Cabbages in our experiment were injured +in the least by an application containing nearly twice +as much of the acid, and there is but little danger of its +injuring the tenderest foliage of radishes, turnips or onions; +if any injury manifests itself on these crops, dilute the +emulsion with 40 or 50 or more parts of water, instead of 30. +A knapsack or wheelbarrow sprayer would prove a very useful +instrument in applying the emulsion on a large scale.”</p> + +<p>The carbon bisulfide is best injected into the soil by +means of a long-nosed syringe. Slingerland (Cornell Bulletin +78) illustrates a specially made syringe or injector for this +purpose: “Thus Cabbage plants can be treated once, and +once is usually sufficient, at the rate of about 10 plants for +1 cent for the liquid, using about 1 teaspoonful to each +plant. As the injector will last for years, and several +neighbors might join in the purchase and use of one instrument, +its cost would practically not influence this estimate +of the cost of killing the maggots. We believe it is the +cheapest, most effective, and most practicable method yet +devised for fighting this pest on crops of Cabbages and +cauliflowers; on crops of radishes, turnips, or onions it will +probably be too expensive except where choice or new varieties +are attacked. The carbolic acid emulsion will prove +the most practicable on these last crops.”</p> + +<p>The club-root, which causes the roots to become greatly +thickened and distorted, is difficult to manage if Cabbages +or allied plants are grown continuously on land in which +diseased plants have been raised. Changing the location +of the Cabbage or Cauliflower patch is the best procedure. +If very different crops, as corn, potatoes, peas, tomatoes, +etc., are grown on the land, the disease will be starved out +in two or three years.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +<b>Cacalia.</b> <span class="smcap">Tassel Flower. Ladies’ Paint +Brush.</span> A quaint old annual, in two colors, scarlet and +orange. It is easily grown, and makes a fine second-row +plant for a border, contrasting well with Browallia or Ageratum. +Sow where the plants are to stand. Let plants stand +10-12 inches apart. Grow 1½-2 ft. high.</p> + +<p><b><a name="cactus" id="cactus"></a>Cactus.</b> This class of plants is often seen in +small collections of house plants, to which they add interest, +being altogether different from other plants. All +Cacti are easy to grow, requiring but little care and enduring +the heat and dryness of a living room much better than +most other plants. Their requirements are ample drainage +and a sandy soil. Cactus growers usually make a soil by +mixing pulverized plaster or lime refuse with garden +loam, using about two-thirds of the loam. The very fine +parts, or dust, of the plaster, are blown out, else the soil +is likely to cement. They may be rested at any season by +simply setting them away in a dry place for two or three +months, and bringing them into heat and light when they +are wanted. As new growth advances they should have +water occasionally, and when in bloom they should be +watered freely. Withhold water gradually after blooming +until they are to be rested.</p> + +<p>Some of the most common species in cultivation are the +Phyllocactus species, often called the Night-blooming Cereus. +These are not the true Night-blooming Cereuses, which have +angular or cylindrical stems, covered with bristles, while +this has flat, leaf-like branches; the flowers of these, however, +are very much like the Cereus, opening at evening +and closing before morning, and as the Phyllocacti may be +grown with greater ease, blooming on smaller and younger +plants, they are to be recommended. <a href="#cereus">See <i>Cereus</i>.</a></p> + +<p>The Epiphyllum, or Lobster Cactus, is one of the best +of the family, easy of culture. It bears bright-colored +blossoms at the end of each joint. When in flower, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +will be through some of the winter months, this requires a +richer soil than the other Cacti. Opuntias, or prickly pears, +are often grown as border plants through the summer. In +fact, all the family may be planted out, and if a number of +varieties are set in a bed together they make a striking addition +to the garden. Be very careful not to bruise the +plants. It is better to plunge them in the pots than to turn +them out of the pots.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 189px;"> +<img src="images/053-caladium.jpg" width="189" height="192" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Caladium or Colocasia</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Caladium.</b> Tuberous-rooted, tender perennial +plants which are used for conservatory decorations, and +also for subtropical and bold effects in the lawn. The +plants which are commonly known under this name are +really Colocasias. The plants should be rested during the +winter, being kept in a warm cellar or under a greenhouse +bench, where they are not liable to frost or dampness. The +roots are usually kept covered with earth during the winter, +but they are kept dry. Early in the spring +the roots are put into boxes or pots and are +started into growth, so that by the time +settled weather comes they will be 1 or 2 +feet high and ready to set directly into soil. +When set out of doors, they should be given +a place which is protected from strong +winds, and one which does not receive the +full glare of direct sunlight. The soil +should be rich and deep, and the plants +should have an abundance of water. Caladiums +are most excellent plants for striking effects, especially +against a house, high shrubbery or other background. +If they are planted by themselves, they should be in clumps +rather than scattered as single specimens, as the effect is +better. See that they get a good start before they are +planted in the open ground.</p> + +<p><b>Calceolaria.</b> Small greenhouse herbs which +are sometimes used in the window-garden. They are not +very satisfactory plants for window treatment, however, since<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +they suffer from dry atmosphere and from sudden changes +of temperature. In the window-garden they should be protected +from strong, direct sunlight. They are grown from +seeds. If the seeds are sown in early summer and the +young plants are transplanted as they need, flowering +specimens may be had for the late fall and early winter. In +the growing of the young plants, always avoid exposing +them to direct sunlight; but they should be given a place +which has an abundance of screened or tempered light. A +new crop of plants should be raised each year. There is a +race of shrubby Calceolarias, but it is little known in this +country. One or two species are annuals which are adaptable +to cultivation in the open garden, and their little, +ladyslipper-like flowers are attractive. However, they are +of secondary importance as annual garden flowers.</p> + +<p><b>Calendula.</b> These are the well known <span class="smcap">Pot +Marigolds</span>, and add a bright spot to any garden. Annual. +Especially are they fine in the cool days of the fall, when +many of the annual flowers have gone to seed. The places +of short-lived plants may be filled by sowing seed of Calendulas +in May, scattering them through the border and +allowing the plants to grow where they come up. Easy of +growth and hardy. 1-2 ft. high. Should stand 8-12 in. +apart. Colors, yellow and orange.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 172px;"> +<img src="images/054-calpoppy.jpg" width="172" height="105" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">California Poppy</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="california_poppy" id="california_poppy"></a>California Poppy</b> (<i>Eschscholtzia Californica</i>). +Low perennial, poppy-like plant, grown as a hardy annual. +It is certainly one of the best low-growing annuals, blooming +through a long season and being at its +best through the cool days of fall, after +touched by frost. Most of the varieties have +flowers of fine shades of orange or yellow, +making a bright spot in the border at all +times. They are like the pot marigolds, in +that once planted they seed themselves. +They are never out of place, and should be left to bloom +wherever they may be. Flowers open only in sunshine.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +As cut-flowers they are excellent, a large bowl of them glowing +like a golden ball, especially if they are emphasized by +a few blue larkspurs or bachelor’s buttons.</p> + +<p>Propagated by seed, which would best be sown as soon +as ripe, thus giving the plant an early start, and having +bloom through the season. They make attractive mats of +foliage. 12-18 in. high. Let the plants stand 10-20 in. +apart.</p> + +<p><b>Calla</b> (properly <i>Richardia</i>). <span class="smcap">Egyptian Lily.</span> +All things considered, this is one of the most satisfactory of +winter house plants, lending itself to various conditions. +The requirements of the Calla are rich soil and an abundance +of water, with the roots confined in as small a space +as possible. If a too large pot is used the growth of foliage +will be very rank, at the expense of the flowers, but by using +a smaller sized pot and applying liquid manure the flowers +will be produced freely. A 6-inch pot will be large enough +for all but an exceptionally large bulb. If desired, a number +of bulbs may be grown together in a larger pot. The soil +should be very rich but fibrous—at least one-third well +rotted manure will be none too much, mixed with equal +parts of fibrous loam and sharp sand. The tubers should be +planted firmly and the pots set in a cool place to make roots. +After the roots have partially filled the pot, the plant may +be brought into heat and given a sunny position and an +abundance of water. An occasional sponging or washing of +the leaves will free them from dust. No other treatment +will be required until the flowers appear, when liquid manure +may be given. The plant will thrive all the better at +this time if the pot is placed in a saucer of water. In fact, +the Calla will grow finely in an aquarium. The Calla may +be grown through the entire year, but it will prove more +satisfactory, both in leaf and flower, if rested through part +of the summer. This may be done by laying the pots on +their sides in a dry, shady place under shrubbery, or if in +the open slightly covered with straw or other litter to keep<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +the roots from becoming extremely dry. In September or +October they may be shaken out, cleaning off all the old soil, +and repotted, as already mentioned. The offsets may be +taken off and set in small pots and given a year’s growth, +resting them the second year and having them in flower that +winter.</p> + +<p>The spotted Calla has variegated foliage and is a fine +plant for mixed collections. This blooms in the spring, +which will lengthen the season of Calla bloom. The treatment +of this is similar to that of the common Calla.</p> + +<p><b>Calliopsis</b> is a garden name for <a href="#coreopsis"><i>Coreopsis</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Callirrhoë.</b> <i>C. pedata</i> is a hardy annual which +has large, graceful blossoms of violet or red. Is it a very +free-blooming plant. Should be started in a frame and +planted out where wanted. 2-3 ft. high and grows bushy. +Plants should stand 1½-2 ft. apart.</p> + +<p><b>Camellia.</b> Years ago Camellias were very popular, +but they have been crowded out by the informal flowers +of recent times. Their time will come again. They are +half-hardy woody plants, blooming in late winter and +spring. During the blooming season keep them cool—say +not over 50° at night and a little higher by day. +When blooming is done they begin to grow, then give +them more heat and plenty of water. See that they are +well ripened by winter. Always screen them from direct +sunlight. Do not try to force them in early winter, after +the growth has ceased. Their summer quarters may be in +a protected place in the open air. Propagated by cuttings +in winter, which should give blooming plants in two +years. Use a porous soil for Camellias, with considerable +leaf-mold.</p> + +<p><b><a name="campanula" id="campanula"></a>Campanula.</b> <span class="smcap">Bell Flower.</span> But one of the +Campanulas commonly listed by seedsmen is an annual,—<i>C. +macrostyla</i>, a clean-leaved plant, growing 2 feet high, spreading +over the ground, and bearing a profusion of large, violet,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +bell-shaped flowers. The Canterbury Bell is the best known. +It is biennial, but if started early and transplanted will +bloom the first season. The perennial Campanulas are +most excellent for borders. <i>C. Carpatica</i> is particularly +good for edgings.</p> + +<p><b>Canary Bird Flower.</b> <a href="#nasturtiums">See <i>Nasturtium</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 212px;"> +<img src="images/057-candytuft.jpg" width="212" height="145" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Candytuft</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Candytuft.</b> Well known sweet-scented hardy +annuals, in red, purple, and white; easy of +culture and fine for cutting. One of the +best of edging plants for the front row. The +plants grow from 6 in. to 1 ft. tall. Sow +seeds where the plants are to grow, letting +plants stand 6-12 in. apart. They do not +last the entire season, and successive sowings +may well be made. There are also perennial kinds.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 120px;"> +<img src="images/058-canna.jpg" width="120" height="311" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Canna</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Canna</b> is now the favorite bedding plant. The +improvements made in the past ten years, in size and +markings of the flowers, have created a liking for the plant. +The tropical effect of a large bed of Cannas, either mixed +or of one color, is not surpassed by any other plant used for +bedding purposes.</p> + +<p>The Canna may be grown from seed and had in bloom +the first year by sowing in February or March, in +boxes or pots placed in hotbeds or warmhouse, first +soaking the seeds in warm water for a short time. Attention +to transplanting as needed and removal to the ground +only when it is well warmed are the necessary requirements. +The majority of Cannas, however, are grown from pieces of +the roots (rhizomes), each piece having a bud. The roots +may be divided at any time in the winter, and if early +flowers and foliage are wanted the pieces may be planted in +a hotbed or warmhouse in early April, started into growth +and planted out where wanted as soon as the ground has +warmed and all danger of frost is over. A hardening of the +plants, by leaving the sash off the hotbeds, or setting the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +plants in shallow boxes and placing the boxes in a sheltered +position through May, not forgetting a liberal supply +of water, will fit the plants to take kindly to the +final planting out. After frost has injured the tops, +the roots may be dug, choosing, if possible, a dry +day. The soil is shaken off and the roots stored +in a warm, dry place through the winter. If the +cellar is too dry the roots are liable to shrivel, +in which case it would be best to cover them with +soil or sand, filling in around the roots to exclude +the drying air.</p> + +<p>Cannas grow 3 to 7 ft. high. For dense mass +effects, plant 12-18 in. apart. For individual plants, +or for best bloom, give more room. Fine clumps +may be had by planting out the entire old root, not +dividing it. Cannas want a rich, warm soil and a sunny +place. They are very easy to grow.</p> + +<p><b>Canterbury Bell</b> is a <a href="#campanula"><i>Campanula</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Carbonate of Copper.</b> <a href="#bordeaux">See <i>Bordeaux Mixture</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Cardiospermum.</b> <a href="#balloon">See <i>Balloon Vine</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b><a name="carnations" id="carnations"></a>Carnations</b> are of two types, the outdoor or +garden varieties, and the indoor or forcing kinds. Normally, +the Carnation is a hardy perennial, but the garden +kinds, or Marguerites, are usually treated as annuals. The +forcing kinds are flowered but once, new plants being grown +each year from cuttings.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;"> +<img src="images/059-carnation.jpg" width="161" height="264" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Carnation</p> +</div> + +<p>Marguerite Carnations bloom the year the seed is sown, +and with a slight protection will bloom freely the second +year. They make attractive house plants if potted +in the fall. The seeds of these Carnations should be sown +in boxes in March and the young plants set out as early as +possible, pinching out the center of the plant to make them +branch freely. Give the same space as for garden pinks.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 96px;"> +<img src="images/059-carnation2.jpg" width="96" height="204" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Carnation cutting</p> +</div> + +<p>The winter-flowering Carnations have become prime +favorites with all flower lovers, and a collection of winter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +house plants seems incomplete without them. Carnations +grow readily from cuttings made of the suckers that form +around the base of the stem, the side shoots of the flowering +stem, or the main shoots before they show flower buds. The +cuttings from the base make the best plants in +most cases. These cuttings may be taken from +a plant at any time through the fall or winter, +rooted in sand and potted up, to be held +in pots until the planting out time in the +spring, usually in April, or any time when the +ground is ready to handle. Care should be +taken to pinch out the tops of young plants +while growing in the pot, and later while in +the ground, causing them to grow stocky and +send out new growths along the stem. The +young plants should be grown cool, a temperature +of 45° suiting them well. Attention +should be given to spraying the cuttings each day while in +the house to keep down the red spider, which is very partial +to the Carnation. In the summer, the plants are +grown in the field, and not in pots. The soil in +which they are to be planted should be moderately +rich and loose. Clean cultivation should be given +throughout the summer. Frequently pinch out the +tops. The plants are taken up in September and +potted firmly, and well watered; then set in a +cool, partially shaded situation until root growth +has started, spraying the foliage often, and watering +the plant only as it shows need of water.</p> + +<p>The usual living-room conditions as to moisture +and heat are not such as the Carnation demands, and care +must be taken to overcome the dryness by spraying the foliage +and setting the plant in a position not exposed to the +direct heat of a stove or the sun. In commercial houses, it +is not often necessary to spray established plants. Pick off +most or all of the side buds, in order to add to the size of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +the leading flowers. After all is said, it is probably advisable +in most cases to purchase the plants when in bloom +from a florist, and after blooming either throw them away +or store them for planting in the spring, when they will +bloom throughout the summer.</p> + +<p><b>Carpet Bedding.</b> <a href="#bedding">See <i>Bedding</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 128px;"> +<img src="images/060-carrots.jpg" width="128" height="208" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Early Carrots</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Carrot</b>, while essentially a farm crop in this +country, is nevertheless a most acceptable garden vegetable. +It is hardy and easily grown. The extra-early +varieties may be forced in a hotbed, or seed +may be sown as soon as the ground is fit to work in +the spring. The stump-rooted, or half-long varieties, +are sown for the general garden crop. Well enriched, +mellow loam, deeply dug or plowed, is best +suited to the requirements of Carrots. The seed for +the main crop may be sown as late as July 1. +Sow thickly, thinning to 3-4 in. in the row. The +rows, if in a garden that is hand-worked, may be 12 in. +apart. If the cultivation is done by a horse, the rows should +be from 2 to 3 ft. apart. One ounce will sow 100 feet of drill.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 295px;"> +<img src="images/060-castor.jpg" width="295" height="279" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Castor Bean</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="castor" id="castor"></a>Castor Oil Plant.</b> In the entire list of quick-growing +plants there is none that excels +this for rapidity of growth, grace +of foliage and rich effect. Used either +as a specimen plant, with cannas, caladiums, +or for a tropical bed, or as +a screen, it gives the most satisfactory +results. Seeds sown early in the +house, and the plants grown in the +full light, make fine, stocky plants to +set out about the middle of May. +With rich soil and plenty of water, +they will grow without a check until frost. Height, 5-12 +ft. For screens, plant 3-4 ft. apart. There are varieties +with differing shades of foliage.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 238px;"> +<img src="images/061-cauliflower.jpg" width="238" height="162" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Cauliflower</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Cauliflower.</b> The general culture of Cauliflower +is much like that of cabbage, except that the Cauliflower, +being more tender, should be more thoroughly hardened +off before setting out. Still, it is essential that the plants +be set out as early as possible, as the warm weather of +June causes them to make imperfect heads unless the soil +is filled with moisture. No garden crop will as well repay +the cost and time of thorough irrigation, either by running +the water between the rows or applying it directly to the +plants. When it is impossible to furnish water, it would +be a good plan to mulch heavily with straw or some other +substance. This mulch, if put on just after a heavy +rain, will hold the moisture for a long time. When the +heads begin to form the outside leaves may be brought together +and tied above the head, excluding the direct sunshine +and keeping the head white and +tender. No vegetable will respond +more quickly to good culture and +well manured soil than the Cauliflower, +and none will prove such an +utter failure when neglected. It is +imperative that care be taken to destroy +all the cabbage worms before +the leaves are tied in, as after that +it will be impossible to see or reach them. Cauliflower +prospers best in moist soil and a cool climate. From 1,000 +to 1,500 plants may be grown from 1 ounce of seed. Good +Cauliflower seed is very expensive.</p> + +<p>For winter crop, seeds may be started in June or July, +as for late cabbage.</p> + +<p>Erfurt, Snowball and Paris are popular early varieties. +Nonpareil and Algiers are good late kinds.</p> + +<p><b>Celeriac</b>, or <span class="smcap">Turnip-rooted Celery</span>. This +tuber has the celery flavor in a pronounced degree, and is +used for flavoring soups and for celery salad. It may be +served raw, sliced in vinegar and oil, or boiled. The culture<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +is the same as given for celery, except that no earthing or +blanching is required. About an equal number of plants are +obtained from the same weight of seed as from celery seed. +Celeriac is extensively used abroad, but, unfortunately, is +little grown in America.</p> + +<p><b>Celery</b> has become one of the favorite relish +and salad vegetables, and is now very generally grown. The +self-blanching varieties have simplified the culture so that +the amateur, as well as the expert, may have a supply +through at least six months of the year. The so-called new +culture, which consists of setting the plants close together +and causing them to shade each other, can be recommended +for the garden when a supply of well rotted manure is to be +had, and when any amount of water is available. This +method is as follows: Fork or spade +into the soil a large quantity of manure +to the depth of 10-12 in., pulverize the +soil until the ground for the depth of 4-6 +in. is in very fine condition. Then set +the plants in rows 10 in. apart and the +plants but 5 or 6 in. apart in the rows. +It will be seen that plants set as close +as this will soon fill the soil with a mass +of roots and must have large amounts +of plant-food, as well as a large quantity +of water; and the making of such +a bed can be recommended only to +those who can supply these needs.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 218px;"> +<img src="images/062-celery.jpg" width="218" height="263" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Celery</p> +</div> + +<p>The common practice in home gardens is to plow or dig a +shallow trench, setting the plants in the bottom and hoeing +in the soil as the plants grow. The distance apart of the +rows and plants will depend on the varieties. For the dwarf +varieties, such as White Plume, Golden Self-blanching and +others of that type, the rows may be as close as 3 ft. and the +plants 6 in. in the rows. For the large-growing varieties, as +Kalamazoo, Giant Pascal and, in fact, most of the late varieties,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +the rows may be from 4½ to 5 ft. apart and the plants +7 or 8 in. in the row.</p> + +<p>The seed for an early crop should be sown in February or +early in March in shallow boxes, which may be placed in a +hotbed or sunny window, or sown directly in the soil of a +hotbed. Cover the seeds thinly and press the soil firmly +over them. When the seedling plants are about one inch +high they should be transplanted to other boxes or hotbeds, +setting the plants 1 in. apart in rows 3 in. apart. At +this transplanting, as with the following ones, the tall leaves +should be cut or pinched off, leaving only the upright growth, +as with the utmost care it is almost impossible to prevent +the outside leafstalks from wilting down and dying. The +roots of the plants should also be trimmed back at each transplanting +in order to increase the feeding roots. The plants +should be set as deep as possible, care being taken, however, +not to allow the heart of the plant to be covered up. The +varieties usually grown for an early crop are the so-called +self-blanching varieties. They may be made fit for the table +with much less labor than the late crop, the shade required +to blanch the stalks being much less. When only a few short +rows are grown in a private garden, screens of lath may be +made by driving stakes on each side of the row and tacking +lath on, leaving spaces of an inch or more for the light to +enter; or each head may be wrapped in paper, or a tile drain +pipe may be set over the plant. In fact, any material that +will exclude the light will render the stalks white and +brittle.</p> + +<p>The seed for the main or fall crop should be sown in April +or early May in a seed bed prepared by forking fine, well +rotted manure into a fine soil, sowing the seed thinly in +rows 8 or 10 in. apart, covering the seed lightly and firming +over the seed with the feet, hoe or back of a spade. +This seed bed should be kept moist at all times until the +seed germinates, either by close attention to watering or by +a lath screen. The use of a piece of cloth laid directly on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +the soil, and the bed wet through the cloth, is often recommended, +and if the cloth is always wet and taken off the +bed as soon as the seed sprouts it can be used. After the +young plants have grown to the height of 1 or 2 in. they +must be thinned out, leaving the plants so that they do not +touch each other, and transplanting those thinned—if wanted—to +other ground prepared in the same manner as the seed +bed. All these plants may be sheared or cut back to induce +stockiness.</p> + +<p>If in a private garden, the ground on which the fall +crop is usually set will likely be land from which a crop of +some early vegetable has been taken. This land should be +again well enriched with fine, well rotted manure, to which +may be added a liberal amount of wood ashes. If the manure +or ashes are not easily obtained, a small amount may +be used by plowing or digging out a furrow 8 or 12 in. deep, +scattering the manure and ashes in the bottom of the trench +and filling it up almost level with the surface. The plants +should be set about the middle of July, preferably just before +a rain. The plant bed should have a thorough soaking +shortly before the plants are lifted, and each plant be trimmed, +both top and root, before setting. The plants should +be set from 5 to 6 in. apart in the rows and the earth well +firmed around each one.</p> + +<p>The after-cultivation consists in thorough tillage +until the time of “handling” or earthing up the +plants. This process of handling is accomplished by +drawing up the earth with one hand while holding the +plant with the other, packing the soil well around the stalks. +This process may be continued until only the leaves are to +be seen. For the private grower, it is much easier to blanch +the Celery with boards or paper, or if the Celery is not +wanted until winter, the plants may be dug up, packed +closely in boxes, covering the roots with soil, and placed in +a dark, cool cellar, where the stalks will blanch themselves. +In this manner Celery may be stored in boxes in the house<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +cellar. Put earth in the bottom of a deep box, and plant +the Celery in it. An ounce of seed will furnish about three +thousand plants.</p> + +<p><b><a name="centaurea" id="centaurea"></a>Centaurea.</b> Showy annuals and perennials. +<i>C. Cyanus</i> is the <span class="smcap">Corn Flower</span> or <span class="smcap">Bachelor Button</span>, +familiar to every flower lover, and always seen in old-fashioned +gardens. This is a fine plant for borders or +mixed beds, and also gives good flowers for bouquets. A +bunch of the Corn Flower, with a sprinkling of yellow +marigolds or California poppy, makes a rich effect. +These Centaureas are easy of culture, seeding themselves +after once being planted, and coming up year after year in +great profusion. There are blue, white and rose varieties. +Annuals. 2-3 ft. Hardy.</p> + +<p>The silver-leaved Centaureas are used only for foliage +effects. They are excellent for ribbon beds or border lines. +The seed of these should be started in a hotbed or box in +March, the young plants being set out where wanted when +the ground becomes warm. These species are perennials, +and are sometimes grown from cuttings. <i>C. candidissima</i> +and <i>C. gymnocarpa</i> are among the best white-leaved bedders.</p> + +<p><b>Centranthus.</b> Low-growing hardy annuals in +two colors, red and white. They make very effective +covering for low rockwork, and are also suitable for vases +or lawn baskets. Sow where the plants are to stand, or +start indoors if early bloom is wanted. 1 ft. Thin to 10-12 +in. apart.</p> + +<p><b>Century Plant</b>, or <span class="smcap">Agave</span>. These are fine ornamental +plants for the window-garden or conservatory, requiring +but little care and growing slowly, thus needing +repotting only at long intervals. When the plants have +outgrown their usefulness as house plants, they are still +valuable as porch decorations, for plunging in rockwork or +about rustic nooks. The striped-leaved variety is the most +desirable, but the common type, with its blue-gray leaves, +is highly ornamental.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +There are a number of dwarf-growing species of Agave +that are not so common, although they may be grown with +ease. Such plants add novelty to a collection, and may be +used through the summer as noted above or plunged with +cactus in a bed of tropical plants. All succeed well in +loam and sand in equal parts, adding a little leaf-mold in +the case of the small varieties. The more common species +are propagated by suckers from around the base of the +established plants. A few kinds having no suckers must +be grown from seed. As to watering, they demand no +special care. Agaves will not stand frost.</p> + +<p><b><a name="cereus" id="cereus"></a>Cereus.</b> Under the name of <span class="smcap">Night-blooming +Cereuses</span>, several species of Cacti are cultivated. The name +is sometimes applied to species of Phyllocactus, the flowers +of which, in white and shades of red, sometimes open at +nightfall. Phyllocactuses are easy to grow. <a href="#cactus">See <i>Cactus</i>.</a> +The true Night-blooming Cereuses, however, are species of +the genus Cereus. The commonest one is <i>C. nycticalus</i>, but +<i>C. grandiflorus</i>, <i>C. triangularis</i> and others are occasionally +seen. These true Night-blooming Cereuses all have long rod-like +stems, which are cylindrical or angular. These stems +often reach a height of 10 to 30 ft., and they need support. +They should be trained along a pillar or tied to a stake. +They are uninteresting leafless things during a large part +of the year; but in midsummer, after they are three or +more years old, they throw out their great tubular flowers, +which open at nightfall and wither and die when the light +strikes them next morning. They are very easily grown, +either in pots or planted in the natural soil in the conservatory. +The only special care they need is good drainage at +the roots, so that the soil will not become soggy.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 225px;"> +<img src="images/067-cherry.jpg" width="225" height="305" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Sweet Cherry</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Cherry.</b> Of Cherries there are two common +types, the sweet Cherries and the sour Cherries. The sweet +Cherries are larger and taller-growing trees. They comprise +the varieties known as the Hearts, Bigarreaus and +Dukes. The sour Cherries include the various kinds of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +Morellos and pie Cherries, and these usually ripen after the +sweet Cherries. The sour Cherries make low, round-headed +trees. The fruits are extensively used for +canning. Cherry trees should be planted +when 2 and 3 years old. Too rich soil tends +to make growth at the expense of fruit, particularly +in the sweet Cherries. For the +sweet types, a strong, gravelly loam is best. +Sour Cherries thrive well on clay loams.</p> + +<p>Trees of the sour Cherry should be +planted 18 by 18 ft. apart, in well prepared +under-drained soil. The trees may be +slightly trimmed back each year, keeping +the head low and bushy.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 167px;"> +<img src="images/067-cherry2.jpg" width="167" height="164" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Black Tartarian Cherry</p> +</div> + +<p>The sweet Cherries have proved disappointing in many +instances from the rotting of the fruit. This may never be +entirely avoided, but good cultivation, soil not too rich in +nitrogen, attention to spraying, and picking the fruit when +dry, will lessen the loss very much. In years +of severe rotting, the fruit should be picked +before it becomes fully ripe, placed in a cool, +airy room and allowed to color. It will be +nearly as well flavored as if left on the tree; +and, as the fungus usually attacks only the +ripe fruit, a considerable part of the crop may +be saved. Set the trees 25 or 30 ft. apart.</p> + +<p>Leaf-blight is readily controlled by timely +spraying with Bordeaux mixture. The curculio or fruit worm +is best controlled by jarring, as for plums (<a href="#plum">which see</a>).</p> + +<p>Of sweet Cherries, Windsor is the most popular variety. +Other good kinds are Napoleon, Governor Wood, Dikeman, +Black Tartarian. Of sour Cherries, Ostheim and Early +Richmond are very early and productive, but better kinds +are Montmorency and English Morello.</p> + +<p><b>Chervil.</b> The curled Chervil is a good addition +to the list of garnishing vegetables, and adds flavor to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +dishes when it is used to season. Sow seeds and cultivate +the same as parsley.</p> + +<p>The tuberous Chervil resembles a short carrot or +parsnip. It is much esteemed in France and Germany. +The tubers have somewhat the flavor of a sweet potato, perhaps +a little sweeter. They are perfectly hardy, and, like +the parsnip, the better for frosts. The seed may be +sown in September or October, as it does not keep well; or +as soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring, it being +slow to germinate after the weather becomes hot and dry. +One packet of seed will give all the plants necessary.</p> + +<p><b>Chestnuts.</b> Of Chestnuts there are three types +in cultivation: the European, the Japanese, and the American. +The American, or native Chestnuts, of which there +are several improved varieties, are the hardiest and most +reliable, and the nuts are the sweetest, but they are also the +smallest. The Japanese varieties are usually injured by the +winter in central New York. The European varieties are +somewhat hardier, and some of the varieties will thrive in +the northern states. Chestnuts are very easily grown. +They usually bear better when two or more trees are +planted near each other. There are few really good Chestnut +orchards in North America, but Chestnut planting is now +considerably agitated. Sprouts in old Chestnut clearings +are often allowed to remain, and sometimes they are +grafted to the improved varieties. The young trees may be +grafted in the spring by the whip-graft or cleft-graft +method; but the cions should be perfectly dormant, and +the operation should be very carefully done. Even with +the best workmanship, a considerable percentage of the +grafts are likely to fail or to break off after two or three +years. The most popular single variety of Chestnut is the +Paragon, which bears large and excellent nuts when the +tree is very young. When the home ground is large +enough, two or three of these trees should be planted near +the borders.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +<b>Chicory.</b> The Magdeburg Chicory is the variety +usually spoken of, it being the one most extensively +grown. The roots of this, after being ground and +roasted, are used either as a substitute or an adulterant of +coffee.</p> + +<p>The Witloof, a form of Chicory, is used as a salad, +or boiled and served in the same manner as Cauliflower. +The plants should be thinned to 6 in. In the latter part of +summer they should be banked up like celery, and the leaves +used after becoming white and tender. This and the common +wild Chicory are often dug in the fall, the leaves cut +off, the roots packed in sand in a cellar and watered until a +new growth of leaves starts. These leaves grow rapidly and +are very tender, making a fine salad vegetable. One +packet of seed of the Witloof will furnish plants enough for +a large family.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 90px;"> +<img src="images/069-chrysanth.jpg" width="90" height="157" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Chrysanthemum</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Chrysanthemums</b> are both annual and perennial. +The annual Chrysanthemums must not be confounded +with the well known fall-flowering kinds, as they +will prove a disappointment if one expects large flowers of +all colors and shapes. The annuals are mostly coarse-growing +plants, with an abundance of bloom and a +rank smell. The flowers are single in most cases, and +not very lasting. They are useful for massing and +also for cut-flowers. They are among the easiest of +hardy annuals to grow. The stoniest part of the +garden will usually suit them. 1-2 ft. Colors white +and shades of yellow, the flowers daisy-like.</p> + +<p>Amongst perennial kinds, <i>Chrysanthemum frutescens</i> +is the well known Paris Daisy or Marguerite, one of +the most popular of the genus. This makes a very fine pot-plant +for the window-garden, blooming throughout the winter +and spring months. It is usually propagated by cuttings, +which, if taken in spring, will give large blooming +plants for the next winter. Gradually transfer to larger +pots or boxes, until the plants finally stand in 6-inch or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +8-inch pots or in small soap boxes. There is a fine yellow-flowered +variety.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/070-chrysbox.jpg" width="180" height="194" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Chrysanthemums in a box</p> +</div> + +<p>In variety of form and color, and in size of bloom, the +florists’ Chrysanthemum is one of the most +wonderful of plants. It is a late autumn +flower, and it needs little artificial heat to +bring it to perfection. The great blooms of +the exhibitions are produced by growing +only one flower to a plant and by feeding +the plant heavily. It is hardly possible for +the amateur to grow such specimen flowers +as the professional florist or gardener does; +neither is it necessary. A well-grown plant +with fourteen to twenty flowers is far more satisfactory as +a window plant than a long, stiff stem with only one immense +flower at the apex. Their culture is simple, much +more so than that of many of the plants commonly grown +for house decoration. Although their season of bloom is +short, the satisfaction of having a fall display of flowers +before the geraniums, begonias and other house +plants have recovered from their removal from out +of doors, repays all efforts.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 105px;"> +<img src="images/070-chryscut.jpg" width="105" height="249" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Cutting of +Chrysanthemum</p> +</div> + +<p>Cuttings taken in March or April, planted out in +the border in May, well tended through the summer +and lifted before frost in September, will bloom in +October or November. The ground in which they +are planted should be moderately rich and moist. +The plants may be tied to stakes. When the buds +show, all but the center one of each cluster on the +leading shoots should be picked off, as also the small +lateral branches. A thrifty bushy plant thus treated +will usually have flowers large enough to show the +character of the variety, also enough flowers to make +a fine display. As to the receptacle into which to put +them when lifted from the border, it need not be a +flower pot. A pail or soap box, with holes bored for drainage,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +will suit the plant just as well, and by covering the +box with cloth or paper the difference will not be noticed. +If cuttings are not to be had, young plants may be bought +of the florists and treated in the manner described. +Buy them in midsummer or earlier.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/071-chrysvase.jpg" width="84" height="153" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Vase of small +Chrysanthemums</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 98px;"> +<img src="images/071-chryshardy.jpg" width="98" height="115" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Hardy +Chrysanthemum</p> +</div> + +<p>It is best not to attempt to flower the same plant +two seasons. After the plant has bloomed, the top +may be cut down, and the box set in a cellar and +kept moderately dry. In February or March, +bring the plant to the sitting-room window +and let the shoots start from the root. These +shoots are taken for cuttings to grow plants +for the fall bloom.</p> + +<p>There is a hardy race of Chrysanthemums, very +excellent for the border. Mulch in winter. The best +bloom is usually given the first and second years.</p> + +<p><b>Cineraria.</b> A tender greenhouse plant. It may +be grown as a house plant, although the conditions necessary +to the best results are hard to obtain outside of a +greenhouse. The conditions for their growing are a cool +temperature, frequent repotting and guarding against the +attacks of the greenfly. Perhaps the last is the most difficult, +and with one having no facilities for fumigating, it +will be almost impossible to prevent the difficulty. A +living room usually has too dry air for Cinerarias. The +seed, which is very minute, should be sown in August or +September to have plants in bloom in January or February. +Sow the seed on the surface of fine soil and water +very lightly to settle the seeds into the soil. A piece of +glass or a damp cloth may be spread over the pot or box +in which the seeds are sown, to remain until the seeds are +up. Always keep the soil damp, but not wet. When the +seedlings are large enough to repot, they should be potted +singly in 2- or 3-inch pots. Before the plants have become +pot-bound, they should again be repotted into larger +pots, until they are in at least a 6-inch pot in which to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +bloom. In all this time, they should be grown cool and, +if not possible to fumigate them with tobacco smoke, the +pots should stand on tobacco stems, which should be moist +at all times. The general practice, in order to have bushy +plants, is to pinch out the center when the flower buds +show, causing the lateral branches to start, which they are +slow to do if the central stem is allowed to grow. Plants +bloom but once.</p> + +<p><b>Cives.</b> These belong to the onion family, and +are propagated by division of the root. They may be planted +in a permanent place in the border, and, being hardy, will +remain for years. The leaves are the parts used, as the +roots are very rank in flavor. The leaves may be cut frequently, +as they readily grow again.</p> + +<p><b>Clarkia.</b> The Clarkias are among the popular +hardy edging and vase annuals, bearing rose, white or +bordered flowers in great profusion. The double-flowering +varieties are the most showy, but the single ones +will prove very satisfactory. The seeds may be sown where +the plants are wanted, or started in frames for earlier +flowers. 6-18 in. high. Thin to 6-12 in. apart. Plant +in a warm soil and sunny place.</p> + +<p><b>Clematis.</b> One of the best of woody climbing +vines. The common <i>C. Flammula</i>, <i>Virginiana</i>, <i>paniculata</i> +and others are used frequently to cover division walls or +fences, growing year after year without any care and producing +quantities of flowers. <i>C. paniculata</i> is now planted +very extensively. The panicles of star-shaped flowers entirely +cover the vine and have a pleasant fragrance. One +of the best of all fall-flowering vines, and hardy North. +Clings well to a chicken-wire trellis.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;"> +<img src="images/073-clematis.jpg" width="170" height="71" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Clematis paniculata</p> +</div> + +<p>The large-flowered section, of which Jackmani is perhaps +the best known, is very popular for pillar or porch +climbers. The flowers of this section are large and showy, +running from pure white, through blue, to scarlet. Of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +class, the most serviceable purple is Jackmani; white, +Henryi; blue, Ramona; crimson, Madame E. André.</p> + +<p>The Flammula class may be propagated by division of +the roots. The large-flowered kinds are propagated by +layers or root-grafting on <i>C. Flammula</i> and others.</p> + +<p>A deep, mellow, rich soil, naturally moist, will suit the +requirements of Clematis. In dry times apply water freely, +particularly for the large-flowered kinds. Also +provide trellis or other support as soon as they +begin to run. Clematis usually blooms on the +wood of the season: therefore prune in winter +or early spring, in order to secure strong new +flowering shoots. The large-flowered kinds should be cut +back to the ground each year; and other kinds may be similarly +treated unless they are wanted for permanent bowers.</p> + +<p>The Clematis root disease is the depredation of a nematode +or eel-worm. It is seldom troublesome in ground +which thoroughly freezes.</p> + +<p><b>Climbers.</b> <a href="#vines">Treated under <i>Vines</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Cobæa.</b> This is most commonly seen in the +greenhouse, although it is one of the best of tender +climbers for porches. Seed sown in February or March, +and grown in gentle heat, will make suitable plants for setting +out by June. It may also be grown from cuttings of +the young wood, taken in February and rooted in brisk +heat. The flowers of <i>C. scandens</i> are shaped very much +like those of the Campanulas, but are larger. They open a +greenish white and deepen to a dark purple in the course of +a few days. The vines in full bloom have a gradation of +colors as the flowers are in different stages of development. +The variegated form of <i>C. scandens</i> should be propagated +by cuttings to hold the variegation. Grows 10-15 ft. +Tender. Climbs by means of tendrils.</p> + +<p><b>Cockscomb.</b> <i>Celosia cristata</i> is the well known +Cockscomb, having combs or heads of scarlet, crimson,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +rose and yellow. The combs are often saved for winter +bouquets by cutting them off before thoroughly ripe and +drying them. The feathered section comprises tall-growing +plants with plumes of various colors which, with the colored +leaves of some varieties, make a striking feature in a +border. The Celosias, being tender, should be started in a +hotbed or frame, potted off when out of the seed-leaf, and +planted out in well enriched soil after danger of frost is +past, 1½-2½ ft. high.</p> + +<p><b><a name="coldframe" id="coldframe"></a>Coldframe.</b> A Coldframe is a simple, low +structure, covered with glass or oiled paper or cloth, in +which plants are grown without artificial heat. It differs +from the hotbed in the fact that it has no bottom heat. The +atmosphere in the Coldframe is warmer than that outside, +because it is protected from the winds and because there +is more or less of the sun’s heat stored up in the earth. +For the details of construction of the Coldframe, <a href="#hotbed">see +<i>Hotbed</i></a>.</p> + +<p>A Coldframe is ordinarily used for later work than the hotbed: +that is, seeds may be sown in a Coldframe from two to +three and sometimes four weeks in advance of their sowing +in the open; whereas in a hotbed the seeds may be started +from one to three months earlier than they may be out of +doors. Coldframes are sometimes used for the wintering +over of hardy plants which are started in the fall. For +example, cabbage seed may be sown in September in a +Coldframe and the young plants may be protected therein +during the winter. If they are properly grown and hardened +off, they will not be injured by the winter, even +though they freeze. Lettuce and sometimes cauliflowers are +carried over in the same way. Coldframes are also used to +receive plants which have outgrown the hotbed and must be +transplanted. Plants which need hardening off may also be +transplanted from the hotbed into the Coldframe. The +Coldframe in these cases is an intermediate stage between +the hotbed and the open field.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +<b>Coleus.</b> A well known foliage plant for pot +culture or bedding. It was used very extensively at one +time in ornamental bedding and ribbon borders, but owing +to its being tender has lost in favor, and its place is +largely taken by other plants. Cuttings root very readily. +It may also be grown from seed, although the types have +not become fixed, and a large number of differently marked +plants may be had from the same packet. This would not +be a drawback in the window-garden, unless a uniform +effect is wished. Sow the seed in gentle heat in March. +Make new plants from cuttings each year, and throw the +old ones away.</p> + +<p><b><a name="collards" id="collards"></a>Collards.</b> This is a name given to a kind of +kale, used when young as greens; also to young cabbages +used in the same way. The seed of any early cabbage +may be sown thickly in rows 18 inches apart, from early +spring to late fall. The plants are cut off when 6 or 8 +inches high and boiled as are other greens. The kale +Collards is grown in the South, where cabbages fail to +head. It grows to the height of 2 to 6 feet, furnishing a +large quantity of leaves.</p> + +<p><b>Collinsia.</b> A hardy annual that should be +sown in the fall, where wanted, if early flowers are desired. +The flowers of all the varieties are showy, either in masses +or planted in a border. Give them a position near the front, +as the plants rarely exceed 18 inches in height.</p> + +<p><b>Columbine.</b> <a href="#aquilegia">See <i>Aquilegia</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Compost.</b> <a href="#manure">See <i>Manure</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Convolvulus.</b> <a href="#morning-glory">See <i>Morning-Glory</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b><a name="coreopsis" id="coreopsis"></a>Coreopsis</b>, or <span class="smcap">Calliopsis</span>. Very showy hardy +annuals, growing from 1 to 3 feet high, and covered throughout +the season with a profusion of bloom. The colors range +from lemon-yellow to dark velvety brown. Excellent for +cutting, and very effective in mixed borders. They thrive in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +any garden soil if they have full sunlight. Sow where +they are to grow, letting the plants stand 6-12 in. apart for +mass effects.</p> + +<p><b>Corn Salad.</b> This is one of the earliest spring +salad vegetables, coming into condition to use with spinach, +and needing the same culture. Sown in the fall, and covered +with straw or hay when cold weather sets in, it will +start into rapid growth when the covering is removed in +March or April. Or the seed may be sown in early spring, +and plants will be fit to use in six or eight weeks. One +packet of seed will suffice for a small family.</p> + +<p><b><a name="corn" id="corn"></a>Corn, Sweet</b>, is not so generally used as it +should be. Usually when planted at all, only one planting +of one kind is made. The ears come to edible maturity +almost simultaneously, and a short season of Sweet Corn is +the result. The first planting should be made from May 1 +to 10, planting early, intermediate and late varieties at the +same time, then at intervals of two weeks until the middle +of July, when the late varieties should be planted, thus +having a succession from the first crop until October. +The soil for Corn should be rich in plant-food, and the +coarser manure left from the preparation of the ground for +small crops may be used to good advantage. Corn for the +garden is better planted in drills, the drills 3 feet apart, +dropping the seed from 10 to 12 inches apart in the drills. +One quart of seed will plant 200 hills.</p> + +<p>For extra early, Marblehead, Adams, Vermont, Minnesota +and Early Cory are favorites. For later crop, Crosby, +Hickox, Shoe Peg and Stowell Evergreen are now popular.</p> + +<p><b>Cosmos.</b> The Cosmos grown in a locality free +from early fall frosts is certainly a beautiful thing, but +there are probably few flowers that have caused so much disappointment +to the flower lover in the North. The seed +germinates very freely. The plants grow with great vigor, +and if the season permits, an abundance of bloom may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +had in September. An early-flowering strain of dwarf Cosmos +has been offered by the trade for several years; and +each year there seems to be an improvement in the size and +colors, so the time may shortly come when this will equal +the late-flowering varieties, making the culture of Cosmos +more satisfactory. Cosmos flowers are borne on long +stems, and the colors are in white and fine shades of red. +The foliage is also fine. Seed should be sown in gentle +heat, in the greenhouse, hotbed or window in early April, +and the young plants transplanted when 2 inches high, +setting the plants well down in the soil and giving at least +3 inches between the plants, as they are very likely to spindle +up, with weak stems, if crowded. When danger of frost +is over, set them out in a warm, well sheltered position, +3 feet apart. After the plants start into growth, pinch +out the top to induce a bushy growth. If situated where +the wind can whip them, they should have a stake driven +close to the stem, and be tied to it for support. Flowers +of Cosmos are on the order of single Dahlias.</p> + +<p><b>Cranberry.</b> The growing of Cranberries in artificial +bogs is an American industry. The common large +Cranberry of markets is also a peculiarly American fruit, +since it is unknown in other countries except as the fruit is +shipped there. Cranberries are grown in bogs, which may +be flooded. The whole area is kept under water during the +winter time, largely to prevent the plants from winter injury +by the heaving and freezing and thawing of the bogs. +Flooding is also employed at intervals for the purpose of +drowning out insects, mitigating drought, and protecting +against frost and fires. Every good Cranberry bog should +have facilities for flooding. The ordinary practice is to choose +a bog which has a creek running through it, or through +which some creek or ditch may be diverted. At the lower +side of the bog flood gates are provided, so that when the +gates are shut the water backs up and floods the area. It +is best that the bog be comparatively flat, so that the water<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +will be of approximately equal depth over the whole area. +At the shallowest places the water should stand about a foot +above the plants. The water is usually let on the bog early +in December and kept on until April or early May. No flooding +is done during the rest of the year unless there is some +particular occasion therefor.</p> + +<p>All the wild and turfy growth should be taken off the +bog before the vines are set. This is done either by digging +it off and removing it bodily, or by drowning it out by +means of a year’s flooding. The former method is generally +considered to be the better. After the turfy growth +is removed, the bog is smoothed and covered 2 or 3 in. +deep with clean sand. The vines are now set, the lower +ends of them being shoved through the sand into the richer +earth. In order to prevent a too rapid and tangled growth +of vine, it is customary to resand the bog every three or +four years to a depth of one-fourth or one-half inch. +When sanding is not practicable, the vines may be mown +off when they become too luxuriant.</p> + +<p>The plants for setting are merely cuttings or branches of +the vines. These cuttings may be from 5 to 10 in. long. +They are inserted into the ground in a hole made by a +crowbar or stick. They are usually planted at distances of +12 to 18 in. each way, and the vines are allowed to cover +the entire ground as with a mat. In three years a good +crop should be secured, if the weeds and wild growth are +kept down. A crop ranges between 50 to 100 barrels per +acre.</p> + +<p><b>Cress.</b> The Upland Cress, or the true <span class="smcap">Pepper +Grass</span>, may be grown on any garden soil. Sow early in the +spring. It makes a rapid growth and can be cut from +four to five weeks. Succession of sowings must be made, +as it runs quickly to seed. The curled variety is the one +usually grown, as the leaves may be used for garnishing as +well as for salads. One packet of seed will be sufficient for +each sowing. Any good soil will do. Sow thickly in drills<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +12-18 in. apart. In summer it runs to seed quickly, so that +it is usually grown in spring and fall.</p> + +<p>The Water Cress is more exacting in its culture, and can +only be successfully grown in moist places, such as edges of +shallow, slow-running creeks, open drains, or beds excavated +near such streams. A few plants for private use may be +grown in a frame, provided a retentive soil is used and attention +given to watering the bed often. Water Cress may +be propagated from pieces of the stem, used as cuttings. If +one is fond of Water Cress, it is well to colonize it in some +clean creek or pool. It will take care of itself year by year. +Seeds may also be used for propagating it.</p> + +<p><b><a name="crocus" id="crocus"></a>Crocus.</b> A hardy bulb, easily grown and giving +good satisfaction either in the border or scattered +through the lawn. They are also forced for winter (<a href="#bulbs">see +<i>Bulbs</i></a>). They are so cheap and lasting that they may be +used in quantity. A border of them along the edges of +walks, little clumps of them in the lawn, or masses in a +bed, give the first touch of color as the spring opens. They +may be forced with ease planted in pots or shallow boxes, +put away in a cool place and brought into the house at any +time through the winter. A low temperature will bring +them into bloom in perfection in about four weeks from the +time they are brought in. They can be had in the window-garden +in this way.</p> + +<p>A sandy soil suits the Crocus admirably. Plant in the +fall, in the open, setting them 3 to 4 inches deep. When they +show signs of failing, take up the bulbs and reset them. +They tend to rise out of the ground, because the new bulb or +corm forms on the top of the old one. If best results are +desired, it is well to renew the bed occasionally by buying +new bulbs. Crocus beds may be filled later in the season +with quick-growing annuals.</p> + +<p><b>Croton.</b> Under this name many varieties and +so-called species of Codiæum are grown for conservatory +decoration, and latterly for foliage bedding in the open.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +The colors and shapes of the leaves are very various and attractive. +The Crotons make good window-garden subjects, +although they are very liable to the attack of the mealy bug. +They are propagated readily by cuttings of half-ripened +wood any time during winter or spring. The plants should +be given an abundance of light in order to bring out their +fine colors; but it is usually advisable to screen them from +the direct rays of the sun when they are grown under glass. +If the red spider or the mealy bug attack them, they may +be syringed with tobacco water. Plants which are propagated +indoors during the winter may be massed in beds +out of doors during the summer, where they make very +striking effects. Give them rich, deep soil, and be sure +that they are syringed frequently enough on the under +side of the leaves to keep down the red spider. If the +plants have been gradually subjected to strong light before +they are taken out of doors, they will stand the full sunlight +and will develop their rich colors to perfection. In the +fall they may be taken up, cut back and used for window-garden +or conservatory subjects. Crotons are shrubs or +small trees, and they may be transferred into large pots or +tubs and grown on into large tree-like specimens.</p> + +<p><b><a name="cucumber" id="cucumber"></a>Cucumber.</b> For early use, the Cucumber is +usually started in a hotbed or coldframe by sowing the seed +on pieces of sod 4 to 6 inches square, turned grass side +down. Three or four seeds are placed on or pushed into +each piece of sod and covered with 1 to 2 inches of fine soil. +The soil should be well watered and the glass or cloth placed +over the frame. The roots will run through the sod. When +the plants are large enough to set out, a flat trowel or a +shingle may be slipped under the sod and the plants moved +to the hill without check. In place of sod, old quart +berry boxes are good; after setting in the hill the roots +may force their way through the cracks in the baskets. The +baskets also decay rapidly. Flower pots may be used. +These plants from the frames may be set out when danger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +of frost is over, usually by the 10th of May, and should make +a very rapid growth, yielding good-sized fruits in two +months. The hills should be made rich by forking in a +quantity of well rotted manure, and given a slight elevation +above the garden—not high enough to allow +the wind to dry the soil, but slightly raised +so that water will not stand around the roots. +One ounce of seed will plant fifty hills. The +hills may be 4-5 ft. apart each way.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;"> +<img src="images/081-cucumbers.jpg" width="169" height="75" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Cucumbers</p> +</div> + +<p>The White Spine is the leading general-purpose variety. +For very early or pickling sorts, the Chicago, Russian, and +other picklings are good.</p> + +<p>The striped beetle is an inveterate pest on Cucumbers +and squashes. Following is the latest advice (Hall and +Sirrine, New York State Experiment Station): “Poisons can +be used with success against these beetles for only a short +time in the spring, when they begin to feed; and again, in +the fall, against beetles of the new brood. This fall poisoning +will succeed only where there is not an abundance +of wild fall flowers; for the beetles will desert any poisoned +crop for the unpoisoned flowers and will feed upon the +flowers to a considerable extent, anyhow, if they are to be +found. Green arsenite, dry, gave best results. It was +found a waste of the poisons to apply them in Bordeaux +mixture, as the mixture so repelled the insects that they +would not eat the sprayed vines to secure the poison. +These poisons, applied in water, are liable to burn or stunt +the plants. It is necessary, then, if we wish to poison the +beetles, to use a trap crop to attract the insects and to apply +the poison to this crop instead of to the plants we design to +protect. On small areas it may be advisable to shut in the +small plants of the growing crop by the well known cloth-topped +boxes; by the tent-like cloth covers spread over arched +hoops or wires; by boxes made from a rectangular piece of +cloth and two short 6-inch boards with cleats attached to +insert in the soil and hold the boards upright; or even 6-inch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +wire plate-covers. Covers, however, are too expensive +on large areas, and they have the disadvantage of frequently +making the plants weak, so that winds will snap +them off or twist and ruin them when the covers have to be +removed. If covers are used alone, their removal leaves +the unprotected vines not only for feeding places but for +breeding places for the beetles.</p> + +<p>“Bordeaux mixture, if thoroughly and frequently applied, +makes as efficient a protection as the covers, is much +cheaper, and at the same time protects the plants from diseases. +This mixture (1-to-11 formula) should be sprayed +upon the Cucumbers when they are just well up, again when +they show the third leaf, and the third time just before the +plants commence to form runners. The early application +can probably best be made with a knapsack sprayer, and +later ones by any good pump sprayer. The three applications +should not cost over $2 per acre. The Bordeaux mixture +is a much better repellant, according to station tests, +than kerosene, turpentine, tobacco dust, cow manure, burdock +infusion, slug shot, bug death, or any other known +compound. Indeed, all materials of this class, supposed to +drive away the beetles by their distasteful odor, proved failures +when used alone. Air-slaked lime, dusted over the +vines, will make them unpalatable to the beetles, but the +lime is liable to stunt the plants. It may be used, with +care, by those whose crop is not large enough to warrant +purchase of a spraying outfit.</p> + +<p>“All of these appliances or applications, covers, Bordeaux +mixture or lime, merely protect the young plants +until they are strong enough to stand the injury from the +beetles; they do not kill the insects. To do this, trap crops +are needed. As the squash is the beetle’s favorite food +plant, this vegetable should be planted—in single rows +along the margins of small patches, in several rows around +large fields—about four days before the Cucumbers or +melon seeds are sown. When these trap plants are up and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +the beetles appear about them, dust about half the plants +with green arsenite, reserving the other half for use if rain +or heavy dew makes the poison soluble and kills the vines +first treated. The beetles, attracted by their favorite tidbit, +will feed upon the squash vines and be poisoned by the +arsenite. When the Cucumbers or melons are up, unless +they are protected by covers, spray with Bordeaux, and poison +more of the squash vines. When the beetles commence +to pair, the squashes may be cultivated up, leaving only a +few vines for the beetles to feed upon at flowering time, as +the insects prefer the squash flowers and will not molest the +others. Beans may be used with some success as a fall +catch crop, where wild flowers are not too plentiful. They +should be planted on the Cucumber or melon fields; and +when the beetles leave the old vines to feed upon the fresh +bean plants, they should be treated to liberal doses of poison +as well.”</p> + +<p>The mildew on the vines can be prevented by Bordeaux +mixture spray.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 133px;"> +<img src="images/083-currants.jpg" width="133" height="158" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Currants</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="currant" id="currant"></a>Currants.</b> The Currant, being one of the +hardiest and most productive of fruits, is often neglected, +the patch allowed to become foul with grass, never +thinned or trimmed, the worms eating the leaves until, in +the course of time, the plants weaken and die. +Along the fence is no place to plant Currants, or, +indeed, any other fruit; plant out in the open, at +least 5 feet from anything that will interfere with +cultivation. No fruit crop will respond more readily +to good care than the Currant. Clean cultivation +and a liberal use of manure or fertilizers +will certainly be followed by well paying crops. +One- or two-year-old plants may be set 4 by 6 +feet. Trim the bush by cutting off most of the suckers +below the surface of the ground. If the season is dry, a +mulch of straw or leaves will assist the plants to establish +themselves.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +The red and white Currants bear mostly on two-year-old +or older wood. A succession of young shoots should be +allowed to grow to take the place of the old bearing wood. +Cut out the canes as they grow older. The partial shade +afforded by a young orchard suits the Currant well, and if +the ground is in good condition no bad results will follow to +the orchard, provided the Currants are removed before the +trees need the entire feeding space.</p> + +<p>A Currant patch should continue in good bearing for 10 +to 20 years, if properly handled. One very important point +is to keep the old, weak canes cut out, and a succession of +two to four new ones coming from the root each year. For +home use, White Imperial and Moore’s Ruby are excellent. +Prince of Wales is a heavy bearer and excellent for cooking. +Wilder, Victoria, Cherry and White Grape are meritorious +varieties.</p> + +<p>To combat the Currant worm, spray thoroughly with +Paris green to kill the first brood, just as soon as holes can +be seen in the lower leaves—usually before the plants are +in bloom. For the second brood, if it appear, spray with +white hellebore. For borers, cut out and burn the affected +canes.</p> + +<p><b>Cuttings.</b> Cuttings are parts of plants which +are inserted in soil or water with the intention that they +shall grow and make new plants. They are of various kinds. +They may be classified, with reference to the age of the +wood or tissue, into two classes; viz., those made from +perfectly hard or dormant wood (taken from the winter +twigs of trees and bushes), and those made from more or +less immature or growing wood. They may be classified +again in respect to the part of the plants from which they +are taken, as root Cuttings, tuber Cuttings (as the ordinary +“seed” planted for potatoes), stem Cuttings and leaf Cuttings.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 199px;"> +<img src="images/085-cuttings.jpg" width="199" height="168" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">The planting of dormant wood +Cuttings</p> +</div> + +<p>Dormant wood Cuttings are used for grapes, currants, +gooseberries, willows, poplars and many other kinds of soft-wooded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +trees and shrubs. Cuttings are ordinarily taken in +fall or winter, but cut into the proper lengths and then +buried in sand or moss where they do not freeze, in order +that the lower end may heal over or callus. +In the spring these Cuttings are +set in the ground, preferably in a rather +sandy and well drained place. Usually, +hardwood Cuttings are made with two to +four joints or buds, and when they are +planted, only the upper bud projects +above the ground. They may be planted +erect, as the picture shows, or somewhat +slanting. In order that the Cutting may +reach down to moist earth, it is desirable +that it should not be less than 6 inches long; and it is +sometimes better if it is 8 to 12 inches. If the wood is +short-jointed, there may be several buds on a Cutting of +this length; and, in order to prevent too many shoots from +arising from these buds, the lowermost buds are often cut +out. Roots will start as readily if the lower buds are removed, +since the buds grow into shoots and not into roots. +Cuttings of currants, grapes, gooseberries, and the like may +be set in rows which are far enough apart to admit of easy +tillage either with horse or hand tools, and the Cuttings +may be placed from 3 to 8 inches apart in the +row. After the Cuttings have grown for one season, +the plants are usually transplanted and given more +room for the second year’s growth, after which time +they are ready to be set in permanent plantations. +In some cases, the plants are set at the end of the +first year; but two-year plants are stronger and usually +preferable.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 96px;"> +<img src="images/085-cuttings2.jpg" width="96" height="155" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Root Cutting, +which has given +rise to a shoot</p> +</div> + +<p>Root Cuttings are used for blackberries, raspberries, +and a few other things. They are ordinarily made of +roots from the size of a lead pencil to one’s little finger, and +are cut in lengths from 3 to 5 inches long. The Cuttings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +are stored the same as stem Cuttings and allowed to callus. +In the spring they are planted in a horizontal or +nearly horizontal position in moist, sandy soil, being entirely +covered to a depth of 1 or 2 inches.</p> + +<p>Softwood or greenwood Cuttings are always rooted under +cover; that is, in a greenhouse, coldframe or dwelling +house. They are usually made of wood which is mature +enough to break when it is bent sharply. When the wood +is so soft that it will bend and not break, it is too immature, +in the majority of plants, for the making of good Cuttings. +One to two joints is the proper length of a greenwood Cutting. +If of two joints, the lower leaf should be cut off and +the upper leaves cut in two, so that they do not present +their entire surface to the air and thereby evaporate the +plant juices too rapidly. If the Cutting is of only one joint, +the lower end is usually cut just above a joint. In either +case, the Cuttings are usually inserted in sand or well +washed gravel, nearly or quite up to the leaves. Keep the +bed uniformly moist throughout its depth, but avoid any soil +which holds so much moisture that it becomes muddy and +sour. These Cuttings should be shaded until they begin to +emit their roots. Coleus, geraniums, fuchsias, and nearly +all the common greenhouse and house plants, are propagated +by these Cuttings or slips.</p> + +<p>Leaf Cuttings are often used, for the fancy-leaved begonias, +gloxinias, and a few other plants. The young plant +usually arises most readily from the leaf-stalk or petiole. +The leaf, therefore, is inserted into the ground much as a +green Cutting is. Begonia leaves, however, will throw out +young plants from the main veins when these veins or +ribs are cut. Therefore, well-grown and firm begonia leaves +are sometimes laid flat on the sand and the main veins cut; +then the leaf is weighted down with pebbles or pegs so that +these cut surfaces come into intimate contact with the soil +beneath. The begonia leaf may be treated in various other +ways and still give good results. <a href="#begonias">See <i>Begonia</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 166px;"> +<img src="images/087-cuttings3.jpg" width="166" height="175" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Cuttings inserted in a +double pot</p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +In the growing of all greenwood Cuttings, it is well to +remember that they should have a gentle bottom heat; the +soil should be such that it will hold moisture and yet not +remain wet; the air about the tops should not become close +and stagnant, else the plants will damp off; and the tops +should be shaded for a time.</p> + +<p>An excellent method of starting Cuttings +in the living room is to make a double pot, +as shown in the picture. Inside a 6-inch pot, +set a 4-inch pot. Fill the bottom, <i>a</i>, with +gravel or bits of brick, for drainage. Plug the +hole in the inside pot. Fill the spaces between, +<i>c</i>, with earth, and in this set the Cuttings. +Water may be poured into the inner pot, <i>b</i>, to +supply the moisture.</p> + +<p><b>Cutworms.</b> Probably the remedy for Cutworms +most often practiced in gardens, and which cannot +fail to be effective when faithfully carried out, is hand-picking +with lanterns at night or digging them out from around +the base of the infested plants during the day. Bushels of +Cutworms have been gathered in this way, and with profit. +When from some cause success does not attend the use of +the poisoned baits, discussed next, hand-picking is the only +other method yet recommended which can be relied upon to +check Cutworm depredations.</p> + +<p>By far the best methods yet devised for killing Cutworms in +any situation are the poisoned baits; hand-picking is usually +unnecessary where they are thoroughly used. Poisoned +bunches of clover or weeds have been thoroughly tested, +even by the wagon-load, over large areas, and nearly +all have reported them very effective; lamb’s quarters +(pigweed), pepper-grass and mullein are among the weeds +especially attractive to Cutworms. On small areas the +making of the baits is done by hand, but they have been +prepared on a large scale by spraying the plants in the +field, cutting them with a scythe or machine, and pitching<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +them from wagons in small bunches wherever desired. +Distributed a few feet apart between rows of garden plants +at nightfall, they have attracted and killed enough Cutworms +often to save a large proportion of the crop; if the +bunches can be covered with a shingle, they will keep +fresher much longer. The fresher the baits, and the more +thoroughly the baiting is done, the more Cutworms one can +destroy. However, it may sometimes happen that a sufficient +quantity of such green succulent plants cannot be obtained +early enough in the season in some localities. In +this case, and we are not sure but in all cases, the poisoned +bran mash can be used to the best advantage. It is easily +made and applied at any time, is not expensive, and thus +far the results show that it is a very attractive and effective +bait. A tablespoonful can be quickly dropped around the +base of each cabbage or tomato plant, small amounts can be +easily scattered along the rows of onions, turnips, etc., or +a little dropped on a hill of corn, cucumbers, etc. It was +used on sweet potato hills in New Jersey last year, and +“served as a complete protection, the Cutworms preferring +the bran.” It is well to apply it on the evening +of the day the plants are set out.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 174px;"> +<img src="images/088-cutworm.jpg" width="174" height="227" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Protection from cutworms</p> +</div> + +<p>The best time to apply these poisoned +baits is two or three days before any plants +have come up or been set out in the garden. +If the ground has been properly prepared, the +worms will have had but little to eat for several +days and they will thus seize the first +opportunity to appease their hunger upon the +baits, and wholesale destruction will result. +The baits should always be applied at this time +wherever Cutworms are expected. But it is +not too late usually to save most of a crop after the pests +have made their presence known by cutting off some of the +plants. Act promptly and use the baits freely.—<i>M. V. +Slingerland.</i></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +Cutworms may be kept away from plants by making a +collar of stiff paper or tin about the base, as in the picture; +but this is not practicable on a large scale.</p> + +<p><b>Cyclamen.</b> A tender greenhouse tuberous +plant, sometimes seen in the window-garden. Cyclamens may +be grown from seed sown in April or September in soil containing +a large proportion of sand and leaf-mold. If sown +in September, they should be wintered in a coolhouse. In +May they should be potted into larger pots and placed in a +shaded frame, and by July will have become large enough +for their flowering pot, which should be either a 5- or +6-inch one. They should be brought into the house before +danger of frost, and grown cool until through flowering. A +temperature of 55° suits them while in flower. After +flowering, they will need a rest for a short time, but should +not become very dry, or the bulb will be injured. When +they start into growth, they should have the old soil shaken +off and be potted into smaller pots. At no time should more +than half the tuber be under the soil.</p> + +<p>Tubers large enough to flower the first year may be obtained +from the seedsmen at moderate prices; and unless +one has facilities for growing the seedlings for a year, purchase +of the tubers will give the best satisfaction. The soil +best suited to the Cyclamen is one containing two parts +leaf-mold, 1 part each of sand and loam.</p> + +<p><a name="D" id="D"></a><b>Daffodils</b> are a kind of Narcissus. They are +hardy, and require the treatment recommended for Crocus. +They may be naturalized in the grass, but they usually do +not persist long on account of our hot, dry summers. Daffodils +have been much improved of late. Plant in the fall, +4-6 in. deep. Excellent old garden plants.</p> + +<p><b>Dahlia.</b> The Dahlia is an old favorite which, +on account of its formal flowers, has been in disfavor for a +few years, although it has always held a place in the rural +districts. Now, however, with the advent of the cactus and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +semi-cactus types (or loose-flowered forms), and the improvement +of the singles, it again has taken a front rank +among late summer flowers, coming in just in advance of +the Chrysanthemum.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 102px;"> +<img src="images/090-dahlia.jpg" width="102" height="162" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Dahlia</p> +</div> + +<p>The single varieties may be grown from seed, but the +double sorts should be grown from cuttings of young +stems or from division of the roots. If cuttings are +to be made, it will be necessary to start the roots early +either in a hotbed or house. When the growth has +reached 4 or 5 inches, they may be cut from the plant +and rooted in sand. Care should be taken to cut just +below the joint, as a cutting made between two joints +will not form tubers. The most rapid method of propagation +of named varieties is to grow from cuttings +in this way. In growing the plants from roots, the best +plan is to place the whole root in gentle heat, covering +slightly. When the young growth has started, the roots +may be taken up, divided, and planted out 3 to 4 feet apart. +This plan will ensure a plant from each piece of root, +whereas if the roots are divided while dormant, there is +danger of not having a bud at the end of each +piece, in which case no growth will start.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 132px;"> +<img src="images/090-dahlia2.jpg" width="132" height="166" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Dahlia</p> +</div> + +<p>The Dahlia flourishes best in a deep, rich, +moist soil, although very good results can be had +on sandy soil, provided plant-food and moisture +are furnished. Clay should be avoided. If the +plants are to be grown without stakes, the center +of each plant should be pinched out after making +two or three joints. By doing this the lateral +branches will start near the ground and be stiff enough to +withstand the winds. In most home gardens the plants are +allowed to reach their full height, and are tied to stakes if +necessary. Dahlias are very susceptible to frost. The tall +kinds reach a height of 5-8 feet.</p> + +<p>After the first frost, lift the roots, let them dry in the +sun, shake off the dirt, trim off tops and broken parts, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +store them in a cellar as you would potatoes. Cannas may +be stored in the same place.</p> + +<p><b><a name="daisy" id="daisy"></a>Daisy.</b> The perennial English Daisy, or <i>Bellis +perennis</i>, is a prime favorite as an edging plant. The cheerful +little flowers show early in the spring, and with a little +care bloom continuously through a long season. They +should be given well enriched, moist soil, and be mulched +through hot weather. The usual method of propagation is +by division of the crowns, made in cool weather. They may +also be grown from seed, but the chances are that many inferior +flowers will be produced. Set the plants 3 or 4 inches +apart. Height 3 to 5 inches. The colors are white, pink and +red. Hardy if mulched in winter, but best results are obtained +if plants are renewed frequently.</p> + +<p>Many other plants are called Daisy, particularly the wild +Asters, the Ox-eye Daisy or Whiteweed, and the Paris Daisy +(<i>Chrysanthemum frutescens</i>).</p> + +<p><b>Damping Off</b> is the rotting off of cuttings or +young plants near the surface of the soil. It is the work of +fungi; but these fungi are injurious because they find conditions +congenial to their rapid growth. Prevention is +worth more than cure. See that the soil is wet clear +through, not wet on top and dry beneath. Keep it as dry as +possible on the surface. Avoid soggy soils. On peaty soils, +sprinkle sand or coal ashes to keep the top dry. Give the +plants free circulation of air. Give them abundance of +room. If Damping Off threatens, transplant.</p> + +<p><b>Dandelion.</b> This common weed would hardly +be recognized if seen under cultivation in the vegetable +garden. The plants attain a large size and the leaves are +much more tender. The seed may be selected from the +best field-growing plants, but it is better to buy the French +seed of the seedsmen.</p> + +<p>Sow in spring in well manured soil, either in drills or in +hills 1 foot apart. A cutting of leaves may be had in September<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +or October, and some of the stools may stand until +spring. The delicacy of the leaves may be improved by +blanching them, either by the use of boards or earth. One +trade packet of seed will supply a large number of plants. +The whole plant is destroyed when the crop of leaves is taken.</p> + +<p><b>Datura.</b> <span class="smcap">Brugmansia.</span> Large-growing annuals +with large, trumpet-shaped flowers. The coloring of +some of the flowers is very attractive, but the odor of the +plant is unpleasant. Plants should be set 4 feet apart. +They grow 3-4 feet high, bear large leaves, and therefore +make good low screens. Frost kills them. Sow seed where +plants are to grow; or, better, start them in the house three +or four weeks before the weather is fit for planting outside. +Some of the Daturas are weeds. The great spiny +seed pods are interesting.</p> + +<p><b>Delphinium.</b> <a href="#larkspur">See <i>Larkspur</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;"> +<img src="images/092-dewberry.jpg" width="160" height="165" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Lucretia Dewberry</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Dewberry.</b> The Dewberry may be called an +early trailing blackberry. The culture of this, as of the +blackberry, is very simple; but, unlike the latter, some +support should be given to the canes, as they are very +slender and rank growers. A wire trellis or +large-meshed fence-wire answers admirably; +or (and this is the better general method) they +may be tied to stakes. The fruits are large and +showy, which, combined with their earliness, +makes them desirable; but they are usually +deficient in flavor. The Lucretia is the leading +variety in cultivation.</p> + +<p>Lay the canes on the ground in winter. In +the spring tie all the canes from each plant to a stake. +After fruiting, cut the old canes and burn them (as for +blackberries). In the meantime, the young canes (for next +year’s fruiting) are growing. These may be tied up as they +grow, to be out of the way of the cultivator. Dewberries +are one to two weeks earlier than blackberries.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +<b><a name="dianthus" id="dianthus"></a>Dianthus</b>, or <span class="smcap">Pink</span>. Under this head are included +Chinese Pinks, Sweet William, Picotee, Carnation +(<a href="#carnations">which see</a>), and the perennial or Grass Pinks. All of +them are general favorites.</p> + +<p>The Chinese Pinks (<i>Dianthus Chinensis</i>, or <i>Heddewigii</i>) are +now very popular. They are biennials, but flower the first +year from seed, and are treated as hardy annuals. They have +a wide range of color and markings. Some of them are as +double as a rose, and are edged, splashed or lined with other +colors. The single ones are very brilliant and are profuse +bloomers. Sow seeds where plants are to stand, or if early +bloom is desired, start in the house. Set the plants 6-10 +in. apart. They grow 8-15 in. high. They bloom until after +frost. Of easiest culture in any good soil, and should be +even more popular. The petals are often quite deeply and +oddly cut.</p> + +<p>The Sweet William is an old-fashioned perennial, having +flowers of many combinations of color, growing for several +years when once planted, but being the better for renewal +every two years. Raising new stock from seeds is usually +better than dividing old plants. Of late years, the Sweet +William has been much improved.</p> + +<p>The perennial garden or Grass Pinks are low-growing, +with highly perfumed flowers. They are very useful for +permanent edgings, although the grass is likely to run them +out unless a clean strip is kept on either side. Divide the +old plants when the edging begins to fail; or +raise new plants from seed. Seedlings usually +do not bloom much the first year. Usually perfectly +hardy.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;"> +<img src="images/093-dibber.jpg" width="173" height="122" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Dibbers</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Dibbers</b> are hand tools used for making +holes in which to set plants or to drop +seeds. They are better than a hoe or a spade +for most transplanting. For small plants, as cabbages and +tomatoes, a cylindrical Dibber is generally used. (See the +lower one in the cut.) It can be made from an old spade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +handle or any hardwood stick. When broad holes are +wanted, the triangular iron Dibber (sold by dealers) is excellent. +It is particularly useful in hard soils.</p> + +<p><b>Dicentra</b> includes the Bleeding Heart; also +the native little Dutchman’s Breeches and Squirrel Corn, +and a few other species. All are hardy perennials of +the easiest culture, blooming in spring. In common with +all perennial herbs, they are benefited by a winter mulch of +leaves or litter. Propagated by dividing the clumps.</p> + +<p><b><a name="dictamnus" id="dictamnus"></a>Dictamnus.</b> <span class="smcap">Fraxinella</span> or <span class="smcap">Gas Plant</span>. An +old border plant (perennial herb) with white or pale red +flowers. The leaves of the plant emit a strong odor when +rubbed, likened to that of the lemon verbena. It has been +advertised as the Gas Plant from the fact that the plant +exudes an oily matter that may be ignited, especially in +warm, dry weather. Propagated by seeds, which should be +sown as soon as ripe. The plant blooms the third year, +and improves with age. Set plants 3 feet apart. Height 2 +to 3 feet.</p> + +<p><b>Dill.</b> An annual aromatic herb that will seed +itself if seeds are left to ripen, and an abundance of plants +may always be had. The culture is of the easiest. The +seeds are often used to flavor pickles.</p> + +<p><b>Diseases.</b> Diseases of plants may be caused +by some physiological disturbance to the plant system, or by +the incursions of some parasitic organism, as insects or fungi. +The work of insects, however, is ordinarily not classed with +plant Diseases (<a href="#insects">see <i>Insects</i></a>). Of Diseases which are caused +by plant parasites or by physiological disturbances, there +are two general groups:</p> + +<p>(1) Parasitic fungous Diseases, such as the apple-scab, +black-rot and mildew of the grape, leaf-blight of the plum +and pear, black-knot, and the like. These Diseases are +characterized by definite spots, discolorations or excrescences, +which are more or less scattered over the surface of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +the leaf, fruit or branch. As a rule, the leaves and fruits +which are attacked have a tendency to drop from the tree. +The general treatment for these Diseases is to spray with +some fungicidal mixture, like the Bordeaux mixture or the +ammoniacal carbonate of copper. The treatment is useful +in proportion as it is applied early and thoroughly. After +the fungus once gets into the tissues of the host-plant, it is +difficult, if not impossible, to kill it. If, however, the fungicide +is upon the plant before the fungus is, the parasite +may not be able to obtain a foothold. Even after it does +obtain a foothold, it is probable, however, that the spray +will check its spread by preventing the development of its +external parts.</p> + +<p>(2) The physiological and bacterial Diseases, or those +which are termed constitutional troubles. In these cases +there are rarely any definite spots, as in the attacks of +parasitic fungi, but the entire leaf, or even the entire plant, +or a large part of it, shows a general weakening and Disease, +as if there were some cutting off of the accustomed +source of nourishment. Such Diseases are very likely to be +seen in a general yellowing and death of the leaf, in the +dying of the leaf along the main veins and around the +edges, showing that the difficulty is one which affects the +entire leaf, and not any particular part of it. In general, +there is a tendency for the foliage in plants so attacked to +wither up and hang on the tree for a time. The peach-yellows +and pear blight are Diseases of this kind. There +are no specific treatments for troubles of this sort. They +must be approached by what physicians call prophylaxis—that +is, by methods of sanitation and prevention. The diseased +plants or parts are cut away and burned. All those +conditions which seem to favor the development of the Disease +are removed. Varieties which are particularly susceptible +are discarded. Careful management in matters of +this sort is often much more important than any attempt at +specific treatment.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +<b>Dolichos.</b> <a href="#hyacinth_bean">Mentioned under <i>Hyacinth Bean</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Dracænas</b> of the conservatories (properly +mostly <span class="smcap">Cordylines</span>) are sometimes used as house plants. +Protect from direct sunlight, keep an even and fairly high +temperature, water freely when they are growing. When +the plants begin to fail, return them to the florist for recuperation, +where they may have equable conditions. They +are handsome long-leaved foliage plants, excellent for +jardinieres.</p> + +<p><b>Drainage</b> serves two purposes: first, to carry +superfluous water from the land; second, to lower the water-table +or hard-pan, and to make the soil loose and friable +above. Nearly all hard clay lands are much benefited by +draining, even though they are not too wet. The region of +free or standing water is lowered and air is admitted into +the soil, rendering it fine and mellow. For carrying off +mere surface water, surface or open ditches are sufficient; +but if the soil is to be ameliorated, the drain must be beneath +the surface. The best underdrains are those which +use hollow or cylindrical tiles, but very good results may be +had by making drains from stones. In regions where there +are many flat stones, a very good conduit may be laid with +them, but they are likely to get out of order. If there is +considerable fall to the ditch, the bottom may be filled for +the space of 10 inches or a foot with common stones rolled +in, and the water will find its way between them. If the +stones are even deeper than this, the results will be better; +and such ditches also provide place for disposing of superfluous +stones.</p> + +<p>The deeper the ditch the further it will draw on either +side. It should always be deep enough to be protected from +freezing, particularly if tiles are used. Three feet should +be the least depth, and 3½ feet is a good average depth. +Drains as deep as this need not be placed oftener than 2 to 3 +rods apart, unless, in garden conditions, it is desired to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +very thoroughly ameliorate a heavy clay soil, in which case +they may be placed every 20 feet. The better the fall +the quicker the drain will act and the more permanent it will +be, as it will tend to clean itself and not fill up with silt. +It is important that the outlet be entirely free, and it should +be protected with stones or mason work. The roots of some +trees, particularly of willows and elms, are attracted by tile +drains, and often fill up the pipes. When the drain goes +near such trees, therefore, it is well to cement the joints. +In general practice, however, the joints should not be +cemented, because a large part of the drainage water enters +at those places. In laying the tiles, it is well to cover the +joints with inverted sod, tarred paper, wisps of straw, +stones or other material. This prevents the fresh earth +from falling in between the joints, and by the time the material +is decayed the earth will have become so thoroughly +set that no further trouble will result. Although under-drains +take off superfluous water, nevertheless an under-drained +soil will hold more moisture than one which is not +drained, particularly in the case of clay lands with high +subsoils. This is because fine, mallow soils are able to hold +more moisture than very loose and open or very dense and +compact ones. A well constructed underdrain should last +indefinitely.</p> + +<p><b>Dutchman’s Pipe.</b> <a href="#aristolochia">See <i>Aristolochia</i>.</a></p> + +<p><a name="E" id="E"></a><b>Echeveria.</b> Tender succulents largely used for +carpet bedding and rock gardens. <i>Echeveria secunda</i> is sometimes +called <span class="smcap">Old-Hen-and-Chickens</span>, from the little plants +that grow out from the stem of the parent plant and show +around the edges of the rosette top; but the hardy Hen-and-Chickens +of old gardens is a different but closely allied +plant (<i>Sempervivum tectorum</i>). All the species are of easy +culture and thrive on sandy soil. They should not be +planted out until all danger of frost is over and the ground +thoroughly warm. Propagated by the offsets. Height 3<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +inches. The name Echeveria is now given up by botanists +for <i>Cotyledon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Egg-plant.</b> <span class="smcap">Guinea Squash.</span> Unless one has +a greenhouse or a very warm hotbed, the growing of Egg-plants +in the North should be left to the professional gardener, +as the young plants are very tender, and should be +grown without a check. The seed should be sown in the +hotbed or greenhouse about April 10, keeping a temperature +of from 65° to 70°. When the seedlings have made three +rough leaves, they may be pricked out into shallow boxes, +or, still better, into 3-inch pots. The pots or boxes should +be plunged to the rim in soil in a hotbed or coldframe so +situated that protection may be given on chilly nights. The +10th of June is early enough to plant them out in central +New York. The soil in which they are to grow cannot well +be made too rich, as they have only a short season in which +to develop their fruits. The plants are usually set 3 feet +apart each way. A dozen plants are sufficient +for the needs of a large family, as each plant +should yield from two to six large fruits. The +fruits are fit to eat at all stages of growth, from +those the size of a large egg to their largest +development. One ounce of seed will furnish +600 to 800 plants.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 152px;"> +<img src="images/098-eggplant.jpg" width="152" height="160" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">New York Purple Egg-plant</p> +</div> + +<p>The New York Improved Purple is the standard +variety. Black Pekin is good. For early, +or for a short-season climate, the Early Dwarf Purple is +excellent.</p> + +<p><b>Endive.</b> As a fall salad vegetable, this should +be better known, it being far superior to lettuce at that +time and as easily grown. For fall use, the seed may be +sown from June to August, and as the plants become fit to +eat about the same time from sowing as lettuce does, a succession +may be had until cold weather. The plants will +need protection from the severe fall frosts, and this may be +given by carefully lifting the plants and transplanting to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +frame, where sash or cloth may be used to cover them in +freezing weather. The leaves, which constitute practically +the whole plant, are blanched before being used, either by +tying together with some soft material or by standing boards +on each side of the row, allowing the top of the boards to +meet over the center of the row. The rows should be 1½ +or 2 feet apart, the plants 1 foot apart in the rows. One +ounce of seed will sow 150 feet of drill.</p> + +<p><b>Eschscholtzia.</b> <a href="#california_poppy">See <i>California Poppy</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Eutoca.</b> Hardy early-flowering annuals having +pink or blue flowers, good for masses. Sow seed early +where wanted. Height 1 foot. Eutocas are properly classed +with Phacelias.</p> + +<p><b>Evergreens.</b> Evergreens are plants which hold +their foliage in winter. Ordinarily, however, in this country +the word Evergreen is understood to mean coniferous +trees with persistent leaves, as pines, spruces, firs, cedars, +junipers, arborvitæ, retinosporas, and the like. These trees +have always been favorites with plant lovers, as they have +very distinctive forms and other characteristics. Many of +them are of the easiest culture. It is a common notion that, +since spruces and other conifers grow so symmetrically, +they will not stand pruning; but this is an error. They +may be pruned with as good effect as other trees, and if +they tend to grow too tall the leader may be cut out without +fear. A new leader will arise, but in the meantime the +upward growth of the tree will be somewhat checked, and +the effect will be to make the tree dense. The tips of +the branches may also be headed in with the same effect. The +beauty of an Evergreen lies in its natural form; therefore, +it should not be sheared into unusual shapes, but a gentle +trimming back, as suggested, will tend to prevent the Norway +spruce and others from growing open and ragged. +After the tree attains some age, 4 or 5 inches may be taken +off the ends of the main branches every year or two with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +good results. This slight trimming is ordinarily done with +Waters’ long-handled pruning shears.</p> + +<p>There is much difference of opinion as to the proper time +for the transplanting of Evergreens, which means that there +is more than one season in which they may be moved. It +is ordinarily unsafe to transplant them in the fall in northern +climates or bleak situations, since the evaporation from +the foliage during the winter is likely to injure the plant. +The best results are usually secured when they are transplanted +just as new growth is beginning, rather late in the +spring. Some people also plant them in August, and the +roots secure a hold of the soil before winter. In transplanting +conifers, it is very important that the roots be not exposed +to the sun. They should be moistened and covered +with burlaps or other material. The holes should be ready +to receive them. If the trees are large, or if it has been +necessary to trim in the roots, the top should be cut when +the tree is set. Large Evergreens (those 10 feet and more +high) are usually best transplanted late in winter, at a time +when a large ball of earth may be moved with them. A +trench is dug around the tree, it being deepened a little day +by day so that the frost can work into the earth and hold it +in shape. When the ball is thoroughly frozen, it is hoisted +onto a stone-boat and moved to its new position.</p> + +<p>For low hedges or screens, one of the most serviceable +Evergreens is the arborvitæ in its various forms. Red cedars +are also useful. Perhaps the handsomest of all of them +for such purposes is the ordinary hemlock spruce; but it is +usually difficult to move. Transplanted trees from nurseries +are usually safest. If the trees are taken from the wild, +they should be selected from open and sunny places. For +neat and compact effects near porches and along walks, the +dwarf retinosporas are very useful. Most of the pines and +spruces are too coarse for planting very close to the house. +They are better at some distance removed, where they serve +as a background to other planting. If they are wanted for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +individual specimens, they should be given plenty of room, +so that the limbs will not be crowded and the tree become +misshapen. Whatever else is done to the spruces and firs, +the lower limbs should not be trimmed up, at least not until +the tree has become so old that the lowest branches die. +Some species hold their branches much longer than others. +The oriental spruce (<i>Picea orientalis</i>) is one of the best in +this respect. The occasional slight heading-in, which we +have mentioned, will tend to preserve the lower limbs, and +it will not be marked enough to alter the form of the tree.</p> + +<p><b><a name="everlastings" id="everlastings"></a>Everlastings</b> are flowers which retain their +shape and usually their color when they are dried. Most of +them are members of the composite family. In order to +have them hold shape and color, cut them with very long +stems just before they are fully expanded, and hang them in +an airy place away from the sun. They are all annuals, or +grown as such, and are of very easy culture. Sow seeds +where the plants are to stand. Good kinds are Ammobium, +Gomphrena or Bachelor’s Buttons, Rhodanthe, Helichrysum, +Xeranthemum, and Acroclinium. Certain wild +composites may be similarly used, particularly Anaphalis +and species of Gnaphalium. Some of the grasses make +excellent additions to dry bouquets (<a href="#grass">see <i>Grass</i></a>). With these +dry bouquets, various seed pods look well.</p> + +<p><a name="F" id="F"></a><b>Fenzlia.</b> Little hardy annuals, having a profusion +of bloom through the entire summer. The flowers are +a delicate pink, with yellow throat surrounded by dark +spots. A charming edging plant or window box subject. +Sow the seed in boxes or where plants are wanted, and thin +to the distance of 10 inches. Height 3 to 4 inches. Now +classed with Gilia.</p> + +<p><b>Ferns.</b> Probably the one Fern grown most +extensively as a house plant is the small-leaved Maidenhair +Fern (or <i>Adiantum gracillimum</i>). This and other species are +among the finest of house plants, when sufficient moisture<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +can be given. They make fine specimens, as well as serving +the purpose of greenery for cut-flowers. Other species +often grown for house plants are <i>A. cuneatum</i> and <i>A. +Capillus-Veneris</i>. All these do well in a mixture of fibrous +sod, loam, and sand, with ample drainage material. They +may be divided if an increase is wanted.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 165px;"> +<img src="images/102-fern.jpg" width="165" height="174" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Boston Fern</p> +</div> + +<p>Other Ferns for house culture include +<i>Nephrolepis exaltata</i>. This is no doubt the +most easily grown of the list, flourishing in +a sitting-room. The new variety of <i>N. exaltata</i>, +called the Boston Fern (see figure), +is a decided addition to this family, having a +drooping habit, covering the pot and making +a fine stand or bracket plant.</p> + +<p>Several species of Pteris, particularly <i>P. +serrulata</i>, are valuable house Ferns, but require +a warmer situation than those mentioned above. They +will also thrive better in a shady or ill-lighted corner.</p> + +<p>Perfect drainage and care in watering have more to do +with the successful growing of Ferns than any special mixture +of soils. If the drainage material in the bottom of the +pot or box is sufficient, there is little danger of over-watering; +but water-logged soil is always to be avoided. +Do not use clay soils. Ferns need protection from the direct +sunshine, and also a moist atmosphere. They thrive +well in a close glass box, or window-garden, if the conditions +can be kept equable.</p> + +<p>The native Ferns transplant easily to the garden, and +they make an attractive addition to the side of a house, or +as an admixture in a hardy border. The Ostrich and Cinnamon +Ferns are the best subjects. Give all outdoor Ferns +a place which is protected from winds, otherwise they will +shrivel and perhaps die. Screen them from the hot sun, +or give them the shady side of the building. See that the +soil is uniformly moist, and that it does not get too hot. +Mulch with leaf-mold in the fall.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +<b><a name="fertilizers" id="fertilizers"></a>Fertilizers.</b> Soil is productive when it has +good physical texture, plant-food, and a sufficient supply of +moisture. Even though it has an abundance of plant-food, +if its texture is not good, it will not raise a good crop. +Soil has good texture when it is open, mellow, friable, +rather than loose and leachy, or hard and cloddy. Commercial +Fertilizers add plant-food, but usually they have only a +small influence in correcting faulty texture. Therefore, +before concentrated Fertilizers are applied to land, it should +be gotten into good physical condition by judicious tillage +and by the incorporation of vegetable mold or humus. The +leading source of humus in most gardens is stable manure. +<a href="#manure">See <i>Manure</i>.</a></p> + +<p>The plant-food in commercial Fertilizers is largely in a +soluble or quickly available condition. Therefore, a little +Fertilizer applied late in the fall or early in the spring will +tend to start the plants off quickly in the spring and to +cause them to become established before the trying weather +of summer. For garden purposes, it is usually advisable to +buy one of the so-called complete Fertilizers; that is, one +which contains nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. If a +luxuriant growth of stalk and foliage is wanted rather than +flowers or fruit, an application of nitrogen alone is usually +advisable. The most readily available nitrogen in commercial +form is that which is afforded by nitrate of soda and +sulfate of ammonia. In garden practice this may be applied +at the rate of 300 to 400 pounds an acre, although this +quantity is more than is profitable to use in most general +field or agricultural conditions. If it is desired to have +stout, stocky plants, with early and profuse bloom, it is +ordinarily advisable to use somewhat sparingly of nitrogen +and to use a little more heavily of potash and phosphoric +acid. This is especially true of the leguminous plants, +which have the power of appropriating atmospheric nitrogen, +and among such plants are sweet peas. Heavy fertilizing +of sweet pea land with strong stable manure tends to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +make the vines grow too tall and to bear comparatively few +flowers. For dressing of lawns, a Fertilizer which is comparatively +rich in nitrogen is usually to be advised.</p> + +<p>An important value of commercial Fertilizers is to use +them to start off the plants quickly in the spring. The food +is available and acts at once. When used for this purpose, +the Fertilizer may be applied in the hill; but when it is desired +for the enriching of the land and for the support of the +crop throughout the season, it should be applied to the entire +surface. Always avoid putting the Fertilizer on the +crown of the plant, or directly in contact with it. It is +usually better to work the Fertilizer in lightly. For most +garden operations, it is better to apply in spring.</p> + +<p><b>Feverfew.</b> <a href="#pyrethrum">See <i>Pyrethrum</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 140px;"> +<img src="images/105-fig.jpg" width="140" height="133" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Branches of Fig tree pegged down</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Fig.</b> The Fig is little grown in the East +except as a curiosity, but on the Pacific coast it has +gained more or less prominence as an orchard fruit. The +trees are usually planted at distances of about 18 to 25 feet +apart. Figs will stand considerable frost, and seedling or +inferior varieties grow out of doors without protection as +far north as Virginia. Many of the varieties fruit on young +sprouts, and, inasmuch as the roots will stand considerable +cold, these varieties will often give a few Figs in the northern +states. Figs have been fruited in the open ground in +Michigan. In all frosty countries, however, the Fig should +be laid down during the winter time. The following notes +from Professor Massey, of North Carolina, indicate how this +may be done:</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 142px;"> +<img src="images/105-fig2.jpg" width="142" height="142" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Fig branches covered with earth</p> +</div> + +<p>“The light hoar-frosts that have occurred here affected +vegetation only on low grounds, and today (November 5) +our gardens on high ground show no signs of frost. Lima +beans and tomato vines are as green as in summer time, +and this morning we gathered ripe Figs from our trees in +the garden—the latest I have ever known Figs to ripen. +As the early crop of Figs ripens in July (if it escapes the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +winter frosts, for the fruit is now set on the trees), and the +late crop begins in August and continues to ripen in succession +till frost, it is easy to see what a desirable fruit the +Fig is. In this section it is easy to have a great abundance +of Figs, and it is possible almost anywhere in the +United States to have both early and late crops +in abundance by taking a little trouble to protect +the trees in winter. Years ago the writer grew +Figs in abundance in a very cold locality in +northern Maryland, and never failed +to get a good crop. Where the winter +temperature seldom drops lower than +18° or 20° above zero, Figs will need no special +protection if sheltered from cold winds. In +colder climates they should be branched from the +ground, and, after the leaves have fallen, be bent +to the ground in four bundles and covered with +earth, making a sharp mound over the center and +sloping off like a four-pointed star or cross, as shown in +the cuts, taken from Bulletin 74 of North Carolina Experiment +Station.”</p> + +<p><b><a name="flower_beds" id="flower_beds"></a>Flower Beds.</b> Two classes of subjects are to +be considered in the discussion of Flower Beds: those concerned +with the location of the bed; those concerned with +the actual making of the bed itself. Most persons do not +consider the former subject. If one wants a flower garden in +which there is to be a collection of plants grown for the +plants’ sake, the garden should be placed at the rear or one +side, and may be laid out in regular fashion like a vegetable +garden. If the flowers are to be a part of the home picture,—that +is, a part of the place itself,—then they may be +freely distributed amongst the border planting, or as edgings +along groups of shrubbery. It is rarely, if ever, allowable +to place formal beds in the lawn in home grounds. The +place for carpet-bedding is usually in parks or other public +areas, in sections which are set aside and devoted to that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +particular purpose, the same as another section may be devoted +to a zoölogical garden, play-ground or to other specific +use. Flowers which are grown in the middle of the +lawn have little relation to other planting, and they have no +background to show them off to good advantage. It is also +difficult to grow them in small beds in the grass, since they +are exposed to sun and wind, and the grass roots absorb the +food and moisture. In the formal bed, every effort must be +made to keep it prim, otherwise it becomes displeasing; +whereas, if the flowers are planted more or less promiscuously +in large, irregular borders, or along the edge of shrubbery, +the failure of one or even of a dozen plants is not a +serious matter. The growing of plants in formal designs +requires so much care and attention that a large part of the +fun of plant-growing is lost. Such plant-growing should +ordinarily be left to those who make a business of it.</p> + +<p>In making a Flower Bed, see that the ground is well +drained; that the subsoil is deep; that the land is in a +mellow and friable condition, and that it is rich. Each fall +it may have a mulch of rotted manure or of leaf-mold, which +may be spaded under deeply in the spring; or the land may +be spaded and left rough in the fall, which is a good practice +when the soil has much clay. Make the Flower Beds as +broad as possible, so that the roots of the grass running in +from either side will not meet beneath the flowers and rob +them of food and moisture. It is well to add a little commercial +fertilizer each fall or spring.</p> + +<p><b>Flowering Maple.</b> <a href="#abutilon">See <i>Abutilon</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Forget-me-not.</b> This old favorite grows so +easily, looks so cheerful, and with a little care will bloom +so long, that it should have a place in every collection of +flowering plants. It is perennial, but the best results may +be had by dividing the roots as often as every other year; or +seedlings may be taken up from around the old plants. +They require a moist soil, with shade a part of the day. +They will thrive exceedingly if grown in a frame like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +pansies. Easily grown from seeds, usually blooming the +first fall. Excellent for low edgings. Height 6 inches.</p> + +<p><b>Four-o’clock.</b> <span class="smcap">Mirabilis.</span> Tender annual, a +plant of old-fashioned gardens, and always interesting. +Grows 2 to 3 feet high. Drop seeds where the plants are to +stand, thinning them to 12 to 18 inches apart. The colors +are white and pink. There are variegated-leaved forms; +also dwarfs. Excellent for the back row in a bed of +annuals.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 87px;"> +<img src="images/107-foxglove.jpg" width="87" height="247" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Foxglove</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Foxglove</b>, or <span class="smcap">Digitalis</span>. Foxgloves make most +effective border plants, either as a background or planted +among other things. The tall flower-spikes are +covered during the blooming period with funnel-shaped +drooping flowers in various colors and with +fine markings. Some of the newer varieties have +flowers that rival the Gloxinias in shadings and markings. +The plants are perfectly hardy, growing in one +situation for a number of years; but, as with many +other perennials, they are all the better for being +divided at intervals. They may be grown readily from +seed. Sow in boxes under glass or in the border +where wanted. They bloom the second year. A rich, +deep soil and partial shade suit their requirements. +Period of bloom, July and August. Height 2 to 4 feet.</p> + +<p><b>Frame.</b> See <a href="#hotbed"><i>Hotbed</i></a> and <a href="#coldframe"><i>Coldframe</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Freesia.</b> One of the best and most easily handled +winter-flowering bulbs. The white or yellowish bell-shaped +flowers are produced on slender stalks just above the foliage, +to the number of six to eight in a cluster. They are very +fragrant, and last for a considerable time when picked. +The bulbs are small, and look as though they could not +produce a growth of foliage and flowers, but even the +smallest mature bulb will prove satisfactory. Several +bulbs should be planted together in a pot, box or pan, in +October, if wanted for the holidays, or later if wanted at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +Easter. The plants bloom from ten to twelve weeks from +planting, under ordinary care. No special treatment is required; +keep the plants cool and moist through the growing +season. The soil should contain a little sand mixed with +fibrous loam, and the pot should be well drained. After +flowering, gradually withhold water and the tops will die +down, after which the roots may be shaken out and rested +until time to plant in fall. Care should be taken to keep them +perfectly dry. The bulbs increase rapidly from offsets. +Plants may also be grown from seed, which should be sown +as soon as ripe, giving blooming plants the second or third +year. Height 12 or 15 inches. Easy to bloom in the window. +The white form (<i>Freesia refracta alba</i>) is the best. +<a href="#bulbs">See <i>Bulbs</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Fritillaria</b>, or <span class="smcap">Fritillary</span>. Bulbous plants, +the commoner species hardy. Only the Crown Imperial is +well known in this country. This is an old-fashioned plant, +which takes care of itself when once planted. The other +hardy Fritillarias are treated like tulips.</p> + +<p><b><a name="frost" id="frost"></a>Frost.</b> The light frosts of late spring and of +early fall may be prevented by any means which will keep +the air in motion, or which will fill the air with moisture or +cloud-like vapor, so that there is less radiation from the +ground. When frost is expected, it is well to water the +plants and the ground thoroughly. This will ordinarily protect +them from two or three degrees of still frost. The water +should be applied just at nightfall. On larger areas, it is +often practicable to make a smudge. In order to be +effective, the smudge must be rather dense and lie over +the whole area, and it should be kept up until the danger +from frost is past. Material which burns very slowly and +with much smoke is preferable. Moist manure or straw or +other litter is useful. Materials which are dry enough to +blaze are of little use. Ordinarily, frost comes towards +morning. It is well to have the piles of rubbish ready at +nightfall and have them lighted toward the latter part of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +the night, when the frost is expected. The smudge should +be kept up until sunrise. It is well to have these piles of +smudge material on all sides of the area; or if the area is on +a slope, it may be sufficient to have them on the upper +side, for there is usually a movement of air down the hillside +and the area will thereby be covered with the smudge. +For a thorough protection, it is best to have many small +piles rather than a few large ones. If the piles are placed +every ten feet around the areas, better results are to be expected. +There are especially prepared tar-like materials +for use in smudging plantations, but they are little used in +this country, although some of them are excellent.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 236px;"> +<img src="images/109-fuchsia.jpg" width="236" height="185" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Fuchsia</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Fuchsia.</b> Well-known window or greenhouse +shrub. It is readily grown from cuttings. Soft, green wood +should be used for cuttings, and it will root in about three +weeks, when the cuttings should be potted. Take care not +to have them pot-bound while in growth, but do not +over-pot when bloom is wanted. Given warmth and good +soil, they will make fine plants in +three months or less. In well protected, +partially shady places they +may be planted out, growing into +miniature bushes by fall. Plants may +be kept on from year to year; and +if the branches are well cut back after +blooming, abundant new bloom will +come. But it is usually best to make +new plants each year from cuttings, +since young plants usually bloom most profusely and demand +less care. Fuchsias are amongst the best of window +subjects.</p> + +<p><b>Fumigation</b> is mentioned under <a href="#insects"><i>Insects</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Fungi.</b> Flowerless, leafless plants, living mostly +on food (either living or dead) which has been prepared by +other plants or by animals, Molds, mushrooms and puff-balls<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +are familiar examples. Some of the parasitic kinds +cause great damage to the plants or animals on which they +live. Examples of these injurious parasitic kinds are apple-scab +fungus, potato mildew, grape mildew, corn smut +fungus, and the like. Most of these are combated by +spraying with materials containing copper or sulfur.</p> + +<p><b><a name="funkia" id="funkia"></a>Funkia</b>, or <span class="smcap">Day Lily</span>. Hardy perennial herbs, +growing in dense clumps and bearing attractive foliage. +They are of the easiest culture. <i>F. subcordata</i>, the white-flowered +species, is commonest. Of blue-flowered forms there +are several, of which <i>F. ovata</i> (or <i>F. cærulca</i>) is perhaps +the best. Funkias are excellent for borders, or as a formal +edging to long walks or drives. There are variegated forms. +Funkias grow 12 to 24 inches high, and the flower clusters +stand still higher. Propagated by dividing the roots. Day +Lily is a name applied also to species of Hemerocallis, +which are yellow-flowered lilies.</p> + +<p><a name="G" id="G"></a><b>Gaillardias</b> are plants that should have a place +in every garden, either as border plants or for cutting. The +flowers are very showy and lasting in bouquets, as +well as on the plants. The double form has perfect +balls of color. Gaillardias are both annual and perennial. +The perennials usually have flowers much +larger than the annuals; and they bloom the first year +if seed is started early. These are also propagated by +seed or cuttings. If from seed, it should be sown +under glass in February or March, setting out the +young plants where wanted when danger of frost is +over. The cuttings may be made of the new growth +in the fall and wintered over in the house. Set 2 feet +apart. Height 2 feet, blooming from July until hard frosts. +The perennials are usually orange.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 75px;"> +<img src="images/110-gaillardia.jpg" width="75" height="168" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Gaillardia picta</p> +</div> + +<p>The annual kind (<i>Gaillardia picta</i> of florists) is probably +the best kind for the home garden. It is of the +easiest culture. Hardy. Two feet. Sow seeds where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +plants are to bloom. The colors of the flowers are in +rich shades of yellow and red.</p> + +<p><b>Galanthus.</b> <a href="#snowdrop">See <i>Snowdrop</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Garlic.</b> An onion-like plant, the bulbs of which +are used for flavoring. Little known in this country except +amongst those of foreign birth. It is multiplied the same +as multiplier onions—the bulb is broken apart and each +bulbule or “clove” makes a new compound bulb in a few +weeks. Hardy; plant in early spring, or in the South in +the fall. Plant 2 to 3 inches apart in the row.</p> + +<p><b>Gas Plant</b> is <a href="#dictamnus"><i>Dictamnus</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Geranium.</b> What are generally known as +Geraniums are, strictly speaking, Pelargoniums, <a href="#pelargoniums">which see</a>. +The true Geraniums are mostly hardy plants, and therefore +should not be confounded with the tender Pelargoniums. +Geraniums are worthy a place in a border. They are +hardy perennials, and may be transplanted early in the +spring, setting them 2 feet apart. Height 10 to 12 inches.</p> + +<p>The common wild Cranesbill (<i>Geranium maculatum</i>) improves +under cultivation, and is an attractive plant when it +stands in front of taller foliage.</p> + +<p><b>Gilia.</b> Low-growing hardy annuals, good for +front borders or rockwork, growing from seed very quickly +and continuing in flower a long season. They will do well +in light soil. Sow seed in the fall or early spring where +plants are wanted. <i>Gilia tricolor</i>, blue, white and yellow, +is the best, but there are excellent white and red sorts.</p> + +<p><b>Gladiolus.</b> A popular summer-flowering bulbous +plant, thriving best in moist, sandy loam, that has had +an application of well rotted manure the previous year. +No manure should be used the year of planting, as it has a +tendency to rot the bulbs. Plantings may be made from the +time the ground is in condition to work in the spring until +late in June. In planting, the bulbs should be set 3 inches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +deep and 8 to 10 inches apart, unless they are to be grown +in groups, when they may be planted five or six in the +space of 1 foot. Stakes should be furnished each plant +to support the flower-spike. When in groups, one stake +may be used, setting it in the middle of the circle.</p> + +<p>Gladioli are increased by bulblets formed around the +old bulbs (or corms), or they may be grown from seed. The +bulblets should be planted in drills in April or May, and +will grow to flowering size in one or two years. In the +same way, seed sown early in drills, grown through the +summer, the little bulbs taken up and stored through the +winter and again planted out, will often make bulbs large +enough to flower the second year.</p> + +<p>Care should be taken to lift all bulbs before freezing +weather, as most varieties are tender. They should be harvested +with the tops on, and laid away in a cool, dry place +to ripen. The tops are then cut off and the bulbs stored in +a dry place (fit for potatoes, but drier) until wanted the following +spring. <a href="#bulbs">See <i>Bulbs</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Glaucium</b>, or <span class="smcap">Horned Poppy</span>. The kind most +cultivated (<i>G. luteum</i>) has bright yellow flowers in July and +September. The flowers, contrasting with the deep cut +glaucous leaves, make a fine effect in the mixed or ribbon +border. Seed may be sown in the open ground where +wanted. Thin to 12 inches apart. Height 12 to 20 inches. +Perennial; but treated as a hardy annual.</p> + +<p><b>Gloxinia.</b> Choice greenhouse tuberous-rooted +perennials, sometimes seen in window gardens, but really +not adapted to them. Gloxinias must have a uniform moist +and warm atmosphere and protection from the sun. They +will not stand abuse or varying conditions. Propagated +often by leaf-cuttings, which should give flowering plants +in one year. From the leaf, inserted half its length in the +soil (or sometimes only the petiole inserted) a tuber arises. +This tuber, after resting until midwinter or later, is planted +and flowering plants soon arise. Gloxinias also grow readily<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +from seeds, which may be germinated in a temperature of +about 70°. Flowering plants may be had in a year if seeds +are sown in late winter or early spring. This is the +usual method. Soil should be porous and rich.</p> + +<p><b>Godetia.</b> Very free-blooming annuals in fine +colors, harmonizing well with the California poppy. Many +of the varieties are beautifully blotched with contrasting +colors. They are very satisfactory plants for solid beds or +border lines, blooming from June to October. Seed may be +sown in heat, and seedlings planted in open ground at a distance +of 18 inches apart when danger of frost is over. A +rather poor soil will cause them to bloom better than one +very rich, as they are inclined to make a rank growth. +Height 1 to 2 feet.</p> + +<p><b>Golden Feather.</b> <a href="#pyrethrum">See <i>Pyrethrum</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 107px;"> +<img src="images/113-goldenrod.jpg" width="107" height="250" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Goldenrod</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="goldenrod" id="goldenrod"></a>Goldenrod</b> (<i>Solidago</i> of many species). +The Goldenrod of the wayside is so familiar that the +thought of bringing it into the garden is distasteful +to many persons. But if given a suitable place in a +well enriched border, no plant has greater possibilities. +A large clump against a hedge of green, or +massed behind a well grown plant of the blue-flowering +wild asters, makes a striking contrast. They bloom +late in the season, and the rich yellow and golden +colors and the graceful forms are always pleasing.</p> + +<p>Goldenrods will grow more vigorously and the blooms be +larger if the roots are divided every third or fourth year. +There are several species catalogued by nurserymen, and +some of the stock is superior to the wild type, either having +a larger truss of flowers or blooming later. Goldenrods +range in height from 2 to 6 feet. All are easily propagated +by division. Transplant in the fall, if convenient, although +spring planting may be equally successful.</p> + +<p><b><a name="gomphrena" id="gomphrena"></a>Gomphrena.</b> <span class="smcap">Bachelor’s Button. Globe +Amaranth.</span> A useful everlasting for winter bouquets. Seed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +may be sown in heat in March, the plants transplanted once +before setting out to cause them to grow stocky and branching; +or seed may be sown in a warm place where the plants +are to grow. The flowers, to retain their colors, should be +cut before fully expanded and dried in a dark, airy place. +<a href="#everlastings">See <i>Everlastings</i>.</a> Set the plants 18 inches apart. Height +12 inches. The heads resemble clover heads. The term +Bachelor’s Button is also given to the cornflower (<i>Centaurea +Cyanus</i>).</p> + +<p><b>Gooseberry.</b> Since the advent of the practice +of spraying with fungicides to prevent mildew, the culture +of the Gooseberry has increased. There +is now no reason why, with a little care, +good crops of many of the best English varieties +may not be grown. The price for +good fruits of Gooseberry is usually remunerative, +as the market is rarely overstocked by the sudden +ripening of the crop, since the fruits ripen through a long +season. A large part of the crop is picked green for culinary +purposes. The leading market variety is Downing, a native +sort, which is little subject to mildew. Several of the English +varieties have proved of value, having larger fruits than +the natives. Whitesmith, Chautauqua, Triumph and Industry +are among the best.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 169px;"> +<img src="images/114-gooseberries.jpg" width="169" height="71" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Gooseberries</p> +</div> + +<p>The propagation of the Gooseberry is similar to that of +the currant, although the practice of earthing up a whole +plant, causing every branch thus covered to throw out roots, +is common with the European varieties. The rooted +branches are cut off the following spring and planted in +nursery rows or sometimes directly in the field. In order to +succeed with this method, the plant should have been cut +back to the ground so that all the shoots are yearling.</p> + +<p>Pruning is essentially the same as for the currant +(<a href="#currant">which see</a>); and the treatment of the currant worm is the +same as for that fruit.</p> + +<p>Gooseberries should be set (either in fall or spring) 3 to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +4 feet apart; rows 5 to 7 feet apart. Select a rich, rather +moist soil. The tops need no winter protection. If mildew +and worms are to be kept in check, spraying must +be begun with the very first sign of trouble and be thoroughly +done.</p> + +<p><b><a name="gourds" id="gourds"></a>Gourds</b> are valuable as rapid-growing screen +vines, the curious fruits of many varieties adding much to +their attractiveness. Cultivation the same as for melons or +squashes. Height 10 to 15 feet. Provide a chicken-wire +trellis; or let them run on a brush pile.</p> + +<p><b><a name="grafting" id="grafting"></a>Grafting.</b> Grafting is the operation of inserting +a piece of a plant into another plant with the intention +that it shall grow. It differs from the making of cuttings +in the fact that the severed part grows in another plant +rather than in the soil. There are two general kinds of +Grafting—one of which inserts a piece of branch in the +stock (Grafting proper), and one which inserts only a bud +with little or no wood attached (budding). In both cases +the success of the operation depends upon the growing +together of the cambium of the cion (or cutting) and that of +the stock. The cambium is the new and growing tissue +which lies underneath the bark and on the outside of the +growing wood. Therefore, the line of demarcation between +the bark and the wood should coincide when the cion and +stock are joined. The plant upon which the severed piece is +set is called the stock. The part which is removed and set +into the stock is called a cion if it is a piece of a branch, or +a bud if it is only a single bud with a bit of tissue attached. +The greater part of Grafting and budding is done when the +cion or bud is nearly or quite dormant. That is, Grafting +is usually done late in winter and early in spring, and budding +may be done then, or late in summer, when the buds +have nearly or quite matured.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 95px;"> +<img src="images/116-grafting.jpg" width="87" height="172" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">The bud severed +from its twig</p> +</div> + +<p>The prime object of Grafting is to perpetuate a kind of +plant which will not reproduce itself from seed or of which +seed is very difficult to obtain. Cions or buds are therefore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +taken from this plant and set into whatever kind of plant is +obtainable and on which they will grow. Thus, if one +wants to propagate the Baldwin apple, he does not for +that purpose sow seeds thereof, but takes cions or +buds from the tree and grafts them into some other +apple tree. The stocks are usually obtained from +seeds. In the case of the apple, young plants are +raised from seeds which are obtained mostly from +cider factories, without reference to the variety from +which they came. When the seedlings have grown +to a certain age, they are budded or grafted; and +thereafter they bear fruit like that of the tree from +which the cions were taken.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 66px;"> +<img src="images/116-grafting2.jpg" width="66" height="153" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">The bud +tied</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 58px;"> +<img src="images/116-grafting3.jpg" width="58" height="170" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">The bud +inserted</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 70px;"> +<img src="images/117-grafting4.jpg" width="70" height="264" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Whip-graft</p> +</div> + +<p>There are many ways in which the union between cion +and stock is made. Budding may be first discussed. +It consists in inserting a bud underneath the bark of +the stock, and the commonest practice is that which is +shown in the illustrations. Budding is mostly performed +in July, August and early September, when +the bark is still loose or will peel. Twigs are cut +from the tree which it is desired to propagate, and +the buds are cut off with a sharp knife, a shield-shaped +bit of bark (with possibly a little wood) being left +with them (see illustration). The bud is then shoved into a +slit made in the stock, and it is held in place by tying +with some soft strand. In two or three weeks the bud +will have “stuck” (that is, it will have grown fast to +the stock), and the strand is cut to prevent its strangling +the stock. Ordinarily the bud does not grow until +the following spring, at which time the entire stock or +branch in which the bud is inserted is cut off an inch +above the bud; and the bud thereby receives all the +energy of the stock. Budding is the commonest Grafting +operation in nurseries. Seeds of peaches may be +sown in spring, and the plants which result will be ready +for budding that same August. The following spring, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +a year from the planting of the seed, the stock is cut off +just above the bud (which is inserted near the ground), and +in the fall of that year the tree is ready for sale; that +is, the top is one season old and the root is two seasons +old, but in the trade it is known as a 1-year-old +tree. In apples and pears the stock is usually two +years old before it is budded, and the tree is not sold +until the top has grown two or three years. Budding +may be performed also in the spring, in which case the +bud will grow the same season. Budding is always +done in young branches, preferably in those not more +than one year old.</p> + +<p>Grafting is the insertion of a small branch +(or cion), usually bearing more than one bud. If +Grafting is done on small stocks, it is customary +to employ the whip-graft, which is illustrated in the +margin. Both stock and cion are cut across diagonally, +and a split made in each, so that one fits into the +other. The graft is tied securely with a string, and +then, if it is above ground, it is also waxed carefully. +In larger limbs or stocks, the common method is to +employ the cleft-graft. This consists in cutting off the +stock, splitting it and inserting a wedge-shaped cion +in one or both sides of the split, taking care that +the cambium layer of the cion matches that of +the stock. The exposed surfaces are then securely +covered with wax. Grafting is usually performed +early in the spring, just before the buds swell. The +cions should have been cut before this time, when they +were perfectly dormant. Cions may be stored in sand +in the cellar or in the ice house, or they may be +buried in the field. The object is to keep them fresh +and dormant until they are wanted.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 85px;"> +<img src="images/117-grafting5.jpg" width="85" height="271" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Cleft-graft</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 78px;"> +<img src="images/117-grafting6.jpg" width="78" height="205" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Cleft-grafting +a Cactus</p> +</div> + +<p>If it is desired to change the top of an old plum, +apple or pear tree to some other variety, it is usually done +by means of the cleft-graft. If the tree is very young, budding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +or whip-grafting may be employed. On an old top the +cions should begin to bear when three to four years old. +All the main limbs should be grafted. It is important to +keep down the suckers or water-sprouts from around the +grafts, and part of the remaining top should be cut away +each year until the top is entirely changed over (which will +result in two to four years).</p> + +<p>A good wax for covering the exposed parts is made as +follows: Resin, 4 parts by weight; beeswax, 2 parts; tallow, +1 part. In making the wax, the materials are first +broken up and melted together. When thoroughly melted +the liquid is poured into a pail or tub of cold water. It soon +becomes hard enough to handle, and it is then pulled and +worked over until it becomes tough or “gets a grain,” at +which stage it becomes the color of very light-colored +manilla paper. When wax is applied by hand, the hands +must be well greased. Hard cake tallow is the best material +for this purpose. In top-grafting large trees, it is +well to carry a supply of tallow when waxing, by smearing +the backs of the hands before entering the tree.</p> + +<p><b>Grape.</b> One of the surest of fruit crops is +the Grape, a crop each year being reasonably certain after +the third year from the time of setting the vines. The +Grape does well on any soil that is under good cultivation +and well drained. A soil with considerable clay is better +under these circumstances than a light, sandy loam. The +exposure should be to the sun; and the place should admit +of cultivation on all sides. One- or 2-year-old vines should +be planted, either in the fall or early spring. At planting +the vine is cut back to 3 or 4 eyes, and the roots are well +shortened in. The hole in which the plant is to be set +should be large enough to allow a full spreading of the +roots. Fine soil should be worked around the roots and +firmed with the feet. If the season should be dry, a mulch +of coarse litter may be spread around the vine. If all the +buds start, the strongest one or two may be allowed to grow.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +The canes arising from these buds should be staked and allowed +to grow through the season; or in large plantations the first-year +canes may be allowed to lie on the ground. The second +year one cane should be cut back to the same number of eyes +as the first year. After growth begins in the +spring, two of the strongest buds should be +allowed to remain. These two canes now arising +may be grown to a single stake through the +second summer, or they may be spread horizontally +on a trellis. These are the canes which +form the permanent arms or parts of the vine. +From them start the upright shoots which, in +succeeding years, are to bear the fruits.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;"> +<img src="images/119-grapes.jpg" width="174" height="167" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Grape</p> +</div> + +<p>In order to understand the pruning of Grapes, the operator +must fully grasp this principle: <i>Fruit is borne on wood of +the present season, which arises from wood of the previous +season.</i> To illustrate: A growing shoot, or cane of 1899, +makes buds. In 1900 a shoot arises from each bud; and +near the base of this shoot the Grapes are borne (1 to 4 +clusters on each). While every bud on the 1899 shoot may +produce shoots or canes in 1900, only the strongest of these +new canes will bear fruit. The skilled Grape-grower can +tell by the looks of his cane (as he prunes it in winter) +which buds will give rise to the Grape-producing wood the +following season. The larger and stronger buds usually +give best results; but if the cane itself is very big and +stout, or if it is very weak and slender, he does not expect +good results from any of its buds. A hard, well-ripened +cane the diameter of a man’s little finger is the ideal size.</p> + +<p>Another principle to be mastered is this: <i>A vine should +bear only a limited number of clusters</i>,—say from 30 to 80. A +shoot bears clusters near its base; beyond these clusters the +shoot grows on into a long, leafy cane. An average of two +clusters may be reckoned to a shoot. If the vine is strong +enough to bear 60 clusters, 30 good buds must be left at the +pruning (which is done from December to late February).</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +The essential operation of pruning a Grape vine, therefore, +is each year to cut back a limited number of good +canes to a few buds, and to cut off entirely all the remaining +canes or wood of the previous season’s growth. If a cane is +cut back to 2 or 3 buds, the stub-like part which remains is +called a spur. Present systems, however, cut each cane +back to 8 or 10 buds (on strong varieties), and 3 or 4 canes +are left,—all radiating from near the head or trunk of the +vine. The top of the vine does not grow bigger from year +to year, after it has once covered the trellis, but is cut back +to practically the same number of buds each year. Since +these buds are on new wood, it is evident that they are each +year farther and farther removed from the head of the vine. +In order to obviate this difficulty, new canes are taken out +each year or two from near the head of the vine, and the +2-year or 3-year-old wood is cut away.</p> + +<p>The training of Grapes is a different matter. A dozen +different systems of training may be practiced on the same +trellis and from the same style of pruning,—for training is +only the disposition or arrangement of the parts.</p> + +<p>On arbors, it is best to carry one permanent arm or +trunk from each root over the framework to the peak. Each +year the canes are cut back to short spurs (of 2 or 3 buds) +along the sides of this trunk.</p> + +<p>Grapes are set from 6 to 8 feet apart in rows which are +8 to 10 feet apart. A trellis made of 2 or 3 wires is the +best support. Slat trellises catch too much wind and blow +down. Avoid stimulating manures. In very cold climates, +the vines may be taken off the trellis in early winter and +laid on the ground and lightly covered with earth. Along +the boundaries of home lots, where Grapes are often planted, +little is to be expected in the way of fruit because the ground +is not well tilled. For mildew and rot, spray with Bordeaux +mixture. <a href="#spraying">See <i>Spraying</i>.</a></p> + +<p>Concord is the most cosmopolitan variety, but its quality +is not the best. For the home garden, a good selection may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +be made from the following list: Winchell or Green Mountain, +Campbell Early, Worden, Concord, Niagara, Moore +Diamond, Vergennes, Agawam, Salem, Wilder, Iona, +Brighton, Delaware.</p> + +<p><b>Grapery.</b> The European grapes rarely thrive +out of doors in eastern America. Grape houses are necessary, +with or without artificial heat. Fruit for home use may +be grown very satisfactorily in a cold Grapery (without artificial +heat). A simple lean-to against the south side of a +building or wall is cheap and serviceable. When a separate +building is desired, an even-span house running north and +south is preferable. There is no advantage in having a +curved roof, except as a matter of looks. A compost of four +parts rotted turf to one of manure is laid on a sloping cement +bottom outside the house, making a border 12 feet wide and +2 feet deep. The cement may be replaced with rubble on +well drained soils, but it is a poor makeshift. Every three +years the upper 6 inches of the border should be renewed +with manure. The border inside the house is prepared likewise. +Two-year-old potted vines are planted about 4 feet +apart in a single row. Part of the roots go through a crevice +in the wall to the outer border and part remain inside; or all +may go outside if the house is desired for other purposes. +One strong cane is trained to a wire trellis hanging at least +18 inches from the glass, and is cut back to 3 feet the first +year, 6 the second, and 9 the third. Do not be in a hurry +to get a long cane. Pruning is on the spur system, as recommended +for arbors on <a href="#Page_120">page 120</a>. The vines are usually laid +on the ground for winter and covered with leaves or wrapped +with cloth.</p> + +<p>As soon as the buds swell in early spring, tie the vines +to the trellis and start out one shoot from each spur, rubbing +off all others. After the berries begin to color, however, +it is better to leave all further growth to shade the fruit. +Pinch back each of these laterals two joints beyond the +second bunch. To keep down red spider and thrips, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +foliage should be sprayed with water every bright morning +except during the blooming season. At least one-third of +the berries should be thinned from each bunch; do not be +afraid of taking out too many. Water the inside border +frequently all through the summer, and the outside occasionally +if the season is dry. Mildew may appear in July. +The best preventives are to syringe faithfully, admit air +freely, and sprinkle sulfur on the ground.</p> + +<p>Fruit may be kept fresh on the vines in a warm (or artificially +heated) Grapery until late December: in a coldhouse +it must be picked before frost. After the fruit is off, ventilate +from top and bottom and withhold water, so as to thoroughly +ripen the wood. Along in November the canes are +pruned, covered with straw or wrapped with mats and laid +down till spring. Black Hamburg is superior to all other +varieties for a cold Grapery; Bowood Muscat, Muscat of +Alexandria and Chasselas Musque may be added in the warmhouse. +Good vines will live and bear almost indefinitely.—<i>S. W. Fletcher.</i></p> + +<p><b><a name="grass" id="grass"></a>Grasses</b> of various kinds are grown for ornament, +the most popular types being the hardy perennials, +which make attractive clumps in the lawn or border. The +best of the permanent kinds in the North are the various +sorts of Eulalia (properly Miscanthus). When once established +they remain for years, making large and bold clumps. +The striped kind, or zebra grass, is particularly good. These +grasses thrive in any good soil. They grow from 4 to 7 feet +high. The great reed, or <i>Arundo Donax</i>, is a bold subject +and perfectly hardy. In a rich and rather moist soil, it +grows 10 to 12 feet high when well established. Pampas +Grass is most excellent in the Middle States and South. +Some of the big native grasses and sedges make attractive +lawn clumps.</p> + +<p>Grasses are also grown for dry or everlasting bouquets. +For this purpose, small-growing delicate annual species are +mostly used. Good types are species of agrostis, briza,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +bromus, eragrostis, and pennisetum. Seeds of these and +of others are sold by seedsmen. With ordinary treatment, +they thrive in any garden soil.</p> + +<p>For notes on sod-making, <a href="#lawns">see <i>Lawn</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Greenhouse.</b> In America the word Greenhouse +has come to be applied to all kinds of glass-houses in which +plants are grown. Originally the word was applied to those +houses in which plants are merely preserved or kept green +during the winter. Other types of glass-houses are the conservatory, +in which plants are displayed; stove or hothouse, +in which plants are grown in a high temperature; the propagating +pit, in which the multiplication of plants is carried +forward; and the houses which have various temperatures, +as cold, cool and intermediate. The principles which underlie +the construction and management of glass-houses are too +extensive to be discussed here. The reader should refer to +special books on the topic. For the general subject, Taft’s +“Greenhouse Construction” and “Greenhouse Management” +are excellent. For particular applications to floriculture, +Hunt’s “How to Grow Cut-flowers” is a standard work. +For applications to the forcing of vegetable crops, Bailey’s +“Forcing-Book” may perhaps be consulted.</p> + +<p>The smaller the glass-house the more difficult it is to +manage, because it is likely to be more variable in temperature, +moisture and other conditions. This is particularly +true if the house is a small lean-to against the south side of +a dwelling house, for it becomes very hot at midday and +comparatively cold at night. In order to moderate the heat +in these little houses, it is ordinarily advisable to use ground +glass for the roof or to whitewash it. The house conservatory +may be heated by a coal stove, but the best results are +rarely to be attained in this case. A stove is likely to leak +gas, and the temperature is more or less uneven. The best +results are to be attained when the conservatory is heated +by steam or hot water, piped in the modern fashion with +wrought iron pipes, which go together with threads. If the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +conservatory is heated from the heater which supplies the +dwelling house, it should have an extra amount of pipe; +otherwise it will be necessary to keep the dwelling house +too hot for comfort in order to maintain the conservatory at +its proper temperature. It is always best, when practicable, +to heat the conservatory with a separate apparatus. There +are various small hot water and steam heaters, the size of coal +stoves, which are excellent for the purpose. For a small +conservatory, hot water is usually preferable to steam, since +it is less likely to fluctuate. For large establishments, however, +the steam is usually the better. For further discussions +of related subjects, see <a href="#hotbed"><i>Hotbed</i></a>, <a href="#window-gardens"><i>Window Garden</i></a>, +<a href="#potting"><i>Potting</i></a> and <a href="#watering"><i>Watering</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Grevillea.</b> A very graceful greenhouse plant, +suitable for house culture. The plants grow freely from +seed, and until they become too large are as decorative as +ferns. Grevilleas are really trees, and are valuable in +greenhouses and rooms only in their young state. They +withstand much abuse. They are now very popular as jardiniere +subjects. Seeds sown in spring will give handsome +plants by the next winter.</p> + +<p><b>Gypsophila.</b> <span class="smcap">Baby’s Breath.</span> <i>Gypsophila +muralis</i> is one of the dainty little plants called Baby’s Breath. +It is a low-growing annual forming compact mounds of green, +thickly covered with little pink flowers. It is one of the +most attractive border plants in cultivation. It is also a +charming pot-plant. <i>G. paniculata</i> is a hardy perennial having +panicles of bluish white flowers. This is very graceful, and +the flowers are fine for cutting and for use with sweet pea +bouquets or with other choice flowers. The panicles are so +lasting that they may be used in winter bouquets. The annuals +may be planted 1 foot apart; the perennials 3 feet. +Both are readily grown from seed, and bloom the first year.</p> + +<p><a name="H" id="H"></a><b>Hardy.</b> A relative term, used to denote a +plant which endures the climate (particularly the winter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +climate) of a given place. Half-hardy plants are those +which withstand some frost or uncongenial conditions, but +will not endure the severity of the climate. Tender plants +are those which are injured by light frosts.</p> + +<p><b>Hedges.</b> Hedges are much less used in this +country than in Europe, and for several reasons. Our +climate is dry, and most Hedges do not thrive so well here as +there; labor is high-priced, and the trimming is therefore +likely to be neglected; our farms are so large that much +fencing is required; timber and wire are cheaper than live +Hedges. However, they are used with good effects about +the home grounds. In order to secure a good Hedge, it is +necessary to have a thoroughly well-prepared, deep soil, to +set the plants close, and to shear them at least twice every +year. For evergreen Hedges the most serviceable plant in +general is the arborvitæ. The plants may be set at distances +of 1 to 2½ feet apart. For choice Hedges about the +grounds, particularly outside the northern states, some of +the retinosporas are very useful. One of the most satisfactory +of all coniferous plants for Hedges is the common +hemlock, which stands shearing well and makes a very soft +and pleasing mass. The plants may be set from 1 to 3 feet +apart. Other plants which hold their leaves and are good +for Hedges are the common box and the privets. Box +Hedges are the best for very low borders about walks and +flower beds. The dwarf variety can be kept down to a +height of 6 inches to a foot for any number of years. The +larger-growing varieties make excellent Hedges 3, 4 and 5 +feet high. The ordinary privet or prim holds its leaves well +into winter in the North. The so-called Californian privet +holds its leaves rather longer and stands better along the +seashore. In the southern states, nothing is better than +<i>Citrus trifoliata</i>.</p> + +<p>For Hedges of deciduous plants, the most common species +are the buckthorn, the European thorn apple or cratægus, +osage orange, and various kinds of roses.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +Hedges should be trimmed the year after they are set, +although they should not be trimmed very closely until they +reach the desired or permanent height. Thereafter they +should be sheared into the desired form in spring or fall. +If the plants are allowed to grow for a year or two without +trimming, they lose their lower leaves and become open and +straggly. Osage orange and some other plants are plashed—that +is, the plants are set at an angle rather than perpendicularly, +and they are wired together in such a way that +they make an impenetrable barrier just above the surface of +the ground.</p> + +<p><b>Helianthus.</b> <a href="#sunflower">See <i>Sunflower</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Helichrysum.</b> These are perhaps the most +popular of the Everlastings (<a href="#everlastings">which see</a>), having large flowers +of several colors. They grow readily from seed, blooming +from July to October. Height 10 inches to 2 feet. Should +be planted or thinned to stand 18 inches apart.</p> + +<p><b>Heliotrope.</b> A universal favorite house or +border plant, growing readily from cuttings or seeds, and +producing quantities of fragrant violet, purple or white +flowers. One of the best methods of cultivation is to set a +strong plant in the border and peg the new growths to the +ground, where they will root and form a perfect mat, flowering +profusely during the fall months until frost. They +will endure the temperature of a living room well if the +room is not too dry. Red spider is a natural enemy of the +Heliotrope, and when once it obtains a foothold is a very +difficult pest to manage, but frequent syringing with water +will keep it in check. A light, rich soil and an abundance +of heat are their requirements. Height 1 to 3 feet. Propagated +by cuttings or layers.</p> + +<p><b><a name="hellebore" id="hellebore"></a>Hellebore</b> (White Hellebore) is often used for +the killing of currant-worms and other insects (<a href="#currant">see <i>Currant</i></a>). +It is not so poisonous as the arsenites, and therefore is to be +preferred when it is necessary to apply a poison to nearly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +ripe fruit. It is usually applied in a spray with water, at +the rate of ⅓ ounce to the gallon. It is harmless to foliage.</p> + +<p><b>Helleborus</b>, or <span class="smcap">Christmas Rose</span>, may be had +in flower at the holidays if grown in a frame and protected. +The usual time for it to flower in the open border is +in March or early April. It will continue to bloom for many +years if grown in a shady place. Roots may be divided as +an increase is wanted. It may also be grown from seeds; +and seedlings may be expected to bloom a year from the +spring in which they are sown. Height 6 to 10 inches.</p> + +<p><b>Hemerocallis</b>, or <span class="smcap">Yellow Day Lily</span>. <a href="#funkia">The +advice given under Funkia will apply to this.</a></p> + +<p><b><a name="herbs" id="herbs"></a>Herbs</b> are plants which die to the ground in +winter. They may be annual, biennial, or perennial. For +a list of annual Herbs suitable for the flower garden, see +the articles on <a href="#annuals"><i>Annuals</i></a> and <a href="#bedding"><i>Bedding</i></a>. A border or free mass +of perennial Herbs is one of the charms of any place. It is +informal, easy of care, and self-sustaining. The large part +of the mass should be composed of common and hardy +things—wild or from gardens—and incidental features +may be made of the choicer and rarer exotics. In most +cases, plants look better when judiciously mixed than when +planted one kind in a bed. <a href="#border">See <i>Border</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Hibiscus.</b> Annuals and perennials, some of +them shrubs, with showy, hollyhock-like flowers. The annual +Hibiscuses are very satisfactory. They grow quickly +and flower freely. The flowers are usually white or yellow, +of large size, and appear from July on. The herbaceous +perennial kinds are amongst the best of hardy border +plants, blooming in late summer and fall. The commonest +of these is <i>Hibiscus Moscheutos</i>. Give rich, moist soil.</p> + +<p>The greenhouse species are old favorites. They may be +used in outdoor bedding through the summer, lifted in the +fall and cut back. Keep rather dry and dormant during +winter. Propagated by cuttings.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +<b>Hippeastrum.</b> <a href="#amaryllis">Consult <i>Amaryllis</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 55px;"> +<img src="images/128-hoe.jpg" width="55" height="190" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Common hoe</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 136px;"> +<img src="images/128-scarifier.jpg" width="136" height="231" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Scarifier</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Hoes</b> should be of several patterns if the +most efficient work is to be done in the garden. The +ordinary Hoe is adapted only to the rougher and coarser +Hoe-work, such as digging and fitting the ground. For +much of the subsequent tillage, some of the narrow-blade +and pointed Hoes are excellent. For cutting +off weeds, the push Hoe or scarifier is excellent.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 158px;"> +<img src="images/128-hollyhock.jpg" width="158" height="294" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Hollyhocks</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="hollyhock" id="hollyhock"></a>Hollyhock.</b> These old garden favorites +have been neglected of late years, primarily +because the Hollyhock rust has been so prevalent, +destroying the plants or making the unsightly. +The double varieties seem to suffer the +most; and for that reason, and from the fact that +the less formal type is in favor, the single varieties are now +the most generally grown. Their culture is very simple. The +seed is usually sown in July or August, and the plants set +where wanted the following spring. They will bloom the +same year in which they are transplanted—the year following +the seed-sowing. New plants should be set every two +years, as the old crowns are apt to rot or die after the first +flowering. For rust, spray early with Bordeaux +mixture or ammoniacal carbonate of copper.</p> + +<p><b><a name="hop" id="hop"></a>Hop, Ornamental.</b> <i>Humulus Japonicus</i>, +or the annual <span class="smcap">Hop</span>, is one of the best +rapid-growing screen vines in cultivation. It +makes a dense canopy of attractive foliage. The +leaves are finely cut, and in one variety variegated +with white. This variegated variety is a +fine vine for a porch or front screen, always +attracting attention to its markings. This Hop +is propagated by seed sown in boxes in March. +When once established, it will seed itself and +start as soon as the soil becomes warm. Set +plants 4 to 8 feet apart. Height 8 to 20 feet.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +<b>Horseradish.</b> As a kitchen garden vegetable, +this is usually planted in some out-of-the-way spot and a +piece of the root dug as often as needed, the fragments of +roots being left in the soil to grow for further use. This +method results in having nothing but tough, stringy roots, +very unlike the product of a properly planted and well +cared for bed. The best roots are those planted in the +spring at the time of setting early cabbage, and dug as late +the same fall as the weather will permit. It becomes, +therefore, an annual crop. The roots for planting are +small pieces, from 4 to 6 inches long, obtained when trimming +the roots dug in the fall. These pieces may be packed +in sand and stored until wanted the following spring. In +planting, the roots should be set with the upper end 3 inches +below the surface of the ground, using a dibber or sharp-pointed +stick in making the holes. The crop may be planted +between rows of early-sown beets, lettuce or other crop, +and given full possession of the ground when these crops are +harvested. Where the ground is inclined to be stiff or the +subsoil is near the surface, the roots may be set in a slanting +position. In fact, many gardeners practice this method +of planting, thinking that the roots make a better growth +and are more uniform in size.</p> + +<p><b><a name="hotbed" id="hotbed"></a>Hotbed.</b> A Hotbed is a frame or box which +has artificial heat and a transparent covering and in which +plants are grown. It differs from a coldframe (<a href="#coldframe">which see</a>) +in the fact that it has artificial bottom heat. This bottom +heat is usually supplied by fermenting organic matter, +chiefly horse manure, but hot air, hot water or steam conveyed +in pipes, may be employed. It is covered with sash +of which the normal or standard size is 3 feet wide and 6 +feet long. These sashes are laid crosswise the box or frame. +The standard size of frame is 6 feet wide and 12 feet long. +A “frame,” therefore, accommodates four sashes. However, +the frame may be of any length desired. This frame is +ordinarily made of boards, and the back of it is 3 or 4<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +inches higher than the front, so that the sashes slope to +the sun. It is customary to have a space of 6 to 10 inches +between the earth and the sash on the lower or front side. +The manure which is used to heat the bed +may be placed on top of the ground and the +frame set on the pile, or it may be placed +in a pit. If the land is warm and well drained, +it is ordinarily better to have a pit from 1 to +2 feet deep and to set the frame over it. This +is especially the case if it is desired to have a permanent +Hotbed yard. The place in which the frames are set should +be protected from the cold and prevailing winds by a rising +slope, a high board fence, a building, hedge, or other obstruction. +If the frame yard is near the main buildings, +it will be much more accessible in rainy or snowy times, +and the plants are likely to have better care. Water should +also be handy.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 178px;"> +<img src="images/130-hotbed.jpg" width="178" height="96" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Section of a Hotbed</p> +</div> + +<p>The time of starting a Hotbed will depend upon the +kinds of plants to be grown, the amount of time which one +wishes to gain, and something, also, on the quality of the +manure. The hardier the plant the earlier it can be started. +In the latitude of New York, from the first to the middle of +March is the usual time for starting a Hotbed. In this bed are +sown seeds of early flowers and such vegetables as cabbage, +cauliflower, tomato, etc. In the raising of any plants in the +Hotbed, it is very essential that they do not become “drawn” +or “leggy.” In order to prevent this, they must be given +plenty of room, thorough ventilation on all pleasant days, +and not too great heat. It is well to transplant them once +or twice before they are finally set in the field, especially if +they are started, in New York, as early as the first or middle +of March. When they are transplanted, they can be set in +another Hotbed or in a coldframe; but it is important that +the succeeding frames in which they are set should not be +very much colder than the one in which they grew, else they +may become stunted. It is well, however, to transplant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +them into a gradually cooler and freer atmosphere in order +to harden them off, so that they may go into the open ground +without danger. On every pleasant day, raise the sash at +the upper end 1 or 2 inches, or if the sun shines brightly +and the wind does not blow, give even more air; and eventually +strip off the sashes entirely. It is very important that +the plants are not kept too close and grown too soft. It is +usually advisable to sow cabbage, lettuce and other hardy +plants in different frames from tomatoes and other tender +things, in order that the proper requirements may be given +to each. At night the Hotbeds (at least early in the season) +will need more protection than the glass sash. It was formerly +the custom to use thick rye-straw mats to cover Hotbeds, +but it is now a common practice to use the straw +matting which can be bought of carpet dealers. This +is rolled out on the sashes at night in one or two thicknesses; +and if the weather is sharp, board shutters, the +size of the sash, may be laid on top. As the manure heat +begins to fail give more and more air, so that the plants +may be able to shift for themselves when the bottom heat is +finally exhausted.</p> + +<p>Fresh horse manure is the material which is commonly +used for the heating of Hotbeds. If it can be secured from +livery stables, so that it is all of nearly or quite the same age, +better results may be expected. Manure from highly fed +horses usually heats better than that from horses which receive +little grain, or in which there is very much litter. Put +the manure in a pile, preferably under cover, and as soon as +it shows signs of heating, fork it over in order to mix the +entire mass and to cause it to heat evenly. When it is +steaming throughout the whole mass, it may be put in the +bed. Assuming that the Hotbed has a pit beneath it, it is +well to put in 2 or 3 inches of coarse litter in order to keep +the manure off the cold ground. The manure is then put in +and tramped down, in layers of 4 to 6 inches each. If the +manure is of the right consistency, it will pack without becoming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +dense and soggy; that is, it will spring a little beneath +the feet. If it has too much litter, it will fluff up +under the feet and not pack well. From 18 to 24 or even 30 +inches of manure is placed in the pit. On top, an inch of +dry straw or light leaf-mold may be placed to serve as a distributor +of the heat to the earth above. From 3 to 4 inches +of rich, light earth is placed upon this, in which to sow the +seed. The manure will ordinarily heat violently for a few +days. Place a soil thermometer in it, and as soon as the +temperature begins to fall below 90° the seeds of tomatoes +and egg-plants may be sown; and when it begins to fall below +80°, the seeds of cabbages, lettuce and cauliflower may +be sown. If the frame is not placed over a pit and the +manure is put on top of the ground, it will be necessary to +allow the body of manure to project 1 or 2 feet in all directions +in order to prevent the edges of the bed from freezing.</p> + +<p>In starting plants in a Hotbed, one must not expect to +gain as much time in the crop as he gains in the starting of +the seeds: that is, if he starts the seeds two months ahead +of the normal season, he will not gain two months in the +ripening of the crop. Ordinarily, he cannot expect to gain +much more than one-half the time, particularly if the plants +are transplanted to the field from the Hotbed.</p> + +<p>Some plants may be grown to maturity in the Hotbed, +particularly lettuce and radishes. After Hotbeds +have been emptied of their plants, the sashes may be +stored away, and the frames, with their spent manure, +used for the growing of an early summer crop of melons +or cucumbers.</p> + +<p><b>House Plants.</b> <a href="#window-gardens">See <i>Window-Garden</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 62px;"> +<img src="images/132-hyabean.jpg" width="62" height="168" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Hyacinth bean</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="hyacinth_bean" id="hyacinth_bean"></a>Hyacinth Bean</b> (<i>Dolichos Lablab</i>). A very +rapid-growing twiner, bearing fragrant flowers of purple +or white. It is a fine screen plant. Plant seeds when the +ground is warm where the plants are to grow; or they may +be started early in pots. Height 10 feet.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +<b><a name="hyacinths" id="hyacinths"></a>Hyacinths</b> are most popular winter- or spring-flowering +bulbs. Hyacinths are hardy, but they are often +used as window or greenhouse plants. They are easy to +grow and very satisfactory. For winter flowering the bulbs +should be procured early in the fall, potted in October in soil +composed of loam, leaf-mold and sand. If ordinary flower +pots are used, put in the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, +charcoal or small stones for drainage; then fill the pot with +dirt, so that when the bulb is planted the top will be on a +level with the rim of the pot. Fill in around the bulb with +soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing. These pots of +bulbs should be placed in a cold pit, cellar or on the shady +side of a building. In all cases, plunge the pot in some cool material +(as cinders). Before the weather becomes cold enough +to freeze a crust on the ground, the pots should have a protection +of straw or leaves to keep the bulbs from severe freezing. +In from six to eight weeks the bulbs should have made +roots enough to grow the plant, and the pots may be +placed in a cool room for a short time. When the plants have +started into growth, they may be placed in a warmer situation. +Watering should be carefully attended to from this +time, and when the plant is in bloom the pot may be set in a +saucer or other shallow dish containing water. After flowering, +the bulbs may be ripened by gradually withholding water +until the leaves die. They may then be planted out in the +border, where they will bloom each spring for a number of +years, but will never prove satisfactory for forcing again. +The open ground culture of Hyacinths is the same as for +tulips, <a href="#tulips">which see</a>. <a href="#bulbs">See <i>Bulbs</i>.</a></p> + +<p><i>Water Culture of Hyacinths.</i>—The Hyacinth is the most +popular of the Dutch bulbs for growing in vases. The Narcissus +may be grown in water, and do just as well, but it is +not as pretty in glasses as the Hyacinth. Glasses for Hyacinths +may be had of florists who deal in supplies, and in +various shapes and colors. The usual form is tall and narrow, +with a cup-like mouth to receive the bulb. They are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +filled with water, so that it will just reach the base of the +bulb when it has been placed in position in the cup above. +The vessels of dark-colored glass are preferable to those of +clear glass, as roots prefer darkness. When the glasses, or +bowls as above mentioned, have been arranged, they are set +away in a cool, dark place to form roots like potted bulbs. +Results are usually secured earlier in water than in soil. To +keep the water sweet, a few lumps of charcoal may be put +in the glass. As the water evaporates, add fresh; add +enough so that it runs over, and thereby renews that in the +glass. Do not disturb the roots by taking out the bulb.</p> + +<p><b>Hydrangea.</b> One of the commonest lawn +shrubs is <i>Hydrangea paniculata</i>. The commonest fault in +growing it is scattering the plants over the lawn, where +they suffer in the competition with grass roots, and do not +show off to advantage. It is far better to mass them in +front of taller things. The Hydrangea blooms on wood of +the season; therefore it should be pruned after bloom—in +winter or early spring (<a href="#pruning">see <i>Pruning</i></a>). Cut back heavily, in +order to secure the strong new shoots upon which the +flowers are borne.</p> + +<p><b>Hyssop.</b> <a href="#sweet_herbs">See <i>Sweet Herbs</i>.</a></p> + +<p><a name="I" id="I"></a><b>Ice Plant</b>, or <span class="smcap">Mesembryanthemum</span>. Fine little +plants for rockwork or edging. The majority of the species +are greenhouse and window plants, but a few can be +recommended for outdoor planting. A very sunny location, +with gravelly soil, will give the best results, either in the +open or in the house. Easily propagated by pieces of the +plant laid on moist sand in a somewhat sunny place. The +common Ice Plant of window-gardens is readily grown from +seeds or slips. It is prized for its glandular-glistening thick +foliage (whence the common name). The little flowers, +which open in sunshine, are also interesting.</p> + +<p><b>Impatiens Sultani</b> is a generally known conservatory +plant, making a charming pot subject for warm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +greenhouse or a room. It is readily propagated from seed or +cuttings, seed being preferable. Flowers bright pink-red. +Of easy culture in a fairly moist atmosphere. Height about +18 inches.</p> + +<p><b><a name="insects" id="insects"></a>Insects.</b> For horticultural purposes, Insects +might be grouped into three general classes: borers, or those +which live inside the plant tissue; chewing +Insects which live on the outside of +the plant; and the sucking Insects.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 206px;"> +<img src="images/135-moth.jpg" width="206" height="149" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Moth of one of the borers</p> +</div> + +<p>As a general statement, it may be +said that the digging out of borers is the +only complete remedy. Sometimes an +application of something to the body of +the tree may keep them out, but it is always +uncertain; and it usually involves more work than to +dig them out. All trees which are subject to borers (especially +apples, peaches and pears) should be examined at +least twice every year. <a href="#borers">See <i>Borers</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 195px;"> +<img src="images/135-beetle.jpg" width="195" height="165" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A beetle borer</p> +</div> + +<p>The general run of chewing or biting Insects may be +killed by the arsenical poisons. Such Insects are the common +types of worms and beetles which feed on foliage. The +leading poison which is now used for this purpose is Paris +green (<a href="#paris_green">which see</a>). Hellebore and pyrethrum are useful +when it is not advisable to use arsenical +poisons.</p> + +<p>The sucking Insects include all the kinds +of plant lice, the squash bug and all the +scale Insects. These are dispatched by +some material which kills by external application, +especially material which has kerosene +or petroleum in it. The common material +heretofore used for this purpose is +kerosene and soap emulsion; but it is now believed that the +emulsion of kerosene and water is fully as efficient, and since +machines have been perfected for automatically mixing it, it +is a much more practicable remedy. <a href="#kerosene_emulsion">See <i>Kerosene Emulsion</i>.</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 152px;"> +<img src="images/136-weevil.jpg" width="152" height="59" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Weevil—a chewing insect</p> +</div> + +<p>In the fighting of all Insects, success depends upon taking +them in time. If something is known of the life history +of the Insect, very much will be gained, for the operator +may be on hand as soon as the Insect is +expected to appear.</p> + +<p><i>Insects on House Plants.</i>—The most troublesome +or common Insects with which the amateur +is likely to meet in the window-garden or conservatory +are the red spider, mite, mealy bug, aphis, and scale.</p> + +<p>The red spider is a very minute Insect with a reddish +body. Its presence may be suspected whenever plants are +growing in a warm and dry place. Usually it first appears +on the under side of leaves, but it multiplies rapidly, and +will soon not be so choice of position. It sucks the juices of +the leaves, and they soon indicate the injury by a dull appearance, +and also, in many cases, by small whitish or paler +areas on the upper surfaces. The mite is of similar habits +and size, but is of a pale color, with black on its back. +It appears under the same conditions as the red spider. +These pests are small, but are very serious if allowed +to multiply unchecked. They should be looked after as +soon as their presence is detected.</p> + +<p>The remedy is to arrange for keeping the air about the +plants more moist, and giving drenchings of the foliage +with clear or soapy water. The latter is most effective. +The soap used may be simply the common washing soap, or +that sold at drug stores known as whale-oil soap. In fighting +them, care must be used not to keep the soil soaked +with water, or it will check the plants in vigor and only add +to the strength of the enemy. Even florists sometimes get +into just such a predicament. Flagging and extreme variations +in dryness and humidity of the air, checking the vigor +of plants, favor the appearance and presence of the red +spider quite as much as extreme and continued dryness of +the air.</p> + +<p>The aphids or plant lice are readily discernable when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +they appear on plants, as they are sure to do under nearly all +conditions. They are small, have elongated, succulent bodies, +move about slowly and awkwardly, on rather long, hairlike +legs, and are most commonly of a pale green color, though +often brown or reddish, and sometimes of other shades. +Fumigation of the plants in a closed box with burning +tobacco stems will kill them. Latterly florists evaporate a +liquid extract of tobacco (which is sold by dealers in +florists’ supplies) by dropping a hot iron into a pan of it. A +tea made by soaking tobacco stems in water for a few hours, +and applied with a syringe, is effective, and a safe remedy +in inexperienced hands. A tablespoonful of tobacco +sheep-dip, or extract of tobacco, to a couple of gallons of +water, also makes an effective syringing or dipping solution. +As mentioned above, we should use care, especially in the +winter time, when the soil often dries out slowly, to avoid +soaking it when already wet or sufficiently moist.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 135px;"> +<img src="images/137-suck.jpg" width="135" height="258" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">One of the kind +which sucks its food</p> +</div> + +<p>Mealy bug has a small, flat, tortoise-shaped body, +from about one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch long. +The Insects collect in masses in the axils of the +leaves. They are covered with a white mealy or +cottony substance, and are readily recognized, +although persons unfamiliar with their appearance +have sometimes mistaken them for bits of down +or cotton lodged upon the foliage or in the axils +of the leaves. The young are small, and likely +to escape observation unless one looks closely. +They are flat, of a creamy or pinkish tint, and lie +close to the surface of the leaves, especially on the +under surface. Coleus and bouvardias are among +the plants upon which mealy bugs are most often +found. Owing to the oily nature of their covering, +it is difficult to wet their bodies with any ordinary liquid that +may be applied for the purpose of destroying them. Fir-tree +oil is one of the most effective remedies for them. This liquid +is rather expensive, but for a small collection a gallon can will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +last for a long time. It is also effective against other Insects. +For mealy bugs, two tablespoonfuls of the oil to one +pint of water will make an effective dipping or spraying solution. +Soft or rain-water should be used, and tin, wooden, +or earthenware vessels. Galvanized iron vessels are to be +avoided. Apply forcibly with a syringe or atomizer, preferably +in the evening. If effective, the mealy bug +will turn buff-color. For other Insects, except for +the scale, mentioned below, the solution will not +need to be more than half or a fourth so strong. +Where there are only a few mealy bugs, the plant +may be gone over with a soft brush and the Insects +crushed.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 120px;"> +<img src="images/138-codmoth.jpg" width="120" height="77" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">The codlin-moth</p> +</div> + +<p>Scales are most commonly of a brown or whitish +color, flat or tortoise-shaped, and easily seen. They adhere +closely by the under surface of their bodies to the stems, +branches, and foliage of woody plants. The mature Insect +is stationary, and its body at length becomes a shell containing +hundreds of eggs. These hatch, and the young emerge +from the shell, crawl about and settle, to develop into the familiar +form. A strong solution of fir-tree oil, like that used for +mealy bugs, is a good remedy. A strong solution of whale-oil +soap, made by adding an ounce or more of the soap to three +gallons of water, even more if necessary, is also useful in +combating them. After dipping or syringing the plants +they may be allowed to stand over night, when they should +be rinsed off with clear water. Applications may need repeating +every three or four days until the Insects are gotten +rid of. It is difficult, for a time, to tell when they are dead. +If killed, the bodies will fall off easily, and in the case of the +soft-shelled species shrivel up somewhat after a time. +Kerosene and water emulsion (<a href="#kerosene">see <i>Kerosene</i></a>) will kill them.</p> + +<p><b>Insecticide.</b> A substance which will kill insects. +Insecticides are of two general classes—those that kill by +contact (<a href="#kerosene">see <i>Kerosene</i></a>), and those that poison the insect (see +<a href="#paris_green"><i>Paris Green</i></a> and <a href="#hellebore"><i>Hellebore</i></a>).</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +<b>Iris.</b> Many handsome perennials, of which the +Blue Flag is familiar to every old-fashioned garden. Most +Irises thrive best in a rather moist soil, and some of them +may be colonized in the water in margins of ponds. Gardeners +usually divide them into two sections—the tuberous-rooted +or rhizomatous, and the bulbous. A third division—the +fibrous-rooted—is sometimes made. The common and +most serviceable species belong to the tuberous-rooted section. +Here belongs the beautiful and varied Japanese +Iris, <i>Iris lævigata</i> (or <i>I. Kæmpferi</i>), which is among the +most deserving of all hardy perennials. Most of these Irises +need no special care. They are propagated by division of +the rootstocks. Plant the pieces 1 foot apart if a mass +effect is desired. When the plants begin to fail, dig them +up, divide the roots, discard the old parts and grow a new +stock, as before. <i>I. Susiana</i>, of this section, is one of the +oddest of Irises, but it is not quite hardy in the North. Of +the bulbous section, most species are not hardy in the +North. The bulbs should be taken up and replanted every +two or three years. The Persian and Spanish Irises belong +here. The bulbs give rise to but a single stem.</p> + +<p><a name="K" id="K"></a><b><a name="kale" id="kale"></a>Kale.</b> A low-growing, spreading plant belonging +to the cabbage family and extensively used for +winter and spring greens. The same culture as given to late +cabbage is suitable. At the approach of severe freezing +weather a slight protection is given in the North. The +leaves remain green through the winter and may be gathered +from under the snow at a time when material for greens is +scarce. Some of the Kales are very ornamental because of +their blue and purple curled foliage. The Scotch Curled is +the most popular variety. Kales are extensively grown at +Norfolk, Va., and southward, and shipped north in winter. +Let the plants stand 18 to 30 inches apart. Young cabbage +plants are sometimes used as Kale. <a href="#collards">See <i>Collards</i>.</a> Borecole +is a kind of Kale. Sea Kale is a wholly different vegetable +(<a href="#sea-kale">which see</a>).</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +<b><a name="kerosene" id="kerosene"></a>Kerosene</b> is fatal to insects. It is likely to +injure plants if applied full strength, although if applied in +full sunlight (so that evaporation takes place rapidly) it may +do no harm. It is safest to apply it in dilution. Of late, +there are pumps which mix or emulsify Kerosene and water +in definite proportions, and this mixture (in the proportion +of ⅕ or ¼ Kerosene) is fatal to insects and usually harmless to +plants. The standard Kerosene emulsion is with soap, but +the perfection of mechanical devices for emulsifying it with +water is probably destined to supplant the soap emulsion.</p> + +<p><i><a name="kerosene_emulsion" id="kerosene_emulsion"></a>Kerosene Emulsion.</i>—Hard soap, ½ pound; boiling soft +water, 1 gallon; Kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in the +water, add the Kerosene, and churn with a pump for 5 to 10 +minutes. Dilute 10 to 25 times before applying. Use strong +emulsion, diluted four times in winter, for all scale insects. +For insects which suck, as plant-lice, mealy bugs, red spider, +thrips, bark-lice or scale. Cabbage-worms, currant-worms, +and all insects which have soft bodies can also be successfully +treated.</p> + +<p><b>Kohlrabi.</b> This vegetable looks like a leafy +turnip growing above ground. If used when small (2 to 3 +inches in diam.), and not allowed to become +hard and tough, it is of superior quality. It +should be more generally grown. The culture +is very simple. A succession of sowings should +be made from early spring until the middle of +summer, in drills 18 inches to 2 feet apart, +thinning the young plants to 6 or 8 inches in +the rows. It matures as quickly as turnips. +One ounce of seed to 100 feet of drill.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 178px;"> +<img src="images/140-lantana.jpg" width="178" height="249" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Lantana</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="L" id="L"></a><b>Lantana</b> is a popular greenhouse +pot-plant, and is occasionally seen in window-gardens, +being grown for the profusion of its +orange-red, heliotrope-shaped flowers. In the South, and +sometimes in the North, it is planted out for the summer.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +It is very easy to grow, and also to propagate by means of +cuttings. Although the flowers of the common species are +ill-scented, the profusion of bloom makes it desirable.</p> + +<p><b><a name="larkspur" id="larkspur"></a>Larkspur.</b> <span class="smcap">Delphinium.</span> The Larkspurs are +among the very best hardy plants, being free-flowering and +having a good habit. They should be in every mixed +border, particularly the perennial kinds. The tall flower-spikes, +showing above the cut foliage, give the plant a +striking effect. The flowers are in shades of blue in most +varieties. The plants are propagated by division of root or +from seed. The latter method will give good results, although +the resulting plants are not likely to be the same variety +as the seed plant.</p> + +<p>As winter approaches, a covering of coarse litter should +be thrown over the crowns of the perennial kinds. The +plants will come into bloom in late June and continue for a +long season. Plants should be set 3 to 5 feet apart if in rows, +but they are seen to better advantage when mixed with other +border plants. Height of plants from 3 to 5 feet.</p> + +<p>The annual Larkspur may be grown from seed sown in +heat and transplanted to the ground in May; or seed may +be sown where the plants are wanted and the seedlings +thinned to 1 foot. These seedlings will bloom in June, and +continue through the summer. Plants grow from 8 to 18 +inches high.</p> + +<p><b>Lathyrus.</b> See <a href="#pea_everlasting"><i>Pea, Everlasting</i></a>; also, <a href="#sweet_pea"><i>Sweet +Pea</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b><a name="lawns" id="lawns"></a>Lawns.</b> In order to have a good Lawn, two +things are essential: first, a pleasing surface or contour; +second, a dense, firm sod.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 156px;"> +<img src="images/142-fun.jpg" width="156" height="188" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">It is fun to make a garden</p> +</div> + +<p>Inasmuch as the Lawn is, or should be, a permanent +thing, it is necessary that the greatest care be exercised to +grade the land and to thoroughly prepare it before any +seeds are sown. About a new building the filling should be +allowed to settle, so that the finished surface will slope<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +gradually away from the foundations and the steps. If the +land is very hard clay, or if the place is rather low, it is +always well to lay tile under-drains at frequent intervals. +Everything should be done to cause the land to be deep +and loose, so that the grass roots will run far into the soil +and not be pressed for lack of moisture in a dry time. If +the land has not had applications of manure in +recent years, it is well to plow in, or to spade +in, a liberal quantity of well-rotted litter from +the barnyard. Work this into the soil as deeply +as possible. If the hardpan is rather high, it is +well to subsoil the area or to trench it (that is, +to spade it up two or three spades deep). If the +land is apparently not fertile in plant-food, it is well to +add a dressing of some commercial fertilizer to the surface +when the grass seed is sown. This will start the grass +quickly and allow it to get a foothold before the severe +weather of midsummer comes.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 179px;"> +<img src="images/142-gardencorner.jpg" width="179" height="310" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A garden corner</p> +</div> + +<p>The kind of grass seed to sow will depend upon the region +and also upon the personal tastes of the owner. The +one standard Lawn grass is June grass or blue grass (<i>Poa +pratensis</i>). The seeds of this grass are sold in +the hulls, and therefore the bushel weighs only +fourteen pounds. Not less than two and one-half +to three bushels should be sown to the acre. +In the southern states, June grass will not hold, +and Bermuda grass is used, being sown about as +thick as recommended for the June grass. +There are various prepared Lawn grass +mixtures which are excellent, but the June +grass alone will give a very excellent Lawn +in a short time. Whether one shall sow +white clover in his Lawn depends mostly +upon his personal taste. If he likes the +white clover, it is well to put in a quart or +two of seed to the acre, sowing it separately<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +from the June grass in order to get an even distribution. +Some persons like to see the white clover in certain parts +of the Lawn. It thrives very well where the land is rather +moist. In parts of the East, Rhode Island bent grass is +used for lawns.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;"> +<img src="images/143-nursery.jpg" width="174" height="103" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A nursery</p> +</div> + +<p>The grass seed should be sown in the +cool of the year. It may be sown in September +and thereby become established before +winter; or it may be +sown very early in the +spring. In newly made Lawns, it is a +good plan to grade the area thoroughly +in the fall, allowing it to settle in the +winter; and then, if the surface remains +even, to sow the grass seed on one of the +latest snows in spring. By sowing it on the snow, one can +see that it is distributed evenly; and when the snow +melts, the seed is carried into the land and does not need +covering. It is well to sow three or four quarts per acre +of timothy seed, for the timothy germinates very quickly, +and makes a green area the first season, but is killed out +as soon as the June grass gains a foothold. Timothy +will not stand the continued cutting, whereas the June +grass will. The timothy, therefore, serves as a temporary +covering to the land, indicating where the borders are, +and thereby outlining the area for the Lawn mower to +cut. The timothy seed should be sown separately from the +June grass in order to insure even distribution. On hard +lands it is well to sow two or three quarts per acre of crimson +clover seed. The long roots of this plant tend to improve +the physical condition of the soil; and when they decay, +they leave nitrogen in the soil for the grass to use. Since +crimson clover is an annual plant, it will not do any permanent +mischief in the Lawn.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 202px;"> +<img src="images/143-lawnplant.jpg" width="202" height="119" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A lawn, with planting on the sides</p> +</div> + +<p>The first season the weeds will probably come up thickly, +especially if the land is rich. These weeds should not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +be pulled, for whenever one is pulled out of the ground, +many grass plants are rooted up and the surface is made +uneven. The only way in which to keep down weeds is to +mow them frequently with a Lawn mower. They will not +appear in any great numbers the second year, unless there +should be some perennial weeds, like dandelion or dock; and +these may be pulled out the first fall or the following spring.</p> + +<p>It is rare that one secures a perfectly good and uniform +sod from one sowing of seed; especially is this true if the +soil varies in different parts of the area. If the surface +contour is satisfactory, it is unwise to dig up the areas +on which the seed has not caught. It is best to rake them +over with a steel rake in fall or spring, sowing on a little +commercial fertilizer rather rich in nitrogen, and sow more +seed. Nearly every Lawn will need patching in this way +from year to year. If the Lawn is attended to in fall and +spring by sowing grass seed, the weeds will rarely do serious +mischief. When weeds are troublesome on the Lawn, +it means that there is not sufficient grass, and every +effort should be made to get more grass. Therefore, when +the perennial weeds are pulled out, sow more grass seed.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 183px;"> +<img src="images/144-rill.jpg" width="183" height="276" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A picturesque rill +on the lawn</p> +</div> + +<p>When narrow-leaved plantain bothers, it is an indication +that the land is too poor and dry for grass. +In such cases, the land usually lacks humus +or vegetable matter; and in various severe +incursions of the plantain, it may be necessary +to spade up the weedy areas and to work +rotted manure into the soil. Usually, however, +the plantain can be killed out by enriching +the soil and sowing more grass seed. +The common practice of sprinkling Lawns is +nearly always pernicious, since the water is not +supplied in sufficient amount to wet down very far, +and the grass tends to make surface roots. When the +watering is omitted the plants suffer. The more a +Lawn is sprinkled, the more the grass depends upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +the sprinkling. If it is necessary to water the Lawn, the +water should be allowed to run directly from the hose until +the surface area is completely soaked. It is best to do this +at nightfall. When the water is applied by means of a +sprinkler, a large part of it evaporates and does no good to +the ground. The fundamental treatment of the Lawn is to +have the land so deep and porous that the grass roots strike +deep into the soil and do not need the surface water. A +Lawn which is well made will need watering only in unusually +dry times.</p> + +<p>Mow the Lawn frequently when it is growing rapidly,—in +spring and early summer. In the fall mow less +frequently, and let it go into the winter with a long coat +of grass. If the Lawn is mown as often as is needed, +it will not be necessary to rake off the trimmings. In fall, +top-dress the Lawn with commercial fertilizer at the rate of +500 pounds to the acre. If the Lawn has not been raked +clean of all the trimmings and decayed refuse which covers +the surface of the ground, it is not necessary to dress it +with stable manure; for manure is unsightly, unsavory, and +often brings in weeds. Many persons make the mistake of +raking the Lawn clean in late fall.</p> + +<p>Closely associated with the making of the Lawn is the +general arrangement of the planting. It is the common fault +to scatter the planting. Much better effects are secured by +massing or grouping the planting. See <a href="#border"><i>Borders</i></a> and <a href="#flower_beds"><i>Flower +Beds</i></a>. Particularly along the boundaries and about the +foundations of buildings, the shrubbery and other plants may +be massed to excellent effect. In large places there should +be more or less mass planting along the walks and drives. +In the curves and retreats of these plantings one will find +many pleasant corners; and here the children may have +their play-houses and their pets. A little brook winding +across a corner or along one side of a Lawn may make a +pleasant picture if it is allowed to take on a half-wild +character.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 214px;"> +<img src="images/146-layer.jpg" width="214" height="210" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A layer</p> +</div> + +<div class="figparts1" style="width: 88px;"> +<a href="images/146-layer2.jpg"><img class="parts" src="images/146-layer2a.jpg" width="88" height="160" alt="Several layers from one vine (top)" title="" /></a> +</div> +<div class="figparts2" style="width: 250px;"> +<a href="images/146-layer2.jpg"><img class="parts" src="images/146-layer2b.jpg" width="250" height="62" alt="Several layers from one vine (bottom)" title="" /></a> +<p class="caption">Several layers from one vine</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Layers</b> are parts (usually stems) of plants laid +down on the earth while still attached to the parent, with +the expectation that they will take root and can then be +separated as independent plants. All +vine-like plants can be propagated readily +by means of Layers; so can most soft-wooded +plants, as willows, maples, currants, +etc. It is usual to put down the +branches in the fall. In a year they +should be ready to be severed +from the parent. They may also +be made in spring, before growth +starts. See that the layered part +rests in moist earth. Usually roots +arise more freely if the shoot is cracked or notched at +the buried point. The Layer may be held down by a +forked stick (“pegged down”), or +by a stone or clod. See that the +shoot does not throw up suckers +behind the layered part.</p> + +<p><b>Leek.</b> This belongs to the onion family, and is +used mostly as flavoring for soups. Well grown Leeks have +a very agreeable and not very strong onion flavor. Leek is of +the easiest culture, and is usually grown as a second crop, to +follow beets, early peas, and other early stuff. The seed +should be sown in a seed-bed in April or early May and +the seedlings planted out in the garden in July, in rows 2 +feet apart, the plants being 6 inches apart in the rows. The +plants should be set deep if the neck or lower part of the +leaves is to be used in a blanched condition. The soil may +be drawn towards the plants in hoeing, to further the +blanching. Being very hardy, the plants may be dug in +late fall, and stored in the same manner as celery, in +trenches or in a cool root-cellar. One ounce of seed to 100 +feet of drill.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +<b>Lettuce</b> is probably the most extensively grown +salad vegetable. It is now in demand, and is procurable, every +month in the year. The winter and early spring crops are +grown in forcing-houses and coldframes, but a supply from +the garden may be had from April to November, by the use +of a cheap frame in which to grow the first and last crops, +relying on a succession of sowings for the intermediate +supply. Seed for the first crop may be sown in a coldframe +in March, growing the crop thick and having many plants +which are small and tender; or, by thinning out to the distance +of 3 inches and allowing the plants to make a larger +growth, the plants pulled up may be set in the open ground +for the next crop. Sowings should be made in the garden +from April to October, at short intervals. A +moist location should be selected for the July +and August sowings. The early and late sowings +should be of some loose-growing variety, +as they are in edible condition sooner than +the cabbage or heading varieties.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 161px;"> +<img src="images/147-lettuce.jpg" width="161" height="99" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Plant of heading lettuce</p> +</div> + +<p>The cabbage varieties are far superior to the loose-growing +kinds for salads. To be grown to perfection, they +should have very rich soil, frequent cultivation and an occasional +stimulant, such as liquid manure or nitrate of soda. +The Cos Lettuce is an upright-growing type much esteemed +in Europe, but less grown here. The leaves of the +full grown plants are tied together, thus blanching the center, +making it a desirable salad or garnishing variety. It +thrives best in summer. One ounce of seed will grow 3,000 +plants or sow 100 feet of drill. In the garden, plants may +stand 6 inches apart in the rows, and the rows may be as +close together as the system of tillage will allow.</p> + +<p><b>Lily.</b> Bulbous plants of many kinds. It has +been said of this family of plants that it has no “poor +relations,” each of them being perfect in itself. Many of +the choicest kinds are comparatively unknown, although<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +easy to cultivate. In fact, all of the Lilies may be grown +with comparative ease. A light, rich, well-drained soil, +mellow to the depth of at least 1 foot, a handful of sand +under each bulb if the soil is inclined to be stiff, and +planting so that the crown of the bulb will be at least 4 +inches below the surface, are the general requirements. +One exception to the depth of planting is <i>Lilium auratum</i>, +or Golden-Banded Lily. This should be planted deeper—at +least 8 inches below the surface—as the new bulbs form +over the old one and soon bring the bulbs to the surface if +they are not planted deep.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 80px;"> +<img src="images/148-lily.jpg" width="80" height="233" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Easter Lily</p> +</div> + +<p>While Lilies may have partial shade, they should never +be planted near or under trees. The shade or protection of +tall-growing, herbaceous plants is sufficient. In fact, the +best results, both as to growth and effect, may be had by +planting amongst low shrubbery or border plants. Most +kinds are the better for remaining undisturbed for a number +of years; but if they are to be taken up and divided, or +moved to other quarters, they should not be allowed to become +dry. The small bulbs, or offsets, may be planted in +the border, and if protected will grow to flowering +size in two or three years. In taking up bulbs for +division it is best to do so soon after the tops die +after blooming. At least this should be done early +in the fall, not later than October, giving the plants +a chance to become established before freezing +weather. A mulch of coarse litter or evergreen boughs +should be placed over the bulbs after the ground +has become frozen, to be gradually removed as the +spring advances.</p> + +<p>As pot-plants some Lilies are very satisfactory, +especially those that may be forced into bloom through +the winter. The best kinds for this purpose are <i>L. Harrisii</i> +(Easter Lily), <i>L. longiflorum</i>, and <i>L. candidum</i>. Others +may be forced with success, but these are the ones most +generally used. The winter culture of these for forcing is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +the same as for Hyacinths (in pots), <a href="#hyacinths">which see</a>. The article +on <a href="#bulbs"><i>Bulbs</i></a> gives directions for both outdoor and indoor +growing which are directly applicable to Lilies.</p> + +<p><b>Lily, Chinese Sacred.</b> <a href="#narcissus">See <i>Narcissus</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Lily-of-the-Valley.</b> A perfectly hardy little +plant, bearing racemes of small white bell-shaped flowers +in early spring. For ordinary cultivation, sods or mats of +roots may be dug from any place in which the plant is +colonized. Usually it thrives best in partial shade; and +the leaves make an attractive mat on the north side of a +building, or other shady place, in which grass will not +grow. The plants will take care of themselves year after +year.</p> + +<p>For forcing indoors, imported roots or “pips” are used, +as the plants are grown for this particular purpose in parts +of Europe. These roots may be planted in pots, and +treated as recommended for winter-flowering bulbs, under +<a href="#bulbs"><i>Bulbs</i></a>. Florists force them in greater heat, however, often +giving them a bottom heat of 80° or 90°; but skill and +experience are required in order to attain uniformly good +results in this case.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 245px;"> +<img src="images/149-line.jpg" width="245" height="166" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A garden Line</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Line.</b> A garden Line is one of the most convenient +things connected with garden operations. It is +always wanted when long rows of seed are to be +sown, and it is also necessary in laying out walks +or drives. A very simple, yet handy, holder for a +line is shown on the margin. The pin is driven in +the soil at the starting point, and the line is unwound +as the operator walks towards the end of +the row. A line should be 100 +feet long for common garden +operations.</p> + +<p><b>Lobelia.</b> Some of these are well-known garden +plants, being used very freely as edging for ribbon +beds or basket plants. They require a loose, rich soil, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +some stimulant when in full flower. The flowers continue +through a long season. They propagate freely from seed. +<i>Lobelia Erinus</i>, in blue, 6 inches high, is one of the most +popular of all annual edging plants. In Europe various +perennial Lobelias are popular, but they are seldom seen in +American gardens.</p> + +<p><b>London Purple.</b> <a href="#paris_green">Discussed under <i>Paris Green</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Love-Lies-Bleeding.</b> <a href="#amarantus">See <i>Amarantus</i>.</a></p> + +<p><a name="M" id="M"></a><b><a name="manure" id="manure"></a>Manure</b> adds plant-food to the soil, and it also +improves the texture or physical condition of the soil. This +latter effect is often its greatest value. If one wants mere +plant-food alone, he may often do better to add it in some +more concentrated form. <a href="#fertilizers">See <i>Fertilizers</i>.</a> Manure, when +thoroughly incorporated with the soil, makes the ground +congenial for the plant. It is important, in garden operations, +that the Manure be rotted or composted, or “short” +or “fine,” as the gardeners say. It then incorporates readily +with the soil and quickly gives up its fertility. Manure is +composted by letting it decay in piles. The compost pile +should be flat on top, so that it will catch the rains, and 3 +to 5 feet high.</p> + +<p>The most desirable Manure for the garden and for house +plants is probably old cow Manure. It does not burn or lose +its strength. It may be kept for a number of years if piled +under shelter, becoming more available each year. It mixes +well with soil and leaf-mold. When once rotted, this manure +is very lasting and easily assimilated by plants. Horse +Manure is very likely to become overheated, and to lose its +value; and it is too loose and dry for many purposes. Pig +Manure, unless well composted with soil or refuse, is usually +too heavy and rich. Sheep Manure is at its best when used +in a liquid form, although it is most excellent to mix with +soil to loosen it.</p> + +<p>All garden refuse, such as vines, leaves, decaying vegetables, +will make Manure if composted with soil; and if the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +wash water is thrown on the compost pile much fertility will +be added. Wood ashes from stoves, the chip dirt from the +woodshed—in fact, almost any substance that will decay—will +furnish plant-food, and should be added to the compost +pile. This pile should be turned often, to mix the material.</p> + +<p>When practicable, it is best to apply Manure in the fall, +as it then has time to become incorporated with the soil before +spring. Beds which are to be used for flowers next year +may be dressed with Manure in the fall and deeply spaded, +leaving the surface rough and loose. It is well to be careful +that the Manure does not contain weed seeds.</p> + +<p><b>Marigold.</b> The Marigolds of the old-fashioned +gardens are still among the best of plants for fall color. +They are hardy annuals of the easiest culture, and are always +certain of giving strong and excellent results. They have +been much improved of late years. The old-fashioned +African Marigolds grow 2 to 3 feet high, and they are useful +for scattering in mixed borders or making large masses +or displays of color in the remoter parts of the place. The +French or dwarf Marigolds grow about 1 foot high and are +more tufty in their habit. They are better adapted for edgings +than for mass effects in the main parts of the grounds. +All Marigolds may be sown where the plants are to stand, +since the flowers are usually not wanted until late summer +or early fall, at which time they usually give their best +bloom. If they are wanted earlier, however, the seeds may +be started in the house or hotbed. Tall varieties may be +allowed to stand from 10 to 18 inches apart and the dwarfs +at somewhat less distances.</p> + +<p><b>Matthiola</b> will be found under <a href="#stocks"><i>Stocks</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Mignonette.</b> Probably no flower is more generally +grown for its fragrance than this. The Mignonette +needs a cool soil, only moderately rich, shade part of the +day, and careful attention to cutting the flower-stalks before +the seeds are ripe. If a sowing be made in late April, followed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +by a second sowing in early July, the season may be +extended until severe frosts. There are few flowers that +will prove as disappointing if the treatment it needs is +omitted. Height 1 to 2 feet. Treated as a half-hardy annual. +It can be sown in pots late in summer and had in the +house in winter.</p> + +<p><b>Moon-Flowers</b> are species of Morning-Glories +that open their flowers at night. A well-grown plant +trained over a porch trellis, or allowed to grow at random +over a low tree or shrub, is a striking object when in full +flower at dusk or through a moonlit evening. In the southern +states the Moon-Flower is a perennial, but even when +well protected does not survive the winters in the North. +Cuttings may be made before danger of frost and wintered +in the house, or the plants may be grown from seed sown in +January or February. Cuttings usually give best results in +the northern states, as the seasons are not long enough for +seed plants to give good bloom. Seeds should be scalded or +filed just before sowing. The true Moon-Flower is +<i>Ipomœa Bona-Nox</i>, white-flowered; but there are other +kinds. This grows 20 to 30 feet where the seasons +are long enough.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 115px;"> +<img src="images/152-morglry.jpg" width="115" height="212" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Morning-Glories</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="morning-glory" id="morning-glory"></a>Morning-Glory</b> is perhaps the most popular +of all twining herbs, because of the ease with +which it may be grown, the quickness with which +it covers the object, and the quantities of bright, +cheerful flowers it bears. Many of the kinds—in +fact all that are generally known—may be readily +grown from seed, flowering early in the summer. +Tender annuals. Give rich soil and plenty of water. The +beautiful cypress vine belongs to this group. It requires the +same treatment as the Morning-Glory, but the seeds should +be scalded just previous to sowing.</p> + +<p>Dwarf Morning-Glories (<i>Convolvulus tricolor</i>). They come +into flower much sooner than the tall climbing varieties,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +and are covered with flowers through a long season. They +may be used with fine effect in vases or large hanging +baskets. Give a full sunny exposure. May thrive on soil +that is not very rich. They grow 1 foot high. Half-hardy +annuals.</p> + +<p><b>Mulberry.</b> Both for fruit and ornament the +Mulberry should be more generally planted. Even if the +fruit is not to the taste, the tree is naturally open-centered +and round-headed, and is an interesting subject; some +of the varieties have finely cut leaves. The fruits are in +great demand by the birds, and after they begin to ripen the +strawberry beds and cherry trees are free from robins and +other fruit-eating birds. For this reason alone they are a +valuable tree for the fruit-grower. Trees may be purchased +cheaper than one can propagate them.</p> + +<p>If planted in orchard form, place them 25 to 30 feet +apart. About the borders of a place they can go closer. +The Russian varieties are often planted for windbreaks, for +they are very hardy and thrive under the greatest neglect; +and for this purpose they may be planted 8 to 20 feet +apart. The Russians make excellent screens. They stand +clipping well. New American, Trowbridge and Thorburn +are leading kinds of fruit-bearing Mulberries for the North. +The true Downing is not hardy in the northern states; but +New American is often sold under this name. Mulberries +thrive in any good soil, and need no special treatment.</p> + +<p><b><a name="mulch" id="mulch"></a>Mulch</b> is used both in protecting plants from +the severe freezing of winter and the severe drought of +summer. The same material may be used in either case, +although it is now considered best to make an earth Mulch +to prevent evaporation and retain the moisture through the +dry season. This earth Mulch is made by breaking the +crust of the soil and leaving it in fine particles. This may +be done with a horse cultivator, a hoe or a rake. In fact, +any tool which leaves the top of the soil loose will be instrumental +in preventing evaporation of soil water. <a href="#tillage">See +<i>Tillage</i>.</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +The Mulching of the ground around blackberries, +currants, gooseberries, or raspberries with straw or hay is +often practiced to keep the fruits clean; and the winter +Mulch of strawberry beds is used between the rows for the +same purpose, as well as to retain moisture and to afford +winter protection. Winter Mulch usually consists of leaves, +straw, hay, rough manure, boughs of evergreens, or any +coarse material that will protect the plants from severe +freezing and the heaving caused by alternate freezing and +thawing. This winter Mulch should be removed as spring +advances, unless it is of such a character as to be +worked into the soil to add fertility or to loosen heavy +lands. Near the seacoast salt hay is considered to be an +ideal Mulch. The winter Mulch must not contain too strong +or heavy manures, or plants may be injured by the leaching. +For flower borders and shrubbery, muck or peat makes a +good winter Mulch. Ordinarily the Mulch may be placed on +to the depth of 4 to 6 inches, and if it is of loose material it +may be still deeper. If dry and loose, mice may nest in it +and girdle the trees or bushes. Even perfectly hardy plants +are benefited by a winter Mulch, because it improves the +soil. Autumn leaves, as they drift into shrubberies, make +an ideal Mulch; it is not always necessary to remove these +leaves. <a href="#lawns">See <i>Lawn</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Mushroom.</b> There is no science of Mushroom +growing. Certain conditions have been found to give +success, but it is not known why. These conditions may be +imitated ever so closely and complete failure result. There +are many “systems” advised, each system the result of +somebody’s success; but one cannot be sure of success by +following any one of them. Good results are frequently attained +when all rules are broken. The following paragraphs +are from “Farmers’ Bulletin,” No. 53 (by William Falconer), +of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (March, 1897):</p> + +<p>Mushrooms are a winter crop, coming in from September +till April or May—that is, the work of preparing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +manure begins in September and ends in February, and the +packing of the crop begins in October or November and ends +in May. Under extraordinary conditions the season may +begin earlier and last longer, and, in fact, it may continue +all summer.</p> + +<p>Mushrooms can be grown almost anywhere out of doors, +and also indoors where there is a dry bottom in which to set +the beds, where a uniform and moderate +temperature can be maintained, and where +the beds can be protected from wet overhead, +and from winds, drought, and direct +sunshine. Among the most desirable places +in which to grow Mushrooms are barns, cellars, +closed tunnels, sheds, pits, greenhouses, +and regular Mushroom houses. Total +darkness is not imperative, for Mushrooms grow well in +open light if shaded from sunshine. The temperature and +moisture are more apt to be equable in dark places than in +open, light ones, and it is largely for this reason that +Mushroom houses are kept dark.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;"> +<img src="images/155-mushroom.jpg" width="173" height="130" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Mushroom</p> +</div> + +<p>The best fertilizer for Mushrooms, so far as the writer’s +experience goes, is fresh horse manure. Get together a lot +of this material (short and strawy) that has been well +trampled and wetted in the stable. Throw it into a heap, +wet it well if it is at all dry, and let it heat. When it begins +to steam turn it over, shake it well so as to mix thoroughly +and evenly, and then tramp it down solid. After this let it +stand till it again gets quite warm, then turn, shake, trample +as before, and add water freely if it is getting dry. Repeat +this turning, moistening and trampling as often as it is +needful to keep the manure from “burning.” If it gets intensely +hot, spread it out to cool, after which again throw it +together. After being turned in this way several times, and +the heat in it is not apt to rise above 130° F., it should be +ready to make up in the beds. By adding to the manure at the +second or third turning one-fourth or one-fifth of its bulk of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +loam, the tendency to intense heating is lessened and its +usefulness not at all impaired. Some growers prefer short +manure exclusively, that is, the horse droppings, while others +like a good deal of straw mixed in with this. The writer’s +experience, however, is that, if properly prepared, it matters +little which is used.</p> + +<p>Ordinarily the beds are only 8 to 10 inches deep; that is, +they are faced with 10-inch-wide hemlock boards, and are +only the depth of this board. In such beds put a layer of +fresh, moist, hot manure, and trample it down firm until it +constitutes half the depth of the bed; then fill up with the +prepared manure, which should be rather cool (100° to 115° +F.) when used, and pack all firmly. If desired, the beds can +be made up entirely of the prepared manure. Shelf beds are +usually 9 inches deep; that is, the shelf is bottomed with +1-inch boards and faced with 10-inch-wide boards. This allows +about 8 inches for manure, and 1 inch rising to 2 inches +of loam on top. In filling the shelf beds the bottom half may +be of fresh, moist or wettish, hot manure, packed down solid, +and the top half of rather cool prepared manure, or it may +be made up of all prepared manure. As the shelf beds can +not be trodden and can not be beaten very firm with the back +of the fork, a brick is used in addition to the fork.</p> + +<p>The beds should be spawned after the heat in them has +fallen below 100° F. The writer considers 90° F. about the +best temperature for spawning. If the beds have been +covered with hay, straw, litter or mats, these should be +removed. Break each brick into twelve or fifteen pieces. +The rows should be, say, 1 foot apart, the first one being 6 +inches from the edge, and the pieces should be 9 inches +apart in the row. Commencing with the first row, lift up +each piece, raise 2 to 3 inches of the manure with the +hand, and into this hole place the piece, covering over +tightly with the manure. When the entire bed is spawned +pack the surface all over. It is well to cover the beds +again with straw, hay or mats, to keep the surface equally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +moist. The flake spawn is planted in the same way as the +brick spawn, only not quite so deep.</p> + +<p>At the end of eight or nine days the mulching should be +removed and the beds covered with a layer of good loam 2 +inches thick, so that the Mushrooms can come up in and +through it. This gives them a firm hold, and to a large extent +improves their quality and texture. Any fair loam will +do. That from an ordinary field, wayside or garden is +generally used, and it answers admirably. There exists an +idea that garden soil surfeited with old manure is unfit for +Mushroom beds because it is apt to produce spurious fungi. +This, however, is not the case. In fact, it is the earth most +commonly used. For molding the beds the loam should be +rather fine, free and mellow, so that it can be easily and +evenly spread and compacted firmly into the manure.</p> + +<p>If an even atmospheric temperature of from 55° to 60° F. +can be maintained, and the house or cellar containing the +Mushroom beds is kept close and free from drafts, the beds +may be left uncovered, and should be watered if they become +dry. But no matter where the beds are situated, it is well to +lay some loose hay or straw or some old matting or carpet +over them to keep them moist. The covering, however, +should be removed just as soon as the young Mushrooms +begin to appear above ground. If the atmosphere is dry, +the pathways and walls should be sprinkled with water. +The mulching should also be sprinkled, but not enough to +cause the water to soak into the bed. However, if the bed +should get dry, do not hesitate to water it.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 159px;"> +<img src="images/158-melon.jpg" width="159" height="90" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Muskmelon</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="melon" id="melon"></a>Muskmelon.</b> The natural soil for melons is +a light, sandy loam, well enriched with rotted manure, +although good crops may be grown on soil naturally heavy +if the hills are prepared as they should be. When only +heavy soil is available, the dirt where the seeds are to be +planted should be thoroughly pulverized and mixed with +fine, well rotted manure. A sprinkling of leaf-mold or +chip-dirt will help to lighten it. On this hill from ten to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +fifteen seeds may be sown, thinning to four or five vines +when danger of insects is over. The season may be advanced +and the damage from insects lessened by starting the +plants in hotbeds. This may be done by using fresh sod, +cut into 6-inch pieces, placing them grass-side down in the +hotbed, sowing eight to ten seeds on each piece, and covering +with 2 inches of light soil. When all danger of frost is +over, and the ground has become warm, these sods may be +carefully lifted and set in the prepared hills. The plants +usually grow without check, and fruit from two +to four weeks ahead of those from seed planted +directly in the hill. Old quart berry boxes are +excellent to plant seeds in, as, when they are +set in the ground, they very quickly decay, +causing no restriction to the roots. Netted +Gem, Hackensack, Emerald Gem, Montreal, Osage, and +the Nutmeg Melon are popular varieties. One ounce of +seed will plant about fifty hills.</p> + +<p>For insects, <a href="#cucumber">see <i>Cucumber</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Musk Plant</b> is an old-fashioned house plant +of easy culture. Raise a new stock from seeds as soon as +the plants begin to fail.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 146px;"> +<img src="images/159-narcissus.jpg" width="146" height="244" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Narcissus</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="N" id="N"></a><b><a name="narcissus" id="narcissus"></a>Narcissus.</b> Hardy bulbous plants, including +the daffodils, jonquils, and other forms. The ease with +which these plants may be grown, the beauty and fragrance +of the flowers, as well as their lasting qualities when cut, +would seem to make their culture in this country more +popular than it is. Good bulbs planted in September or +October are sure to bloom in April or May. The bulbs may +remain in the ground for a number of years, although the +best results will be had by digging them up every three +years, and resetting in a different location. Select a moist, +loamy soil, slightly protected from the sun. No manure +should come directly in contact with the bulb, but if needed +to hold moisture the manure may be spaded down to the +depth of twelve inches.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +Narcissus may be forced into flower through the winter, +as described under <a href="#bulbs"><i>Bulbs</i></a>. The most popular for winter +bloom is the “Chinese Sacred Lily.” This +grows in water without any soil whatever. +Secure a bowl or glass dish, about three times +the size of the bulb; put some pretty stones +in the bottom; set in the bulb and build up +around it with stones so as to hold it stiff when +the leaves have grown; tuck two or three small +pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep +the water sweet, then fill up the dish with +water and add a little every few days, as it +evaporates. Set the dish in a warm, light +place. In about six weeks +the fragrant, fine white flowers +will fill the room with perfume.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width:173px;"> +<img src="images/159-nasturtium.jpg" width="173" height="467" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Nasturtium</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width:124px;"> +<img src="images/160-nasturtium2.jpg" width="124" height="173" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Dwarf Nasturtium</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="nasturtiums" id="nasturtiums"></a>Nasturtiums</b> (<i>Tropæolums</i>) are +both dwarf and climbing. The Dwarf +Nasturtiums make one of the most showy +second-row plants for the border. The +colors of the flowers have a wide range +and the plants bloom profusely. It is +not, however, the plant in flower that is +the greatest consideration, but the flowers +themselves as cut-flowers. No flower +makes a finer display in vase or bowl +than these rich colors, all harmonizing +well and lighting up a room as very few +of the common easily grown flowers do. +The same may be said of the tall-growing +Nasturtiums, although the flowers of +these form part of their effectiveness +as screen vines. Few climbers make a +more rapid growth, and none are better +adapted to hide unsightly objects in our +yards or gardens.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p> + +<p>For a long season of flowers and a large growth of vine +the seed should be sown late in March or early in April, +in boxes or pots, the plants carried along until the first +of May, and planted out where wanted. The +dwarf varieties bloom more freely and the flowers +are of better color in rather poor soils, while for +rapid growth of vine a well enriched border would +be the best. The dwarf varieties may be planted +2 or 3 feet apart, and the tall ones as wanted to +make a screen. The tall kinds grow 5 to 8 feet. +All Nasturtiums are tender.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 114px;"> +<img src="images/160-nicotiana.jpg" width="114" height="202" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Nicotiana affinis</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Nicotiana.</b> Tender annuals (or grown +as annuals). They are fine plants for borders or +pots, the tall-growing varieties making a very fine show +when in flower, having pure white flowers with long, tubular +necks, the season of bloom being from July to +October. The seeds are very fine, and should be +sown on the surface of the soil, in boxes or pots. +When planted out they should be set from 2 to 5 +feet apart, according to kind. Some of the giant +Nicotianas are excellent subjects for temporary +screens; so is tobacco, which is also a Nicotiana.</p> + +<p><i>Nicotiana affinis</i> is one of the best of all garden +flowers. Its long white flowers are fragrant at +evening. They close in the hot sun. It is a half-hardy +annual of easiest culture. Height 2 to 3 +feet.</p> + +<p><a name="O" id="O"></a><b>Œnothera.</b> <span class="smcap">Evening Primrose.</span> A very interesting +group of plants, opening their flowers at evening. +Many of them are fragrant and attract night insects, especially +the large moths, seldom seen until dusk. The opening +of the flowers of the large-flowering varieties is a source of +pleasure and surprise, as one flower follows another in opening, +and in a large plant the late opening flowers seem to +burst all at one time. The perennial species may be propagated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +by division or seed, the annuals by seed. Set the +tall kinds 2 to 3 feet apart. Height 1 to 3 feet. All +of easy culture.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 158px;"> +<img src="images/161-okra.jpg" width="158" height="166" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Okra or Gumbo</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Okra.</b> From the green pods of this vegetable +is made the well-known Gumbo soup of the South, where the +plant is more extensively grown than in the North. The pods +are also used in their green state for stews, and are dried and +used in winter, when they are nutritious, and +form no little part of the diet in certain sections +of the country. The seeds are very sensitive +to cold and moisture, and should not be sown +until the ground has become warm—the last +week in May or the first of June being early +enough in New York. The seed should be sown +in a drill 1 inch deep, the plants thinned to +stand 12 inches in the row. Give the same culture +as for corn. One ounce will sow 40 feet of drill. +Dwarf varieties are best for the North. Green Density +and Velvet are leading varieties.</p> + +<p><b>Oleander.</b> While there are many named varieties +of the Oleander, but two are often seen in general +cultivation. These are the common red and white varieties. +Both these, as well as the named varieties, are of +easy management and well adapted to home culture, growing +in pots or tubs for several years without special care. +Well-grown specimens are very effective as porch or lawn +plants, or may be used to good advantage in mixed beds of +tall-growing plants, plunging the pot or tub to the rim in the +soil. The plants should be cut back after flowering. They +should be rested in any out-of-the-way place through the +winter. When brought out in the spring, they should be +given sun and air in order to make a sturdy growth. Propagation +is effected by using well-ripened wood for cuttings, +placed in a close frame; or the slips may be rooted in +a bottle or can of water, care being taken to supply water as +evaporation takes place. After being rooted, they may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +potted, using soil with a large proportion of sand. Well +established plants may be repotted in good loam and well +rotted manure.</p> + +<p><b>Onions</b> are grown from seeds (“black seed”) +for the main crop. They are also grown from sets (which +are very small Onions, arrested in their development), from +“tops” (which are bulblets produced in the place of flowers), +and from multipliers or potato onions, which are compound +bulbs.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 104px;"> +<img src="images/162-onions.jpg" width="104" height="251" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Early Onions</p> +</div> + +<p>The extremely early crop of Onions is grown from sets, +and the late or fall crop is grown from seed sown in April +or early May. The sets may be saved from the crop harvested +the previous fall, saving no bulbs measuring over ¾ +of an inch in diameter, or, better, they may be purchased +from the seedsman. These sets should be +planted as early as possible in the spring, preferably +on land that has been manured and trenched in the +fall. Plant in rows 12 inches apart, the sets being 2 +or 3 inches in the row. Push the sets well down into +the ground and cover with soil, firming them with the +feet or a roller. In cultivating, the soil should be +thrown towards the tops, as the white stems are +usually sought as an indication of mildness. The +crop will be in condition to use in from three to +four weeks, and may be made to last until small +seed Onions are to be had. Tops or multipliers +may also be used for the early crop.</p> + +<p>In growing Onions from seed, it is only necessary to say +that the seed should be in the ground very early in order +that the bulbs make their growth before the extreme hot +weather of August, when, for want of moisture and because +of the heat, the bulbs will ripen up while small. +Early in April, in New York, if the ground is in condition, +the seed should be sown thickly in drills from 12 to 16 inches +apart, and the ground above the seeds well firmed. Good +cultivation and constant weeding is the price of a good crop<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +of Onions. In cultivating and hoeing, the soil should be +kept away from the rows, not covering the growing bulbs, +but allowing them to spread over the surface of the ground. +When the crop is ready to be harvested, the bulbs may +be pulled or cultivated up, left to dry in double rows for +several days, the tops and roots taken off, and the bulbs +stored in a dry place. Later in the season they may be +allowed to freeze, covering with chaff or straw to hold them +frozen, and kept until early spring; but this method is +usually unsafe with beginners, and always so in a changeable +climate. Onion seed should always be fresh when sown—preferably +of the last year’s crop. One ounce of Onion +seed will sow 100 feet of drill.</p> + +<p>One of the recent methods of obtaining extra large bulbs +from seed is to sow the seed in a hotbed in February or +early March, and transplant to the open ground in April.</p> + +<p>The Danvers, Prizetaker, Globe and Wethersfield are +favorite varieties, with the addition of White Queen or +Barletta for pickling.</p> + +<p><b>Oxalis.</b> A number of hardy species of this +are excellent plants for rockwork and edging. The greenhouse +species are very showy, growing without extra care, +and blooming freely through the late winter and spring +months; these are mostly increased by bulbs, a few by division +of the root. <i>O. violacea</i> is one of the commonest of +house-plants. Give a sunny window, for the flowers open +only in sun or very bright light. The bulbous kinds are +treated as recommended for <a href="#bulbs"><i>Bulbs</i></a>, except that the bulbs +must not freeze.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 199px;"> +<img src="images/164-palm.jpg" width="199" height="146" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Palms</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="P" id="P"></a><b><a name="palms" id="palms"></a>Palms.</b> No more graceful plant for room +decoration can be found than a well-grown specimen of +some species of Palms. Most Palms are well adapted for +this purpose when small, and as the growth is usually very +slow, a plant may be used for many years. Again, the +plants thrive better in partial shade. They may be grown +in a sitting or drawing-room more satisfactorily than most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +house-plants. One of the frequent causes of failure in the +culture of the Palm is the over-potting and subsequent over-watering. +A Palm should not be repotted until the mass of +roots fills the soil; then a pot only a size +larger should be used. Use ample drainage +in the bottom to carry off excess of +water. Although the plants need a moist +soil, water standing at their roots proves +injurious. A soil composed of well rotted +sod, leaf-mold and a little sand will meet +their requirements. Among the best +Palms for house culture are Arecas, +<i>Cocos Weddelliana</i>, Latania, Kentia, +Chamærops and Phœnix. Cycas may +also be regarded as a Palm.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 225px;"> +<img src="images/164-palm2.jpg" width="225" height="236" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A table Palm</p> +</div> + +<p>The date Palm may be grown from +seed of the common commercial date. +Seed of the other varieties may be purchased +from leading seedsmen, but, as +the seed germinates only under favorable +conditions, and the Palm is a very +slow-growing plant while young, the +best plan is to purchase the plants from +a dealer when wanted. When the +plants become weak or diseased, take them to a florist for +treatment and recuperation.</p> + +<p><b><a name="pandanus" id="pandanus"></a>Pandanus</b>, or <span class="smcap">Screw Pine</span>. The <i>Pandanus +utilis</i> and <i>P. Veitchii</i> are exceedingly ornamental, and are +well adapted to house culture. The singular habit of +growth, bright, glossy leaves, and the ability to withstand +the dust and shade of a dwelling room, make them a desirable +addition to the house collection. They are propagated +by the offsets or young plants that grow around the +base of the trunk; or they may be increased by seed. If by +the former method, the offsets should be cut off and set in +sand, at a temperature of 65° or 70°. The cuttings root<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +slowly and the plants for a time make a very slow growth. +The general cultural treatment is that of palms, <a href="#palms">which see</a>.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 245px;"> +<img src="images/165-pansy.jpg" width="245" height="191" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Pansies</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Pansy</b> is without doubt the most popular spring +flower in cultivation. The strains of seed are many, each +containing great possibilities. The culture is simple and +the results are sure. Seed sown in August or September, in +boxes or a frame, will make plants large enough to reset +in November and bloom the following March; or they may +be left until March in open seed-beds before setting out. +Also, if they are sown very thinly in the frames they may +remain undisturbed through the winter, blooming very early +the following spring. The frame +should be protected by mats, boards +or other covering through the severe +cold, and as the sun gains strength, +care should be taken to keep them +from heaving by alternate thawing +and freezing. Seed sown in boxes +in January or February will make +fine blooming plants by April, taking +the place of those blooming +earlier.</p> + +<p>The requisites for satisfactory Pansy culture are rich, +moist, cool soil, protection from the noonday sun, and attention +to keeping them from going to seed. As the ground +becomes warm a mulch of leaf-mold or other light material +should be spread over the bed to retain moisture +and exclude heat. Spring and fall give the best bloom.</p> + +<p><b><a name="paris_green" id="paris_green"></a>Paris Green</b> is the leading arsenical insecticide. +It is usually applied in a water spray, at the rate of +1 pound of the poison to 150 to 200 gallons of water. Add ½ +pound of lime to prevent injury to foliage. Potatoes will +usually stand a stronger mixture; peaches and some other +plants do not need one so strong. Make the Paris Green into +a paste with water before adding it to the 200 gallons, that it +may mix better. Paris Green may be added to Bordeaux<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +mixture with excellent results, counting the Bordeaux as if +it were so much water; in this case it will not be necessary +to add lime to the Paris Green. The Paris Green is +used only for chewing insects, as worms and beetles. London +purple is used in the same way.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 153px;"> +<img src="images/166-parsley.jpg" width="153" height="81" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Parsley grown in a box</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Parsley.</b> The curled Parsley is used almost +exclusively as a garnish for meats and salads, although the +flavor in soups is fine. The seed is slow to germinate, and +often the second or third sowing is made, thinking the first +is a failure; but usually after what would seem +a long time the young plants will be seen. +When sown in the open ground, it should be +thinned to stand 3 or 4 inches in the row, the +rows being 10 to 12 inches apart. A few plants +in a border will give a supply for a large family, +and with a little protection will live over winter. Roots +may be lifted in the fall, put into boxes or old cans, and +grown in a sunny window for winter use.</p> + +<p><b>Parsnips</b> are one of the vegetables that are +the better for the winter’s freeze, although they are of good +quality if taken up after the fall frosts and packed in soil, +sand or moss in the cellar. The seed, which must be not +over one year old, should be sown as early as possible in +well prepared soil, firmed with the feet or roller. As the +seed germinates rather slowly the ground often becomes +crusted or baked over the seeds, in which case it should be +broken and fined with a garden rake. This operation often +means the success of the crop. Radish or cabbage seeds +may be sown with the Parsnip seed to mark the row and +break the crust. One ounce of seed will sow 200 feet of +drill. Thin to 6 inches apart in the row.</p> + +<p><b>Pea.</b> Who does not long for the time when +early Peas are fit to use? And how many know the great +difference in quality between the smooth and the wrinkled +Peas? The first are a little the earliest to be planted and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +to become fit for use, and on that account should be +planted in a small way. For the kitchen-garden the dwarf +and half-dwarf varieties are the best, as the tall kinds will +need brush or wire to support them, causing considerable +trouble and labor and not being as neat in appearance. The +tall varieties yield a larger crop than the dwarfs, but as the +rows must be made from 3 to 5 feet apart, the dwarf ones, +which are planted only 6 to 8 inches apart, will give as +large a yield on the same area. Always plant double rows +of the tall varieties: that is, two rows from 4 to 6 inches +apart, with the brush or wire between, the double rows +being from 3 to 5 feet apart, according to varieties. The +dwarf varieties should be planted four rows in a block, each +row being only 6 or 8 inches apart. The Peas on the two +center rows may be picked from the outside. Leave a +space of 2 feet and plant the same. At the time of the first +planting only the smooth varieties should be sown, but by +the middle of April in New York the ground will be warm +and dry enough for the wrinkled sorts. A succession should +be sown that will come to maturity one after the other, extending +the season six or eight weeks. If a further supply +is wanted the early quick-maturing varieties may be sown +in August, usually giving a fair crop of Peas in September +and early October. In the hot weather of midsummer they +often do not thrive so well. One quart of seed will plant +about 100 feet of drill.</p> + +<p><b><a name="pea_everlasting" id="pea_everlasting"></a>Pea, Everlasting</b> (<i>Lathyrus latifolius</i>). These +Peas do not have the colors or fragrance of the Sweet Pea, +but are fine for planting against rocks, stumps, or fences. +They bloom through a long season, and, being perfectly +hardy, will live for years. Height 2 to 6 feet. Raised from +seeds or from cuttings, usually the former. Keep the seed +pods picked off to lengthen period of bloom.</p> + +<p><b>Pea, Sweet.</b> <a href="#sweet_pea">See <i>Sweet Pea</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Peach.</b> Given the proper exposure, Peaches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +may be fruited in many sections where now it is thought +impossible to have a crop. It is usually the practice of the +amateur to set Peach trees in the shelter of some building, +exposed on the south or east to the sun, and “in a pocket” +as regards winds. This should be reversed, except in the +close vicinity of large bodies of water. The fruit buds of +Peaches will stand very cold weather when perfectly dormant, +often as low as 12° or 18° below zero in New +York; but if the buds once become swollen, comparatively +light freezing will destroy the crop. Therefore, if the trees +be set on elevations where a constant air drainage may be +obtained, sheltered, if at all, on the south +and east, from the warming influence of +the sun, the buds will remain dormant +until the ground becomes warm, and the +chances of a failure will be lessened. This +advice applies mostly to interior sections. +A well drained, sandy loam or gravelly soil +suits the Peach better than a heavy soil; but if the heavier +soil is well drained, good crops may be obtained.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 182px;"> +<img src="images/168-peaches.jpg" width="182" height="103" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Peaches</p> +</div> + +<p>Peaches are short-lived at best, and one should be satisfied +with three or four crops from each tree. They bear +young, usually a partial crop the third year. If a crop may +be had every other year until the trees are eight or ten +years old, they will have well repaid the effort of cultivation. +But they often bear twice this long. Young trees may be +set every four or five years to replace older ones, thus +having trees at a bearing age at all times on a small place. +Trees should be set 14 to 18 feet apart each way. A good +selection of varieties for home use would be Early York, +Alexander, Halo Early, Mountain Rose, Early Crawford, +Wheatland, Stump, Elberta, Stevens, Oldmixon, Late Crawford +and Smock.</p> + +<p>Peach trees are always bought when they are one year +old, that is, one year from the bud. For example, the bud +is set in the fall of 1898. It remains dormant until the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +spring of 1899, when it pushes into vigorous growth; and in +the fall of 1899 the tree is ready for sale. Peach trees +which are more than a year old are scarcely worth the +buying. It is a common practice, when setting Peach trees, +to prune them back to a whip, leaving a stub bearing not +more than one bud where each branch is cut off.</p> + +<p>The three great enemies of the Peach are the borer, the +yellows and the curculio.</p> + +<p>The borer is best handled by digging it out every spring +and fall. Trees which are attacked by the borer have an +exudation of gum about the crown. If the borers are dug +out twice a year they will not get sufficient start to make +the operation very laborious. It is the only sure way.</p> + +<p>The yellows is a communicable disease, the cause of +which is not definitely known. It shows itself in the fruit +ripening prematurely, with distinct red spots which extend +through the flesh, and later by the throwing out of fine, +branching, twiggy tufts along the main branches. The +only treatment is to pull out the trees and burn them. +Other trees may be set in the same places.</p> + +<p>For a discussion of curculio, see the remarks under +<a href="#plum"><i>Plum</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Pear.</b> No fruit plantation should be considered +complete without trees of various kinds of Pears, ripening +fruits from early in August till winter. The late varieties +are generally good keepers, and extend the season into +February, thus supplying fruit for six or seven months.</p> + +<p>As the Pear grows to perfection on quince, the dwarf tree +is peculiarly adapted to planting on small home grounds, +and is often used as a boundary plant, or to serve the purpose +of a screen. These dwarf trees should be set deep—4 +to 6 inches below the union—to prevent the stock from +growing. Dwarf trees may be set as near together as 10 +to 16 feet, while the standard or tall-growing Pears should +be set 18 to 25 feet apart. Trees are planted when two or +three years old.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 114px;"> +<img src="images/170-pears.jpg" width="114" height="198" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Bartlett Pears</p> +</div> + +<p>The Pear thrives on clay soil, if well underdrained, and +for this reason may succeed in places where other fruits +might fail. A good, steady growth should be maintained, +but the use of nitrogenous manures should be avoided, as +they tend to make a rank growth and invite attacks of Pear +blight, which is the worst enemy of the Pear. +For summer fruits: Osband’s Summer, Bartlett, +Clapp and Manning Elizabeth are among +the best. For autumn: Duchess, Flemish +Beauty, Bosc, Louise Bonne, Seckel and +Sheldon. For winter fruit: Anjou, Clairgeau, +Lawrence and Winter Nelis are excellent. +Kieffer is an excellent commercial fruit, but it +is too poor to be given space in the home +ground except as an ornamental tree.</p> + +<p>Of the Pear blight, Duggar writes as follows:</p> + +<p>“<span class="smcap">Remedies.</span> (<i>a</i>) <i>The knife and the saw.</i>—With a disease +working as this does, it is very evident that there is +no chance either for cure or prevention by means of spraying. +The heroic treatment of the knife and saw must be +adopted and vigorously pursued, as has been claimed from +the beginning. The blackened leaves alone must not +serve as signs of the diseased area, but one must examine +carefully the branches and remove them 6 inches or more +below the lowest discolorations. Often before cutting, +pruners slice the bark downward to see where the injury +ends. This should not be done; it is better to be sure that +you are below the infected area, and run no such risk of +infecting anew the tissues below. The cut surfaces of +larger limbs and branches should be painted for protection +against wound rots.</p> + +<p>“(<i>b</i>) <i>When to cut.</i>—Cutting out diseased portions +should be done whenever the disease is evident. This may +check the injuries temporarily; but it has been shown that +much can be done in the autumn to prevent the establishment +of the disease the following spring. It has long been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +known that the disease may pass the winter in the branches +by a slow growth in the neighborhood of late infections. +Thorough work of eradication should especially be performed +after the season of growth. Then cut out every +diseased branch and burn, so that in the spring when the +succulent growth begins again, there will be few places in +which insects may come in contact with the bacterial +exudations.</p> + +<p>“(<i>c</i>) <i>Conditions favoring the disease.</i>—The knife is our +only hope of extermination; but there are undoubtedly conditions +which favor the disease. In a succulent, rapidly +growing tree the bacteria find more favorable conditions for +their development than in one which grows slowly, yet with +sufficient vigor. For this reason, too much nitrogenous +manure is dangerous; and, for the same reason, a succulent +growth induced by severe pruning should be avoided.”</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 131px;"> +<img src="images/171-pelargonium.jpg" width="131" height="171" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Pelargonium, or +Geranium</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="pelargoniums" id="pelargoniums"></a>Pelargoniums.</b> Here belong the plants known +as Geraniums—the most satisfactory of house-plants, and +extensively used as bedding plants. No plants will give +better returns in leaf and flower; and these features, added +to the ease of propagation, make them general favorites. +Cuttings of partially ripened wood root very easily, +grow to blooming size in a short time, and, either +planted out or grown in a pot, make fine decorations. +The common or “Fish” Geraniums are +much more satisfactory when not more than a +year old. Take cuttings from the old plants at +least once a year. In four or five months the +young plants begin to bloom. Plants may be +taken up from the garden and potted, but they +rarely give as much satisfaction as young, vigorous +subjects. Repot frequently until they are in 4- to 5-inch +pots; then let them bloom.</p> + +<p>The show Pelargoniums are those commonly known as +Lady Washington Geraniums. These have but one period +of bloom, usually in April, but they make up in size and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +coloring. This section is more difficult to manage as a +house plant than the common Geranium, needing more direct +light to keep it stocky, and being troubled by insects. +Still, all the trouble taken to grow them will be well repaid +by the handsome blossoms. Take cuttings in late spring, +after flowering, and blooming plants may be had the following +year. Good results are sometimes secured by keeping +these plants two or three years. Cut back after each +blooming season.</p> + +<p>For house culture the Geraniums need a rich, fibrous +loam, with the addition of a little sand; good drainage is +also an essential.</p> + +<p><b>Peony.</b> The herbaceous Peony has long had +a place in the garden, and is now in general use as an early +flowering plant. It is perfectly hardy, and free from the +many diseases and insects that attack so many fine plants. +The single and semi-double varieties are very fine, the +flowers becoming large as the plant becomes well established. +The herbaceous section is readily increased by division. +The tree Peonies are increased by grafting. They grow +in some cases to the height of 3 or more feet, and are covered +with large, very double flowers of rich colors. +Height 2 to 3 feet.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 101px;"> +<img src="images/172-pepper.jpg" width="101" height="176" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Bell Pepper</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Peppers</b> are tender while young, although +they will endure a heavy frost in the fall. Their +culture is that recommended for eggplants. A small +seedsman’s packet of seed will be sufficient for a large +number of plants, say two hundred. The large Bell +Peppers are the mildest, and are used for making +“stuffed Peppers” and other dishes. The small, hot +Peppers are used for seasoning and sauces.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 182px;"> +<img src="images/173-petunia.jpg" width="182" height="125" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Petunia</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Petunia.</b> The improvement made in the size +and markings of the Petunia has been marked of late. Now +almost every shade of color may be found, aside from yellow. +A bed of Petunias makes a mass of color equaled by few other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +flowers. They also make very fine single plants for pots, +baskets or window-boxes, blooming freely through the winter, +and emitting a delicate fragrance. The single varieties +grow freely from seed, but if plants of one +special color are wanted cuttings should be +made. These cuttings root easily and bloom +early. Cuttings will have to be made of +the double varieties to increase their number. +For common Petunias, sow seeds where +plants are to grow, in a warm, sunny place; +or, for earlier bloom, seeds may be started +in the house. Thin to 8 to 12 inches apart. The season +of bloom is cut short only by frost or other causes.</p> + +<p><b>Phlox.</b> Both the perennial and the annual +Phloxes are most valuable. Excepting the petunia, no plant +will give the profusion of bloom with as little care as the +annual Phlox (<i>Phlox Drummondii</i>). Masses of one color or +of contrasting colors make very effective ribbon borders or +edging beds. The perennial species are very showy, having +almost as wide a range of color as the annuals. They grow +to the height of 3 feet. They are most effective in the back +row of a border. The perennials have been much improved +of late. They are hardy.</p> + +<p>The annual Phlox is propagated by seed sown early in the +spring in the border, or in March in boxes and transplanted. +The perennial Phlox is increased by division of the roots, +the flowers being larger and more highly colored by dividing +at least every three years. The annual Phlox blooms early, +and continues until late in the fall. The perennial blooms +from July to frost.</p> + +<p><b>Pink.</b> See <a href="#dianthus"><i>Dianthus</i></a> and <a href="#carnations"><i>Carnation</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b><a name="plum" id="plum"></a>Plum.</b> Of Plums there are three general or +common types: first, the common Domestica or European +Plum, which gives rise to all the older varieties, like Lombard, +Bradshaw, Green Gage, the Prunes, the Egg Plums,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +the Damsons, and the like; second, the Japanese Plums, +which have become popular within the last ten years, and +which are adapted to a wider range of country than the +Domesticas; third, the native Plums of several species or +types, which are adapted to the plains, the middle and +southern states, where the Domestica Plums do not thrive, +and some kinds to the cold North.</p> + +<p>Wherever the Domestica and Japanese Plums can be +grown, the native Plums are not destined to become popular; +but many of the natives are much hardier than others, +and are therefore adapted to regions in which the Domestica +and Japanese are not safe. Others of them are well adapted +to the middle and southern states. The Domestica and +Japanese Plums are considerably hardier than peaches, but +not so hardy as the apple. The northern limit of their general +cultivation is the southern peninsula of Michigan, central +and southern Ontario, central New York and central +New England.</p> + +<p>Plums thrive on a great variety of soils, but they do +better, as a rule, on those which are rather heavy and have +a considerable content of clay. In fact, many of the varieties +will thrive on clay as hard as that upon which pears +will grow. On the other hand, they often thrive well upon +light, and even almost sandy soils.</p> + +<p>The trees are set when they are two and three years from +the bud. It is preferable to have Plum trees on stocks of +the same species, but it is not always possible to secure them +at the nurseries. In the South, Plums are worked mostly on +peach roots, and these make excellent trees where the +climate is not too severe, and especially upon the lighter +lands on which they are planted in the South. In the North +the larger part of the Plum stocks are grown on the +Myrobalan Plum roots. This Myrobalan is an Old World +species of Plum, of smaller growth than the Domestica. +This stock, therefore, tends to dwarf the tree, and it is +also likely to throw up sprouts from the roots. Plum trees<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +are set from 12 to 18 feet apart. Many growers like to set +them 8 feet apart in rows, and have the rows from 16 to 20 +feet apart.</p> + +<p>Plums are pruned much the same as apples and +pears. That is, the top is thinned out from year to year, +and all superfluous branches and broken or diseased wood +are removed. If the soil is very strong and the trees are +close together, it may be well to head them in a little each +year, especially those varieties which grow very strong +and robust.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 229px;"> +<img src="images/175-plums.jpg" width="229" height="196" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Plums</p> +</div> + +<p>The varieties of Plums are very numerous. Of the +Domestica or European type, some of the best are Bradshaw, +Imperial Gage, Jefferson, Reine Claude, Coe Golden +Drop, Quackenbos, Fellemburg, German Prune, Copper. +The Lombard is the most cosmopolitan variety, and is +always sure to give a crop, but the quality is not so good as +that of the others mentioned. For +culinary purposes, some of the Damsons, +which are very small-fruited +varieties, are excellent. Of Japanese +Plums, the best so far tested for the +North are Red June, Abundance, Burbank, +Chabot and Satsuma. For a +very early cherry-like Plum for home +use, the Berger is excellent. Of the +native Plums, the most cosmopolitan +variety is Wild Goose. Excellent +varieties are Weaver, Quaker, Forest Garden, Wayland, and +others.</p> + +<p>There are four leading difficulties in the growing of Plums—leaf +blight, fruit rot, black knot, and curculio.</p> + +<p>The leaf blight usually comes on about midsummer, the +leaves becoming spotted and dropping off. The remedy for +this trouble is to spray thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture, +beginning soon after the fruits have set, and before the +trouble begins to show.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +The fruit rot may be prevented by the same means—that +is, by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. It is usually best +to begin just after the fruits are well set. A very important +consideration in the checking of this disease is to thin the +fruit so that it does not hang in clusters. If one fruit touches +another, the rot spreads from fruit to fruit in spite of the +spraying. Some varieties, like Lombard and Abundance, +are susceptible to this injury.</p> + +<p>The black knot is best kept in check by cutting out the +knots whenever they can be seen, and burning them. As +soon as the leaves drop, the orchard should be gone over +and all knots taken out. Orchards which are thoroughly +sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for the leaf blight and fruit-rot +fungus are less liable to attacks of black knot.</p> + +<p>The curculio, or the insect which is the parent of the +worms in the fruit, is the inveterate enemy of the Plum and +other stone fruits. The mature beetle lays the eggs in the +fruits when they are very small, usually beginning its work +about as soon as the flowers fall. These eggs soon hatch, and +the little maggot bores into the fruit. Those fruits which +are attacked whilst very young ordinarily fall from the tree, +but those which are attacked when they are half or more +grown may adhere to the tree, but are wormy and gummy at +the picking time. The mature beetles are sluggish in the +mornings, and are easily jarred from the trees. Taking advantage +of this fact, the fruit-grower may jar them into sheets; +or, in large orchards, into a large canvas hopper, which is +wheeled from tree to tree upon a wheelbarrow-like frame, and +under the apex of which is a tin can into which the insects +roll. There is a slit or opening in one side of the hopper, +which allows the tree to stand nearly in the middle of the +canvas. The operator then gives the tree two or three sharp +jars with a padded pole or mallet. The edges of the hopper +are then quickly shaken with the hands and the insects roll +down into the tin receptacle. In this receptacle there is +kerosene oil, or it may be emptied from time to time. Just<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +how long this machine is to be run in the orchard will depend +entirely upon circumstances. It is advisable to use the +catcher soon after the blossoms fall, for the purpose of finding +out how abundant the insects are. If a few insects are +caught upon each tree, there is indication that there are +enough of the pests to make serious trouble. If after a few +days the insects seem to have disappeared, it will not be +necessary to continue the hunt. In some years, especially in +those succeeding a very heavy crop, it may be necessary to +run the curculio-catcher every morning for four or five +weeks; but, as a rule, it will not be necessary to use it +oftener than two or three times a week during that season; +and sometimes the season may be shortened by one-half. +The insects fall most readily when the weather is cool, and +it, therefore, is best to get through the whole orchard, if +possible, before noon. Upon cloudy days, however, the +insects may be caught all day. A smart man can attend to +300 to 400 full-bearing trees in six hours if the ground has +been well rolled or firmed, as it should be before the +bugging operation begins. But whether the operation is +troublesome or not, it is the price of Plums, and the grower +must not expect to succeed long without it. The same +treatment is essential to the saving of peaches and rarely, +also, of sour cherries.</p> + +<p><b>Poppy.</b> These showy annuals and perennials +should be more generally grown. Nothing will lighten up +a corner better than the hardy oriental Poppy, or the +solid crimson or scarlet annual Poppies. All of the varieties +grow readily from seed, which, in most cases, should +be sown where the plants are to bloom. The seeds of the +oriental and the Iceland Poppy may be sown in pots, the +plants wintered over in a frame and carefully planted +out the second spring. The Poppy is very impatient of +root disturbance, however, and the safest method is to sow +the seed where wanted.</p> + +<p><b>Portulaca</b>, or <span class="smcap">Rose Moss</span>. Brilliant little tender<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +annuals, low-growing and sun-loving. They usually +seed themselves, and once established will continue for +years. Many of the varieties will produce a good percentage +of flowers as double as roses and of many colors. +Seed should be sown where wanted. They bloom freely in +light, sandy soil in the full blaze of the sun.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 110px;"> +<img src="images/178-potatoes.jpg" width="110" height="233" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Potatoes</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Potato.</b> The common practice of growing +Potatoes in ridges or elevated hills is wrong, unless the soil +is so wet that this practice is necessary to insure proper +drainage; but in this case the land is not adapted to the +growing of Potatoes. If the land is elevated into ridges or +hills, there is a great loss of moisture by means of evaporation. +During the last cultivating the Potatoes may be +hilled up slightly in order to cover the tubers; but the hills +should not be made in the beginning. Land for +Potatoes should be rather loamy in character, and +ought to have a liberal supply of potash, either +naturally or supplied in the drill, by means of an +application of sulfate of potash. See that the +land is deeply plowed or spaded, so that the roots +can penetrate deeper. Plant the Potatoes 3 or +4 inches below the natural surface of the ground. +It is ordinarily best to drop the pieces in drills. +A continuous drill may be made by means of dropping +one piece every 6 inches, but it is usually +thought best to drop two pieces about every 12 +to 18 inches. The drills are far enough apart to allow good +cultivation. If horse cultivation is used, the drills should +be at least 3 feet apart.</p> + +<p>Small Potatoes are considered not to be so good as large +ones for planting. One reason is because too many sprouts +arise from each one, and these sprouts are apt to crowd +each other. The same is true of the tip end or seed end of +the tuber. Even when it is cut off, the eyes are so numerous +that one secures many weak shoots rather than two or +three strong ones. It is ordinarily best to cut the Potatoes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +to two or three eyes, leaving as much tuber as possible +with each piece. From seven to eight bushels of Potatoes +are required to plant an acre.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 185px;"> +<img src="images/179-potdeep.jpg" width="185" height="248" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Too deep</p> +</div> + +<p>For a very early crop in the garden, tubers are sometimes +sprouted in the cellar. When the +sprouts are 4 to 6 inches high the tubers are +carefully planted. It is essential that the +sprouts are not broken in the handling. +In this practice, also, the tubers are first +cut into large pieces, so that they will not +dry out too much.</p> + +<p>The staple remedy for the Potato bug is +Paris green, 1 pound of poison to 150 to 200 +gallons of water, with a little lime (<a href="#paris_green">see +<i>Paris Green</i></a>). For the blight, spray with +Bordeaux mixture, and spray thoroughly. +Bordeaux mixture will also keep away the +flea beetle to a large extent.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 184px;"> +<img src="images/179-pothigh.jpg" width="184" height="287" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Plant too high</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Potato, Sweet.</b> <a href="#sweet_potato">See <i>Sweet Potato</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b><a name="potting" id="potting"></a>Potting.</b> The operation of potting +a plant, while in itself simple, is very often +associated with success or failure in the +growth of the plant. The first and most +common reason of failure is using too large +a pot; the second, imperfect drainage; +and the third, the poor physical condition +of the soil.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 191px;"> +<img src="images/180-potfull.jpg" width="191" height="304" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Too full</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;"> +<img src="images/180-potcareless.jpg" width="194" height="265" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Careless</p> +</div> + +<p>A small-rooted cutting or a feeble plant +should have a pot only large enough to +hold soil sufficient to surround the roots to +the extent of 1 or 2 inches. More soil +would hold too much moisture, thus excluding +the air. As the plants grow and +the ball of dirt becomes well covered with white roots, +and before these roots become dark in color, the plant +should be repotted, using a pot one size larger and usually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +a little richer soil. This operation should continue until +the plant has made the desired growth. If it is desired to +grow a geranium, fuchsia, begonia, or +plants of a similar character, large enough +for a window plant—say to the height or +breadth of two feet,—a 6-inch pot will be +large enough, provided the soil is rich +enough to continue the growth of the +plant while in flower. It often happens +that pots of the various sizes are not to +hand; and in case the pot is too large, it +should have the drainage increased until it +will take up as much room in the bottom as +the pot is too large. Bear in mind that +the soil should not hold free water. After +the plant has filled the pot with roots it +will often be necessary to supply more food +as the soil becomes exhausted. This may +be done by digging out the top soil down +to the young, white roots, replacing with +new soil in which a little rotted manure, +a pinch of bone-meal or other plant-food, +has been added. Liquid manure +may be used. This liquid manure is +made from well rotted cow-, horse-, or +sheep-manure thrown into a tub or barrel, +covered with water, and allowed to stand +until the strength of the manure is +soaked out. This liquid should be diluted +before using with clear water until it has +the color of weak coffee. If used with +judgment, nothing will cause a better +growth or a greater quantity of flowers.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 196px;"> +<img src="images/181-potgood.jpg" width="196" height="288" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Good!</p> +</div> + +<p>The drainage may consist of any coarse material, such +as old broken pots, small stones, pieces of charcoal, and the +like, over which should be placed small broken sod or a little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +moss to keep the dirt from washing through and eventually +stopping up the crevices through which the excess water +should flow.</p> + +<p>A safe rule to follow in first potting the majority of +house-plants, is to use one-third turf-loam, one-third leaf-mold +or decayed leaves, and one-third sand, thoroughly +mixed. Reduce the amount of leaf-mold and sand at +successive pottings, adding a little well +rotted manure, until, when the plants have +been potted in 6-inch pots, at least four-fifths +of the soil is turfy loam. Press the +soil firmly in the pot and around the plant. +Never fill the pot level full of soil, else the +plant cannot be watered.</p> + +<p><b><a name="prickly" id="prickly"></a>Prickly Poppies</b>, or <span class="smcap">Argemones</span>, +are hardy annuals, with large, bluish +striking foliage and yellow flowers. They +are easily grown in a warm soil and sunny +exposure. Sow the seeds where the plants +are to stand. Thin to 12 to 18 inches +apart. They grow 2 feet high.</p> + +<p><b>Primulas</b>, or <span class="smcap">Primroses</span>, are of +various kinds. One of them is the Auricula (<a href="#auricula">which see</a>). +Others are hardy border plants. The true or English cowslip +is one of these; also the plants commonly known as +Polyanthus. Hardy Primulas grow 6 to 10 inches high, +sending up trusses of yellow and red flowers in early +spring. Propagated by division, or by seed sown a year +before the plants are wanted. Give them rich, moist soil.</p> + +<p>The Primula of the winter-garden is mostly the <i>P. Sinensis</i> +(Chinese Primrose), grown very extensively by florists as a +Christmas plant. With the exception of the full double +varieties, it is usually grown from seed. The seed sown in +March or April will make large flowering plants by November +or December, if the young plants are shifted to +larger pots as needed. The seed should be sown on the flat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +surface of the soil, composed of equal parts loam, leaf-mold +and sand. The seed should be pressed down lightly and +the soil watered carefully to prevent the seed from being +washed into the soil. Very fine sphagnum moss may be +sifted over the seed, or the box set in a moist place, +where the soil will remain wet until the seeds germinate. +When the plants are large enough they should be potted separately +or pricked out into shallow boxes. Frequent pottings +or transplantings should be given until September, when they +should be in the pots in which they are to bloom. +The two essentials to successful growth through +the hot summer are shade and moisture. Height +6 to 8 inches. Bloom in winter and spring.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 116px;"> +<img src="images/182-pruning.jpg" width="116" height="168" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Improper way to +make the wound</p> + +<img src="images/182-pruning2.jpg" width="116" height="166" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Proper way</p> +</div> + +<p>At present the “baby Primrose” (<i>Primula +Forbesi</i>) is popular. It is treated in essentially +the same way as the Sinensis. All Primulas +are impatient of a dry atmosphere and fluctuating +conditions.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 66px;"> +<img src="images/182-pruning3.jpg" width="66" height="162" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Before</p> + +<img src="images/182-pruning4.jpg" width="66" height="171" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">After</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Prince’s Feather.</b> <a href="#amarantus">See <i>Amarantus</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Prunes</b> are varieties of plums with +firm, meaty flesh, and which readily make +dried fruit. Some of the Prunes are commercially +grown in the East, but they are +sold in the green state as other plums are; +and they are adapted to all the uses of +other plums. Prunes are cultivated like +other plums.</p> + +<p><b><a name="pruning" id="pruning"></a>Pruning.</b> There are two general types of +inquiry connected with the question of Pruning: +First, that which has to do with the healing of the +wounds; and second, that which has to do with the +shaping of the top and the general welfare of the tree.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 242px;"> +<img src="images/183-prunebefore.jpg" width="242" height="254" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Before pruning</p> +</div> + +<p>When a limb is cut off, it heals by being covered +with callus tissue, which grows out from the cambium zone +between the bark and wood and rolls over the face of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +wound. The hard wood itself never heals; that is, the +cells do not have the power of making new cells; therefore +the old wood is simply covered up, or hermetically sealed as +a cap is put on a fruit jar. It is evident, +therefore, that no kind of dressing +will hasten the healing of this +wound. The merit of a dressing is to +keep the wound sound and healthy until +the callus naturally covers it over. +All things considered, the best dressing +is probably thick linseed-oil paint.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 241px;"> +<img src="images/183-pruneafter.jpg" width="241" height="249" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">After pruning</p> +</div> + +<p>So far as the wound is concerned, +the best time for Pruning is ordinarily +in the spring, when the vital activities +are beginning; but the season also influences +fruit-bearing and wood-making, +and these questions should be considered. Those wounds +heal best which are on strong main limbs, where there is +a full flow of nutritious sap. The limb should be cut off so +that the wound is parallel with the trunk upon which it sits, +and close to it. That is to say, the longer the stub, the less +rapid in general is the healing of the +wound. It is the custom to cut the +limb just outside the bulge at its base; +but, in most cases, it is better to cut +through this bulge, and to have the +wound close to the main trunk.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 162px;"> +<img src="images/184-saw.jpg" width="162" height="128" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Sickle saw</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 174px;"> +<img src="images/184-saw3.jpg" width="174" height="262" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Curved Pruning +saw</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 67px;"> +<img src="images/184-saw2.jpg" width="67" height="172" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Combined +saw and +knife. Goes +on a long +handle</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 101px;"> +<img src="images/184-saw4.jpg" width="101" height="191" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Common +double edge +saw</p> +</div> + +<p>Heavy Pruning of the top tends to +the production of wood; therefore the +severe Pruning of orchard trees, following +three or four years of neglect, +sets the trees into heavy wood-bearing, +and makes them more vigorous. +Such treatment generally tends away +from fruit-bearing. This heavy Pruning is usually necessary +in neglected orchards, however, to bring trees back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +into shape and to revitalize them; but the best Pruning-treatment +of an orchard is to Prune it a little every year. +It should be so Pruned that the tops of the trees +will be open, that no two limbs will interfere +with each other, and so that the fruit itself will +not be so abundant as to overload the tree. +Pruning is a means of thinning. In general, +it is best to prune orchard trees late in winter +or early in spring. It is ordinarily better, +however, to leave peaches and other tender fruits until +after the buds have swollen, or even after the flowers +have fallen, in order that one may determine how much +they have been injured by the winter. Grapevines should +be Pruned in winter or not later (in New York) than the +first of March. If Pruned later than this, they may bleed. +The above remarks will apply to other trees as well as to +fruits.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;"> +<img src="images/185-treepruner.jpg" width="216" height="200" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Waters’ tree Pruner—for limbs +out of reach</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 129px;"> +<img src="images/185-shears.jpg" width="129" height="147" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Pruning shears</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 204px;"> +<img src="images/185-prunesaw.jpg" width="204" height="272" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">An excellent Pruning +saw. The blade is +on a swivel</p> +</div> + +<p>It should be borne in mind that Pruning has two objects: +one is to merely trim the tree or to +make it assume some designed shape; the +other is to make the tree more vigorous or +more fruitful, or to make some other change +in its character. These ideals are well illustrated +in the Pruning of ornamental shrubs. +If one wants to have the shrubs sheared into +some particular shape, the shearing +may be done at almost any time of the +year; in fact, it is better to do it two +or three times each year in order to +keep the trees trim and neat. If, +however, the desire is to secure more +flowers, the case is a very different one. Some shrubs +and trees bear their flowers on the wood of the preceding +year. Such, for example, are the early flowering +shrubs like lilacs and the snowballs. The flower +buds are made the fall before. In this case, Pruning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +the shrub in winter cuts off the flower buds. The ideal time +for Pruning them, therefore, is just after the flowers have +passed. The flower buds will form later in the season +for the production of the flowers the following spring. +Other shrubs, however (particularly those which +blossom late in the season), bear on wood of the +current year’s growth. That is, the clematis +blossoms in late summer and fall on wood +which grew that same season. The +greater the quantity of strong wood +which grows in any season, therefore, +the greater the quantity of bloom in that +season. With such shrubs, it is well to +Prune in winter or early spring, and to Prune +rather heavily. The abundance of new shoots +which arise may be expected to bear flowers later +on in the same season.</p> + +<p>Following are some shrubs which, for best results +in flower-bearing, may be Pruned when dormant +(in winter): camellia, Jackmani type of clematis, +cornus, hibiscus (shrubby), hydrangea, many +loniceras or honeysuckles, philadelphus or mock-orange, +some spireas.</p> + +<p>Shrubs which may be Pruned when in leaf (just after +blooming): lilac, deutzia, weigelas, exochorda, spring-flowering +loniceras, tree peony, flowering almond, some +spireas and viburnums, wistaria.</p> + +<p>The marginal illustrations show how apple, +pear and plum trees may be Pruned when received +from the nursery. Cut back the roots to fresh, +unbroken wood.</p> + +<p>Various kinds of useful tree Pruners +are shown in the margins. <a href="#scraping">See also +<i>Scraping</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Pumpkin.</b> <a href="#squash">See <i>Squash</i>.</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +<b><a name="pyrethrum" id="pyrethrum"></a>Pyrethrum.</b> The little, low-growing yellow-foliaged +Feverfew, called Golden Feather, is used extensively +for edging and design beds. Propagated by cuttings, +as are geraniums.</p> + +<p>The tall-growing species are very fine border plants, +being easy to grow and having showy flowers, in colors +ranging from white through lilac to crimson. Their flowers +appear in June and last a month, when, if the plants are +cut down, they will flower again in the fall. The Persian insect +powder is made from the dried flower heads of some +of these species. Propagated by seed or division. Hardy +and fine.</p> + +<div class="figparts1" style="width: 100px;"> +<a href="images/186-radishes.jpg"><img class="parts" src="images/186-radishesa.jpg" width="89" height="79" alt="Radishes (top)" title="" /></a> +</div> +<div class="figparts2" style="width: 178px;"> +<a href="images/186-radishes.jpg"><img class="parts" src="images/186-radishesb.jpg" width="167" height="90" alt="Radishes (bottom)" title="" /></a> +<p class="caption">Spring Radishes</p> +</div> + +<p><a name="R" id="R"></a><b>Radishes</b> should be grown quickly in order to +have them at their best. They become tough and woody if +grown slowly or allowed to stay in the ground too +long. A light soil, well enriched, will grow most of +the early varieties to table size in from three to five +weeks. To have a supply through the early months, +sowings should be made every two weeks. +For summer, the large white or gray varieties +are best. The winter varieties may be +sown in September, harvested before severe +frosts, and stored in sand in a cool cellar. +When they are to be used, if thrown into cold +water for a short time they will regain their crispness. +Sow Radishes thickly in drills, 12 to 18 inches apart. +Thin as needed.</p> + +<p><b>Raspberry.</b> Both the red and black Raspberries +are essentials of a good garden. A few plants of +each will produce a supply of berries for a family through +six or eight weeks, provided both early and late varieties +are planted. A cool situation, soil that will hold moisture +without being wet, and a thorough preparation of the +ground, are the conditions necessary to success. The black-cap +Raspberries should be set 3 to 4 feet apart, the rows 6<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +or 7 feet; the red varieties 3 feet apart, the rows 5 feet +apart. Spring setting is usually preferable.</p> + +<p>As with blackberries and dewberries, Raspberries bear +on last year’s canes, and these canes bear but once. +Therefore cut out the old canes after fruiting, or before the +following spring, thus destroying such insects and fungi as +may have lodged on them. New canes should have grown +in the meantime, 3 to 6 to a hill.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 172px;"> +<img src="images/187-raspberries.jpg" width="172" height="115" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Black Raspberries</p> +</div> + +<p>The first year after the plants are set the canes should +be pinched back when they reach the height of from 30 to +36 inches. If a very vigorous growth has been made the +first season two canes may be left for fruiting, but in the +case of weak growth, only one cane should be allowed to +fruit. In case of low-growing varieties—those that have +been pinched back short—a mulch of straw or grass around +the plants at fruiting time will help to hold +the moisture, and also serve to keep the +fruits clean in case of heavy rains. A +Raspberry plantation will last three to five +years. The black varieties are propagated +by layers, the tip of a cane being laid in +the soil in midsummer; by fall the tip +will have taken root and may be separated. The red +varieties are propagated by suckers from the roots. In +nurseries both blacks and reds are often propagated by +means of root-cuttings.</p> + +<p>For red rust, pull out the plant, root and branch, and +burn it. Short rotations—fruiting the plants only two or +three years—and burning the old canes and trimmings, +will do much to keep Raspberry plantations healthy. Spraying +will have some effect in combating anthracnose. Raspberries +may be bent over to the ground so that the snow +will protect them, in severe climates.</p> + +<p>Varieties are always changing in favor. Good black-caps +are Gregg, Ohio, and Kansas. Good red and purple +sorts are Shaffer, Cuthbert, Loudon, and others.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +<b>Rhododendrons</b> are broad-leaved evergreen +shrubs which require a fibrous or peaty soil and protection +from bleak winds and hot suns in winter. It is well to +plant them amongst trees for protection. In the North, +mulch heavily with leaves in the fall. See that the soil is +made fibrous with leaf-mold or other material. Rhododendrons +bloom from winter buds: therefore prune just after +flowering, if at all.</p> + +<p><b>Rhubarb</b>, or <span class="smcap">Pie Plant</span>. This is usually propagated +by division of the fleshy roots, small pieces of which +will grow if separated from the old, established roots and +planted in rich, mellow soil. Poor soil should be made rich +by spading out at least 3 feet of the surface, filling with +well rotted manure to within 1 foot of the level, throwing in +the top soil and setting the roots with the crowns 4 inches +below the surface, firming them with the feet. The stalks +should not be cut for use until the second year, but the first, +as well as the succeeding falls, some coarse manure should +be thrown over the crowns, to be forked or spaded in lightly +when spring opens.</p> + +<p>In growing seedling Rhubarb, the seed may be sown in a +coldframe in March or April, protected from freezing, and +in two months the plants will be ready to set in rows, 12 +inches apart. Give the plants good cultivation, and the +following spring they may be set in a permanent place. At +this time the plants should be set in well prepared ground, +at a distance each way of from 4 to 5 feet, and treated as +those set with pieces of roots.</p> + +<p>If given good care and well manured, the plants will live +for years and yield abundantly. Two dozen good roots will +supply a large family.</p> + +<p><b>Ricinus.</b> <a href="#castor">See <i>Castor Oil Plant</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b><a name="roses" id="roses"></a>Roses.</b> It seems to be the first desire of the home +maker, when he considers the planting of his grounds, to +set out Roses. As a matter of fact, it should be one of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +the last things to do. Roses are essentially flower garden +subjects, rather than lawn subjects. That is to say, the +flowers are their chief beauty. They have very little to +commend them in the way of foliage or habit, and they are +inveterately attacked by insects and sometimes by fungi. +In order to get the best results with Roses, they should be +placed in a bed by themselves, where they can be tilled and +pruned and well taken care of; and they should be grown +as specimen plants, as other flower garden plants are. The +ordinary garden Roses should rarely be grown in mixed +borders of shrubbery.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 158px;"> +<img src="images/189-roseswild.jpg" width="158" height="219" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Wild Roses</p> +</div> + +<p>If it is desired to have Roses in mixed borders, then the +single and informal types should be chosen. The best of all +these is <i>Rosa rugosa</i>. This has not only attractive +flowers through the greater part of +the season, but it also has very interesting +foliage and a striking habit. The great profusion +of bristles and spines gives it an individual +and strong character. Even without the +flowers, it is valuable to add character and +cast to a foliage mass. The foliage is not attacked +by insects or fungi, but remains green +and glossy throughout the year. The fruit is +also very large and showy, and persists on +bushes well through the winter. Some of +the wild Roses are also very excellent for mixing into foliage +masses, but, as a rule, their foliage characteristics are rather +weak, and they are liable to be attacked by thrips.</p> + +<p>Probably the most extensively grown class of Roses is +the Remontant or Hybrid Perpetual. These, while not +constant bloomers, are so easy of culture and give such +good returns for the care and labor, that their popularity +grows each year. The list of good varieties is very extensive, +and while a few, such as General Jacqueminot, Paul +Neyron, Marshall P. Wilder, Victor Verdier, Anne de Diesbach, +and Ulrich Brunner, are seen in most collections, one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +cannot go far wrong in planting any of the list. Two of the +Hybrid Chinese Roses may go with the Remontants, having +the same season of bloom and being about as hardy. +These are Magna Charta and Mme. Plantier.</p> + +<p>The next group in point of hardiness, and superior to +the foregoing in continuity of bloom, are the Hybrid +Noisettes, such as Coquette des Alpes, Coquette des +Blanches, and Elise Boelle. The blooms of these are white, +often tinted with pink, very double and fragrant.</p> + +<p>The Hybrid Tea section, containing Duchess of Albany, +La France, Meteor and Wootton, is very fine. These are +not hardy in the North, but if protected by a frame, or if +grown in pots, wintered in a pit, no class of Roses will give +more general satisfaction.</p> + +<p>The Bourbon section contains three of the best bedding +Roses,—Apolline, Hermosa, and Souvenir de la Malmaison. +These will bloom continually through the fall +months until severe frost, and with a little protection will +prove hardy.</p> + +<p>The Bengal Roses, of which Agrippina is a leading variety, +bloom through a long season, but are not hardy, and +should be protected in a pit. They also make very fine +pot-plants.</p> + +<p>The Moss Roses are well known, and are desirable in a +general collection.</p> + +<p>The little Polyantha Roses, with Cecile Brunner and +Clothilde Soupert as two of the best, are always attractive, +either when planted out or grown in pots.</p> + +<p>The climbing Roses, which bloom later in the season +than the Remontants, are very useful as pillar and screen +plants. The old Queen of the Prairies and Baltimore Belle +are still in favor. A newer and better variety is the Crimson +Rambler.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 105px;"> +<img src="images/191-rosetea.jpg" width="105" height="155" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Hybrid +Tea Rose</p> +</div> + +<p>The Tea Roses have proved more disappointing to the +amateur than any other. No one can resist the temptation +to try to have a few of these highly perfumed, richly colored<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +Roses, but unless one has a conservatory or an especially +favored location in the house, the results do not pay for the +trouble. A few blooms may be had outdoors with plants set +in the spring, but on the approach of winter they must be +taken up and protected by more secure means than is taken +with other Roses. If potted and grown in the house, they +are the first plants to become infested with red spider; or if +grown cool enough to escape that pest, they will be subject +to an attack of mildew. Still, the results are well worth +striving for, and a few persons will find the proper +conditions; but the Tea Rose is essentially a florist’s +flower.</p> + +<p>All Roses are heavy feeders and require rich, moist +soil. A clay soil, if well enriched and having perfect +drainage, is ideal. Pruning should be carefully done, +preferably in the spring. All weak growth should be +cut out and the balance well cut back. The flowers +of all Roses, except the Yellow Persian and the +Harrison’s Yellow, being borne on the new wood, the bushes +should be cut back half or more of their growth.</p> + +<p>In the majority of cases, Roses on their own roots will +prove more satisfactory than budded stock. On own-rooted +stock, the suckers or shoots from below the surface of the +soil will be of the same kind, whereas with budded Roses +there is danger of the stock (usually Manetti or Dog Rose) +starting into growth and, not being discovered, outgrowing +the bud, taking possession, and finally killing out the weaker +growth. Still, if the plants are set deep enough to prevent +adventitious buds of the stock from starting, there is no +question that finer Roses may be grown than from plants +on their own roots.</p> + +<p>The summer insects that trouble the Rose are best +treated by a forceful spray of clear water. This should be +done early in the day and again at evening. Those having +city water or good spray pumps will find this an easy +method of keeping Rose pests in check. Those without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +these facilities may use whale oil soap, fir-tree oil, good +soap suds, or Persian insect powder.</p> + +<p><b>Roses in Winter.</b> Although the growing of +Roses under glass is a business which would better be left +to florists, as already said, the following advice may be +useful to those who have conservatories:</p> + +<p>When growing forcing Roses for winter flowers, florists +usually provide raised beds, in the best-lighted houses +they have. The bottom of the bed or bench is left with +cracks between the boards for drainage; the cracks are +covered with inverted strips of sod, and the bench is then +covered with four or five inches of fresh, fibrous loam. This +is made from rotted sods, with decayed manure incorporated +at the rate of about one part in four. Sod from any +drained pasture-land makes good soil. The plants are set +on the bed in the spring or early summer, from 12 to 18 +inches apart, and are grown there all summer.</p> + +<p>During the winter they are kept at a temperature of 58° +to 60° at night, and from 5° to 10° warmer during the day. +The heating pipes are often run under the benches, not because +the Rose likes bottom heat, but to economize space +and to assist in drying out the beds in case of their becoming +too wet. The greatest care is required in watering, +in guarding the temperature and in ventilation. Draughts +result in checks to the growth and in mildewed foliage.</p> + +<p>Dryness of the air, especially from fire heat, is followed +by the appearance of the minute red spider on the leaves. +The aphis, or green plant louse, appears under all conditions, +and must be kept down by syringing with tobacco-tea +or fumigation with tobacco stems.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 214px;"> +<img src="images/193-rose.jpg" width="214" height="316" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A Hybrid Perpetual Rose</p> +</div> + +<p>An effectual and preferable method now employed for +destroying the aphis is to fumigate with the vapor arising +from a pan containing a gallon of water and a pint of strong +extract of tobacco. To generate the vapor, a piece of red-hot +iron is dropped into the pan. From one to three or four +pans are required to a house, according to its size. For the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +red spider, the chief means of control is syringing with +either clear or soapy water. If the plants are intelligently +ventilated and given, at all times, as much fresh air as possible, +the red spider is less likely to appear. For mildew, +which is easily recognized by its white, powdery appearance +on the foliage, accompanied with more or less distortion +of the leaves, the remedy is sulfur +in some form or other. The flowers of +sulfur may be dusted thinly over the +foliage; enough merely to slightly whiten +the foliage is sufficient. It may be dusted +on from the hand in a broadcast way, or +applied with a powder-bellows, which is +a better and less wasteful method. Again, +a paint composed of sulfur and linseed oil +may be applied to a portion of one of the +steam or hot-water heating pipes. The +fumes arising from this are not agreeable +to breathe, but fatal to mildew. Again, +a little sulfur may be sprinkled here and +there on the cooler parts of the greenhouse +flue. Under no circumstances, +however, ignite any sulfur in a greenhouse. The vapor +of burning sulfur is death to plants.</p> + +<p><i>Propagation.</i>—The writer has known women who could +root Roses with the greatest ease. They would simply +break off a branch of the Rose, insert it in the flower-bed, +cover it with a bell-jar, and in a few weeks they would have +a strong plant. Again they would resort to layering; in +which case a branch, notched half way through on the lower +side, was bent to the ground and pegged down so that +the notched portion was covered with a few inches of soil. +The layered spot was watered from time to time. After +three or four weeks roots were sent forth from the notch and +the branch or buds began to grow, when it was known that +the layer had formed roots.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 184px;"> +<img src="images/194-rosevase.jpg" width="184" height="272" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Vase of Roses</p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> +Several years ago a friend took a cheese-box, filled it +with sharp sand to the brim, supported it in a tub of water +so that the lower half inch of the box was immersed. The +sand was packed down, sprinkled, and single-joint +Rose cuttings, with a bud and a leaf +near the top, were inserted almost their +whole length in the sand. This was in July, +a hot month, when it is usually difficult to +root any kind of cutting; moreover, the box +stood on a southern slope, facing the hot +sun, without a particle of shade. The +only attention given the box was to keep +the water high enough in the tub to touch +the bottom of the cheese-box. In about +three weeks he took out three or four dozen +of as nicely rooted cuttings as could have +been grown in the greenhouse.</p> + +<p>The “saucer system,” in which cuttings are inserted in +wet sand contained in a saucer an inch or two deep, to +be exposed at all times to the full sunshine, is of a similar +nature. The essentials are, to give the cuttings the “full +sun” and to keep the sand saturated with water.</p> + +<p>Whatever method is used, if cuttings are to be transplanted +after rooting, it is important to pot them off in +small pots as soon as they have a cluster of roots one-half +inch or an inch long. Leaving them too long in the sand +weakens the cutting.</p> + +<p><a name="S" id="S"></a><b>Sage</b> is a perennial, but best results are secured +by resowing every two or three years. Give a warm, +rich soil. Hardy.</p> + +<p><b>Salpiglossis.</b> Very fine half-hardy annuals. +The flowers, which are borne in profusion, are of many +colors, and rival in markings most other annuals. The +flowers are short-lived if left on the plant, but will hold +well if cut and placed in water. Seed should be sown in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +heat in February or March, the seedlings grown along until +May, when they may be planted out. It is usually best to +pinch out the centers of the plants at this time +to cause them to branch.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 156px;"> +<img src="images/195-salsify.jpg" width="156" height="169" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Salsify</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Salsify</b>, or <span class="smcap">Vegetable Oyster</span>. Salsify +is one of the best of winter and early spring +vegetables, and should be grown in every garden. +It may be cooked in several different +ways. The seed should be sown as early in the +spring as possible. Handle the same as parsnips +in every way. The roots, like parsnips, +are the better for the winter freeze, but part +of the crop should be dug in the fall, and stored in soil +or moss in a cellar for winter use.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 78px;"> +<img src="images/195-salvia.jpg" width="78" height="177" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Salvia coccinea</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Salvia.</b> The <span class="smcap">Scarlet Salvia</span> (or <span class="smcap">Sage</span>) is a well +known tender perennial, blooming late in the fall and making +a fine effect in beds or borders. It is easily transplanted, +and large plants removed to the house continue in bloom for +some time. The blue and white species are both +desirable summer flowering plants, and the low-growing +Silver Leaf Sage is well adapted for edging. +Propagated from seed, cuttings, or by division. +Height 2 to 3 feet.</p> + +<p><b>San José Scale</b> has now become a wide-spread +pest. It has been introduced into the eastern +states from the Pacific slope. It is a minute scale +insect the size of a small pinhead, shield-shaped, +with a raised center. There are various native and +comparatively harmless scales which look very much like +it, and an expert is usually needed to distinguish them. +The San José Scale can usually be distinguished, however, +by its very serious results. In favorable seasons it spreads +with enormous rapidity, covering the branches of many +kinds of plants, sapping their juices, and either killing or +reducing them to such a low state of vitality as to render<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +them useless; or they are killed by the winter. The indications +are that the scale will never be so serious in the +moist, cool climates of the northeastern states as it is in +the hotter and drier climates of the West. It has been +found by careful experiments that it can be killed by a +spray of kerosene and water (<a href="#kerosene">see <i>Kerosene</i></a>) in a proportion +of one part of kerosene to four or five of water. This material +is applied with a mechanical pump mixer, and the application +should be made on a sunny day so that evaporation +soon takes place. Spraying with kerosene in cloudy weather +is very likely to result in injury to the plants. Some experimenters +have found crude petroleum to be a specific for +the San José Scale.</p> + +<p>It is not to be expected that the San José Scale can be +exterminated any more than the tent caterpillar or apple +scab can. It follows, therefore, that we should spray for +the San José Scale as we do for other pests. It is such a +serious pest, however, that the state or province should take +measures to hold it in check. Some system of inspection +should be inaugurated, and it is probably best that nursery +stock be fumigated with hydrocyanic gas before it is sold. +This gas is exceedingly poisonous, however, and should +never be handled by the inexperienced. Whenever it is +used, it should be under the control of experts. Plants or +plantations which are badly infested with the scale would +better be destroyed.</p> + +<p><b>Scabiosa.</b> <span class="smcap">Mourning Bride.</span> A useful annual, +producing a profusion of bloom through the greater part of +the summer if not allowed to go to seed. The flowers range +in color from white to rich purple, are borne on long +stems, and are very lasting. The seed may be sown where +the plants are wanted, or to hasten the season of bloom may +be sown in boxes in February and grown along to be planted +out in April.</p> + +<p><b>Scarlet Runner.</b> One of the pole or running<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +beans (<i>Phaseolus multiflorus</i>). It is a great favorite with people +from the Old World, especially English and Germans. This +bean is used either as an ornamental vine for porches or +trellises, or as a screen to hide unsightly objects. The red +flowers are very showy, either on the plant or in bouquets. +The green pods are excellent as string beans, and the dried +beans are of superior quality. Seed should not be sown +until the ground has become thoroughly warm; or the plants +may be started in the house.</p> + +<p><b><a name="scraping" id="scraping"></a>Scraping</b> of trees is rarely to be advised, except in +fruit plantations. The old and hanging bark on apple and +pear trees may be taken off in order to destroy the hiding +places of insects and the breeding places of fungi, and also +to make the plantation look more neat and kempt. Only +the loose outer bark should be removed, however. Trees +should not be scraped to the quick. If there is moss on +trees, it can be destroyed readily by a spray of Bordeaux +mixture.</p> + +<p>A large part of the beauty of an ornamental tree lies in +its characteristic bark, and it is very rare that such trees +should be scraped.</p> + +<p><b>Screens.</b> <a href="#windbreaks">See <i>Windbreak</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Screw Pine.</b> <a href="#pandanus">See <i>Pandanus</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b><a name="sea-kale" id="sea-kale"></a>Sea-Kale</b> shoots are very highly prized as a +delicacy when blanched. The seed should be sown in a hotbed +early in the spring, plants transplanted to the garden +when from 2 to 3 inches high, and given high cultivation +through the season, being covered with litter on the approach +of winter. The young stalks are blanched early the following +spring by covering with large pots or boxes, or by banking +with sand or other clean material. The Dwarf Green Scotch, +Dwarf Brown, and Siberian are among the leading varieties. +Sea-kale is eaten much as asparagus is. Highly prized by +those who know it.</p> + +<p>Sea-Kale is also propagated by cuttings of the roots 4 or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +5 inches long, planted directly in the soil in spring. The +plant is perennial, and the early shoots may be bleached +year after year.</p> + +<p><b>Seed Sowing.</b> The general rule in sowing +seeds is to cover them twice or three times their thickness. +This rule will apply to the majority of seeds, but in many +plants of a naturally short season of bloom or growth, an +instance of which is the sweet pea, it may be advisable +to sow the seed deeper, that the roots may have sufficient +moisture and be in a cool temperature through the hot +summer months. Also, in sowing very minute seed, as +tobacco, petunia, begonia, and others of like size, care +should be taken to have them only under the surface of the +soil,—simply pressed down with a smooth surface or allowed +to settle into the soil with the soaking in of the water. The +soil for all seeds should be loose and porous, in order to +allow the excessive moisture to escape and the warmth to +penetrate, but should be firmed directly over the seeds to +induce an upward flow of moisture. One of the most common +mistakes in sowing seed is in sowing all kinds at the +same time without regard to the season, thus causing a failure +with some, while others grow freely. All tender seed +should be sown only when the ground has become thoroughly +warm, while seeds of the so-called hardy plants may be +sown as early in the spring as the ground is fit to work. A +few kinds of seed are the better for soaking, especially such +as for some reason have been delayed in sowing. Sweet pea +seed is benefited by soaking if not put into the ground until +the soil is warm. Seed of canna, moonflower and others +with hard shells may be scraped until the outer shell is +pierced or is very thin.</p> + +<p>It is generally better to buy garden seeds than to grow +them, for those who make a business of seed-growing become +expert in the cultivation and selection of the plants.</p> + +<p><b>Seeds</b> of most plants should be kept dry and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +also rather cool. It is always better to rely upon fresh +seeds. Test them in boxes in the house, if possible, before +planting them in the open. If beans, peas, corn or other +Seeds become buggy, pour a little bisulfide of carbon (very +inflammable) into them. The material will not injure the +Seeds even if poured on them. It soon evaporates. A teaspoonful +will kill the insects in four quarts of Seeds, if the +receptacle is tight.</p> + +<p>Most tree Seeds should be kept moist until planted. +They are usually buried or kept in sand.</p> + +<p><b>Sensitive Plant</b> (<i>Mimosa</i>). This curious plant +is often grown for the amusement it affords by its habit of +closing its leaves and dropping the leaf-stalk whenever the +plant is touched. Seed should be sown in heat early in the +season, and the plants grown in pots or a protected border. +The seed is sold by all seedsmen. The plant grows readily +in a temperature suited to beans. It will not stand frost. +The young plants are usually the most sensitive.</p> + +<p><b><a name="trees" id="trees"></a>Shade Trees.</b> The best Shade Trees are +usually those which are native to the particular region, +since they are hardy and adapted to the soil and other conditions. +Elms, maples, basswoods, and the like, are nearly +always reliable. In regions in which there are serious +insect enemies or fungous diseases, the trees which are +most likely to be attacked may be omitted. For instance, +in parts of the East the elm leaf beetle is a very serious +pest; and it is a good plan in such places to plant other +trees than elms. Amongst the best exotic trees for shade +in the northern parts of the country are the Norway maple, +European lindens, horse chestnut, and the European species +of elm. Trees for shade should ordinarily be given sufficient +room that they may develop into full size and +symmetrical heads. The trees may be planted as close as +10 or 15 feet apart for temporary effect; but as soon as they +begin to crowd they should be thinned.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +<b>Shelter-belts.</b> <a href="#windbreaks">See <i>Windbreak</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b><a name="shrub" id="shrub"></a>Shrubbery.</b> Shrubs have two kinds of values +or uses: first, they are useful for their own sakes or as +individual specimens; and second, for use in the making of +foliage masses or groups. Ordinarily they are used only for +the former purpose in home grounds; but their greatest use +is, nevertheless, in heavy masses about the borders of the +place or in the angles of the building. That is to say, +they should contribute to the general design of the place +or to its pictorial effect. If they are planted in Shrubberies +or masses, the flowers are still as interesting and +as showy as they are when the bushes are planted alone. +In fact, the flowers usually show to better advantage, +since they have a heavy background of foliage. In the +Shrubbery mass the bushes are more easily cared for than +when they are scattered as single specimens over the lawn. +The single specimen which is irregular, or ragged, or untidy, +is an undesirable object; but such a specimen may +contribute an indispensable part to the border mass. In the +border they do not need the attention to pruning that they +do in the lawn. The main part of the Shrubbery mass +should be made of the stronger, larger growing and coarser +Shrubs; and the more delicate ones, or those with highly +colored leaves or showy flowers, may be placed near the +inner edge of the plantation. Shrubs which are valued +chiefly for their flowers or showy foliage, as, for example, +the <i>Hydrangea paniculata</i>, may be planted just in front of a +bold Shrubbery mass, so that they will have a background +to show off their beauties. Further directions for the lay-out +of the grounds will be found under the articles <a href="#lawns"><i>Lawns</i></a> +and <a href="#border"><i>Borders</i></a>.</p> + +<p>It is ordinarily best to plow or spade the entire area in +which the Shrubs are to be set. For a year or two the +ground should be tilled between the Shrubs, either by horse +tools or by hoes and rakes. If the place looks bare, seeds of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +quick-growing flowers may be scattered about the edges of +the mass. The larger Shrubs, like lilacs and syringas, may +be set about 4 feet apart; but the smaller ones should be +set about, 2 feet apart if it is desired to secure an immediate +effect. If after a few years the mass becomes too crowded, +some of the specimens may be removed. Throw the Shrubs +into an irregular plantation, not in rows, and make the +inner edge of the mass more or less undulating and broken. +It is a good practice to mulch the plantation each fall with +light manure, leaf-mold or other material. Even though the +Shrubs are perfectly hardy, this mulch greatly improves the +land and promotes growth. After the Shrub borders have +become two or three years old, the drifting leaves of fall +will be caught therein and will be held as a mulch. It is +often advisable not to remove these leaves, but to allow +them to remain year after year, where they make a fine +covering of leaf-mold. When the Shrubs are first planted, +they are headed back one-half or more; but after they are +established they are not to be pruned, but allowed to take +their own way, and after a few years the outermost ones +will droop and meet the greensward.</p> + +<p>Good Shrubs are numerous. Some of the best are those +to be found in woods and along roadsides. They are hardy. +Of Shrubs which are generally adaptable for the North, the +following are excellent:</p> + +<ul> +<li>Barberries.</li> +<li>Box.</li> +<li>Burning Bush, or Euonymus.</li> +<li>Bush Honeysuckles.</li> +<li>Bush Willows.</li> +<li>Caryopteris, blooming in August and September.</li> +<li>Cotoneasters.</li> +<li>Desmodiums, or Lespedezas, blooming in fall.</li> +<li>Dwarf Sumac. <i>Rhus copallina.</i></li> +<li>Elders. Native species are excellent.</li> +<li>Exochorda, with profuse white bloom in spring.</li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +Flowering Almond.</li> +<li>Flowering Crabs.</li> +<li>Flowering Currants.</li> +<li>Forsythias, or Golden Bells.</li> +<li>Fringe Tree, or Chionanthus.</li> +<li>Hawthorns.</li> +<li>Hydrangeas.</li> +<li>Indian Currant. <i>Symphoricarpos vulgaris.</i></li> +<li>Japanese Quince.</li> +<li>Kerria, or Corchorus.</li> +<li>Lilacs.</li> +<li>Mock Orange, or Philadelphus.</li> +<li>New Jersey Tea, or Ceanothus.</li> +<li>Osiers, or Dogwoods.</li> +<li>Privet.</li> +<li>Rose Acacia.</li> +<li>Roses (<a href="#roses">see <i>Roses</i></a>).</li> +<li>Smoke Tree.</li> +<li>Snowballs. The Japanese is preferable.</li> +<li>Snowberry. <i>Symphoricarpos racemosus.</i></li> +<li>Spireas of many kinds.</li> +<li>Viburnums of many kinds.</li> +<li>Weigelas.</li> +<li>White Alder. <i>Clethra alnifolia.</i></li> +<li>Witch Hazel. Blooms on the eve of winter.</li> +<li>Xanthoceras sorbifolia.</li> +</ul> + +<p><b>Silene</b>, or <span class="smcap">Catchfly</span>. Some of the Silenes are +hardy annuals of very easy culture. Sow seeds where the +plants are to stand; or, if early results are desired, seeds +may be started in boxes. The plants thrive in any garden +soil, even if it is not very rich. Colors red, or sometimes +running to white. One foot. Let plants stand 6 to 10 +inches apart.</p> + +<p><b>Smilax</b> of the florists is closely allied to +asparagus. While it cannot be recommended for house culture,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +the ease with which it may be grown and the uses to +which the festoons of leaves may be put, entitle it to a +place in the conservatory or greenhouse. Seed sown in pots +or boxes in January or February, the plants shifted as +needed until planted on the bench in August, will grow fine +strings of green by the holidays. The plants should be set +on low benches, giving as much room as possible overhead. +Green-colored strings should be used for the vines to climb +on, the vines frequently syringed to keep down the red +spider, which is very destructive to this plant, and liquid +manure given as the vines grow. The soil should contain a +good proportion of sand and be enriched with well-rotted +manure. After the first strings are cut, a second growth +fully as good as the first may be had by cleaning up the +plants and top-dressing the soil with rotted manure. +Slightly shading the house through August will add to the +color of the leaves. The odor from a vine of Smilax +thickly covered with the small flowers is very agreeable.</p> + +<p><b><a name="snapdragon" id="snapdragon"></a>Snapdragon</b>, or <span class="smcap">Antirrhinum</span>. An old garden +favorite, flowering freely through a long season. The dwarf +strain is well adapted for bedding or borders. Any light +soil, well enriched with rotted manure, will grow Snapdragons +to perfection. Distinct varieties should be propagated +by cuttings, as they do not come true from seed. +Sow seed early in the spring.</p> + +<p>Although bloom may be obtained the first year, late +sown plants sometimes persist over winter and bloom early +in the spring. Snapdragons make good window plants.</p> + +<p><b><a name="snowdrop" id="snowdrop"></a>Snowdrop</b> (<i>Galanthus</i>). This is one of the +earliest flowers of spring, always welcome. It should be +planted in the edge of the border. The bulbs may be +planted in October in any good border soil and left undisturbed +for years; or they may be potted at that time, and +after forming roots be gently forced into bloom in winter.</p> + +<p><b>Snowflake</b> (<i>Leucoium</i>). <a href="#snowdrop">Culture same as for +<i>Snowdrop</i>.</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +<b>Sodding.</b> In general, the best way to secure a +lawn is by the sowing of seed (<a href="#lawns">see <i>Lawn</i></a>), since it is the +least expensive way. For small areas, and along the sides +of walks and drives, sods may be used. The results are +quicker. Unless the sod is of the right kind, however, +and very carefully laid, the results are not so good as +with seed.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 60px;"> +<img src="images/204-cutter.jpg" width="49" height="169" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Sod-cutter, +for +trimming +sod edgings</p> +</div> + +<p>The sod which is best adapted to the Sodding of lawns +is that which comes from an old, closely grazed pasture. +Sod from a sheep pasture is supposed to be best. Such +sod has been so closely grazed that it has made a very +dense mat of roots, and all the weeds have been destroyed. +The droppings of the animals also make the +ground rich. The sod should be cut in very thin strips. +It should not be more than an inch and one-half or two +inches in thickness. If it is thicker than that, it is heavy and +bulky to handle, and is not so easily laid. Ordinarily, the +sod is cut in strips ten inches or a foot wide. A board is +laid on the sod and the strip is cut along either side of it +with a sod cutter or a sharp spade. Two men then roll +up the sod. One stands on the strip of sod with his face +toward the man who, with the spade, cuts it loose beneath. +As it is cut loose, the man on the strip rolls the sod so that +the upper surface is on the inside of the roll. Strips longer +than ten or twelve feet make rolls which +are too heavy to handle with ease.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 186px;"> +<img src="images/204-cutting.jpg" width="186" height="100" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Cutting sod</p> +</div> + +<p>The soil upon which the sod is to be +placed should be very loose, so that the sod, +can be pounded down firmly. Some heavy +pounder should be used, as a block of wood. +It is usually impossible to pound down sod with the back of a +spade sufficiently firm unless the soil is very loose. The +sod should be pounded until the top is about level with the +surrounding soil. This insures contact with the soil beneath, +so that there are no air spaces and no likelihood of +drying out. Sod pounded down as firmly as this should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +grow very readily. If a sod edging is laid along walks and +drives, it should be pounded down an inch or more lower +than the surrounding loose land which is seeded, because +the loose land will finally settle; otherwise the sod border +is likely to be higher than adjacent land after a year or two.</p> + +<p>If there are uneven places on the sodded area, these depressions +can be filled in with very loose, fine soil; and the +grass will grow through it. In dry weather, a sodded area +may be mulched with a half inch of fine loam to protect it.</p> + +<p><b>Soils.</b> Soils are of many kinds. The classification +of soils depends upon one’s point of view. Gardeners +ordinarily call a good, friable, dark-colored, rich Soil a +garden loam. No Soil is so good that it cannot be improved. +It is improved in two general ways: by tilling (<a href="#tillage">see <i>Tillage</i></a>), +and by the application of various substances.</p> + +<p>In considering the improvement of lands by the application +of foreign substances, two distinct things are to be considered: +the improvement of the physical texture, or tilth, +of the Soil; the increasing of its plant-food. These are +coördinate objects. In some cases one may be of prime +importance, and in another case the other may be more +necessary. Lands which have a fair store of available plant-food +may be unproductive. Such lands may be very greatly +benefited by stable manure, even though that manure may +have lost a large part of fertility by being baptized under +the eaves of the barn. If plant-food alone is needed, then +some concentrated or commercial fertilizer may be the best +thing to apply. In most cases the main or chief amelioration +of the land is to be wrought by tillage, stable manures, +mulches, green crops, and the like; if special results are +desired, commercial fertilizers may be added more or less +liberally, as the case demands (see <a href="#manure"><i>Manures</i></a>, <a href="#fertilizers"><i>Fertilizers</i></a>).</p> + +<p>The top-dressing of Soils is often very beneficial because +it tends to prevent the escape of moisture, and often improves +the physical texture. If the material contains plant-food, +the land will also be directly enriched. The trimmings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +from lawns may be a distinct protection to lands if +allowed to remain (<a href="#lawns">see <i>Lawns</i></a>); and the leaves which blow +into clumps of shrubbery may often be allowed to remain +with good results. However, if the leaves become too thick +year after year, they tend to induce a surface rooting of the +shrubs. This, however, may be no disadvantage unless the +mulch were finally to be removed. One of the very best +top-dressings for borders and shrubbery is spent tan +bark, since it does not pile up on the ground, but +tends to work into it. Well-rotted sawdust often +has the same effect. These materials are much used +by gardeners, when they can be had, since they can +be raked into the soil in the spring, and need not be +removed.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 76px;"> +<img src="images/206-spade.jpg" width="76" height="154" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Spade</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Solidago.</b> <a href="#goldenrod">See <i>Goldenrod</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 232px;"> +<img src="images/206-shovel.jpg" width="232" height="237" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Shovel</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Spades</b> and <b>Shovels</b> must be a part of every +garden equipment. The common and most useful forms +are shown in the cuts, but long-handled tools are more +useful for the loading of earth, the making of ditches, the +spreading of mulches, and the like. It +pays to buy the steel tools, with strongly +strapped handles.</p> + +<p><b>Spearmint</b> is prized by many +people as a seasoning, particularly for +the Thanksgiving and holiday cookery. +It is a perennial and perfectly hardy, +and will live in the open garden year +after year. If a supply of the fresh +herbage is wanted in winter, remove +sods of it to the house six weeks +before wanted. Place the sods in +boxes, and treat as for house plants. The plants should +have been frosted and become perfectly dormant before +removal.</p> + +<p><b>Spinach.</b> Probably the most extensively grown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +early spring vegetable, being in great demand as greens. +The earliest crop that finds its way to market is gathered +from seed sown in September or October, often protected +by frames or other means through the severe winter, +and cut soon after growth starts in early spring. Even as +far north as New York Spinach may stand over winter without +protection. Spinach is forced by placing sash over +the frames in February and March, protecting the young +leaves from severe freezing by mats or straw thrown over +the frames. Seed may be sown in early spring for a succession; +later in the season seed of the New Zealand Summer +Spinach may be sown, and this will grow through the heat +of the summer and yield a fine quality of leaves. The seed +of this kind being very hard, should be scalded and +allowed to soak a few hours before sowing. This seed is +usually sown in hills about three feet apart, sowing four to +six seeds in each hill. The spring and winter Spinach should +be sown in drills 12 to 14 inches apart, one ounce being sufficient +for 100 feet of drill. Remember that common +Spinach is a cool-weather (fall and spring) crop.</p> + +<p><b><a name="spraying" id="spraying"></a>Spraying.</b> Of late years Spraying has come to +be one of the most important of all horticultural operations. +Most kinds of injurious fungi and insects can be combated +by a water spray in which various poisons or injurious substances +are contained. There are two general classes of +Spraying material: first, fungicides, or those which are +used for the control of fungi or plant diseases; second, insecticides, +or those which are used for the control of insect +enemies.</p> + +<p>The fungicides usually contain copper or sulfur, or both. +The most popular and generally useful fungicide is the +Bordeaux mixture (<a href="#bordeaux">which see</a>). It should be borne in mind +that most injurious fungi work on the interior of the leaf or +stem, and only the spore-bearing parts come to the surface. +It is therefore very important that Spraying with fungicides +be done very early in order to prevent the fungus from getting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +a hold. It is much better to Spray once very thoroughly +than to Spray a half dozen times carelessly. It is +important that the entire surface of the foliage or stems be +covered with the material in order to prevent the access of +the fungi.</p> + +<p>Of insecticides, there are two general types: those +which kill by external contact and are applied to plant lice, +scale insects, and all other insects which suck their food; +and the poisonous compounds which are used for the chewing +insects, as all the tribes of worms and beetles. Of the +former class, the most important material is kerosene in +various forms (<a href="#kerosene">which see</a>). Of the latter kind is Paris +green (<a href="#paris_green">which see</a>). For insects, Spray just as soon as the +attack is evident. Paris green and Bordeaux mixture may +be used together.</p> + +<p>The best pump for Spraying is the one which throws the +stream the greatest distance with the least amount of liquid, +and the best nozzle is that which distributes the material +most finely and evenly. For Spraying plants close at hand, +the Vermorel nozzle is now the most popular. If it is desired +to reach the tops of large trees, some other nozzle +should be used, as the McGowen, Boss, or other types. +Every outfit should have two or three kinds of nozzles for +different kinds of work. Get a pump with much power.</p> + +<p>Spray thoroughly. The general rule is to spray the entire +plant until the material begins to drip, at which time it may +be supposed that the plant is covered completely. When +and how often one should Spray, and what material he +should use, will depend entirely upon the difficulty which +he is endeavoring to combat. Most fruit trees should be +Sprayed before they bloom and again just afterwards. Sometimes +they will need Spraying again.</p> + +<p><b>Sprekelia.</b> <a href="#amaryllis">Culture of <i>Amaryllis</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 252px;"> +<img src="images/209-hubbard.jpg" width="252" height="167" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Hubbard Squash</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="squash" id="squash"></a>Squash.</b> The time of planting, method of preparing +the hills and after culture are the same as for cucumbers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +and melons (<a href="#cucumber">which</a> <a href="#melon">see</a>), except that for the Early +Bush varieties the hills should be 4 or 5 feet apart, and for +the later running varieties from 6 to +8 feet apart. From eight to ten +seeds should be planted in each hill, +thinning to four plants after danger +from bugs is over. Of the early +Squashes, one ounce of seed will +plant fifty hills; of the later varieties, +one ounce will plant but +eighteen to twenty hills. For winter +use, varieties of the Hubbard type are best. For summer +use, the Crooknecks and Scallop Squashes are popular. In +growing winter Squashes in a northern climate, it is essential +that the plants start off quickly and vigorously: +a little chemical fertilizer will help. +Pumpkins are grown the same as Squashes.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;"> +<img src="images/209-pattypan.jpg" width="164" height="129" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Scallop or Patty-pan +Summer Squash</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Squills</b> (<i>Scilla</i>). <span class="smcap">Blue Bell. Wild +Hyacinth.</span> Well-known bulbous plants, most +of them hardy. They plant well with snowdrops +and crocus, flowering at the same time, +but continuing longer in bloom. The colors +are red, pink, blue or white. The blue varieties have very +fine shades of color. Should be planted in October and +remain undisturbed.</p> + +<p><b><a name="stocks" id="stocks"></a>Stocks.</b> The Ten-weeks and the biennial or +Brompton Stocks, are found in nearly all old-fashioned gardens. +Most gardens are thought to be incomplete without +Stocks, and the use of the biennial flowering species as house +plants is increasing. The Ten-weeks Stock is usually grown +from seed sown in hotbed or boxes in March. The seedlings +are transplanted several times previous to being planted out +in early May. At each transplanting the soil should be made +a little richer. The double flowers will be more numerous +when the soil is rich.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +The biennial species should be sown the season previous +to that in which flowers are wanted, the plants wintered over +in a cool house, and grown on the following spring. +They may be planted out through the summer and lifted into +pots in August or September for winter flowering. These +may be increased by cuttings taken from the side shoots; but +the sowing of seed is a surer method, and unless an +extra fine variety is to be saved, it would be the best one to +pursue. Height 10 to 15 inches.</p> + +<p><b>Storing.</b> The principles which are involved in +the Storing of perishable products, as fruits and vegetables, +differ with the different commodities. All the root crops, +and most fruits, need to be kept in a cool, moist and uniform +temperature if they are to be preserved a great length of +time. Squashes, sweet potatoes, and some other things, need +to be kept in an intermediate and what might be called a +high temperature; and the atmosphere should be drier than +for most other products. The low temperature has the effect of +arresting decomposition and the work of fungi and bacteria. +The moist atmosphere has the effect of preventing too great +evaporation and the consequent shriveling. In the Storing +of any commodity, it is very important to see that the product +is in proper condition for keeping. Discard all specimens +which are bruised or which are likely to decay. Much of the +decay of fruits and vegetables in Storage is not the fault of +the Storage, but is really the work of diseases with which the +materials are infested before they are put into Storage. For +example, if potatoes and cabbages are affected with the rot, +it is practically impossible to keep them any length of +time.</p> + +<p>Apples, winter pears, and all roots, should be kept at a +temperature somewhat near the freezing point. It should not +raise above 40° Fahr. for best results. Apples can even be +kept at one or two degrees below the freezing point if the +temperature is kept uniform. Cellars in which there are +heaters are likely to be too dry and the temperature too high.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +In such cases it is well to keep fresh vegetables and fruits in +tight receptacles, and pack the roots in sand or moss in order +to prevent shriveling. In these places, apples usually keep +better if headed up in barrels than if kept on racks or +shelves. In moist and cool cellars, however, it is preferable +for the home supply to place them on shelves, not piling +them more than five or six inches deep, for then they can be +sorted over as occasion requires. +In case of fruits, be +sure that the specimens are +not over-ripe when placed in +storage. If apples are allowed +to lie in the sun for a few days +without being packed, they +will ripen so much that it is +very difficult to keep them.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 305px;"> +<img src="images/211-cellar.jpg" width="305" height="165" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A good out-door cellar</p> +</div> + +<p>Cabbages should be kept at a low and uniform temperature, +and water should be drained away from them. +They are Stored in many ways in the field, but success depends +so much upon the season, particular variety, ripeness, +and the freedom from injuries by fungi and insects, +that uniform results are rarely secured by any method. The +best results are to be expected when they can be kept in a +house which is built for the purpose, in which the temperature +can be kept uniform and the air fairly moist. When +Stored out of doors, they are likely to freeze and thaw alternately; +and if the water runs into the heads, mischief is +likely to result. Sometimes they are easily Stored by being +piled into a conical heap on well-drained soil and covered +with dry straw, and the straw covered with boards. It does +not matter if they are frosted, provided they do not thaw out +frequently. Sometimes cabbages are laid head down in a +shallow furrow plowed in well-drained land, and over them +is thrown straw, the stumps being allowed to project through +the cover. It is only in winters of rather uniform temperature +that good results are to be expected from such methods.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +In the Storing of all things, especially those which have +soft and green matter, as cabbages, it is well to provide +for the heating of the produce. If the things are buried out +of doors, it is important to put on a very light cover at first +so that the heat may escape. Cover them gradually as the +cold weather comes on. This is important with all vegetables +that are placed in pits, as potatoes, beets and the like. If +covered deeply at once, they are likely to heat and rot. +All pits made out of doors should be on well-drained and +preferably sandy land.</p> + +<p>When vegetables are wanted at intervals during the +winter from pits, it is well to make compartment pits, +each compartment holding a wagon load or whatever +quantity will be likely to be wanted at each time. These +pits are sunk in well-drained land, and between each +of the two pits is left a wall of earth about a foot thick. +One pit can then be emptied in cold weather without interfering +with the others.</p> + +<p>An outside cellar is better than a house cellar in which +there is a heater, but it is not so handy. If it is near the +house, it need not be inconvenient, however. A house is +usually healthier if the cellar is not used for storage. House +cellars used for storage should have a ventilating shaft.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 214px;"> +<img src="images/212-strawb.jpg" width="214" height="146" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Strawberries</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Strawberry.</b> The saying that Strawberries will +grow on almost any soil is misleading, although true. +Some varieties of Strawberries will grow +on certain soils better than other varieties. +What these varieties are can only +be determined by an actual test, but it is +a safe rule to select such varieties as +prove good in many localities. As to +the methods of culture, so much depends +on the size of the plot, the purpose for +which the fruit is wanted, and the amount of care one is +willing to give, that no set rule can be given for a garden +in which but few plants are grown and extra care can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +given. Large fruits and a number of them may be had by +growing to the single plant, keeping off all runners and +relying on numerous fruit-crowns on one plant for the +crop of berries. Or Strawberries may be grown by the narrow +matted-row system, in which the +runners, before rooting, should be +turned along the rows at a distance of +from 4 to 6 inches from the parent +plant. These runners should be the +first ones made by the plant and should +not be allowed to root themselves, but +“set in.” This is not a difficult operation; +and if the runners are separated +from the parent plant as soon as they +become well established, the drain on +that plant is not great. All other runners +should be cut off as they start. The row should be +about 12 inches wide at fruiting time. Each plant should +have sufficient feeding ground, full sunlight, and a firm +hold in the soil. This matted-row system is perhaps as +good a method, either in a private garden or field culture, +as could be practiced. With a little care in hoeing, weeding +and cutting off runners, the beds +seem to produce as large crops the +second year as the first.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 214px;"> +<img src="images/213-well.jpg" width="214" height="235" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Well planted Strawberry</p> +</div> + +<p>The old way of growing a crop +was to set the plants 10 to 12 inches +apart, in rows 3 feet apart, and allow +them to run and root at will, +the results being a mass of small, +crowded plants, each striving to obtain +plant-food and none of them succeeding in getting +enough. The last, or outside runners, having but the +tips of their roots in the ground, are moved by the +wind, heaved by the frost, or have the exposed roots +dried out by the wind and sun.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +Ground rich in potash produces the firmest and best +flavored berries. Excessive use of stable manure, usually +rich in nitrogen, should be avoided, as tending to make too +rank growth of foliage and berries of a soft texture.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 248px;"> +<img src="images/213-pot.jpg" width="248" height="163" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Pot-grown Strawberry</p> +</div> + +<p>Except in the case of a skillful grower in a favored +locality, the fall setting of plants is not to be recommended. +The preparation of the soil and care of the +plants more than overbalance the partial crop obtained the +following spring.</p> + +<p>In the single-plant or hill system the plants should be set +12 inches apart, in rows 3 feet apart. In the narrow matted +row system the plants should be set 18 inches apart, in rows +3½ feet apart. The first method requires about 14,000 +plants per acre, the second about 8,000 plants.</p> + +<p>The winter treatment of a Strawberry bed should consist +in covering the plants, when the ground is frozen, in November +or December, with straw or hay. Salt marsh hay, if obtainable, +is the best, as no weed seeds are introduced. Cover +the soil and the plants to the depth of 3 to 6 inches. As +soon as growth begins in spring, rake the mulch off, allowing +it to lie between the rows; or, if the soil is hard or +weedy, it may be taken off the patch entirely, the ground +tilled, and then replaced for the purpose of holding moisture +and keeping the berries clean.</p> + +<p>Usually, Strawberries may be fruited twice or three +times; but on rich soil, with extra good care, the first +crop may be very heavy, and the patch may be plowed +up thereafter. Some varieties do not produce pollen, and +not more than two rows of these should be planted without +a row of a pollen-bearing kind.</p> + +<p>The rust and mildew may be held in check by Bordeaux +mixture. It is usually sufficient to spray after the blooming +season (or at any time the first year the plants are set), +in order to secure healthy foliage for the next year.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 173px;"> +<img src="images/215-suns.jpg" width="173" height="176" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption" style="float:left">Double<br /> Sunflower</p> +<p class="caption" style="float:right">Orgyalis<br /> Sunflower</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="sunflower" id="sunflower"></a>Sunflower</b> (<i>Helianthus</i>). People who know +only the coarse annual Sunflower are not aware of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +beauty which it is possible to secure with the herbaceous +perennials belonging to that family. No border should be +without a few of the hardy species. +Their blooming period extends from +early in August until heavy frost. The +color runs from light lemon to the +richest orange, and the range of growth +from 3 to 10 feet, thus enabling one +to scatter them through the border +without any formal arrangement. They +are of the easiest culture. Plants may +be dug in the wild or bought of nurserymen. +The domesticated double <i>Helianthus +multiflorus</i> is always valuable.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 135px;"> +<img src="images/215-sunwild.jpg" width="135" height="277" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Wild Sunflower Plant</p> +</div> + +<p>Of the annual Sunflowers, there are some +which are not generally cultivated that should +receive more attention. The silver-leaved +species from Texas (<i>H. argophyllus</i>), and the +small, light lemon-yellow variety, are two of +the best.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 128px;"> +<img src="images/215-sunwild2.jpg" width="128" height="180" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Wild Sunflower</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Swainsona.</b> This makes a very desirable +house plant, blooming through the late +winter and early spring months. The blossoms, +which resemble those of the pea, +are borne in long racemes. The +foliage is finely cut, resembling small +locust leaves, and adds to the beauty of the plant, +the whole effect being exceedingly graceful. It +may be grown from seed or cuttings. Propagate +a new stock each year. The flowers are large +and pure white. The plant has been called +the “Winter Sweet Pea,” but the flowers are +not fragrant.</p> + +<p><b><a name="swan_river" id="swan_river"></a>Swan River Daisy</b> (<i>Brachycome iberidifolia</i>) is +a charming little border plant, growing to the height of 12 to +15 inches, and bearing quantities of blue or white flowers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +The flowers last a long time when cut, and give a vase of +flowers a light, graceful effect. The seed should be sown +in boxes, hotbed, or windows; or, in warm garden soil, the +seed may be sown where the plants are to stand. Only half +hardy, and should not be planted out until settled weather. +Annual.</p> + +<p><b>Sweet Corn.</b> <a href="#corn">See <i>Corn</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b><a name="sweet_herbs" id="sweet_herbs"></a>Sweet Herbs.</b> The Herb garden should find a +place on all amateurs’ grounds. Herbs may readily be made +profitable by disposing of the surplus to the green grocer +and the druggist. The latter will often buy all that the +housewife wishes to dispose of, as the general supply of +medicinal herbs is grown by specialists, and goes into the +hands of the wholesaler and is often old when received +by the local dealer. The seedsmen’s catalogues mention +upwards of forty different Herbs, medicinal and culinary. +The majority of them are perennial, and will grow for many +years if well taken care of. However, it is better to resow +every three or four years. The annual kinds are raised +from seeds each year. Beds 4 feet square of each of the +Herbs will supply an ordinary family.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> +<img src="images/217-swpea.jpg" width="130" height="240" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Sweet Pea</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="sweet_pea" id="sweet_pea"></a>Sweet Pea.</b> No annual receives greater attention +these days than the Sweet Pea. Sweet Pea exhibitions +are held in several sections of the country, the press gives +considerable space to the discussion of varieties, and the +public generally is interested in the growing or buying of +the flower. On any occasion the Sweet Pea is in place. A +bouquet of shaded colors, with a few sprays of galium or the +perennial gypsophila, makes one of the choicest of table +decorations. Deep, mellow soil, early planting and heavy +mulching suit them admirably. Sow the seeds as soon +as the ground is fit to work in the spring, making a drill 5 +inches deep. Sow thickly and cover with 2 inches of soil. +When the plants have made 2 or 3 inches growth above the +soil, fill the drill nearly full, leaving a slight depression in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +which water may be caught. After the soil is thoroughly +soaked with water, a good mulch will hold the moisture. To +have the ground ready in early spring, it is a good plan to +trench the soil in the fall. The top of the soil then dries out +very quickly in the spring and is left in good physical condition. +Frequent syringing with clear water will +keep off the red spider that often destroys the +foliage, and attention to picking the seed pods +will lengthen the season of bloom. If the finest +flowers are wanted, do not let the plants stand +less than 8-12 inches apart.</p> + +<p>A succession of sowings may be made at intervals +through May and June, and a fair fall crop +obtained if care is taken to water and mulch; +but the best results will be secured with the very +early planting. In the middle and southern states, +the seed may be planted in fall, particularly in +lighter soils. It is easy to get soils too rich in nitrogen for +Sweet Peas; in such case, they will run to vine at the expense +of flowers. If the plants are watered, apply enough +to soak the soil, and do not water frequently.</p> + +<p><b><a name="sweet_potato" id="sweet_potato"></a>Sweet Potatoes</b> are grown from sprouts +planted on ridges or hills, not by planting the tubers, as +with the common or Irish potato. The method of obtaining +these sprouts is as follows: In April, tubers of Sweet +Potatoes are planted in a partially spent hotbed by using the +whole tuber (or if a large one, by cutting it in two through +the long way), covering the tubers with 2 inches of light, +well firmed soil. The sash should be put on the frames and +only enough ventilation given to keep the Potatoes from decaying. +In ten or twelve days the young sprouts should +begin to appear, and the bed should be watered if dry. The +sprouts when pulled from the tuber will be found to have +rootlets at the lower end and along the stems. These +sprouts should be about 3 to 5 inches long by the time +the ground is warm enough to plant them out. The ridges<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +or hills should be prepared by plowing out a furrow 4 to 6 +inches deep. Scatter manure in the furrow and plow back +the soil so as to raise the center at least 6 inches above the +level of the soil. On this ridge the plants are set, placing +the plants well in to the leaves, and about 12 to 18 inches +apart in the rows, the rows being from 3 to 4 feet apart. +The after cultivation consists in stirring the soil between the +ridges; and as the vines begin to run they should be +lifted frequently to prevent rooting at the joints. When the +tips of the vines have been touched by frost the crop may be +harvested, the tubers left to dry a few days, and stored in a +dry, warm place. To keep Sweet Potatoes, store in layers +in barrels or boxes in dry sand, and keep them in a dry +room. See that all bruised or chilled potatoes are thrown out.</p> + +<p><b><a name="syringing" id="syringing"></a>Syringing</b> plants with water has two general +offices: to clean the plants of pests or of dirt; to check +evaporation or transpiration from the plant itself.</p> + +<p>Gardeners look upon water as a good insecticide. That +is, if it can be thrown upon the plants somewhat forcibly by +means of a syringe or pump, or by the hydrant hose, it will +wash off the insects and drown many of them. The water +should be applied in a fine and somewhat forcible spray. +Care should be taken that the plant is not torn or bruised. +The red spider is one of the most serious pests on house +plants, and, in a dry season, on plants about the lawn. +It thrives in a dry atmosphere. It usually lives on the +under sides of the leaves. Syringing the plants frequently +will destroy the pests. The thrips and slugs on rose bushes +can nearly always be kept in check if one can spray or +syringe his plants frequently. <a href="#spraying">See <i>Spraying</i>.</a></p> + +<p>Syringing to check transpiration from the foliage is +very useful with plants which are recently transplanted. +For instance, when carnations are taken from the field and +placed in the house, it is well to syringe them occasionally +until they have become established. The same is true with +cuttings.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +In Syringing plants, it is well to take care that the +ground does not become too wet; otherwise the plant may +suffer at its root. In the house, plants should rarely be +syringed except when the weather is bright, so that they +may soon dry off. The plant should not go into the night +with wet foliage. Out of doors in hot weather, it is best to +syringe toward nightfall. The foliage will ordinarily not +suffer in such cases. With plants in the house, it is necessary +to keep the leaves dry most of the time in order that +fungi may not breed. This is true of carnations, which are +very liable to attacks of the rust.</p> + +<p>Plants are sometimes syringed or sprayed to protect them +from frost. <a href="#frost">See <i>Frost</i>.</a></p> + +<p><a name="T" id="T"></a><b>Terraces</b> may be desirable for two reasons: +to hold a very steep slope; to afford an architectural base +for a building.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 262px;"> +<img src="images/219-slope.jpg" width="262" height="134" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A slope is better than a terrace</p> +</div> + +<p>It is rarely necessary to make a distinct Terrace in the +lawn. Even if the lawn is very steep, it may be better to +make a gradual slope than to cut the place in two with a +Terrace. A Terrace makes a place look smaller. It is always +difficult to make and to keep +in repair. The surface is not readily +cut with a lawn mower. Unless +the sod is very dense, the upper +corner tends to wash off with the +rains and the foot tends to fill in. +Nature does not have straight banks +unless they are rock. The illustration +in the margin shows how it is possible to treat a +sloping lawn. In the distance is a distinct, sharp-angled +Terrace; but in the foreground this Terrace has been +carried out into the lawn, so that the slope is an agreeable +one.</p> + +<p>If it is necessary to Terrace a yard in order to hold it, +the Terrace would better be at one side rather than in the +middle. In that case, one is able to secure a good breadth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +of lawn. If the Terrace is at the outer side next the street, +a perpendicular, mason-work, retaining wall may be constructed. +If it is on the inner side of the lawn, it may be +placed close to the building and be made to appear as a +part of the architecture: it may be made the base of the +building. If this is done, there should be a balustrade +around the edge of the Terrace to give it architectural feeling. +The descent from the Terrace to the lawn may be +made by means of steps, so as to add to the architectural +aspect of the place. Terraces are most in place about buildings +which have many strong horizontal lines; they do not +lend themselves so well to buildings in the Gothic style. +The general tendency is to make too many Terraces. The +cases are relatively few in which they may not be dispensed +with.</p> + +<p><b>Thinning</b> of fruit has four general uses: to +cause the remaining fruit to grow larger; to increase the +chances of annual crops; to save the vitality of the tree; +to enable one to combat insects and diseases by destroying +the injured fruit.</p> + +<p>The Thinning of fruit is nearly always done soon after +the fruit is thoroughly set. It is then possible to determine +which of the fruits are likely to persist. Peaches are usually +Thinned when they are the size of one’s thumb. If +Thinned before this time, they are so small that it is difficult +to pick them off; and it is not so easy to see the work of +the curculio and thereby to select the injured fruits. Similar +remarks will apply to other fruits. The general tendency +is, even with those who Thin their fruits, not to Thin +enough. It is usually safer to take off what would seem to +be too many than not to take off enough. The remaining +specimens are better. Varieties which tend to overbear +profit very greatly by Thinning. This is notably the case +with many Japanese plums, which, if not Thinned, are very +inferior.</p> + +<p>Thinning may also be accomplished by pruning. If one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +knows where the fruit buds are, cutting them off will have +the effect of removing the fruit. In the case of tender +fruits, like peaches, however, it may not be advisable to +Thin very heavily by means of pruning, since the fruit may +be still further Thinned by the remaining days of winter, +by late spring frost, or by the leaf-curl or other disease. +However, the proper pruning of a peach tree in winter is, +in part, a Thinning of the fruit. The peach is borne on the +wood of the previous season’s growth. The best fruits are +to be expected on the strongest and heaviest growth. It is +the practice of peach-growers to remove all the weak and +immature wood from the inside of the tree. This has the +effect of Thinning out the inferior fruit and allowing the energy +of the tree to be expended on the remainder. Apples +are rarely Thinned; but in many cases, Thinning can be +done with profit. On all home grounds, fruits should be +Thinned whenever the trees are very full. In general, the +best time to thin the fruit, as already said, is when the +fruits have become large enough to be seen and handled. +The discarded fruits should be burned if they contain insects +or fungi.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 142px;"> +<img src="images/221-thunb.jpg" width="142" height="164" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Thunbergia alata</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Thunbergia.</b> Tender climbers, making very +pretty low screens. They are at their best when +grown along the ground where the moisture keeps +them free from the attacks of red spider. Some +of the kinds are very fine vase or basket plants. +All may be grown easily from seed. Annuals, 4 +to 6 feet. Flowers white and yellow.</p> + +<p><b><a name="tillage" id="tillage"></a>Tillage.</b> By Tillage is meant the stirring +of the soil. Tillage is the fundamental operation +in agricultural practice. Most farmers till +for three reasons: to get the seed into the land; to keep +the weeds down; and to get the crop out of the land. The +real reason for Tillage, however, is to ameliorate the land; +that is, Tillage makes the soil mellow and fine, and an +agreeable place in which plants may grow. It enables the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +soil to hold moisture, to present the greatest feeding surface +to roots, to allow the circulation of air, and intensifies many +chemical activities. Tilling the soil is the first means of +making it productive. If one understands the many forces +that are set at work, the Tilling of the soil becomes one of +the most interesting and exciting of all agricultural operations.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 196px;"> +<img src="images/222-tiller.jpg" width="196" height="216" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">For hand Tilling</p> +</div> + +<p>The exact method of Tilling the soil in any particular +case must be determined by many circumstances. Light +soils are handled differently from heavy soils; and much depends +also upon the season of the year in which the Tillage +is done. In all ordinary soils, the effort should be made to +work them deep, so that there is a deep reservoir for the +storage of moisture and a large area in which roots can +work. Subsequent Tillage throughout the growing season +is performed very largely for the purpose of keeping the top +of the soil loose and fine so that the moisture from beneath +cannot pass off into the atmosphere. This loose layer of +soil, extending two or three inches from the surface, may +itself be very dry; but it breaks up the capillary connection +between the lower soil and the air, and thereby prevents +evaporation. This surface layer of loose, mellow soil is often +spoken of as the earth-mulch. It answers +much the same purpose as a mulch of +straw or leaves in interposing a material +between the moist soil and the air through +which the moisture cannot rise. If this +mulch is repaired as often as it should be, +weeds cannot grow; but the object of the +Tilling is more to make and maintain the +mulch than to destroy weeds. The surface +should be Tilled shallow in the growing season +as often as it tends to become compact +or encrusted. This will be after every rain, and usually as +often as once in ten days when there is no rain. The tools +to be used for this surface Tillage are those which will comminute<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +or fine the soil most completely without compacting +it or leaving it in ridges or in furrows. In garden work, a +fine rake is the ideal thing; whereas in field work, some +of the wire-tooth weeders or smoothing harrows are excellent. +In fields which are hard and lumpy, however, +it will be necessary to use heavier and rougher tools.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 66px;"> +<img src="images/223-rake.jpg" width="66" height="174" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Steel rake</p> +</div> + +<p>In order to break down hard clay soils, one must exercise +great care not to work them when they are wet; +and also not to work them very much when they are dry. +There is a time, shortly after a rain, when clay lumps +will break to pieces with a very slight blow. At this +time it is well to go over them with a harrow or a +rake. After the next rain, they can be gone over again, +and before the end of the season the soil should be in fine +condition. An excellent way of breaking down clay land is +to plow or spade it in the fall and allow it to weather in +the winter. In such cases the land should not be raked or +harrowed, but allowed to lie rough and loose. Very hard +clay lands sometimes run together or cement if handled in +this way, but this will not occur if the land has stubble or +sod or a dressing of manure, for the fibrous matter will then +prevent it from puddling. Lime sown on clay land at the +rate of twenty to forty bushels to the acre also has a distinct +effect in pulverizing it. This may be sown in fall, +or preferably in spring when the land is plowed.</p> + +<p>One of the most important ways of ameliorating land is +to work vegetable matter into it so as to give it humus. +Soils which are loose, black and friable contain much of +this vegetable mold. In many cases the chief value of +stable manure is to add this humus to the soil. Many soils +need humus more than they need plant-food, and hence +stable manure gives better results in those cases than commercial +fertilizers. The farmer secures the humus by plowing +under stubble and sod, and occasional green crops.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/224-tomato.jpg" width="180" height="164" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Tomato</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Tomato.</b> The early fruits are very easily +grown by starting the plants in a greenhouse, hotbed or in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +shallow boxes placed in windows. A pinch of seed sown in +March will give all the early plants a large family can use. +When the plants have reached the height of two or three +inches they should be transplanted into 3-inch flower pots, +old berry boxes or other receptacles, and allowed to +grow slow and stocky until time to set them out, which is +from May 15 on (in New York). They should be set in rows +four or five feet apart, the plants being the same distance in +the rows. Some support should be given to keep the fruits +off the ground and to hasten the ripening. A trellis of +chicken-wire makes an excellent support, as does the light +lath fencing that may be bought or made at home. Stout +stakes, with wire strung the length of the +rows, afford an excellent support. A very +showy method is that of a frame made like +an inverted V, which allows the fruits to +hang free; with a little attention to trimming, +the light reaches the fruits and ripens +them perfectly. This support is made by +leaning together two lath frames. The late +fruits may be picked green and ripened on +a shelf in the sun; or they will ripen if placed in a drawer.</p> + +<p>One ounce of seed will be enough for from twelve to +fifteen hundred plants. A little fertilizer in the hill will +start the plants off quickly. The rot is less serious when +the vines are kept off the ground and the rampant suckers +are cut out.</p> + +<p><b>Tools</b> of many kinds, and well chosen, are +one of the joys of a garden. There is great satisfaction in +a well-made, clean tool which does its work well. Keep +the tools bright. They should be under cover, and in place, +when not in use. A cupboard may be built by the rear +porch, or in the barn or carriage house. See that the cupboard +is in a dry place. Various Tools have been mentioned +in the preceding pages, and other useful kinds are +shown in the article on <a href="#weeds"><i>Weeds</i></a>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +<b>Transplanting.</b> This operation the gardener +calls in one instance “pricking out.” This means taking +young seedling plants from the seed box as soon as they are +large enough to be handled—usually when the first “rough” +leaves have developed—and replanting them in other boxes +or pots, either singly or at a greater distance apart than they +were when in the seed boxes. The term is used in the +operation of setting out plants from the hotbed, frame or +house to the garden; also in removing shrubs or trees. +Transplant on a cloudy day, and just before a rain, if +possible.</p> + +<p><b>Trimming</b> is a term which is ordinarily confounded +with pruning (<a href="#pruning">which see</a>). The word “Trimming,” +however, should be restricted to the shaping of the trees and +not to the thinning of the tree or to pruning for wood, fruit +or other special object. Trimming is only one of the means +of pruning. Trimming is mostly used in the case of hedges. +It is also used to keep evergreens in shape. Many ornamental +plants are also Trimmed into various forms, although +it is a question if such Trimming is usually wise. Fruit +trees should be pruned, as a rule, rather than Trimmed: +that is, they usually should be allowed to take their natural +form, the pruner taking out the superfluous wood and keeping +them within manageable bounds.</p> + +<p><b>Tropæolum.</b> <a href="#nasturtiums">See <i>Nasturtium</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b>Tuberose.</b> The Tuberose requires more heat +to grow to perfection than it is usually possible to give +here in the North. If planted in the border they will not +start into growth until the ground has become thoroughly +warm—usually after the middle of June,—making the season +before frost too short for their perfect growth and flower. +However, if started in loose soil or moss in a warm room or +on benches of a greenhouse, the roots will soon start from +the tuber and make a fine growth. If planted out in June +with a good ball of roots they are likely to bloom before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +frost. If any danger of frost is feared they may be lifted +into pots or boxes and taken into the house, when they will +bloom without a check. As with other bulbs, a sandy soil +will suit.</p> + +<p><b>Tuberous Begonia.</b> A large bed of these covered +with crimson, pink, white, or yellow flowers, ranging from +2 to 4 and even 6 inches in diameter, some double, some +single, is a striking sight. Yet such a sight is not uncommon +about the large eastern cities where the Tuberous Begonia +is now used somewhat for bedding.</p> + +<p>Our interior summers are more trying, and so far, few in +the west have succeeded so well with the Tuberous Begonia +as a bedding plant. It makes a fine summer-blooming pot-plant, +however, for the greenhouse or window, and with due +attention to its requirements, it may be used as a bedding +plant. It properly falls under greenhouse plants in its requirements.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;"> +<img src="images/226-tuberbeg.jpg" width="180" height="194" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Double Tuberous Begonia</p> +</div> + +<p>C. L. Allen, writing of its culture in his work on “Bulbs +and Tuberous-Rooted Plants,” says: “The principal point +learned in regard to its culture is, that it must be treated as +a plant and not as a bulb. The enthusiastic florist, seeing +the many good qualities of the plant, has +led amateurs to believe it could be treated +as a bulb, and planted out in the same manner +as the gladiolus or tigridia and kept +dormant during the winter in the same +manner. This is a great mistake, as the +tubers will not endure as long a period of +rest and cannot be exposed to the air for a +long time without seriously injuring their +vitality. The tubers must be kept in dry +earth or sand, until they show signs of growth, which will +be not later than the first of March; then they may be +started into rapid growth. After the eyes are fully developed +the tubers may be divided: each eye will make a plant. +Then they are treated in all respects like greenhouse plants,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +and grown on until the proper season for their planting out. +This is not before the first of June, as Begonias are quite +sensitive to cold nights, but not at all to heat. At that +time the plants should be fully 6 inches in height and proportionately +strong. Such plants will make a grand display +the entire season, rather delighting in great heat.”</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 179px;"> +<img src="images/227-tuberbeg2.jpg" width="179" height="172" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Tuberous Begonia, single.</p> +</div> + +<p>In starting the tubers in March, they should be placed +in moist sand or moss in a temperature of 60° to 65°, either +in the greenhouse or window. After the buds +are well started the tubers may be divided +as pointed out, or planted whole. They +prefer a rich, rather sandy soil. When +they are well under way give them all the +light and air they will bear, and keep +them close to the glass to avoid “legginess” +and to insure a firm, sturdy growth. A week +before planting them out they should be +given abundance of air and light to “harden off” the plants +preparatory to setting them in sun and wind.</p> + +<p>The beds should be in a somewhat sheltered place where +they will be partially shaded from the hot midday sun. +Let the soil be well enriched with old manure or humus and +thoroughly worked over to a depth of one foot. During dry +periods the beds will need watering from time to time; but +never water them when the sun is shining full on them, or +the foliage may be scorched. A mulch of leaf-mold or old +manure will be helpful in keeping the soil moist and the +roots cool.</p> + +<p>Before frost the tubers should be carefully taken up and +gradually dried in the shade, after which they are to be +placed in dry sand or earth, in shallow boxes, and kept till +time to start them in the spring. They should be kept +in a cool place, secure from frost and away from stoves or +heating pipes.</p> + +<p>For amateurs it is better to recommend buying bulbs of +the several colors, instead of attempting to grow them from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +seeds, which are extremely small and require early sowing, +warmth and close attention.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 103px;"> +<img src="images/228-tulip.jpg" width="103" height="169" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Tulip as a pot-plant</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="tulips" id="tulips"></a>Tulips</b> are hardy and easy to grow. The advice +given under <a href="#bulbs"><i>Bulbs</i></a>, <a href="#crocus"><i>Crocus</i></a> and <a href="#hyacinths"><i>Hyacinth</i></a> applies to +Tulips. They may be forced for winter bloom (<a href="#window-gardens">see +under <i>Window-Gardens</i></a>). The garden bed will last +several years if well cared for, but most satisfactory +bloom is secured if the old bulbs are taken up every +two or three years and replanted, all the inferior ones +being cast aside. When the stock begins to run +out, buy anew. Plant in October, 4 to 6 inches +deep.</p> + +<p><b>Turnips</b> and <b>Rutabagas</b> are usually a fall +crop, from seed sown in July and early August, +although many kitchen gardens have them from spring +sown seed. The culture is easy. Sow in drills 12 inches +apart. They will become edible in from six to eight weeks. +They are cool-weather crops, and the tops stand much +frost. If maggots bother, do not raise them on the same +land again for three or four years. Bordeaux mixture +repels the flea-beetles. One ounce will sow 150 feet of +drill.</p> + +<p><a name="V" id="V"></a><b>Varieties.</b> It is usually one of the first desires +of the intending planter to inquire about Varieties. It is +one of the secondary things to be considered, however, for +the first thing to do is to prepare the land, to determine +whether one’s soil and site are adapted to the plant in question, +and to discuss other matters of a general nature. +When all the fundamental things are settled, then the +question of Varieties, which is a special matter, may be +taken up. Although the selection of Varieties is a very +special matter, it is nevertheless essential to success or +satisfaction in the growing of any plant.</p> + +<p>It should first be considered that the selection of Varieties +is very largely a personal matter. The man should grow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +the Varieties which he likes. This is especially true in the +selection of Varieties for the home grounds, in which case +the market ideals enter very little into the problem. Having +satisfied one’s own mind as to what kinds of Varieties he +would like, he may then inquire of the neighbors and of experts +if those Varieties are adapted to the soil and climate. +If he intends to grow for market, he should canvass the +market demands thoroughly before choosing the Varieties. +The lists of Varieties in books, bulletins, and seedmen’s +catalogues are hints, not rules. As a general statement, it +may be said that the only way to determine the best variety +for one’s own conditions is to experiment. There is intense +satisfaction in the experimenting itself. The best lists of +Varieties are those which are recommended for some specific +purpose, and which represent the combined opinions of many +expert growers. It is rare that one man’s judgment should +be final, particularly with respect to fruits or plants which +are grown in general outdoor conditions. Under glass a +gardener can make his climate and conditions, and therefore +he can adapt his conditions to his plants. The experiment +station test usually represents but one man’s opinion. +It may be a more valuable opinion than that of another man, +but it is not final. It should be studied in connection with +other lists, particularly those made by practical growers. If +one desires to choose Varieties, therefore, he should consult +the best growers of those plants in his immediate neighborhood; +he should call upon the experiment station of his +state or province; and he should consult the most recent +writings on the subject.</p> + +<p><b>Vegetable Garden.</b> It is one of the choicest +of pleasures to raise one’s own vegetables. Make the Vegetable +Garden ample, but economize labor. Plant the things +in rows, not in beds. Then they can be tilled easily, either +by horse- or hand-tools. Wheel-hoes will accomplish most +of the labor of tillage in a small garden. Have the rows +long, to avoid waste of time in turning and to economize<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +the land. One row can be devoted to one vegetable; or two +or more vegetables of like requirements (as parsnips and +salsify) may comprise a row. Have the permanent vegetables, +as rhubarb and asparagus, at one side, where they will +not interfere with the plowing or tilling. The annual vegetables +should be grown on different parts of the area in succeeding +years, thus practicing something like a rotation of +crops. If radish or cabbage maggots or club-root become +thoroughly established in the plantation, omit for a year or +more the vegetables on which they live.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 258px;"> +<img src="images/230-layout.jpg" width="258" height="81" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Lay-out of a farm Vegetable Garden</p> +</div> + +<p>Make the soil deep, mellow and rich before the seeds are +sown. Time and labor will be saved. Rake the surface frequently +to keep down weeds and to prevent the soil from +baking (<a href="#tillage">see <i>Tillage</i></a>). Radish seeds sown with celery or +other slow-germinating seeds will +come up quickly, breaking the +crust and marking the rows. About +the borders of the Vegetable Garden +is a good place for flowers +to be grown for the decoration +of the house and to give to friends. Along one side of +the area rows of bush fruits may be planted.</p> + +<p>A home Vegetable Garden for a family of six would require, +exclusive of potatoes, a space not over 100 by 150 +feet. Beginning at one side of the garden and running the +rows the short way (having each row 100 feet long) sowings +may be made, as soon as the ground is in condition to work, +of the following:</p> + +<p>Fifty feet each of parsnips and salsify.</p> + +<p>One hundred feet of onions, 25 feet of which may be +potato or set onions, the balance black-seed for summer and +fall use.</p> + +<p>Fifty feet of early beets, 50 feet of lettuce, with which +radish may be sown to break the soil and be harvested before +the lettuce needs the room.</p> + +<p>One hundred feet of early cabbage, the plants for which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +should be from a frame or purchased. Set the plants 18 +inches to 2 feet apart.</p> + +<p>One hundred feet of early cauliflower; culture same as +for cabbage.</p> + +<p>Four hundred and fifty feet of peas, sown as follows:</p> + +<table class="planting" cellpadding="1" summary="Pea planting by type"> +<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td>feet of extra early.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td>feet of intermediate.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td>feet of late.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">100</td> <td>feet of extra early, sown late.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">50</td> <td>feet of dwarf varieties.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>If trellis or brush is to be avoided, frequent sowings of +the dwarfs will maintain a supply.</p> + +<p>After the soil has become warm and all danger of frost +has passed, the tender vegetables may be planted, as +follows:</p> + +<p>Corn in five rows 3 feet apart, three rows to be early and +intermediate, and two rows late.</p> + +<p>One hundred feet of string beans, early to late varieties.</p> + +<p>Vines as follows:</p> + +<table class="planting" cellpadding="1" summary="Vine planting by type"> +<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>hills of cucumbers, 6 x 6 feet.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">20</td> <td>hills of muskmelon, 6 x 6 feet.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">6</td> <td>hills of early squash, 6 x 6 feet.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">10</td> <td>hills of Hubbard, 6 x 6 feet.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>One hundred feet of okra.</p> + +<p>Twenty eggplants. One hundred ft. (25 plants) tomatoes.</p> + +<p>Six large clumps of rhubarb.</p> + +<p>An asparagus bed 25 feet long and 3 feet wide.</p> + +<p>Late cabbage, cauliflower and celery are to occupy the +space made vacant by removing early crops of early and intermediate +peas and string beans.</p> + +<p>A border on one side or end will hold all herbs, such as +parsley, thyme, sage, hyssop, mints.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 179px;"> +<img src="images/232-verbena.jpg" width="179" height="128" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Verbena</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Verbena.</b> The Verbena is one of the most +satisfactory garden plants, blooming early. Bloom continues +through the dry, hot days of summer. As the cool weather +of the fall comes on, Verbenas increase in size of plant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +and flower until killed by severe frost. Plants grown from +seed sown in a hotbed or house early in the spring, transplanted +into pots or boxes when large enough, and planted +out as soon as the ground has become warm, are more vigorous +and seem to have more fragrance than those grown from +cuttings. Many of the strains have become so well fixed +that the colors come true from seed. Cuttings +are often employed, but the handling +of stock plants is a difficult matter except +in the hands of a professional, and when +plants are wanted in quantity it is cheaper +to buy them of the plantsman than to +grow them from seed or attempt to keep +over stock plants. Therefore, for the home garden, seed-grown +plants are usually most satisfactory. Give a sunny +position. Thin to 10 to 15 inches apart each way.</p> + +<p><b>Vinca</b>, or <span class="smcap">Periwinkle</span>. Trailing plants. Useful +in covering unsightly places, for vases, urns or baskets. +Some of the species (as the common evergreen, mat-like +“running myrtle”) are hardy, but the most useful ones need +the protection of a house through the winter. The variegated-leaved +kinds are fine for winter decorations. Propagated +mostly by cuttings. Perennials.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;"> +<img src="images/233-support.jpg" width="175" height="321" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A vine support for a porch</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="vines" id="vines"></a>Vines.</b> The use of Vines for screens and +pillar decorations has increased in the last decade until now +they may be seen in nearly all grounds. The tendency has +been towards using the hardy Vines, of which the ampelopsis, +or Virginia creeper, is one of the most common. It is +a very rapid grower, and lends itself to training more readily +than many others. The Japan ampelopsis (<i>A. tricuspidata</i> +or <i>Veitchii</i>) is a fine clinging Vine, growing very rapidly +when once established, and being brilliantly colored after +the first fall frosts. It clings closer than the other, but is +not so hardy. Either of these may be grown from cuttings +or division of the plants. Two woody twiners of recent +introduction are the actinidia and the akebia, both from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +Japan. They are perfectly hardy, and are rapid growers. +The former has large, thick, glossy leaves, not affected by +insects or disease, growing thickly along the stem and +branches, making a perfect thatch of leaves. +It blooms in June. The flowers, which are +white with a purple center, are borne in clusters, +followed by round or longish edible fruits. +The akebia has very neat cut foliage, quaint +purple flowers, and often bears ornamental +fruit. Other hardy Vines are the wistaria, +clematis, tecoma (or trumpet-flower), aristolochia +(or Dutchman’s pipe), hedera (or ivy), +and loniceras (or honeysuckles).</p> + +<p>Of the tender Vines, the nasturtiums and +ipomœas are the most common, while the +adlumia (<a href="#adlumia">p. 3</a>), balloon vine (<a href="#balloon">p. 28</a>), passion +vine, and the gourds (<a href="#gourds">p. 115</a>), are frequently +used. One of the best of recent introduction +is the annual hop, especially the variegated +variety. This is a very rapid growing Vine, seeding itself +each year, and needing little care. <a href="#hop">See <i>Hop</i>.</a> All the +tender Vines should be planted after all danger of frost +is over.</p> + +<h3><i>ANNUAL HERBACEOUS CLIMBERS</i></h3> + +<h4><i>Tendril-climbers</i></h4> + +<ul> +<li>Adlumia (biennial).</li> +<li>Balloon Vine.</li> +<li>Cobæa.</li> +<li>Gourds.</li> +<li>Nasturtiums.</li> +<li>Sweet Pea.</li> +<li>Wild Cucumber.</li> +</ul> + +<h4><i>Twiners</i></h4> + +<ul> +<li>Beans, Flowering.</li> +<li>Cypress Vine.</li> +<li>Dolichos.</li> +<li>Hop, Japanese.</li> +<li>Ipomœa.</li> +<li>Moonflower.</li> +<li>Morning-glory.</li> +<li>Thunbergia.</li> +<li>Yam, Chinese, or Cinnamon Vine (perennial from a hardy tuber).</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p> + +<h3><i>PERENNIAL WOODY CLIMBERS FOR THE OPEN</i></h3> + +<h4><i>Tendril-climbers</i></h4> + +<ul> +<li>Ampelopsis tricuspidata.</li> +<li>Clematis of many kinds.</li> +<li>Grape of various kinds.</li> +<li>Greenbrier.</li> +<li>Ivy (by roots).</li> +<li>Roses (scramblers).</li> +<li>Trumpet Creeper (by roots).</li> +<li>Virginia Creeper.</li> +</ul> + +<h4><i>Twiners</i></h4> + +<ul> +<li>Actinidia polygama.</li> +<li>Akebia quinata.</li> +<li>Aristolochia, or Dutchman’s Pipe.</li> +<li>Bittersweet, or Celastrus.</li> +<li>Honeysuckles.</li> +<li>Moonseed.</li> +<li>Wistaria.</li> +</ul> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 142px;"> +<img src="images/234-violets.jpg" width="142" height="364" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Violets</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Violet.</b> While the culture of Violets as house-plants +rarely proves successful, there is no reason why a +good supply may not be had elsewhere through the greater +part of the winter and the spring months. A sheltered location +being selected, young plants from runners +may be set in August or September. Have the +ground rich and well drained. These plants will +make fine crowns by December, and often will +bloom before weather sufficiently cold to freeze +them. In order to have flowers through the +winter, it will be necessary to afford some protection +to the plants. This may best be done +by building a frame of boards large enough to +cover the plants, making the frame in the same +way as for a hotbed, four to six inches higher +at the back than the front. Cover the frame +with sash or boards, and as the weather becomes +severe, mats or straw should be placed over +and around the frame to protect the plants from +freezing. Whenever the weather will permit, +the covering should be removed and air admitted, +but no harm will come if the frames are not disturbed +for several weeks. A large amount of sunlight and +a high temperature through the middle of winter are to +be avoided, for if the plants are stimulated a shorter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +period of bloom will result. In April the frame may +be removed, the plants yielding the later part of the crop +without protection. Violets belong with the “cool” plants +of florists. When well hardened off, considerable frost does +not harm them. They should always be kept stocky. Start a +new lot from runner-plants each year. They thrive in a +temperature of 55° to 65°.</p> + +<p><a name="W" id="W"></a><b>Walks.</b> The place for a Walk is where it is +needed. It should go directly between two points. It need +not be straight, but if it is curved, the curve should be +direct. That is, the pedestrian should be conscious that he +is going in the direction in which he desires to go, and is +not making a detour for the simple purpose of following the +walk. Convenience should be the first thing to be considered. +After the Walks have been laid in the most convenient +places, the question of ornamenting the borders may +be considered. It is always well to avoid, so far as possible, +the bisecting of lawns by Walks, as that makes two lawns +where there should be only one. The larger a greensward +can be made to look, the more park-like and natural is the +place. Avoid taking the Walks circuitously around the +borders unless they are laid for the simple purpose of making +a ramble to show off the grounds. All Walks which are +designed for serious use should appear to be necessary, +direct and convenient.</p> + +<p>Some soils which contain considerable loam and sand will +pack with tramping and will make good Walks, but it is +usually necessary to lay some material on the soil. Gravel, +cinders, and the like, may be better than the natural surface; +but in many cases they are worse, since the surface +is loose and is unpleasant to walk on. In Walks which +are on decided slopes, and down which the water is likely to +run, any loose material is very objectionable, since it runs to +the low places. The best material for Walks, all things +considered, is cement, or what is called artificial stone. If +well made, it is as durable as flagging, and is not so likely to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +get out of place. It holds its surface perfectly year +after year.</p> + +<p>The only objection to cement Walks is when they are +more or less temporary, for in such cases they cannot be +moved. There is often very serious difficulty in securing +good cement Walks, but the difficulties are easily overcome. +They are chiefly two: there is not sufficient draining material +beneath the cement; and the cement itself is not made +strong enough. There should be at least a foot of loose +material, as brickbats or cinders, below the cement cover; +and if the place is low and likely to hold water, there should +be still greater drainage. Pound the material down, or let it +stand for some time until it becomes thoroughly settled +together. Then lay the cement in two courses. The first +course may be three or four inches thick and made of well +mixed mortar, comprising three parts Portland cement, +one part water lime, and two to three times as much sharp +sand as Portland. When this has become partially hardened, +but before it is set and while still moist, put on a +finishing layer of one inch, made of one part Portland +cement, one part water lime, and one part sharp sand. It is +important that the materials be very thoroughly mixed. See +that the edges of the walk are made square and true by laying +down a form of boards lengthwise the area before the +cement is put on. The edges should be as thick as the +middle, for a thin crust on the edge tends to snap off. A +walk made in this way on a well-drained foundation will last +almost indefinitely. It is best that it be made in such season +that it can become thoroughly set before frosty weather +comes.</p> + +<p><b>Wallflower.</b> A favorite plant for pots or garden, +having a clove-like fragrance. Seed of most varieties +should be sown the year before wanted. One kind, being an +annual, will flower the same season the seed is sown. Hardy. +Two to 3 feet.</p> + +<p><b>Washing</b> orchard trees is an old practice. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +usually results in making a tree more vigorous. One reason +is that it destroys insects and fungi which lodge underneath +the bark; but probably the chief reason is that it softens the +bark and allows the trunk to expand. It is possible, also, +that the potash from the soap or lye eventually passes into +the ground and affords some plant-food. Trees are ordinarily +Washed with soap suds or with a lye solution. The +material is usually applied with an old broom or a stiff +brush. The scrubbing of the tree is perhaps nearly or quite +as beneficial as the application of the wash itself.</p> + +<p>It is customary to wash trees late in spring or early in +summer, and again in the fall, with the idea that such Washing +destroys the eggs and the young of borers. It no doubt +will destroy borers if they are just getting a start, but it will +not keep away the insects which lay the eggs, and will not +destroy the borers which have found their way underneath +the bark. It is perhaps quite as well to wash the trees very +early in the spring, when they are starting into growth. It +is an old practice to wash trees with strong lye when they +are affected with the oyster-shell bark louse. The modern +method of treating these pests, however, is to spray with +some kerosene compound when the young growth is starting, +for at that time the young insects are migrating to the new +wood and they are very easily destroyed.</p> + +<p><b><a name="watering" id="watering"></a>Watering House Plants.</b> It is impossible to +give rules for the Watering of plants. Conditions that hold +with one grower are different from those of another. Advice +must be general. Give one good Watering at the time of +potting, after which no water should be given until the plants +really need it. If, on tapping the pot, it gives out a clear +ring, it is an indication that water is needed. In the case of +a soft-wooded plant, just before the leaves begin to show +signs of wilt, is the time for Watering. When plants are +taken up from the ground, or when plants have their roots +cut back in repotting, gardeners rely, after the first copious +Watering, on syringing the tops of the plants two or three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +times each day, until a new root-growth has started, Watering +at the roots only when absolutely necessary. Plants that +have been potted into larger pots will grow without the extra +attention of syringing, but those from the borders, that have +had their roots mutilated or shortened, should be placed in a +cool, shady spot and be syringed often. One +soon becomes familiar with the wants of individual +plants, and can judge closely as to need +of water. All soft-wooded plants with a large +leaf-surface need more water than hard-wooded +plants, and a plant in luxuriant growth of any +kind more than a plant that has been cut back +or become defoliated. When plants are grown in living-rooms, +moisture must be supplied from some source, and if +no arrangement has been made for having a moist air the +plants should be syringed often. <a href="#syringing">See <i>Syringing</i>.</a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 162px;"> +<img src="images/238-water.jpg" width="162" height="121" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Watering pot</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Watermelon.</b> The culture of this is essentially +the same as that for muskmelons (<a href="#melon">which see</a>), except +that most varieties require a warmer place and longer period +of growth. Give the hills a distance of from 6 to 10 feet +apart. Choose a warm, “quick” soil and sunny exposure. +It is essential, in the North, that the plants grow rapidly and +come into bloom early. One ounce of seed will plant +thirty hills.</p> + +<p><b>Wax Plant.</b> The Wax Plant, or <span class="smcap">Hoya</span>, is +one of the commonest of window-garden plants, and yet it +is one which people usually have difficulty in flowering. +However, it is one of the easiest plants to manage if a person +understands its nature. It is naturally a summer-blooming +plant, and should rest during the winter time. In the +winter, keep it just alive in a cool and rather dry place. If +the temperature does not go above 50° Fahr., so much +the better; neither should it go much lower. In late winter +or spring, the plant is brought out to warm temperature, +given water and started into growth. The old flower-stems<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +should not be cut off, since new flowers come from them as +well as from the new wood. When it is brought out to be +started into growth, it may be repotted, sometimes into a +size larger pot, but always with more or less fresh earth. +The plant should increase in value each year. In +conservatories, it is sometimes planted out in the +ground and allowed to run over a wall, in which +case it will reach a height of many feet.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 149px;"> +<img src="images/239-weedpuller.jpg" width="149" height="218" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Potato hook and +weed-puller</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;"> +<img src="images/239-fingerweed.jpg" width="164" height="100" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Finger-weeder</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;"> +<img src="images/239-angleweed.jpg" width="169" height="149" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Trowel and angle-weeder</p> +</div> + +<p><b><a name="weeds" id="weeds"></a>Weeds.</b> Many very strong Weeds +are a compliment to one’s soil: only good soil +produces them. But they are not a compliment +to one’s tillage. If the soil is well prepared +and well tilled to conserve moisture and +to unlock plant-food (<a href="#tillage">see <i>Tillage</i></a>), Weeds will +find little chance of growing. Stir the ground +often: it benefits the ground and keeps out +the Weeds. Plant vegetables in long straight +rows rather than in beds, for thereby tillage is +made easier. For beds and for small plants, +the hand-weeders (as shown in the margin) are very efficient. +They save laborious finger-work. Weed seeds are +often distributed in manure, especially if Weeds have been +allowed to grow and ripen on the piles. See +that pernicious Weeds do not seed about the +premises. For the treatment of weedy lawns, +see the article <a href="#lawns"><i>Lawns</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b><a name="windbreaks" id="windbreaks"></a>Windbreaks.</b> There is the greatest +difference of opinion as to the value of Windbreaks +for fruit plantations. These differences +arise from the fact that a Windbreak +may be of great benefit in one place, but a disadvantage +in another. It is always advisable to break the force of +very strong winds, for such winds tend to injure the trees +when laden with fruit or ice, and they blow off the fruit; +and in dry countries they cause the soil to become parched. +If the wind is usually warmer than the area, however, particularly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +in the winter time, it is better not to stop it, but to +allow it to circulate through the plantation. This is the case +in areas which lie close to large bodies of water. The wind +coming off the water is warmer than that off the land, and +tends thereby to protect the fruit plantation from severe cold. +A circulation of air is desirable in late spring and early fall +in order to avoid the still frosts. Therefore, if the area is +very closely surrounded by dense plantations, it may have +what the fruit-growers call “stagnant air;” but thinning out +the Windbreak on one or two sides, or cutting holes through +it, may allow the air to move through, thereby affording atmospheric +drainage and insuring greater immunity from +the light local frosts.</p> + +<p>It is ordinarily better to break the force of the winds than +to stop or deflect them. That is, the Windbreak may be thin +enough to allow the wind to take its normal direction, but its +force is broken. A stone wall or a very dense hedge of +evergreens may cause the wind to rise over the plantation or +to be deflected to one side; and this, in many cases, as already +said, may be a decided disadvantage. The philosophy of +a good Windbreak for fruit plantations may be summed up in +this way: the force of heavy winds should be broken; +warm winds should be allowed to circulate freely through +the plantation; still air should be avoided.</p> + +<p>Ordinarily, one or two rows of deciduous trees are sufficient +protection. When the plantation is very much exposed +to very cold or land winds, a thick evergreen screen +may be a decided advantage. It is usually better to have +the heavy Windbreak on the upper side of the area, so that it +may not interfere with the natural drainage of the cold air +down the slope. In making a Windbreak, it is important +that those trees be chosen which will not become harboring +places for orchard enemies. The wild cherry, for example, +is inveterately attacked by the tent caterpillar, and the wild +crabs and wild plums are likely to breed orchard insects. If +the Windbreak is planted some time in advance of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +orchard, the row of fruit trees next the Windbreak will be +very likely to suffer from lack of moisture and food.</p> + +<p>A different type of Windbreak is that which is desired for +a shelter belt about the home grounds. The matter of atmospheric +drainage does not enter into this problem to any +great extent. Such shelter belt is usually placed at the extreme +edge of the home yard, toward the heaviest or prevailing +wind. It may be a dense plantation of evergreens. +If so, the Norway spruce is one of the best for general purposes. +For a lower belt, the arborvitæ is excellent. Some +of the pines, as the Scotch or Austrian, are also to be advised, +particularly if the belt is at some distance from the +residence. As a rule, the coarser the tree the farther it +should be placed from the house.</p> + +<p>Persons may desire to use the Windbreak as a screen to +hide undesirable objects. If these objects are of a permanent +character, as a barn or an unkempt property, evergreen +trees should be used. For temporary screens, any of the +very large-growing herbaceous plants may be used. Very +excellent subjects are sunflowers, the large-growing nicotianas, +castor beans, large varieties of Indian corn, and +plants of like growth. Very efficient summer screens may +be made with ailanthus, paulownia, basswood, sumac, and +other plants which tend to throw up succulent shoots from +the base. After these plants have been set a year or two, +they are cut back nearly to the ground every winter or +spring, and strong shoots are thrown up with great luxuriance +during the summer, giving a dense screen and presenting +a semi-tropical effect. For such purposes, the roots +should be planted only two or three feet apart. If, after a +time, the roots become so crowded that the shoots are weak, +some of the plants may be removed. Top-dressing the area +every fall with manure will tend to make the ground rich +enough to afford a very heavy summer growth.</p> + +<p><b>Wind Flower.</b> <a href="#anemone">See <i>Anemone</i>.</a></p> + +<p><b><a name="window-gardens" id="window-gardens"></a>Window-Gardens.</b> +<i>The Summer Window<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> Garden</i>.—This +type of gardening is particularly suited to +those who live in the crowded city, where the want of other +space makes the Window-Garden the only one possible.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 158px;"> +<img src="images/242-window.jpg" width="158" height="236" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A summer window ledge</p> +</div> + +<p>Handsomely finished boxes, ornamental tiling, and +bracket work of wood and iron suitable for fitting out windows +for the growing of plants, are on the market; but such, +while desirable, are by no means necessary. A stout pine +box of a length corresponding to the width of +the window, about 10 inches wide and 6 deep, +answers quite as well as a finer box, since it +will likely be some distance above the street, +and its sides, moreover, are soon covered by the +vines. A zinc tray of a size to fit into the +wooden box may be ordered of the tinsmith. +It will tend to keep the soil from drying out so +rapidly, but it is not a necessity. A few small +holes in the bottom of the box will provide +for drainage; but with carefulness in watering +these are not necessary, since the box by +its exposed position will dry out readily during summer +weather, unless the position is a shaded one. In the +latter case provision for good drainage is always advisable.</p> + +<p>Since there is more or less cramping of roots, it will +be necessary to make the soil richer than would be required +were the plants to grow in the garden. The most desirable +soil is one that does not pack hard like clay, nor contract +much when dry, but remains porous and springy. Such a +soil is found in the potting soil used by florists, and it may +be obtained from them at from 50 cts. to $1 a barrel. Often +the nature of the soil will be such as to make it desirable +to have at hand a barrel of sharp sand for mixing with the +soil, to make it more porous and prevent baking.</p> + +<p>Some pot the plants and then set them in the window-box, +filling the spaces between the pots with moist moss. +Again, they are planted directly in the soil. The former +method, as a general rule, is to be preferred in the winter +Window-Garden; the latter during the summer.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +The plants most valuable for the purpose are those of +drooping habit, such as lobelias, tropæolums, <i>Othonna +crassifolia</i>, Kenilworth ivy, and sweet alyssum. Such +plants may occupy the front row, while back of them may be +the erect-growing plants, like geraniums, heliotropes, +begonias, etc.</p> + +<p>Just what plants will be most suitable will depend on +the exposure. For the shady side of the street, the more +delicate kinds of plants may be used. For full exposure to +the sun, it will be necessary to select the more vigorous-growing +kinds. In the latter position, suitable plants for +drooping would be: *tropæolums, *passifloras, the single +petunias, sweet alyssum, lobelias, verbenas, mesembryanthemums. +For erect-growing plants: geraniums, heliotropes, +etc. If the position is a shaded one, the drooping +plants might be of the following: tradescantia, Kenilworth +ivy, *senecio or parlor ivy, sedums, *moneywort, vinca, +*smilax, *lygodium or climbing fern. Erect-growing +plants would be dracænas, palms, ferns, coleus, centaurea, +spotted calla, and others.</p> + +<p>For shady situations the main dependence is upon plants +of graceful form or handsome foliage; while for the sunny +window the selection may be of blooming plants. Of the +plants above mentioned for these two positions, those +marked with an asterisk (*) are of climbing habit, and may +be trained up about the sides of the window. Others will be +found among the climbing plants mentioned under <a href="#vines"><i>Vines</i></a>, +<a href="#annuals"><i>Annuals</i></a> and <a href="#basket_plants"><i>Basket Plants</i></a>.</p> + +<p>After the plants have filled the earth with roots, it will be +desirable to give the surface of the soil among the plants a +very light sprinkling of bone-dust or a thicker coating of +rotted manure from time to time during the summer; or instead +of this, a watering with weak liquid manure about +once a week. This is not necessary, however, until the +growth shows that the roots have about exhausted the soil.</p> + +<p>In the fall the box may be placed on the inside of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> +window. In this case it will be desirable to thin out the +foliage somewhat, shorten in some of the vines, and perhaps +remove some of the plants. It will also be desirable to +give a fresh coating of rich soil. Increased care will be +necessary, also, in watering, since the plants will have less +light than previously, and, moreover, there may be no provision +for drainage.</p> + +<p><i>The Winter Window-Garden</i> may consist simply of a jardiniere, +or a few choice pot-plants on a stand at the window, +or of a considerable collection, with more or less elaborate +arrangements for their accommodation in the way of box, +brackets, shelves and stands. Expensive arrangements +are by no means necessary, nor is a large collection. The +plants and flowers themselves are the main consideration, +and a small collection well cared for is better than a large +one unless it can be easily accommodated and kept in +good condition.</p> + +<p>The window for plants should have a southern, south-eastern +or eastern exposure. Plants need all the light they +can get in the winter, especially those which are expected +to bloom. The window should be tight-fitting. +Shutters and a curtain will be an advantage in cold +weather.</p> + +<p>Plants like a certain uniformity in conditions. It is very +trying on them, and often fatal to success, to have them snug +and warm one night and shivering in a temperature only +a few degrees above freezing the next. Some plants will +live in spite of it, but they cannot be expected to prosper. +Those whose rooms are heated with steam, hot water or hot +air will have to guard against keeping rooms too warm +fully as much as keeping them too cool. Rooms in brick +dwellings that have been warm all day, if shut up and made +snug in the evening will often keep warm over night without +heat except in the coldest weather. Rooms in frame +dwellings, and exposed on all sides, soon cool down.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to grow plants in rooms lighted by gas, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +the burning gas vitiates the atmosphere. Most living-rooms +have too dry air for plants. In such cases the bow window +may be set off from the room by glass doors; one then has a +miniature conservatory.</p> + +<p>While keeping the plants at a suitable temperature, we +must not forget that plants love moisture, or a humid atmosphere, +and that our living-rooms ordinarily are very dry. A +pan of water on the stove or on the register and damp moss +among the pots, will afford plants the necessary humidity.</p> + +<p>The foliage will need cleansing from time to time to free +it from dust. A bath tub provided with +a ready outlet for the water is an excellent +place for this purpose. The plants +may be turned on their sides and supported +on a small box above the bottom +of the tub. Then they may be freely +syringed without danger of making the +soil too wet. It is usually advisable not +to wet the flowers, however, especially +the white waxen kinds, like hyacinths. +The foliage of Rex begonias should be +cleansed with a piece of dry or only +slightly moist cotton. But if the leaves +can be quickly dried off by placing them in the open air +on mild days, or moderately near the stove, the foliage may +be syringed.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 196px;"> +<img src="images/245-windowbox.jpg" width="196" height="242" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">A window-box</p> +</div> + +<p>The window-box in the room will be seen near at hand, +so may be more or less ornamental in character. The sides +may be covered with ornamental tile held in place by moulding; +or a light lattice-work of wood surrounding the box +is pretty. But a neatly made and strong box of about the +dimensions mentioned on <a href="#Page_242">page 242</a>, with a strip of moulding +at the top and bottom, answers just as well; and if painted +green, or some neutral shade, only the plants will be seen or +thought of. Brackets, jardinieres and stands may be purchased +of any of the larger florists.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +The window-box may consist of merely the wooden box; +but a preferable arrangement is to make it about eight +inches deep instead of six, then have the tinsmith make a +zinc tray to fit the box. This is provided with a false +wooden bottom, with cracks for drainage, two inches +above the real bottom of the tray. The plants will then +have a vacant space below them into which drainage water +may pass. Such a box may be thoroughly watered as the +plants require without danger of the water running on the +carpet. Of course, a faucet should be provided at some +suitable point on a level with the bottom of the tray, to +permit of its being drained every day or so if the water +tends to accumulate. It would not do to allow the water to +remain long; especially should it never rise to the false +bottom, as then the soil would be kept too wet.</p> + +<p>Some persons attach the box to the window, or support it +on brackets attached below the window-sill; but a preferable +arrangement is to support the box on a low and light +stand of suitable height provided with rollers. It may then +be drawn back from the window, turned around from time to +time to give the plants light on all sides, or turned with the +handsome side in as may be desired, and so on.</p> + +<p>Often the plants are set directly in the soil; but if they +are kept in pots they may be rearranged, changed about to +give those which need it more light, etc. Larger plants +which are to stand on shelves or brackets may be in porous +earthenware pots; but the smaller ones which are to fill the +window-box may be placed in heavy paper pots. The sides +of these are flexible, and the plants in them therefore may +be crowded close together with great economy in space. +When pots are spaced, damp sphagnum or other moss among +them will hold them in place, keep the soil from drying out +too rapidly, and at the same time give off moisture, so +grateful to the foliage.</p> + +<p>In addition to the stand, or box, a bracket for one or +more pots on either side of the window, about one-third or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +half way up, will be desirable. The bracket should turn on +a basal hinge or pivot, to admit of swinging it forward or +backward. These bracket plants usually suffer for moisture, +and are rather difficult to manage.</p> + +<p>Florists now usually grow plants suitable for Window-Gardens +and winter flowering, and any intelligent florist, if +asked, will take pleasure in making out a suitable collection. +The plants should be ordered early in the fall; the +florist will then not be so crowded for time and can give the +matter better attention.</p> + +<p>Most of the plants suitable for the winter Window-Garden +belong to the groups which florists grow in their medium and +cool houses. The former are given a night temperature of +about 60°, the latter about 50°. In each case the temperature +is 10 to 15° higher for the daytime. Five degrees of variation +below these temperatures will be allowable without any +injurious effects; even more may be borne, but not without +more or less check to the plants. In bright, sunny weather +the day temperature may be higher than in cloudy and +dark weather.</p> + +<h3><i>PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE +OF 60°</i></h3> + +<p><i>Upright flowering plants.</i>—Abutilons, browallias, calceolaria +“Lincoln Park,” begonias, bouvardias, euphorbias, +scarlet sage, richardia or calla, heliotropes, fuchsias, +Chinese hibiscus, jasmines, single petunias, swainsona, +billbergia, freesias, geraniums, cupheas.</p> + +<p><i>Upright foliage plants.</i>—Muehlenbeckia, <i>Cycas revoluta</i>, +<i>Dracæna fragrans</i> and others, palms, cannas, <i>Farfugium +grande</i>, achyranthes, ferns, araucaria, epiphyllums, pandanus +or “screw pine,” <i>Pilea arborea</i>, <i>Ficus elastica</i>, +<i>Grevillea robusta</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Climbing plants.</i>—<i>Asparagus tenuissimus</i>, <i>A. plumosus</i>, +<i>Cobæa scandens</i>, smilax, Japanese hop, Madeira vine (Boussingaultia),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +<i>Senecio mikanioides</i> and <i>S. macroglossus</i> (parlor +ivies). See also list below.</p> + +<p><i>Low-growing, trailing, or drooping plants.</i>—These may be +used for baskets and edgings. Flowering kinds are: Sweet +alyssum, lobelia, <i>Fuchsia procumbens</i>, mesembryanthemum, +<i>Oxalis pendula</i>, <i>O. floribunda</i> and others, <i>Russelia juncea</i>, +<i>Mahernia odorata</i> or honey-bell.</p> + +<p><i>Foliage plants of drooping habit.</i>—Vincas, <i>Saxifraga sarmentosa</i>, +Kenilworth ivy, tradescantia or Wandering Jew, +<i>*Festuca glauca</i>, othonna, <i>*Isolepsis gracilis</i>, English ivy, +<i>Selaginella denticulata</i> and others. Some of these plants +flower quite freely, but the flowers are small and of secondary +consideration. Those with an asterisk (*) droop but +slightly.</p> + +<h3><i>PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE +OF 50°</i></h3> + +<p><i>Upright flowering plants.</i>—Azaleas, cyclamens, carnations, +chrysanthemums, geraniums, Chinese primroses, +stevia, marguerite or Paris daisy, single petunias, <i>Anthemis +coronaria</i>, camellias, ardisia (berries), cineraria, violets, +hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, the Easter lily when in bloom, +and others.</p> + +<p><i>Upright foliage plants.</i>—Pittosporum, palms, aucuba, +euonymus (golden and silvery variegated), araucaria, pandanus, +dusty miller.</p> + +<p><i>Climbing plants.</i>—English ivy, maurandia, senecio or +parlor ivy, lygodium (climbing fern).</p> + +<p><i>Drooping or trailing plants.</i>—Flowering kinds are: Sweet +alyssum, <i>Mahernia odorata</i>, Russelia and ivy geranium.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 210px;"> +<img src="images/249-windowgard.jpg" width="210" height="326" alt="" title="" /> +<p class="caption">Window-garden</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Bulbs in the Window-Garden.</i>—The single Roman hyacinth +is an excellent house plant. Its flowers are small, but +they are graceful and especially well suited for cutting. The +bulbs are easily forced, and are managed like other hyacinths. +The secret of forcing the Dutch bulbs and most +others is to pot them and then, after watering the pots,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +set them away in a cool, dark place until the pot is filled +with roots. They may be placed in the cellar “to root up,” +or be buried 3 or 4 inches deep in the soil. It is well to +delay potting them until such time as +they can be kept cool while forming +their roots. A temperature of about 40° +to 45° suits them during this period. In +most cases it is well to select pots 5 or 6 +inches in diameter and place from three +to six bulbs in a pot, according to the +size of the bulbs and the plants. The +pot having been filled with soil, it is only +necessary to press them down till the +tip, or about one-fourth, shows above +the soil. After this a slight jarring or +sharp rap will settle the soil. They are +then watered and set away, as before +mentioned. If kept dark and cool they +will need no more watering until they +are brought out and begin to grow, when they may be +watered freely.</p> + +<p>Hyacinths, tulips and narcissus all require about the +same treatment. When well rooted, which will be in six or +eight weeks, they are brought out and given a temperature +of some 55° to 60° till the flowers appear, when they should +be kept in a cooler temperature, say 50°.</p> + +<p>The Easter lily is managed the same way, only, to hasten +its flowers, it should be kept at not lower than 60° at +night. Warmer will be better. Lilies may be covered an +inch or more deep.</p> + +<p>Freesias may be potted six or more in a pot of mellow +soil, and then started into growth at once. At first they +might be given a night temperature of 50°, and 55° to 60° +when they have begun to grow.</p> + +<p>Bulbs like the snowdrop and crocus are planted several +or a dozen in a pot and buried, or treated like hyacinths;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +but they are very sensitive to heat, and require only to be +given the light when they have started to grow, without any +forcing. Forty to 45° will be as warm as they ever need be +kept. See the article on <a href="#bulbs"><i>Bulbs</i></a>; also, the advice given for +the various plants under their respective names.</p> + +<p><i>Pests.</i>—Window-Garden pests are discussed under <a href="#insects"><i>Insects</i></a>.</p> + +<p><b>Winter-killing</b> is induced by a late fall growth, +and also by a dry, unprotected soil. All tender woody plants +should be well ripened before cold weather comes: cease +tillage early: do not apply stimulating manures late in the +season. Mulch all tender or half hardy plants (<a href="#mulch">see <i>Mulch</i></a>). +Even hardy plants are benefited by a mulch. When possible, +it is better to bend plants to the ground and cover +them than to wrap them up as they stand; but this cannot +be done with tall or stiff subjects. Wrapping in straw or +burlaps affords excellent protection, but it is possible to +wrap too heavily. A barrel, less the heads, may be set over +small plants and then filled with leaves or other loose litter; +or a cylinder of wire chicken-screen may be substituted for +the barrel. Remove the protection in the spring before the +buds start. See that mice do not nest in the barrel or +in the mulch.</p> + +<p><a name="Z" id="Z"></a><b>Zinnia.</b> Showy hardy annuals. The old formal +type of Zinnias has given place to a race of freer forms +which are excellent plants either for color effect or for +cutting. The colors have been varied and brightened, the +flowers doubled and the plants dwarfed. Seed should be +sown in a hotbed or house in March, transplanted once at +least before planting out, and set in well enriched soil. Or, +the seed may be sown where the plants are to grow. The +tall varieties (3 feet) should stand 18 to 24 inches apart. +These are best for masses at a distance.</p> + +<div id="ads"> + +<div id="bbox"> +<p class="adhead"><i>The Best and Newest +Rural Books</i></p> + +<p class="sm">BOOKS ON LEADING TOPICS +CONNECTED WITH AGRICULTURAL +AND RURAL +LIFE ARE HERE MENTIONED. +EACH BOOK IS THE WORK +OF A SPECIALIST, UNDER THE +EDITORIAL SUPERVISION OF +PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY, OF +THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY, +OR BY PROFESSOR BAILEY +HIMSELF, AND IS READABLE, +CLEAR-CUT AND PRACTICAL.</p> +</div> + +<p class="adhead">THE RURAL SCIENCE SERIES</p> + +<p>Includes books which state the underlying principles +of agriculture in plain language. They are suitable +for consultation alike by the amateur or professional +tiller of the soil, the scientist or the student, and are +freely illustrated and finely made.</p> + +<p>The following volumes are now ready:</p> + +<div class="adlist"> +<p><b>THE SOIL.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. H. King</span>, of the University of Wisconsin. 303 pp. 45 +illustrations. 75 cents.</p> + +<p><b>THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND.</b> By <span class="smcap">I. P. Roberts</span>, of Cornell University. +Fifth edition. 421 pp. 45 illustrations. $1.25.</p> + +<p><b>THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS.</b> By <span class="smcap">E. G. Lodeman</span>, late of Cornell University. +399 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.00.</p> + +<p><b>MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. H. Wing</span>, of Cornell University. +Fifth edition. 311 pp. 43 illustrations. $1.00.</p> + +<p><b>THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. Fourth +edition. 516 pp. 120 illustrations. $1.25.</p> + +<p><b>BUSH-FRUITS.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. W. Card</span>, of Rhode Island College of Agriculture +and Mechanic Arts. Second edition. 537 pp. 113 illustrations. $1.50.</p> + +<p><b>FERTILIZERS.</b> By <span class="smcap">E. B. Voorhees</span>, of New Jersey Experiment Station. +Third edition. 332 pp. $1.00.</p> + +<p><b>THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. Third edition. +300 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.25.</p> + +<p><b>IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. H. King</span>, University of Wisconsin. +502 pp. 163 illustrations. $1.50.</p> + +<p><b>THE FARMSTEAD.</b> By <span class="smcap">I. P. Roberts</span>. 350 pp. 138 illustrations. $1.25.</p> + +<p><b>RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE.</b> By <span class="smcap">George T. Fairchild</span>, Ex-President +of the Agricultural College of Kansas. 381 pp. 14 charts. $1.25.</p> + +<p><b>THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span> +468 pp. 144 illustrations. $1.25.</p> + +<p><b>THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS.</b> By <span class="smcap">W. H. Jordan</span>, of New York State +Experiment Station. 450 pp. $1.25 net.</p> + +<p><b>FARM POULTRY.</b> By <span class="smcap">George C. Watson</span>, of Pennsylvania State College. +341 pp. $1.25 net.</p> +</div> + +<p>New volumes will be added from time to time to +the <span class="smcap">Rural Science Series</span>. The following are in +preparation:</p> + +<div class="adlist"> +<p>PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By <span class="smcap">J. C. Arthur</span>, Purdue University.</p> + +<p>THE PRINCIPLES OF STOCK BREEDING. By <span class="smcap">W. H. Brewer</span>, of Yale +University.</p> + +<p>PLANT PATHOLOGY. By <span class="smcap">B. T. Galloway</span> and associates, of U. S. Department +of Agriculture.</p> + +<p>CARE OF ANIMALS. By <span class="smcap">N. S. Mayo</span>, of Connecticut Agricultural College.</p> + +<p>THE POME FRUITS (Apples, Pears, Quinces). By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>.</p> + +<p>THE FARMER’S BUSINESS HANDBOOK. By <span class="smcap">I. P. Roberts</span>, of Cornell +University.</p> +</div> + +<p class="adhead">THE GARDEN-CRAFT SERIES</p> + +<p>Comprises practical hand-books for the horticulturist, +explaining and illustrating in detail the various +important methods which experience has demonstrated +to be the most satisfactory. They may be +called manuals of practice, and though all are prepared +by Professor <span class="smcap">Bailey</span>, of Cornell University, +they include the opinions and methods of successful +specialists in many lines, thus combining the +results of the observations and experiences of numerous +students in this and other lands. They are +written in the clear, strong, concise English and in +the entertaining style which characterize the author. +The volumes are compact, uniform in style, clearly +printed, and illustrated as the subject demands. +They are of convenient shape for the pocket, and +are substantially bound in flexible green cloth.</p> + +<div class="adlist"> +<p><b>THE HORTICULTURIST’S RULE-BOOK.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. Fourth +edition. 312 pp. 75 cts.</p> + +<p><b>THE NURSERY-BOOK.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. Fifth edition. 365 pp. 152 +illustrations. $1.00.</p> + +<p><b>PLANT-BREEDING.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. 293 pp. 20 illustrations. $1.00.</p> + +<p><b>THE FORCING-BOOK.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. 266 pp. 88 illustrations. $1.00.</p> + +<p><b>GARDEN-MAKING.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. Fifth edition. 417 pp. 256 illustrations. +$1.00.</p> + +<p><b>THE PRUNING-BOOK.</b> By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. Fourth edition. 545 pp. 331 +illustrations. $1.50.</p> + +<p><b>THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK.</b> By <span class="smcap">C. E. Hunn</span> and <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. +250 pp. Many marginal cuts. $1.00.</p> +</div> + +<p class="adhead2"><b>WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY</b></p> + +<p class="adbook"> +<span class="lg">THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE:</span> +<span class="med-lg">A Collection of Evolution Essays Suggested +by the Study of Domestic Plants.</span> By L. H. +BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture in the Cornell +University.</p> + +<p class="center sm"><b>FOURTH EDITION—515 PAGES—22 ILLUSTRATIONS—$2.00</b></p> + +<p>To those interested in the underlying philosophy +of plant life, this volume, written in a most entertaining +style, and fully illustrated, will prove welcome. +It treats of the modification of plants under +cultivation upon the evolution theory, and its attitude +on this interesting subject is characterized +by the author’s well-known originality and independence +of thought. Incidentally, there is stated +much that will be valuable and suggestive to the +working horticulturist, as well as to the man or +woman impelled by a love of nature to horticultural +pursuits. It may well be called, indeed, a +philosophy of horticulture, in which all interested +may find inspiration and instruction.</p> + +<p class="sm"><span class="smcap">The Survival of the Unlike</span> comprises thirty essays touching +upon The General Fact and Philosophy of Evolution (The Plant +Individual, Experimental Evolution, Coxey’s Army and the Russian +Thistle, Recent Progress, etc.); Expounding the Fact and Causes of +Variation (The Supposed Correlations of Quality in Fruits, Natural +History of Synonyms, Reflective Impressions, Relation of Seed-bearing +to Cultivation, Variation after Birth, Relation between +American and Eastern Asian Fruits, Horticultural Geography, Problems +of Climate and Plants, American Fruits, Acclimatization, Sex +in Fruits, Novelties, Promising Varieties, etc.); and Tracing the +Evolution of Particular Types of Plants (the Cultivated Strawberry, +Battle of the Plums, Grapes, Progress of the Carnation, Petunia, +The Garden Tomato, etc.).</p> + +<p class="adbook pad-t1"><span class="lg">THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE +FRUITS.</span> By L. H. BAILEY, Professor +of Horticulture in the Cornell University.</p> + +<p class="center sm"><b>472 PAGES—125 ILLUSTRATIONS—$2.00</b></p> + +<p>In this entertaining volume, the origin and development +of the fruits peculiar to North America +are inquired into, and the personality of those horticultural +pioneers whose almost forgotten labors +have given us our most valuable fruits is touched +upon. There has been careful research into the +history of the various fruits, including inspection +of the records of the great European botanists who +have given attention to American economic botany. +The conclusions reached, the information presented, +and the suggestions as to future developments, cannot +but be valuable to any thoughtful fruit-grower, +while the terse style of the author is at its best in +his treatment of the subject.</p> + +<p class="sm"><span class="smcap">The Evolution of our Native Fruits</span> discusses The Rise of +the American Grape (North America a Natural Vineland, Attempts +to Cultivate the European Grape, The Experiments of the Dufours, +The Branch of Promise, John Adlum and the Catawba, Rise of +Commercial Viticulture, Why Did the Early Vine Experiments Fail? +Synopsis of the American Grapes); The Strange History of the Mulberries +(The Early Silk Industry, The “Multicaulis Craze,”); Evolution +of American Plums and Cherries (Native Plums in General, +The Chickasaw, Hortulana, Marianna and Beach Plum Groups, +Pacific Coast Plum, Various Other Types of Plums, Native Cherries, +Dwarf Cherry Group); Native Apples (Indigenous Species, Amelioration +has begun); Origin of American Raspberry-growing (Early +American History, Present Types, Outlying Types); Evolution of +Blackberry and Dewberry Culture (The High-bush Blackberry and +Its Kin, The Dewberries, Botanical Names); Various Types of +Berry-like Fruits (The Gooseberry, Native Currants, Juneberry, +Buffalo Berry, Elderberry, High-bush Cranberry, Cranberry, Strawberry); +Various Types of Tree Fruits (Persimmon, Custard-Apple +Tribe, Thorn-Apples, Nut-Fruits); General Remarks on the Improvement +of our Native Fruits (What Has Been Done, What Probably +Should Be Done).</p> + +<p class="adbook pad-t1"><span class="lg">LESSONS WITH PLANTS:</span> +<span class="med-lg">Suggestions +for Seeing and Interpreting Some of +the Common Forms of Vegetation.</span> By L. +H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture in the Cornell +University, with delineations from nature by W. S. +HOLDSWORTH, of the Agricultural College of +Michigan.</p> + +<p class="center sm"><b>SECOND EDITION—491 PAGES—446 ILLUSTRATIONS—12 MO—CLOTH—$1.10 +NET</b></p> + +<p>There are two ways of looking at nature. The +<i>old way</i>, which you have found so unsatisfactory, +was to classify everything—to consider leaves, roots, +and whole plants as formal herbarium specimens, +forgetting that each had its own story of growth +and development, struggle and success, to tell. +Nothing stifles a natural love for plants more effectually +than that old way.</p> + +<p>The new way is to watch the life of every growing +thing, to look upon each plant as a living +creature, whose life is a story as fascinating as the +story of any favorite hero. “Lessons with Plants” +is a book of stories, or rather, a book of plays, for +we can see each chapter acted out if we take the +trouble to <i>look</i> at the actors.</p> + +<p class="sm">“I have spent some time in most delightful examination of it, and the +longer I look, the better I like it. I find it not only full of interest, but +eminently suggestive. I know of no book which begins to do so much to +open the eyes of the student—whether pupil or teacher—to the wealth of +meaning contained in simple plant forms. Above all else, it seems to be +full of suggestions that help one to learn the language of plants, so they +may talk to him.”—<span class="smcap">Darwin L. Bardwell</span>, <i>Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton</i>.</p> + +<p class="sm">“It is an admirable book, and cannot fail both to awaken interest in +the subject, and to serve as a helpful and reliable guide to young students +of plant life. It will, I think, fill an important place in secondary schools, +and comes at an opportune time, when helps of this kind are needed and +eagerly sought.”—Professor <span class="smcap">V. M. Spalding</span>, <i>University of Michigan</i>.</p> + +<p class="center lg">FIRST LESSONS WITH PLANTS</p> + +<p>An Abridgement of the above. <b>117 pages—116 illustrations—40 +cents net.</b></p> + +<p class="adbook pad-t1"><span class="lg">BOTANY:</span> +<span class="med-lg">An Elementary Text for Schools.</span> +By L. H. BAILEY.</p> + +<p class="center sm"><b>355 PAGES—500 ILLUSTRATIONS—$1.10 NET</b></p> + +<p>“This book is made for the pupil: ‘Lessons With Plants’ +was made to supplement the work of the teacher.” This is the +opening sentence of the preface, showing that the book is a +companion to “Lessons With Plants,” which has now become a +standard teacher’s book. The present book is the handsomest +elementary botanical text-book yet made. The illustrations +illustrate. They are artistic. The old formal and unnatural +Botany is being rapidly outgrown. The book disparages mere +laboratory work of the old kind: the pupil is taught to see things +as they grow and behave. The pupil who goes through this book +will understand the meaning of the plants which he sees day +by day. It is a revolt from the dry-as-dust teaching of botany. +It cares little for science for <a name="ad-corr1" id="ad-corr1">science’s</a> sake, but its point of view +is nature-study in its best sense. The book is divided into four +parts, any or all of which may be used in the school: the plant +itself; the plant in its environment; histology, or the minute +structure of plants; the kinds of plants (with a key, and descriptions +of 300 common species). The introduction contains +advice to teachers. The book is brand new from start to +finish.</p> + +<p class="sm">“An exceedingly attractive text-book.”—<i>Educational Review.</i></p> + +<p class="sm">“It is a school book of the modern methods.”—<i>The Dial.</i></p> + +<p class="sm">“It would be hard to find a better manual for schools or for individual +use.”—<i>The Outlook.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 75px;"> +<img src="images/med-line-thin.png" width="75" height="1" alt="Decorative Line" title="" /> +</div> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="med-lg">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</span><br /> +No. 66 Fifth Avenue <span class="smcap pad-l8">New York</span></p> + +<p class="adbook pad-t1"><span class="lg">THE CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN +HORTICULTURE:</span> By L. H. BAILEY, of +Cornell University, assisted by WILHELM MILLER, +and many expert cultivators and botanists.</p> + +<p class="center sm"><b>4 VOLS.—OVER 2800 ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS—CLOTH—OCTAVO +$20.00 NET PER SET. HALF MOROCCO, $32.00 NET PER SET</b></p> + +<p>This great work comprises directions for the cultivation +of horticultural crops and original descriptions +of all the species of fruits, vegetables, flowers +and ornamental plants known to be in the market in +the United States and Canada. “It has the unique +distinction of presenting for the first time, in a carefully +arranged and perfectly accessible form, the best +knowledge of the best specialists in America upon +gardening, fruit-growing, vegetable culture, forestry, +and the like, as well as exact botanical information.... +The contributors are eminent cultivators or +specialists, and the arrangement is very systematic, +clear and convenient for ready reference.”</p> + +<p class="sm">“We have here a work which every ambitions gardener will wish to place +on his shelf beside his Nicholson and his Loudon, and for such users of it a +too advanced nomenclature would have been confusing to the last degree. +With the safe names here given, there is little liability to serious perplexity. +There is a growing impatience with much of the controversy concerning +revision of names of organisms, whether of plants or animals. Those investigators +who are busied with the ecological aspects of organisms, and +also those who are chiefly concerned with the application of plants to the +arts of agriculture, horticulture, and so on, care for the names of organisms +under examination only so far as these aid in recognition and identification. +To introduce unnecessary confusion is a serious blunder. Professor Bailey +has avoided the risk of confusion. In short, in range, treatment and editing, +the Cyclopedia appears to be emphatically useful; ... a work worthy +of ranking by the side of the Century Dictionary.”—<i>The Nation.</i></p> + +<p><b>This work is sold only by subscription, and terms and +further information may be had of the publishers.</b></p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="med-lg">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</span><br /> +No. 66 Fifth Avenue<span class="pad-l8">NEW YORK</span></p> +</div> + +<div id="tn"> +<h2>Transcriber’s Note:</h2> + +<p>Extra, missing, or misprinted punctuation has been corrected without +note. Variation in hyphenation (e.g. house plants vs. house-plants), and +capitalization in some botanical names has been left as in the original.</p> + +<p>The following changes were made to the text:</p> + +<ul> +<li><a href="#Page_9">p. 9</a>: couservatory to conservatory</li> +<li><a href="#Page_12">p. 12</a>: Burridgianum to Burridgeanum (Cosmidium Burridgeanum)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_13">p. 13</a>: autumnale to autumnalis (Adonis autumnalis.)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_13">p. 13</a>: Callirrhöe to Callirrhoë</li> +<li><a href="#Page_23">p. 23</a>: herbacous to herbaceous</li> +<li><a href="#Page_41">p. 41</a>: Beaumé to Baumé (26° Baumé)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_55">p. 55</a>: batchelor’s to bachelor’s (bachelor’s buttons)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_56">p. 56</a>: Callirhoë to Callirrhoë</li> +<li><a href="#Page_89">p. 89</a>: rocommended to recommended (the treatment recommended for Crocus)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_122">p. 122</a>: establishd to established (when well established)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_132">p. 132</a>: 80,° to 80°, (begins to fall below 80°,)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_133">p. 133</a>: witholding to withholding (gradually withholding water)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_207">p. 207</a>: seed to seeds (six seeds in each hill)</li> +<li><a href="#Page_233">p. 233</a>: ipomeas to ipomœas and Ipomea to Ipomœa</li> +<li><a href="#Page_233">p. 233</a>: Cobea to Cobæa</li> +<li><a href="#ad-corr1">Advertisements (end of book</a>): science’ to science’s (science for +science’s sake) and the repeated headings “WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY” removed.</li> +</ul> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Practical Garden-Book, by +C. 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mode 100644 index 0000000..b4c9b85 --- /dev/null +++ b/34602.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9581 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Practical Garden-Book, by C. E. Hunn and L. H. Bailey + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Practical Garden-Book + Containing the Simplest Directions for the Growing of the + Commonest Things about the House and Garden + +Author: C. E. Hunn + L. H. Bailey + +Release Date: December 8, 2010 [EBook #34602] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, S.D., and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + The Garden-Craft Series + EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY + + +THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK + + + + + THE + PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK + + _CONTAINING THE SIMPLEST DIRECTIONS + FOR THE GROWING OF THE COMMONEST + THINGS ABOUT THE HOUSE AND GARDEN_ + + BY + + C. E. HUNN + + AND + + L. H. BAILEY + + _THIRD EDITION_ + + New York + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. + 1903 + _All rights reserved_ + + + COPYRIGHT, 1900 + BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + + *** + + Set up and electrotyped March, 1900 + Reprinted February, 1901, and June, 1903 + + Mount Pleasant Press + J. Horace McFarland Company + Harrisburg, Pennsylvania + + + + +Like the love of music, books and pictures, the love of gardens comes +with culture and leisure and with the ripening of the home life. The +love of gardens, as of every other beautiful and refining thing, must +increase to the end of time. More and more must the sympathies enlarge. +There must be more points of contact with the world. Life ever becomes +richer. Gardening is more than the growing of plants: it is the +expression of desire. + +As there must be many gardeners, so there must be many books. There must +be books for different persons and different ideals. The garden made by +one's own hands is always the best garden, because it is a part of +oneself. A garden made by another may interest, but it is another +person's individuality. A poor garden of one's own is better than a good +garden in which one may not dig. Many a poor soul has more help in a +plant in the window than another has in a plantation made by a gardener. + +I would emphasize the home garden, made by the members of the family. I +would preach the beauty of the common plants and the familiar places. +These things are never old. Many times I have noted how intently an +audience of plant-lovers will listen to the most commonplace details +respecting the cultivation of plants with which they have been always +familiar. There was nothing new in what they heard; but they liked to +have the old story told over again, and every detail called up a memory. + +The same questions are asked every year, and they always will be +asked,--the questions about the simplest garden operations. Upon this +desire for commonplace advice the horticultural journals live. A journal +which publishes only things that are new would find little support. Some +of these common questions I have tried to answer in this little book. I +wish them answered in the simple and direct phrase of the gardener. +Therefore I asked my friend C. E. Hunn, gardener to the Horticultural +Department of Cornell University, who lives with plants, to write advice +for one who would make a garden; and this he did in a summer vacation. +These notes, edited and amplified, now make this book. + + L. H. BAILEY. + + HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT, + CORNELL UNIVERSITY. + ITHACA, N. Y., February 22, 1900. + + + + +THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK + +*** + + +ABOBRA VIRIDIFLORA. A handsome tender climber with tuberous roots, that +may be taken up in the fall and stored in a cellar. The foliage is dark +and glossy, the flowers small and inconspicuous; but the small scarlet +fruits are very effective in contrast to the leaves, making it a +desirable screen plant. It is sold by seedsmen. Seeds sown as soon as +warm weather comes will give plants which bloom in the open (in a warm +soil and exposure), and which reach a height of 5-8 ft. It is sometimes +grown as a glasshouse plant. It is cucurbitaceous (allied to melons and +gourds). + + +ABRONIA. Californian trailing perennials, but treated as hardy annuals. +They thrive in any warm, open garden soil, and are very satisfactory for +the margins of beds or borders. The little flowers are borne in +clusters. _A. latifolia_ or _arenaria_ (yellow) and _A. umbellata_ or +_grandiflora_ (pink) are the leading kinds. Usually sown where they are +to bloom. Peel the husk off the seed before sowing. + + +[Illustration: Abutilon striatum] + +ABUTILONS, or FLOWERING MAPLES as they are called by many, make fine +house or bedding plants. Common kinds may be grown from seed or from +cuttings of young wood. If the former, the seed should be sown in +February or March in a temperature of not less than 60 deg. The seedlings +should be potted when from four to six leaves have grown, in a rich, +sandy soil. Frequent pottings should be made to insure a rapid growth, +making plants large enough to flower by fall. Or, the seedlings may be +planted out in the border when danger of frost is over, and taken up in +the fall before frost: these plants will bloom all winter. About +one-half of the newer growth should be cut off when they are taken up, +as they are very apt to spindle up when grown in the house. When grown +from cuttings, young wood should be used, which, after being well +rooted, may be treated in the same manner as the seedlings. The +varieties with variegated leaves have been improved until the foliage +effects are equal to the flowers of some varieties; and, these are a +great addition to the conservatory or window garden. The staple +spotted-leaved type is _A. Thompsoni_. A compact form, now much used for +bedding and other outdoor work, is _Savitzii_, which is a horticultural +variety, not a distinct species. The old-fashioned green-leaved _A. +striatum_, from which _A. Thompsoni_ has probably sprung, is one of the +best. _A. megapotamicum_ or _vexillarium_ is a trailing or drooping +red-and-yellow-flowered species, which is excellent for baskets. It +propagates readily from seed. Abutilons are most satisfactory for house +plants when they are not much more than a year old. They need no special +treatment. + + +ACONITUM. MONK'S HOOD. WOLF'S BANE. Hardy herbaceous perennials allied +to larkspurs. They are showy border plants, usually flowering the first +year from seed, if the seed is started early, and bearing panicles of +quaint hood-shaped, rich flowers. The colors have a wide range, but are +usually deep blue. The improved varieties are much superior in size and +markings. Aconitums are most effective when planted in a mixed border: +the flower stalks being held well up, show the blossoms to good +advantage. Seed may be sown every two years, as the plants in their +year-old and 2-year-old stage have the largest blossoms. Sow in gentle +heat in March, transplanting to border when the weather is settled. +Roots may be divided if desired, but best results are to be expected +from seedlings. _A. Napellus_ is the commonest one. The plants are very +poisonous if eaten. Bloom in early summer. 2-3 ft. + + +ACROCLINIUM. A low-growing everlasting annual flower, white, violet, or +rose in color. Seeds should preferably be started in a hotbed or window, +and planted out when danger of frost is past; the flowers should be +gathered when half expanded and hung in the shade to dry. Half-hardy. +Plant 1 foot apart. Grow 10-15 in. high. See _Everlastings_. + + +[Illustration: Adlumia cirrhosa] + +ADLUMIA. MOUNTAIN FRINGE. ALLEGHENY VINE. One of the daintiest of +climbers, making a very rapid growth, and when once established seeding +itself and thriving for years, growing 10 or 15 feet in a season. Give +rich, rather moist soil. It is biennial, blooming the second year. +Flowers like those of the bleeding heart and other dicentras. It is +native. + + +ADONIS. A low-growing hardy annual or perennial of the easiest culture. +It makes a fine mass effect, as the flowers are a striking dark scarlet +or crimson color, and the plants are very free and continuous bloomers. +Sow early in the spring where wanted. The perennial yellow-flowered +sorts sometimes bloom the first year from seed. Adonises are very neat +in habit, and the foliage is fine and interesting. 10-15 in. + + +AGAPANTHUS. AFRICAN LILY. A tuberous-rooted, well known conservatory or +window plant. It lends itself to many conditions and proves satisfactory +a large part of the year, the leaves forming a green arch over the pot, +covering it entirely in a well grown specimen. The flowers are borne in +a large cluster on stems growing from 2 to 3 ft. high, as many as two or +three hundred bright blue flowers often forming on a single plant. A +large, well grown plant throws up a number of flower-stalks through the +early season. The one essential to free growth is an abundance of water +and an occasional application of manure water. Propagation is effected +by division of the offsets, which may be broken from the main plant in +early spring. After flowering, gradually lessen the quantity of water +until they are placed in winter quarters, which should be a position +free from frost and moderately dry. The Agapanthus, being a heavy +feeder, should be grown in strong loam to which is added well rotted +manure and a little sand. + + +[Illustration: Ageratum] + +AGERATUM. A half-hardy annual, used as a border plant, for ribbon +bedding for mass effect, or in mixed beds of geranium, coleuses and +other plants. The seeds germinate readily, but as the plant is only +half-hardy and is usually wanted in flower when planted out, it is usual +to sow the seed in boxes placed in hotbeds or windows in March, +transplanting the seedlings to small boxes or pots and growing the young +plants on until the 1st of May, when they may be planted out. Pieces of +young wood root very easily, and the gardener usually increases his +stock by cuttings. The dwarf varieties are the most desirable, and the +two colors, blue and white, may be planted together. 2-3 ft. Plants may +be taken up in the fall and set in the house; cut them back severely. + + +ALLEGHENY VINE. See _Adlumia_. + + +ALMOND is about as hardy as the peach, but it blooms so early in the +spring that it is little grown east of the Pacific slope. It is an +interesting ornamental tree, and its early bloom is a merit when the +fruit is not desired. The Almonds commonly sold by nurserymen in the +east are hard-shell varieties, and the nuts are not good enough for +commerce. The Almond fruit is a drupe, like the peach, but the flesh is +thin and hard and the pit is the "Almond" of commerce. Culture the same +as for peach. + +Flowering Almond is a very early-flowering bush, excellent for +shrub-borders. It is usually grafted on plum stock, and one must take +care to keep down the plum sprouts which sometimes spring from the root. + + +ALOE. Succulent tropical plants, sometimes seen in window gardens. Of +easy culture. See that the pots have perfect drainage. Make a soil of +sandy loam, with one-third or one-fourth part of broken brick. Pot +firmly. Water whenever needed, but the soil and drainage should be such +that the earth does not remain soggy or become sour. Aloes thrive year +after year without repotting. Usually propagated by cuttings. _A. +variegata_ is the commonest species. + + +ALONSOA. Tender annual. Not very well known, but a bright plant for +second-row border or a low bedding plant. Planted against shrubbery or +other protection after danger of frost is over, it lightens up a dark +corner. 2-3 ft. Plant 10-15 in. apart, in a warm place protected from +wind. + + +ALSTROMERIA. The Alstromerias belong to the amaryllis family, being +tuberous-rooted plants, having leafy stems and terminating in a cluster +of from 10 to 50 small lily-shaped flowers of rich colors. Most of the +kinds should be given pot culture, as they are easily grown and are not +hardy in the open in the north. The culture is nearly that of the +amaryllis,--a good, fibrous loam with a little sand, potting the tubers +in early spring or late fall. Start the plants slowly, giving only water +enough to cause root growth; but after growth has become established, a +quantity of water may be given. After flowering they may be treated as +are amaryllis or agapanthus. The plants grow 1 to 2-1/2 ft. high. The +flowers often have odd colors. + + +ALTHAEA. See _Hollyhock_. + + +[Illustration: Sweet Alyssum] + +ALYSSUM, SWEET. A low-growing, hardy, white-flowered, very fragrant +annual which is much used for edgings, window boxes, and the like. It is +of the easiest culture in any soil, but thrives best in a garden loam of +moderate fertility. Seeds may be sown as early as the ground can be well +prepared in spring. The plant will begin to bloom when 2 or 3 inches +high, and continue to bloom, as it grows, until after the first hard +frosts. It makes a mat 1 to 2 ft. across. If immediate effects are not +desired, the plants should be thinned out or transplanted to stand half +a foot apart. It rarely stands more than a foot high. In the fall, +plants may be cut back and put into pots or boxes, and they will bloom +in the window. Better results in winter blooming are secured by starting +seeds in boxes in August, September or October. There are certain hardy +perennial yellow-flowered Alyssums which are useful for prominent +edgings and for rockwork. + + +[Illustration: Prince's Feather] + +AMARANTUS. Decorative annuals. One species (with erect spikes) is known +as PRINCE'S FEATHER, another (with variegated foliage) as JOSEPH'S COAT, +and still another (with drooping spikes) as LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. Probably +the finest of the list is _A. salicifolius_, often called Fountain +Plant. This has graceful willow-shaped leaves, banded and tipped with +carmine, bronze and orange. The tall kinds make fine screens for +unsightly objects. They may also be used against masses of green to add +color. The Amaranths are half-hardy or tender plants, and should be sown +in boxes in March or April, to be planted out after all danger of frost +is past. Seeds may also be sown where the plants are to stand. They were +once among the most popular of garden plants, but for a few years have +been neglected. Fine colors have recently been developed, and they are +again becoming favorites. As they are rather coarse and weedy plants, do +not use them with dainty flowers. Most kinds grow 2-3 ft. high and +spread 2-3 ft. + + +AMARYLLIS. Popular name of a variety of house or conservatory tender +bulbs, but properly applied only to the Belladonna Lily. Most of them +are hippeastrums, but the culture of all is similar. They are +satisfactory house plants. The one objection to their culture is the +habit of the flower-stalk starting into growth before the leaves start. +This is caused in most cases by stimulating root growth before the bulb +has had sufficient rest. The bulbs should be dormant for four or five +months in a dry place with a temperature of about 50 deg. When wanted to be +brought into flower, the bulbs, if to be repotted, should have all the +dirt shaken off and potted in soil composed of fibrous loam and +leaf-mold, to which should be added a little sand. If the loam is a +heavy one, place the pot in a warm situation; a spent hotbed is a good +place. Water as needed, and as the flowers develop liquid manure may be +given. If large clumps are well established in 8- or 10-inch pots, they +may be top-dressed with new soil containing rotted manure, and as growth +increases liquid manure may be given twice a week until the flowers +open. After flowering, gradually withhold water until the leaves die. +The most popular species for window gardens is _A. Johnsoni_ (properly a +hippeastrum), with red flowers. + + +AMETHYST. See _Browallia_. + + +AMMOBIUM. A half-hardy perennial everlasting with white flowers. Thrives +best in sandy soil. Sow seeds where plants are to stand. Although +perennial, it blooms the first year from seed, and is usually treated as +an annual. 2-3 ft. high. Plant 12-18 in. apart. + + +AMMONIACAL CARBONATE OF COPPER. See under _Bordeaux Mixture_. + + +ANCHUSA. Hardy annuals and perennials, fit for heavy borders. The plants +grow to the height of 2 to 3 feet and bear purple or blue flowers, which +are showy either on the plant or in bouquets. Propagated from seed sown +in early spring, either where the plants are to stand or in boxes or +hotbeds. The common kind is annual. Blooms in summer. + + +ANEMONE. WIND FLOWER. A group of hardy perennials. The best known of +this genus is _A. Japonica alba_, or Honorine Jobert. This species +blooms from August to November, and is at that season the finest of +border plants. The pure white flowers, with lemon-colored stamens, are +held well up on stalks 2-3 ft. high. The flower stems are long and +excellent for cutting. This species may be propagated by division of the +plants or by seed. The former method should be put into practice in the +spring; the latter as soon as the seeds are ripe in the fall. Sow the +seed in boxes in a warm, sheltered situation in the border or under +glass. The seed should be covered lightly with soil containing a +quantity of sand and not allowed to become dry. A well enriched, +sheltered position in a border should be given. There are red-flowered +varieties. + +[Illustration: Spray of Anemone Japonica] + +The varieties of _A. coronaria_ are tuberous-rooted plants. The tubers +of these should be planted in the fall, late in September or early in +October, in a well enriched, sheltered border, setting the tubers 3 in. +deep and from 4-6 in. apart. The surface of the border should be mulched +with leaves or strawy manure through the severe winter weather, +uncovering the soil in March. The flowers will appear in April or May, +and in June or July the tubers should be taken up and placed in a dry +place in sand until the following fall. This section is not as well +known as it should be. The range of color is very wide. The flowers are +often 2 in. across, and are lasting. These tubers may be planted in pots +in the same manner as in the border, bringing them into the +conservatory or house at intervals through the winter, where they make +an excellent showing when in bloom. + +The little wild Wind Flowers are easily colonized in a hardy border. + + +ANNUALS. The annual flowers of the seedsmen are those which give their +best bloom in the very year in which the seeds are sown. True annuals +are those plants which complete their entire life-cycle in one season. +Some of the so-called annual flowers will continue to bloom the second +and third years, but the bloom is so poor and sparse after the first +season that it does not pay to keep them. + +Most annuals will bloom in central New York if the seeds are sown in the +open ground when the weather becomes thoroughly settled. But there are +some kinds, as Cosmos and Moonflowers, for which our season is commonly +too short to give good bloom. These kinds may be started early in the +house or in hotbeds; and similar treatment may be given any plants of +which it is desired to secure blooms before the normal time. + +[Illustration: A box garden] + +Prepare the ground thoroughly and deep. Annuals must make a quick +growth. See that the soil contains enough humus or vegetable mold to +make it rich and to enable it to hold moisture. If the ground is not +naturally rich, spade in well-rotted manure or mold from the woods. A +little commercial fertilizer may help in starting off the plants +quickly. Prepare the land as early in spring as it is in fit condition, +and prevent evaporation by keeping the surface loose by means of raking. + +If the flowers are to be grown about the edges of the lawn, make sure +that the grass roots do not run underneath them and rob them of food and +moisture. It is well to run a sharp spade deep into the ground about the +edges of the bed every two or three weeks for the purpose of cutting off +any grass roots which may have run into the bed. If beds are made in the +turf, see that they are 3 ft. or more wide, so that the grass roots will +not undermine them. Against the shrub borders, this precaution may not +be necessary. In fact, it is desirable that the flowers fill all the +space between the overhanging branches and the sod. + +Sow the seeds freely. Many will not germinate. Even if they do all +germinate, the combined strength of the rising plantlets will break the +crust on the hard soils; and in the thinning which follows, only strong +and promising plants are allowed to remain. Better effects are also +often secured when the colors are in masses, especially if the flowers +are thrown into the bays of heavy shrub borders. + +[Illustration: Flowers against a border] + +Plants continue to bloom for a longer period if they are not allowed to +produce seeds. The flowers should be picked, if possible, as soon as +they begin to fade. + +In the selection of the kinds of annuals, one's personal preference must +be the guide. Yet there are some groups which may be considered to be +standard or general-purpose plants. They are easily grown almost +anywhere, and are sure to give satisfaction. The remaining plants are +mostly such as have secondary value, or are adapted to particular +purposes or uses. + +The groups which most strongly appeal to the writer as staple or +general-purpose types are the following: Petunias, phloxes, pinks or +dianthuses, larkspurs or delphiniums, calliopsis or coreopsis, pot +marigold or calendula, bachelor's button or _Centaurea Cyanus_, +clarkias, zinnias, marigolds or tagetes, collinsias, gilias, California +poppies or eschscholtzias, verbenas, poppies, China asters, sweet peas, +nemophilas, portulacas, silenes, candytufts or iberis, alyssum, stocks +or matthiolas, morning-glories, nasturtiums or tropaeolums. + +Annual flowers possess a great advantage over perennials in the fact +that they appeal strongly to the desire for experiment. The seeds are +sown every year, and there is sufficient element of uncertainty in the +results to make the effort interesting; and new combinations can be +tried each year. + +Do not cut the old stalks down in the fall. They will stand in the snow +all through the winter, and remind you of the bursting summer time and +the long-ripening fall; and the snow-birds will find them in the short +days of winter. + +Some of the most reliable and easily grown annuals for the north are +given in the following lists (under the common trade names): + +_WHITE FLOWERS_ + + Ageratum Mexicanum album. + Alyssum, Common Sweet. + Alyssum, Sweet, compacta. + Centranthus macrosiphon albus. + Convolvulus major. + Dianthus, Double White Margaret. + Iberis amara. + Iberis coronaria, White Rocket. + Ipomoea hederacea. + Lavatera alba. + Malope grandiflora alba. + Matthiola (Stocks), Cut and Come Again. + Matthiola, Dresden Perpetual. + Matthiola, Giant Perfection. + Matthiola, White Pearl. + Mirabilis longiflora alba. + Nigella. + Papaver (Poppy), Flag of Truce. + Papaver, Shirley. + Papaver, The Mikado. + Phlox, Dwarf Snowball. + Phlox, Leopoldii. + Zinnia. + +_YELLOW FLOWERS_ + + Cacalia lutea. + Calendula officinalis, Common. + Calendula officinalis, Meteor. + Calendula sulphurea. + Calendula suffruticosa. + Calliopsis bicolor marmorata. + Calliopsis cardaminaefolia. + Calliopsis elegans picta. + Cosmidium Burridgeanum. + Erysimum Peroffskianum. + Eschscholtzia Californica. + Hibiscus Africanus. + Hibiscus, Golden Bowl. + Ipomoea coccinea lutea. + Loasa tricolor. + Tagetes, various kinds. + Thunbergia alata Fryeri. + Thunbergia alata aurantiaca. + Tropaeolum, Dwarf, Lady Bird. + Tropaeolum, Tall, Schulzi. + Zinnia. + +_BLUE FLOWERS_ + + Ageratum Mexicanum. + Ageratum Mexicanum, Dwarf. + Browallia Czerniakowski. + Browallia elata. + Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact. + Centaurea Cyanus minor. + China Asters of several varieties. + Convolvulus minor. + Convolvulus minor unicaulis. + Gilia achilleaefolia. + Gilia capitata. + Iberis umbellata. + Iberis umbellata lilacina. + Kaulfussia amelloides. + Kaulfussia atroviolacea. + Lobelia Erinus. + Lobelia Erinus, Elegant. + Nigella. + Phlox variabilis atropurpurea. + Salvia farinacea. + Specularia. + Verbena, Black-blue. + Verbena coerulea. + Verbena, Golden-leaved. + Whitlavia gloxinoides. + +_RED FLOWERS_ + + Cacalia, Scarlet. + Clarkia elegans rosea. + Convolvulus tricolor roseus. + Dianthus, Half Dwarf Early Margaret. + Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual. + Dianthus Chinensis, Double. + Gaillardia picta. + Ipomoea coccinea. + Ipomoea volubilis. + Matthiola annuus (Stocks). + Matthiola, Blood-red Ten Weeks. + Matthiola grandiflora, Dwarf. + Papaver (Poppy) cardinale. + Papaver, Double. + Papaver, Mephisto. + Phaseolus multiflorus. + Phlox, Large-flowering Dwarf. + Phlox, Dwarf Fireball. + Phlox, Black Warrior. + Salvia coccinea. + Saponaria. + Tropaeolum, Dwarf, Tom Thumb. + Tropaeolum, Dwarf. + Verbena hybrida. + Verbena hybrida, Scarlet Defiance. + Zinnia. + +_GOOD FOR EDGINGS OF BEDS AND WALKS_ + + Alyssum, Sweet. + Brachycome. + Collinsias. + Dianthuses or Pinks. + Gypsophila muralis. + Iberis or Candytufts. + Leptosiphons. + Lobelia Erinus. + Nigellas. + Nemophilas. + Portulacas or Rose Moss. + Saponaria Calabrica. + Specularia. + +_KINDS WHICH CONTINUE TO BLOOM AFTER FROST_ + + Abronia umbellata. + Adonis aestivalis. + Adonis autumnalis. + Argemone grandiflora. + Calendulas. + Callirrhoe. + Carduus Benedictus. + Centaurea Cyanus. + Centauridium. + Centranthus macrosiphon. + Cerinthe retorta. + Cheiranthus Cheiri. + Chrysanthemums. + Convolvulus minor. + Convolvulus tricolor. + Dianthus of various kinds. + Elscholtzia cristata. + Erysimum Peroffskianum. + Erysimum Arkansanum. + Eschscholtzias, in several varieties. + Gaillardia picta. + Gilia Achilleaefolia. + Gilia capitata. + Gilia laciniata. + Gilia tricolor. + Iberis affinis. + Lavatera alba. + Matthiolas or Stocks. + Oenothera rosea. + Oenothera Lamarckiana. + Oenothera Drummondii. + Phlox Drummondii. + Podolepis affinis. + Podolepis chrysantha. + Salvia coccinea. + Salvia farinacea. + Salvia Horminum. + Verbenas. + Vicia Gerardii. + Virginian Stocks. + Viscaria elegans. + Viscaria oculata. + Viscaria coeli-rosa. + + +ANTIRRHINUM. See _Snapdragon_. + + +APPLE, the "King of Fruits," thrives over a wider range of territory and +under more varied conditions than any other tree fruit. This means that +it is easy to grow. In fact, it is so easy to grow that it usually is +neglected; and people wonder why the trees do not bear. + +The selection of varieties of Apples for home use is, to a large extent, +a personal matter; and no one may say what to plant. A variety that is +successfully grown in one section may prove disappointing in another. +One should study the locality in which he wishes to plant and choose +those varieties which are the most successfully grown there,--choosing +from amongst the successful kinds those which he likes best and which +seem best to meet the purposes for which he is to grow them. When the +selection is made, the trees should be procured from a near-by +nurseryman, if possible, as one is then able to select his own trees, +receive them in the shortest time, and plant them before they have +become dry. + +The land on which an orchard is to be planted should have been in +cultivation at least two years previous to setting the trees and be in a +fine physical condition. Dig the hole broad and deep enough to take in +all the roots left after pruning off the bruised ends caused by digging +up the tree, and trim back the branches at least two-thirds, making a +smooth cut. Set the trunk in the center of the hole, and sift the fine +dirt down through the roots, slightly lifting the tree once or twice in +order that the fine soil may settle under the roots, making congenial +soil for the new roots to run through. Fill in over the roots, gradually +firming the soil above with the feet. When the hole is full, firm the +soil around the trunk to prevent whipping by the wind, leaving the +surface level. If the trees are set in the fall a slight earthing up to +the trunk may be beneficial in certain soils, and if set in a dry spring +a mulch of straw or grass will benefit them. Two- or 3-year-old trees +(usually the latter) are the most desirable for planting in home +grounds. Commercial orchards are often planted exclusively with +2-year-olds. + +[Illustration: Spray of Apples] + +In orchard cultivation, Apple trees are usually planted 35 to 40 ft. +apart each way. In home grounds they may be placed somewhat closer than +this, especially if they are planted upon the boundaries, so that the +limbs may project freely in one direction. + +It is ordinarily advisable, especially in the humid climates east of the +Great Lakes, to have the body of the tree 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 ft. long. The +limbs should be trimmed up to this point when the tree is set. From +three to five main branches may be left to form the framework of the +top. These should be shortened back one-fourth or one-half when the tree +is set. Subsequent pruning should keep the top of the tree open and +maintain it in more or less symmetrical form. See _Pruning_. + +In orchard conditions, the trees should be kept in clean culture, +especially for the first few years; but this is not always possible in +home yards. In lieu of tillage, the sward may be mulched each fall with +stable manure, and commercial fertilizer may be applied each fall or +spring. If fruit is wanted rather than foliage and shade, care should be +taken not to make ground too rich but to keep it in such condition that +the tree is making a fairly vigorous growth, with good strong foliage, +but is not overgrowing. An Apple tree in full bearing is usually in good +condition if the twigs grow from 10 to 18 in. each season. All +leaf-eating insects may be kept off by spraying with Paris green. The +Appleworm or codlin-moth may be kept in check by spraying with Paris +green as soon as the blossoms fall, and again a week or ten days later. +The leaf blight or apple-scab fungus may be kept in check by spraying +with Bordeaux mixture just before the flowers open, and again after they +fall (see _Spraying_). A close watch should be kept for borers. Whenever +the bark appears to be dead or sunken in patches, remove it and search +for the cause. A borer will usually be found underneath the bark. About +the base of the tree the most serious injury occurs from borers, since +the insect which enters there bores into the hard wood. His presence can +be determined by the chips which are cast from his burrows. The only +remedy is to dig out the larvae. If they have got far into the wood, they +can be killed by running a flexible wire into the burrows. + +Apple trees should begin to bear when three to five years planted, and +at ten years should be bearing good crops. With good treatment, they +should continue to bear for thirty or more years. It is cheaper to buy +trees from the nursery than to attempt to raise them for oneself. + +The dwarf Apples are secured by grafting any variety on the Paradise or +Doucin stocks, which are simply small-growing varieties of Apples. +Dwarfs are much used in the Old World. There is no reason why they +should not be used for home gardens in this country. They may be planted +8 to 10 ft. apart, and trained in various ways. The body or trunk should +not be more than 1 or 2 ft. long. The top should be headed-in each year +a third or a half of the annual growth. Dwarfs bear sooner than +standards. A dwarf in full bearing should produce from a peck to a +bushel of apples. Usually only the finer or dessert variety of Apples +should be grown on dwarf trees. + +Many of the local varieties of Apples are excellent for home use. From +the following list of dessert varieties, one can select a good +assortment for the home garden: + +_Summer._--Early Joe, Primate, Garden Royal, Summer Pearmain, Early +Harvest, Summer Rose, Sweet Bough, Summer Queen, Early Strawberry, +Williams Favorite. + +_Fall._--Chenango, Dyer, Jefferis, Jersey Sweet, Maiden Blush, +Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Mother (late fall to winter), Twenty Ounce. + +_Winter._--Newtown Pippin, Golden Russet, Bellflower, Belmont, King +(late fall S. of N. Y.), Grimes Golden, Melon, Hubbardston (Nonesuch), +Northern Spy, Jonathan, Fameuse or Snow, Lady, Rambo, Canada Red, York +Imperial, Pomme Gris, Esopus Spitzenburg, Swaar, Peck Pleasant, Rhode +Island Greening, Tallman Sweet, Sutton Beauty, Wagener, Seek-no-further. + + +APRICOT. This fruit, usually thought to be too tender for the winters in +the latitude of New York, has proved as hardy as the peach. Given the +right conditions as to soil and exposure, it will yield abundant crops, +ripening its fruits about three weeks in advance of early peaches. It +would seem that more attention should be given to its cultivation. In +western New York commercial orchards are now producing crops of as fine +fruit as that brought from California. The introduction of the Russian +varieties, a few years ago, added to the list several desirable kinds +that have proved hardier and a little later in blooming than the old +kinds. The fruits of the Russian varieties, while not as large as the +other varieties, fully equal many of them in flavor, and they are very +productive. The soil for Apricots should be rather dry; especially +should the subsoil be such that no water may stand around the roots. The +exposure should be to the north or west to retard the blooming period, +as the one great drawback to their successful fruiting is the early +blooming and subsequent freezing of the flowers or small fruits. + +The two serious difficulties in the growing of Apricots are the ravages +of the curculio (see _Plum_) and the danger to the flowers from the +spring frosts. It is usually almost impossible to secure fruits from one +or two isolated Apricot trees, because the curculios will take them all. +It is possible, also, that some of the varieties need cross-pollination. +The Apricot usually thrives best on strong soil; but otherwise the +treatment which is given the peach suits the Apricot very well. The +Russian varieties bear more profusely and with less care than the +old-fashioned and larger kinds. Amongst the best kinds of Apricots are +Montgamet, Jackson, Royal, St. Ambroise, Early Golden, Harris, Roman and +Moorepark. In the east, Apricots are commonly worked on plums, but they +also thrive on the peach. + + +AQUARIUM. A pleasant adjunct to a living room or conservatory is a large +glass globe or glass box containing water, in which plants and animals +are living and growing. A solid glass tank or globe is better than a box +with glass sides, because it does not leak, but the box must be used if +one wants a large Aquarium. For most persons it is better to buy the +Aquarium box than to attempt to make it. Four things are important in +making and keeping an Aquarium (according to Miss Rogers, in Cornell +Nature-Study Leaflet No. 11): + +"(1) The equilibrium between plant and animal life must be secured and +maintained. Animals do not thrive in water where no plants are growing. +Nature keeps plants and animals in the same pond, and we must follow her +lead. The plants have three valuable functions in the Aquarium. First, +they supply food for the herbivorous creatures. Second, they give off a +quantity of oxygen which is necessary to the life of the animals. Third, +they take up from the water the poisonous carbonic acid gas which passes +from the bodies of the animals. Just how the plants do this is another +story. (2) The Aquarium must be ventilated. Every little fish, snail and +insect wants air. A certain quantity of air is mixed with the water, and +the creatures must breathe that or come to the surface for their +supply. How does Mother Nature manage the ventilation of her aquaria, +the ponds and streams? The plants furnish part of the air, as we have +seen. The open pond, whose surface is ruffled by every passing breeze, +is constantly being provided with fresh air. A tadpole or a fish can no +more live in a long-necked bottle than a boy can live in a chimney. (3) +The temperature should be kept between 40 deg. and 50 deg. Fahr. Both +nature and experience teach us this. A shady corner is a better place +for the Aquarium than a sunny window on a warm day. (4) It is well to +choose such animals for the Aquarium as are adapted to life in still +water. Unless one has an arrangement of water pipes to supply a constant +flow of water through the Aquarium, it is best not to try to keep +creatures that we find in swift streams. Practical experience shows that +there are certain dangers to guard against. Perhaps the most serious +results come from overstocking. It is better to have too few plants or +animals than too many of either. A great deal of light, especially +bright sunlight, is not good for the Aquarium. A pond that is not shaded +soon becomes green with a thick growth of slime, or algae. This does not +look well in an Aquarium, and is apt to take up so much of the +plant-food that the other plants are starved out. The plants in the +school-room window will shade the Aquarium nicely, just as the trees and +shrubs on its banks shade the pond. If we find this slime forming on the +light side of our miniature pond we put it in a darker place, shade it +heavily so that the light comes in from the top only, and put in a few +more snails. These will make quick work of the green slime, for they are +fond of it, if we are not." + +The aquatic plants of the neighborhood may be kept in the +Aquarium,--such things as myriophyllums, charas, eel-grass, duckmeats or +lemnas, cabomba or fish grass, arrowleafs or sagittaria, and the like; +also the parrot's feather, to be bought of florists (a species of +myriophyllum). Of animals, there are fishes (particularly minnows), +water insects, tadpoles, clams, snails. If the proper balance is +maintained between plant and animal life, it will not be necessary to +change the water so frequently. + + +AQUATICS AND BOG PLANTS. Many water plants are easily grown, and make a +fine addition to the home garden. The sedges and other bog plants, the +cyperus or umbrella plant, the common wild water lily, and in large +grounds the nelumbium or Egyptian lotus, all may be grown with ease. For +restricted grounds any of these, with the exception of the nelumbium, +may be grown in tubs made by sawing an oaken barrel in two, filling each +half from one-third to one-half with soil composed of good loam, sand +and leaf-mold, setting the plants well into the soil and filling the +tubs with water. These tubs should be sunk to the rim in the borders or +lawn, both for a good appearance and to prevent too great evaporation. +By a little care in filling with water, these plants may be well grown +through the hottest weather. Most of the foreign water lilies are not +hardy, but some of them may be grown with ease if the pond is covered in +winter. + +Native Aquatics may be colonized in streams or ponds. If artificial +ponds are to be made, do not get them too deep. A foot or 15 inches is +sufficient depth of water to stand above the crowns of the plants; and +the greatest depth of water should not be more than 2-1/2 ft. for all +kinds of water lilies. Half this depth is often sufficient. The soil +should be 1 to 2 ft. deep, and very rich. Cow manure may be mixed with +rich loam. Roots of hardy water lilies may be planted as soon as the +pond is clear of frost, but the tender kinds (which are also to be taken +up in the fall) should not be planted till it is time to plant out +geraniums. Sink the roots into the mud so that they are just buried, and +weight them down with a stone or clod. In cold climates, protect the +pond of hardy Aquatics by throwing boards over the pond and covering +with hay, straw or evergreen boughs. It is well to supply an additional +depth of water as a further protection. + + +AQUILEGIA. COLUMBINE. These hardy perennials are general favorites for +borders and rockwork. Blooming early in the season, they may be said to +head the procession of the perennials. The ease with which they may be +cultivated, their freedom of bloom, their varied colors and odd shape +entitle them to the front rank among hardy plants. They are propagated +by division of the plants in the spring or from seed sown in the fall. +Seedlings may be expected to bloom well the second year. They require a +moist, partially sheltered situation, with exposure to the sun. The +common wild Columbine (often called "honeysuckle") is easily grown and +is very attractive. Clumps of Columbine should stand 12-18 in. apart. +2-3 ft. high. + + +ARAUCARIA, or NORFOLK ISLAND PINE, is now sold in pots by florists as a +window plant. The common species (_A. excelsa_) is most excellent for +this purpose, making a symmetrical evergreen subject. It keeps well in a +cool window, or on the veranda in the summer. Protect it from direct +sunlight, and give plenty of room. If the plant begins to fail, return +it to the florist for recuperation. + + +ARGEMONE. See _Prickly Poppy_. + + +ARISTOLOCHIA, or DUTCHMAN'S PIPE. A strong, woody twiner with very +large, heavy leaves, forming a dense screen and having peculiarly shaped +flowers. But one species is considered hardy north, _A. Sipho_. This +will grow without special treatment and prove a satisfactory ornamental +screen or porch plant. Reaches a height of 20 or 30 ft. Young plants +need some protection in cold winters. + + +ARTICHOKE. A tall, coarse perennial of the thistle tribe, producing +flower-heads which are edible. When once established, it will last in +bearing for a number of years. While this plant is not generally grown +in this country, its merit as a supplementary vegetable for salads or +cooking is great. It is usually grown from suckers from the root, but a +start can be made by sowing the seed. Sow in a border or seed box and +transplant to the garden in early summer; and the following year a crop +may be had. The parts of the plant used are the flower-heads and the +young suckers, the former boiled or eaten raw as a salad. The young +shoots may be tied together and blanched, using them like asparagus or +Swiss chard. The fleshy scales of the head and the soft "bottom" of the +head are the parts used. But few of these plants would be needed for a +family, as they produce a number of flower-heads to a plant and a +quantity of suckers. The plants should be set from 2 to 3 ft. apart in +the row, the rows being 3 ft. apart. This vegetable is not quite hardy +in the north, but a covering of leaves or barnyard litter to the depth +of a foot will protect them well. The plant, being a perennial, will +continue to yield for a number of years under good cultivation. These +plants make no mean decorative subjects, either massed or in a mixed +border, and from the rarity of their culture are always objects of +interest. + + +ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM, is a wholly different plant from the above, +although it is commonly known as "Artichoke" in this country. It is a +species of sunflower which produces potato-like tubers. These tubers may +be used in lieu of potatoes. They are very palatable to hogs; and when +the plant becomes a weed--as it often does--it may be exterminated by +turning the hogs into it. Hardy. + + +ARUNDO, or REED, is one of the best of bold and ornamental grasses, +excellent for the center of a large formal bed, or for emphatic points +in a mixed border. It is perennial and hardy in the northern states, but +it is advisable to give it a mulch on the approach of winter. Thrives in +any rich soil, doing best where somewhat moist. 8-12 ft. The clumps +enlarge year by year. + + +ASPARAGUS. A hardy herbaceous perennial, much grown for the soft, +edible, early spring shoots. The culture of this, the finest of early +vegetables, has been simplified in the past few years, and at present +the knowledge required to successfully plant and grow a good supply need +not be that of a professional. The old method of excavating to the depth +of 3 ft. or more, throwing in from 4 to 6 in. of broken stone or bricks +for drainage, then filling to within 16 to 18 in. of the surface with +well rotted manure, with 6 in. of soil upon which to set the roots, has +given place to the simple practice of plowing or digging a trench from +14 to 16 in. deep, spreading well rotted manure in the bottom to the +depth of 3 or 4 in.; when well trodden down covering the manure with 3 +or 4 in. of good garden soil, then setting the plants, with the roots +well spread out, covering carefully with soil to the level of the +garden, and firming the soil with the feet. This will leave the crowns +of the plants from 4 to 5 in. below the surface. In setting, 1-year-old +plants will prove more satisfactory than older ones, being less liable +to suffer from injury to the root system than those which have made a +larger growth. Two years after setting the crop may be cut, but not +sooner if a lasting bed is desired, as the effort to replace the stalks +has a tendency to weaken the plant unless the roots are well +established. The yearly treatment of an Asparagus bed consists of +cleaning off tops and weeds in the fall and adding a dressing of well +rotted manure to the depth of 3 or 4 in., this manure to be lightly +forked into the bed the following spring; or, the tops may be allowed to +stand for winter protection and the mulch left off. A top-dressing of +nitrate of soda, at the rate of 200 pounds per acre, is often beneficial +as a spring stimulant, especially in the case of an old bed. Good +results will also follow an application of bone meal or superphosphate +at the rate of from 300 to 500 pounds per acre. The practice of sowing +salt on an Asparagus bed is almost universal. Still, beds that have +never received a pound of salt are found to be as productive as those +having received an annual dressing. Nevertheless, a salt dressing is +recommended. In stubborn, heavy soil the best method to pursue in making +a permanent bed would be to throw out all the dirt from the trench and +replace with good, fibrous loam. Two rows of Asparagus 25 ft. long and 3 +ft. apart would supply a large family with an abundance throughout the +season, and if well taken care of will last a number of years. Conover's +Colossal is the variety most generally grown, and is perhaps the most +satisfactory sort. Palmetto, a variety originating at the south, is also +very popular. A newer variety, called Donald White, originating near +Elmira, N. Y., is recommended by the trade. + + +ASPERULA. Hardy annuals and perennials. The low-growing Asperula, with +its blue or white flowers, is not as often used as it should be. The +profusion of small flowers and the long season entitle it to a place in +low borders. The flowers have a pleasing fragrance. Asperulas may be +used effectively on rockwork. The common white species, or Woodruff, +grows less than 1 foot. Grown readily from seeds, and blooms the first +year. All Asperulas thrive best in a rather moist soil. + + +ASTERS, CHINA. Half-hardy annuals, of easy culture. The China Aster has +been for years a great favorite in both old-fashioned and modern +gardens. With the improvements in shapes and colors, they are now the +rivals of the chrysanthemum. As early as 1731 single white and red +Asters were grown and described in England, and by 1845 they are +mentioned as being very numerous in New England. The Germans were, +perhaps, the first to improve the Asters, and the type most admired and +sought fifty years ago was the full-quilled varieties. Now, however, the +informal type replaces the stiff, formal quilled flowers of that period. +Compare the Comet Aster of to-day with the Asters of even twenty years +ago, and note the looseness of its broad rays, giving an artistic value +far beyond the tall, stiff, purple-blue or whites of that period. + +[Illustration: China Aster] + +The early Asters will bloom in August if the seed is sown in the open +early in the season. They are represented by the Queen of the Market and +Queen of Spring, either of which, if started in a hotbed or window, will +begin to bloom the last of July. The Queen of the Market is probably the +freest of growth, and with its long stems makes a very desirable variety +for cut-flowers. In fact, in the rich, mellow soil in which Asters +delight, this variety is likely to have its large flowers on stems so +long and slender that the plants will need stakes. + +The Victoria Asters hold a well deserved place among the leading +varieties, and with high culture will generally lead in size and +profusion of bloom, the colors ranging from white to the darkest blue. +The plants are also well adapted to pot culture. The chrysanthemum-flowered +Asters, both tall and dwarf, are excellent, as are the Truffaut +Perfection and Peony-flowered. The Comet Asters are amongst the best. +The New Branching type is now in great favor. + +The culture of China Asters is easy. For early bloom the seeds should be +sown in March in boxes of light soil and covered one-quarter of an inch +with soil, the soil pressed down or firmed over them and the boxes +placed in a hotbed or a sunny window and attention given to watering. +When the seedlings are one inch high they should be transplanted to +other boxes, setting the plants 3 inches apart or put into 2-inch pots. +These should be again placed in a frame and grown along until the ground +has become comparatively warm. The soil will need to be well enriched, +mellow, and if slightly moist under the surface the results will be all +that could be wished. Asters will grow fairly well on rather light soil, +even if not very rich, but the best results can only be obtained when +the highest culture is given. If the rust attacks the plants, spray +with ammoniacal carbonate of copper. + + +[Illustration: Spray of wild Aster] + +ASTER, NATIVE. Wild Asters are one of the glories of the American +autumn. They grow almost everywhere in the north and east,--along +roadsides, in meadows and swales. Their colors range from pure white to +pink, and purple, and blue. From August until winter closes in, they are +conspicuous features of the landscape, vying with the goldenrods in form +and color, but surpassing them in color-range. Most of them are greatly +improved when transferred to the border. They become more attractive in +general habit, and the flowers are usually more profuse and sometimes +larger. They are of the easiest possible culture. They can be removed to +home grounds in the fall or spring, and, with little care until they are +established, will make most attractive displays of autumn color. The +species are numerous and much confused, and it is not necessary to make +a list of them here. Because of their free and careless habit, they are +better adapted to planting in borders than in the formal flower beds. + +[Illustration: Wild Asters] + + +AUBRIETIA DELTOIDEA. A very handsome little trailing hardy perennial, +covered with attractive purple flowers in early spring. Should be +planted in masses for best effect. Propagated by cuttings or seeds, +usually the latter. Excellent for rockwork and permanent low edgings. + + +AURICULA. A half-hardy perennial of the Primrose tribe (_Primula +Auricula_), very popular in Europe, but little grown in this country on +account of the hot, dry summers. In this country usually propagated by +seed, as for Cineraria; but special varieties are perpetuated by +offsets. Seeds sown in February or March should give blooming plants +for the next February or March. Keep the plants cool and moist, and away +from the direct sun during the summer. Gardeners usually grow them in +frames. In the fall, they are potted into 3-inch or 4-inch pots, and +made to bloom either in frames as for violets or in a cool conservatory +or greenhouse. In April, after blooming has ceased, repot the plants and +treat as the previous year. From the best plants, offsets may be taken +and treated the same as seedlings. As with most annual-blooming +perennials, best results are to be expected with year-old or 2-year-old +plants. Auriculas grow 6-8 in. high. Colors white and many shades of red +and blue. + + +AZALEAS are less grown in this country than in Europe, largely because +of our hot, dry summers and severe winters. There are two common types +or classes,--the hardy or Ghent Azaleas, and the Indian Azaleas. + +Ghent Azaleas thrive in the open along the seacoast as far north as +southern New England. They require a sandy, peaty soil, and are treated +as other shrubs are. The large flower-buds are liable to injury from the +warm suns of late winter and early spring, and to avoid this injury the +plants are often protected by covers or shades of brush. In the interior +country, little attempt is made to flower Azaleas permanently in the +open, although they may be grown if carefully tended and well protected. +Both Ghent and Indian Azaleas are excellent pot-plants, for bloom in +late winter and spring. The plants are imported in great numbers from +Europe, and it is better to buy these plants than to attempt to +propagate them. Pot them up in large-sized pots, keep them cool and +backward for a time until they are established, then take them into a +conservatory temperature, in which carnations and roses thrive. They +should be potted in a soil made of half peat or well decayed mold and +half rich loam; add a little sand. Pot firmly, and be sure to provide +sufficient drainage. Keep off red spider by syringing. After blooming, +the plants may be thinned by pruning out the straggling growths, and +repotted. Set them in a frame or in a semi-shaded place during summer, +and see that they make a good growth. The wood should be well ripened in +the fall. After cold weather sets in, keep the Indian or evergreen kinds +half-dormant by setting them in a cool, dull-lighted cellar or pit, +bringing them in when wanted for bloom. The Ghent or deciduous kinds may +be touched with frost without injury; and they may be stored in a cellar +until wanted. + + +BACHELOR'S BUTTON. _Centaurea Cyanus_ and also _Gomphrena_. Sometimes +applied to double-flowered Crowfoots. + + +[Illustration: Balloon Vine] + +BALLOON VINE, or CARDIOSPERMUM. Annual tender tendril climber of very +rapid growth. Seed should not be planted until the soil becomes warm. A +very pretty effect can be had by allowing the vine to run over some +coarser vine, or into an evergreen tree. The balloon-like capsules show +to good advantage between the leaves. It is also useful for covering +piles of brush. Grows 8-12 ft. high. Give a warm, sunny place. + + +BALSAMS, or IMPATIENS. Tender annuals, producing both single and double +flowers of many colors. These well known favorites are usually to be +found in old-fashioned gardens. They are very likely to seed themselves, +coming up in unexpected places and flourishing in neglect. They do best, +however, in rich, sandy soil. If the seed is sown in boxes late in April +and the plants transplanted several times they will be much dwarfer and +the flowers much more double. A stately, though very formal and stiff, +effect may be had by planting a row of Balsams in the rear of a low +border, pinching off all the side shoots as they start and growing the +plant to a single stem. This will become covered with the large blooms, +giving it the appearance of a perfect column of flowers. Balsams are +injured by the slightest frost. Seeds germinate quickly. Plants should +stand 12-18 in. apart. They grow 18-30 in. high. + + +BARTONIA. Hardy annual, with golden yellow, brilliant flowers. The +tall-growing Bartonia (_B. aurea_) may be used in a mixed border to good +advantage. It is a bushy plant, reaching 2-3 ft. high. The dwarf kind +may be used as a border plant or in a rock garden, or as an edging. The +fragrance of both tall and dwarf is very pronounced in the evening. The +Bartonias are very easy to grow in a warm soil and sunny exposure. Their +numerous thread-like, long stamens are very interesting. + + +BASKET PLANTS. In order to have a good hanging basket, it is necessary +that some provision be made to prevent too rapid drying out of the +earth. It is customary, therefore, to line the pot or basket with moss. +Open wire baskets, like a horse muzzle, are often lined with moss and +used for the growing of plants. Prepare the earth by mixing some well +decayed leaf-mold with rich garden loam, thereby making an earth which +will retain moisture. Hang the basket in a light place, but still not in +a direct sunlight; and, if possible, avoid putting it where it will be +exposed to drying wind. In order to water the basket, it is often +advisable to sink it into a pail or tub of water. Various plants are +well adapted to hanging baskets. Among the drooping or vine-like kinds +are the strawberry geranium, Kenilworth ivy, maurandya, German ivy, +canary-bird flower, _Asparagus Sprengeri_, ivy geranium, trailing +fuchsia, wandering Jew, and othonna. Among the erect-growing plants +which produce flowers, _Lobelia Erinus_, sweet alyssum, petunias, +oxalis, and various geraniums are to be recommended. Among foliage +plants such things as coleus, dusty miller, begonia, and some geraniums +are adaptable. + + +[Illustration: Climax basket] + +BASKETS. For the picking and handling of fruit in the home garden, the +common Climax basket, in various sizes, is the best receptacle. In +these baskets the products may be sold. When the baskets are sent to +market or to a friend, they should be neat and new looking; therefore +keep them in a dry, dark place, as in an attic or loft, to prevent them +from becoming warped and discolored. + + +BEAN. Under the general name of Bean, many kinds of plants are +cultivated. They are all tender, and the seeds, therefore, should not be +planted until the weather is thoroughly settled; and the soil should be +warm and loose. They are all annuals in northern countries, or treated +as such. + +The Bean plants may be classified in various ways. In respect to +stature, they may be thrown into three general categories; viz., the +pole or climbing Beans, the bush Beans, and the strict-growing or +upright Beans (as the Broad or Windsor Bean). In respect to their uses, +Beans again may be divided into three categories; viz., those which are +used as string or snap Beans, the entire pod being eaten; those which +are used as shell Beans, the full-size but immature Beans being shelled +from the pod and cooked; dry Beans, or those which are eaten in their +dry or winter condition. The same variety of Bean may be used for all of +these three purposes at different stages of its development; but as a +matter of fact, there are varieties which are better for one purpose +than the other. Again, Beans may be classified in respect to their +species. Those species which are best known are as follows: (1) Common +Bean, or _Phaseolus vulgaris_, of which there are both tall and bush +forms. All the common snap and string Beans belong here, as also the +Speckled Cranberry types of pole Beans, and the common field Beans. (2) +The Lima Beans, or _Phaseolus lunatus_. The larger part of these are +pole Beans, but lately dwarf or bush varieties have appeared. (3) The +Scarlet Runner, _Phaseolus multiflorus_, of which the Scarlet Runner +and White Dutch Runner are familiar examples. The Scarlet Runner is +usually grown as an ornamental vine, and it is perennial in warm +countries, but the Beans are edible as shelled Beans. The White Dutch +Runner is oftener cultivated for food. (4) The Yard-Long, or Asparagus +Bean, _Dolichos sesquipedalis_, which produces long and weak vines and +very long, slender pods. The green pods are eaten, and also the shelled +Beans. The French Yard-Long is the only variety of this type which is +commonly known in this country. This type of Bean is popular in the +Orient. (5) The Broad Beans, of which the Windsor is the common type. +These are much grown in the Old World for stock feed, and they are +sometimes used for human food. They grow to one strict, central, stiff +stalk, to a height of 2-4 or 5 ft., and they are very unlike other kinds +of Beans in appearance. In this country, they are very little grown on +account of our hot and dry summers. In Canada they are somewhat grown, +and are sometimes used in the making of ensilage. + +The culture of the Bean, while of the easiest, often proves a failure as +far as the first crop is concerned, because of planting the seed before +the ground has become warm and dry. No vegetable seed will decay quicker +than Beans, and the delay caused by waiting for the soil to become warm +and free from excessive moisture will be more than made up by the +rapidity of growth when finally they are planted. Beans will grow in +most any soil, but the best results may be obtained by having the soil +well enriched and in good physical condition. From the 5th to the 10th +of May in the latitude of central New York, it will be safe to plant +Beans for an early crop. The Beans may be dropped 2 inches deep in +shallow drills, the seeds to lie 3 inches apart. Cover to the surface of +the soil, and if the ground be dry, firm it with the foot or the back of +the hoe. For the bush varieties, allow 2 ft. between the drill-rows, but +for the dwarf Limas 2-1/2 ft. is better. Pole Limas are usually planted +in hills 2-3 ft. apart in the rows. Dwarf Limas may be sown thinly in +drills. + +A large number of the varieties of both the green-podded and the +wax-podded Beans are used almost exclusively as snap Beans, to be eaten +with the pod while tender. The various strains of the Black Wax are the +most popular string Beans. The pole or running Beans are used either +green or dried, and the Limas, both tall and dwarf, are well known for +their superior flavor either as shelled or dry Beans. The old-fashioned +Cranberry or Horticultural Lima type (a pole form of _Phaseolus +vulgaris_) is probably the best shell Bean, but the trouble of poling +makes it unpopular. Dwarf Limas are much more desirable for small +gardens than the pole varieties, as they may be planted much closer, the +bother of procuring poles and twine is avoided, and the garden will have +a more sightly appearance. Both the dwarf Limas and pole Limas require a +longer season in which to mature than the bush varieties, and only one +planting is usually made. But the bush varieties may be planted at +intervals of two weeks from the first planting until the 10th of August. +Each planting may be made on ground previously occupied by some +early-maturing crop. Thus, the first to third plantings may be on ground +from which has been harvested a crop of spinach, early radish or +lettuce; after that, on ground where early peas have been grown; and the +later sowings where beets or early potatoes have grown. String Beans for +canning are usually taken from the last crop. One quart of seed will +plant 100 ft. of drill; or 1 quart of Limas will plant 100 hills. + +Limas are the richest of Beans, but they often fail to mature in the +northern states. The land should not be very rich in nitrogen (or stable +manure), else the plants will run too much to vine and be too late. +Select a fertile sandy or gravelly soil with warm exposure, use some +soluble commercial fertilizer to start them off, and give them the best +of culture. Aim to have the pods set before the droughts of midsummer +come. Good trellises for Beans are made by wool twine stretched between +two horizontal wires, one of which is drawn a foot above the ground and +the other 6 or 7 ft. high. + +Bean plants are not troubled by insects to any extent, but they are +sometimes attacked by blight. When this occurs, do not plant the same +ground to Beans again for a year or two. + + +BEDDING. This term is used to designate the massing of plants in the +open ground for the purpose of making a bold display of color. This +color may be obtained with flowers or with strong effects of foliage. +Bedding is ordinarily a temporary species of planting; that is, the bed +is filled anew each year. However, the term may be used to designate a +permanent plantation of plants which are heavily massed so as to give +one continuous or emphatic display of form or color. Some of the best +permanent bedding masses are made of the various hardy ornamental +grasses, as eulalias, arundo, and the like. + +Some bedding is very temporary in its effect. Especially is this true of +spring Bedding, in which the plants used are tulips, hyacinths, crocuses +or other early-flowering bulbous plants. In this case, the ground is +usually occupied later in the season by other plants. These later plants +are usually annuals, the seeds of which are sown amongst the bulbs as +soon as the season is far enough advanced; or the annuals may be started +in boxes and the plants transplanted amongst the bulbs as soon as the +weather is fit. Many of the low-growing and compact, continuous-flowering +annuals are excellent for summer Bedding effects. Some of the best +plants for this purpose are mentioned in the following list: + + Adonis aestivalis. + Adonis autumnalis. + Ageratum Mexicanum. + Ageratum Mexicanum, dwarf. + Bartonia aurea. + Cacalia. + Calendula officinalis, in several forms. + Calendula pluvialis. + Calendula Pongei. + Calendula sulphurea, fl. pl. + Calendula suffruticosa. + Calliopsis bicolor marmorata. + Calliopsis cardaminaefolia. + Calliopsis elegans picta. + Callirrhoe involucrata. + Callirrhoe pedata nana. + Callirrhoe pedata. + Centaurea Americana. + Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact. + Centaurea Cyanus minor. + Centaurea suaveolens. + Chrysanthemum Burridgeanum. + Chrysanthemum carinatum. + Chrysanthemum coronarium. + Chrysanthemum tricolor. + Convolvulus minor. + Convolvulus tricolor. + Cosmidium Burridgeanum. + Delphinium, single. + Delphinium, double. + Dianthus, Double White Half Dwarf Margaret. + Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual. + Dianthus Caryophyllus semperflorens. + Dianthus Chinensis, double. + Dianthus dentosus hybridus. + Dianthus Heddewigii. + Dianthus imperialis. + Dianthus laciniatus, Salmon Queen. + Dianthus plumarius. + Dianthus superbus, dwarf fl. pl. + Dianthus, Picotee. + Elscholtzia cristata. + Eschscholtzia Californica. + Eschscholtzia crocea. + Eschscholtzia, Mandarin. + Eschscholtzia tenuifolia. + Gaillardia picta. + Gaillardia picta Lorenziana. + Gilia achilleaefolia. + Gilia capitata. + Gilia laciniata. + Gilia linifolia. + Gilia nivalis. + Gilia tricolor. + Godetia Whitneyi. + Godetia grandiflora maculata. + Godetia rubicunda splendens. + Hibiscus Africanus. + Hibiscus, Golden Bowl. + Iberis affinis. + Iberis amara. + Iberis coronaria. + Iberis umbellata. + Impatiens or Balsam. + Lavatera alba. + Lavatera trimestris. + Linum grandiflorum. + Madia elegans. + Malope grandiflora. + Matricaria eximia plena. + Matthiola or Stock, in many forms. + Matthiola, Wallflower-leaved. + Matthiola bicornis. + Nigella or Love-in-a-Mist. + Oenothera Drummondii. + Oenothera Lamarckiana. + Oenothera rosea. + Oenothera tetraptera. + Papaver or Poppy, of many kinds. + Papaver cardinale. + Papaver glaucum. + Papaver umbrosum. + Petunia, Ring of Emerald. + Phlox Drummondii, in many varieties. + Portulaca. + Salvia farinacea. + Salvia Horminum. + Salvia splendens. + Schizanthus papilionaceus. + Schizanthus pinnatus. + Silene Armeria. + Silene pendula. + Tagetes or Marigold, in many forms. + Tagetes erecta. + Tagetes patula. + Tagetes signata. + Tropaeolum, Dwarf. + Verbena auriculaeflora. + Verbena Italica striata. + Verbena hybrida. + Verbena coerulea. + Verbena, Golden-leaved. + Viscaria coeli-rosa. + Viscaria elegans picta. + Viscaria oculata. + Zinnia, Dwarf. + Zinnia elegans alba. + Zinnia, Tom Thumb. + Zinnia Haageana. + Zinnia coccinea plena. + +Summer bedding is often made by perennial plants which are carried over +from the preceding year, or better, which are propagated for that +particular purpose in February and March. Such plants as geranium, +coleus, alyssum, scarlet salvia, ageratum and heliotrope may be used for +these beds. It is a common practice to use geranium plants which are in +bloom during the winter for bedding out during the summer, but such +plants are tall and ungainly in form and have expended the greater part +of their energies. It is better to propagate new plants by taking +cuttings or slips late in the winter and setting out young, fresh, +vigorous subjects. + +Very bold and subtropical effects can be made by planting in the open +such things as palms, bananas, crotons, araucarias, caladiums and +cannas. Plants like bananas and palms, which are kept normally in pots, +would better be left in the pots and plunged to the rims rather than +turned out directly into the soil. In order to attain quick and +continuous effects, it is advisable to set the plants rather close. As +such plants are likely to be injured by strong winds, it is well to have +subtropical beds in a somewhat protected place. + +Another type of bed is that which attempts to make patterns or designs, +or carpet-bedding. There are comparatively few plants which are adapted +to this purpose, for the plants must be such as will stand shearing and +which have very strong and constant colors of foliage. The most popular +bedding plants are coleus (particularly the yellow Golden Bedder) +achyranthes, alternanthera, _Centaurea gymnocarpa_, and such succulent +plants as the house leeks. Some of the annual flowers may also be used +for strong color effects, as _Lobelia Erinus_ and sweet alyssum. +Ordinarily the making of carpet-beds should be left to professional +gardeners, since it requires much skill and care to make and keep the +beds in perfect condition; and a ragged or imperfect carpet-bed is worse +than no bed at all. Carpet-beds are really curiosities, and they have no +more legitimate place in the general pictorial landscape design area +than painted stones or sheared evergreens. Therefore, they should be +placed by themselves at one side, where they do not interfere with the +general design of the place. In public parks they make a very useful +attraction when set off by themselves, the same as zoological gardens or +other attractions do. + + +BEEFSTEAK GERANIUM is _Begonia_. + + +BEETS. Being one of the hardiest of spring vegetables, the seed may be +sown as early in the spring as the ground can be worked. A light, sandy +soil is the best on which to grow Beets to perfection, but any well +tilled garden soil will raise satisfactory crops. On heavy soil the +turnip Beet gives the best results, as the growth is nearly all at or +above the surface. The long varieties, having tapering roots running +deep into the soil, are apt to be misshapen unless the physical +condition of the soil is such that the roots meet with little +obstruction. A succession of sowings should be made, at intervals of +from two to three weeks, until late summer, as the Beets are much more +desirable in their young stage than when they have become old and woody. +The Mangel-Wurzel and the Sugar Beet are usually grown as a field crop, +and will not enter into the calculations of the home garden. + +[Illustration: Early Beets] + +In order to hasten the season of the extra-early crop of Beets, the +seeds may be sown in boxes or in the soil of a hotbed in February or +March, transplanting the small plants to the open ground at the time the +first sowing of seed is made. As the flat or turnip-rooted varieties +grow at the surface of the ground, the seed may be sown thickly, and as +the more advanced roots are large enough to use they may be pulled, +leaving room for the later ones to develop, thus growing a quantity in a +small area and having a long season of small Beets from one sowing. For +winter use the late July sown seed will give the best roots, growing +through the cool months of the fall to a medium size and remaining firm +without being tough or stringy. These may be dug up after light frosts +and before any severe cold weather, and stored in barrels or boxes in +the cellar, using enough dry dirt to fill spaces between the roots and +cover them to the depth of 6 inches. These roots, thus packed in a cool +cellar, will be fit to use through the entire winter months. When it can +be had, florists' or sphagnum moss is an excellent medium in which to +pack roots for winter. + +The early round or turnip varieties are best for early and summer use. +The Long Blood Beets may be used for storing, but these require a longer +season of growth. + + +BEGONIAS. Tender bedding and house plants. Next to the geranium, +Begonias are probably the most popular for house culture of the entire +plant list. The ease of culture, profusion of bloom or richness of +foliage, together with their adaptability to shade, make them very +desirable. + +Begonias may be divided into three sections: the fibrous-rooted class, +which contains the winter-flowering varieties; the tuberous-rooted, +those which bloom through the summer, the tuber resting through the +winter; and the Rex forms, or Beefsteak Geraniums, having large +ornamental leaves. + +[Illustration: Fibrous-rooted Begonia] + +The fibrous-rooted kinds may be propagated by seed or cuttings, the +latter being the usual method. Cuttings of half-ripened wood root +easily, making a rapid growth, the plants flowering in a few months. + +The tuberous-rooted varieties are propagated by division of the tuber or +from seed, the former being rarely done except to increase the stock of +some extra fine variety. The seeds, like those of all Begonias, are very +small, and should be sown with great care. Simply sprinkle them on the +surface of the soil, which should be a mixture of leaf-mold and sand, +with the addition of a small amount of fibrous loam. Watering should be +done by setting the pot or box in which the seeds are sown in water, +allowing the moisture to ascend through the soil. When the soil has +become completely saturated, set the box in a shady situation, covering +it with glass or some other object until the tiny seedlings appear. +Never allow the soil to become dry. The seedlings should be +transplanted, as soon as they can be handled, into boxes or pots +containing the same mixture of soil, setting each plant down to the +seed-leaf. They will need three or four transplantings before they reach +the blooming stage, and at each one after the first, the amount of +fibrous loam may be increased until the soil is composed of one-third +each of loam, sand and leaf-mold. The addition of a little well rotted +manure may be made at the last transplanting. These tuberous-rooted +Begonias make superior bedding plants if given a shady situation and +deep soil; but for the amateur they are perhaps better grown as +pot-plants, for one is able to give them better conditions by that +method. The flowers are both double and single, ranging in color from +pure white and yellow to pink and red. After flowering the plants will +die down and the tubers, after drying off, may be placed in a dry, warm +place until spring. + +[Illustration: Rex Begonia] + +The Rex type, having no branches, is propagated from the leaves. The +large mature leaves are used. The leaf may be cut into sections having +at the base a union of two ribs. These pieces of leaves may be inserted +in the sand as any other cutting. Or a whole leaf may be used, cutting +through the ribs at intervals and laying the leaf flat on the +propagating bench or other warm, moist place. In a short time young +plants having roots of their own will form. These may be potted when +large enough to handle, and will soon make good sized plants. Rex +Begonias usually grow little during winter. Be sure that the pots are +well drained, so that the soil does not become sour. New plants--those a +year or so old--are usually most satisfactory. Keep them away from +direct sunlight. + +An insidious disease of Begonia leaves has recently made its appearance. +The best treatment yet known is to propagate fresh plants, throwing away +the old stock and the dirt in which it is grown. + + +BELLIS PERENNIS. See _Daisy_. + + +[Illustration: Ancient Briton Blackberry] + +BLACKBERRIES. The one essential to the successful growing of +Blackberries is a moist soil,--not one in which water will stand, but +one rich enough in humus to hold sufficient moisture to carry the crop +through the growing season. It is usually found best to plant in the +fall, earthing up slightly around the plants. The distance between the +plants should be regulated by the variety. The smaller-growing kinds (as +Early Harvest and Wilson) may be planted 4 x 7 ft., the rank-growing +varieties (as Snyder) 6 x 8 ft. Thorough cultivation throughout the +season will help in a material degree to hold the moisture necessary to +perfect a good crop. The soil should be cultivated very shallow, +however, so as not to disturb the roots, as the breaking of the roots +starts a large number of suckers that have to be cut out and destroyed. + +[Illustration: Shears for cutting out old canes] + +Blackberries, like dewberries and raspberries, bear but one crop on the +cane. That is, canes which spring up this year bear next year. From 3 to +6 canes are sufficient to be left in each hill. The superfluous ones are +thinned out soon after they start from the ground. The old canes should +be cut out soon after fruiting and burned. The new shoots should be +pinched back at the height of 2 or 3 ft. if the plants are to support +themselves. If to be fastened to wires, they may be allowed to grow +throughout the season and be cut back when tied to the wires in winter +or early spring. Tools for the cutting out of the old canes are well +represented in the pictures. Shears are used for shortening-in the +canes. + +[Illustration: Shears for heading-in bushes] + +Blackberry plants are sometimes laid down in cold climates,--the tops +being bent over and held to the ground by earth or sods thrown on their +tips. + +[Illustration: Knife hook for cutting out old canes] + +Snyder is the most popular commercial variety; but Agawam, Ancient +Briton, Taylor, and others are better in quality. A new patch should be +planted every five or six years. + + +BLUE BOTTLE. See _Centaurea Cyanus_. + + +BORDEAUX MIXTURE is a fungicide, used to combat mildews, leaf-diseases, +blights, etc. It is sprayed on the plants with a spray pump or syringe, +or it may be applied with a whisk broom. Apply enough of it so that the +foliage looks blue. It is made as follows: Copper sulfate, 6 pounds; +quicklime, 4 pounds; water, 40 to 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper +sulfate by putting it into a bag of coarse cloth and hanging this in a +vessel holding at least four gallons, so that it is just covered by the +water. Use an earthen or wooden vessel. Slake the lime in an equal +amount of water. Then mix the two and add enough water to make 40 +gallons. It is then ready for immediate use, but will keep for some +time. If the mixture is to be used on peach foliage, it is advisable to +add an extra pound of lime to the above formula. When applied to such +plants as carnations or cabbages, it will adhere better if a pound of +hard soap is dissolved in hot water and added to the mixture. For rots, +molds, mildews, and all fungous diseases. + +Whilst Bordeaux Mixture is the best general fungicide, it discolors the +plants until it washes off. On ornamental plants, therefore, a colorless +fungicide may be preferable. In such cases, use the ammoniacal carbonate +of copper solution, as follows: Copper carbonate, 1 ounce; ammonia, 1 +volume 26 deg. Baume, 7/8 volumes water (enough to dissolve the copper); +water, 9 gallons. The copper carbonate is best dissolved in large +bottles, where it will keep indefinitely, and it should be diluted with +water as required. For the same purposes as Bordeaux Mixture. + + +BORDER. The word border is used to designate the heavy or continuous +planting about the boundaries of a place, or along the walks and drives, +or against the buildings, in distinction from planting on the lawn or in +the interior spaces. A border receives different designations, depending +upon the kinds of plants which are grown therein; that is, it may be a +shrub border, a flower border, a hardy border for native and other +hardy plants, a vine border, and the like. As a rule, the most effective +planting is that which is thrown into masses, for one plant reinforces +the other, and the flowers have a good setting or background. Very +striking displays of foliage and flowers and plant forms can be made +when massed together. As a rule, plants are more easily grown when +planted in a border, since the whole area can be kept cultivated with +ease; and if a plant becomes weak or dies, its place is readily filled +by the neighboring plants spreading into it. Planting in masses is also +essential to the best arrangement of the yard, since the basis of any +landscape is a more or less continuous greensward (see _Lawn_). The +house occupies the central part of the area, and the sides are heavily +massed or planted so as to make a framework for the whole place. The +border may be mixed,--that is, composed of a great variety of +plants,--or it may be made up of one continuous thing. In long and very +striking borders, it is often best to have the background--that is, the +back row--of one general type of plant in order to give continuity and +strength to the whole group. In front of this a variety of plants may be +set, if one desire. + +[Illustration: Planting by the steps] + +The land should be rich. The whole ground should be plowed or spaded and +the plants set irregularly in the space; or the back row may be set in a +line. If the border is composed of shrubs, and is large, a horse +cultivator may be run in and out between the plants for the first two or +three years, since the shrubs will be set from 2 to 4 ft. apart. +Ordinarily, however, the cultivating is done by hand tools. After the +plants are once established and the border is filled, it is best to dig +up as little as possible, for the digging disturbs the roots and breaks +off the crowns. It is usually best to pull out the weeds and give the +border a top-dressing each fall of well rotted manure. If the ground is +not very rich, a sprinkling of ashes or some commercial fertilizer may +be given from time to time. The border should be planted so thick as to +allow the plants to run together, thereby giving one continuous effect. +Most shrubs should be set 3 feet apart. Things as large as lilacs may go +4 feet and sometimes even more. Common herbaceous perennials, like +bleeding heart, delphiniums, hollyhocks, and the like, should go from 12 +to 18 inches. On the front edge of the border is a very excellent place +for annual and tender flowering plants. Here, for example, one may make +a fringe of asters, geraniums, coleus, or anything else which he may +choose (see _Flower Beds_). + +The border is an excellent place in which to colonize native or other +interesting plants. A person comes across an attractive plant on his +tramp and wishes it were in his garden. Whatever the time of year, he +may break off the top close to the ground, take up the roots and plant +them in the border. If a little attention is given to the plant for the +first two or three weeks, as watering or mulching or shading, it should +become established and give satisfactory bloom the following year. +Two-thirds of the herbs which one would take up in this way, even in +midsummer, should grow. Into the heavy borders about the boundaries of +the place the autumn leaves will drift and afford an excellent mulch. If +these borders are planted with shrubs, the leaves may be left there to +decay, and not be raked off in the spring. The general outline of the +border facing the lawn should be more or less wavy or irregular, +particularly if it is on the boundary of the place. Alongside a walk or +drive, the margins may follow the general directions of the walk or +drive. + +There are three rules for the choosing of plants for a hardy border. +Choose (1) those which you like best, (2) those which are adapted to the +climate and soil, (3) those which are in place or in keeping with that +part of the grounds. See _Herbs_, _Shrubs_, _Trees_. + + +BORECOLE is _Kale_. + + +BORERS. There is no sovereign remedy for borers except to dig them out. +Do not rely upon washes or other applications. If trees are examined two +or three times a year, it is not a laborious undertaking to dig them +out, as they will not be deep in the wood. If they do get deep in the +wood, thrust a wire into the burrow. By the chips cast from the holes, +or by the dead bark, the presence of borers may be detected. Apple and +peach trees are particularly liable to attack. The flat-headed +apple-tree borer works just underneath the bark on any part of the trunk +or large branches. The round-headed apple-tree borer eats into the wood +at the crown. + + +BOXES of many sizes can be utilized in which to grow plants. Excellent +effects of bulbs and annuals may be had in old soap boxes. The boxes may +be placed in the best situations for the growth of the plants, and they +can receive better attention than the large flower bed. Vines planted +about the edge will hide the sides,--such vines as Kenilworth ivy, +moneywort, maurandya, trailing fuchsia, and the like. + + +BRACHYCOME. See _Swan River Daisy_. + + +BROCCOLI. This is almost identical with the Cauliflower, except that it +usually requires a longer season and matures in the fall. It is grown +more generally in Europe than in this country. The special merit of +Broccoli is its adaptability for late summer planting and its rapid +growth in the late fall. It is said that a large proportion of Broccoli +is used in the manufacture of pickles. The culture is the same as for +Cauliflower,--deep, moist soil well enriched, cool weather, and the +destruction of the cabbage worm. + +The young plants may be grown in a coldframe or in a well protected +border, sowing the seed about the 15th of May, transplanting into rows +in July. In sections in which early fall frosts are not to be feared, +the plants may be set two weeks later, say August 1, as all vegetables +of the cabbage family make the best growth through the cool months of +September and October. The plants should be set 18 in. apart in the +rows, the rows being from 2-1/2 ft. to 3 ft. apart. + + +BROWALLIA ELATA is a very fine tender annual, giving a border or mixed +bed a dash of amethyst blue not often found in flowers. It is a +strong-growing plant with a profusion of bloom, and no doubt one of the +choicest plants of its color in cultivation. There are other species +with white flowers that serve as contrast, and may be grown with this. +All of the kinds may be taken up and potted in the fall, cutting the +plant well back, and a profusion of bloom may be obtained through the +winter months if attention is given to pinching off the seed pods. In +the garden, let the plants stand 12 in. apart. The plants grow 1-2 ft. +high. + + +BRUSSELS SPROUTS. This is a vegetable that should be more generally +known, as it is one of the choicest of the cabbage family, and may be +had at its best after the season for cauliflower has passed. It is the +better for being touched by the fall frosts. The parts used are the +buttons or sprouts (miniature cabbage heads) that grow thickly along the +stem. These should be cut off rather than broken. The very small hard +"sprouts" or buttons are the best. The culture is essentially the same +as for late cabbage or broccoli. One ounce will sow 100 ft. of drill, or +make upward of 2,000 plants. Set plants in field 2-3 ft. apart. They +require the entire season in which to grow. + + +BUDDING. See _Grafting_. + + +BULBS. The outdoor culture of bulbs is extremely simple. They care for +themselves throughout a greater part of the year, many of them flowering +when no other plants are able to grow and bloom out of doors. + +While all the so-called Holland bulbs will thrive in any kind of soil, +they will all do better by being planted in a deep, sandy soil well +enriched with well rotted manure. But do not let the manure come into +direct contact with the bulb. Even heavy clay soil may be fitted for the +growing of bulbs by the addition of sharp sand, either worked into the +soil or placed directly under the bulb when planted. To make a bulb bed, +choose, if possible, a sandy soil and throw out the top soil to the +depth of 6 in. Put into the bottom of the bed about 2 in. of well rotted +manure and spade it into the soil. Throw back half of the top soil, +level it off nicely, set the bulbs firmly on this bed and then cover +them with the balance of the soil; in this way one will have the bulbs +from 3 to 4 in. below the surface. In the fall months the top of the +ground is cooler than at the depth of 5 or 6 in. and the top of the bulb +will not want to grow, while the bottom, which is always in a hurry, +will send out roots, to push out the leaves and flowers the next spring. +When the weather is cold enough to freeze a hard crust on the soil, the +bed should have its winter overcoat. This may be straw, hay, cornstalks +or leaves spread over the bed to the depth of 6 in. if the material is +coarse; but if leaves are used, 3 in. will be enough, because the leaves +lay close together and may smother out the frost that is in the ground +and let the bulbs start. What we want is to keep them asleep until +spring, because if they start too early the hard freezes of March and +early April will spoil their beauty if the leaves or flowers are near or +above the surface. Early in April, in New York, the covering may be +removed gradually, and should all be off the beds before the leaves show +above the ground. + +If there is no sandy place for the beds, make them as directed, leaving +the stones in the bottom of the bed for drainage. Then, when ready to +set the bulb, place a large handful of sand where the bulb is to go and +set the bulb on it. This will keep the water from standing around the +bulb. Very fine results may be had on heavy soil by this method. + +As to kinds of bulbs, select hyacinths, tulips or narcissus or +daffodils, with snowdrops or crocuses of various colors around the edge. +For the culture of these and other bulbs, see the various articles +throughout the book. + +_The growing of flowering bulbs through the winter_ adds to the list of +house plants a charming variety. The labor, time and skill required is +much less than that of growing many of the larger plants more commonly +used for winter decorations. The larger number of winter bulbs may be +left out of doors until within four to six weeks of the time when they +are wanted in flower. Hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, and crocus can be +made to flower in the winter without difficulty. Secure the bulbs so as +to be able to pot them by the middle or last of October, or if earlier +all the better. The soil should be rich, sandy loam, if possible; if +not, the best one can get, to which add about one-fourth the bulk of +sand and mix thoroughly. If ordinary flower pots are to be used, put in +the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, charcoal or small stones for +drainage, then fill the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on +the dirt the top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot. Fill +around it with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing above the +dirt. If the soil is heavy, a good plan is to sprinkle a small handful +of sand under the bulb to carry off the water, the same as is done in +the beds outdoors. If one does not have pots he may use boxes. Starch +boxes are a good size to use, as they are not heavy to handle; and +excellent flowers are sometimes obtained from bulbs planted in old +tomato cans. If boxes or cans are used, care must be taken to have holes +in the bottoms to let the water run out. A large size hyacinth bulb +will do well in a 5-inch pot. The same size pot will do for three or +four narcissuses or eight to twelve crocuses. + +After the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles, they +should be placed in a cool place, either in a cold pit or cellar, or on +the shady side of a building, or, better yet, plunged or buried up to +the rim of the pot in a shady border. This is done to force the roots to +grow while the top stands still; as only the bulbs with good roots will +give good flowers. When the weather gets so cold that a crust is frozen +on the soil, the pots should be covered with a little straw, and as the +weather gets colder more straw must be used. In from six to eight weeks +after planting the bulbs, they should have made roots enough to grow the +plant, and they may be taken up and placed in a cool room for a week or +so, after which, if they have started into growth, they may be taken +into a warmer room where they can have plenty of light. They will grow +very rapidly now and will want lots of water, and after the flowers +begin to show, the pots may stand in a saucer of water all the time. +When just coming into bloom the plants may have full sunlight part of +the time to help bring out the color of the flowers. + + +BUSHES. See _Shrubs_. + + +CABBAGE. For an early crop, the plants must be started either in +February or early March, or the previous September and wintered over in +coldframes. This latter method was once a common practice by gardeners +near large cities, but the building of greenhouses to replace the many +hotbeds of the market-gardener has changed the practice in many +localities, and now most of the early Cabbages in the north are grown +from seed sown in January, February or March. The plants are hardened +off in March and early April and planted out as early as possible. The +private grower, or one with a small garden, may often procure his early +plants from the market-gardener much cheaper than he can grow them, as +usually only a limited number of early Cabbage plants are wanted; but +for the midseason and main crop, the seed may be sown in May or June, +setting the plants in July. + +[Illustration: Early Cabbage] + +For early planting, the number of varieties is limited to three or four. +For an intermediate crop the list is more extended, and the late +varieties are very numerous. The early list is headed by the Jersey +Wakefield, a variety which heads very quickly, and, although not one of +the solid kinds, is generally grown. The Early York and Winnigstadt are +good varieties to follow it. The latter especially is solid and of very +good quality. For the midseason, the Succession and All Season are of +the best, and for the winter supply the Drumhead, Danish Ball and Flat +Dutch types are the leaders. One of the best of the Cabbages for table +use is seldom seen in the garden--the Savoy Cabbage. It is a type with +netted leaves, making a large, low-growing head, the center of which is +very solid and of excellent flavor, especially late in the fall, when +the heads have had a slight touch of frost. Savoy should be grown in +every private garden. + +The seed-bed should be made mellow and rich. A good border will do. The +seed is sown preferably in rows, thus allowing thinning of the plants +and the pulling of any weeds that germinate. The young plants will well +repay attention to watering and thinning. The rows should be 3 or 4 in. +apart. When the plants are large enough to transplant, they may be +planted where early vegetables have been grown. Set the plants from 18 +to 24 in. apart in the row, the rows being 3 ft. apart for the +medium-growing kinds. One ounce of seed will furnish about two thousand +plants. All Cabbages require deep and rich soil, and one that holds +moisture well. + +The best remedy for the Cabbage worm is to kill the first brood on the +very young plants with Paris green. After the plants begin to head, +pyrethrum or salt water may be used. On a small area, hand-picking may +be recommended. + +The maggot is the most serious Cabbage pest. After studying the seventy +odd remedies proposed, Slingerland concludes that 6 are efficient and +practicable: growing the young plants in closely covered frames; tarred +paper cards placed snugly about the base of the plants to keep the fly +away; rubbing the eggs from the base of the plant; hand-picking of the +maggots; treating the plants with emulsion of carbolic acid; treating +them with carbon bisulfide. The insecticidal materials are injected or +poured into the soil about the base of the plant. + +Respecting these two insecticides, Slingerland remarks: "Always use the +crude carbolic acid, as it is much cheaper than the purified and is +nearly, if not quite, as effective. It will probably be safer if used as +an emulsion than if simply diluted with water. We would advise that it +be made by the follow formula: 1 pound of hard soap or 1 quart of soft +soap dissolved in 1 gallon of boiling water, into which 1 pint of crude +carbolic acid is then poured and the whole mass agitated into an +emulsion, which will remain in this condition for a long time. In +treating the plants, take one part of this standard emulsion and dilute +it with 30 equal parts of water; it probably can be used stronger +without injury to the plants. If the emulsion is cold and semi-solid, +use several parts of warm water at first. Begin the treatment early, a +day or two after the plants are up, or in the case of Cabbages and +Cauliflowers the next day after they are set in the field, and repeat it +once each week or 10 days until about May 20 in our state. While we have +little faith in the preventive effects of the early treatments, we do +believe that the emulsion will then kill many of the eggs and recently +hatched maggots. If it could be applied with some force through a +syringe or force pump, it might not be necessary to go to the trouble of +first removing some of the earth from about the plants. It must be +remembered that its success will depend on the eggs or maggots being hit +with it. None of the Cabbages in our experiment were injured in the +least by an application containing nearly twice as much of the acid, and +there is but little danger of its injuring the tenderest foliage of +radishes, turnips or onions; if any injury manifests itself on these +crops, dilute the emulsion with 40 or 50 or more parts of water, instead +of 30. A knapsack or wheelbarrow sprayer would prove a very useful +instrument in applying the emulsion on a large scale." + +The carbon bisulfide is best injected into the soil by means of a +long-nosed syringe. Slingerland (Cornell Bulletin 78) illustrates a +specially made syringe or injector for this purpose: "Thus Cabbage +plants can be treated once, and once is usually sufficient, at the rate +of about 10 plants for 1 cent for the liquid, using about 1 teaspoonful +to each plant. As the injector will last for years, and several +neighbors might join in the purchase and use of one instrument, its cost +would practically not influence this estimate of the cost of killing the +maggots. We believe it is the cheapest, most effective, and most +practicable method yet devised for fighting this pest on crops of +Cabbages and cauliflowers; on crops of radishes, turnips, or onions it +will probably be too expensive except where choice or new varieties are +attacked. The carbolic acid emulsion will prove the most practicable on +these last crops." + +The club-root, which causes the roots to become greatly thickened and +distorted, is difficult to manage if Cabbages or allied plants are grown +continuously on land in which diseased plants have been raised. Changing +the location of the Cabbage or Cauliflower patch is the best procedure. +If very different crops, as corn, potatoes, peas, tomatoes, etc., are +grown on the land, the disease will be starved out in two or three +years. + + +CACALIA. TASSEL FLOWER. LADIES' PAINT BRUSH. A quaint old annual, in two +colors, scarlet and orange. It is easily grown, and makes a fine +second-row plant for a border, contrasting well with Browallia or +Ageratum. Sow where the plants are to stand. Let plants stand 10-12 +inches apart. Grow 1-1/2 to 2 ft. high. + + +CACTUS. This class of plants is often seen in small collections of house +plants, to which they add interest, being altogether different from +other plants. All Cacti are easy to grow, requiring but little care and +enduring the heat and dryness of a living room much better than most +other plants. Their requirements are ample drainage and a sandy soil. +Cactus growers usually make a soil by mixing pulverized plaster or lime +refuse with garden loam, using about two-thirds of the loam. The very +fine parts, or dust, of the plaster, are blown out, else the soil is +likely to cement. They may be rested at any season by simply setting +them away in a dry place for two or three months, and bringing them into +heat and light when they are wanted. As new growth advances they should +have water occasionally, and when in bloom they should be watered +freely. Withhold water gradually after blooming until they are to be +rested. + +Some of the most common species in cultivation are the Phyllocactus +species, often called the Night-blooming Cereus. These are not the true +Night-blooming Cereuses, which have angular or cylindrical stems, +covered with bristles, while this has flat, leaf-like branches; the +flowers of these, however, are very much like the Cereus, opening at +evening and closing before morning, and as the Phyllocacti may be grown +with greater ease, blooming on smaller and younger plants, they are to +be recommended. See _Cereus_. + +The Epiphyllum, or Lobster Cactus, is one of the best of the family, +easy of culture. It bears bright-colored blossoms at the end of each +joint. When in flower, which will be through some of the winter months, +this requires a richer soil than the other Cacti. Opuntias, or prickly +pears, are often grown as border plants through the summer. In fact, all +the family may be planted out, and if a number of varieties are set in a +bed together they make a striking addition to the garden. Be very +careful not to bruise the plants. It is better to plunge them in the +pots than to turn them out of the pots. + + +[Illustration: Caladium or Colocasia] + +CALADIUM. Tuberous-rooted, tender perennial plants which are used for +conservatory decorations, and also for subtropical and bold effects in +the lawn. The plants which are commonly known under this name are really +Colocasias. The plants should be rested during the winter, being kept in +a warm cellar or under a greenhouse bench, where they are not liable to +frost or dampness. The roots are usually kept covered with earth during +the winter, but they are kept dry. Early in the spring the roots are put +into boxes or pots and are started into growth, so that by the time +settled weather comes they will be 1 or 2 feet high and ready to set +directly into soil. When set out of doors, they should be given a place +which is protected from strong winds, and one which does not receive the +full glare of direct sunlight. The soil should be rich and deep, and the +plants should have an abundance of water. Caladiums are most excellent +plants for striking effects, especially against a house, high shrubbery +or other background. If they are planted by themselves, they should be +in clumps rather than scattered as single specimens, as the effect is +better. See that they get a good start before they are planted in the +open ground. + + +CALCEOLARIA. Small greenhouse herbs which are sometimes used in the +window-garden. They are not very satisfactory plants for window +treatment, however, since they suffer from dry atmosphere and from +sudden changes of temperature. In the window-garden they should be +protected from strong, direct sunlight. They are grown from seeds. If +the seeds are sown in early summer and the young plants are transplanted +as they need, flowering specimens may be had for the late fall and early +winter. In the growing of the young plants, always avoid exposing them +to direct sunlight; but they should be given a place which has an +abundance of screened or tempered light. A new crop of plants should be +raised each year. There is a race of shrubby Calceolarias, but it is +little known in this country. One or two species are annuals which are +adaptable to cultivation in the open garden, and their little, +ladyslipper-like flowers are attractive. However, they are of secondary +importance as annual garden flowers. + + +CALENDULA. These are the well known POT MARIGOLDS, and add a bright spot +to any garden. Annual. Especially are they fine in the cool days of the +fall, when many of the annual flowers have gone to seed. The places of +short-lived plants may be filled by sowing seed of Calendulas in May, +scattering them through the border and allowing the plants to grow where +they come up. Easy of growth and hardy. 1-2 ft. high. Should stand 8-12 +in. apart. Colors, yellow and orange. + + +[Illustration: California Poppy] + +CALIFORNIA POPPY (_Eschscholtzia Californica_). Low perennial, +poppy-like plant, grown as a hardy annual. It is certainly one of the +best low-growing annuals, blooming through a long season and being at +its best through the cool days of fall, after touched by frost. Most of +the varieties have flowers of fine shades of orange or yellow, making a +bright spot in the border at all times. They are like the pot marigolds, +in that once planted they seed themselves. They are never out of place, +and should be left to bloom wherever they may be. Flowers open only in +sunshine. As cut-flowers they are excellent, a large bowl of them +glowing like a golden ball, especially if they are emphasized by a few +blue larkspurs or bachelor's buttons. + +Propagated by seed, which would best be sown as soon as ripe, thus +giving the plant an early start, and having bloom through the season. +They make attractive mats of foliage. 12-18 in. high. Let the plants +stand 10-20 in. apart. + + +CALLA (properly _Richardia_). EGYPTIAN LILY. All things considered, this +is one of the most satisfactory of winter house plants, lending itself +to various conditions. The requirements of the Calla are rich soil and +an abundance of water, with the roots confined in as small a space as +possible. If a too large pot is used the growth of foliage will be very +rank, at the expense of the flowers, but by using a smaller sized pot +and applying liquid manure the flowers will be produced freely. A 6-inch +pot will be large enough for all but an exceptionally large bulb. If +desired, a number of bulbs may be grown together in a larger pot. The +soil should be very rich but fibrous--at least one-third well rotted +manure will be none too much, mixed with equal parts of fibrous loam and +sharp sand. The tubers should be planted firmly and the pots set in a +cool place to make roots. After the roots have partially filled the pot, +the plant may be brought into heat and given a sunny position and an +abundance of water. An occasional sponging or washing of the leaves will +free them from dust. No other treatment will be required until the +flowers appear, when liquid manure may be given. The plant will thrive +all the better at this time if the pot is placed in a saucer of water. +In fact, the Calla will grow finely in an aquarium. The Calla may be +grown through the entire year, but it will prove more satisfactory, both +in leaf and flower, if rested through part of the summer. This may be +done by laying the pots on their sides in a dry, shady place under +shrubbery, or if in the open slightly covered with straw or other litter +to keep the roots from becoming extremely dry. In September or October +they may be shaken out, cleaning off all the old soil, and repotted, as +already mentioned. The offsets may be taken off and set in small pots +and given a year's growth, resting them the second year and having them +in flower that winter. + +The spotted Calla has variegated foliage and is a fine plant for mixed +collections. This blooms in the spring, which will lengthen the season +of Calla bloom. The treatment of this is similar to that of the common +Calla. + + +CALLIOPSIS is a garden name for _Coreopsis_. + + +CALLIRRHOE. _C. pedata_ is a hardy annual which has large, graceful +blossoms of violet or red. Is it a very free-blooming plant. Should be +started in a frame and planted out where wanted. 2-3 ft. high and grows +bushy. Plants should stand 1-1/2 to 2 ft. apart. + + +CAMELLIA. Years ago Camellias were very popular, but they have been +crowded out by the informal flowers of recent times. Their time will +come again. They are half-hardy woody plants, blooming in late winter +and spring. During the blooming season keep them cool--say not over 50 deg. +at night and a little higher by day. When blooming is done they begin to +grow, then give them more heat and plenty of water. See that they are +well ripened by winter. Always screen them from direct sunlight. Do not +try to force them in early winter, after the growth has ceased. Their +summer quarters may be in a protected place in the open air. Propagated +by cuttings in winter, which should give blooming plants in two years. +Use a porous soil for Camellias, with considerable leaf-mold. + + +CAMPANULA. BELL FLOWER. But one of the Campanulas commonly listed by +seedsmen is an annual,--_C. macrostyla_, a clean-leaved plant, growing 2 +feet high, spreading over the ground, and bearing a profusion of large, +violet, bell-shaped flowers. The Canterbury Bell is the best known. It +is biennial, but if started early and transplanted will bloom the first +season. The perennial Campanulas are most excellent for borders. _C. +Carpatica_ is particularly good for edgings. + + +CANARY BIRD FLOWER. See _Nasturtium_. + + +[Illustration: Candytuft] + +CANDYTUFT. Well known sweet-scented hardy annuals, in red, purple, and +white; easy of culture and fine for cutting. One of the best of edging +plants for the front row. The plants grow from 6 in. to 1 ft. tall. Sow +seeds where the plants are to grow, letting plants stand 6-12 in. apart. +They do not last the entire season, and successive sowings may well be +made. There are also perennial kinds. + + +CANNA is now the favorite bedding plant. The improvements made in the +past ten years, in size and markings of the flowers, have created a +liking for the plant. The tropical effect of a large bed of Cannas, +either mixed or of one color, is not surpassed by any other plant used +for bedding purposes. + +[Illustration: Canna] + +The Canna may be grown from seed and had in bloom the first year by +sowing in February or March, in boxes or pots placed in hotbeds or +warmhouse, first soaking the seeds in warm water for a short time. +Attention to transplanting as needed and removal to the ground only when +it is well warmed are the necessary requirements. The majority of +Cannas, however, are grown from pieces of the roots (rhizomes), each +piece having a bud. The roots may be divided at any time in the winter, +and if early flowers and foliage are wanted the pieces may be planted in +a hotbed or warmhouse in early April, started into growth and planted +out where wanted as soon as the ground has warmed and all danger of +frost is over. A hardening of the plants, by leaving the sash off the +hotbeds, or setting the plants in shallow boxes and placing the boxes +in a sheltered position through May, not forgetting a liberal supply of +water, will fit the plants to take kindly to the final planting out. +After frost has injured the tops, the roots may be dug, choosing, if +possible, a dry day. The soil is shaken off and the roots stored in a +warm, dry place through the winter. If the cellar is too dry the roots +are liable to shrivel, in which case it would be best to cover them with +soil or sand, filling in around the roots to exclude the drying air. + +Cannas grow 3 to 7 ft. high. For dense mass effects, plant 12-18 in. +apart. For individual plants, or for best bloom, give more room. Fine +clumps may be had by planting out the entire old root, not dividing it. +Cannas want a rich, warm soil and a sunny place. They are very easy to +grow. + + +CANTERBURY BELL is a _Campanula_. + + +CARBONATE OF COPPER. See _Bordeaux Mixture_. + + +CARDIOSPERMUM. See _Balloon Vine_. + + +CARNATIONS are of two types, the outdoor or garden varieties, and the +indoor or forcing kinds. Normally, the Carnation is a hardy perennial, +but the garden kinds, or Marguerites, are usually treated as annuals. +The forcing kinds are flowered but once, new plants being grown each +year from cuttings. + +Marguerite Carnations bloom the year the seed is sown, and with a slight +protection will bloom freely the second year. They make attractive house +plants if potted in the fall. The seeds of these Carnations should be +sown in boxes in March and the young plants set out as early as +possible, pinching out the center of the plant to make them branch +freely. Give the same space as for garden pinks. + +[Illustration: Carnation] + +The winter-flowering Carnations have become prime favorites with all +flower lovers, and a collection of winter house plants seems incomplete +without them. Carnations grow readily from cuttings made of the suckers +that form around the base of the stem, the side shoots of the flowering +stem, or the main shoots before they show flower buds. The cuttings from +the base make the best plants in most cases. These cuttings may be taken +from a plant at any time through the fall or winter, rooted in sand and +potted up, to be held in pots until the planting out time in the spring, +usually in April, or any time when the ground is ready to handle. Care +should be taken to pinch out the tops of young plants while growing in +the pot, and later while in the ground, causing them to grow stocky and +send out new growths along the stem. The young plants should be grown +cool, a temperature of 45 deg. suiting them well. Attention should be given +to spraying the cuttings each day while in the house to keep down the +red spider, which is very partial to the Carnation. In the summer, the +plants are grown in the field, and not in pots. The soil in which they +are to be planted should be moderately rich and loose. Clean cultivation +should be given throughout the summer. Frequently pinch out the tops. +The plants are taken up in September and potted firmly, and well +watered; then set in a cool, partially shaded situation until root +growth has started, spraying the foliage often, and watering the plant +only as it shows need of water. + +[Illustration: Carnation cutting] + +The usual living-room conditions as to moisture and heat are not such as +the Carnation demands, and care must be taken to overcome the dryness by +spraying the foliage and setting the plant in a position not exposed to +the direct heat of a stove or the sun. In commercial houses, it is not +often necessary to spray established plants. Pick off most or all of the +side buds, in order to add to the size of the leading flowers. After +all is said, it is probably advisable in most cases to purchase the +plants when in bloom from a florist, and after blooming either throw +them away or store them for planting in the spring, when they will bloom +throughout the summer. + + +CARPET BEDDING. See _Bedding_. + + +[Illustration: Early Carrots] + +CARROT, while essentially a farm crop in this country, is nevertheless a +most acceptable garden vegetable. It is hardy and easily grown. The +extra-early varieties may be forced in a hotbed, or seed may be sown as +soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring. The stump-rooted, or +half-long varieties, are sown for the general garden crop. Well +enriched, mellow loam, deeply dug or plowed, is best suited to the +requirements of Carrots. The seed for the main crop may be sown as late +as July 1. Sow thickly, thinning to 3-4 in. in the row. The rows, if in +a garden that is hand-worked, may be 12 in. apart. If the cultivation is +done by a horse, the rows should be from 2 to 3 ft. apart. One ounce +will sow 100 feet of drill. + + +[Illustration: Castor Bean] + +CASTOR OIL PLANT. In the entire list of quick-growing plants there is +none that excels this for rapidity of growth, grace of foliage and rich +effect. Used either as a specimen plant, with cannas, caladiums, or for +a tropical bed, or as a screen, it gives the most satisfactory results. +Seeds sown early in the house, and the plants grown in the full light, +make fine, stocky plants to set out about the middle of May. With rich +soil and plenty of water, they will grow without a check until frost. +Height, 5-12 ft. For screens, plant 3-4 ft. apart. There are varieties +with differing shades of foliage. + + +CAULIFLOWER. The general culture of Cauliflower is much like that of +cabbage, except that the Cauliflower, being more tender, should be more +thoroughly hardened off before setting out. Still, it is essential that +the plants be set out as early as possible, as the warm weather of June +causes them to make imperfect heads unless the soil is filled with +moisture. No garden crop will as well repay the cost and time of +thorough irrigation, either by running the water between the rows or +applying it directly to the plants. When it is impossible to furnish +water, it would be a good plan to mulch heavily with straw or some other +substance. This mulch, if put on just after a heavy rain, will hold the +moisture for a long time. When the heads begin to form the outside +leaves may be brought together and tied above the head, excluding the +direct sunshine and keeping the head white and tender. No vegetable will +respond more quickly to good culture and well manured soil than the +Cauliflower, and none will prove such an utter failure when neglected. +It is imperative that care be taken to destroy all the cabbage worms +before the leaves are tied in, as after that it will be impossible to +see or reach them. Cauliflower prospers best in moist soil and a cool +climate. From 1,000 to 1,500 plants may be grown from 1 ounce of seed. +Good Cauliflower seed is very expensive. + +[Illustration: Cauliflower] + +For winter crop, seeds may be started in June or July, as for late +cabbage. + +Erfurt, Snowball and Paris are popular early varieties. Nonpareil and +Algiers are good late kinds. + + +CELERIAC, or TURNIP-ROOTED CELERY. This tuber has the celery flavor in a +pronounced degree, and is used for flavoring soups and for celery salad. +It may be served raw, sliced in vinegar and oil, or boiled. The culture +is the same as given for celery, except that no earthing or blanching is +required. About an equal number of plants are obtained from the same +weight of seed as from celery seed. Celeriac is extensively used abroad, +but, unfortunately, is little grown in America. + + +CELERY has become one of the favorite relish and salad vegetables, and +is now very generally grown. The self-blanching varieties have +simplified the culture so that the amateur, as well as the expert, may +have a supply through at least six months of the year. The so-called new +culture, which consists of setting the plants close together and causing +them to shade each other, can be recommended for the garden when a +supply of well rotted manure is to be had, and when any amount of water +is available. This method is as follows: Fork or spade into the soil a +large quantity of manure to the depth of 10-12 in., pulverize the soil +until the ground for the depth of 4-6 in. is in very fine condition. +Then set the plants in rows 10 in. apart and the plants but 5 or 6 in. +apart in the rows. It will be seen that plants set as close as this will +soon fill the soil with a mass of roots and must have large amounts of +plant-food, as well as a large quantity of water; and the making of such +a bed can be recommended only to those who can supply these needs. + +[Illustration: Celery] + +The common practice in home gardens is to plow or dig a shallow trench, +setting the plants in the bottom and hoeing in the soil as the plants +grow. The distance apart of the rows and plants will depend on the +varieties. For the dwarf varieties, such as White Plume, Golden +Self-blanching and others of that type, the rows may be as close as 3 +ft. and the plants 6 in. in the rows. For the large-growing varieties, +as Kalamazoo, Giant Pascal and, in fact, most of the late varieties, +the rows may be from 4-1/2 to 5 ft. apart and the plants 7 or 8 in. in +the row. + +The seed for an early crop should be sown in February or early in March +in shallow boxes, which may be placed in a hotbed or sunny window, or +sown directly in the soil of a hotbed. Cover the seeds thinly and press +the soil firmly over them. When the seedling plants are about one inch +high they should be transplanted to other boxes or hotbeds, setting the +plants 1 in. apart in rows 3 in. apart. At this transplanting, as with +the following ones, the tall leaves should be cut or pinched off, +leaving only the upright growth, as with the utmost care it is almost +impossible to prevent the outside leafstalks from wilting down and +dying. The roots of the plants should also be trimmed back at each +transplanting in order to increase the feeding roots. The plants should +be set as deep as possible, care being taken, however, not to allow the +heart of the plant to be covered up. The varieties usually grown for an +early crop are the so-called self-blanching varieties. They may be made +fit for the table with much less labor than the late crop, the shade +required to blanch the stalks being much less. When only a few short +rows are grown in a private garden, screens of lath may be made by +driving stakes on each side of the row and tacking lath on, leaving +spaces of an inch or more for the light to enter; or each head may be +wrapped in paper, or a tile drain pipe may be set over the plant. In +fact, any material that will exclude the light will render the stalks +white and brittle. + +The seed for the main or fall crop should be sown in April or early May +in a seed bed prepared by forking fine, well rotted manure into a fine +soil, sowing the seed thinly in rows 8 or 10 in. apart, covering the +seed lightly and firming over the seed with the feet, hoe or back of a +spade. This seed bed should be kept moist at all times until the seed +germinates, either by close attention to watering or by a lath screen. +The use of a piece of cloth laid directly on the soil, and the bed wet +through the cloth, is often recommended, and if the cloth is always wet +and taken off the bed as soon as the seed sprouts it can be used. After +the young plants have grown to the height of 1 or 2 in. they must be +thinned out, leaving the plants so that they do not touch each other, +and transplanting those thinned--if wanted--to other ground prepared in +the same manner as the seed bed. All these plants may be sheared or cut +back to induce stockiness. + +If in a private garden, the ground on which the fall crop is usually set +will likely be land from which a crop of some early vegetable has been +taken. This land should be again well enriched with fine, well rotted +manure, to which may be added a liberal amount of wood ashes. If the +manure or ashes are not easily obtained, a small amount may be used by +plowing or digging out a furrow 8 or 12 in. deep, scattering the manure +and ashes in the bottom of the trench and filling it up almost level +with the surface. The plants should be set about the middle of July, +preferably just before a rain. The plant bed should have a thorough +soaking shortly before the plants are lifted, and each plant be trimmed, +both top and root, before setting. The plants should be set from 5 to 6 +in. apart in the rows and the earth well firmed around each one. + +The after-cultivation consists in thorough tillage until the time of +"handling" or earthing up the plants. This process of handling is +accomplished by drawing up the earth with one hand while holding the +plant with the other, packing the soil well around the stalks. This +process may be continued until only the leaves are to be seen. For the +private grower, it is much easier to blanch the Celery with boards or +paper, or if the Celery is not wanted until winter, the plants may be +dug up, packed closely in boxes, covering the roots with soil, and +placed in a dark, cool cellar, where the stalks will blanch themselves. +In this manner Celery may be stored in boxes in the house cellar. Put +earth in the bottom of a deep box, and plant the Celery in it. An ounce +of seed will furnish about three thousand plants. + + +CENTAUREA. Showy annuals and perennials. _C. Cyanus_ is the CORN FLOWER +or BACHELOR BUTTON, familiar to every flower lover, and always seen in +old-fashioned gardens. This is a fine plant for borders or mixed beds, +and also gives good flowers for bouquets. A bunch of the Corn Flower, +with a sprinkling of yellow marigolds or California poppy, makes a rich +effect. These Centaureas are easy of culture, seeding themselves after +once being planted, and coming up year after year in great profusion. +There are blue, white and rose varieties. Annuals. 2-3 ft. Hardy. + +The silver-leaved Centaureas are used only for foliage effects. They are +excellent for ribbon beds or border lines. The seed of these should be +started in a hotbed or box in March, the young plants being set out +where wanted when the ground becomes warm. These species are perennials, +and are sometimes grown from cuttings. _C. candidissima_ and _C. +gymnocarpa_ are among the best white-leaved bedders. + + +CENTRANTHUS. Low-growing hardy annuals in two colors, red and white. +They make very effective covering for low rockwork, and are also +suitable for vases or lawn baskets. Sow where the plants are to stand, +or start indoors if early bloom is wanted. 1 ft. Thin to 10-12 in. +apart. + + +CENTURY PLANT, or AGAVE. These are fine ornamental plants for the +window-garden or conservatory, requiring but little care and growing +slowly, thus needing repotting only at long intervals. When the plants +have outgrown their usefulness as house plants, they are still valuable +as porch decorations, for plunging in rockwork or about rustic nooks. +The striped-leaved variety is the most desirable, but the common type, +with its blue-gray leaves, is highly ornamental. + +There are a number of dwarf-growing species of Agave that are not so +common, although they may be grown with ease. Such plants add novelty to +a collection, and may be used through the summer as noted above or +plunged with cactus in a bed of tropical plants. All succeed well in +loam and sand in equal parts, adding a little leaf-mold in the case of +the small varieties. The more common species are propagated by suckers +from around the base of the established plants. A few kinds having no +suckers must be grown from seed. As to watering, they demand no special +care. Agaves will not stand frost. + + +CEREUS. Under the name of NIGHT-BLOOMING CEREUSES, several species of +Cacti are cultivated. The name is sometimes applied to species of +Phyllocactus, the flowers of which, in white and shades of red, +sometimes open at nightfall. Phyllocactuses are easy to grow. See +_Cactus_. The true Night-blooming Cereuses, however, are species of the +genus Cereus. The commonest one is _C. nycticalus_, but _C. +grandiflorus_, _C. triangularis_ and others are occasionally seen. These +true Night-blooming Cereuses all have long rod-like stems, which are +cylindrical or angular. These stems often reach a height of 10 to 30 +ft., and they need support. They should be trained along a pillar or +tied to a stake. They are uninteresting leafless things during a large +part of the year; but in midsummer, after they are three or more years +old, they throw out their great tubular flowers, which open at nightfall +and wither and die when the light strikes them next morning. They are +very easily grown, either in pots or planted in the natural soil in the +conservatory. The only special care they need is good drainage at the +roots, so that the soil will not become soggy. + + +CHERRY. Of Cherries there are two common types, the sweet Cherries and +the sour Cherries. The sweet Cherries are larger and taller-growing +trees. They comprise the varieties known as the Hearts, Bigarreaus and +Dukes. The sour Cherries include the various kinds of Morellos and pie +Cherries, and these usually ripen after the sweet Cherries. The sour +Cherries make low, round-headed trees. The fruits are extensively used +for canning. Cherry trees should be planted when 2 and 3 years old. Too +rich soil tends to make growth at the expense of fruit, particularly in +the sweet Cherries. For the sweet types, a strong, gravelly loam is +best. Sour Cherries thrive well on clay loams. + +Trees of the sour Cherry should be planted 18 by 18 ft. apart, in well +prepared under-drained soil. The trees may be slightly trimmed back each +year, keeping the head low and bushy. + +[Illustration: Sweet Cherry] + +The sweet Cherries have proved disappointing in many instances from the +rotting of the fruit. This may never be entirely avoided, but good +cultivation, soil not too rich in nitrogen, attention to spraying, and +picking the fruit when dry, will lessen the loss very much. In years of +severe rotting, the fruit should be picked before it becomes fully ripe, +placed in a cool, airy room and allowed to color. It will be nearly as +well flavored as if left on the tree; and, as the fungus usually attacks +only the ripe fruit, a considerable part of the crop may be saved. Set +the trees 25 or 30 ft. apart. + +[Illustration: Black Tartarian Cherry] + +Leaf-blight is readily controlled by timely spraying with Bordeaux +mixture. The curculio or fruit worm is best controlled by jarring, as +for plums (which see). + +Of sweet Cherries, Windsor is the most popular variety. Other good kinds +are Napoleon, Governor Wood, Dikeman, Black Tartarian. Of sour Cherries, +Ostheim and Early Richmond are very early and productive, but better +kinds are Montmorency and English Morello. + + +CHERVIL. The curled Chervil is a good addition to the list of garnishing +vegetables, and adds flavor to dishes when it is used to season. Sow +seeds and cultivate the same as parsley. + +The tuberous Chervil resembles a short carrot or parsnip. It is much +esteemed in France and Germany. The tubers have somewhat the flavor of a +sweet potato, perhaps a little sweeter. They are perfectly hardy, and, +like the parsnip, the better for frosts. The seed may be sown in +September or October, as it does not keep well; or as soon as the ground +is fit to work in the spring, it being slow to germinate after the +weather becomes hot and dry. One packet of seed will give all the plants +necessary. + + +CHESTNUTS. Of Chestnuts there are three types in cultivation: the +European, the Japanese, and the American. The American, or native +Chestnuts, of which there are several improved varieties, are the +hardiest and most reliable, and the nuts are the sweetest, but they are +also the smallest. The Japanese varieties are usually injured by the +winter in central New York. The European varieties are somewhat hardier, +and some of the varieties will thrive in the northern states. Chestnuts +are very easily grown. They usually bear better when two or more trees +are planted near each other. There are few really good Chestnut orchards +in North America, but Chestnut planting is now considerably agitated. +Sprouts in old Chestnut clearings are often allowed to remain, and +sometimes they are grafted to the improved varieties. The young trees +may be grafted in the spring by the whip-graft or cleft-graft method; +but the cions should be perfectly dormant, and the operation should be +very carefully done. Even with the best workmanship, a considerable +percentage of the grafts are likely to fail or to break off after two or +three years. The most popular single variety of Chestnut is the Paragon, +which bears large and excellent nuts when the tree is very young. When +the home ground is large enough, two or three of these trees should be +planted near the borders. + + +CHICORY. The Magdeburg Chicory is the variety usually spoken of, it +being the one most extensively grown. The roots of this, after being +ground and roasted, are used either as a substitute or an adulterant of +coffee. + +The Witloof, a form of Chicory, is used as a salad, or boiled and served +in the same manner as Cauliflower. The plants should be thinned to 6 in. +In the latter part of summer they should be banked up like celery, and +the leaves used after becoming white and tender. This and the common +wild Chicory are often dug in the fall, the leaves cut off, the roots +packed in sand in a cellar and watered until a new growth of leaves +starts. These leaves grow rapidly and are very tender, making a fine +salad vegetable. One packet of seed of the Witloof will furnish plants +enough for a large family. + + +[Illustration: Chrysanthemum] + +CHRYSANTHEMUMS are both annual and perennial. The annual Chrysanthemums +must not be confounded with the well known fall-flowering kinds, as they +will prove a disappointment if one expects large flowers of all colors +and shapes. The annuals are mostly coarse-growing plants, with an +abundance of bloom and a rank smell. The flowers are single in most +cases, and not very lasting. They are useful for massing and also for +cut-flowers. They are among the easiest of hardy annuals to grow. The +stoniest part of the garden will usually suit them. 1-2 ft. Colors white +and shades of yellow, the flowers daisy-like. + +Amongst perennial kinds, _Chrysanthemum frutescens_ is the well known +Paris Daisy or Marguerite, one of the most popular of the genus. This +makes a very fine pot-plant for the window-garden, blooming throughout +the winter and spring months. It is usually propagated by cuttings, +which, if taken in spring, will give large blooming plants for the next +winter. Gradually transfer to larger pots or boxes, until the plants +finally stand in 6-inch or 8-inch pots or in small soap boxes. There is +a fine yellow-flowered variety. + +[Illustration: Chrysanthemums in a box] + +In variety of form and color, and in size of bloom, the florists' +Chrysanthemum is one of the most wonderful of plants. It is a late +autumn flower, and it needs little artificial heat to bring it to +perfection. The great blooms of the exhibitions are produced by growing +only one flower to a plant and by feeding the plant heavily. It is +hardly possible for the amateur to grow such specimen flowers as the +professional florist or gardener does; neither is it necessary. A +well-grown plant with fourteen to twenty flowers is far more +satisfactory as a window plant than a long, stiff stem with only one +immense flower at the apex. Their culture is simple, much more so than +that of many of the plants commonly grown for house decoration. Although +their season of bloom is short, the satisfaction of having a fall +display of flowers before the geraniums, begonias and other house plants +have recovered from their removal from out of doors, repays all efforts. + +[Illustration: Cutting of Chrysanthemum] + +Cuttings taken in March or April, planted out in the border in May, well +tended through the summer and lifted before frost in September, will +bloom in October or November. The ground in which they are planted +should be moderately rich and moist. The plants may be tied to stakes. +When the buds show, all but the center one of each cluster on the +leading shoots should be picked off, as also the small lateral branches. +A thrifty bushy plant thus treated will usually have flowers large +enough to show the character of the variety, also enough flowers to make +a fine display. As to the receptacle into which to put them when lifted +from the border, it need not be a flower pot. A pail or soap box, with +holes bored for drainage, will suit the plant just as well, and by +covering the box with cloth or paper the difference will not be noticed. +If cuttings are not to be had, young plants may be bought of the +florists and treated in the manner described. Buy them in midsummer or +earlier. + +[Illustration: Vase of small Chrysanthemums] + +It is best not to attempt to flower the same plant two seasons. After +the plant has bloomed, the top may be cut down, and the box set in a +cellar and kept moderately dry. In February or March, bring the plant to +the sitting-room window and let the shoots start from the root. These +shoots are taken for cuttings to grow plants for the fall bloom. + +[Illustration: Hardy Chrysanthemum] + +There is a hardy race of Chrysanthemums, very excellent for the border. +Mulch in winter. The best bloom is usually given the first and second +years. + + +CINERARIA. A tender greenhouse plant. It may be grown as a house plant, +although the conditions necessary to the best results are hard to obtain +outside of a greenhouse. The conditions for their growing are a cool +temperature, frequent repotting and guarding against the attacks of the +greenfly. Perhaps the last is the most difficult, and with one having no +facilities for fumigating, it will be almost impossible to prevent the +difficulty. A living room usually has too dry air for Cinerarias. The +seed, which is very minute, should be sown in August or September to +have plants in bloom in January or February. Sow the seed on the surface +of fine soil and water very lightly to settle the seeds into the soil. A +piece of glass or a damp cloth may be spread over the pot or box in +which the seeds are sown, to remain until the seeds are up. Always keep +the soil damp, but not wet. When the seedlings are large enough to +repot, they should be potted singly in 2- or 3-inch pots. Before the +plants have become pot-bound, they should again be repotted into larger +pots, until they are in at least a 6-inch pot in which to bloom. In all +this time, they should be grown cool and, if not possible to fumigate +them with tobacco smoke, the pots should stand on tobacco stems, which +should be moist at all times. The general practice, in order to have +bushy plants, is to pinch out the center when the flower buds show, +causing the lateral branches to start, which they are slow to do if the +central stem is allowed to grow. Plants bloom but once. + + +CIVES. These belong to the onion family, and are propagated by division +of the root. They may be planted in a permanent place in the border, +and, being hardy, will remain for years. The leaves are the parts used, +as the roots are very rank in flavor. The leaves may be cut frequently, +as they readily grow again. + + +CLARKIA. The Clarkias are among the popular hardy edging and vase +annuals, bearing rose, white or bordered flowers in great profusion. The +double-flowering varieties are the most showy, but the single ones will +prove very satisfactory. The seeds may be sown where the plants are +wanted, or started in frames for earlier flowers. 6-18 in. high. Thin to +6-12 in. apart. Plant in a warm soil and sunny place. + + +CLEMATIS. One of the best of woody climbing vines. The common _C. +Flammula_, _Virginiana_, _paniculata_ and others are used frequently to +cover division walls or fences, growing year after year without any care +and producing quantities of flowers. _C. paniculata_ is now planted very +extensively. The panicles of star-shaped flowers entirely cover the vine +and have a pleasant fragrance. One of the best of all fall-flowering +vines, and hardy North. Clings well to a chicken-wire trellis. + +The large-flowered section, of which Jackmani is perhaps the best known, +is very popular for pillar or porch climbers. The flowers of this +section are large and showy, running from pure white, through blue, to +scarlet. Of this class, the most serviceable purple is Jackmani; white, +Henryi; blue, Ramona; crimson, Madame E. Andre. + +The Flammula class may be propagated by division of the roots. The +large-flowered kinds are propagated by layers or root-grafting on _C. +Flammula_ and others. + +[Illustration: Clematis paniculata] + +A deep, mellow, rich soil, naturally moist, will suit the requirements +of Clematis. In dry times apply water freely, particularly for the +large-flowered kinds. Also provide trellis or other support as soon as +they begin to run. Clematis usually blooms on the wood of the season: +therefore prune in winter or early spring, in order to secure strong new +flowering shoots. The large-flowered kinds should be cut back to the +ground each year; and other kinds may be similarly treated unless they +are wanted for permanent bowers. + +The Clematis root disease is the depredation of a nematode or eel-worm. +It is seldom troublesome in ground which thoroughly freezes. + + +CLIMBERS. Treated under _Vines_. + + +COBAEA. This is most commonly seen in the greenhouse, although it is one +of the best of tender climbers for porches. Seed sown in February or +March, and grown in gentle heat, will make suitable plants for setting +out by June. It may also be grown from cuttings of the young wood, taken +in February and rooted in brisk heat. The flowers of _C. scandens_ are +shaped very much like those of the Campanulas, but are larger. They open +a greenish white and deepen to a dark purple in the course of a few +days. The vines in full bloom have a gradation of colors as the flowers +are in different stages of development. The variegated form of _C. +scandens_ should be propagated by cuttings to hold the variegation. +Grows 10-15 ft. Tender. Climbs by means of tendrils. + + +COCKSCOMB. _Celosia cristata_ is the well known Cockscomb, having combs +or heads of scarlet, crimson, rose and yellow. The combs are often +saved for winter bouquets by cutting them off before thoroughly ripe and +drying them. The feathered section comprises tall-growing plants with +plumes of various colors which, with the colored leaves of some +varieties, make a striking feature in a border. The Celosias, being +tender, should be started in a hotbed or frame, potted off when out of +the seed-leaf, and planted out in well enriched soil after danger of +frost is past, 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 ft. high. + + +COLDFRAME. A Coldframe is a simple, low structure, covered with glass or +oiled paper or cloth, in which plants are grown without artificial heat. +It differs from the hotbed in the fact that it has no bottom heat. The +atmosphere in the Coldframe is warmer than that outside, because it is +protected from the winds and because there is more or less of the sun's +heat stored up in the earth. For the details of construction of the +Coldframe, see _Hotbed_. + +A Coldframe is ordinarily used for later work than the hotbed: that is, +seeds may be sown in a Coldframe from two to three and sometimes four +weeks in advance of their sowing in the open; whereas in a hotbed the +seeds may be started from one to three months earlier than they may be +out of doors. Coldframes are sometimes used for the wintering over of +hardy plants which are started in the fall. For example, cabbage seed +may be sown in September in a Coldframe and the young plants may be +protected therein during the winter. If they are properly grown and +hardened off, they will not be injured by the winter, even though they +freeze. Lettuce and sometimes cauliflowers are carried over in the same +way. Coldframes are also used to receive plants which have outgrown the +hotbed and must be transplanted. Plants which need hardening off may +also be transplanted from the hotbed into the Coldframe. The Coldframe +in these cases is an intermediate stage between the hotbed and the open +field. + + +COLEUS. A well known foliage plant for pot culture or bedding. It was +used very extensively at one time in ornamental bedding and ribbon +borders, but owing to its being tender has lost in favor, and its place +is largely taken by other plants. Cuttings root very readily. It may +also be grown from seed, although the types have not become fixed, and a +large number of differently marked plants may be had from the same +packet. This would not be a drawback in the window-garden, unless a +uniform effect is wished. Sow the seed in gentle heat in March. Make new +plants from cuttings each year, and throw the old ones away. + + +COLLARDS. This is a name given to a kind of kale, used when young as +greens; also to young cabbages used in the same way. The seed of any +early cabbage may be sown thickly in rows 18 inches apart, from early +spring to late fall. The plants are cut off when 6 or 8 inches high and +boiled as are other greens. The kale Collards is grown in the South, +where cabbages fail to head. It grows to the height of 2 to 6 feet, +furnishing a large quantity of leaves. + + +COLLINSIA. A hardy annual that should be sown in the fall, where wanted, +if early flowers are desired. The flowers of all the varieties are +showy, either in masses or planted in a border. Give them a position +near the front, as the plants rarely exceed 18 inches in height. + + +COLUMBINE. See _Aquilegia_. + + +COMPOST. See _Manure_. + + +CONVOLVULUS. See _Morning-Glory_. + + +COREOPSIS, or CALLIOPSIS. Very showy hardy annuals, growing from 1 to 3 +feet high, and covered throughout the season with a profusion of bloom. +The colors range from lemon-yellow to dark velvety brown. Excellent for +cutting, and very effective in mixed borders. They thrive in any garden +soil if they have full sunlight. Sow where they are to grow, letting the +plants stand 6-12 in. apart for mass effects. + + +CORN SALAD. This is one of the earliest spring salad vegetables, coming +into condition to use with spinach, and needing the same culture. Sown +in the fall, and covered with straw or hay when cold weather sets in, it +will start into rapid growth when the covering is removed in March or +April. Or the seed may be sown in early spring, and plants will be fit +to use in six or eight weeks. One packet of seed will suffice for a +small family. + + +CORN, SWEET, is not so generally used as it should be. Usually when +planted at all, only one planting of one kind is made. The ears come to +edible maturity almost simultaneously, and a short season of Sweet Corn +is the result. The first planting should be made from May 1 to 10, +planting early, intermediate and late varieties at the same time, then +at intervals of two weeks until the middle of July, when the late +varieties should be planted, thus having a succession from the first +crop until October. The soil for Corn should be rich in plant-food, and +the coarser manure left from the preparation of the ground for small +crops may be used to good advantage. Corn for the garden is better +planted in drills, the drills 3 feet apart, dropping the seed from 10 to +12 inches apart in the drills. One quart of seed will plant 200 hills. + +For extra early, Marblehead, Adams, Vermont, Minnesota and Early Cory +are favorites. For later crop, Crosby, Hickox, Shoe Peg and Stowell +Evergreen are now popular. + + +COSMOS. The Cosmos grown in a locality free from early fall frosts is +certainly a beautiful thing, but there are probably few flowers that +have caused so much disappointment to the flower lover in the North. The +seed germinates very freely. The plants grow with great vigor, and if +the season permits, an abundance of bloom may be had in September. An +early-flowering strain of dwarf Cosmos has been offered by the trade for +several years; and each year there seems to be an improvement in the +size and colors, so the time may shortly come when this will equal the +late-flowering varieties, making the culture of Cosmos more +satisfactory. Cosmos flowers are borne on long stems, and the colors are +in white and fine shades of red. The foliage is also fine. Seed should +be sown in gentle heat, in the greenhouse, hotbed or window in early +April, and the young plants transplanted when 2 inches high, setting the +plants well down in the soil and giving at least 3 inches between the +plants, as they are very likely to spindle up, with weak stems, if +crowded. When danger of frost is over, set them out in a warm, well +sheltered position, 3 feet apart. After the plants start into growth, +pinch out the top to induce a bushy growth. If situated where the wind +can whip them, they should have a stake driven close to the stem, and be +tied to it for support. Flowers of Cosmos are on the order of single +Dahlias. + + +CRANBERRY. The growing of Cranberries in artificial bogs is an American +industry. The common large Cranberry of markets is also a peculiarly +American fruit, since it is unknown in other countries except as the +fruit is shipped there. Cranberries are grown in bogs, which may be +flooded. The whole area is kept under water during the winter time, +largely to prevent the plants from winter injury by the heaving and +freezing and thawing of the bogs. Flooding is also employed at intervals +for the purpose of drowning out insects, mitigating drought, and +protecting against frost and fires. Every good Cranberry bog should have +facilities for flooding. The ordinary practice is to choose a bog which +has a creek running through it, or through which some creek or ditch may +be diverted. At the lower side of the bog flood gates are provided, so +that when the gates are shut the water backs up and floods the area. It +is best that the bog be comparatively flat, so that the water will be +of approximately equal depth over the whole area. At the shallowest +places the water should stand about a foot above the plants. The water +is usually let on the bog early in December and kept on until April or +early May. No flooding is done during the rest of the year unless there +is some particular occasion therefor. + +All the wild and turfy growth should be taken off the bog before the +vines are set. This is done either by digging it off and removing it +bodily, or by drowning it out by means of a year's flooding. The former +method is generally considered to be the better. After the turfy growth +is removed, the bog is smoothed and covered 2 or 3 in. deep with clean +sand. The vines are now set, the lower ends of them being shoved through +the sand into the richer earth. In order to prevent a too rapid and +tangled growth of vine, it is customary to resand the bog every three or +four years to a depth of one-fourth or one-half inch. When sanding is +not practicable, the vines may be mown off when they become too +luxuriant. + +The plants for setting are merely cuttings or branches of the vines. +These cuttings may be from 5 to 10 in. long. They are inserted into the +ground in a hole made by a crowbar or stick. They are usually planted at +distances of 12 to 18 in. each way, and the vines are allowed to cover +the entire ground as with a mat. In three years a good crop should be +secured, if the weeds and wild growth are kept down. A crop ranges +between 50 to 100 barrels per acre. + + +CRESS. The Upland Cress, or the true PEPPER GRASS, may be grown on any +garden soil. Sow early in the spring. It makes a rapid growth and can be +cut from four to five weeks. Succession of sowings must be made, as it +runs quickly to seed. The curled variety is the one usually grown, as +the leaves may be used for garnishing as well as for salads. One packet +of seed will be sufficient for each sowing. Any good soil will do. Sow +thickly in drills 12-18 in. apart. In summer it runs to seed quickly, +so that it is usually grown in spring and fall. + +The Water Cress is more exacting in its culture, and can only be +successfully grown in moist places, such as edges of shallow, +slow-running creeks, open drains, or beds excavated near such streams. A +few plants for private use may be grown in a frame, provided a retentive +soil is used and attention given to watering the bed often. Water Cress +may be propagated from pieces of the stem, used as cuttings. If one is +fond of Water Cress, it is well to colonize it in some clean creek or +pool. It will take care of itself year by year. Seeds may also be used +for propagating it. + + +CROCUS. A hardy bulb, easily grown and giving good satisfaction either +in the border or scattered through the lawn. They are also forced for +winter (see _Bulbs_). They are so cheap and lasting that they may be +used in quantity. A border of them along the edges of walks, little +clumps of them in the lawn, or masses in a bed, give the first touch of +color as the spring opens. They may be forced with ease planted in pots +or shallow boxes, put away in a cool place and brought into the house at +any time through the winter. A low temperature will bring them into +bloom in perfection in about four weeks from the time they are brought +in. They can be had in the window-garden in this way. + +A sandy soil suits the Crocus admirably. Plant in the fall, in the open, +setting them 3 to 4 inches deep. When they show signs of failing, take +up the bulbs and reset them. They tend to rise out of the ground, +because the new bulb or corm forms on the top of the old one. If best +results are desired, it is well to renew the bed occasionally by buying +new bulbs. Crocus beds may be filled later in the season with +quick-growing annuals. + + +CROTON. Under this name many varieties and so-called species of Codiaeum +are grown for conservatory decoration, and latterly for foliage bedding +in the open. The colors and shapes of the leaves are very various and +attractive. The Crotons make good window-garden subjects, although they +are very liable to the attack of the mealy bug. They are propagated +readily by cuttings of half-ripened wood any time during winter or +spring. The plants should be given an abundance of light in order to +bring out their fine colors; but it is usually advisable to screen them +from the direct rays of the sun when they are grown under glass. If the +red spider or the mealy bug attack them, they may be syringed with +tobacco water. Plants which are propagated indoors during the winter may +be massed in beds out of doors during the summer, where they make very +striking effects. Give them rich, deep soil, and be sure that they are +syringed frequently enough on the under side of the leaves to keep down +the red spider. If the plants have been gradually subjected to strong +light before they are taken out of doors, they will stand the full +sunlight and will develop their rich colors to perfection. In the fall +they may be taken up, cut back and used for window-garden or +conservatory subjects. Crotons are shrubs or small trees, and they may +be transferred into large pots or tubs and grown on into large tree-like +specimens. + + +CUCUMBER. For early use, the Cucumber is usually started in a hotbed or +coldframe by sowing the seed on pieces of sod 4 to 6 inches square, +turned grass side down. Three or four seeds are placed on or pushed into +each piece of sod and covered with 1 to 2 inches of fine soil. The soil +should be well watered and the glass or cloth placed over the frame. The +roots will run through the sod. When the plants are large enough to set +out, a flat trowel or a shingle may be slipped under the sod and the +plants moved to the hill without check. In place of sod, old quart berry +boxes are good; after setting in the hill the roots may force their way +through the cracks in the baskets. The baskets also decay rapidly. +Flower pots may be used. These plants from the frames may be set out +when danger of frost is over, usually by the 10th of May, and should +make a very rapid growth, yielding good-sized fruits in two months. The +hills should be made rich by forking in a quantity of well rotted +manure, and given a slight elevation above the garden--not high enough +to allow the wind to dry the soil, but slightly raised so that water +will not stand around the roots. One ounce of seed will plant fifty +hills. The hills may be 4-5 ft. apart each way. + +[Illustration: Cucumbers] + +The White Spine is the leading general-purpose variety. For very early +or pickling sorts, the Chicago, Russian, and other picklings are good. + +The striped beetle is an inveterate pest on Cucumbers and squashes. +Following is the latest advice (Hall and Sirrine, New York State +Experiment Station): "Poisons can be used with success against these +beetles for only a short time in the spring, when they begin to feed; +and again, in the fall, against beetles of the new brood. This fall +poisoning will succeed only where there is not an abundance of wild fall +flowers; for the beetles will desert any poisoned crop for the +unpoisoned flowers and will feed upon the flowers to a considerable +extent, anyhow, if they are to be found. Green arsenite, dry, gave best +results. It was found a waste of the poisons to apply them in Bordeaux +mixture, as the mixture so repelled the insects that they would not eat +the sprayed vines to secure the poison. These poisons, applied in water, +are liable to burn or stunt the plants. It is necessary, then, if we +wish to poison the beetles, to use a trap crop to attract the insects +and to apply the poison to this crop instead of to the plants we design +to protect. On small areas it may be advisable to shut in the small +plants of the growing crop by the well known cloth-topped boxes; by the +tent-like cloth covers spread over arched hoops or wires; by boxes made +from a rectangular piece of cloth and two short 6-inch boards with +cleats attached to insert in the soil and hold the boards upright; or +even 6-inch wire plate-covers. Covers, however, are too expensive on +large areas, and they have the disadvantage of frequently making the +plants weak, so that winds will snap them off or twist and ruin them +when the covers have to be removed. If covers are used alone, their +removal leaves the unprotected vines not only for feeding places but for +breeding places for the beetles. + +"Bordeaux mixture, if thoroughly and frequently applied, makes as +efficient a protection as the covers, is much cheaper, and at the same +time protects the plants from diseases. This mixture (1-to-11 formula) +should be sprayed upon the Cucumbers when they are just well up, again +when they show the third leaf, and the third time just before the plants +commence to form runners. The early application can probably best be +made with a knapsack sprayer, and later ones by any good pump sprayer. +The three applications should not cost over $2 per acre. The Bordeaux +mixture is a much better repellant, according to station tests, than +kerosene, turpentine, tobacco dust, cow manure, burdock infusion, slug +shot, bug death, or any other known compound. Indeed, all materials of +this class, supposed to drive away the beetles by their distasteful +odor, proved failures when used alone. Air-slaked lime, dusted over the +vines, will make them unpalatable to the beetles, but the lime is liable +to stunt the plants. It may be used, with care, by those whose crop is +not large enough to warrant purchase of a spraying outfit. + +"All of these appliances or applications, covers, Bordeaux mixture or +lime, merely protect the young plants until they are strong enough to +stand the injury from the beetles; they do not kill the insects. To do +this, trap crops are needed. As the squash is the beetle's favorite food +plant, this vegetable should be planted--in single rows along the +margins of small patches, in several rows around large fields--about +four days before the Cucumbers or melon seeds are sown. When these trap +plants are up and the beetles appear about them, dust about half the +plants with green arsenite, reserving the other half for use if rain or +heavy dew makes the poison soluble and kills the vines first treated. +The beetles, attracted by their favorite tidbit, will feed upon the +squash vines and be poisoned by the arsenite. When the Cucumbers or +melons are up, unless they are protected by covers, spray with Bordeaux, +and poison more of the squash vines. When the beetles commence to pair, +the squashes may be cultivated up, leaving only a few vines for the +beetles to feed upon at flowering time, as the insects prefer the squash +flowers and will not molest the others. Beans may be used with some +success as a fall catch crop, where wild flowers are not too plentiful. +They should be planted on the Cucumber or melon fields; and when the +beetles leave the old vines to feed upon the fresh bean plants, they +should be treated to liberal doses of poison as well." + +The mildew on the vines can be prevented by Bordeaux mixture spray. + + +[Illustration: Currants] + +CURRANTS. The Currant, being one of the hardiest and most productive of +fruits, is often neglected, the patch allowed to become foul with grass, +never thinned or trimmed, the worms eating the leaves until, in the +course of time, the plants weaken and die. Along the fence is no place +to plant Currants, or, indeed, any other fruit; plant out in the open, +at least 5 feet from anything that will interfere with cultivation. No +fruit crop will respond more readily to good care than the Currant. +Clean cultivation and a liberal use of manure or fertilizers will +certainly be followed by well paying crops. One- or two-year-old plants +may be set 4 by 6 feet. Trim the bush by cutting off most of the suckers +below the surface of the ground. If the season is dry, a mulch of straw +or leaves will assist the plants to establish themselves. + +The red and white Currants bear mostly on two-year-old or older wood. A +succession of young shoots should be allowed to grow to take the place +of the old bearing wood. Cut out the canes as they grow older. The +partial shade afforded by a young orchard suits the Currant well, and if +the ground is in good condition no bad results will follow to the +orchard, provided the Currants are removed before the trees need the +entire feeding space. + +A Currant patch should continue in good bearing for 10 to 20 years, if +properly handled. One very important point is to keep the old, weak +canes cut out, and a succession of two to four new ones coming from the +root each year. For home use, White Imperial and Moore's Ruby are +excellent. Prince of Wales is a heavy bearer and excellent for cooking. +Wilder, Victoria, Cherry and White Grape are meritorious varieties. + +To combat the Currant worm, spray thoroughly with Paris green to kill +the first brood, just as soon as holes can be seen in the lower +leaves--usually before the plants are in bloom. For the second brood, if +it appear, spray with white hellebore. For borers, cut out and burn the +affected canes. + + +CUTTINGS. Cuttings are parts of plants which are inserted in soil or +water with the intention that they shall grow and make new plants. They +are of various kinds. They may be classified, with reference to the age +of the wood or tissue, into two classes; viz., those made from perfectly +hard or dormant wood (taken from the winter twigs of trees and bushes), +and those made from more or less immature or growing wood. They may be +classified again in respect to the part of the plants from which they +are taken, as root Cuttings, tuber Cuttings (as the ordinary "seed" +planted for potatoes), stem Cuttings and leaf Cuttings. + +[Illustration: The planting of dormant wood Cuttings] + +Dormant wood Cuttings are used for grapes, currants, gooseberries, +willows, poplars and many other kinds of soft-wooded trees and shrubs. +Cuttings are ordinarily taken in fall or winter, but cut into the proper +lengths and then buried in sand or moss where they do not freeze, in +order that the lower end may heal over or callus. In the spring these +Cuttings are set in the ground, preferably in a rather sandy and well +drained place. Usually, hardwood Cuttings are made with two to four +joints or buds, and when they are planted, only the upper bud projects +above the ground. They may be planted erect, as the picture shows, or +somewhat slanting. In order that the Cutting may reach down to moist +earth, it is desirable that it should not be less than 6 inches long; +and it is sometimes better if it is 8 to 12 inches. If the wood is +short-jointed, there may be several buds on a Cutting of this length; +and, in order to prevent too many shoots from arising from these buds, +the lowermost buds are often cut out. Roots will start as readily if the +lower buds are removed, since the buds grow into shoots and not into +roots. Cuttings of currants, grapes, gooseberries, and the like may be +set in rows which are far enough apart to admit of easy tillage either +with horse or hand tools, and the Cuttings may be placed from 3 to 8 +inches apart in the row. After the Cuttings have grown for one season, +the plants are usually transplanted and given more room for the second +year's growth, after which time they are ready to be set in permanent +plantations. In some cases, the plants are set at the end of the first +year; but two-year plants are stronger and usually preferable. + +[Illustration: Root Cutting, which has given rise to a shoot] + +Root Cuttings are used for blackberries, raspberries, and a few other +things. They are ordinarily made of roots from the size of a lead pencil +to one's little finger, and are cut in lengths from 3 to 5 inches long. +The Cuttings are stored the same as stem Cuttings and allowed to +callus. In the spring they are planted in a horizontal or nearly +horizontal position in moist, sandy soil, being entirely covered to a +depth of 1 or 2 inches. + +Softwood or greenwood Cuttings are always rooted under cover; that is, +in a greenhouse, coldframe or dwelling house. They are usually made of +wood which is mature enough to break when it is bent sharply. When the +wood is so soft that it will bend and not break, it is too immature, in +the majority of plants, for the making of good Cuttings. One to two +joints is the proper length of a greenwood Cutting. If of two joints, +the lower leaf should be cut off and the upper leaves cut in two, so +that they do not present their entire surface to the air and thereby +evaporate the plant juices too rapidly. If the Cutting is of only one +joint, the lower end is usually cut just above a joint. In either case, +the Cuttings are usually inserted in sand or well washed gravel, nearly +or quite up to the leaves. Keep the bed uniformly moist throughout its +depth, but avoid any soil which holds so much moisture that it becomes +muddy and sour. These Cuttings should be shaded until they begin to emit +their roots. Coleus, geraniums, fuchsias, and nearly all the common +greenhouse and house plants, are propagated by these Cuttings or slips. + +Leaf Cuttings are often used, for the fancy-leaved begonias, gloxinias, +and a few other plants. The young plant usually arises most readily from +the leaf-stalk or petiole. The leaf, therefore, is inserted into the +ground much as a green Cutting is. Begonia leaves, however, will throw +out young plants from the main veins when these veins or ribs are cut. +Therefore, well-grown and firm begonia leaves are sometimes laid flat on +the sand and the main veins cut; then the leaf is weighted down with +pebbles or pegs so that these cut surfaces come into intimate contact +with the soil beneath. The begonia leaf may be treated in various other +ways and still give good results. See _Begonia_. + +In the growing of all greenwood Cuttings, it is well to remember that +they should have a gentle bottom heat; the soil should be such that it +will hold moisture and yet not remain wet; the air about the tops should +not become close and stagnant, else the plants will damp off; and the +tops should be shaded for a time. + +[Illustration: Cuttings inserted in a double pot] + +An excellent method of starting Cuttings in the living room is to make a +double pot, as shown in the picture. Inside a 6-inch pot, set a 4-inch +pot. Fill the bottom, _a_, with gravel or bits of brick, for drainage. +Plug the hole in the inside pot. Fill the spaces between, _c_, with +earth, and in this set the Cuttings. Water may be poured into the inner +pot, _b_, to supply the moisture. + + +CUTWORMS. Probably the remedy for Cutworms most often practiced in +gardens, and which cannot fail to be effective when faithfully carried +out, is hand-picking with lanterns at night or digging them out from +around the base of the infested plants during the day. Bushels of +Cutworms have been gathered in this way, and with profit. When from some +cause success does not attend the use of the poisoned baits, discussed +next, hand-picking is the only other method yet recommended which can be +relied upon to check Cutworm depredations. + +By far the best methods yet devised for killing Cutworms in any +situation are the poisoned baits; hand-picking is usually unnecessary +where they are thoroughly used. Poisoned bunches of clover or weeds have +been thoroughly tested, even by the wagon-load, over large areas, and +nearly all have reported them very effective; lamb's quarters (pigweed), +pepper-grass and mullein are among the weeds especially attractive to +Cutworms. On small areas the making of the baits is done by hand, but +they have been prepared on a large scale by spraying the plants in the +field, cutting them with a scythe or machine, and pitching them from +wagons in small bunches wherever desired. Distributed a few feet apart +between rows of garden plants at nightfall, they have attracted and +killed enough Cutworms often to save a large proportion of the crop; if +the bunches can be covered with a shingle, they will keep fresher much +longer. The fresher the baits, and the more thoroughly the baiting is +done, the more Cutworms one can destroy. However, it may sometimes +happen that a sufficient quantity of such green succulent plants cannot +be obtained early enough in the season in some localities. In this case, +and we are not sure but in all cases, the poisoned bran mash can be used +to the best advantage. It is easily made and applied at any time, is not +expensive, and thus far the results show that it is a very attractive +and effective bait. A tablespoonful can be quickly dropped around the +base of each cabbage or tomato plant, small amounts can be easily +scattered along the rows of onions, turnips, etc., or a little dropped +on a hill of corn, cucumbers, etc. It was used on sweet potato hills in +New Jersey last year, and "served as a complete protection, the Cutworms +preferring the bran." It is well to apply it on the evening of the day +the plants are set out. + +The best time to apply these poisoned baits is two or three days before +any plants have come up or been set out in the garden. If the ground has +been properly prepared, the worms will have had but little to eat for +several days and they will thus seize the first opportunity to appease +their hunger upon the baits, and wholesale destruction will result. The +baits should always be applied at this time wherever Cutworms are +expected. But it is not too late usually to save most of a crop after +the pests have made their presence known by cutting off some of the +plants. Act promptly and use the baits freely.--_M. V. Slingerland._ + +[Illustration: Protection from cutworms] + +Cutworms may be kept away from plants by making a collar of stiff paper +or tin about the base, as in the picture; but this is not practicable on +a large scale. + + +CYCLAMEN. A tender greenhouse tuberous plant, sometimes seen in the +window-garden. Cyclamens may be grown from seed sown in April or +September in soil containing a large proportion of sand and leaf-mold. +If sown in September, they should be wintered in a coolhouse. In May +they should be potted into larger pots and placed in a shaded frame, and +by July will have become large enough for their flowering pot, which +should be either a 5- or 6-inch one. They should be brought into the +house before danger of frost, and grown cool until through flowering. A +temperature of 55 deg. suits them while in flower. After flowering, they +will need a rest for a short time, but should not become very dry, or +the bulb will be injured. When they start into growth, they should have +the old soil shaken off and be potted into smaller pots. At no time +should more than half the tuber be under the soil. + +Tubers large enough to flower the first year may be obtained from the +seedsmen at moderate prices; and unless one has facilities for growing +the seedlings for a year, purchase of the tubers will give the best +satisfaction. The soil best suited to the Cyclamen is one containing two +parts leaf-mold, 1 part each of sand and loam. + + +DAFFODILS are a kind of Narcissus. They are hardy, and require the +treatment recommended for Crocus. They may be naturalized in the grass, +but they usually do not persist long on account of our hot, dry summers. +Daffodils have been much improved of late. Plant in the fall, 4-6 in. +deep. Excellent old garden plants. + + +DAHLIA. The Dahlia is an old favorite which, on account of its formal +flowers, has been in disfavor for a few years, although it has always +held a place in the rural districts. Now, however, with the advent of +the cactus and semi-cactus types (or loose-flowered forms), and the +improvement of the singles, it again has taken a front rank among late +summer flowers, coming in just in advance of the Chrysanthemum. + +[Illustration: Dahlia] + +The single varieties may be grown from seed, but the double sorts should +be grown from cuttings of young stems or from division of the roots. If +cuttings are to be made, it will be necessary to start the roots early +either in a hotbed or house. When the growth has reached 4 or 5 inches, +they may be cut from the plant and rooted in sand. Care should be taken +to cut just below the joint, as a cutting made between two joints will +not form tubers. The most rapid method of propagation of named varieties +is to grow from cuttings in this way. In growing the plants from roots, +the best plan is to place the whole root in gentle heat, covering +slightly. When the young growth has started, the roots may be taken up, +divided, and planted out 3 to 4 feet apart. This plan will ensure a +plant from each piece of root, whereas if the roots are divided while +dormant, there is danger of not having a bud at the end of each piece, +in which case no growth will start. + +[Illustration: Dahlia] + +The Dahlia flourishes best in a deep, rich, moist soil, although very +good results can be had on sandy soil, provided plant-food and moisture +are furnished. Clay should be avoided. If the plants are to be grown +without stakes, the center of each plant should be pinched out after +making two or three joints. By doing this the lateral branches will +start near the ground and be stiff enough to withstand the winds. In +most home gardens the plants are allowed to reach their full height, and +are tied to stakes if necessary. Dahlias are very susceptible to frost. +The tall kinds reach a height of 5-8 feet. + +After the first frost, lift the roots, let them dry in the sun, shake +off the dirt, trim off tops and broken parts, and store them in a +cellar as you would potatoes. Cannas may be stored in the same place. + + +DAISY. The perennial English Daisy, or _Bellis perennis_, is a prime +favorite as an edging plant. The cheerful little flowers show early in +the spring, and with a little care bloom continuously through a long +season. They should be given well enriched, moist soil, and be mulched +through hot weather. The usual method of propagation is by division of +the crowns, made in cool weather. They may also be grown from seed, but +the chances are that many inferior flowers will be produced. Set the +plants 3 or 4 inches apart. Height 3 to 5 inches. The colors are white, +pink and red. Hardy if mulched in winter, but best results are obtained +if plants are renewed frequently. + +Many other plants are called Daisy, particularly the wild Asters, the +Ox-eye Daisy or Whiteweed, and the Paris Daisy (_Chrysanthemum +frutescens_). + + +DAMPING OFF is the rotting off of cuttings or young plants near the +surface of the soil. It is the work of fungi; but these fungi are +injurious because they find conditions congenial to their rapid growth. +Prevention is worth more than cure. See that the soil is wet clear +through, not wet on top and dry beneath. Keep it as dry as possible on +the surface. Avoid soggy soils. On peaty soils, sprinkle sand or coal +ashes to keep the top dry. Give the plants free circulation of air. Give +them abundance of room. If Damping Off threatens, transplant. + + +DANDELION. This common weed would hardly be recognized if seen under +cultivation in the vegetable garden. The plants attain a large size and +the leaves are much more tender. The seed may be selected from the best +field-growing plants, but it is better to buy the French seed of the +seedsmen. + +Sow in spring in well manured soil, either in drills or in hills 1 foot +apart. A cutting of leaves may be had in September or October, and some +of the stools may stand until spring. The delicacy of the leaves may be +improved by blanching them, either by the use of boards or earth. One +trade packet of seed will supply a large number of plants. The whole +plant is destroyed when the crop of leaves is taken. + + +DATURA. BRUGMANSIA. Large-growing annuals with large, trumpet-shaped +flowers. The coloring of some of the flowers is very attractive, but the +odor of the plant is unpleasant. Plants should be set 4 feet apart. They +grow 3-4 feet high, bear large leaves, and therefore make good low +screens. Frost kills them. Sow seed where plants are to grow; or, +better, start them in the house three or four weeks before the weather +is fit for planting outside. Some of the Daturas are weeds. The great +spiny seed pods are interesting. + + +DELPHINIUM. See _Larkspur_. + + +DEWBERRY. The Dewberry may be called an early trailing blackberry. The +culture of this, as of the blackberry, is very simple; but, unlike the +latter, some support should be given to the canes, as they are very +slender and rank growers. A wire trellis or large-meshed fence-wire +answers admirably; or (and this is the better general method) they may +be tied to stakes. The fruits are large and showy, which, combined with +their earliness, makes them desirable; but they are usually deficient in +flavor. The Lucretia is the leading variety in cultivation. + +[Illustration: Lucretia Dewberry] + +Lay the canes on the ground in winter. In the spring tie all the canes +from each plant to a stake. After fruiting, cut the old canes and burn +them (as for blackberries). In the meantime, the young canes (for next +year's fruiting) are growing. These may be tied up as they grow, to be +out of the way of the cultivator. Dewberries are one to two weeks +earlier than blackberries. + + +DIANTHUS, or PINK. Under this head are included Chinese Pinks, Sweet +William, Picotee, Carnation (which see), and the perennial or Grass +Pinks. All of them are general favorites. + +The Chinese Pinks (_Dianthus Chinensis_, or _Heddewigii_) are now very +popular. They are biennials, but flower the first year from seed, and +are treated as hardy annuals. They have a wide range of color and +markings. Some of them are as double as a rose, and are edged, splashed +or lined with other colors. The single ones are very brilliant and are +profuse bloomers. Sow seeds where plants are to stand, or if early bloom +is desired, start in the house. Set the plants 6-10 in. apart. They grow +8-15 in. high. They bloom until after frost. Of easiest culture in any +good soil, and should be even more popular. The petals are often quite +deeply and oddly cut. + +The Sweet William is an old-fashioned perennial, having flowers of many +combinations of color, growing for several years when once planted, but +being the better for renewal every two years. Raising new stock from +seeds is usually better than dividing old plants. Of late years, the +Sweet William has been much improved. + +The perennial garden or Grass Pinks are low-growing, with highly +perfumed flowers. They are very useful for permanent edgings, although +the grass is likely to run them out unless a clean strip is kept on +either side. Divide the old plants when the edging begins to fail; or +raise new plants from seed. Seedlings usually do not bloom much the +first year. Usually perfectly hardy. + + +[Illustration: Dibbers] + +DIBBERS are hand tools used for making holes in which to set plants or +to drop seeds. They are better than a hoe or a spade for most +transplanting. For small plants, as cabbages and tomatoes, a cylindrical +Dibber is generally used. (See the lower one in the cut.) It can be made +from an old spade handle or any hardwood stick. When broad holes are +wanted, the triangular iron Dibber (sold by dealers) is excellent. It is +particularly useful in hard soils. + + +DICENTRA includes the Bleeding Heart; also the native little Dutchman's +Breeches and Squirrel Corn, and a few other species. All are hardy +perennials of the easiest culture, blooming in spring. In common with +all perennial herbs, they are benefited by a winter mulch of leaves or +litter. Propagated by dividing the clumps. + + +DICTAMNUS. FRAXINELLA or GAS PLANT. An old border plant (perennial herb) +with white or pale red flowers. The leaves of the plant emit a strong +odor when rubbed, likened to that of the lemon verbena. It has been +advertised as the Gas Plant from the fact that the plant exudes an oily +matter that may be ignited, especially in warm, dry weather. Propagated +by seeds, which should be sown as soon as ripe. The plant blooms the +third year, and improves with age. Set plants 3 feet apart. Height 2 to +3 feet. + + +DILL. An annual aromatic herb that will seed itself if seeds are left to +ripen, and an abundance of plants may always be had. The culture is of +the easiest. The seeds are often used to flavor pickles. + + +DISEASES. Diseases of plants may be caused by some physiological +disturbance to the plant system, or by the incursions of some parasitic +organism, as insects or fungi. The work of insects, however, is +ordinarily not classed with plant Diseases (see _Insects_). Of Diseases +which are caused by plant parasites or by physiological disturbances, +there are two general groups: + +(1) Parasitic fungous Diseases, such as the apple-scab, black-rot and +mildew of the grape, leaf-blight of the plum and pear, black-knot, and +the like. These Diseases are characterized by definite spots, +discolorations or excrescences, which are more or less scattered over +the surface of the leaf, fruit or branch. As a rule, the leaves and +fruits which are attacked have a tendency to drop from the tree. The +general treatment for these Diseases is to spray with some fungicidal +mixture, like the Bordeaux mixture or the ammoniacal carbonate of +copper. The treatment is useful in proportion as it is applied early and +thoroughly. After the fungus once gets into the tissues of the +host-plant, it is difficult, if not impossible, to kill it. If, however, +the fungicide is upon the plant before the fungus is, the parasite may +not be able to obtain a foothold. Even after it does obtain a foothold, +it is probable, however, that the spray will check its spread by +preventing the development of its external parts. + +(2) The physiological and bacterial Diseases, or those which are termed +constitutional troubles. In these cases there are rarely any definite +spots, as in the attacks of parasitic fungi, but the entire leaf, or +even the entire plant, or a large part of it, shows a general weakening +and Disease, as if there were some cutting off of the accustomed source +of nourishment. Such Diseases are very likely to be seen in a general +yellowing and death of the leaf, in the dying of the leaf along the main +veins and around the edges, showing that the difficulty is one which +affects the entire leaf, and not any particular part of it. In general, +there is a tendency for the foliage in plants so attacked to wither up +and hang on the tree for a time. The peach-yellows and pear blight are +Diseases of this kind. There are no specific treatments for troubles of +this sort. They must be approached by what physicians call +prophylaxis--that is, by methods of sanitation and prevention. The +diseased plants or parts are cut away and burned. All those conditions +which seem to favor the development of the Disease are removed. +Varieties which are particularly susceptible are discarded. Careful +management in matters of this sort is often much more important than any +attempt at specific treatment. + + +DOLICHOS. Mentioned under _Hyacinth Bean_. + + +DRACAENAS of the conservatories (properly mostly CORDYLINES) are +sometimes used as house plants. Protect from direct sunlight, keep an +even and fairly high temperature, water freely when they are growing. +When the plants begin to fail, return them to the florist for +recuperation, where they may have equable conditions. They are handsome +long-leaved foliage plants, excellent for jardinieres. + + +DRAINAGE serves two purposes: first, to carry superfluous water from the +land; second, to lower the water-table or hard-pan, and to make the soil +loose and friable above. Nearly all hard clay lands are much benefited +by draining, even though they are not too wet. The region of free or +standing water is lowered and air is admitted into the soil, rendering +it fine and mellow. For carrying off mere surface water, surface or open +ditches are sufficient; but if the soil is to be ameliorated, the drain +must be beneath the surface. The best underdrains are those which use +hollow or cylindrical tiles, but very good results may be had by making +drains from stones. In regions where there are many flat stones, a very +good conduit may be laid with them, but they are likely to get out of +order. If there is considerable fall to the ditch, the bottom may be +filled for the space of 10 inches or a foot with common stones rolled +in, and the water will find its way between them. If the stones are even +deeper than this, the results will be better; and such ditches also +provide place for disposing of superfluous stones. + +The deeper the ditch the further it will draw on either side. It should +always be deep enough to be protected from freezing, particularly if +tiles are used. Three feet should be the least depth, and 3-1/2 feet is +a good average depth. Drains as deep as this need not be placed oftener +than 2 to 3 rods apart, unless, in garden conditions, it is desired to +very thoroughly ameliorate a heavy clay soil, in which case they may be +placed every 20 feet. The better the fall the quicker the drain will act +and the more permanent it will be, as it will tend to clean itself and +not fill up with silt. It is important that the outlet be entirely free, +and it should be protected with stones or mason work. The roots of some +trees, particularly of willows and elms, are attracted by tile drains, +and often fill up the pipes. When the drain goes near such trees, +therefore, it is well to cement the joints. In general practice, +however, the joints should not be cemented, because a large part of the +drainage water enters at those places. In laying the tiles, it is well +to cover the joints with inverted sod, tarred paper, wisps of straw, +stones or other material. This prevents the fresh earth from falling in +between the joints, and by the time the material is decayed the earth +will have become so thoroughly set that no further trouble will result. +Although under-drains take off superfluous water, nevertheless an +under-drained soil will hold more moisture than one which is not +drained, particularly in the case of clay lands with high subsoils. This +is because fine, mallow soils are able to hold more moisture than very +loose and open or very dense and compact ones. A well constructed +underdrain should last indefinitely. + + +DUTCHMAN'S PIPE. See _Aristolochia_. + + +ECHEVERIA. Tender succulents largely used for carpet bedding and rock +gardens. _Echeveria secunda_ is sometimes called OLD-HEN-AND-CHICKENS, +from the little plants that grow out from the stem of the parent plant +and show around the edges of the rosette top; but the hardy +Hen-and-Chickens of old gardens is a different but closely allied plant +(_Sempervivum tectorum_). All the species are of easy culture and thrive +on sandy soil. They should not be planted out until all danger of frost +is over and the ground thoroughly warm. Propagated by the offsets. +Height 3 inches. The name Echeveria is now given up by botanists for +_Cotyledon_. + + +EGG-PLANT. GUINEA SQUASH. Unless one has a greenhouse or a very warm +hotbed, the growing of Egg-plants in the North should be left to the +professional gardener, as the young plants are very tender, and should +be grown without a check. The seed should be sown in the hotbed or +greenhouse about April 10, keeping a temperature of from 65 deg. to 70 deg. +When the seedlings have made three rough leaves, they may be pricked out +into shallow boxes, or, still better, into 3-inch pots. The pots or +boxes should be plunged to the rim in soil in a hotbed or coldframe so +situated that protection may be given on chilly nights. The 10th of June +is early enough to plant them out in central New York. The soil in which +they are to grow cannot well be made too rich, as they have only a short +season in which to develop their fruits. The plants are usually set 3 +feet apart each way. A dozen plants are sufficient for the needs of a +large family, as each plant should yield from two to six large fruits. +The fruits are fit to eat at all stages of growth, from those the size +of a large egg to their largest development. One ounce of seed will +furnish 600 to 800 plants. + +[Illustration: New York Purple Egg-plant] + +The New York Improved Purple is the standard variety. Black Pekin is +good. For early, or for a short-season climate, the Early Dwarf Purple +is excellent. + + +ENDIVE. As a fall salad vegetable, this should be better known, it being +far superior to lettuce at that time and as easily grown. For fall use, +the seed may be sown from June to August, and as the plants become fit +to eat about the same time from sowing as lettuce does, a succession may +be had until cold weather. The plants will need protection from the +severe fall frosts, and this may be given by carefully lifting the +plants and transplanting to a frame, where sash or cloth may be used to +cover them in freezing weather. The leaves, which constitute practically +the whole plant, are blanched before being used, either by tying +together with some soft material or by standing boards on each side of +the row, allowing the top of the boards to meet over the center of the +row. The rows should be 1-1/2 or 2 feet apart, the plants 1 foot apart +in the rows. One ounce of seed will sow 150 feet of drill. + + +ESCHSCHOLTZIA. See _California Poppy_. + + +EUTOCA. Hardy early-flowering annuals having pink or blue flowers, good +for masses. Sow seed early where wanted. Height 1 foot. Eutocas are +properly classed with Phacelias. + + +EVERGREENS. Evergreens are plants which hold their foliage in winter. +Ordinarily, however, in this country the word Evergreen is understood to +mean coniferous trees with persistent leaves, as pines, spruces, firs, +cedars, junipers, arborvitae, retinosporas, and the like. These trees +have always been favorites with plant lovers, as they have very +distinctive forms and other characteristics. Many of them are of the +easiest culture. It is a common notion that, since spruces and other +conifers grow so symmetrically, they will not stand pruning; but this is +an error. They may be pruned with as good effect as other trees, and if +they tend to grow too tall the leader may be cut out without fear. A new +leader will arise, but in the meantime the upward growth of the tree +will be somewhat checked, and the effect will be to make the tree dense. +The tips of the branches may also be headed in with the same effect. The +beauty of an Evergreen lies in its natural form; therefore, it should +not be sheared into unusual shapes, but a gentle trimming back, as +suggested, will tend to prevent the Norway spruce and others from +growing open and ragged. After the tree attains some age, 4 or 5 inches +may be taken off the ends of the main branches every year or two with +good results. This slight trimming is ordinarily done with Waters' +long-handled pruning shears. + +There is much difference of opinion as to the proper time for the +transplanting of Evergreens, which means that there is more than one +season in which they may be moved. It is ordinarily unsafe to transplant +them in the fall in northern climates or bleak situations, since the +evaporation from the foliage during the winter is likely to injure the +plant. The best results are usually secured when they are transplanted +just as new growth is beginning, rather late in the spring. Some people +also plant them in August, and the roots secure a hold of the soil +before winter. In transplanting conifers, it is very important that the +roots be not exposed to the sun. They should be moistened and covered +with burlaps or other material. The holes should be ready to receive +them. If the trees are large, or if it has been necessary to trim in the +roots, the top should be cut when the tree is set. Large Evergreens +(those 10 feet and more high) are usually best transplanted late in +winter, at a time when a large ball of earth may be moved with them. A +trench is dug around the tree, it being deepened a little day by day so +that the frost can work into the earth and hold it in shape. When the +ball is thoroughly frozen, it is hoisted onto a stone-boat and moved to +its new position. + +For low hedges or screens, one of the most serviceable Evergreens is the +arborvitae in its various forms. Red cedars are also useful. Perhaps the +handsomest of all of them for such purposes is the ordinary hemlock +spruce; but it is usually difficult to move. Transplanted trees from +nurseries are usually safest. If the trees are taken from the wild, they +should be selected from open and sunny places. For neat and compact +effects near porches and along walks, the dwarf retinosporas are very +useful. Most of the pines and spruces are too coarse for planting very +close to the house. They are better at some distance removed, where they +serve as a background to other planting. If they are wanted for +individual specimens, they should be given plenty of room, so that the +limbs will not be crowded and the tree become misshapen. Whatever else +is done to the spruces and firs, the lower limbs should not be trimmed +up, at least not until the tree has become so old that the lowest +branches die. Some species hold their branches much longer than others. +The oriental spruce (_Picea orientalis_) is one of the best in this +respect. The occasional slight heading-in, which we have mentioned, will +tend to preserve the lower limbs, and it will not be marked enough to +alter the form of the tree. + + +EVERLASTINGS are flowers which retain their shape and usually their +color when they are dried. Most of them are members of the composite +family. In order to have them hold shape and color, cut them with very +long stems just before they are fully expanded, and hang them in an airy +place away from the sun. They are all annuals, or grown as such, and are +of very easy culture. Sow seeds where the plants are to stand. Good +kinds are Ammobium, Gomphrena or Bachelor's Buttons, Rhodanthe, +Helichrysum, Xeranthemum, and Acroclinium. Certain wild composites may +be similarly used, particularly Anaphalis and species of Gnaphalium. +Some of the grasses make excellent additions to dry bouquets (see +_Grass_). With these dry bouquets, various seed pods look well. + + +FENZLIA. Little hardy annuals, having a profusion of bloom through the +entire summer. The flowers are a delicate pink, with yellow throat +surrounded by dark spots. A charming edging plant or window box subject. +Sow the seed in boxes or where plants are wanted, and thin to the +distance of 10 inches. Height 3 to 4 inches. Now classed with Gilia. + + +FERNS. Probably the one Fern grown most extensively as a house plant is +the small-leaved Maidenhair Fern (or _Adiantum gracillimum_). This and +other species are among the finest of house plants, when sufficient +moisture can be given. They make fine specimens, as well as serving the +purpose of greenery for cut-flowers. Other species often grown for house +plants are _A. cuneatum_ and _A. Capillus-Veneris_. All these do well in +a mixture of fibrous sod, loam, and sand, with ample drainage material. +They may be divided if an increase is wanted. + +Other Ferns for house culture include _Nephrolepis exaltata_. This is no +doubt the most easily grown of the list, flourishing in a sitting-room. +The new variety of _N. exaltata_, called the Boston Fern (see figure), +is a decided addition to this family, having a drooping habit, covering +the pot and making a fine stand or bracket plant. + +[Illustration: Boston Fern] + +Several species of Pteris, particularly _P. serrulata_, are valuable +house Ferns, but require a warmer situation than those mentioned above. +They will also thrive better in a shady or ill-lighted corner. + +Perfect drainage and care in watering have more to do with the +successful growing of Ferns than any special mixture of soils. If the +drainage material in the bottom of the pot or box is sufficient, there +is little danger of over-watering; but water-logged soil is always to be +avoided. Do not use clay soils. Ferns need protection from the direct +sunshine, and also a moist atmosphere. They thrive well in a close glass +box, or window-garden, if the conditions can be kept equable. + +The native Ferns transplant easily to the garden, and they make an +attractive addition to the side of a house, or as an admixture in a +hardy border. The Ostrich and Cinnamon Ferns are the best subjects. Give +all outdoor Ferns a place which is protected from winds, otherwise they +will shrivel and perhaps die. Screen them from the hot sun, or give them +the shady side of the building. See that the soil is uniformly moist, +and that it does not get too hot. Mulch with leaf-mold in the fall. + + +FERTILIZERS. Soil is productive when it has good physical texture, +plant-food, and a sufficient supply of moisture. Even though it has an +abundance of plant-food, if its texture is not good, it will not raise a +good crop. Soil has good texture when it is open, mellow, friable, +rather than loose and leachy, or hard and cloddy. Commercial Fertilizers +add plant-food, but usually they have only a small influence in +correcting faulty texture. Therefore, before concentrated Fertilizers +are applied to land, it should be gotten into good physical condition by +judicious tillage and by the incorporation of vegetable mold or humus. +The leading source of humus in most gardens is stable manure. See +_Manure_. + +The plant-food in commercial Fertilizers is largely in a soluble or +quickly available condition. Therefore, a little Fertilizer applied late +in the fall or early in the spring will tend to start the plants off +quickly in the spring and to cause them to become established before the +trying weather of summer. For garden purposes, it is usually advisable +to buy one of the so-called complete Fertilizers; that is, one which +contains nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. If a luxuriant growth of +stalk and foliage is wanted rather than flowers or fruit, an application +of nitrogen alone is usually advisable. The most readily available +nitrogen in commercial form is that which is afforded by nitrate of soda +and sulfate of ammonia. In garden practice this may be applied at the +rate of 300 to 400 pounds an acre, although this quantity is more than +is profitable to use in most general field or agricultural conditions. +If it is desired to have stout, stocky plants, with early and profuse +bloom, it is ordinarily advisable to use somewhat sparingly of nitrogen +and to use a little more heavily of potash and phosphoric acid. This is +especially true of the leguminous plants, which have the power of +appropriating atmospheric nitrogen, and among such plants are sweet +peas. Heavy fertilizing of sweet pea land with strong stable manure +tends to make the vines grow too tall and to bear comparatively few +flowers. For dressing of lawns, a Fertilizer which is comparatively rich +in nitrogen is usually to be advised. + +An important value of commercial Fertilizers is to use them to start off +the plants quickly in the spring. The food is available and acts at +once. When used for this purpose, the Fertilizer may be applied in the +hill; but when it is desired for the enriching of the land and for the +support of the crop throughout the season, it should be applied to the +entire surface. Always avoid putting the Fertilizer on the crown of the +plant, or directly in contact with it. It is usually better to work the +Fertilizer in lightly. For most garden operations, it is better to apply +in spring. + + +FEVERFEW. See _Pyrethrum_. + + +FIG. The Fig is little grown in the East except as a curiosity, but on +the Pacific coast it has gained more or less prominence as an orchard +fruit. The trees are usually planted at distances of about 18 to 25 feet +apart. Figs will stand considerable frost, and seedling or inferior +varieties grow out of doors without protection as far north as Virginia. +Many of the varieties fruit on young sprouts, and, inasmuch as the roots +will stand considerable cold, these varieties will often give a few Figs +in the northern states. Figs have been fruited in the open ground in +Michigan. In all frosty countries, however, the Fig should be laid down +during the winter time. The following notes from Professor Massey, of +North Carolina, indicate how this may be done: + +"The light hoar-frosts that have occurred here affected vegetation only +on low grounds, and today (November 5) our gardens on high ground show +no signs of frost. Lima beans and tomato vines are as green as in summer +time, and this morning we gathered ripe Figs from our trees in the +garden--the latest I have ever known Figs to ripen. As the early crop of +Figs ripens in July (if it escapes the winter frosts, for the fruit is +now set on the trees), and the late crop begins in August and continues +to ripen in succession till frost, it is easy to see what a desirable +fruit the Fig is. In this section it is easy to have a great abundance +of Figs, and it is possible almost anywhere in the United States to have +both early and late crops in abundance by taking a little trouble to +protect the trees in winter. Years ago the writer grew Figs in abundance +in a very cold locality in northern Maryland, and never failed to get a +good crop. Where the winter temperature seldom drops lower than 18 deg. or +20 deg. above zero, Figs will need no special protection if sheltered from +cold winds. In colder climates they should be branched from the ground, +and, after the leaves have fallen, be bent to the ground in four bundles +and covered with earth, making a sharp mound over the center and sloping +off like a four-pointed star or cross, as shown in the cuts, taken from +Bulletin 74 of North Carolina Experiment Station." + +[Illustration: Branches of Fig tree pegged down] + +[Illustration: Fig branches covered with earth] + + +FLOWER BEDS. Two classes of subjects are to be considered in the +discussion of Flower Beds: those concerned with the location of the bed; +those concerned with the actual making of the bed itself. Most persons +do not consider the former subject. If one wants a flower garden in +which there is to be a collection of plants grown for the plants' sake, +the garden should be placed at the rear or one side, and may be laid out +in regular fashion like a vegetable garden. If the flowers are to be a +part of the home picture,--that is, a part of the place itself,--then +they may be freely distributed amongst the border planting, or as +edgings along groups of shrubbery. It is rarely, if ever, allowable to +place formal beds in the lawn in home grounds. The place for +carpet-bedding is usually in parks or other public areas, in sections +which are set aside and devoted to that particular purpose, the same as +another section may be devoted to a zoological garden, play-ground or to +other specific use. Flowers which are grown in the middle of the lawn +have little relation to other planting, and they have no background to +show them off to good advantage. It is also difficult to grow them in +small beds in the grass, since they are exposed to sun and wind, and the +grass roots absorb the food and moisture. In the formal bed, every +effort must be made to keep it prim, otherwise it becomes displeasing; +whereas, if the flowers are planted more or less promiscuously in large, +irregular borders, or along the edge of shrubbery, the failure of one or +even of a dozen plants is not a serious matter. The growing of plants in +formal designs requires so much care and attention that a large part of +the fun of plant-growing is lost. Such plant-growing should ordinarily +be left to those who make a business of it. + +In making a Flower Bed, see that the ground is well drained; that the +subsoil is deep; that the land is in a mellow and friable condition, and +that it is rich. Each fall it may have a mulch of rotted manure or of +leaf-mold, which may be spaded under deeply in the spring; or the land +may be spaded and left rough in the fall, which is a good practice when +the soil has much clay. Make the Flower Beds as broad as possible, so +that the roots of the grass running in from either side will not meet +beneath the flowers and rob them of food and moisture. It is well to add +a little commercial fertilizer each fall or spring. + + +FLOWERING MAPLE. See _Abutilon_. + + +FORGET-ME-NOT. This old favorite grows so easily, looks so cheerful, and +with a little care will bloom so long, that it should have a place in +every collection of flowering plants. It is perennial, but the best +results may be had by dividing the roots as often as every other year; +or seedlings may be taken up from around the old plants. They require a +moist soil, with shade a part of the day. They will thrive exceedingly +if grown in a frame like pansies. Easily grown from seeds, usually +blooming the first fall. Excellent for low edgings. Height 6 inches. + + +FOUR-O'CLOCK. MIRABILIS. Tender annual, a plant of old-fashioned +gardens, and always interesting. Grows 2 to 3 feet high. Drop seeds +where the plants are to stand, thinning them to 12 to 18 inches apart. +The colors are white and pink. There are variegated-leaved forms; also +dwarfs. Excellent for the back row in a bed of annuals. + + +[Illustration: Foxglove] + +FOXGLOVE, or DIGITALIS. Foxgloves make most effective border plants, +either as a background or planted among other things. The tall +flower-spikes are covered during the blooming period with funnel-shaped +drooping flowers in various colors and with fine markings. Some of the +newer varieties have flowers that rival the Gloxinias in shadings and +markings. The plants are perfectly hardy, growing in one situation for a +number of years; but, as with many other perennials, they are all the +better for being divided at intervals. They may be grown readily from +seed. Sow in boxes under glass or in the border where wanted. They bloom +the second year. A rich, deep soil and partial shade suit their +requirements. Period of bloom, July and August. Height 2 to 4 feet. + + +FRAME. See _Hotbed_ and _Coldframe_. + + +FREESIA. One of the best and most easily handled winter-flowering bulbs. +The white or yellowish bell-shaped flowers are produced on slender +stalks just above the foliage, to the number of six to eight in a +cluster. They are very fragrant, and last for a considerable time when +picked. The bulbs are small, and look as though they could not produce a +growth of foliage and flowers, but even the smallest mature bulb will +prove satisfactory. Several bulbs should be planted together in a pot, +box or pan, in October, if wanted for the holidays, or later if wanted +at Easter. The plants bloom from ten to twelve weeks from planting, +under ordinary care. No special treatment is required; keep the plants +cool and moist through the growing season. The soil should contain a +little sand mixed with fibrous loam, and the pot should be well drained. +After flowering, gradually withhold water and the tops will die down, +after which the roots may be shaken out and rested until time to plant +in fall. Care should be taken to keep them perfectly dry. The bulbs +increase rapidly from offsets. Plants may also be grown from seed, which +should be sown as soon as ripe, giving blooming plants the second or +third year. Height 12 or 15 inches. Easy to bloom in the window. The +white form (_Freesia refracta alba_) is the best. See _Bulbs_. + + +FRITILLARIA, or FRITILLARY. Bulbous plants, the commoner species hardy. +Only the Crown Imperial is well known in this country. This is an +old-fashioned plant, which takes care of itself when once planted. The +other hardy Fritillarias are treated like tulips. + + +FROST. The light frosts of late spring and of early fall may be +prevented by any means which will keep the air in motion, or which will +fill the air with moisture or cloud-like vapor, so that there is less +radiation from the ground. When frost is expected, it is well to water +the plants and the ground thoroughly. This will ordinarily protect them +from two or three degrees of still frost. The water should be applied +just at nightfall. On larger areas, it is often practicable to make a +smudge. In order to be effective, the smudge must be rather dense and +lie over the whole area, and it should be kept up until the danger from +frost is past. Material which burns very slowly and with much smoke is +preferable. Moist manure or straw or other litter is useful. Materials +which are dry enough to blaze are of little use. Ordinarily, frost comes +towards morning. It is well to have the piles of rubbish ready at +nightfall and have them lighted toward the latter part of the night, +when the frost is expected. The smudge should be kept up until sunrise. +It is well to have these piles of smudge material on all sides of the +area; or if the area is on a slope, it may be sufficient to have them on +the upper side, for there is usually a movement of air down the hillside +and the area will thereby be covered with the smudge. For a thorough +protection, it is best to have many small piles rather than a few large +ones. If the piles are placed every ten feet around the areas, better +results are to be expected. There are especially prepared tar-like +materials for use in smudging plantations, but they are little used in +this country, although some of them are excellent. + + +[Illustration: Fuchsia] + +FUCHSIA. Well-known window or greenhouse shrub. It is readily grown from +cuttings. Soft, green wood should be used for cuttings, and it will root +in about three weeks, when the cuttings should be potted. Take care not +to have them pot-bound while in growth, but do not over-pot when bloom +is wanted. Given warmth and good soil, they will make fine plants in +three months or less. In well protected, partially shady places they may +be planted out, growing into miniature bushes by fall. Plants may be +kept on from year to year; and if the branches are well cut back after +blooming, abundant new bloom will come. But it is usually best to make +new plants each year from cuttings, since young plants usually bloom +most profusely and demand less care. Fuchsias are amongst the best of +window subjects. + + +FUMIGATION is mentioned under _Insects_. + + +FUNGI. Flowerless, leafless plants, living mostly on food (either living +or dead) which has been prepared by other plants or by animals, Molds, +mushrooms and puff-balls are familiar examples. Some of the parasitic +kinds cause great damage to the plants or animals on which they live. +Examples of these injurious parasitic kinds are apple-scab fungus, +potato mildew, grape mildew, corn smut fungus, and the like. Most of +these are combated by spraying with materials containing copper or +sulfur. + + +FUNKIA, or DAY LILY. Hardy perennial herbs, growing in dense clumps and +bearing attractive foliage. They are of the easiest culture. _F. +subcordata_, the white-flowered species, is commonest. Of blue-flowered +forms there are several, of which _F. ovata_ (or _F. caerulca_) is +perhaps the best. Funkias are excellent for borders, or as a formal +edging to long walks or drives. There are variegated forms. Funkias grow +12 to 24 inches high, and the flower clusters stand still higher. +Propagated by dividing the roots. Day Lily is a name applied also to +species of Hemerocallis, which are yellow-flowered lilies. + + +GAILLARDIAS are plants that should have a place in every garden, either +as border plants or for cutting. The flowers are very showy and lasting +in bouquets, as well as on the plants. The double form has perfect balls +of color. Gaillardias are both annual and perennial. The perennials +usually have flowers much larger than the annuals; and they bloom the +first year if seed is started early. These are also propagated by seed +or cuttings. If from seed, it should be sown under glass in February or +March, setting out the young plants where wanted when danger of frost is +over. The cuttings may be made of the new growth in the fall and +wintered over in the house. Set 2 feet apart. Height 2 feet, blooming +from July until hard frosts. The perennials are usually orange. + +[Illustration: Gaillardia picta] + +The annual kind (_Gaillardia picta_ of florists) is probably the best +kind for the home garden. It is of the easiest culture. Hardy. Two feet. +Sow seeds where plants are to bloom. The colors of the flowers are in +rich shades of yellow and red. + + +GALANTHUS. See _Snowdrop_. + + +GARLIC. An onion-like plant, the bulbs of which are used for flavoring. +Little known in this country except amongst those of foreign birth. It +is multiplied the same as multiplier onions--the bulb is broken apart +and each bulbule or "clove" makes a new compound bulb in a few weeks. +Hardy; plant in early spring, or in the South in the fall. Plant 2 to 3 +inches apart in the row. + + +GAS PLANT is _Dictamnus_. + + +GERANIUM. What are generally known as Geraniums are, strictly speaking, +Pelargoniums, which see. The true Geraniums are mostly hardy plants, and +therefore should not be confounded with the tender Pelargoniums. +Geraniums are worthy a place in a border. They are hardy perennials, and +may be transplanted early in the spring, setting them 2 feet apart. +Height 10 to 12 inches. + +The common wild Cranesbill (_Geranium maculatum_) improves under +cultivation, and is an attractive plant when it stands in front of +taller foliage. + + +GILIA. Low-growing hardy annuals, good for front borders or rockwork, +growing from seed very quickly and continuing in flower a long season. +They will do well in light soil. Sow seed in the fall or early spring +where plants are wanted. _Gilia tricolor_, blue, white and yellow, is +the best, but there are excellent white and red sorts. + + +GLADIOLUS. A popular summer-flowering bulbous plant, thriving best in +moist, sandy loam, that has had an application of well rotted manure the +previous year. No manure should be used the year of planting, as it has +a tendency to rot the bulbs. Plantings may be made from the time the +ground is in condition to work in the spring until late in June. In +planting, the bulbs should be set 3 inches deep and 8 to 10 inches +apart, unless they are to be grown in groups, when they may be planted +five or six in the space of 1 foot. Stakes should be furnished each +plant to support the flower-spike. When in groups, one stake may be +used, setting it in the middle of the circle. + +Gladioli are increased by bulblets formed around the old bulbs (or +corms), or they may be grown from seed. The bulblets should be planted +in drills in April or May, and will grow to flowering size in one or two +years. In the same way, seed sown early in drills, grown through the +summer, the little bulbs taken up and stored through the winter and +again planted out, will often make bulbs large enough to flower the +second year. + +Care should be taken to lift all bulbs before freezing weather, as most +varieties are tender. They should be harvested with the tops on, and +laid away in a cool, dry place to ripen. The tops are then cut off and +the bulbs stored in a dry place (fit for potatoes, but drier) until +wanted the following spring. See _Bulbs_. + + +GLAUCIUM, or HORNED POPPY. The kind most cultivated (_G. luteum_) has +bright yellow flowers in July and September. The flowers, contrasting +with the deep cut glaucous leaves, make a fine effect in the mixed or +ribbon border. Seed may be sown in the open ground where wanted. Thin to +12 inches apart. Height 12 to 20 inches. Perennial; but treated as a +hardy annual. + + +GLOXINIA. Choice greenhouse tuberous-rooted perennials, sometimes seen +in window gardens, but really not adapted to them. Gloxinias must have a +uniform moist and warm atmosphere and protection from the sun. They will +not stand abuse or varying conditions. Propagated often by +leaf-cuttings, which should give flowering plants in one year. From the +leaf, inserted half its length in the soil (or sometimes only the +petiole inserted) a tuber arises. This tuber, after resting until +midwinter or later, is planted and flowering plants soon arise. +Gloxinias also grow readily from seeds, which may be germinated in a +temperature of about 70 deg. Flowering plants may be had in a year if seeds +are sown in late winter or early spring. This is the usual method. Soil +should be porous and rich. + + +GODETIA. Very free-blooming annuals in fine colors, harmonizing well +with the California poppy. Many of the varieties are beautifully +blotched with contrasting colors. They are very satisfactory plants for +solid beds or border lines, blooming from June to October. Seed may be +sown in heat, and seedlings planted in open ground at a distance of 18 +inches apart when danger of frost is over. A rather poor soil will cause +them to bloom better than one very rich, as they are inclined to make a +rank growth. Height 1 to 2 feet. + + +GOLDEN FEATHER. See _Pyrethrum_. + + +GOLDENROD (_Solidago_ of many species). The Goldenrod of the wayside is +so familiar that the thought of bringing it into the garden is +distasteful to many persons. But if given a suitable place in a well +enriched border, no plant has greater possibilities. A large clump +against a hedge of green, or massed behind a well grown plant of the +blue-flowering wild asters, makes a striking contrast. They bloom late +in the season, and the rich yellow and golden colors and the graceful +forms are always pleasing. + +[Illustration: Goldenrod] + +Goldenrods will grow more vigorously and the blooms be larger if the +roots are divided every third or fourth year. There are several species +catalogued by nurserymen, and some of the stock is superior to the wild +type, either having a larger truss of flowers or blooming later. +Goldenrods range in height from 2 to 6 feet. All are easily propagated +by division. Transplant in the fall, if convenient, although spring +planting may be equally successful. + + +GOMPHRENA. BACHELOR'S BUTTON. GLOBE AMARANTH. A useful everlasting for +winter bouquets. Seed may be sown in heat in March, the plants +transplanted once before setting out to cause them to grow stocky and +branching; or seed may be sown in a warm place where the plants are to +grow. The flowers, to retain their colors, should be cut before fully +expanded and dried in a dark, airy place. See _Everlastings_. Set the +plants 18 inches apart. Height 12 inches. The heads resemble clover +heads. The term Bachelor's Button is also given to the cornflower +(_Centaurea Cyanus_). + + +GOOSEBERRY. Since the advent of the practice of spraying with fungicides +to prevent mildew, the culture of the Gooseberry has increased. There is +now no reason why, with a little care, good crops of many of the best +English varieties may not be grown. The price for good fruits of +Gooseberry is usually remunerative, as the market is rarely overstocked +by the sudden ripening of the crop, since the fruits ripen through a +long season. A large part of the crop is picked green for culinary +purposes. The leading market variety is Downing, a native sort, which is +little subject to mildew. Several of the English varieties have proved +of value, having larger fruits than the natives. Whitesmith, Chautauqua, +Triumph and Industry are among the best. + +[Illustration: Gooseberries] + +The propagation of the Gooseberry is similar to that of the currant, +although the practice of earthing up a whole plant, causing every branch +thus covered to throw out roots, is common with the European varieties. +The rooted branches are cut off the following spring and planted in +nursery rows or sometimes directly in the field. In order to succeed +with this method, the plant should have been cut back to the ground so +that all the shoots are yearling. + +Pruning is essentially the same as for the currant (which see); and the +treatment of the currant worm is the same as for that fruit. + +Gooseberries should be set (either in fall or spring) 3 to 4 feet +apart; rows 5 to 7 feet apart. Select a rich, rather moist soil. The +tops need no winter protection. If mildew and worms are to be kept in +check, spraying must be begun with the very first sign of trouble and be +thoroughly done. + + +GOURDS are valuable as rapid-growing screen vines, the curious fruits of +many varieties adding much to their attractiveness. Cultivation the same +as for melons or squashes. Height 10 to 15 feet. Provide a chicken-wire +trellis; or let them run on a brush pile. + + +GRAFTING. Grafting is the operation of inserting a piece of a plant into +another plant with the intention that it shall grow. It differs from the +making of cuttings in the fact that the severed part grows in another +plant rather than in the soil. There are two general kinds of +Grafting--one of which inserts a piece of branch in the stock (Grafting +proper), and one which inserts only a bud with little or no wood +attached (budding). In both cases the success of the operation depends +upon the growing together of the cambium of the cion (or cutting) and +that of the stock. The cambium is the new and growing tissue which lies +underneath the bark and on the outside of the growing wood. Therefore, +the line of demarcation between the bark and the wood should coincide +when the cion and stock are joined. The plant upon which the severed +piece is set is called the stock. The part which is removed and set into +the stock is called a cion if it is a piece of a branch, or a bud if it +is only a single bud with a bit of tissue attached. The greater part of +Grafting and budding is done when the cion or bud is nearly or quite +dormant. That is, Grafting is usually done late in winter and early in +spring, and budding may be done then, or late in summer, when the buds +have nearly or quite matured. + +The prime object of Grafting is to perpetuate a kind of plant which will +not reproduce itself from seed or of which seed is very difficult to +obtain. Cions or buds are therefore taken from this plant and set into +whatever kind of plant is obtainable and on which they will grow. Thus, +if one wants to propagate the Baldwin apple, he does not for that +purpose sow seeds thereof, but takes cions or buds from the tree and +grafts them into some other apple tree. The stocks are usually obtained +from seeds. In the case of the apple, young plants are raised from seeds +which are obtained mostly from cider factories, without reference to the +variety from which they came. When the seedlings have grown to a certain +age, they are budded or grafted; and thereafter they bear fruit like +that of the tree from which the cions were taken. + +[Illustration: The bud severed from its twig] + +[Illustration: The bud tied] + +[Illustration: The bud inserted] + +There are many ways in which the union between cion and stock is made. +Budding may be first discussed. It consists in inserting a bud +underneath the bark of the stock, and the commonest practice is that +which is shown in the illustrations. Budding is mostly performed in +July, August and early September, when the bark is still loose or will +peel. Twigs are cut from the tree which it is desired to propagate, and +the buds are cut off with a sharp knife, a shield-shaped bit of bark +(with possibly a little wood) being left with them (see illustration). +The bud is then shoved into a slit made in the stock, and it is held in +place by tying with some soft strand. In two or three weeks the bud will +have "stuck" (that is, it will have grown fast to the stock), and the +strand is cut to prevent its strangling the stock. Ordinarily the bud +does not grow until the following spring, at which time the entire stock +or branch in which the bud is inserted is cut off an inch above the bud; +and the bud thereby receives all the energy of the stock. Budding is the +commonest Grafting operation in nurseries. Seeds of peaches may be sown +in spring, and the plants which result will be ready for budding that +same August. The following spring, or a year from the planting of the +seed, the stock is cut off just above the bud (which is inserted near +the ground), and in the fall of that year the tree is ready for sale; +that is, the top is one season old and the root is two seasons old, but +in the trade it is known as a 1-year-old tree. In apples and pears the +stock is usually two years old before it is budded, and the tree is not +sold until the top has grown two or three years. Budding may be +performed also in the spring, in which case the bud will grow the same +season. Budding is always done in young branches, preferably in those +not more than one year old. + +[Illustration: Whip-graft] + +Grafting is the insertion of a small branch (or cion), usually bearing +more than one bud. If Grafting is done on small stocks, it is customary +to employ the whip-graft, which is illustrated in the margin. Both stock +and cion are cut across diagonally, and a split made in each, so that +one fits into the other. The graft is tied securely with a string, and +then, if it is above ground, it is also waxed carefully. In larger limbs +or stocks, the common method is to employ the cleft-graft. This consists +in cutting off the stock, splitting it and inserting a wedge-shaped cion +in one or both sides of the split, taking care that the cambium layer of +the cion matches that of the stock. The exposed surfaces are then +securely covered with wax. Grafting is usually performed early in the +spring, just before the buds swell. The cions should have been cut +before this time, when they were perfectly dormant. Cions may be stored +in sand in the cellar or in the ice house, or they may be buried in the +field. The object is to keep them fresh and dormant until they are +wanted. + +[Illustration: Cleft-graft] + +[Illustration: Cleft-grafting a Cactus] + +If it is desired to change the top of an old plum, apple or pear tree to +some other variety, it is usually done by means of the cleft-graft. If +the tree is very young, budding or whip-grafting may be employed. On an +old top the cions should begin to bear when three to four years old. All +the main limbs should be grafted. It is important to keep down the +suckers or water-sprouts from around the grafts, and part of the +remaining top should be cut away each year until the top is entirely +changed over (which will result in two to four years). + +A good wax for covering the exposed parts is made as follows: Resin, 4 +parts by weight; beeswax, 2 parts; tallow, 1 part. In making the wax, +the materials are first broken up and melted together. When thoroughly +melted the liquid is poured into a pail or tub of cold water. It soon +becomes hard enough to handle, and it is then pulled and worked over +until it becomes tough or "gets a grain," at which stage it becomes the +color of very light-colored manilla paper. When wax is applied by hand, +the hands must be well greased. Hard cake tallow is the best material +for this purpose. In top-grafting large trees, it is well to carry a +supply of tallow when waxing, by smearing the backs of the hands before +entering the tree. + + +GRAPE. One of the surest of fruit crops is the Grape, a crop each year +being reasonably certain after the third year from the time of setting +the vines. The Grape does well on any soil that is under good +cultivation and well drained. A soil with considerable clay is better +under these circumstances than a light, sandy loam. The exposure should +be to the sun; and the place should admit of cultivation on all sides. +One- or 2-year-old vines should be planted, either in the fall or early +spring. At planting the vine is cut back to 3 or 4 eyes, and the roots +are well shortened in. The hole in which the plant is to be set should +be large enough to allow a full spreading of the roots. Fine soil should +be worked around the roots and firmed with the feet. If the season +should be dry, a mulch of coarse litter may be spread around the vine. +If all the buds start, the strongest one or two may be allowed to grow. + +The canes arising from these buds should be staked and allowed to grow +through the season; or in large plantations the first-year canes may be +allowed to lie on the ground. The second year one cane should be cut +back to the same number of eyes as the first year. After growth begins +in the spring, two of the strongest buds should be allowed to remain. +These two canes now arising may be grown to a single stake through the +second summer, or they may be spread horizontally on a trellis. These +are the canes which form the permanent arms or parts of the vine. From +them start the upright shoots which, in succeeding years, are to bear +the fruits. + +[Illustration: Grape] + +In order to understand the pruning of Grapes, the operator must fully +grasp this principle: _Fruit is borne on wood of the present season, +which arises from wood of the previous season._ To illustrate: A growing +shoot, or cane of 1899, makes buds. In 1900 a shoot arises from each +bud; and near the base of this shoot the Grapes are borne (1 to 4 +clusters on each). While every bud on the 1899 shoot may produce shoots +or canes in 1900, only the strongest of these new canes will bear fruit. +The skilled Grape-grower can tell by the looks of his cane (as he prunes +it in winter) which buds will give rise to the Grape-producing wood the +following season. The larger and stronger buds usually give best +results; but if the cane itself is very big and stout, or if it is very +weak and slender, he does not expect good results from any of its buds. +A hard, well-ripened cane the diameter of a man's little finger is the +ideal size. + +Another principle to be mastered is this: _A vine should bear only a +limited number of clusters_,--say from 30 to 80. A shoot bears clusters +near its base; beyond these clusters the shoot grows on into a long, +leafy cane. An average of two clusters may be reckoned to a shoot. If +the vine is strong enough to bear 60 clusters, 30 good buds must be left +at the pruning (which is done from December to late February). + +The essential operation of pruning a Grape vine, therefore, is each year +to cut back a limited number of good canes to a few buds, and to cut off +entirely all the remaining canes or wood of the previous season's +growth. If a cane is cut back to 2 or 3 buds, the stub-like part which +remains is called a spur. Present systems, however, cut each cane back +to 8 or 10 buds (on strong varieties), and 3 or 4 canes are left,--all +radiating from near the head or trunk of the vine. The top of the vine +does not grow bigger from year to year, after it has once covered the +trellis, but is cut back to practically the same number of buds each +year. Since these buds are on new wood, it is evident that they are each +year farther and farther removed from the head of the vine. In order to +obviate this difficulty, new canes are taken out each year or two from +near the head of the vine, and the 2-year or 3-year-old wood is cut +away. + +The training of Grapes is a different matter. A dozen different systems +of training may be practiced on the same trellis and from the same style +of pruning,--for training is only the disposition or arrangement of the +parts. + +On arbors, it is best to carry one permanent arm or trunk from each root +over the framework to the peak. Each year the canes are cut back to +short spurs (of 2 or 3 buds) along the sides of this trunk. + +Grapes are set from 6 to 8 feet apart in rows which are 8 to 10 feet +apart. A trellis made of 2 or 3 wires is the best support. Slat +trellises catch too much wind and blow down. Avoid stimulating manures. +In very cold climates, the vines may be taken off the trellis in early +winter and laid on the ground and lightly covered with earth. Along the +boundaries of home lots, where Grapes are often planted, little is to be +expected in the way of fruit because the ground is not well tilled. For +mildew and rot, spray with Bordeaux mixture. See _Spraying_. + +Concord is the most cosmopolitan variety, but its quality is not the +best. For the home garden, a good selection may be made from the +following list: Winchell or Green Mountain, Campbell Early, Worden, +Concord, Niagara, Moore Diamond, Vergennes, Agawam, Salem, Wilder, Iona, +Brighton, Delaware. + + +GRAPERY. The European grapes rarely thrive out of doors in eastern +America. Grape houses are necessary, with or without artificial heat. +Fruit for home use may be grown very satisfactorily in a cold Grapery +(without artificial heat). A simple lean-to against the south side of a +building or wall is cheap and serviceable. When a separate building is +desired, an even-span house running north and south is preferable. There +is no advantage in having a curved roof, except as a matter of looks. A +compost of four parts rotted turf to one of manure is laid on a sloping +cement bottom outside the house, making a border 12 feet wide and 2 feet +deep. The cement may be replaced with rubble on well drained soils, but +it is a poor makeshift. Every three years the upper 6 inches of the +border should be renewed with manure. The border inside the house is +prepared likewise. Two-year-old potted vines are planted about 4 feet +apart in a single row. Part of the roots go through a crevice in the +wall to the outer border and part remain inside; or all may go outside +if the house is desired for other purposes. One strong cane is trained +to a wire trellis hanging at least 18 inches from the glass, and is cut +back to 3 feet the first year, 6 the second, and 9 the third. Do not be +in a hurry to get a long cane. Pruning is on the spur system, as +recommended for arbors on page 120. The vines are usually laid on the +ground for winter and covered with leaves or wrapped with cloth. + +As soon as the buds swell in early spring, tie the vines to the trellis +and start out one shoot from each spur, rubbing off all others. After +the berries begin to color, however, it is better to leave all further +growth to shade the fruit. Pinch back each of these laterals two joints +beyond the second bunch. To keep down red spider and thrips, the +foliage should be sprayed with water every bright morning except during +the blooming season. At least one-third of the berries should be thinned +from each bunch; do not be afraid of taking out too many. Water the +inside border frequently all through the summer, and the outside +occasionally if the season is dry. Mildew may appear in July. The best +preventives are to syringe faithfully, admit air freely, and sprinkle +sulfur on the ground. + +Fruit may be kept fresh on the vines in a warm (or artificially heated) +Grapery until late December: in a coldhouse it must be picked before +frost. After the fruit is off, ventilate from top and bottom and +withhold water, so as to thoroughly ripen the wood. Along in November +the canes are pruned, covered with straw or wrapped with mats and laid +down till spring. Black Hamburg is superior to all other varieties for a +cold Grapery; Bowood Muscat, Muscat of Alexandria and Chasselas Musque +may be added in the warmhouse. Good vines will live and bear almost +indefinitely.--_S. W. Fletcher._ + + +GRASSES of various kinds are grown for ornament, the most popular types +being the hardy perennials, which make attractive clumps in the lawn or +border. The best of the permanent kinds in the North are the various +sorts of Eulalia (properly Miscanthus). When once established they +remain for years, making large and bold clumps. The striped kind, or +zebra grass, is particularly good. These grasses thrive in any good +soil. They grow from 4 to 7 feet high. The great reed, or _Arundo +Donax_, is a bold subject and perfectly hardy. In a rich and rather +moist soil, it grows 10 to 12 feet high when well established. Pampas +Grass is most excellent in the Middle States and South. Some of the big +native grasses and sedges make attractive lawn clumps. + +Grasses are also grown for dry or everlasting bouquets. For this +purpose, small-growing delicate annual species are mostly used. Good +types are species of agrostis, briza, bromus, eragrostis, and +pennisetum. Seeds of these and of others are sold by seedsmen. With +ordinary treatment, they thrive in any garden soil. + +For notes on sod-making, see _Lawn_. + + +GREENHOUSE. In America the word Greenhouse has come to be applied to all +kinds of glass-houses in which plants are grown. Originally the word was +applied to those houses in which plants are merely preserved or kept +green during the winter. Other types of glass-houses are the +conservatory, in which plants are displayed; stove or hothouse, in which +plants are grown in a high temperature; the propagating pit, in which +the multiplication of plants is carried forward; and the houses which +have various temperatures, as cold, cool and intermediate. The +principles which underlie the construction and management of +glass-houses are too extensive to be discussed here. The reader should +refer to special books on the topic. For the general subject, Taft's +"Greenhouse Construction" and "Greenhouse Management" are excellent. For +particular applications to floriculture, Hunt's "How to Grow +Cut-flowers" is a standard work. For applications to the forcing of +vegetable crops, Bailey's "Forcing-Book" may perhaps be consulted. + +The smaller the glass-house the more difficult it is to manage, because +it is likely to be more variable in temperature, moisture and other +conditions. This is particularly true if the house is a small lean-to +against the south side of a dwelling house, for it becomes very hot at +midday and comparatively cold at night. In order to moderate the heat in +these little houses, it is ordinarily advisable to use ground glass for +the roof or to whitewash it. The house conservatory may be heated by a +coal stove, but the best results are rarely to be attained in this case. +A stove is likely to leak gas, and the temperature is more or less +uneven. The best results are to be attained when the conservatory is +heated by steam or hot water, piped in the modern fashion with wrought +iron pipes, which go together with threads. If the conservatory is +heated from the heater which supplies the dwelling house, it should have +an extra amount of pipe; otherwise it will be necessary to keep the +dwelling house too hot for comfort in order to maintain the conservatory +at its proper temperature. It is always best, when practicable, to heat +the conservatory with a separate apparatus. There are various small hot +water and steam heaters, the size of coal stoves, which are excellent +for the purpose. For a small conservatory, hot water is usually +preferable to steam, since it is less likely to fluctuate. For large +establishments, however, the steam is usually the better. For further +discussions of related subjects, see _Hotbed_, _Window Garden_, +_Potting_ and _Watering_. + + +GREVILLEA. A very graceful greenhouse plant, suitable for house culture. +The plants grow freely from seed, and until they become too large are as +decorative as ferns. Grevilleas are really trees, and are valuable in +greenhouses and rooms only in their young state. They withstand much +abuse. They are now very popular as jardiniere subjects. Seeds sown in +spring will give handsome plants by the next winter. + + +GYPSOPHILA. BABY'S BREATH. _Gypsophila muralis_ is one of the dainty +little plants called Baby's Breath. It is a low-growing annual forming +compact mounds of green, thickly covered with little pink flowers. It is +one of the most attractive border plants in cultivation. It is also a +charming pot-plant. _G. paniculata_ is a hardy perennial having panicles +of bluish white flowers. This is very graceful, and the flowers are fine +for cutting and for use with sweet pea bouquets or with other choice +flowers. The panicles are so lasting that they may be used in winter +bouquets. The annuals may be planted 1 foot apart; the perennials 3 +feet. Both are readily grown from seed, and bloom the first year. + + +HARDY. A relative term, used to denote a plant which endures the climate +(particularly the winter climate) of a given place. Half-hardy plants +are those which withstand some frost or uncongenial conditions, but will +not endure the severity of the climate. Tender plants are those which +are injured by light frosts. + + +HEDGES. Hedges are much less used in this country than in Europe, and +for several reasons. Our climate is dry, and most Hedges do not thrive +so well here as there; labor is high-priced, and the trimming is +therefore likely to be neglected; our farms are so large that much +fencing is required; timber and wire are cheaper than live Hedges. +However, they are used with good effects about the home grounds. In +order to secure a good Hedge, it is necessary to have a thoroughly +well-prepared, deep soil, to set the plants close, and to shear them at +least twice every year. For evergreen Hedges the most serviceable plant +in general is the arborvitae. The plants may be set at distances of 1 to +2-1/2 feet apart. For choice Hedges about the grounds, particularly +outside the northern states, some of the retinosporas are very useful. +One of the most satisfactory of all coniferous plants for Hedges is the +common hemlock, which stands shearing well and makes a very soft and +pleasing mass. The plants may be set from 1 to 3 feet apart. Other +plants which hold their leaves and are good for Hedges are the common +box and the privets. Box Hedges are the best for very low borders about +walks and flower beds. The dwarf variety can be kept down to a height of +6 inches to a foot for any number of years. The larger-growing varieties +make excellent Hedges 3, 4 and 5 feet high. The ordinary privet or prim +holds its leaves well into winter in the North. The so-called +Californian privet holds its leaves rather longer and stands better +along the seashore. In the southern states, nothing is better than +_Citrus trifoliata_. + +For Hedges of deciduous plants, the most common species are the +buckthorn, the European thorn apple or crataegus, osage orange, and +various kinds of roses. + +Hedges should be trimmed the year after they are set, although they +should not be trimmed very closely until they reach the desired or +permanent height. Thereafter they should be sheared into the desired +form in spring or fall. If the plants are allowed to grow for a year or +two without trimming, they lose their lower leaves and become open and +straggly. Osage orange and some other plants are plashed--that is, the +plants are set at an angle rather than perpendicularly, and they are +wired together in such a way that they make an impenetrable barrier just +above the surface of the ground. + + +HELIANTHUS. See _Sunflower_. + + +HELICHRYSUM. These are perhaps the most popular of the Everlastings +(which see), having large flowers of several colors. They grow readily +from seed, blooming from July to October. Height 10 inches to 2 feet. +Should be planted or thinned to stand 18 inches apart. + + +HELIOTROPE. A universal favorite house or border plant, growing readily +from cuttings or seeds, and producing quantities of fragrant violet, +purple or white flowers. One of the best methods of cultivation is to +set a strong plant in the border and peg the new growths to the ground, +where they will root and form a perfect mat, flowering profusely during +the fall months until frost. They will endure the temperature of a +living room well if the room is not too dry. Red spider is a natural +enemy of the Heliotrope, and when once it obtains a foothold is a very +difficult pest to manage, but frequent syringing with water will keep it +in check. A light, rich soil and an abundance of heat are their +requirements. Height 1 to 3 feet. Propagated by cuttings or layers. + + +HELLEBORE (White Hellebore) is often used for the killing of +currant-worms and other insects (see _Currant_). It is not so poisonous +as the arsenites, and therefore is to be preferred when it is necessary +to apply a poison to nearly ripe fruit. It is usually applied in a +spray with water, at the rate of 1/3 ounce to the gallon. It is harmless +to foliage. + + +HELLEBORUS, or CHRISTMAS ROSE, may be had in flower at the holidays if +grown in a frame and protected. The usual time for it to flower in the +open border is in March or early April. It will continue to bloom for +many years if grown in a shady place. Roots may be divided as an +increase is wanted. It may also be grown from seeds; and seedlings may +be expected to bloom a year from the spring in which they are sown. +Height 6 to 10 inches. + + +HEMEROCALLIS, or YELLOW DAY LILY. The advice given under Funkia will +apply to this. + + +HERBS are plants which die to the ground in winter. They may be annual, +biennial, or perennial. For a list of annual Herbs suitable for the +flower garden, see the articles on _Annuals_ and _Bedding_. A border or +free mass of perennial Herbs is one of the charms of any place. It is +informal, easy of care, and self-sustaining. The large part of the mass +should be composed of common and hardy things--wild or from gardens--and +incidental features may be made of the choicer and rarer exotics. In +most cases, plants look better when judiciously mixed than when planted +one kind in a bed. See _Border_. + + +HIBISCUS. Annuals and perennials, some of them shrubs, with showy, +hollyhock-like flowers. The annual Hibiscuses are very satisfactory. +They grow quickly and flower freely. The flowers are usually white or +yellow, of large size, and appear from July on. The herbaceous perennial +kinds are amongst the best of hardy border plants, blooming in late +summer and fall. The commonest of these is _Hibiscus Moscheutos_. Give +rich, moist soil. + +The greenhouse species are old favorites. They may be used in outdoor +bedding through the summer, lifted in the fall and cut back. Keep rather +dry and dormant during winter. Propagated by cuttings. + + +HIPPEASTRUM. Consult _Amaryllis_. + + +[Illustration: Common hoe] + +[Illustration: Scarifier] + +HOES should be of several patterns if the most efficient work is to be +done in the garden. The ordinary Hoe is adapted only to the rougher and +coarser Hoe-work, such as digging and fitting the ground. For much of +the subsequent tillage, some of the narrow-blade and pointed Hoes are +excellent. For cutting off weeds, the push Hoe or scarifier is +excellent. + + +[Illustration: Hollyhocks] + +HOLLYHOCK. These old garden favorites have been neglected of late years, +primarily because the Hollyhock rust has been so prevalent, destroying +the plants or making the unsightly. The double varieties seem to suffer +the most; and for that reason, and from the fact that the less formal +type is in favor, the single varieties are now the most generally grown. +Their culture is very simple. The seed is usually sown in July or +August, and the plants set where wanted the following spring. They will +bloom the same year in which they are transplanted--the year following +the seed-sowing. New plants should be set every two years, as the old +crowns are apt to rot or die after the first flowering. For rust, spray +early with Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal carbonate of copper. + + +HOP, ORNAMENTAL. _Humulus Japonicus_, or the annual HOP, is one of the +best rapid-growing screen vines in cultivation. It makes a dense canopy +of attractive foliage. The leaves are finely cut, and in one variety +variegated with white. This variegated variety is a fine vine for a +porch or front screen, always attracting attention to its markings. This +Hop is propagated by seed sown in boxes in March. When once established, +it will seed itself and start as soon as the soil becomes warm. Set +plants 4 to 8 feet apart. Height 8 to 20 feet. + + +HORSERADISH. As a kitchen garden vegetable, this is usually planted in +some out-of-the-way spot and a piece of the root dug as often as needed, +the fragments of roots being left in the soil to grow for further use. +This method results in having nothing but tough, stringy roots, very +unlike the product of a properly planted and well cared for bed. The +best roots are those planted in the spring at the time of setting early +cabbage, and dug as late the same fall as the weather will permit. It +becomes, therefore, an annual crop. The roots for planting are small +pieces, from 4 to 6 inches long, obtained when trimming the roots dug in +the fall. These pieces may be packed in sand and stored until wanted the +following spring. In planting, the roots should be set with the upper +end 3 inches below the surface of the ground, using a dibber or +sharp-pointed stick in making the holes. The crop may be planted between +rows of early-sown beets, lettuce or other crop, and given full +possession of the ground when these crops are harvested. Where the +ground is inclined to be stiff or the subsoil is near the surface, the +roots may be set in a slanting position. In fact, many gardeners +practice this method of planting, thinking that the roots make a better +growth and are more uniform in size. + + +HOTBED. A Hotbed is a frame or box which has artificial heat and a +transparent covering and in which plants are grown. It differs from a +coldframe (which see) in the fact that it has artificial bottom heat. +This bottom heat is usually supplied by fermenting organic matter, +chiefly horse manure, but hot air, hot water or steam conveyed in pipes, +may be employed. It is covered with sash of which the normal or standard +size is 3 feet wide and 6 feet long. These sashes are laid crosswise the +box or frame. The standard size of frame is 6 feet wide and 12 feet +long. A "frame," therefore, accommodates four sashes. However, the frame +may be of any length desired. This frame is ordinarily made of boards, +and the back of it is 3 or 4 inches higher than the front, so that the +sashes slope to the sun. It is customary to have a space of 6 to 10 +inches between the earth and the sash on the lower or front side. The +manure which is used to heat the bed may be placed on top of the ground +and the frame set on the pile, or it may be placed in a pit. If the land +is warm and well drained, it is ordinarily better to have a pit from 1 +to 2 feet deep and to set the frame over it. This is especially the case +if it is desired to have a permanent Hotbed yard. The place in which the +frames are set should be protected from the cold and prevailing winds by +a rising slope, a high board fence, a building, hedge, or other +obstruction. If the frame yard is near the main buildings, it will be +much more accessible in rainy or snowy times, and the plants are likely +to have better care. Water should also be handy. + +[Illustration: Section of a Hotbed] + +The time of starting a Hotbed will depend upon the kinds of plants to be +grown, the amount of time which one wishes to gain, and something, also, +on the quality of the manure. The hardier the plant the earlier it can +be started. In the latitude of New York, from the first to the middle of +March is the usual time for starting a Hotbed. In this bed are sown +seeds of early flowers and such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower, +tomato, etc. In the raising of any plants in the Hotbed, it is very +essential that they do not become "drawn" or "leggy." In order to +prevent this, they must be given plenty of room, thorough ventilation on +all pleasant days, and not too great heat. It is well to transplant them +once or twice before they are finally set in the field, especially if +they are started, in New York, as early as the first or middle of March. +When they are transplanted, they can be set in another Hotbed or in a +coldframe; but it is important that the succeeding frames in which they +are set should not be very much colder than the one in which they grew, +else they may become stunted. It is well, however, to transplant them +into a gradually cooler and freer atmosphere in order to harden them +off, so that they may go into the open ground without danger. On every +pleasant day, raise the sash at the upper end 1 or 2 inches, or if the +sun shines brightly and the wind does not blow, give even more air; and +eventually strip off the sashes entirely. It is very important that the +plants are not kept too close and grown too soft. It is usually +advisable to sow cabbage, lettuce and other hardy plants in different +frames from tomatoes and other tender things, in order that the proper +requirements may be given to each. At night the Hotbeds (at least early +in the season) will need more protection than the glass sash. It was +formerly the custom to use thick rye-straw mats to cover Hotbeds, but it +is now a common practice to use the straw matting which can be bought of +carpet dealers. This is rolled out on the sashes at night in one or two +thicknesses; and if the weather is sharp, board shutters, the size of +the sash, may be laid on top. As the manure heat begins to fail give +more and more air, so that the plants may be able to shift for +themselves when the bottom heat is finally exhausted. + +Fresh horse manure is the material which is commonly used for the +heating of Hotbeds. If it can be secured from livery stables, so that it +is all of nearly or quite the same age, better results may be expected. +Manure from highly fed horses usually heats better than that from horses +which receive little grain, or in which there is very much litter. Put +the manure in a pile, preferably under cover, and as soon as it shows +signs of heating, fork it over in order to mix the entire mass and to +cause it to heat evenly. When it is steaming throughout the whole mass, +it may be put in the bed. Assuming that the Hotbed has a pit beneath it, +it is well to put in 2 or 3 inches of coarse litter in order to keep the +manure off the cold ground. The manure is then put in and tramped down, +in layers of 4 to 6 inches each. If the manure is of the right +consistency, it will pack without becoming dense and soggy; that is, it +will spring a little beneath the feet. If it has too much litter, it +will fluff up under the feet and not pack well. From 18 to 24 or even 30 +inches of manure is placed in the pit. On top, an inch of dry straw or +light leaf-mold may be placed to serve as a distributor of the heat to +the earth above. From 3 to 4 inches of rich, light earth is placed upon +this, in which to sow the seed. The manure will ordinarily heat +violently for a few days. Place a soil thermometer in it, and as soon as +the temperature begins to fall below 90 deg. the seeds of tomatoes and +egg-plants may be sown; and when it begins to fall below 80 deg., the seeds +of cabbages, lettuce and cauliflower may be sown. If the frame is not +placed over a pit and the manure is put on top of the ground, it will be +necessary to allow the body of manure to project 1 or 2 feet in all +directions in order to prevent the edges of the bed from freezing. + +In starting plants in a Hotbed, one must not expect to gain as much time +in the crop as he gains in the starting of the seeds: that is, if he +starts the seeds two months ahead of the normal season, he will not gain +two months in the ripening of the crop. Ordinarily, he cannot expect to +gain much more than one-half the time, particularly if the plants are +transplanted to the field from the Hotbed. + +Some plants may be grown to maturity in the Hotbed, particularly lettuce +and radishes. After Hotbeds have been emptied of their plants, the +sashes may be stored away, and the frames, with their spent manure, used +for the growing of an early summer crop of melons or cucumbers. + + +HOUSE PLANTS. See _Window-Garden_. + + +[Illustration: Hyacinth bean] + +HYACINTH BEAN (_Dolichos Lablab_). A very rapid-growing twiner, bearing +fragrant flowers of purple or white. It is a fine screen plant. Plant +seeds when the ground is warm where the plants are to grow; or they may +be started early in pots. Height 10 feet. + + +HYACINTHS are most popular winter- or spring-flowering bulbs. Hyacinths +are hardy, but they are often used as window or greenhouse plants. They +are easy to grow and very satisfactory. For winter flowering the bulbs +should be procured early in the fall, potted in October in soil composed +of loam, leaf-mold and sand. If ordinary flower pots are used, put in +the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, charcoal or small stones for +drainage; then fill the pot with dirt, so that when the bulb is planted +the top will be on a level with the rim of the pot. Fill in around the +bulb with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing. These pots of +bulbs should be placed in a cold pit, cellar or on the shady side of a +building. In all cases, plunge the pot in some cool material (as +cinders). Before the weather becomes cold enough to freeze a crust on +the ground, the pots should have a protection of straw or leaves to keep +the bulbs from severe freezing. In from six to eight weeks the bulbs +should have made roots enough to grow the plant, and the pots may be +placed in a cool room for a short time. When the plants have started +into growth, they may be placed in a warmer situation. Watering should +be carefully attended to from this time, and when the plant is in bloom +the pot may be set in a saucer or other shallow dish containing water. +After flowering, the bulbs may be ripened by gradually withholding water +until the leaves die. They may then be planted out in the border, where +they will bloom each spring for a number of years, but will never prove +satisfactory for forcing again. The open ground culture of Hyacinths is +the same as for tulips, which see. See _Bulbs_. + +_Water Culture of Hyacinths._--The Hyacinth is the most popular of the +Dutch bulbs for growing in vases. The Narcissus may be grown in water, +and do just as well, but it is not as pretty in glasses as the Hyacinth. +Glasses for Hyacinths may be had of florists who deal in supplies, and +in various shapes and colors. The usual form is tall and narrow, with a +cup-like mouth to receive the bulb. They are filled with water, so that +it will just reach the base of the bulb when it has been placed in +position in the cup above. The vessels of dark-colored glass are +preferable to those of clear glass, as roots prefer darkness. When the +glasses, or bowls as above mentioned, have been arranged, they are set +away in a cool, dark place to form roots like potted bulbs. Results are +usually secured earlier in water than in soil. To keep the water sweet, +a few lumps of charcoal may be put in the glass. As the water +evaporates, add fresh; add enough so that it runs over, and thereby +renews that in the glass. Do not disturb the roots by taking out the +bulb. + + +HYDRANGEA. One of the commonest lawn shrubs is _Hydrangea paniculata_. +The commonest fault in growing it is scattering the plants over the +lawn, where they suffer in the competition with grass roots, and do not +show off to advantage. It is far better to mass them in front of taller +things. The Hydrangea blooms on wood of the season; therefore it should +be pruned after bloom--in winter or early spring (see _Pruning_). Cut +back heavily, in order to secure the strong new shoots upon which the +flowers are borne. + + +HYSSOP. See _Sweet Herbs_. + + +ICE PLANT, or MESEMBRYANTHEMUM. Fine little plants for rockwork or +edging. The majority of the species are greenhouse and window plants, +but a few can be recommended for outdoor planting. A very sunny +location, with gravelly soil, will give the best results, either in the +open or in the house. Easily propagated by pieces of the plant laid on +moist sand in a somewhat sunny place. The common Ice Plant of +window-gardens is readily grown from seeds or slips. It is prized for +its glandular-glistening thick foliage (whence the common name). The +little flowers, which open in sunshine, are also interesting. + + +IMPATIENS SULTANI is a generally known conservatory plant, making a +charming pot subject for warm greenhouse or a room. It is readily +propagated from seed or cuttings, seed being preferable. Flowers bright +pink-red. Of easy culture in a fairly moist atmosphere. Height about 18 +inches. + + +INSECTS. For horticultural purposes, Insects might be grouped into three +general classes: borers, or those which live inside the plant tissue; +chewing Insects which live on the outside of the plant; and the sucking +Insects. + +As a general statement, it may be said that the digging out of borers is +the only complete remedy. Sometimes an application of something to the +body of the tree may keep them out, but it is always uncertain; and it +usually involves more work than to dig them out. All trees which are +subject to borers (especially apples, peaches and pears) should be +examined at least twice every year. See _Borers_. + +[Illustration: Moth of one of the borers] + +[Illustration: A beetle borer] + +The general run of chewing or biting Insects may be killed by the +arsenical poisons. Such Insects are the common types of worms and +beetles which feed on foliage. The leading poison which is now used for +this purpose is Paris green (which see). Hellebore and pyrethrum are +useful when it is not advisable to use arsenical poisons. + +The sucking Insects include all the kinds of plant lice, the squash bug +and all the scale Insects. These are dispatched by some material which +kills by external application, especially material which has kerosene or +petroleum in it. The common material heretofore used for this purpose is +kerosene and soap emulsion; but it is now believed that the emulsion of +kerosene and water is fully as efficient, and since machines have been +perfected for automatically mixing it, it is a much more practicable +remedy. See _Kerosene Emulsion_. + +[Illustration: Weevil--a chewing insect] + +In the fighting of all Insects, success depends upon taking them in +time. If something is known of the life history of the Insect, very much +will be gained, for the operator may be on hand as soon as the Insect is +expected to appear. + +_Insects on House Plants._--The most troublesome or common Insects with +which the amateur is likely to meet in the window-garden or conservatory +are the red spider, mite, mealy bug, aphis, and scale. + +The red spider is a very minute Insect with a reddish body. Its presence +may be suspected whenever plants are growing in a warm and dry place. +Usually it first appears on the under side of leaves, but it multiplies +rapidly, and will soon not be so choice of position. It sucks the juices +of the leaves, and they soon indicate the injury by a dull appearance, +and also, in many cases, by small whitish or paler areas on the upper +surfaces. The mite is of similar habits and size, but is of a pale +color, with black on its back. It appears under the same conditions as +the red spider. These pests are small, but are very serious if allowed +to multiply unchecked. They should be looked after as soon as their +presence is detected. + +The remedy is to arrange for keeping the air about the plants more +moist, and giving drenchings of the foliage with clear or soapy water. +The latter is most effective. The soap used may be simply the common +washing soap, or that sold at drug stores known as whale-oil soap. In +fighting them, care must be used not to keep the soil soaked with water, +or it will check the plants in vigor and only add to the strength of the +enemy. Even florists sometimes get into just such a predicament. +Flagging and extreme variations in dryness and humidity of the air, +checking the vigor of plants, favor the appearance and presence of the +red spider quite as much as extreme and continued dryness of the air. + +The aphids or plant lice are readily discernable when they appear on +plants, as they are sure to do under nearly all conditions. They are +small, have elongated, succulent bodies, move about slowly and +awkwardly, on rather long, hairlike legs, and are most commonly of a +pale green color, though often brown or reddish, and sometimes of other +shades. Fumigation of the plants in a closed box with burning tobacco +stems will kill them. Latterly florists evaporate a liquid extract of +tobacco (which is sold by dealers in florists' supplies) by dropping a +hot iron into a pan of it. A tea made by soaking tobacco stems in water +for a few hours, and applied with a syringe, is effective, and a safe +remedy in inexperienced hands. A tablespoonful of tobacco sheep-dip, or +extract of tobacco, to a couple of gallons of water, also makes an +effective syringing or dipping solution. As mentioned above, we should +use care, especially in the winter time, when the soil often dries out +slowly, to avoid soaking it when already wet or sufficiently moist. + +[Illustration: One of the kind which sucks its food] + +Mealy bug has a small, flat, tortoise-shaped body, from about +one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch long. The Insects collect in +masses in the axils of the leaves. They are covered with a white mealy +or cottony substance, and are readily recognized, although persons +unfamiliar with their appearance have sometimes mistaken them for bits +of down or cotton lodged upon the foliage or in the axils of the leaves. +The young are small, and likely to escape observation unless one looks +closely. They are flat, of a creamy or pinkish tint, and lie close to +the surface of the leaves, especially on the under surface. Coleus and +bouvardias are among the plants upon which mealy bugs are most often +found. Owing to the oily nature of their covering, it is difficult to +wet their bodies with any ordinary liquid that may be applied for the +purpose of destroying them. Fir-tree oil is one of the most effective +remedies for them. This liquid is rather expensive, but for a small +collection a gallon can will last for a long time. It is also effective +against other Insects. For mealy bugs, two tablespoonfuls of the oil to +one pint of water will make an effective dipping or spraying solution. +Soft or rain-water should be used, and tin, wooden, or earthenware +vessels. Galvanized iron vessels are to be avoided. Apply forcibly with +a syringe or atomizer, preferably in the evening. If effective, the +mealy bug will turn buff-color. For other Insects, except for the scale, +mentioned below, the solution will not need to be more than half or a +fourth so strong. Where there are only a few mealy bugs, the plant may +be gone over with a soft brush and the Insects crushed. + +[Illustration: The codlin-moth] + +Scales are most commonly of a brown or whitish color, flat or +tortoise-shaped, and easily seen. They adhere closely by the under +surface of their bodies to the stems, branches, and foliage of woody +plants. The mature Insect is stationary, and its body at length becomes +a shell containing hundreds of eggs. These hatch, and the young emerge +from the shell, crawl about and settle, to develop into the familiar +form. A strong solution of fir-tree oil, like that used for mealy bugs, +is a good remedy. A strong solution of whale-oil soap, made by adding an +ounce or more of the soap to three gallons of water, even more if +necessary, is also useful in combating them. After dipping or syringing +the plants they may be allowed to stand over night, when they should be +rinsed off with clear water. Applications may need repeating every three +or four days until the Insects are gotten rid of. It is difficult, for a +time, to tell when they are dead. If killed, the bodies will fall off +easily, and in the case of the soft-shelled species shrivel up somewhat +after a time. Kerosene and water emulsion (see _Kerosene_) will kill +them. + + +INSECTICIDE. A substance which will kill insects. Insecticides are of +two general classes--those that kill by contact (see _Kerosene_), and +those that poison the insect (see _Paris Green_ and _Hellebore_). + + +IRIS. Many handsome perennials, of which the Blue Flag is familiar to +every old-fashioned garden. Most Irises thrive best in a rather moist +soil, and some of them may be colonized in the water in margins of +ponds. Gardeners usually divide them into two sections--the +tuberous-rooted or rhizomatous, and the bulbous. A third division--the +fibrous-rooted--is sometimes made. The common and most serviceable +species belong to the tuberous-rooted section. Here belongs the +beautiful and varied Japanese Iris, _Iris laevigata_ (or _I. Kaempferi_), +which is among the most deserving of all hardy perennials. Most of these +Irises need no special care. They are propagated by division of the +rootstocks. Plant the pieces 1 foot apart if a mass effect is desired. +When the plants begin to fail, dig them up, divide the roots, discard +the old parts and grow a new stock, as before. _I. Susiana_, of this +section, is one of the oddest of Irises, but it is not quite hardy in +the North. Of the bulbous section, most species are not hardy in the +North. The bulbs should be taken up and replanted every two or three +years. The Persian and Spanish Irises belong here. The bulbs give rise +to but a single stem. + + +KALE. A low-growing, spreading plant belonging to the cabbage family and +extensively used for winter and spring greens. The same culture as given +to late cabbage is suitable. At the approach of severe freezing weather +a slight protection is given in the North. The leaves remain green +through the winter and may be gathered from under the snow at a time +when material for greens is scarce. Some of the Kales are very +ornamental because of their blue and purple curled foliage. The Scotch +Curled is the most popular variety. Kales are extensively grown at +Norfolk, Va., and southward, and shipped north in winter. Let the plants +stand 18 to 30 inches apart. Young cabbage plants are sometimes used as +Kale. See _Collards_. Borecole is a kind of Kale. Sea Kale is a wholly +different vegetable (which see). + + +KEROSENE is fatal to insects. It is likely to injure plants if applied +full strength, although if applied in full sunlight (so that evaporation +takes place rapidly) it may do no harm. It is safest to apply it in +dilution. Of late, there are pumps which mix or emulsify Kerosene and +water in definite proportions, and this mixture (in the proportion of +1/5 or 1/4 Kerosene) is fatal to insects and usually harmless to plants. +The standard Kerosene emulsion is with soap, but the perfection of +mechanical devices for emulsifying it with water is probably destined to +supplant the soap emulsion. + +_Kerosene Emulsion._--Hard soap, 1/2 pound; boiling soft water, 1 +gallon; Kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in the water, add the +Kerosene, and churn with a pump for 5 to 10 minutes. Dilute 10 to 25 +times before applying. Use strong emulsion, diluted four times in +winter, for all scale insects. For insects which suck, as plant-lice, +mealy bugs, red spider, thrips, bark-lice or scale. Cabbage-worms, +currant-worms, and all insects which have soft bodies can also be +successfully treated. + + +KOHLRABI. This vegetable looks like a leafy turnip growing above ground. +If used when small (2 to 3 inches in diam.), and not allowed to become +hard and tough, it is of superior quality. It should be more generally +grown. The culture is very simple. A succession of sowings should be +made from early spring until the middle of summer, in drills 18 inches +to 2 feet apart, thinning the young plants to 6 or 8 inches in the rows. +It matures as quickly as turnips. One ounce of seed to 100 feet of +drill. + + +[Illustration: Lantana] + +LANTANA is a popular greenhouse pot-plant, and is occasionally seen in +window-gardens, being grown for the profusion of its orange-red, +heliotrope-shaped flowers. In the South, and sometimes in the North, it +is planted out for the summer. It is very easy to grow, and also to +propagate by means of cuttings. Although the flowers of the common +species are ill-scented, the profusion of bloom makes it desirable. + + +LARKSPUR. DELPHINIUM. The Larkspurs are among the very best hardy +plants, being free-flowering and having a good habit. They should be in +every mixed border, particularly the perennial kinds. The tall +flower-spikes, showing above the cut foliage, give the plant a striking +effect. The flowers are in shades of blue in most varieties. The plants +are propagated by division of root or from seed. The latter method will +give good results, although the resulting plants are not likely to be +the same variety as the seed plant. + +As winter approaches, a covering of coarse litter should be thrown over +the crowns of the perennial kinds. The plants will come into bloom in +late June and continue for a long season. Plants should be set 3 to 5 +feet apart if in rows, but they are seen to better advantage when mixed +with other border plants. Height of plants from 3 to 5 feet. + +The annual Larkspur may be grown from seed sown in heat and transplanted +to the ground in May; or seed may be sown where the plants are wanted +and the seedlings thinned to 1 foot. These seedlings will bloom in June, +and continue through the summer. Plants grow from 8 to 18 inches high. + + +LATHYRUS. See _Pea, Everlasting_; also, _Sweet Pea_. + + +LAWNS. In order to have a good Lawn, two things are essential: first, a +pleasing surface or contour; second, a dense, firm sod. + +Inasmuch as the Lawn is, or should be, a permanent thing, it is +necessary that the greatest care be exercised to grade the land and to +thoroughly prepare it before any seeds are sown. About a new building +the filling should be allowed to settle, so that the finished surface +will slope gradually away from the foundations and the steps. If the +land is very hard clay, or if the place is rather low, it is always well +to lay tile under-drains at frequent intervals. Everything should be +done to cause the land to be deep and loose, so that the grass roots +will run far into the soil and not be pressed for lack of moisture in a +dry time. If the land has not had applications of manure in recent +years, it is well to plow in, or to spade in, a liberal quantity of +well-rotted litter from the barnyard. Work this into the soil as deeply +as possible. If the hardpan is rather high, it is well to subsoil the +area or to trench it (that is, to spade it up two or three spades deep). +If the land is apparently not fertile in plant-food, it is well to add a +dressing of some commercial fertilizer to the surface when the grass +seed is sown. This will start the grass quickly and allow it to get a +foothold before the severe weather of midsummer comes. + +[Illustration: It is fun to make a garden] + +[Illustration: A garden corner] + +The kind of grass seed to sow will depend upon the region and also upon +the personal tastes of the owner. The one standard Lawn grass is June +grass or blue grass (_Poa pratensis_). The seeds of this grass are sold +in the hulls, and therefore the bushel weighs only fourteen pounds. Not +less than two and one-half to three bushels should be sown to the acre. +In the southern states, June grass will not hold, and Bermuda grass is +used, being sown about as thick as recommended for the June grass. There +are various prepared Lawn grass mixtures which are excellent, but the +June grass alone will give a very excellent Lawn in a short time. +Whether one shall sow white clover in his Lawn depends mostly upon his +personal taste. If he likes the white clover, it is well to put in a +quart or two of seed to the acre, sowing it separately from the June +grass in order to get an even distribution. Some persons like to see the +white clover in certain parts of the Lawn. It thrives very well where +the land is rather moist. In parts of the East, Rhode Island bent grass +is used for lawns. + +[Illustration: A nursery] + +The grass seed should be sown in the cool of the year. It may be sown in +September and thereby become established before winter; or it may be +sown very early in the spring. In newly made Lawns, it is a good plan to +grade the area thoroughly in the fall, allowing it to settle in the +winter; and then, if the surface remains even, to sow the grass seed on +one of the latest snows in spring. By sowing it on the snow, one can see +that it is distributed evenly; and when the snow melts, the seed is +carried into the land and does not need covering. It is well to sow +three or four quarts per acre of timothy seed, for the timothy +germinates very quickly, and makes a green area the first season, but is +killed out as soon as the June grass gains a foothold. Timothy will not +stand the continued cutting, whereas the June grass will. The timothy, +therefore, serves as a temporary covering to the land, indicating where +the borders are, and thereby outlining the area for the Lawn mower to +cut. The timothy seed should be sown separately from the June grass in +order to insure even distribution. On hard lands it is well to sow two +or three quarts per acre of crimson clover seed. The long roots of this +plant tend to improve the physical condition of the soil; and when they +decay, they leave nitrogen in the soil for the grass to use. Since +crimson clover is an annual plant, it will not do any permanent mischief +in the Lawn. + +[Illustration: A lawn, with planting on the sides] + +The first season the weeds will probably come up thickly, especially if +the land is rich. These weeds should not be pulled, for whenever one is +pulled out of the ground, many grass plants are rooted up and the +surface is made uneven. The only way in which to keep down weeds is to +mow them frequently with a Lawn mower. They will not appear in any great +numbers the second year, unless there should be some perennial weeds, +like dandelion or dock; and these may be pulled out the first fall or +the following spring. + +It is rare that one secures a perfectly good and uniform sod from one +sowing of seed; especially is this true if the soil varies in different +parts of the area. If the surface contour is satisfactory, it is unwise +to dig up the areas on which the seed has not caught. It is best to rake +them over with a steel rake in fall or spring, sowing on a little +commercial fertilizer rather rich in nitrogen, and sow more seed. Nearly +every Lawn will need patching in this way from year to year. If the Lawn +is attended to in fall and spring by sowing grass seed, the weeds will +rarely do serious mischief. When weeds are troublesome on the Lawn, it +means that there is not sufficient grass, and every effort should be +made to get more grass. Therefore, when the perennial weeds are pulled +out, sow more grass seed. + +[Illustration: A picturesque rill on the lawn] + +When narrow-leaved plantain bothers, it is an indication that the land +is too poor and dry for grass. In such cases, the land usually lacks +humus or vegetable matter; and in various severe incursions of the +plantain, it may be necessary to spade up the weedy areas and to work +rotted manure into the soil. Usually, however, the plantain can be +killed out by enriching the soil and sowing more grass seed. The common +practice of sprinkling Lawns is nearly always pernicious, since the +water is not supplied in sufficient amount to wet down very far, and the +grass tends to make surface roots. When the watering is omitted the +plants suffer. The more a Lawn is sprinkled, the more the grass depends +upon the sprinkling. If it is necessary to water the Lawn, the water +should be allowed to run directly from the hose until the surface area +is completely soaked. It is best to do this at nightfall. When the water +is applied by means of a sprinkler, a large part of it evaporates and +does no good to the ground. The fundamental treatment of the Lawn is to +have the land so deep and porous that the grass roots strike deep into +the soil and do not need the surface water. A Lawn which is well made +will need watering only in unusually dry times. + +Mow the Lawn frequently when it is growing rapidly,--in spring and early +summer. In the fall mow less frequently, and let it go into the winter +with a long coat of grass. If the Lawn is mown as often as is needed, it +will not be necessary to rake off the trimmings. In fall, top-dress the +Lawn with commercial fertilizer at the rate of 500 pounds to the acre. +If the Lawn has not been raked clean of all the trimmings and decayed +refuse which covers the surface of the ground, it is not necessary to +dress it with stable manure; for manure is unsightly, unsavory, and +often brings in weeds. Many persons make the mistake of raking the Lawn +clean in late fall. + +Closely associated with the making of the Lawn is the general +arrangement of the planting. It is the common fault to scatter the +planting. Much better effects are secured by massing or grouping the +planting. See _Borders_ and _Flower Beds_. Particularly along the +boundaries and about the foundations of buildings, the shrubbery and +other plants may be massed to excellent effect. In large places there +should be more or less mass planting along the walks and drives. In the +curves and retreats of these plantings one will find many pleasant +corners; and here the children may have their play-houses and their +pets. A little brook winding across a corner or along one side of a Lawn +may make a pleasant picture if it is allowed to take on a half-wild +character. + + +[Illustration: A layer] + +LAYERS are parts (usually stems) of plants laid down on the earth while +still attached to the parent, with the expectation that they will take +root and can then be separated as independent plants. All vine-like +plants can be propagated readily by means of Layers; so can most +soft-wooded plants, as willows, maples, currants, etc. It is usual to +put down the branches in the fall. In a year they should be ready to be +severed from the parent. They may also be made in spring, before growth +starts. See that the layered part rests in moist earth. Usually roots +arise more freely if the shoot is cracked or notched at the buried +point. The Layer may be held down by a forked stick ("pegged down"), or +by a stone or clod. See that the shoot does not throw up suckers behind +the layered part. + +[Illustration: Several layers from one vine] + + +LEEK. This belongs to the onion family, and is used mostly as flavoring +for soups. Well grown Leeks have a very agreeable and not very strong +onion flavor. Leek is of the easiest culture, and is usually grown as a +second crop, to follow beets, early peas, and other early stuff. The +seed should be sown in a seed-bed in April or early May and the +seedlings planted out in the garden in July, in rows 2 feet apart, the +plants being 6 inches apart in the rows. The plants should be set deep +if the neck or lower part of the leaves is to be used in a blanched +condition. The soil may be drawn towards the plants in hoeing, to +further the blanching. Being very hardy, the plants may be dug in late +fall, and stored in the same manner as celery, in trenches or in a cool +root-cellar. One ounce of seed to 100 feet of drill. + + +LETTUCE is probably the most extensively grown salad vegetable. It is +now in demand, and is procurable, every month in the year. The winter +and early spring crops are grown in forcing-houses and coldframes, but a +supply from the garden may be had from April to November, by the use of +a cheap frame in which to grow the first and last crops, relying on a +succession of sowings for the intermediate supply. Seed for the first +crop may be sown in a coldframe in March, growing the crop thick and +having many plants which are small and tender; or, by thinning out to +the distance of 3 inches and allowing the plants to make a larger +growth, the plants pulled up may be set in the open ground for the next +crop. Sowings should be made in the garden from April to October, at +short intervals. A moist location should be selected for the July and +August sowings. The early and late sowings should be of some +loose-growing variety, as they are in edible condition sooner than the +cabbage or heading varieties. + +[Illustration: Plant of heading lettuce] + +The cabbage varieties are far superior to the loose-growing kinds for +salads. To be grown to perfection, they should have very rich soil, +frequent cultivation and an occasional stimulant, such as liquid manure +or nitrate of soda. The Cos Lettuce is an upright-growing type much +esteemed in Europe, but less grown here. The leaves of the full grown +plants are tied together, thus blanching the center, making it a +desirable salad or garnishing variety. It thrives best in summer. One +ounce of seed will grow 3,000 plants or sow 100 feet of drill. In the +garden, plants may stand 6 inches apart in the rows, and the rows may be +as close together as the system of tillage will allow. + + +LILY. Bulbous plants of many kinds. It has been said of this family of +plants that it has no "poor relations," each of them being perfect in +itself. Many of the choicest kinds are comparatively unknown, although +easy to cultivate. In fact, all of the Lilies may be grown with +comparative ease. A light, rich, well-drained soil, mellow to the depth +of at least 1 foot, a handful of sand under each bulb if the soil is +inclined to be stiff, and planting so that the crown of the bulb will be +at least 4 inches below the surface, are the general requirements. One +exception to the depth of planting is _Lilium auratum_, or Golden-Banded +Lily. This should be planted deeper--at least 8 inches below the +surface--as the new bulbs form over the old one and soon bring the bulbs +to the surface if they are not planted deep. + +While Lilies may have partial shade, they should never be planted near +or under trees. The shade or protection of tall-growing, herbaceous +plants is sufficient. In fact, the best results, both as to growth and +effect, may be had by planting amongst low shrubbery or border plants. +Most kinds are the better for remaining undisturbed for a number of +years; but if they are to be taken up and divided, or moved to other +quarters, they should not be allowed to become dry. The small bulbs, or +offsets, may be planted in the border, and if protected will grow to +flowering size in two or three years. In taking up bulbs for division it +is best to do so soon after the tops die after blooming. At least this +should be done early in the fall, not later than October, giving the +plants a chance to become established before freezing weather. A mulch +of coarse litter or evergreen boughs should be placed over the bulbs +after the ground has become frozen, to be gradually removed as the +spring advances. + +[Illustration: Easter Lily] + +As pot-plants some Lilies are very satisfactory, especially those that +may be forced into bloom through the winter. The best kinds for this +purpose are _L. Harrisii_ (Easter Lily), _L. longiflorum_, and _L. +candidum_. Others may be forced with success, but these are the ones +most generally used. The winter culture of these for forcing is the +same as for Hyacinths (in pots), which see. The article on _Bulbs_ gives +directions for both outdoor and indoor growing which are directly +applicable to Lilies. + + +LILY, CHINESE SACRED. See _Narcissus_. + + +LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. A perfectly hardy little plant, bearing racemes of +small white bell-shaped flowers in early spring. For ordinary +cultivation, sods or mats of roots may be dug from any place in which +the plant is colonized. Usually it thrives best in partial shade; and +the leaves make an attractive mat on the north side of a building, or +other shady place, in which grass will not grow. The plants will take +care of themselves year after year. + +For forcing indoors, imported roots or "pips" are used, as the plants +are grown for this particular purpose in parts of Europe. These roots +may be planted in pots, and treated as recommended for winter-flowering +bulbs, under _Bulbs_. Florists force them in greater heat, however, +often giving them a bottom heat of 80 deg. or 90 deg.; but skill and +experience are required in order to attain uniformly good results in +this case. + + +LINE. A garden Line is one of the most convenient things connected with +garden operations. It is always wanted when long rows of seed are to be +sown, and it is also necessary in laying out walks or drives. A very +simple, yet handy, holder for a line is shown on the margin. The pin is +driven in the soil at the starting point, and the line is unwound as the +operator walks towards the end of the row. A line should be 100 feet +long for common garden operations. + +[Illustration: A garden Line] + + +LOBELIA. Some of these are well-known garden plants, being used very +freely as edging for ribbon beds or basket plants. They require a loose, +rich soil, and some stimulant when in full flower. The flowers continue +through a long season. They propagate freely from seed. _Lobelia +Erinus_, in blue, 6 inches high, is one of the most popular of all +annual edging plants. In Europe various perennial Lobelias are popular, +but they are seldom seen in American gardens. + + +LONDON PURPLE. Discussed under _Paris Green_. + + +LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. See _Amarantus_. + + +MANURE adds plant-food to the soil, and it also improves the texture or +physical condition of the soil. This latter effect is often its greatest +value. If one wants mere plant-food alone, he may often do better to add +it in some more concentrated form. See _Fertilizers_. Manure, when +thoroughly incorporated with the soil, makes the ground congenial for +the plant. It is important, in garden operations, that the Manure be +rotted or composted, or "short" or "fine," as the gardeners say. It then +incorporates readily with the soil and quickly gives up its fertility. +Manure is composted by letting it decay in piles. The compost pile +should be flat on top, so that it will catch the rains, and 3 to 5 feet +high. + +The most desirable Manure for the garden and for house plants is +probably old cow Manure. It does not burn or lose its strength. It may +be kept for a number of years if piled under shelter, becoming more +available each year. It mixes well with soil and leaf-mold. When once +rotted, this manure is very lasting and easily assimilated by plants. +Horse Manure is very likely to become overheated, and to lose its value; +and it is too loose and dry for many purposes. Pig Manure, unless well +composted with soil or refuse, is usually too heavy and rich. Sheep +Manure is at its best when used in a liquid form, although it is most +excellent to mix with soil to loosen it. + +All garden refuse, such as vines, leaves, decaying vegetables, will make +Manure if composted with soil; and if the wash water is thrown on the +compost pile much fertility will be added. Wood ashes from stoves, the +chip dirt from the woodshed--in fact, almost any substance that will +decay--will furnish plant-food, and should be added to the compost pile. +This pile should be turned often, to mix the material. + +When practicable, it is best to apply Manure in the fall, as it then has +time to become incorporated with the soil before spring. Beds which are +to be used for flowers next year may be dressed with Manure in the fall +and deeply spaded, leaving the surface rough and loose. It is well to be +careful that the Manure does not contain weed seeds. + + +MARIGOLD. The Marigolds of the old-fashioned gardens are still among the +best of plants for fall color. They are hardy annuals of the easiest +culture, and are always certain of giving strong and excellent results. +They have been much improved of late years. The old-fashioned African +Marigolds grow 2 to 3 feet high, and they are useful for scattering in +mixed borders or making large masses or displays of color in the remoter +parts of the place. The French or dwarf Marigolds grow about 1 foot high +and are more tufty in their habit. They are better adapted for edgings +than for mass effects in the main parts of the grounds. All Marigolds +may be sown where the plants are to stand, since the flowers are usually +not wanted until late summer or early fall, at which time they usually +give their best bloom. If they are wanted earlier, however, the seeds +may be started in the house or hotbed. Tall varieties may be allowed to +stand from 10 to 18 inches apart and the dwarfs at somewhat less +distances. + + +MATTHIOLA will be found under _Stocks_. + + +MIGNONETTE. Probably no flower is more generally grown for its fragrance +than this. The Mignonette needs a cool soil, only moderately rich, shade +part of the day, and careful attention to cutting the flower-stalks +before the seeds are ripe. If a sowing be made in late April, followed +by a second sowing in early July, the season may be extended until +severe frosts. There are few flowers that will prove as disappointing if +the treatment it needs is omitted. Height 1 to 2 feet. Treated as a +half-hardy annual. It can be sown in pots late in summer and had in the +house in winter. + + +MOON-FLOWERS are species of Morning-Glories that open their flowers at +night. A well-grown plant trained over a porch trellis, or allowed to +grow at random over a low tree or shrub, is a striking object when in +full flower at dusk or through a moonlit evening. In the southern states +the Moon-Flower is a perennial, but even when well protected does not +survive the winters in the North. Cuttings may be made before danger of +frost and wintered in the house, or the plants may be grown from seed +sown in January or February. Cuttings usually give best results in the +northern states, as the seasons are not long enough for seed plants to +give good bloom. Seeds should be scalded or filed just before sowing. +The true Moon-Flower is _Ipomoea Bona-Nox_, white-flowered; but there +are other kinds. This grows 20 to 30 feet where the seasons are long +enough. + + +[Illustration: Morning-Glories] + +MORNING-GLORY is perhaps the most popular of all twining herbs, because +of the ease with which it may be grown, the quickness with which it +covers the object, and the quantities of bright, cheerful flowers it +bears. Many of the kinds--in fact all that are generally known--may be +readily grown from seed, flowering early in the summer. Tender annuals. +Give rich soil and plenty of water. The beautiful cypress vine belongs +to this group. It requires the same treatment as the Morning-Glory, but +the seeds should be scalded just previous to sowing. + +Dwarf Morning-Glories (_Convolvulus tricolor_). They come into flower +much sooner than the tall climbing varieties, and are covered with +flowers through a long season. They may be used with fine effect in +vases or large hanging baskets. Give a full sunny exposure. May thrive +on soil that is not very rich. They grow 1 foot high. Half-hardy +annuals. + + +MULBERRY. Both for fruit and ornament the Mulberry should be more +generally planted. Even if the fruit is not to the taste, the tree is +naturally open-centered and round-headed, and is an interesting subject; +some of the varieties have finely cut leaves. The fruits are in great +demand by the birds, and after they begin to ripen the strawberry beds +and cherry trees are free from robins and other fruit-eating birds. For +this reason alone they are a valuable tree for the fruit-grower. Trees +may be purchased cheaper than one can propagate them. + +If planted in orchard form, place them 25 to 30 feet apart. About the +borders of a place they can go closer. The Russian varieties are often +planted for windbreaks, for they are very hardy and thrive under the +greatest neglect; and for this purpose they may be planted 8 to 20 feet +apart. The Russians make excellent screens. They stand clipping well. +New American, Trowbridge and Thorburn are leading kinds of fruit-bearing +Mulberries for the North. The true Downing is not hardy in the northern +states; but New American is often sold under this name. Mulberries +thrive in any good soil, and need no special treatment. + + +MULCH is used both in protecting plants from the severe freezing of +winter and the severe drought of summer. The same material may be used +in either case, although it is now considered best to make an earth +Mulch to prevent evaporation and retain the moisture through the dry +season. This earth Mulch is made by breaking the crust of the soil and +leaving it in fine particles. This may be done with a horse cultivator, +a hoe or a rake. In fact, any tool which leaves the top of the soil +loose will be instrumental in preventing evaporation of soil water. See +_Tillage_. The Mulching of the ground around blackberries, currants, +gooseberries, or raspberries with straw or hay is often practiced to +keep the fruits clean; and the winter Mulch of strawberry beds is used +between the rows for the same purpose, as well as to retain moisture and +to afford winter protection. Winter Mulch usually consists of leaves, +straw, hay, rough manure, boughs of evergreens, or any coarse material +that will protect the plants from severe freezing and the heaving caused +by alternate freezing and thawing. This winter Mulch should be removed +as spring advances, unless it is of such a character as to be worked +into the soil to add fertility or to loosen heavy lands. Near the +seacoast salt hay is considered to be an ideal Mulch. The winter Mulch +must not contain too strong or heavy manures, or plants may be injured +by the leaching. For flower borders and shrubbery, muck or peat makes a +good winter Mulch. Ordinarily the Mulch may be placed on to the depth of +4 to 6 inches, and if it is of loose material it may be still deeper. If +dry and loose, mice may nest in it and girdle the trees or bushes. Even +perfectly hardy plants are benefited by a winter Mulch, because it +improves the soil. Autumn leaves, as they drift into shrubberies, make +an ideal Mulch; it is not always necessary to remove these leaves. See +_Lawn_. + + +MUSHROOM. There is no science of Mushroom growing. Certain conditions +have been found to give success, but it is not known why. These +conditions may be imitated ever so closely and complete failure result. +There are many "systems" advised, each system the result of somebody's +success; but one cannot be sure of success by following any one of them. +Good results are frequently attained when all rules are broken. The +following paragraphs are from "Farmers' Bulletin," No. 53 (by William +Falconer), of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (March, 1897): + +Mushrooms are a winter crop, coming in from September till April or +May--that is, the work of preparing the manure begins in September and +ends in February, and the packing of the crop begins in October or +November and ends in May. Under extraordinary conditions the season may +begin earlier and last longer, and, in fact, it may continue all summer. + +Mushrooms can be grown almost anywhere out of doors, and also indoors +where there is a dry bottom in which to set the beds, where a uniform +and moderate temperature can be maintained, and where the beds can be +protected from wet overhead, and from winds, drought, and direct +sunshine. Among the most desirable places in which to grow Mushrooms are +barns, cellars, closed tunnels, sheds, pits, greenhouses, and regular +Mushroom houses. Total darkness is not imperative, for Mushrooms grow +well in open light if shaded from sunshine. The temperature and moisture +are more apt to be equable in dark places than in open, light ones, and +it is largely for this reason that Mushroom houses are kept dark. + +[Illustration: Mushroom] + +The best fertilizer for Mushrooms, so far as the writer's experience +goes, is fresh horse manure. Get together a lot of this material (short +and strawy) that has been well trampled and wetted in the stable. Throw +it into a heap, wet it well if it is at all dry, and let it heat. When +it begins to steam turn it over, shake it well so as to mix thoroughly +and evenly, and then tramp it down solid. After this let it stand till +it again gets quite warm, then turn, shake, trample as before, and add +water freely if it is getting dry. Repeat this turning, moistening and +trampling as often as it is needful to keep the manure from "burning." +If it gets intensely hot, spread it out to cool, after which again throw +it together. After being turned in this way several times, and the heat +in it is not apt to rise above 130 deg. F., it should be ready to make +up in the beds. By adding to the manure at the second or third turning +one-fourth or one-fifth of its bulk of loam, the tendency to intense +heating is lessened and its usefulness not at all impaired. Some growers +prefer short manure exclusively, that is, the horse droppings, while +others like a good deal of straw mixed in with this. The writer's +experience, however, is that, if properly prepared, it matters little +which is used. + +Ordinarily the beds are only 8 to 10 inches deep; that is, they are +faced with 10-inch-wide hemlock boards, and are only the depth of this +board. In such beds put a layer of fresh, moist, hot manure, and trample +it down firm until it constitutes half the depth of the bed; then fill +up with the prepared manure, which should be rather cool (100 deg. to +115 deg. F.) when used, and pack all firmly. If desired, the beds can be +made up entirely of the prepared manure. Shelf beds are usually 9 inches +deep; that is, the shelf is bottomed with 1-inch boards and faced with +10-inch-wide boards. This allows about 8 inches for manure, and 1 inch +rising to 2 inches of loam on top. In filling the shelf beds the bottom +half may be of fresh, moist or wettish, hot manure, packed down solid, +and the top half of rather cool prepared manure, or it may be made up of +all prepared manure. As the shelf beds can not be trodden and can not be +beaten very firm with the back of the fork, a brick is used in addition +to the fork. + +The beds should be spawned after the heat in them has fallen below 100 deg. +F. The writer considers 90 deg. F. about the best temperature for spawning. +If the beds have been covered with hay, straw, litter or mats, these +should be removed. Break each brick into twelve or fifteen pieces. The +rows should be, say, 1 foot apart, the first one being 6 inches from the +edge, and the pieces should be 9 inches apart in the row. Commencing +with the first row, lift up each piece, raise 2 to 3 inches of the +manure with the hand, and into this hole place the piece, covering over +tightly with the manure. When the entire bed is spawned pack the surface +all over. It is well to cover the beds again with straw, hay or mats, to +keep the surface equally moist. The flake spawn is planted in the same +way as the brick spawn, only not quite so deep. + +At the end of eight or nine days the mulching should be removed and the +beds covered with a layer of good loam 2 inches thick, so that the +Mushrooms can come up in and through it. This gives them a firm hold, +and to a large extent improves their quality and texture. Any fair loam +will do. That from an ordinary field, wayside or garden is generally +used, and it answers admirably. There exists an idea that garden soil +surfeited with old manure is unfit for Mushroom beds because it is apt +to produce spurious fungi. This, however, is not the case. In fact, it +is the earth most commonly used. For molding the beds the loam should be +rather fine, free and mellow, so that it can be easily and evenly spread +and compacted firmly into the manure. + +If an even atmospheric temperature of from 55 deg. to 60 deg. F. can be +maintained, and the house or cellar containing the Mushroom beds is kept +close and free from drafts, the beds may be left uncovered, and should +be watered if they become dry. But no matter where the beds are +situated, it is well to lay some loose hay or straw or some old matting +or carpet over them to keep them moist. The covering, however, should be +removed just as soon as the young Mushrooms begin to appear above +ground. If the atmosphere is dry, the pathways and walls should be +sprinkled with water. The mulching should also be sprinkled, but not +enough to cause the water to soak into the bed. However, if the bed +should get dry, do not hesitate to water it. + + +MUSKMELON. The natural soil for melons is a light, sandy loam, well +enriched with rotted manure, although good crops may be grown on soil +naturally heavy if the hills are prepared as they should be. When only +heavy soil is available, the dirt where the seeds are to be planted +should be thoroughly pulverized and mixed with fine, well rotted manure. +A sprinkling of leaf-mold or chip-dirt will help to lighten it. On this +hill from ten to fifteen seeds may be sown, thinning to four or five +vines when danger of insects is over. The season may be advanced and the +damage from insects lessened by starting the plants in hotbeds. This may +be done by using fresh sod, cut into 6-inch pieces, placing them +grass-side down in the hotbed, sowing eight to ten seeds on each piece, +and covering with 2 inches of light soil. When all danger of frost is +over, and the ground has become warm, these sods may be carefully lifted +and set in the prepared hills. The plants usually grow without check, +and fruit from two to four weeks ahead of those from seed planted +directly in the hill. Old quart berry boxes are excellent to plant seeds +in, as, when they are set in the ground, they very quickly decay, +causing no restriction to the roots. Netted Gem, Hackensack, Emerald +Gem, Montreal, Osage, and the Nutmeg Melon are popular varieties. One +ounce of seed will plant about fifty hills. + +[Illustration: Muskmelon] + +For insects, see _Cucumber_. + + +MUSK PLANT is an old-fashioned house plant of easy culture. Raise a new +stock from seeds as soon as the plants begin to fail. + + +NARCISSUS. Hardy bulbous plants, including the daffodils, jonquils, and +other forms. The ease with which these plants may be grown, the beauty +and fragrance of the flowers, as well as their lasting qualities when +cut, would seem to make their culture in this country more popular than +it is. Good bulbs planted in September or October are sure to bloom in +April or May. The bulbs may remain in the ground for a number of years, +although the best results will be had by digging them up every three +years, and resetting in a different location. Select a moist, loamy +soil, slightly protected from the sun. No manure should come directly in +contact with the bulb, but if needed to hold moisture the manure may be +spaded down to the depth of twelve inches. + +[Illustration: Narcissus] + +Narcissus may be forced into flower through the winter, as described +under _Bulbs_. The most popular for winter bloom is the "Chinese Sacred +Lily." This grows in water without any soil whatever. Secure a bowl or +glass dish, about three times the size of the bulb; put some pretty +stones in the bottom; set in the bulb and build up around it with stones +so as to hold it stiff when the leaves have grown; tuck two or three +small pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep the water sweet, then +fill up the dish with water and add a little every few days, as it +evaporates. Set the dish in a warm, light place. In about six weeks the +fragrant, fine white flowers will fill the room with perfume. + + +[Illustration: Nasturtium] + +NASTURTIUMS (_Tropaeolums_) are both dwarf and climbing. The Dwarf +Nasturtiums make one of the most showy second-row plants for the border. +The colors of the flowers have a wide range and the plants bloom +profusely. It is not, however, the plant in flower that is the greatest +consideration, but the flowers themselves as cut-flowers. No flower +makes a finer display in vase or bowl than these rich colors, all +harmonizing well and lighting up a room as very few of the common easily +grown flowers do. The same may be said of the tall-growing Nasturtiums, +although the flowers of these form part of their effectiveness as screen +vines. Few climbers make a more rapid growth, and none are better +adapted to hide unsightly objects in our yards or gardens. + +[Illustration: Dwarf Nasturtium] + +For a long season of flowers and a large growth of vine the seed should +be sown late in March or early in April, in boxes or pots, the plants +carried along until the first of May, and planted out where wanted. The +dwarf varieties bloom more freely and the flowers are of better color in +rather poor soils, while for rapid growth of vine a well enriched border +would be the best. The dwarf varieties may be planted 2 or 3 feet apart, +and the tall ones as wanted to make a screen. The tall kinds grow 5 to 8 +feet. All Nasturtiums are tender. + + +NICOTIANA. Tender annuals (or grown as annuals). They are fine plants +for borders or pots, the tall-growing varieties making a very fine show +when in flower, having pure white flowers with long, tubular necks, the +season of bloom being from July to October. The seeds are very fine, and +should be sown on the surface of the soil, in boxes or pots. When +planted out they should be set from 2 to 5 feet apart, according to +kind. Some of the giant Nicotianas are excellent subjects for temporary +screens; so is tobacco, which is also a Nicotiana. + +[Illustration: Nicotiana affinis] + +_Nicotiana affinis_ is one of the best of all garden flowers. Its long +white flowers are fragrant at evening. They close in the hot sun. It is +a half-hardy annual of easiest culture. Height 2 to 3 feet. + + +OeNOTHERA. EVENING PRIMROSE. A very interesting group of plants, +opening their flowers at evening. Many of them are fragrant and attract +night insects, especially the large moths, seldom seen until dusk. The +opening of the flowers of the large-flowering varieties is a source of +pleasure and surprise, as one flower follows another in opening, and in +a large plant the late opening flowers seem to burst all at one time. +The perennial species may be propagated by division or seed, the +annuals by seed. Set the tall kinds 2 to 3 feet apart. Height 1 to 3 +feet. All of easy culture. + + +[Illustration: Okra or Gumbo] + +OKRA. From the green pods of this vegetable is made the well-known Gumbo +soup of the South, where the plant is more extensively grown than in the +North. The pods are also used in their green state for stews, and are +dried and used in winter, when they are nutritious, and form no little +part of the diet in certain sections of the country. The seeds are very +sensitive to cold and moisture, and should not be sown until the ground +has become warm--the last week in May or the first of June being early +enough in New York. The seed should be sown in a drill 1 inch deep, the +plants thinned to stand 12 inches in the row. Give the same culture as +for corn. One ounce will sow 40 feet of drill. Dwarf varieties are best +for the North. Green Density and Velvet are leading varieties. + + +OLEANDER. While there are many named varieties of the Oleander, but two +are often seen in general cultivation. These are the common red and +white varieties. Both these, as well as the named varieties, are of easy +management and well adapted to home culture, growing in pots or tubs for +several years without special care. Well-grown specimens are very +effective as porch or lawn plants, or may be used to good advantage in +mixed beds of tall-growing plants, plunging the pot or tub to the rim in +the soil. The plants should be cut back after flowering. They should be +rested in any out-of-the-way place through the winter. When brought out +in the spring, they should be given sun and air in order to make a +sturdy growth. Propagation is effected by using well-ripened wood for +cuttings, placed in a close frame; or the slips may be rooted in a +bottle or can of water, care being taken to supply water as evaporation +takes place. After being rooted, they may be potted, using soil with a +large proportion of sand. Well established plants may be repotted in +good loam and well rotted manure. + + +ONIONS are grown from seeds ("black seed") for the main crop. They are +also grown from sets (which are very small Onions, arrested in their +development), from "tops" (which are bulblets produced in the place of +flowers), and from multipliers or potato onions, which are compound +bulbs. + +[Illustration: Early Onions] + +The extremely early crop of Onions is grown from sets, and the late or +fall crop is grown from seed sown in April or early May. The sets may be +saved from the crop harvested the previous fall, saving no bulbs +measuring over 3/4 of an inch in diameter, or, better, they may be +purchased from the seedsman. These sets should be planted as early as +possible in the spring, preferably on land that has been manured and +trenched in the fall. Plant in rows 12 inches apart, the sets being 2 or +3 inches in the row. Push the sets well down into the ground and cover +with soil, firming them with the feet or a roller. In cultivating, the +soil should be thrown towards the tops, as the white stems are usually +sought as an indication of mildness. The crop will be in condition to +use in from three to four weeks, and may be made to last until small +seed Onions are to be had. Tops or multipliers may also be used for the +early crop. + +In growing Onions from seed, it is only necessary to say that the seed +should be in the ground very early in order that the bulbs make their +growth before the extreme hot weather of August, when, for want of +moisture and because of the heat, the bulbs will ripen up while small. +Early in April, in New York, if the ground is in condition, the seed +should be sown thickly in drills from 12 to 16 inches apart, and the +ground above the seeds well firmed. Good cultivation and constant +weeding is the price of a good crop of Onions. In cultivating and +hoeing, the soil should be kept away from the rows, not covering the +growing bulbs, but allowing them to spread over the surface of the +ground. When the crop is ready to be harvested, the bulbs may be pulled +or cultivated up, left to dry in double rows for several days, the tops +and roots taken off, and the bulbs stored in a dry place. Later in the +season they may be allowed to freeze, covering with chaff or straw to +hold them frozen, and kept until early spring; but this method is +usually unsafe with beginners, and always so in a changeable climate. +Onion seed should always be fresh when sown--preferably of the last +year's crop. One ounce of Onion seed will sow 100 feet of drill. + +One of the recent methods of obtaining extra large bulbs from seed is to +sow the seed in a hotbed in February or early March, and transplant to +the open ground in April. + +The Danvers, Prizetaker, Globe and Wethersfield are favorite varieties, +with the addition of White Queen or Barletta for pickling. + + +OXALIS. A number of hardy species of this are excellent plants for +rockwork and edging. The greenhouse species are very showy, growing +without extra care, and blooming freely through the late winter and +spring months; these are mostly increased by bulbs, a few by division of +the root. _O. violacea_ is one of the commonest of house-plants. Give a +sunny window, for the flowers open only in sun or very bright light. The +bulbous kinds are treated as recommended for _Bulbs_, except that the +bulbs must not freeze. + + +PALMS. No more graceful plant for room decoration can be found than a +well-grown specimen of some species of Palms. Most Palms are well +adapted for this purpose when small, and as the growth is usually very +slow, a plant may be used for many years. Again, the plants thrive +better in partial shade. They may be grown in a sitting or drawing-room +more satisfactorily than most house-plants. One of the frequent causes +of failure in the culture of the Palm is the over-potting and subsequent +over-watering. A Palm should not be repotted until the mass of roots +fills the soil; then a pot only a size larger should be used. Use ample +drainage in the bottom to carry off excess of water. Although the plants +need a moist soil, water standing at their roots proves injurious. A +soil composed of well rotted sod, leaf-mold and a little sand will meet +their requirements. Among the best Palms for house culture are Arecas, +_Cocos Weddelliana_, Latania, Kentia, Chamaerops and Phoenix. Cycas may +also be regarded as a Palm. + +[Illustration: Palms] + +The date Palm may be grown from seed of the common commercial date. Seed +of the other varieties may be purchased from leading seedsmen, but, as +the seed germinates only under favorable conditions, and the Palm is a +very slow-growing plant while young, the best plan is to purchase the +plants from a dealer when wanted. When the plants become weak or +diseased, take them to a florist for treatment and recuperation. + +[Illustration: A table Palm] + + +PANDANUS, or SCREW PINE. The _Pandanus utilis_ and _P. Veitchii_ are +exceedingly ornamental, and are well adapted to house culture. The +singular habit of growth, bright, glossy leaves, and the ability to +withstand the dust and shade of a dwelling room, make them a desirable +addition to the house collection. They are propagated by the offsets or +young plants that grow around the base of the trunk; or they may be +increased by seed. If by the former method, the offsets should be cut +off and set in sand, at a temperature of 65 deg. or 70 deg. The cuttings +root slowly and the plants for a time make a very slow growth. The +general cultural treatment is that of palms, which see. + + +[Illustration: Pansies] + +PANSY is without doubt the most popular spring flower in cultivation. +The strains of seed are many, each containing great possibilities. The +culture is simple and the results are sure. Seed sown in August or +September, in boxes or a frame, will make plants large enough to reset +in November and bloom the following March; or they may be left until +March in open seed-beds before setting out. Also, if they are sown very +thinly in the frames they may remain undisturbed through the winter, +blooming very early the following spring. The frame should be protected +by mats, boards or other covering through the severe cold, and as the +sun gains strength, care should be taken to keep them from heaving by +alternate thawing and freezing. Seed sown in boxes in January or +February will make fine blooming plants by April, taking the place of +those blooming earlier. + +The requisites for satisfactory Pansy culture are rich, moist, cool +soil, protection from the noonday sun, and attention to keeping them +from going to seed. As the ground becomes warm a mulch of leaf-mold or +other light material should be spread over the bed to retain moisture +and exclude heat. Spring and fall give the best bloom. + + +PARIS GREEN is the leading arsenical insecticide. It is usually applied +in a water spray, at the rate of 1 pound of the poison to 150 to 200 +gallons of water. Add 1/2 pound of lime to prevent injury to foliage. +Potatoes will usually stand a stronger mixture; peaches and some other +plants do not need one so strong. Make the Paris Green into a paste with +water before adding it to the 200 gallons, that it may mix better. Paris +Green may be added to Bordeaux mixture with excellent results, counting +the Bordeaux as if it were so much water; in this case it will not be +necessary to add lime to the Paris Green. The Paris Green is used only +for chewing insects, as worms and beetles. London purple is used in the +same way. + + +[Illustration: Parsley grown in a box] + +PARSLEY. The curled Parsley is used almost exclusively as a garnish for +meats and salads, although the flavor in soups is fine. The seed is slow +to germinate, and often the second or third sowing is made, thinking the +first is a failure; but usually after what would seem a long time the +young plants will be seen. When sown in the open ground, it should be +thinned to stand 3 or 4 inches in the row, the rows being 10 to 12 +inches apart. A few plants in a border will give a supply for a large +family, and with a little protection will live over winter. Roots may be +lifted in the fall, put into boxes or old cans, and grown in a sunny +window for winter use. + + +PARSNIPS are one of the vegetables that are the better for the winter's +freeze, although they are of good quality if taken up after the fall +frosts and packed in soil, sand or moss in the cellar. The seed, which +must be not over one year old, should be sown as early as possible in +well prepared soil, firmed with the feet or roller. As the seed +germinates rather slowly the ground often becomes crusted or baked over +the seeds, in which case it should be broken and fined with a garden +rake. This operation often means the success of the crop. Radish or +cabbage seeds may be sown with the Parsnip seed to mark the row and +break the crust. One ounce of seed will sow 200 feet of drill. Thin to 6 +inches apart in the row. + + +PEA. Who does not long for the time when early Peas are fit to use? And +how many know the great difference in quality between the smooth and the +wrinkled Peas? The first are a little the earliest to be planted and to +become fit for use, and on that account should be planted in a small +way. For the kitchen-garden the dwarf and half-dwarf varieties are the +best, as the tall kinds will need brush or wire to support them, causing +considerable trouble and labor and not being as neat in appearance. The +tall varieties yield a larger crop than the dwarfs, but as the rows must +be made from 3 to 5 feet apart, the dwarf ones, which are planted only 6 +to 8 inches apart, will give as large a yield on the same area. Always +plant double rows of the tall varieties: that is, two rows from 4 to 6 +inches apart, with the brush or wire between, the double rows being from +3 to 5 feet apart, according to varieties. The dwarf varieties should be +planted four rows in a block, each row being only 6 or 8 inches apart. +The Peas on the two center rows may be picked from the outside. Leave a +space of 2 feet and plant the same. At the time of the first planting +only the smooth varieties should be sown, but by the middle of April in +New York the ground will be warm and dry enough for the wrinkled sorts. +A succession should be sown that will come to maturity one after the +other, extending the season six or eight weeks. If a further supply is +wanted the early quick-maturing varieties may be sown in August, usually +giving a fair crop of Peas in September and early October. In the hot +weather of midsummer they often do not thrive so well. One quart of seed +will plant about 100 feet of drill. + + +PEA, EVERLASTING (_Lathyrus latifolius_). These Peas do not have the +colors or fragrance of the Sweet Pea, but are fine for planting against +rocks, stumps, or fences. They bloom through a long season, and, being +perfectly hardy, will live for years. Height 2 to 6 feet. Raised from +seeds or from cuttings, usually the former. Keep the seed pods picked +off to lengthen period of bloom. + + +PEA, SWEET. See _Sweet Pea_. + + +PEACH. Given the proper exposure, Peaches may be fruited in many +sections where now it is thought impossible to have a crop. It is +usually the practice of the amateur to set Peach trees in the shelter of +some building, exposed on the south or east to the sun, and "in a +pocket" as regards winds. This should be reversed, except in the close +vicinity of large bodies of water. The fruit buds of Peaches will stand +very cold weather when perfectly dormant, often as low as 12 deg. or 18 +deg. below zero in New York; but if the buds once become swollen, +comparatively light freezing will destroy the crop. Therefore, if the +trees be set on elevations where a constant air drainage may be +obtained, sheltered, if at all, on the south and east, from the warming +influence of the sun, the buds will remain dormant until the ground +becomes warm, and the chances of a failure will be lessened. This advice +applies mostly to interior sections. A well drained, sandy loam or +gravelly soil suits the Peach better than a heavy soil; but if the +heavier soil is well drained, good crops may be obtained. + +[Illustration: Peaches] + +Peaches are short-lived at best, and one should be satisfied with three +or four crops from each tree. They bear young, usually a partial crop +the third year. If a crop may be had every other year until the trees +are eight or ten years old, they will have well repaid the effort of +cultivation. But they often bear twice this long. Young trees may be set +every four or five years to replace older ones, thus having trees at a +bearing age at all times on a small place. Trees should be set 14 to 18 +feet apart each way. A good selection of varieties for home use would be +Early York, Alexander, Halo Early, Mountain Rose, Early Crawford, +Wheatland, Stump, Elberta, Stevens, Oldmixon, Late Crawford and Smock. + +Peach trees are always bought when they are one year old, that is, one +year from the bud. For example, the bud is set in the fall of 1898. It +remains dormant until the spring of 1899, when it pushes into vigorous +growth; and in the fall of 1899 the tree is ready for sale. Peach trees +which are more than a year old are scarcely worth the buying. It is a +common practice, when setting Peach trees, to prune them back to a whip, +leaving a stub bearing not more than one bud where each branch is cut +off. + +The three great enemies of the Peach are the borer, the yellows and the +curculio. + +The borer is best handled by digging it out every spring and fall. Trees +which are attacked by the borer have an exudation of gum about the +crown. If the borers are dug out twice a year they will not get +sufficient start to make the operation very laborious. It is the only +sure way. + +The yellows is a communicable disease, the cause of which is not +definitely known. It shows itself in the fruit ripening prematurely, +with distinct red spots which extend through the flesh, and later by the +throwing out of fine, branching, twiggy tufts along the main branches. +The only treatment is to pull out the trees and burn them. Other trees +may be set in the same places. + +For a discussion of curculio, see the remarks under _Plum_. + + +PEAR. No fruit plantation should be considered complete without trees of +various kinds of Pears, ripening fruits from early in August till +winter. The late varieties are generally good keepers, and extend the +season into February, thus supplying fruit for six or seven months. + +As the Pear grows to perfection on quince, the dwarf tree is peculiarly +adapted to planting on small home grounds, and is often used as a +boundary plant, or to serve the purpose of a screen. These dwarf trees +should be set deep--4 to 6 inches below the union--to prevent the stock +from growing. Dwarf trees may be set as near together as 10 to 16 feet, +while the standard or tall-growing Pears should be set 18 to 25 feet +apart. Trees are planted when two or three years old. + +[Illustration: Bartlett Pears] + +The Pear thrives on clay soil, if well underdrained, and for this reason +may succeed in places where other fruits might fail. A good, steady +growth should be maintained, but the use of nitrogenous manures should +be avoided, as they tend to make a rank growth and invite attacks of +Pear blight, which is the worst enemy of the Pear. For summer fruits: +Osband's Summer, Bartlett, Clapp and Manning Elizabeth are among the +best. For autumn: Duchess, Flemish Beauty, Bosc, Louise Bonne, Seckel +and Sheldon. For winter fruit: Anjou, Clairgeau, Lawrence and Winter +Nelis are excellent. Kieffer is an excellent commercial fruit, but it is +too poor to be given space in the home ground except as an ornamental +tree. + +Of the Pear blight, Duggar writes as follows: + +"REMEDIES. (_a_) _The knife and the saw._--With a disease working as +this does, it is very evident that there is no chance either for cure or +prevention by means of spraying. The heroic treatment of the knife and +saw must be adopted and vigorously pursued, as has been claimed from the +beginning. The blackened leaves alone must not serve as signs of the +diseased area, but one must examine carefully the branches and remove +them 6 inches or more below the lowest discolorations. Often before +cutting, pruners slice the bark downward to see where the injury ends. +This should not be done; it is better to be sure that you are below the +infected area, and run no such risk of infecting anew the tissues below. +The cut surfaces of larger limbs and branches should be painted for +protection against wound rots. + +"(_b_) _When to cut._--Cutting out diseased portions should be done +whenever the disease is evident. This may check the injuries +temporarily; but it has been shown that much can be done in the autumn +to prevent the establishment of the disease the following spring. It has +long been known that the disease may pass the winter in the branches by +a slow growth in the neighborhood of late infections. Thorough work of +eradication should especially be performed after the season of growth. +Then cut out every diseased branch and burn, so that in the spring when +the succulent growth begins again, there will be few places in which +insects may come in contact with the bacterial exudations. + +"(_c_) _Conditions favoring the disease._--The knife is our only hope of +extermination; but there are undoubtedly conditions which favor the +disease. In a succulent, rapidly growing tree the bacteria find more +favorable conditions for their development than in one which grows +slowly, yet with sufficient vigor. For this reason, too much nitrogenous +manure is dangerous; and, for the same reason, a succulent growth +induced by severe pruning should be avoided." + + +[Illustration: Pelargonium, or Geranium] + +PELARGONIUMS. Here belong the plants known as Geraniums--the most +satisfactory of house-plants, and extensively used as bedding plants. No +plants will give better returns in leaf and flower; and these features, +added to the ease of propagation, make them general favorites. Cuttings +of partially ripened wood root very easily, grow to blooming size in a +short time, and, either planted out or grown in a pot, make fine +decorations. The common or "Fish" Geraniums are much more satisfactory +when not more than a year old. Take cuttings from the old plants at +least once a year. In four or five months the young plants begin to +bloom. Plants may be taken up from the garden and potted, but they +rarely give as much satisfaction as young, vigorous subjects. Repot +frequently until they are in 4- to 5-inch pots; then let them bloom. + +The show Pelargoniums are those commonly known as Lady Washington +Geraniums. These have but one period of bloom, usually in April, but +they make up in size and coloring. This section is more difficult to +manage as a house plant than the common Geranium, needing more direct +light to keep it stocky, and being troubled by insects. Still, all the +trouble taken to grow them will be well repaid by the handsome blossoms. +Take cuttings in late spring, after flowering, and blooming plants may +be had the following year. Good results are sometimes secured by keeping +these plants two or three years. Cut back after each blooming season. + +For house culture the Geraniums need a rich, fibrous loam, with the +addition of a little sand; good drainage is also an essential. + + +PEONY. The herbaceous Peony has long had a place in the garden, and is +now in general use as an early flowering plant. It is perfectly hardy, +and free from the many diseases and insects that attack so many fine +plants. The single and semi-double varieties are very fine, the flowers +becoming large as the plant becomes well established. The herbaceous +section is readily increased by division. The tree Peonies are increased +by grafting. They grow in some cases to the height of 3 or more feet, +and are covered with large, very double flowers of rich colors. Height 2 +to 3 feet. + + +PEPPERS are tender while young, although they will endure a heavy frost +in the fall. Their culture is that recommended for eggplants. A small +seedsman's packet of seed will be sufficient for a large number of +plants, say two hundred. The large Bell Peppers are the mildest, and are +used for making "stuffed Peppers" and other dishes. The small, hot +Peppers are used for seasoning and sauces. + +[Illustration: Bell Pepper] + + +PETUNIA. The improvement made in the size and markings of the Petunia +has been marked of late. Now almost every shade of color may be found, +aside from yellow. A bed of Petunias makes a mass of color equaled by +few other flowers. They also make very fine single plants for pots, +baskets or window-boxes, blooming freely through the winter, and +emitting a delicate fragrance. The single varieties grow freely from +seed, but if plants of one special color are wanted cuttings should be +made. These cuttings root easily and bloom early. Cuttings will have to +be made of the double varieties to increase their number. For common +Petunias, sow seeds where plants are to grow, in a warm, sunny place; +or, for earlier bloom, seeds may be started in the house. Thin to 8 to +12 inches apart. The season of bloom is cut short only by frost or other +causes. + +[Illustration: Petunia] + + +PHLOX. Both the perennial and the annual Phloxes are most valuable. +Excepting the petunia, no plant will give the profusion of bloom with as +little care as the annual Phlox (_Phlox Drummondii_). Masses of one +color or of contrasting colors make very effective ribbon borders or +edging beds. The perennial species are very showy, having almost as wide +a range of color as the annuals. They grow to the height of 3 feet. They +are most effective in the back row of a border. The perennials have been +much improved of late. They are hardy. + +The annual Phlox is propagated by seed sown early in the spring in the +border, or in March in boxes and transplanted. The perennial Phlox is +increased by division of the roots, the flowers being larger and more +highly colored by dividing at least every three years. The annual Phlox +blooms early, and continues until late in the fall. The perennial blooms +from July to frost. + + +PINK. See _Dianthus_ and _Carnation_. + + +PLUM. Of Plums there are three general or common types: first, the +common Domestica or European Plum, which gives rise to all the older +varieties, like Lombard, Bradshaw, Green Gage, the Prunes, the Egg +Plums, the Damsons, and the like; second, the Japanese Plums, which +have become popular within the last ten years, and which are adapted to +a wider range of country than the Domesticas; third, the native Plums of +several species or types, which are adapted to the plains, the middle +and southern states, where the Domestica Plums do not thrive, and some +kinds to the cold North. + +Wherever the Domestica and Japanese Plums can be grown, the native Plums +are not destined to become popular; but many of the natives are much +hardier than others, and are therefore adapted to regions in which the +Domestica and Japanese are not safe. Others of them are well adapted to +the middle and southern states. The Domestica and Japanese Plums are +considerably hardier than peaches, but not so hardy as the apple. The +northern limit of their general cultivation is the southern peninsula of +Michigan, central and southern Ontario, central New York and central New +England. + +Plums thrive on a great variety of soils, but they do better, as a rule, +on those which are rather heavy and have a considerable content of clay. +In fact, many of the varieties will thrive on clay as hard as that upon +which pears will grow. On the other hand, they often thrive well upon +light, and even almost sandy soils. + +The trees are set when they are two and three years from the bud. It is +preferable to have Plum trees on stocks of the same species, but it is +not always possible to secure them at the nurseries. In the South, Plums +are worked mostly on peach roots, and these make excellent trees where +the climate is not too severe, and especially upon the lighter lands on +which they are planted in the South. In the North the larger part of the +Plum stocks are grown on the Myrobalan Plum roots. This Myrobalan is an +Old World species of Plum, of smaller growth than the Domestica. This +stock, therefore, tends to dwarf the tree, and it is also likely to +throw up sprouts from the roots. Plum trees are set from 12 to 18 feet +apart. Many growers like to set them 8 feet apart in rows, and have the +rows from 16 to 20 feet apart. + +Plums are pruned much the same as apples and pears. That is, the top is +thinned out from year to year, and all superfluous branches and broken +or diseased wood are removed. If the soil is very strong and the trees +are close together, it may be well to head them in a little each year, +especially those varieties which grow very strong and robust. + +The varieties of Plums are very numerous. Of the Domestica or European +type, some of the best are Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Jefferson, Reine +Claude, Coe Golden Drop, Quackenbos, Fellemburg, German Prune, Copper. +The Lombard is the most cosmopolitan variety, and is always sure to give +a crop, but the quality is not so good as that of the others mentioned. +For culinary purposes, some of the Damsons, which are very small-fruited +varieties, are excellent. Of Japanese Plums, the best so far tested for +the North are Red June, Abundance, Burbank, Chabot and Satsuma. For a +very early cherry-like Plum for home use, the Berger is excellent. Of +the native Plums, the most cosmopolitan variety is Wild Goose. Excellent +varieties are Weaver, Quaker, Forest Garden, Wayland, and others. + +[Illustration: Plums] + +There are four leading difficulties in the growing of Plums--leaf +blight, fruit rot, black knot, and curculio. + +The leaf blight usually comes on about midsummer, the leaves becoming +spotted and dropping off. The remedy for this trouble is to spray +thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture, beginning soon after the fruits have +set, and before the trouble begins to show. + +The fruit rot may be prevented by the same means--that is, by spraying +with Bordeaux mixture. It is usually best to begin just after the fruits +are well set. A very important consideration in the checking of this +disease is to thin the fruit so that it does not hang in clusters. If +one fruit touches another, the rot spreads from fruit to fruit in spite +of the spraying. Some varieties, like Lombard and Abundance, are +susceptible to this injury. + +The black knot is best kept in check by cutting out the knots whenever +they can be seen, and burning them. As soon as the leaves drop, the +orchard should be gone over and all knots taken out. Orchards which are +thoroughly sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for the leaf blight and +fruit-rot fungus are less liable to attacks of black knot. + +The curculio, or the insect which is the parent of the worms in the +fruit, is the inveterate enemy of the Plum and other stone fruits. The +mature beetle lays the eggs in the fruits when they are very small, +usually beginning its work about as soon as the flowers fall. These eggs +soon hatch, and the little maggot bores into the fruit. Those fruits +which are attacked whilst very young ordinarily fall from the tree, but +those which are attacked when they are half or more grown may adhere to +the tree, but are wormy and gummy at the picking time. The mature +beetles are sluggish in the mornings, and are easily jarred from the +trees. Taking advantage of this fact, the fruit-grower may jar them into +sheets; or, in large orchards, into a large canvas hopper, which is +wheeled from tree to tree upon a wheelbarrow-like frame, and under the +apex of which is a tin can into which the insects roll. There is a slit +or opening in one side of the hopper, which allows the tree to stand +nearly in the middle of the canvas. The operator then gives the tree two +or three sharp jars with a padded pole or mallet. The edges of the +hopper are then quickly shaken with the hands and the insects roll down +into the tin receptacle. In this receptacle there is kerosene oil, or it +may be emptied from time to time. Just how long this machine is to be +run in the orchard will depend entirely upon circumstances. It is +advisable to use the catcher soon after the blossoms fall, for the +purpose of finding out how abundant the insects are. If a few insects +are caught upon each tree, there is indication that there are enough of +the pests to make serious trouble. If after a few days the insects seem +to have disappeared, it will not be necessary to continue the hunt. In +some years, especially in those succeeding a very heavy crop, it may be +necessary to run the curculio-catcher every morning for four or five +weeks; but, as a rule, it will not be necessary to use it oftener than +two or three times a week during that season; and sometimes the season +may be shortened by one-half. The insects fall most readily when the +weather is cool, and it, therefore, is best to get through the whole +orchard, if possible, before noon. Upon cloudy days, however, the +insects may be caught all day. A smart man can attend to 300 to 400 +full-bearing trees in six hours if the ground has been well rolled or +firmed, as it should be before the bugging operation begins. But whether +the operation is troublesome or not, it is the price of Plums, and the +grower must not expect to succeed long without it. The same treatment is +essential to the saving of peaches and rarely, also, of sour cherries. + + +POPPY. These showy annuals and perennials should be more generally +grown. Nothing will lighten up a corner better than the hardy oriental +Poppy, or the solid crimson or scarlet annual Poppies. All of the +varieties grow readily from seed, which, in most cases, should be sown +where the plants are to bloom. The seeds of the oriental and the Iceland +Poppy may be sown in pots, the plants wintered over in a frame and +carefully planted out the second spring. The Poppy is very impatient of +root disturbance, however, and the safest method is to sow the seed +where wanted. + + +PORTULACA, or ROSE MOSS. Brilliant little tender annuals, low-growing +and sun-loving. They usually seed themselves, and once established will +continue for years. Many of the varieties will produce a good percentage +of flowers as double as roses and of many colors. Seed should be sown +where wanted. They bloom freely in light, sandy soil in the full blaze +of the sun. + + +POTATO. The common practice of growing Potatoes in ridges or elevated +hills is wrong, unless the soil is so wet that this practice is +necessary to insure proper drainage; but in this case the land is not +adapted to the growing of Potatoes. If the land is elevated into ridges +or hills, there is a great loss of moisture by means of evaporation. +During the last cultivating the Potatoes may be hilled up slightly in +order to cover the tubers; but the hills should not be made in the +beginning. Land for Potatoes should be rather loamy in character, and +ought to have a liberal supply of potash, either naturally or supplied +in the drill, by means of an application of sulfate of potash. See that +the land is deeply plowed or spaded, so that the roots can penetrate +deeper. Plant the Potatoes 3 or 4 inches below the natural surface of +the ground. It is ordinarily best to drop the pieces in drills. A +continuous drill may be made by means of dropping one piece every 6 +inches, but it is usually thought best to drop two pieces about every 12 +to 18 inches. The drills are far enough apart to allow good cultivation. +If horse cultivation is used, the drills should be at least 3 feet +apart. + +[Illustration: Potatoes] + +Small Potatoes are considered not to be so good as large ones for +planting. One reason is because too many sprouts arise from each one, +and these sprouts are apt to crowd each other. The same is true of the +tip end or seed end of the tuber. Even when it is cut off, the eyes are +so numerous that one secures many weak shoots rather than two or three +strong ones. It is ordinarily best to cut the Potatoes to two or three +eyes, leaving as much tuber as possible with each piece. From seven to +eight bushels of Potatoes are required to plant an acre. + +For a very early crop in the garden, tubers are sometimes sprouted in +the cellar. When the sprouts are 4 to 6 inches high the tubers are +carefully planted. It is essential that the sprouts are not broken in +the handling. In this practice, also, the tubers are first cut into +large pieces, so that they will not dry out too much. + +The staple remedy for the Potato bug is Paris green, 1 pound of poison +to 150 to 200 gallons of water, with a little lime (see _Paris Green_). +For the blight, spray with Bordeaux mixture, and spray thoroughly. +Bordeaux mixture will also keep away the flea beetle to a large extent. + + +POTATO, SWEET. See _Sweet Potato_. + + +POTTING. The operation of potting a plant, while in itself simple, is +very often associated with success or failure in the growth of the +plant. The first and most common reason of failure is using too large a +pot; the second, imperfect drainage; and the third, the poor physical +condition of the soil. + +[Illustration: Too deep] + +[Illustration: Plant too high] + +A small-rooted cutting or a feeble plant should have a pot only large +enough to hold soil sufficient to surround the roots to the extent of 1 +or 2 inches. More soil would hold too much moisture, thus excluding the +air. As the plants grow and the ball of dirt becomes well covered with +white roots, and before these roots become dark in color, the plant +should be repotted, using a pot one size larger and usually a little +richer soil. This operation should continue until the plant has made the +desired growth. If it is desired to grow a geranium, fuchsia, begonia, +or plants of a similar character, large enough for a window plant--say +to the height or breadth of two feet,--a 6-inch pot will be large +enough, provided the soil is rich enough to continue the growth of the +plant while in flower. It often happens that pots of the various sizes +are not to hand; and in case the pot is too large, it should have the +drainage increased until it will take up as much room in the bottom as +the pot is too large. Bear in mind that the soil should not hold free +water. After the plant has filled the pot with roots it will often be +necessary to supply more food as the soil becomes exhausted. This may be +done by digging out the top soil down to the young, white roots, +replacing with new soil in which a little rotted manure, a pinch of +bone-meal or other plant-food, has been added. Liquid manure may be +used. This liquid manure is made from well rotted cow-, horse-, or +sheep-manure thrown into a tub or barrel, covered with water, and +allowed to stand until the strength of the manure is soaked out. This +liquid should be diluted before using with clear water until it has the +color of weak coffee. If used with judgment, nothing will cause a better +growth or a greater quantity of flowers. + +[Illustration: Too full] + +[Illustration: Careless] + +The drainage may consist of any coarse material, such as old broken +pots, small stones, pieces of charcoal, and the like, over which should +be placed small broken sod or a little moss to keep the dirt from +washing through and eventually stopping up the crevices through which +the excess water should flow. + +[Illustration: Good!] + +A safe rule to follow in first potting the majority of house-plants, is +to use one-third turf-loam, one-third leaf-mold or decayed leaves, and +one-third sand, thoroughly mixed. Reduce the amount of leaf-mold and +sand at successive pottings, adding a little well rotted manure, until, +when the plants have been potted in 6-inch pots, at least four-fifths of +the soil is turfy loam. Press the soil firmly in the pot and around the +plant. Never fill the pot level full of soil, else the plant cannot be +watered. + + +PRICKLY POPPIES, or ARGEMONES, are hardy annuals, with large, bluish +striking foliage and yellow flowers. They are easily grown in a warm +soil and sunny exposure. Sow the seeds where the plants are to stand. +Thin to 12 to 18 inches apart. They grow 2 feet high. + + +PRIMULAS, or PRIMROSES, are of various kinds. One of them is the +Auricula (which see). Others are hardy border plants. The true or +English cowslip is one of these; also the plants commonly known as +Polyanthus. Hardy Primulas grow 6 to 10 inches high, sending up trusses +of yellow and red flowers in early spring. Propagated by division, or by +seed sown a year before the plants are wanted. Give them rich, moist +soil. + +The Primula of the winter-garden is mostly the _P. Sinensis_ (Chinese +Primrose), grown very extensively by florists as a Christmas plant. With +the exception of the full double varieties, it is usually grown from +seed. The seed sown in March or April will make large flowering plants +by November or December, if the young plants are shifted to larger pots +as needed. The seed should be sown on the flat surface of the soil, +composed of equal parts loam, leaf-mold and sand. The seed should be +pressed down lightly and the soil watered carefully to prevent the seed +from being washed into the soil. Very fine sphagnum moss may be sifted +over the seed, or the box set in a moist place, where the soil will +remain wet until the seeds germinate. When the plants are large enough +they should be potted separately or pricked out into shallow boxes. +Frequent pottings or transplantings should be given until September, +when they should be in the pots in which they are to bloom. The two +essentials to successful growth through the hot summer are shade and +moisture. Height 6 to 8 inches. Bloom in winter and spring. + +At present the "baby Primrose" (_Primula Forbesi_) is popular. It is +treated in essentially the same way as the Sinensis. All Primulas are +impatient of a dry atmosphere and fluctuating conditions. + + +PRINCE'S FEATHER. See _Amarantus_. + + +PRUNES are varieties of plums with firm, meaty flesh, and which readily +make dried fruit. Some of the Prunes are commercially grown in the East, +but they are sold in the green state as other plums are; and they are +adapted to all the uses of other plums. Prunes are cultivated like other +plums. + + +PRUNING. There are two general types of inquiry connected with the +question of Pruning: First, that which has to do with the healing of the +wounds; and second, that which has to do with the shaping of the top and +the general welfare of the tree. + +[Illustration: Improper way to make the wound] + +[Illustration: Proper way] + +[Illustration: Before] + +[Illustration: After] + +When a limb is cut off, it heals by being covered with callus tissue, +which grows out from the cambium zone between the bark and wood and +rolls over the face of the wound. The hard wood itself never heals; +that is, the cells do not have the power of making new cells; therefore +the old wood is simply covered up, or hermetically sealed as a cap is +put on a fruit jar. It is evident, therefore, that no kind of dressing +will hasten the healing of this wound. The merit of a dressing is to +keep the wound sound and healthy until the callus naturally covers it +over. All things considered, the best dressing is probably thick +linseed-oil paint. + +So far as the wound is concerned, the best time for Pruning is +ordinarily in the spring, when the vital activities are beginning; but +the season also influences fruit-bearing and wood-making, and these +questions should be considered. Those wounds heal best which are on +strong main limbs, where there is a full flow of nutritious sap. The +limb should be cut off so that the wound is parallel with the trunk upon +which it sits, and close to it. That is to say, the longer the stub, the +less rapid in general is the healing of the wound. It is the custom to +cut the limb just outside the bulge at its base; but, in most cases, it +is better to cut through this bulge, and to have the wound close to the +main trunk. + +[Illustration: Before pruning] + +[Illustration: After pruning] + +Heavy Pruning of the top tends to the production of wood; therefore the +severe Pruning of orchard trees, following three or four years of +neglect, sets the trees into heavy wood-bearing, and makes them more +vigorous. Such treatment generally tends away from fruit-bearing. This +heavy Pruning is usually necessary in neglected orchards, however, to +bring trees back into shape and to revitalize them; but the best +Pruning-treatment of an orchard is to Prune it a little every year. It +should be so Pruned that the tops of the trees will be open, that no two +limbs will interfere with each other, and so that the fruit itself will +not be so abundant as to overload the tree. Pruning is a means of +thinning. In general, it is best to prune orchard trees late in winter +or early in spring. It is ordinarily better, however, to leave peaches +and other tender fruits until after the buds have swollen, or even after +the flowers have fallen, in order that one may determine how much they +have been injured by the winter. Grapevines should be Pruned in winter +or not later (in New York) than the first of March. If Pruned later than +this, they may bleed. The above remarks will apply to other trees as +well as to fruits. + +[Illustration: Sickle saw] + +[Illustration: Combined saw and knife. Goes on a long handle] + +[Illustration: Curved Pruning saw] + +[Illustration: Common double edge saw] + +It should be borne in mind that Pruning has two objects: one is to +merely trim the tree or to make it assume some designed shape; the other +is to make the tree more vigorous or more fruitful, or to make some +other change in its character. These ideals are well illustrated in the +Pruning of ornamental shrubs. If one wants to have the shrubs sheared +into some particular shape, the shearing may be done at almost any time +of the year; in fact, it is better to do it two or three times each year +in order to keep the trees trim and neat. If, however, the desire is to +secure more flowers, the case is a very different one. Some shrubs and +trees bear their flowers on the wood of the preceding year. Such, for +example, are the early flowering shrubs like lilacs and the snowballs. +The flower buds are made the fall before. In this case, Pruning the +shrub in winter cuts off the flower buds. The ideal time for Pruning +them, therefore, is just after the flowers have passed. The flower buds +will form later in the season for the production of the flowers the +following spring. Other shrubs, however (particularly those which +blossom late in the season), bear on wood of the current year's growth. +That is, the clematis blossoms in late summer and fall on wood which +grew that same season. The greater the quantity of strong wood which +grows in any season, therefore, the greater the quantity of bloom in +that season. With such shrubs, it is well to Prune in winter or early +spring, and to Prune rather heavily. The abundance of new shoots which +arise may be expected to bear flowers later on in the same season. + +Following are some shrubs which, for best results in flower-bearing, may +be Pruned when dormant (in winter): camellia, Jackmani type of clematis, +cornus, hibiscus (shrubby), hydrangea, many loniceras or honeysuckles, +philadelphus or mock-orange, some spireas. + +Shrubs which may be Pruned when in leaf (just after blooming): lilac, +deutzia, weigelas, exochorda, spring-flowering loniceras, tree peony, +flowering almond, some spireas and viburnums, wistaria. + +The marginal illustrations show how apple, pear and plum trees may be +Pruned when received from the nursery. Cut back the roots to fresh, +unbroken wood. + +[Illustration: Waters' tree Pruner--for limbs out of reach] + +[Illustration: Pruning shears] + +[Illustration: An excellent Pruning saw. The blade is on a swivel] + +Various kinds of useful tree Pruners are shown in the margins. See also +_Scraping_. + + +PUMPKIN. See _Squash_. + + +PYRETHRUM. The little, low-growing yellow-foliaged Feverfew, called +Golden Feather, is used extensively for edging and design beds. +Propagated by cuttings, as are geraniums. + +The tall-growing species are very fine border plants, being easy to grow +and having showy flowers, in colors ranging from white through lilac to +crimson. Their flowers appear in June and last a month, when, if the +plants are cut down, they will flower again in the fall. The Persian +insect powder is made from the dried flower heads of some of these +species. Propagated by seed or division. Hardy and fine. + + +RADISHES should be grown quickly in order to have them at their best. +They become tough and woody if grown slowly or allowed to stay in the +ground too long. A light soil, well enriched, will grow most of the +early varieties to table size in from three to five weeks. To have a +supply through the early months, sowings should be made every two weeks. +For summer, the large white or gray varieties are best. The winter +varieties may be sown in September, harvested before severe frosts, and +stored in sand in a cool cellar. When they are to be used, if thrown +into cold water for a short time they will regain their crispness. Sow +Radishes thickly in drills, 12 to 18 inches apart. Thin as needed. + +[Illustration: Spring Radishes] + + +RASPBERRY. Both the red and black Raspberries are essentials of a good +garden. A few plants of each will produce a supply of berries for a +family through six or eight weeks, provided both early and late +varieties are planted. A cool situation, soil that will hold moisture +without being wet, and a thorough preparation of the ground, are the +conditions necessary to success. The black-cap Raspberries should be set +3 to 4 feet apart, the rows 6 or 7 feet; the red varieties 3 feet +apart, the rows 5 feet apart. Spring setting is usually preferable. + +As with blackberries and dewberries, Raspberries bear on last year's +canes, and these canes bear but once. Therefore cut out the old canes +after fruiting, or before the following spring, thus destroying such +insects and fungi as may have lodged on them. New canes should have +grown in the meantime, 3 to 6 to a hill. + +The first year after the plants are set the canes should be pinched back +when they reach the height of from 30 to 36 inches. If a very vigorous +growth has been made the first season two canes may be left for +fruiting, but in the case of weak growth, only one cane should be +allowed to fruit. In case of low-growing varieties--those that have been +pinched back short--a mulch of straw or grass around the plants at +fruiting time will help to hold the moisture, and also serve to keep the +fruits clean in case of heavy rains. A Raspberry plantation will last +three to five years. The black varieties are propagated by layers, the +tip of a cane being laid in the soil in midsummer; by fall the tip will +have taken root and may be separated. The red varieties are propagated +by suckers from the roots. In nurseries both blacks and reds are often +propagated by means of root-cuttings. + +[Illustration: Black Raspberries] + +For red rust, pull out the plant, root and branch, and burn it. Short +rotations--fruiting the plants only two or three years--and burning the +old canes and trimmings, will do much to keep Raspberry plantations +healthy. Spraying will have some effect in combating anthracnose. +Raspberries may be bent over to the ground so that the snow will protect +them, in severe climates. + +Varieties are always changing in favor. Good black-caps are Gregg, Ohio, +and Kansas. Good red and purple sorts are Shaffer, Cuthbert, Loudon, and +others. + + +RHODODENDRONS are broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which require a fibrous +or peaty soil and protection from bleak winds and hot suns in winter. It +is well to plant them amongst trees for protection. In the North, mulch +heavily with leaves in the fall. See that the soil is made fibrous with +leaf-mold or other material. Rhododendrons bloom from winter buds: +therefore prune just after flowering, if at all. + + +RHUBARB, or PIE PLANT. This is usually propagated by division of the +fleshy roots, small pieces of which will grow if separated from the old, +established roots and planted in rich, mellow soil. Poor soil should be +made rich by spading out at least 3 feet of the surface, filling with +well rotted manure to within 1 foot of the level, throwing in the top +soil and setting the roots with the crowns 4 inches below the surface, +firming them with the feet. The stalks should not be cut for use until +the second year, but the first, as well as the succeeding falls, some +coarse manure should be thrown over the crowns, to be forked or spaded +in lightly when spring opens. + +In growing seedling Rhubarb, the seed may be sown in a coldframe in +March or April, protected from freezing, and in two months the plants +will be ready to set in rows, 12 inches apart. Give the plants good +cultivation, and the following spring they may be set in a permanent +place. At this time the plants should be set in well prepared ground, at +a distance each way of from 4 to 5 feet, and treated as those set with +pieces of roots. + +If given good care and well manured, the plants will live for years and +yield abundantly. Two dozen good roots will supply a large family. + + +RICINUS. See _Castor Oil Plant_. + + +ROSES. It seems to be the first desire of the home maker, when he +considers the planting of his grounds, to set out Roses. As a matter of +fact, it should be one of the last things to do. Roses are essentially +flower garden subjects, rather than lawn subjects. That is to say, the +flowers are their chief beauty. They have very little to commend them in +the way of foliage or habit, and they are inveterately attacked by +insects and sometimes by fungi. In order to get the best results with +Roses, they should be placed in a bed by themselves, where they can be +tilled and pruned and well taken care of; and they should be grown as +specimen plants, as other flower garden plants are. The ordinary garden +Roses should rarely be grown in mixed borders of shrubbery. + +[Illustration: Wild Roses] + +If it is desired to have Roses in mixed borders, then the single and +informal types should be chosen. The best of all these is _Rosa rugosa_. +This has not only attractive flowers through the greater part of the +season, but it also has very interesting foliage and a striking habit. +The great profusion of bristles and spines gives it an individual and +strong character. Even without the flowers, it is valuable to add +character and cast to a foliage mass. The foliage is not attacked by +insects or fungi, but remains green and glossy throughout the year. The +fruit is also very large and showy, and persists on bushes well through +the winter. Some of the wild Roses are also very excellent for mixing +into foliage masses, but, as a rule, their foliage characteristics are +rather weak, and they are liable to be attacked by thrips. + +Probably the most extensively grown class of Roses is the Remontant or +Hybrid Perpetual. These, while not constant bloomers, are so easy of +culture and give such good returns for the care and labor, that their +popularity grows each year. The list of good varieties is very +extensive, and while a few, such as General Jacqueminot, Paul Neyron, +Marshall P. Wilder, Victor Verdier, Anne de Diesbach, and Ulrich +Brunner, are seen in most collections, one cannot go far wrong in +planting any of the list. Two of the Hybrid Chinese Roses may go with +the Remontants, having the same season of bloom and being about as +hardy. These are Magna Charta and Mme. Plantier. + +The next group in point of hardiness, and superior to the foregoing in +continuity of bloom, are the Hybrid Noisettes, such as Coquette des +Alpes, Coquette des Blanches, and Elise Boelle. The blooms of these are +white, often tinted with pink, very double and fragrant. + +The Hybrid Tea section, containing Duchess of Albany, La France, Meteor +and Wootton, is very fine. These are not hardy in the North, but if +protected by a frame, or if grown in pots, wintered in a pit, no class +of Roses will give more general satisfaction. + +The Bourbon section contains three of the best bedding Roses,--Apolline, +Hermosa, and Souvenir de la Malmaison. These will bloom continually +through the fall months until severe frost, and with a little protection +will prove hardy. + +The Bengal Roses, of which Agrippina is a leading variety, bloom through +a long season, but are not hardy, and should be protected in a pit. They +also make very fine pot-plants. + +The Moss Roses are well known, and are desirable in a general +collection. + +The little Polyantha Roses, with Cecile Brunner and Clothilde Soupert as +two of the best, are always attractive, either when planted out or grown +in pots. + +The climbing Roses, which bloom later in the season than the Remontants, +are very useful as pillar and screen plants. The old Queen of the +Prairies and Baltimore Belle are still in favor. A newer and better +variety is the Crimson Rambler. + +The Tea Roses have proved more disappointing to the amateur than any +other. No one can resist the temptation to try to have a few of these +highly perfumed, richly colored Roses, but unless one has a +conservatory or an especially favored location in the house, the results +do not pay for the trouble. A few blooms may be had outdoors with plants +set in the spring, but on the approach of winter they must be taken up +and protected by more secure means than is taken with other Roses. If +potted and grown in the house, they are the first plants to become +infested with red spider; or if grown cool enough to escape that pest, +they will be subject to an attack of mildew. Still, the results are well +worth striving for, and a few persons will find the proper conditions; +but the Tea Rose is essentially a florist's flower. + +[Illustration: Hybrid Tea Rose] + +All Roses are heavy feeders and require rich, moist soil. A clay soil, +if well enriched and having perfect drainage, is ideal. Pruning should +be carefully done, preferably in the spring. All weak growth should be +cut out and the balance well cut back. The flowers of all Roses, except +the Yellow Persian and the Harrison's Yellow, being borne on the new +wood, the bushes should be cut back half or more of their growth. + +In the majority of cases, Roses on their own roots will prove more +satisfactory than budded stock. On own-rooted stock, the suckers or +shoots from below the surface of the soil will be of the same kind, +whereas with budded Roses there is danger of the stock (usually Manetti +or Dog Rose) starting into growth and, not being discovered, outgrowing +the bud, taking possession, and finally killing out the weaker growth. +Still, if the plants are set deep enough to prevent adventitious buds of +the stock from starting, there is no question that finer Roses may be +grown than from plants on their own roots. + +The summer insects that trouble the Rose are best treated by a forceful +spray of clear water. This should be done early in the day and again at +evening. Those having city water or good spray pumps will find this an +easy method of keeping Rose pests in check. Those without these +facilities may use whale oil soap, fir-tree oil, good soap suds, or +Persian insect powder. + + +ROSES IN WINTER. Although the growing of Roses under glass is a business +which would better be left to florists, as already said, the following +advice may be useful to those who have conservatories: + +When growing forcing Roses for winter flowers, florists usually provide +raised beds, in the best-lighted houses they have. The bottom of the bed +or bench is left with cracks between the boards for drainage; the cracks +are covered with inverted strips of sod, and the bench is then covered +with four or five inches of fresh, fibrous loam. This is made from +rotted sods, with decayed manure incorporated at the rate of about one +part in four. Sod from any drained pasture-land makes good soil. The +plants are set on the bed in the spring or early summer, from 12 to 18 +inches apart, and are grown there all summer. + +During the winter they are kept at a temperature of 58 deg. to 60 deg. +at night, and from 5 deg. to 10 deg. warmer during the day. The heating +pipes are often run under the benches, not because the Rose likes bottom +heat, but to economize space and to assist in drying out the beds in +case of their becoming too wet. The greatest care is required in +watering, in guarding the temperature and in ventilation. Draughts +result in checks to the growth and in mildewed foliage. + +Dryness of the air, especially from fire heat, is followed by the +appearance of the minute red spider on the leaves. The aphis, or green +plant louse, appears under all conditions, and must be kept down by +syringing with tobacco-tea or fumigation with tobacco stems. + +An effectual and preferable method now employed for destroying the aphis +is to fumigate with the vapor arising from a pan containing a gallon of +water and a pint of strong extract of tobacco. To generate the vapor, a +piece of red-hot iron is dropped into the pan. From one to three or four +pans are required to a house, according to its size. For the red +spider, the chief means of control is syringing with either clear or +soapy water. If the plants are intelligently ventilated and given, at +all times, as much fresh air as possible, the red spider is less likely +to appear. For mildew, which is easily recognized by its white, powdery +appearance on the foliage, accompanied with more or less distortion of +the leaves, the remedy is sulfur in some form or other. The flowers of +sulfur may be dusted thinly over the foliage; enough merely to slightly +whiten the foliage is sufficient. It may be dusted on from the hand in a +broadcast way, or applied with a powder-bellows, which is a better and +less wasteful method. Again, a paint composed of sulfur and linseed oil +may be applied to a portion of one of the steam or hot-water heating +pipes. The fumes arising from this are not agreeable to breathe, but +fatal to mildew. Again, a little sulfur may be sprinkled here and there +on the cooler parts of the greenhouse flue. Under no circumstances, +however, ignite any sulfur in a greenhouse. The vapor of burning sulfur +is death to plants. + +[Illustration: A Hybrid Perpetual Rose] + +_Propagation._--The writer has known women who could root Roses with the +greatest ease. They would simply break off a branch of the Rose, insert +it in the flower-bed, cover it with a bell-jar, and in a few weeks they +would have a strong plant. Again they would resort to layering; in which +case a branch, notched half way through on the lower side, was bent to +the ground and pegged down so that the notched portion was covered with +a few inches of soil. The layered spot was watered from time to time. +After three or four weeks roots were sent forth from the notch and the +branch or buds began to grow, when it was known that the layer had +formed roots. + +Several years ago a friend took a cheese-box, filled it with sharp sand +to the brim, supported it in a tub of water so that the lower half inch +of the box was immersed. The sand was packed down, sprinkled, and +single-joint Rose cuttings, with a bud and a leaf near the top, were +inserted almost their whole length in the sand. This was in July, a hot +month, when it is usually difficult to root any kind of cutting; +moreover, the box stood on a southern slope, facing the hot sun, without +a particle of shade. The only attention given the box was to keep the +water high enough in the tub to touch the bottom of the cheese-box. In +about three weeks he took out three or four dozen of as nicely rooted +cuttings as could have been grown in the greenhouse. + +[Illustration: Vase of Roses] + +The "saucer system," in which cuttings are inserted in wet sand +contained in a saucer an inch or two deep, to be exposed at all times to +the full sunshine, is of a similar nature. The essentials are, to give +the cuttings the "full sun" and to keep the sand saturated with water. + +Whatever method is used, if cuttings are to be transplanted after +rooting, it is important to pot them off in small pots as soon as they +have a cluster of roots one-half inch or an inch long. Leaving them too +long in the sand weakens the cutting. + + +SAGE is a perennial, but best results are secured by resowing every two +or three years. Give a warm, rich soil. Hardy. + + +SALPIGLOSSIS. Very fine half-hardy annuals. The flowers, which are borne +in profusion, are of many colors, and rival in markings most other +annuals. The flowers are short-lived if left on the plant, but will hold +well if cut and placed in water. Seed should be sown in heat in +February or March, the seedlings grown along until May, when they may be +planted out. It is usually best to pinch out the centers of the plants +at this time to cause them to branch. + + +SALSIFY, or VEGETABLE OYSTER. Salsify is one of the best of winter and +early spring vegetables, and should be grown in every garden. It may be +cooked in several different ways. The seed should be sown as early in +the spring as possible. Handle the same as parsnips in every way. The +roots, like parsnips, are the better for the winter freeze, but part of +the crop should be dug in the fall, and stored in soil or moss in a +cellar for winter use. + +[Illustration: Salsify] + + +SALVIA. The SCARLET SALVIA (or SAGE) is a well known tender perennial, +blooming late in the fall and making a fine effect in beds or borders. +It is easily transplanted, and large plants removed to the house +continue in bloom for some time. The blue and white species are both +desirable summer flowering plants, and the low-growing Silver Leaf Sage +is well adapted for edging. Propagated from seed, cuttings, or by +division. Height 2 to 3 feet. + +[Illustration: Salvia coccinea] + + +SAN JOSE SCALE has now become a wide-spread pest. It has been introduced +into the eastern states from the Pacific slope. It is a minute scale +insect the size of a small pinhead, shield-shaped, with a raised center. +There are various native and comparatively harmless scales which look +very much like it, and an expert is usually needed to distinguish them. +The San Jose Scale can usually be distinguished, however, by its very +serious results. In favorable seasons it spreads with enormous rapidity, +covering the branches of many kinds of plants, sapping their juices, and +either killing or reducing them to such a low state of vitality as to +render them useless; or they are killed by the winter. The indications +are that the scale will never be so serious in the moist, cool climates +of the northeastern states as it is in the hotter and drier climates of +the West. It has been found by careful experiments that it can be killed +by a spray of kerosene and water (see _Kerosene_) in a proportion of one +part of kerosene to four or five of water. This material is applied with +a mechanical pump mixer, and the application should be made on a sunny +day so that evaporation soon takes place. Spraying with kerosene in +cloudy weather is very likely to result in injury to the plants. Some +experimenters have found crude petroleum to be a specific for the San +Jose Scale. + +It is not to be expected that the San Jose Scale can be exterminated any +more than the tent caterpillar or apple scab can. It follows, therefore, +that we should spray for the San Jose Scale as we do for other pests. It +is such a serious pest, however, that the state or province should take +measures to hold it in check. Some system of inspection should be +inaugurated, and it is probably best that nursery stock be fumigated +with hydrocyanic gas before it is sold. This gas is exceedingly +poisonous, however, and should never be handled by the inexperienced. +Whenever it is used, it should be under the control of experts. Plants +or plantations which are badly infested with the scale would better be +destroyed. + + +SCABIOSA. MOURNING BRIDE. A useful annual, producing a profusion of +bloom through the greater part of the summer if not allowed to go to +seed. The flowers range in color from white to rich purple, are borne on +long stems, and are very lasting. The seed may be sown where the plants +are wanted, or to hasten the season of bloom may be sown in boxes in +February and grown along to be planted out in April. + + +SCARLET RUNNER. One of the pole or running beans (_Phaseolus +multiflorus_). It is a great favorite with people from the Old World, +especially English and Germans. This bean is used either as an +ornamental vine for porches or trellises, or as a screen to hide +unsightly objects. The red flowers are very showy, either on the plant +or in bouquets. The green pods are excellent as string beans, and the +dried beans are of superior quality. Seed should not be sown until the +ground has become thoroughly warm; or the plants may be started in the +house. + + +SCRAPING of trees is rarely to be advised, except in fruit plantations. +The old and hanging bark on apple and pear trees may be taken off in +order to destroy the hiding places of insects and the breeding places of +fungi, and also to make the plantation look more neat and kempt. Only +the loose outer bark should be removed, however. Trees should not be +scraped to the quick. If there is moss on trees, it can be destroyed +readily by a spray of Bordeaux mixture. + +A large part of the beauty of an ornamental tree lies in its +characteristic bark, and it is very rare that such trees should be +scraped. + + +SCREENS. See _Windbreak_. + + +SCREW PINE. See _Pandanus_. + + +SEA-KALE shoots are very highly prized as a delicacy when blanched. The +seed should be sown in a hotbed early in the spring, plants transplanted +to the garden when from 2 to 3 inches high, and given high cultivation +through the season, being covered with litter on the approach of winter. +The young stalks are blanched early the following spring by covering +with large pots or boxes, or by banking with sand or other clean +material. The Dwarf Green Scotch, Dwarf Brown, and Siberian are among +the leading varieties. Sea-kale is eaten much as asparagus is. Highly +prized by those who know it. + +Sea-Kale is also propagated by cuttings of the roots 4 or 5 inches +long, planted directly in the soil in spring. The plant is perennial, +and the early shoots may be bleached year after year. + + +SEED SOWING. The general rule in sowing seeds is to cover them twice or +three times their thickness. This rule will apply to the majority of +seeds, but in many plants of a naturally short season of bloom or +growth, an instance of which is the sweet pea, it may be advisable to +sow the seed deeper, that the roots may have sufficient moisture and be +in a cool temperature through the hot summer months. Also, in sowing +very minute seed, as tobacco, petunia, begonia, and others of like size, +care should be taken to have them only under the surface of the +soil,--simply pressed down with a smooth surface or allowed to settle +into the soil with the soaking in of the water. The soil for all seeds +should be loose and porous, in order to allow the excessive moisture to +escape and the warmth to penetrate, but should be firmed directly over +the seeds to induce an upward flow of moisture. One of the most common +mistakes in sowing seed is in sowing all kinds at the same time without +regard to the season, thus causing a failure with some, while others +grow freely. All tender seed should be sown only when the ground has +become thoroughly warm, while seeds of the so-called hardy plants may be +sown as early in the spring as the ground is fit to work. A few kinds of +seed are the better for soaking, especially such as for some reason have +been delayed in sowing. Sweet pea seed is benefited by soaking if not +put into the ground until the soil is warm. Seed of canna, moonflower +and others with hard shells may be scraped until the outer shell is +pierced or is very thin. + +It is generally better to buy garden seeds than to grow them, for those +who make a business of seed-growing become expert in the cultivation and +selection of the plants. + + +SEEDS of most plants should be kept dry and also rather cool. It is +always better to rely upon fresh seeds. Test them in boxes in the house, +if possible, before planting them in the open. If beans, peas, corn or +other Seeds become buggy, pour a little bisulfide of carbon (very +inflammable) into them. The material will not injure the Seeds even if +poured on them. It soon evaporates. A teaspoonful will kill the insects +in four quarts of Seeds, if the receptacle is tight. + +Most tree Seeds should be kept moist until planted. They are usually +buried or kept in sand. + + +SENSITIVE PLANT (_Mimosa_). This curious plant is often grown for the +amusement it affords by its habit of closing its leaves and dropping the +leaf-stalk whenever the plant is touched. Seed should be sown in heat +early in the season, and the plants grown in pots or a protected border. +The seed is sold by all seedsmen. The plant grows readily in a +temperature suited to beans. It will not stand frost. The young plants +are usually the most sensitive. + + +SHADE TREES. The best Shade Trees are usually those which are native to +the particular region, since they are hardy and adapted to the soil and +other conditions. Elms, maples, basswoods, and the like, are nearly +always reliable. In regions in which there are serious insect enemies or +fungous diseases, the trees which are most likely to be attacked may be +omitted. For instance, in parts of the East the elm leaf beetle is a +very serious pest; and it is a good plan in such places to plant other +trees than elms. Amongst the best exotic trees for shade in the northern +parts of the country are the Norway maple, European lindens, horse +chestnut, and the European species of elm. Trees for shade should +ordinarily be given sufficient room that they may develop into full size +and symmetrical heads. The trees may be planted as close as 10 or 15 +feet apart for temporary effect; but as soon as they begin to crowd they +should be thinned. + + +SHELTER-BELTS. See _Windbreak_. + + +SHRUBBERY. Shrubs have two kinds of values or uses: first, they are +useful for their own sakes or as individual specimens; and second, for +use in the making of foliage masses or groups. Ordinarily they are used +only for the former purpose in home grounds; but their greatest use is, +nevertheless, in heavy masses about the borders of the place or in the +angles of the building. That is to say, they should contribute to the +general design of the place or to its pictorial effect. If they are +planted in Shrubberies or masses, the flowers are still as interesting +and as showy as they are when the bushes are planted alone. In fact, the +flowers usually show to better advantage, since they have a heavy +background of foliage. In the Shrubbery mass the bushes are more easily +cared for than when they are scattered as single specimens over the +lawn. The single specimen which is irregular, or ragged, or untidy, is +an undesirable object; but such a specimen may contribute an +indispensable part to the border mass. In the border they do not need +the attention to pruning that they do in the lawn. The main part of the +Shrubbery mass should be made of the stronger, larger growing and +coarser Shrubs; and the more delicate ones, or those with highly colored +leaves or showy flowers, may be placed near the inner edge of the +plantation. Shrubs which are valued chiefly for their flowers or showy +foliage, as, for example, the _Hydrangea paniculata_, may be planted +just in front of a bold Shrubbery mass, so that they will have a +background to show off their beauties. Further directions for the +lay-out of the grounds will be found under the articles _Lawns_ and +_Borders_. + +It is ordinarily best to plow or spade the entire area in which the +Shrubs are to be set. For a year or two the ground should be tilled +between the Shrubs, either by horse tools or by hoes and rakes. If the +place looks bare, seeds of quick-growing flowers may be scattered about +the edges of the mass. The larger Shrubs, like lilacs and syringas, may +be set about 4 feet apart; but the smaller ones should be set about, 2 +feet apart if it is desired to secure an immediate effect. If after a +few years the mass becomes too crowded, some of the specimens may be +removed. Throw the Shrubs into an irregular plantation, not in rows, and +make the inner edge of the mass more or less undulating and broken. It +is a good practice to mulch the plantation each fall with light manure, +leaf-mold or other material. Even though the Shrubs are perfectly hardy, +this mulch greatly improves the land and promotes growth. After the +Shrub borders have become two or three years old, the drifting leaves of +fall will be caught therein and will be held as a mulch. It is often +advisable not to remove these leaves, but to allow them to remain year +after year, where they make a fine covering of leaf-mold. When the +Shrubs are first planted, they are headed back one-half or more; but +after they are established they are not to be pruned, but allowed to +take their own way, and after a few years the outermost ones will droop +and meet the greensward. + +Good Shrubs are numerous. Some of the best are those to be found in +woods and along roadsides. They are hardy. Of Shrubs which are generally +adaptable for the North, the following are excellent: + + Barberries. + Box. + Burning Bush, or Euonymus. + Bush Honeysuckles. + Bush Willows. + Caryopteris, blooming in August and September. + Cotoneasters. + Desmodiums, or Lespedezas, blooming in fall. + Dwarf Sumac. _Rhus copallina._ + Elders. Native species are excellent. + Exochorda, with profuse white bloom in spring. + Flowering Almond. + Flowering Crabs. + Flowering Currants. + Forsythias, or Golden Bells. + Fringe Tree, or Chionanthus. + Hawthorns. + Hydrangeas. + Indian Currant. _Symphoricarpos vulgaris._ + Japanese Quince. + Kerria, or Corchorus. + Lilacs. + Mock Orange, or Philadelphus. + New Jersey Tea, or Ceanothus. + Osiers, or Dogwoods. + Privet. + Rose Acacia. + Roses (see _Roses_). + Smoke Tree. + Snowballs. The Japanese is preferable. + Snowberry. _Symphoricarpos racemosus._ + Spireas of many kinds. + Viburnums of many kinds. + Weigelas. + White Alder. _Clethra alnifolia._ + Witch Hazel. Blooms on the eve of winter. + Xanthoceras sorbifolia. + + +SILENE, or CATCHFLY. Some of the Silenes are hardy annuals of very easy +culture. Sow seeds where the plants are to stand; or, if early results +are desired, seeds may be started in boxes. The plants thrive in any +garden soil, even if it is not very rich. Colors red, or sometimes +running to white. One foot. Let plants stand 6 to 10 inches apart. + + +SMILAX of the florists is closely allied to asparagus. While it cannot +be recommended for house culture, the ease with which it may be grown +and the uses to which the festoons of leaves may be put, entitle it to a +place in the conservatory or greenhouse. Seed sown in pots or boxes in +January or February, the plants shifted as needed until planted on the +bench in August, will grow fine strings of green by the holidays. The +plants should be set on low benches, giving as much room as possible +overhead. Green-colored strings should be used for the vines to climb +on, the vines frequently syringed to keep down the red spider, which is +very destructive to this plant, and liquid manure given as the vines +grow. The soil should contain a good proportion of sand and be enriched +with well-rotted manure. After the first strings are cut, a second +growth fully as good as the first may be had by cleaning up the plants +and top-dressing the soil with rotted manure. Slightly shading the house +through August will add to the color of the leaves. The odor from a vine +of Smilax thickly covered with the small flowers is very agreeable. + + +SNAPDRAGON, or ANTIRRHINUM. An old garden favorite, flowering freely +through a long season. The dwarf strain is well adapted for bedding or +borders. Any light soil, well enriched with rotted manure, will grow +Snapdragons to perfection. Distinct varieties should be propagated by +cuttings, as they do not come true from seed. Sow seed early in the +spring. + +Although bloom may be obtained the first year, late sown plants +sometimes persist over winter and bloom early in the spring. Snapdragons +make good window plants. + + +SNOWDROP (_Galanthus_). This is one of the earliest flowers of spring, +always welcome. It should be planted in the edge of the border. The +bulbs may be planted in October in any good border soil and left +undisturbed for years; or they may be potted at that time, and after +forming roots be gently forced into bloom in winter. + + +SNOWFLAKE (_Leucoium_). Culture same as for _Snowdrop_. + + +SODDING. In general, the best way to secure a lawn is by the sowing of +seed (see _Lawn_), since it is the least expensive way. For small areas, +and along the sides of walks and drives, sods may be used. The results +are quicker. Unless the sod is of the right kind, however, and very +carefully laid, the results are not so good as with seed. + +[Illustration: Sod-cutter, for trimming sod edgings] + +The sod which is best adapted to the Sodding of lawns is that which +comes from an old, closely grazed pasture. Sod from a sheep pasture is +supposed to be best. Such sod has been so closely grazed that it has +made a very dense mat of roots, and all the weeds have been destroyed. +The droppings of the animals also make the ground rich. The sod should +be cut in very thin strips. It should not be more than an inch and +one-half or two inches in thickness. If it is thicker than that, it is +heavy and bulky to handle, and is not so easily laid. Ordinarily, the +sod is cut in strips ten inches or a foot wide. A board is laid on the +sod and the strip is cut along either side of it with a sod cutter or a +sharp spade. Two men then roll up the sod. One stands on the strip of +sod with his face toward the man who, with the spade, cuts it loose +beneath. As it is cut loose, the man on the strip rolls the sod so that +the upper surface is on the inside of the roll. Strips longer than ten +or twelve feet make rolls which are too heavy to handle with ease. + +[Illustration: Cutting sod] + +The soil upon which the sod is to be placed should be very loose, so +that the sod, can be pounded down firmly. Some heavy pounder should be +used, as a block of wood. It is usually impossible to pound down sod +with the back of a spade sufficiently firm unless the soil is very +loose. The sod should be pounded until the top is about level with the +surrounding soil. This insures contact with the soil beneath, so that +there are no air spaces and no likelihood of drying out. Sod pounded +down as firmly as this should grow very readily. If a sod edging is +laid along walks and drives, it should be pounded down an inch or more +lower than the surrounding loose land which is seeded, because the loose +land will finally settle; otherwise the sod border is likely to be +higher than adjacent land after a year or two. + +If there are uneven places on the sodded area, these depressions can be +filled in with very loose, fine soil; and the grass will grow through +it. In dry weather, a sodded area may be mulched with a half inch of +fine loam to protect it. + + +SOILS. Soils are of many kinds. The classification of soils depends upon +one's point of view. Gardeners ordinarily call a good, friable, +dark-colored, rich Soil a garden loam. No Soil is so good that it cannot +be improved. It is improved in two general ways: by tilling (see +_Tillage_), and by the application of various substances. + +In considering the improvement of lands by the application of foreign +substances, two distinct things are to be considered: the improvement of +the physical texture, or tilth, of the Soil; the increasing of its +plant-food. These are coordinate objects. In some cases one may be of +prime importance, and in another case the other may be more necessary. +Lands which have a fair store of available plant-food may be +unproductive. Such lands may be very greatly benefited by stable manure, +even though that manure may have lost a large part of fertility by being +baptized under the eaves of the barn. If plant-food alone is needed, +then some concentrated or commercial fertilizer may be the best thing to +apply. In most cases the main or chief amelioration of the land is to be +wrought by tillage, stable manures, mulches, green crops, and the like; +if special results are desired, commercial fertilizers may be added more +or less liberally, as the case demands (see _Manures_, _Fertilizers_). + +The top-dressing of Soils is often very beneficial because it tends to +prevent the escape of moisture, and often improves the physical texture. +If the material contains plant-food, the land will also be directly +enriched. The trimmings from lawns may be a distinct protection to +lands if allowed to remain (see _Lawns_); and the leaves which blow into +clumps of shrubbery may often be allowed to remain with good results. +However, if the leaves become too thick year after year, they tend to +induce a surface rooting of the shrubs. This, however, may be no +disadvantage unless the mulch were finally to be removed. One of the +very best top-dressings for borders and shrubbery is spent tan bark, +since it does not pile up on the ground, but tends to work into it. +Well-rotted sawdust often has the same effect. These materials are much +used by gardeners, when they can be had, since they can be raked into +the soil in the spring, and need not be removed. + + +SOLIDAGO. See _Goldenrod_. + + +[Illustration: Spade] + +[Illustration: Shovel] + +SPADES and SHOVELS must be a part of every garden equipment. The common +and most useful forms are shown in the cuts, but long-handled tools are +more useful for the loading of earth, the making of ditches, the +spreading of mulches, and the like. It pays to buy the steel tools, with +strongly strapped handles. + + +SPEARMINT is prized by many people as a seasoning, particularly for the +Thanksgiving and holiday cookery. It is a perennial and perfectly hardy, +and will live in the open garden year after year. If a supply of the +fresh herbage is wanted in winter, remove sods of it to the house six +weeks before wanted. Place the sods in boxes, and treat as for house +plants. The plants should have been frosted and become perfectly dormant +before removal. + + +SPINACH. Probably the most extensively grown early spring vegetable, +being in great demand as greens. The earliest crop that finds its way to +market is gathered from seed sown in September or October, often +protected by frames or other means through the severe winter, and cut +soon after growth starts in early spring. Even as far north as New York +Spinach may stand over winter without protection. Spinach is forced by +placing sash over the frames in February and March, protecting the young +leaves from severe freezing by mats or straw thrown over the frames. +Seed may be sown in early spring for a succession; later in the season +seed of the New Zealand Summer Spinach may be sown, and this will grow +through the heat of the summer and yield a fine quality of leaves. The +seed of this kind being very hard, should be scalded and allowed to soak +a few hours before sowing. This seed is usually sown in hills about +three feet apart, sowing four to six seeds in each hill. The spring and +winter Spinach should be sown in drills 12 to 14 inches apart, one ounce +being sufficient for 100 feet of drill. Remember that common Spinach is +a cool-weather (fall and spring) crop. + + +SPRAYING. Of late years Spraying has come to be one of the most +important of all horticultural operations. Most kinds of injurious fungi +and insects can be combated by a water spray in which various poisons or +injurious substances are contained. There are two general classes of +Spraying material: first, fungicides, or those which are used for the +control of fungi or plant diseases; second, insecticides, or those which +are used for the control of insect enemies. + +The fungicides usually contain copper or sulfur, or both. The most +popular and generally useful fungicide is the Bordeaux mixture (which +see). It should be borne in mind that most injurious fungi work on the +interior of the leaf or stem, and only the spore-bearing parts come to +the surface. It is therefore very important that Spraying with +fungicides be done very early in order to prevent the fungus from +getting a hold. It is much better to Spray once very thoroughly than to +Spray a half dozen times carelessly. It is important that the entire +surface of the foliage or stems be covered with the material in order to +prevent the access of the fungi. + +Of insecticides, there are two general types: those which kill by +external contact and are applied to plant lice, scale insects, and all +other insects which suck their food; and the poisonous compounds which +are used for the chewing insects, as all the tribes of worms and +beetles. Of the former class, the most important material is kerosene in +various forms (which see). Of the latter kind is Paris green (which +see). For insects, Spray just as soon as the attack is evident. Paris +green and Bordeaux mixture may be used together. + +The best pump for Spraying is the one which throws the stream the +greatest distance with the least amount of liquid, and the best nozzle +is that which distributes the material most finely and evenly. For +Spraying plants close at hand, the Vermorel nozzle is now the most +popular. If it is desired to reach the tops of large trees, some other +nozzle should be used, as the McGowen, Boss, or other types. Every +outfit should have two or three kinds of nozzles for different kinds of +work. Get a pump with much power. + +Spray thoroughly. The general rule is to spray the entire plant until +the material begins to drip, at which time it may be supposed that the +plant is covered completely. When and how often one should Spray, and +what material he should use, will depend entirely upon the difficulty +which he is endeavoring to combat. Most fruit trees should be Sprayed +before they bloom and again just afterwards. Sometimes they will need +Spraying again. + + +SPREKELIA. Culture of _Amaryllis_. + + +SQUASH. The time of planting, method of preparing the hills and after +culture are the same as for cucumbers and melons (which see), except +that for the Early Bush varieties the hills should be 4 or 5 feet apart, +and for the later running varieties from 6 to 8 feet apart. From eight +to ten seeds should be planted in each hill, thinning to four plants +after danger from bugs is over. Of the early Squashes, one ounce of seed +will plant fifty hills; of the later varieties, one ounce will plant but +eighteen to twenty hills. For winter use, varieties of the Hubbard type +are best. For summer use, the Crooknecks and Scallop Squashes are +popular. In growing winter Squashes in a northern climate, it is +essential that the plants start off quickly and vigorously: a little +chemical fertilizer will help. Pumpkins are grown the same as Squashes. + +[Illustration: Hubbard Squash] + +[Illustration: Scallop or Patty-pan Summer Squash] + + +SQUILLS (_Scilla_). BLUE BELL. WILD HYACINTH. Well-known bulbous plants, +most of them hardy. They plant well with snowdrops and crocus, flowering +at the same time, but continuing longer in bloom. The colors are red, +pink, blue or white. The blue varieties have very fine shades of color. +Should be planted in October and remain undisturbed. + + +STOCKS. The Ten-weeks and the biennial or Brompton Stocks, are found in +nearly all old-fashioned gardens. Most gardens are thought to be +incomplete without Stocks, and the use of the biennial flowering species +as house plants is increasing. The Ten-weeks Stock is usually grown from +seed sown in hotbed or boxes in March. The seedlings are transplanted +several times previous to being planted out in early May. At each +transplanting the soil should be made a little richer. The double +flowers will be more numerous when the soil is rich. + +The biennial species should be sown the season previous to that in which +flowers are wanted, the plants wintered over in a cool house, and grown +on the following spring. They may be planted out through the summer and +lifted into pots in August or September for winter flowering. These may +be increased by cuttings taken from the side shoots; but the sowing of +seed is a surer method, and unless an extra fine variety is to be saved, +it would be the best one to pursue. Height 10 to 15 inches. + + +STORING. The principles which are involved in the Storing of perishable +products, as fruits and vegetables, differ with the different +commodities. All the root crops, and most fruits, need to be kept in a +cool, moist and uniform temperature if they are to be preserved a great +length of time. Squashes, sweet potatoes, and some other things, need to +be kept in an intermediate and what might be called a high temperature; +and the atmosphere should be drier than for most other products. The low +temperature has the effect of arresting decomposition and the work of +fungi and bacteria. The moist atmosphere has the effect of preventing +too great evaporation and the consequent shriveling. In the Storing of +any commodity, it is very important to see that the product is in proper +condition for keeping. Discard all specimens which are bruised or which +are likely to decay. Much of the decay of fruits and vegetables in +Storage is not the fault of the Storage, but is really the work of +diseases with which the materials are infested before they are put into +Storage. For example, if potatoes and cabbages are affected with the +rot, it is practically impossible to keep them any length of time. + +Apples, winter pears, and all roots, should be kept at a temperature +somewhat near the freezing point. It should not raise above 40 deg. Fahr. +for best results. Apples can even be kept at one or two degrees below +the freezing point if the temperature is kept uniform. Cellars in which +there are heaters are likely to be too dry and the temperature too +high. In such cases it is well to keep fresh vegetables and fruits in +tight receptacles, and pack the roots in sand or moss in order to +prevent shriveling. In these places, apples usually keep better if +headed up in barrels than if kept on racks or shelves. In moist and cool +cellars, however, it is preferable for the home supply to place them on +shelves, not piling them more than five or six inches deep, for then +they can be sorted over as occasion requires. In case of fruits, be sure +that the specimens are not over-ripe when placed in storage. If apples +are allowed to lie in the sun for a few days without being packed, they +will ripen so much that it is very difficult to keep them. + +[Illustration: A good out-door cellar] + +Cabbages should be kept at a low and uniform temperature, and water +should be drained away from them. They are Stored in many ways in the +field, but success depends so much upon the season, particular variety, +ripeness, and the freedom from injuries by fungi and insects, that +uniform results are rarely secured by any method. The best results are +to be expected when they can be kept in a house which is built for the +purpose, in which the temperature can be kept uniform and the air fairly +moist. When Stored out of doors, they are likely to freeze and thaw +alternately; and if the water runs into the heads, mischief is likely to +result. Sometimes they are easily Stored by being piled into a conical +heap on well-drained soil and covered with dry straw, and the straw +covered with boards. It does not matter if they are frosted, provided +they do not thaw out frequently. Sometimes cabbages are laid head down +in a shallow furrow plowed in well-drained land, and over them is thrown +straw, the stumps being allowed to project through the cover. It is only +in winters of rather uniform temperature that good results are to be +expected from such methods. + +In the Storing of all things, especially those which have soft and green +matter, as cabbages, it is well to provide for the heating of the +produce. If the things are buried out of doors, it is important to put +on a very light cover at first so that the heat may escape. Cover them +gradually as the cold weather comes on. This is important with all +vegetables that are placed in pits, as potatoes, beets and the like. If +covered deeply at once, they are likely to heat and rot. All pits made +out of doors should be on well-drained and preferably sandy land. + +When vegetables are wanted at intervals during the winter from pits, it +is well to make compartment pits, each compartment holding a wagon load +or whatever quantity will be likely to be wanted at each time. These +pits are sunk in well-drained land, and between each of the two pits is +left a wall of earth about a foot thick. One pit can then be emptied in +cold weather without interfering with the others. + +An outside cellar is better than a house cellar in which there is a +heater, but it is not so handy. If it is near the house, it need not be +inconvenient, however. A house is usually healthier if the cellar is not +used for storage. House cellars used for storage should have a +ventilating shaft. + + +[Illustration: Strawberries] + +STRAWBERRY. The saying that Strawberries will grow on almost any soil is +misleading, although true. Some varieties of Strawberries will grow on +certain soils better than other varieties. What these varieties are can +only be determined by an actual test, but it is a safe rule to select +such varieties as prove good in many localities. As to the methods of +culture, so much depends on the size of the plot, the purpose for which +the fruit is wanted, and the amount of care one is willing to give, that +no set rule can be given for a garden in which but few plants are grown +and extra care can be given. Large fruits and a number of them may be +had by growing to the single plant, keeping off all runners and relying +on numerous fruit-crowns on one plant for the crop of berries. Or +Strawberries may be grown by the narrow matted-row system, in which the +runners, before rooting, should be turned along the rows at a distance +of from 4 to 6 inches from the parent plant. These runners should be the +first ones made by the plant and should not be allowed to root +themselves, but "set in." This is not a difficult operation; and if the +runners are separated from the parent plant as soon as they become well +established, the drain on that plant is not great. All other runners +should be cut off as they start. The row should be about 12 inches wide +at fruiting time. Each plant should have sufficient feeding ground, full +sunlight, and a firm hold in the soil. This matted-row system is perhaps +as good a method, either in a private garden or field culture, as could +be practiced. With a little care in hoeing, weeding and cutting off +runners, the beds seem to produce as large crops the second year as the +first. + +[Illustration: Well planted Strawberry] + +The old way of growing a crop was to set the plants 10 to 12 inches +apart, in rows 3 feet apart, and allow them to run and root at will, the +results being a mass of small, crowded plants, each striving to obtain +plant-food and none of them succeeding in getting enough. The last, or +outside runners, having but the tips of their roots in the ground, are +moved by the wind, heaved by the frost, or have the exposed roots dried +out by the wind and sun. + +[Illustration: Pot-grown Strawberry] + +Ground rich in potash produces the firmest and best flavored berries. +Excessive use of stable manure, usually rich in nitrogen, should be +avoided, as tending to make too rank growth of foliage and berries of a +soft texture. + +Except in the case of a skillful grower in a favored locality, the fall +setting of plants is not to be recommended. The preparation of the soil +and care of the plants more than overbalance the partial crop obtained +the following spring. + +In the single-plant or hill system the plants should be set 12 inches +apart, in rows 3 feet apart. In the narrow matted row system the plants +should be set 18 inches apart, in rows 3-1/2 feet apart. The first method +requires about 14,000 plants per acre, the second about 8,000 plants. + +The winter treatment of a Strawberry bed should consist in covering the +plants, when the ground is frozen, in November or December, with straw +or hay. Salt marsh hay, if obtainable, is the best, as no weed seeds are +introduced. Cover the soil and the plants to the depth of 3 to 6 inches. +As soon as growth begins in spring, rake the mulch off, allowing it to +lie between the rows; or, if the soil is hard or weedy, it may be taken +off the patch entirely, the ground tilled, and then replaced for the +purpose of holding moisture and keeping the berries clean. + +Usually, Strawberries may be fruited twice or three times; but on rich +soil, with extra good care, the first crop may be very heavy, and the +patch may be plowed up thereafter. Some varieties do not produce pollen, +and not more than two rows of these should be planted without a row of a +pollen-bearing kind. + +The rust and mildew may be held in check by Bordeaux mixture. It is +usually sufficient to spray after the blooming season (or at any time +the first year the plants are set), in order to secure healthy foliage +for the next year. + + +SUNFLOWER (_Helianthus_). People who know only the coarse annual +Sunflower are not aware of the beauty which it is possible to secure +with the herbaceous perennials belonging to that family. No border +should be without a few of the hardy species. Their blooming period +extends from early in August until heavy frost. The color runs from +light lemon to the richest orange, and the range of growth from 3 to 10 +feet, thus enabling one to scatter them through the border without any +formal arrangement. They are of the easiest culture. Plants may be dug +in the wild or bought of nurserymen. The domesticated double _Helianthus +multiflorus_ is always valuable. + +[Illustration: Double Sunflower] + +[Illustration: Orgyalis Sunflower] + +[Illustration: Wild Sunflower Plant] + +Of the annual Sunflowers, there are some which are not generally +cultivated that should receive more attention. The silver-leaved species +from Texas (_H. argophyllus_), and the small, light lemon-yellow +variety, are two of the best. + +[Illustration: Wild Sunflower] + + +SWAINSONA. This makes a very desirable house plant, blooming through the +late winter and early spring months. The blossoms, which resemble those +of the pea, are borne in long racemes. The foliage is finely cut, +resembling small locust leaves, and adds to the beauty of the plant, the +whole effect being exceedingly graceful. It may be grown from seed or +cuttings. Propagate a new stock each year. The flowers are large and +pure white. The plant has been called the "Winter Sweet Pea," but the +flowers are not fragrant. + + +SWAN RIVER DAISY (_Brachycome iberidifolia_) is a charming little border +plant, growing to the height of 12 to 15 inches, and bearing quantities +of blue or white flowers. The flowers last a long time when cut, and +give a vase of flowers a light, graceful effect. The seed should be sown +in boxes, hotbed, or windows; or, in warm garden soil, the seed may be +sown where the plants are to stand. Only half hardy, and should not be +planted out until settled weather. Annual. + + +SWEET CORN. See _Corn_. + + +SWEET HERBS. The Herb garden should find a place on all amateurs' +grounds. Herbs may readily be made profitable by disposing of the +surplus to the green grocer and the druggist. The latter will often buy +all that the housewife wishes to dispose of, as the general supply of +medicinal herbs is grown by specialists, and goes into the hands of the +wholesaler and is often old when received by the local dealer. The +seedsmen's catalogues mention upwards of forty different Herbs, +medicinal and culinary. The majority of them are perennial, and will +grow for many years if well taken care of. However, it is better to +resow every three or four years. The annual kinds are raised from seeds +each year. Beds 4 feet square of each of the Herbs will supply an +ordinary family. + + +SWEET PEA. No annual receives greater attention these days than the +Sweet Pea. Sweet Pea exhibitions are held in several sections of the +country, the press gives considerable space to the discussion of +varieties, and the public generally is interested in the growing or +buying of the flower. On any occasion the Sweet Pea is in place. A +bouquet of shaded colors, with a few sprays of galium or the perennial +gypsophila, makes one of the choicest of table decorations. Deep, mellow +soil, early planting and heavy mulching suit them admirably. Sow the +seeds as soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring, making a drill +5 inches deep. Sow thickly and cover with 2 inches of soil. When the +plants have made 2 or 3 inches growth above the soil, fill the drill +nearly full, leaving a slight depression in which water may be caught. +After the soil is thoroughly soaked with water, a good mulch will hold +the moisture. To have the ground ready in early spring, it is a good +plan to trench the soil in the fall. The top of the soil then dries out +very quickly in the spring and is left in good physical condition. +Frequent syringing with clear water will keep off the red spider that +often destroys the foliage, and attention to picking the seed pods will +lengthen the season of bloom. If the finest flowers are wanted, do not +let the plants stand less than 8-12 inches apart. + +[Illustration: Sweet Pea] + +A succession of sowings may be made at intervals through May and June, +and a fair fall crop obtained if care is taken to water and mulch; but +the best results will be secured with the very early planting. In the +middle and southern states, the seed may be planted in fall, +particularly in lighter soils. It is easy to get soils too rich in +nitrogen for Sweet Peas; in such case, they will run to vine at the +expense of flowers. If the plants are watered, apply enough to soak the +soil, and do not water frequently. + + +SWEET POTATOES are grown from sprouts planted on ridges or hills, not by +planting the tubers, as with the common or Irish potato. The method of +obtaining these sprouts is as follows: In April, tubers of Sweet +Potatoes are planted in a partially spent hotbed by using the whole +tuber (or if a large one, by cutting it in two through the long way), +covering the tubers with 2 inches of light, well firmed soil. The sash +should be put on the frames and only enough ventilation given to keep +the Potatoes from decaying. In ten or twelve days the young sprouts +should begin to appear, and the bed should be watered if dry. The +sprouts when pulled from the tuber will be found to have rootlets at the +lower end and along the stems. These sprouts should be about 3 to 5 +inches long by the time the ground is warm enough to plant them out. The +ridges or hills should be prepared by plowing out a furrow 4 to 6 +inches deep. Scatter manure in the furrow and plow back the soil so as +to raise the center at least 6 inches above the level of the soil. On +this ridge the plants are set, placing the plants well in to the leaves, +and about 12 to 18 inches apart in the rows, the rows being from 3 to 4 +feet apart. The after cultivation consists in stirring the soil between +the ridges; and as the vines begin to run they should be lifted +frequently to prevent rooting at the joints. When the tips of the vines +have been touched by frost the crop may be harvested, the tubers left to +dry a few days, and stored in a dry, warm place. To keep Sweet Potatoes, +store in layers in barrels or boxes in dry sand, and keep them in a dry +room. See that all bruised or chilled potatoes are thrown out. + + +SYRINGING plants with water has two general offices: to clean the plants +of pests or of dirt; to check evaporation or transpiration from the +plant itself. + +Gardeners look upon water as a good insecticide. That is, if it can be +thrown upon the plants somewhat forcibly by means of a syringe or pump, +or by the hydrant hose, it will wash off the insects and drown many of +them. The water should be applied in a fine and somewhat forcible spray. +Care should be taken that the plant is not torn or bruised. The red +spider is one of the most serious pests on house plants, and, in a dry +season, on plants about the lawn. It thrives in a dry atmosphere. It +usually lives on the under sides of the leaves. Syringing the plants +frequently will destroy the pests. The thrips and slugs on rose bushes +can nearly always be kept in check if one can spray or syringe his +plants frequently. See _Spraying_. + +Syringing to check transpiration from the foliage is very useful with +plants which are recently transplanted. For instance, when carnations +are taken from the field and placed in the house, it is well to syringe +them occasionally until they have become established. The same is true +with cuttings. + +In Syringing plants, it is well to take care that the ground does not +become too wet; otherwise the plant may suffer at its root. In the +house, plants should rarely be syringed except when the weather is +bright, so that they may soon dry off. The plant should not go into the +night with wet foliage. Out of doors in hot weather, it is best to +syringe toward nightfall. The foliage will ordinarily not suffer in such +cases. With plants in the house, it is necessary to keep the leaves dry +most of the time in order that fungi may not breed. This is true of +carnations, which are very liable to attacks of the rust. + +Plants are sometimes syringed or sprayed to protect them from frost. See +_Frost_. + + +TERRACES may be desirable for two reasons: to hold a very steep slope; +to afford an architectural base for a building. + +It is rarely necessary to make a distinct Terrace in the lawn. Even if +the lawn is very steep, it may be better to make a gradual slope than to +cut the place in two with a Terrace. A Terrace makes a place look +smaller. It is always difficult to make and to keep in repair. The +surface is not readily cut with a lawn mower. Unless the sod is very +dense, the upper corner tends to wash off with the rains and the foot +tends to fill in. Nature does not have straight banks unless they are +rock. The illustration in the margin shows how it is possible to treat a +sloping lawn. In the distance is a distinct, sharp-angled Terrace; but +in the foreground this Terrace has been carried out into the lawn, so +that the slope is an agreeable one. + +[Illustration: A slope is better than a terrace] + +If it is necessary to Terrace a yard in order to hold it, the Terrace +would better be at one side rather than in the middle. In that case, one +is able to secure a good breadth of lawn. If the Terrace is at the +outer side next the street, a perpendicular, mason-work, retaining wall +may be constructed. If it is on the inner side of the lawn, it may be +placed close to the building and be made to appear as a part of the +architecture: it may be made the base of the building. If this is done, +there should be a balustrade around the edge of the Terrace to give it +architectural feeling. The descent from the Terrace to the lawn may be +made by means of steps, so as to add to the architectural aspect of the +place. Terraces are most in place about buildings which have many strong +horizontal lines; they do not lend themselves so well to buildings in +the Gothic style. The general tendency is to make too many Terraces. The +cases are relatively few in which they may not be dispensed with. + + +THINNING of fruit has four general uses: to cause the remaining fruit to +grow larger; to increase the chances of annual crops; to save the +vitality of the tree; to enable one to combat insects and diseases by +destroying the injured fruit. + +The Thinning of fruit is nearly always done soon after the fruit is +thoroughly set. It is then possible to determine which of the fruits are +likely to persist. Peaches are usually Thinned when they are the size of +one's thumb. If Thinned before this time, they are so small that it is +difficult to pick them off; and it is not so easy to see the work of the +curculio and thereby to select the injured fruits. Similar remarks will +apply to other fruits. The general tendency is, even with those who Thin +their fruits, not to Thin enough. It is usually safer to take off what +would seem to be too many than not to take off enough. The remaining +specimens are better. Varieties which tend to overbear profit very +greatly by Thinning. This is notably the case with many Japanese plums, +which, if not Thinned, are very inferior. + +Thinning may also be accomplished by pruning. If one knows where the +fruit buds are, cutting them off will have the effect of removing the +fruit. In the case of tender fruits, like peaches, however, it may not +be advisable to Thin very heavily by means of pruning, since the fruit +may be still further Thinned by the remaining days of winter, by late +spring frost, or by the leaf-curl or other disease. However, the proper +pruning of a peach tree in winter is, in part, a Thinning of the fruit. +The peach is borne on the wood of the previous season's growth. The best +fruits are to be expected on the strongest and heaviest growth. It is +the practice of peach-growers to remove all the weak and immature wood +from the inside of the tree. This has the effect of Thinning out the +inferior fruit and allowing the energy of the tree to be expended on the +remainder. Apples are rarely Thinned; but in many cases, Thinning can be +done with profit. On all home grounds, fruits should be Thinned whenever +the trees are very full. In general, the best time to thin the fruit, as +already said, is when the fruits have become large enough to be seen and +handled. The discarded fruits should be burned if they contain insects +or fungi. + + +THUNBERGIA. Tender climbers, making very pretty low screens. They are at +their best when grown along the ground where the moisture keeps them +free from the attacks of red spider. Some of the kinds are very fine +vase or basket plants. All may be grown easily from seed. Annuals, 4 to +6 feet. Flowers white and yellow. + +[Illustration: Thunbergia alata] + + +TILLAGE. By Tillage is meant the stirring of the soil. Tillage is the +fundamental operation in agricultural practice. Most farmers till for +three reasons: to get the seed into the land; to keep the weeds down; +and to get the crop out of the land. The real reason for Tillage, +however, is to ameliorate the land; that is, Tillage makes the soil +mellow and fine, and an agreeable place in which plants may grow. It +enables the soil to hold moisture, to present the greatest feeding +surface to roots, to allow the circulation of air, and intensifies many +chemical activities. Tilling the soil is the first means of making it +productive. If one understands the many forces that are set at work, the +Tilling of the soil becomes one of the most interesting and exciting of +all agricultural operations. + +[Illustration: For hand Tilling] + +The exact method of Tilling the soil in any particular case must be +determined by many circumstances. Light soils are handled differently +from heavy soils; and much depends also upon the season of the year in +which the Tillage is done. In all ordinary soils, the effort should be +made to work them deep, so that there is a deep reservoir for the +storage of moisture and a large area in which roots can work. Subsequent +Tillage throughout the growing season is performed very largely for the +purpose of keeping the top of the soil loose and fine so that the +moisture from beneath cannot pass off into the atmosphere. This loose +layer of soil, extending two or three inches from the surface, may +itself be very dry; but it breaks up the capillary connection between +the lower soil and the air, and thereby prevents evaporation. This +surface layer of loose, mellow soil is often spoken of as the +earth-mulch. It answers much the same purpose as a mulch of straw or +leaves in interposing a material between the moist soil and the air +through which the moisture cannot rise. If this mulch is repaired as +often as it should be, weeds cannot grow; but the object of the Tilling +is more to make and maintain the mulch than to destroy weeds. The +surface should be Tilled shallow in the growing season as often as it +tends to become compact or encrusted. This will be after every rain, and +usually as often as once in ten days when there is no rain. The tools to +be used for this surface Tillage are those which will comminute or fine +the soil most completely without compacting it or leaving it in ridges +or in furrows. In garden work, a fine rake is the ideal thing; whereas +in field work, some of the wire-tooth weeders or smoothing harrows are +excellent. In fields which are hard and lumpy, however, it will be +necessary to use heavier and rougher tools. + +[Illustration: Steel rake] + +In order to break down hard clay soils, one must exercise great care not +to work them when they are wet; and also not to work them very much when +they are dry. There is a time, shortly after a rain, when clay lumps +will break to pieces with a very slight blow. At this time it is well to +go over them with a harrow or a rake. After the next rain, they can be +gone over again, and before the end of the season the soil should be in +fine condition. An excellent way of breaking down clay land is to plow +or spade it in the fall and allow it to weather in the winter. In such +cases the land should not be raked or harrowed, but allowed to lie rough +and loose. Very hard clay lands sometimes run together or cement if +handled in this way, but this will not occur if the land has stubble or +sod or a dressing of manure, for the fibrous matter will then prevent it +from puddling. Lime sown on clay land at the rate of twenty to forty +bushels to the acre also has a distinct effect in pulverizing it. This +may be sown in fall, or preferably in spring when the land is plowed. + +One of the most important ways of ameliorating land is to work vegetable +matter into it so as to give it humus. Soils which are loose, black and +friable contain much of this vegetable mold. In many cases the chief +value of stable manure is to add this humus to the soil. Many soils need +humus more than they need plant-food, and hence stable manure gives +better results in those cases than commercial fertilizers. The farmer +secures the humus by plowing under stubble and sod, and occasional green +crops. + + +TOMATO. The early fruits are very easily grown by starting the plants in +a greenhouse, hotbed or in shallow boxes placed in windows. A pinch of +seed sown in March will give all the early plants a large family can +use. When the plants have reached the height of two or three inches they +should be transplanted into 3-inch flower pots, old berry boxes or other +receptacles, and allowed to grow slow and stocky until time to set them +out, which is from May 15 on (in New York). They should be set in rows +four or five feet apart, the plants being the same distance in the rows. +Some support should be given to keep the fruits off the ground and to +hasten the ripening. A trellis of chicken-wire makes an excellent +support, as does the light lath fencing that may be bought or made at +home. Stout stakes, with wire strung the length of the rows, afford an +excellent support. A very showy method is that of a frame made like an +inverted V, which allows the fruits to hang free; with a little +attention to trimming, the light reaches the fruits and ripens them +perfectly. This support is made by leaning together two lath frames. The +late fruits may be picked green and ripened on a shelf in the sun; or +they will ripen if placed in a drawer. + +[Illustration: Tomato] + +One ounce of seed will be enough for from twelve to fifteen hundred +plants. A little fertilizer in the hill will start the plants off +quickly. The rot is less serious when the vines are kept off the ground +and the rampant suckers are cut out. + + +TOOLS of many kinds, and well chosen, are one of the joys of a garden. +There is great satisfaction in a well-made, clean tool which does its +work well. Keep the tools bright. They should be under cover, and in +place, when not in use. A cupboard may be built by the rear porch, or in +the barn or carriage house. See that the cupboard is in a dry place. +Various Tools have been mentioned in the preceding pages, and other +useful kinds are shown in the article on _Weeds_. + + +TRANSPLANTING. This operation the gardener calls in one instance +"pricking out." This means taking young seedling plants from the seed +box as soon as they are large enough to be handled--usually when the +first "rough" leaves have developed--and replanting them in other boxes +or pots, either singly or at a greater distance apart than they were +when in the seed boxes. The term is used in the operation of setting out +plants from the hotbed, frame or house to the garden; also in removing +shrubs or trees. Transplant on a cloudy day, and just before a rain, if +possible. + + +TRIMMING is a term which is ordinarily confounded with pruning (which +see). The word "Trimming," however, should be restricted to the shaping +of the trees and not to the thinning of the tree or to pruning for wood, +fruit or other special object. Trimming is only one of the means of +pruning. Trimming is mostly used in the case of hedges. It is also used +to keep evergreens in shape. Many ornamental plants are also Trimmed +into various forms, although it is a question if such Trimming is +usually wise. Fruit trees should be pruned, as a rule, rather than +Trimmed: that is, they usually should be allowed to take their natural +form, the pruner taking out the superfluous wood and keeping them within +manageable bounds. + + +TROPAEOLUM. See _Nasturtium_. + + +TUBEROSE. The Tuberose requires more heat to grow to perfection than it +is usually possible to give here in the North. If planted in the border +they will not start into growth until the ground has become thoroughly +warm--usually after the middle of June,--making the season before frost +too short for their perfect growth and flower. However, if started in +loose soil or moss in a warm room or on benches of a greenhouse, the +roots will soon start from the tuber and make a fine growth. If planted +out in June with a good ball of roots they are likely to bloom before +frost. If any danger of frost is feared they may be lifted into pots or +boxes and taken into the house, when they will bloom without a check. As +with other bulbs, a sandy soil will suit. + + +TUBEROUS BEGONIA. A large bed of these covered with crimson, pink, +white, or yellow flowers, ranging from 2 to 4 and even 6 inches in +diameter, some double, some single, is a striking sight. Yet such a +sight is not uncommon about the large eastern cities where the Tuberous +Begonia is now used somewhat for bedding. + +Our interior summers are more trying, and so far, few in the west have +succeeded so well with the Tuberous Begonia as a bedding plant. It makes +a fine summer-blooming pot-plant, however, for the greenhouse or window, +and with due attention to its requirements, it may be used as a bedding +plant. It properly falls under greenhouse plants in its requirements. + +[Illustration: Double Tuberous Begonia] + +C. L. Allen, writing of its culture in his work on "Bulbs and +Tuberous-Rooted Plants," says: "The principal point learned in regard to +its culture is, that it must be treated as a plant and not as a bulb. +The enthusiastic florist, seeing the many good qualities of the plant, +has led amateurs to believe it could be treated as a bulb, and planted +out in the same manner as the gladiolus or tigridia and kept dormant +during the winter in the same manner. This is a great mistake, as the +tubers will not endure as long a period of rest and cannot be exposed to +the air for a long time without seriously injuring their vitality. The +tubers must be kept in dry earth or sand, until they show signs of +growth, which will be not later than the first of March; then they may +be started into rapid growth. After the eyes are fully developed the +tubers may be divided: each eye will make a plant. Then they are treated +in all respects like greenhouse plants, and grown on until the proper +season for their planting out. This is not before the first of June, as +Begonias are quite sensitive to cold nights, but not at all to heat. At +that time the plants should be fully 6 inches in height and +proportionately strong. Such plants will make a grand display the entire +season, rather delighting in great heat." + +[Illustration: Tuberous Begonia, single.] + +In starting the tubers in March, they should be placed in moist sand or +moss in a temperature of 60 deg. to 65 deg., either in the greenhouse or +window. After the buds are well started the tubers may be divided as +pointed out, or planted whole. They prefer a rich, rather sandy soil. +When they are well under way give them all the light and air they will +bear, and keep them close to the glass to avoid "legginess" and to +insure a firm, sturdy growth. A week before planting them out they +should be given abundance of air and light to "harden off" the plants +preparatory to setting them in sun and wind. + +The beds should be in a somewhat sheltered place where they will be +partially shaded from the hot midday sun. Let the soil be well enriched +with old manure or humus and thoroughly worked over to a depth of one +foot. During dry periods the beds will need watering from time to time; +but never water them when the sun is shining full on them, or the +foliage may be scorched. A mulch of leaf-mold or old manure will be +helpful in keeping the soil moist and the roots cool. + +Before frost the tubers should be carefully taken up and gradually dried +in the shade, after which they are to be placed in dry sand or earth, in +shallow boxes, and kept till time to start them in the spring. They +should be kept in a cool place, secure from frost and away from stoves +or heating pipes. + +For amateurs it is better to recommend buying bulbs of the several +colors, instead of attempting to grow them from seeds, which are +extremely small and require early sowing, warmth and close attention. + + +TULIPS are hardy and easy to grow. The advice given under _Bulbs_, +_Crocus_ and _Hyacinth_ applies to Tulips. They may be forced for winter +bloom (see under _Window-Gardens_). The garden bed will last several +years if well cared for, but most satisfactory bloom is secured if the +old bulbs are taken up every two or three years and replanted, all the +inferior ones being cast aside. When the stock begins to run out, buy +anew. Plant in October, 4 to 6 inches deep. + +[Illustration: Tulip as a pot-plant] + + +TURNIPS and RUTABAGAS are usually a fall crop, from seed sown in July +and early August, although many kitchen gardens have them from spring +sown seed. The culture is easy. Sow in drills 12 inches apart. They will +become edible in from six to eight weeks. They are cool-weather crops, +and the tops stand much frost. If maggots bother, do not raise them on +the same land again for three or four years. Bordeaux mixture repels the +flea-beetles. One ounce will sow 150 feet of drill. + + +VARIETIES. It is usually one of the first desires of the intending +planter to inquire about Varieties. It is one of the secondary things to +be considered, however, for the first thing to do is to prepare the +land, to determine whether one's soil and site are adapted to the plant +in question, and to discuss other matters of a general nature. When all +the fundamental things are settled, then the question of Varieties, +which is a special matter, may be taken up. Although the selection of +Varieties is a very special matter, it is nevertheless essential to +success or satisfaction in the growing of any plant. + +It should first be considered that the selection of Varieties is very +largely a personal matter. The man should grow the Varieties which he +likes. This is especially true in the selection of Varieties for the +home grounds, in which case the market ideals enter very little into the +problem. Having satisfied one's own mind as to what kinds of Varieties +he would like, he may then inquire of the neighbors and of experts if +those Varieties are adapted to the soil and climate. If he intends to +grow for market, he should canvass the market demands thoroughly before +choosing the Varieties. The lists of Varieties in books, bulletins, and +seedmen's catalogues are hints, not rules. As a general statement, it +may be said that the only way to determine the best variety for one's +own conditions is to experiment. There is intense satisfaction in the +experimenting itself. The best lists of Varieties are those which are +recommended for some specific purpose, and which represent the combined +opinions of many expert growers. It is rare that one man's judgment +should be final, particularly with respect to fruits or plants which are +grown in general outdoor conditions. Under glass a gardener can make his +climate and conditions, and therefore he can adapt his conditions to his +plants. The experiment station test usually represents but one man's +opinion. It may be a more valuable opinion than that of another man, but +it is not final. It should be studied in connection with other lists, +particularly those made by practical growers. If one desires to choose +Varieties, therefore, he should consult the best growers of those plants +in his immediate neighborhood; he should call upon the experiment +station of his state or province; and he should consult the most recent +writings on the subject. + + +VEGETABLE GARDEN. It is one of the choicest of pleasures to raise one's +own vegetables. Make the Vegetable Garden ample, but economize labor. +Plant the things in rows, not in beds. Then they can be tilled easily, +either by horse- or hand-tools. Wheel-hoes will accomplish most of the +labor of tillage in a small garden. Have the rows long, to avoid waste +of time in turning and to economize the land. One row can be devoted to +one vegetable; or two or more vegetables of like requirements (as +parsnips and salsify) may comprise a row. Have the permanent vegetables, +as rhubarb and asparagus, at one side, where they will not interfere +with the plowing or tilling. The annual vegetables should be grown on +different parts of the area in succeeding years, thus practicing +something like a rotation of crops. If radish or cabbage maggots or +club-root become thoroughly established in the plantation, omit for a +year or more the vegetables on which they live. + +[Illustration: Lay-out of a farm Vegetable Garden] + +Make the soil deep, mellow and rich before the seeds are sown. Time and +labor will be saved. Rake the surface frequently to keep down weeds and +to prevent the soil from baking (see _Tillage_). Radish seeds sown with +celery or other slow-germinating seeds will come up quickly, breaking +the crust and marking the rows. About the borders of the Vegetable +Garden is a good place for flowers to be grown for the decoration of the +house and to give to friends. Along one side of the area rows of bush +fruits may be planted. + +A home Vegetable Garden for a family of six would require, exclusive of +potatoes, a space not over 100 by 150 feet. Beginning at one side of the +garden and running the rows the short way (having each row 100 feet +long) sowings may be made, as soon as the ground is in condition to +work, of the following: + +Fifty feet each of parsnips and salsify. + +One hundred feet of onions, 25 feet of which may be potato or set +onions, the balance black-seed for summer and fall use. + +Fifty feet of early beets, 50 feet of lettuce, with which radish may be +sown to break the soil and be harvested before the lettuce needs the +room. + +One hundred feet of early cabbage, the plants for which should be from +a frame or purchased. Set the plants 18 inches to 2 feet apart. + +One hundred feet of early cauliflower; culture same as for cabbage. + +Four hundred and fifty feet of peas, sown as follows: + + 100 feet of extra early. + 100 feet of intermediate. + 100 feet of late. + 100 feet of extra early, sown late. + 50 feet of dwarf varieties. + +If trellis or brush is to be avoided, frequent sowings of the dwarfs +will maintain a supply. + +After the soil has become warm and all danger of frost has passed, the +tender vegetables may be planted, as follows: + +Corn in five rows 3 feet apart, three rows to be early and intermediate, +and two rows late. + +One hundred feet of string beans, early to late varieties. + +Vines as follows: + + 10 hills of cucumbers, 6 x 6 feet. + 20 hills of muskmelon, 6 x 6 feet. + 6 hills of early squash, 6 x 6 feet. + 10 hills of Hubbard, 6 x 6 feet. + +One hundred feet of okra. + +Twenty eggplants. One hundred ft. (25 plants) tomatoes. + +Six large clumps of rhubarb. + +An asparagus bed 25 feet long and 3 feet wide. + +Late cabbage, cauliflower and celery are to occupy the space made vacant +by removing early crops of early and intermediate peas and string beans. + +A border on one side or end will hold all herbs, such as parsley, thyme, +sage, hyssop, mints. + + +VERBENA. The Verbena is one of the most satisfactory garden plants, +blooming early. Bloom continues through the dry, hot days of summer. As +the cool weather of the fall comes on, Verbenas increase in size of +plant and flower until killed by severe frost. Plants grown from seed +sown in a hotbed or house early in the spring, transplanted into pots or +boxes when large enough, and planted out as soon as the ground has +become warm, are more vigorous and seem to have more fragrance than +those grown from cuttings. Many of the strains have become so well fixed +that the colors come true from seed. Cuttings are often employed, but +the handling of stock plants is a difficult matter except in the hands +of a professional, and when plants are wanted in quantity it is cheaper +to buy them of the plantsman than to grow them from seed or attempt to +keep over stock plants. Therefore, for the home garden, seed-grown +plants are usually most satisfactory. Give a sunny position. Thin to 10 +to 15 inches apart each way. + +[Illustration: Verbena] + + +VINCA, or PERIWINKLE. Trailing plants. Useful in covering unsightly +places, for vases, urns or baskets. Some of the species (as the common +evergreen, mat-like "running myrtle") are hardy, but the most useful +ones need the protection of a house through the winter. The +variegated-leaved kinds are fine for winter decorations. Propagated +mostly by cuttings. Perennials. + + +VINES. The use of Vines for screens and pillar decorations has increased +in the last decade until now they may be seen in nearly all grounds. The +tendency has been towards using the hardy Vines, of which the +ampelopsis, or Virginia creeper, is one of the most common. It is a very +rapid grower, and lends itself to training more readily than many +others. The Japan ampelopsis (_A. tricuspidata_ or _Veitchii_) is a fine +clinging Vine, growing very rapidly when once established, and being +brilliantly colored after the first fall frosts. It clings closer than +the other, but is not so hardy. Either of these may be grown from +cuttings or division of the plants. Two woody twiners of recent +introduction are the actinidia and the akebia, both from Japan. They +are perfectly hardy, and are rapid growers. The former has large, thick, +glossy leaves, not affected by insects or disease, growing thickly along +the stem and branches, making a perfect thatch of leaves. It blooms in +June. The flowers, which are white with a purple center, are borne in +clusters, followed by round or longish edible fruits. The akebia has +very neat cut foliage, quaint purple flowers, and often bears ornamental +fruit. Other hardy Vines are the wistaria, clematis, tecoma (or +trumpet-flower), aristolochia (or Dutchman's pipe), hedera (or ivy), and +loniceras (or honeysuckles). + +[Illustration: A vine support for a porch] + +Of the tender Vines, the nasturtiums and ipomoeas are the most common, +while the adlumia (p. 3), balloon vine (p. 28), passion vine, and the +gourds (p. 115), are frequently used. One of the best of recent +introduction is the annual hop, especially the variegated variety. This +is a very rapid growing Vine, seeding itself each year, and needing +little care. See _Hop_. All the tender Vines should be planted after all +danger of frost is over. + +_ANNUAL HERBACEOUS CLIMBERS_ + +_Tendril-climbers_ + + Adlumia (biennial). + Balloon Vine. + Cobaea. + Gourds. + Nasturtiums. + Sweet Pea. + Wild Cucumber. + +_Twiners_ + + Beans, Flowering. + Cypress Vine. + Dolichos. + Hop, Japanese. + Ipomoea. + Moonflower. + Morning-glory. + Thunbergia. + Yam, Chinese, or Cinnamon Vine (perennial from a hardy tuber). + +_PERENNIAL WOODY CLIMBERS FOR THE OPEN_ + +_Tendril-climbers_ + + Ampelopsis tricuspidata. + Clematis of many kinds. + Grape of various kinds. + Greenbrier. + Ivy (by roots). + Roses (scramblers). + Trumpet Creeper (by roots). + Virginia Creeper. + +_Twiners_ + + Actinidia polygama. + Akebia quinata. + Aristolochia, or Dutchman's Pipe. + Bittersweet, or Celastrus. + Honeysuckles. + Moonseed. + Wistaria. + + +[Illustration: Violets] + +VIOLET. While the culture of Violets as house-plants rarely proves +successful, there is no reason why a good supply may not be had +elsewhere through the greater part of the winter and the spring months. +A sheltered location being selected, young plants from runners may be +set in August or September. Have the ground rich and well drained. These +plants will make fine crowns by December, and often will bloom before +weather sufficiently cold to freeze them. In order to have flowers +through the winter, it will be necessary to afford some protection to +the plants. This may best be done by building a frame of boards large +enough to cover the plants, making the frame in the same way as for a +hotbed, four to six inches higher at the back than the front. Cover the +frame with sash or boards, and as the weather becomes severe, mats or +straw should be placed over and around the frame to protect the plants +from freezing. Whenever the weather will permit, the covering should be +removed and air admitted, but no harm will come if the frames are not +disturbed for several weeks. A large amount of sunlight and a high +temperature through the middle of winter are to be avoided, for if the +plants are stimulated a shorter period of bloom will result. In April +the frame may be removed, the plants yielding the later part of the crop +without protection. Violets belong with the "cool" plants of florists. +When well hardened off, considerable frost does not harm them. They +should always be kept stocky. Start a new lot from runner-plants each +year. They thrive in a temperature of 55 deg. to 65 deg. + + +WALKS. The place for a Walk is where it is needed. It should go directly +between two points. It need not be straight, but if it is curved, the +curve should be direct. That is, the pedestrian should be conscious that +he is going in the direction in which he desires to go, and is not +making a detour for the simple purpose of following the walk. +Convenience should be the first thing to be considered. After the Walks +have been laid in the most convenient places, the question of +ornamenting the borders may be considered. It is always well to avoid, +so far as possible, the bisecting of lawns by Walks, as that makes two +lawns where there should be only one. The larger a greensward can be +made to look, the more park-like and natural is the place. Avoid taking +the Walks circuitously around the borders unless they are laid for the +simple purpose of making a ramble to show off the grounds. All Walks +which are designed for serious use should appear to be necessary, direct +and convenient. + +Some soils which contain considerable loam and sand will pack with +tramping and will make good Walks, but it is usually necessary to lay +some material on the soil. Gravel, cinders, and the like, may be better +than the natural surface; but in many cases they are worse, since the +surface is loose and is unpleasant to walk on. In Walks which are on +decided slopes, and down which the water is likely to run, any loose +material is very objectionable, since it runs to the low places. The +best material for Walks, all things considered, is cement, or what is +called artificial stone. If well made, it is as durable as flagging, and +is not so likely to get out of place. It holds its surface perfectly +year after year. + +The only objection to cement Walks is when they are more or less +temporary, for in such cases they cannot be moved. There is often very +serious difficulty in securing good cement Walks, but the difficulties +are easily overcome. They are chiefly two: there is not sufficient +draining material beneath the cement; and the cement itself is not made +strong enough. There should be at least a foot of loose material, as +brickbats or cinders, below the cement cover; and if the place is low +and likely to hold water, there should be still greater drainage. Pound +the material down, or let it stand for some time until it becomes +thoroughly settled together. Then lay the cement in two courses. The +first course may be three or four inches thick and made of well mixed +mortar, comprising three parts Portland cement, one part water lime, and +two to three times as much sharp sand as Portland. When this has become +partially hardened, but before it is set and while still moist, put on a +finishing layer of one inch, made of one part Portland cement, one part +water lime, and one part sharp sand. It is important that the materials +be very thoroughly mixed. See that the edges of the walk are made square +and true by laying down a form of boards lengthwise the area before the +cement is put on. The edges should be as thick as the middle, for a thin +crust on the edge tends to snap off. A walk made in this way on a +well-drained foundation will last almost indefinitely. It is best that +it be made in such season that it can become thoroughly set before +frosty weather comes. + + +WALLFLOWER. A favorite plant for pots or garden, having a clove-like +fragrance. Seed of most varieties should be sown the year before wanted. +One kind, being an annual, will flower the same season the seed is sown. +Hardy. Two to 3 feet. + + +WASHING orchard trees is an old practice. It usually results in making +a tree more vigorous. One reason is that it destroys insects and fungi +which lodge underneath the bark; but probably the chief reason is that +it softens the bark and allows the trunk to expand. It is possible, +also, that the potash from the soap or lye eventually passes into the +ground and affords some plant-food. Trees are ordinarily Washed with +soap suds or with a lye solution. The material is usually applied with +an old broom or a stiff brush. The scrubbing of the tree is perhaps +nearly or quite as beneficial as the application of the wash itself. + +It is customary to wash trees late in spring or early in summer, and +again in the fall, with the idea that such Washing destroys the eggs and +the young of borers. It no doubt will destroy borers if they are just +getting a start, but it will not keep away the insects which lay the +eggs, and will not destroy the borers which have found their way +underneath the bark. It is perhaps quite as well to wash the trees very +early in the spring, when they are starting into growth. It is an old +practice to wash trees with strong lye when they are affected with the +oyster-shell bark louse. The modern method of treating these pests, +however, is to spray with some kerosene compound when the young growth +is starting, for at that time the young insects are migrating to the new +wood and they are very easily destroyed. + + +WATERING HOUSE PLANTS. It is impossible to give rules for the Watering +of plants. Conditions that hold with one grower are different from those +of another. Advice must be general. Give one good Watering at the time +of potting, after which no water should be given until the plants really +need it. If, on tapping the pot, it gives out a clear ring, it is an +indication that water is needed. In the case of a soft-wooded plant, +just before the leaves begin to show signs of wilt, is the time for +Watering. When plants are taken up from the ground, or when plants have +their roots cut back in repotting, gardeners rely, after the first +copious Watering, on syringing the tops of the plants two or three +times each day, until a new root-growth has started, Watering at the +roots only when absolutely necessary. Plants that have been potted into +larger pots will grow without the extra attention of syringing, but +those from the borders, that have had their roots mutilated or +shortened, should be placed in a cool, shady spot and be syringed often. +One soon becomes familiar with the wants of individual plants, and can +judge closely as to need of water. All soft-wooded plants with a large +leaf-surface need more water than hard-wooded plants, and a plant in +luxuriant growth of any kind more than a plant that has been cut back or +become defoliated. When plants are grown in living-rooms, moisture must +be supplied from some source, and if no arrangement has been made for +having a moist air the plants should be syringed often. See _Syringing_. + +[Illustration: Watering pot] + + +WATERMELON. The culture of this is essentially the same as that for +muskmelons (which see), except that most varieties require a warmer +place and longer period of growth. Give the hills a distance of from 6 +to 10 feet apart. Choose a warm, "quick" soil and sunny exposure. It is +essential, in the North, that the plants grow rapidly and come into +bloom early. One ounce of seed will plant thirty hills. + + +WAX PLANT. The Wax Plant, or HOYA, is one of the commonest of +window-garden plants, and yet it is one which people usually have +difficulty in flowering. However, it is one of the easiest plants to +manage if a person understands its nature. It is naturally a +summer-blooming plant, and should rest during the winter time. In the +winter, keep it just alive in a cool and rather dry place. If the +temperature does not go above 50 deg. Fahr., so much the better; neither +should it go much lower. In late winter or spring, the plant is brought +out to warm temperature, given water and started into growth. The old +flower-stems should not be cut off, since new flowers come from them as +well as from the new wood. When it is brought out to be started into +growth, it may be repotted, sometimes into a size larger pot, but always +with more or less fresh earth. The plant should increase in value each +year. In conservatories, it is sometimes planted out in the ground and +allowed to run over a wall, in which case it will reach a height of many +feet. + + +WEEDS. Many very strong Weeds are a compliment to one's soil: only good +soil produces them. But they are not a compliment to one's tillage. If +the soil is well prepared and well tilled to conserve moisture and to +unlock plant-food (see _Tillage_), Weeds will find little chance of +growing. Stir the ground often: it benefits the ground and keeps out the +Weeds. Plant vegetables in long straight rows rather than in beds, for +thereby tillage is made easier. For beds and for small plants, the +hand-weeders (as shown in the margin) are very efficient. They save +laborious finger-work. Weed seeds are often distributed in manure, +especially if Weeds have been allowed to grow and ripen on the piles. +See that pernicious Weeds do not seed about the premises. For the +treatment of weedy lawns, see the article _Lawns_. + +[Illustration: Potato hook and weed-puller] + +[Illustration: Finger-weeder] + +[Illustration: Trowel and angle-weeder] + + +WINDBREAKS. There is the greatest difference of opinion as to the value +of Windbreaks for fruit plantations. These differences arise from the +fact that a Windbreak may be of great benefit in one place, but a +disadvantage in another. It is always advisable to break the force of +very strong winds, for such winds tend to injure the trees when laden +with fruit or ice, and they blow off the fruit; and in dry countries +they cause the soil to become parched. If the wind is usually warmer +than the area, however, particularly in the winter time, it is better +not to stop it, but to allow it to circulate through the plantation. +This is the case in areas which lie close to large bodies of water. The +wind coming off the water is warmer than that off the land, and tends +thereby to protect the fruit plantation from severe cold. A circulation +of air is desirable in late spring and early fall in order to avoid the +still frosts. Therefore, if the area is very closely surrounded by dense +plantations, it may have what the fruit-growers call "stagnant air;" but +thinning out the Windbreak on one or two sides, or cutting holes through +it, may allow the air to move through, thereby affording atmospheric +drainage and insuring greater immunity from the light local frosts. + +It is ordinarily better to break the force of the winds than to stop or +deflect them. That is, the Windbreak may be thin enough to allow the +wind to take its normal direction, but its force is broken. A stone wall +or a very dense hedge of evergreens may cause the wind to rise over the +plantation or to be deflected to one side; and this, in many cases, as +already said, may be a decided disadvantage. The philosophy of a good +Windbreak for fruit plantations may be summed up in this way: the force +of heavy winds should be broken; warm winds should be allowed to +circulate freely through the plantation; still air should be avoided. + +Ordinarily, one or two rows of deciduous trees are sufficient +protection. When the plantation is very much exposed to very cold or +land winds, a thick evergreen screen may be a decided advantage. It is +usually better to have the heavy Windbreak on the upper side of the +area, so that it may not interfere with the natural drainage of the cold +air down the slope. In making a Windbreak, it is important that those +trees be chosen which will not become harboring places for orchard +enemies. The wild cherry, for example, is inveterately attacked by the +tent caterpillar, and the wild crabs and wild plums are likely to breed +orchard insects. If the Windbreak is planted some time in advance of +the orchard, the row of fruit trees next the Windbreak will be very +likely to suffer from lack of moisture and food. + +A different type of Windbreak is that which is desired for a shelter +belt about the home grounds. The matter of atmospheric drainage does not +enter into this problem to any great extent. Such shelter belt is +usually placed at the extreme edge of the home yard, toward the heaviest +or prevailing wind. It may be a dense plantation of evergreens. If so, +the Norway spruce is one of the best for general purposes. For a lower +belt, the arborvitae is excellent. Some of the pines, as the Scotch or +Austrian, are also to be advised, particularly if the belt is at some +distance from the residence. As a rule, the coarser the tree the farther +it should be placed from the house. + +Persons may desire to use the Windbreak as a screen to hide undesirable +objects. If these objects are of a permanent character, as a barn or an +unkempt property, evergreen trees should be used. For temporary screens, +any of the very large-growing herbaceous plants may be used. Very +excellent subjects are sunflowers, the large-growing nicotianas, castor +beans, large varieties of Indian corn, and plants of like growth. Very +efficient summer screens may be made with ailanthus, paulownia, +basswood, sumac, and other plants which tend to throw up succulent +shoots from the base. After these plants have been set a year or two, +they are cut back nearly to the ground every winter or spring, and +strong shoots are thrown up with great luxuriance during the summer, +giving a dense screen and presenting a semi-tropical effect. For such +purposes, the roots should be planted only two or three feet apart. If, +after a time, the roots become so crowded that the shoots are weak, some +of the plants may be removed. Top-dressing the area every fall with +manure will tend to make the ground rich enough to afford a very heavy +summer growth. + + +WIND FLOWER. See _Anemone_. + + +WINDOW-GARDENS. _The Summer Window Garden_.--This type of gardening is +particularly suited to those who live in the crowded city, where the +want of other space makes the Window-Garden the only one possible. + +[Illustration: A summer window ledge] + +Handsomely finished boxes, ornamental tiling, and bracket work of wood +and iron suitable for fitting out windows for the growing of plants, are +on the market; but such, while desirable, are by no means necessary. A +stout pine box of a length corresponding to the width of the window, +about 10 inches wide and 6 deep, answers quite as well as a finer box, +since it will likely be some distance above the street, and its sides, +moreover, are soon covered by the vines. A zinc tray of a size to fit +into the wooden box may be ordered of the tinsmith. It will tend to keep +the soil from drying out so rapidly, but it is not a necessity. A few +small holes in the bottom of the box will provide for drainage; but with +carefulness in watering these are not necessary, since the box by its +exposed position will dry out readily during summer weather, unless the +position is a shaded one. In the latter case provision for good drainage +is always advisable. + +Since there is more or less cramping of roots, it will be necessary to +make the soil richer than would be required were the plants to grow in +the garden. The most desirable soil is one that does not pack hard like +clay, nor contract much when dry, but remains porous and springy. Such a +soil is found in the potting soil used by florists, and it may be +obtained from them at from 50 cts. to $1 a barrel. Often the nature of +the soil will be such as to make it desirable to have at hand a barrel +of sharp sand for mixing with the soil, to make it more porous and +prevent baking. + +Some pot the plants and then set them in the window-box, filling the +spaces between the pots with moist moss. Again, they are planted +directly in the soil. The former method, as a general rule, is to be +preferred in the winter Window-Garden; the latter during the summer. + +The plants most valuable for the purpose are those of drooping habit, +such as lobelias, tropaeolums, _Othonna crassifolia_, Kenilworth ivy, and +sweet alyssum. Such plants may occupy the front row, while back of them +may be the erect-growing plants, like geraniums, heliotropes, begonias, +etc. + +Just what plants will be most suitable will depend on the exposure. For +the shady side of the street, the more delicate kinds of plants may be +used. For full exposure to the sun, it will be necessary to select the +more vigorous-growing kinds. In the latter position, suitable plants for +drooping would be: *tropaeolums, *passifloras, the single petunias, sweet +alyssum, lobelias, verbenas, mesembryanthemums. For erect-growing +plants: geraniums, heliotropes, etc. If the position is a shaded one, +the drooping plants might be of the following: tradescantia, Kenilworth +ivy, *senecio or parlor ivy, sedums, *moneywort, vinca, *smilax, +*lygodium or climbing fern. Erect-growing plants would be dracaenas, +palms, ferns, coleus, centaurea, spotted calla, and others. + +For shady situations the main dependence is upon plants of graceful form +or handsome foliage; while for the sunny window the selection may be of +blooming plants. Of the plants above mentioned for these two positions, +those marked with an asterisk (*) are of climbing habit, and may be +trained up about the sides of the window. Others will be found among the +climbing plants mentioned under _Vines_, _Annuals_ and _Basket Plants_. + +After the plants have filled the earth with roots, it will be desirable +to give the surface of the soil among the plants a very light sprinkling +of bone-dust or a thicker coating of rotted manure from time to time +during the summer; or instead of this, a watering with weak liquid +manure about once a week. This is not necessary, however, until the +growth shows that the roots have about exhausted the soil. + +In the fall the box may be placed on the inside of the window. In this +case it will be desirable to thin out the foliage somewhat, shorten in +some of the vines, and perhaps remove some of the plants. It will also +be desirable to give a fresh coating of rich soil. Increased care will +be necessary, also, in watering, since the plants will have less light +than previously, and, moreover, there may be no provision for drainage. + +_The Winter Window-Garden_ may consist simply of a jardiniere, or a few +choice pot-plants on a stand at the window, or of a considerable +collection, with more or less elaborate arrangements for their +accommodation in the way of box, brackets, shelves and stands. Expensive +arrangements are by no means necessary, nor is a large collection. The +plants and flowers themselves are the main consideration, and a small +collection well cared for is better than a large one unless it can be +easily accommodated and kept in good condition. + +The window for plants should have a southern, south-eastern or eastern +exposure. Plants need all the light they can get in the winter, +especially those which are expected to bloom. The window should be +tight-fitting. Shutters and a curtain will be an advantage in cold +weather. + +Plants like a certain uniformity in conditions. It is very trying on +them, and often fatal to success, to have them snug and warm one night +and shivering in a temperature only a few degrees above freezing the +next. Some plants will live in spite of it, but they cannot be expected +to prosper. Those whose rooms are heated with steam, hot water or hot +air will have to guard against keeping rooms too warm fully as much as +keeping them too cool. Rooms in brick dwellings that have been warm all +day, if shut up and made snug in the evening will often keep warm over +night without heat except in the coldest weather. Rooms in frame +dwellings, and exposed on all sides, soon cool down. + +It is difficult to grow plants in rooms lighted by gas, as the burning +gas vitiates the atmosphere. Most living-rooms have too dry air for +plants. In such cases the bow window may be set off from the room by +glass doors; one then has a miniature conservatory. + +While keeping the plants at a suitable temperature, we must not forget +that plants love moisture, or a humid atmosphere, and that our +living-rooms ordinarily are very dry. A pan of water on the stove or on +the register and damp moss among the pots, will afford plants the +necessary humidity. + +The foliage will need cleansing from time to time to free it from dust. +A bath tub provided with a ready outlet for the water is an excellent +place for this purpose. The plants may be turned on their sides and +supported on a small box above the bottom of the tub. Then they may be +freely syringed without danger of making the soil too wet. It is usually +advisable not to wet the flowers, however, especially the white waxen +kinds, like hyacinths. The foliage of Rex begonias should be cleansed +with a piece of dry or only slightly moist cotton. But if the leaves can +be quickly dried off by placing them in the open air on mild days, or +moderately near the stove, the foliage may be syringed. + +[Illustration: A window-box] + +The window-box in the room will be seen near at hand, so may be more or +less ornamental in character. The sides may be covered with ornamental +tile held in place by moulding; or a light lattice-work of wood +surrounding the box is pretty. But a neatly made and strong box of about +the dimensions mentioned on page 242, with a strip of moulding at the +top and bottom, answers just as well; and if painted green, or some +neutral shade, only the plants will be seen or thought of. Brackets, +jardinieres and stands may be purchased of any of the larger florists. + +The window-box may consist of merely the wooden box; but a preferable +arrangement is to make it about eight inches deep instead of six, then +have the tinsmith make a zinc tray to fit the box. This is provided with +a false wooden bottom, with cracks for drainage, two inches above the +real bottom of the tray. The plants will then have a vacant space below +them into which drainage water may pass. Such a box may be thoroughly +watered as the plants require without danger of the water running on the +carpet. Of course, a faucet should be provided at some suitable point on +a level with the bottom of the tray, to permit of its being drained +every day or so if the water tends to accumulate. It would not do to +allow the water to remain long; especially should it never rise to the +false bottom, as then the soil would be kept too wet. + +Some persons attach the box to the window, or support it on brackets +attached below the window-sill; but a preferable arrangement is to +support the box on a low and light stand of suitable height provided +with rollers. It may then be drawn back from the window, turned around +from time to time to give the plants light on all sides, or turned with +the handsome side in as may be desired, and so on. + +Often the plants are set directly in the soil; but if they are kept in +pots they may be rearranged, changed about to give those which need it +more light, etc. Larger plants which are to stand on shelves or brackets +may be in porous earthenware pots; but the smaller ones which are to +fill the window-box may be placed in heavy paper pots. The sides of +these are flexible, and the plants in them therefore may be crowded +close together with great economy in space. When pots are spaced, damp +sphagnum or other moss among them will hold them in place, keep the soil +from drying out too rapidly, and at the same time give off moisture, so +grateful to the foliage. + +In addition to the stand, or box, a bracket for one or more pots on +either side of the window, about one-third or half way up, will be +desirable. The bracket should turn on a basal hinge or pivot, to admit +of swinging it forward or backward. These bracket plants usually suffer +for moisture, and are rather difficult to manage. + +Florists now usually grow plants suitable for Window-Gardens and winter +flowering, and any intelligent florist, if asked, will take pleasure in +making out a suitable collection. The plants should be ordered early in +the fall; the florist will then not be so crowded for time and can give +the matter better attention. + +Most of the plants suitable for the winter Window-Garden belong to the +groups which florists grow in their medium and cool houses. The former +are given a night temperature of about 60 deg., the latter about 50 deg. In +each case the temperature is 10 to 15 deg. higher for the daytime. Five +degrees of variation below these temperatures will be allowable without +any injurious effects; even more may be borne, but not without more or +less check to the plants. In bright, sunny weather the day temperature +may be higher than in cloudy and dark weather. + +_PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE OF 60 deg._ + +_Upright flowering plants._--Abutilons, browallias, calceolaria "Lincoln +Park," begonias, bouvardias, euphorbias, scarlet sage, richardia or +calla, heliotropes, fuchsias, Chinese hibiscus, jasmines, single +petunias, swainsona, billbergia, freesias, geraniums, cupheas. + +_Upright foliage plants._--Muehlenbeckia, _Cycas revoluta_, _Dracaena +fragrans_ and others, palms, cannas, _Farfugium grande_, achyranthes, +ferns, araucaria, epiphyllums, pandanus or "screw pine," _Pilea +arborea_, _Ficus elastica_, _Grevillea robusta_. + +_Climbing plants._--_Asparagus tenuissimus_, _A. plumosus_, _Cobaea +scandens_, smilax, Japanese hop, Madeira vine (Boussingaultia), +_Senecio mikanioides_ and _S. macroglossus_ (parlor ivies). See also +list below. + +_Low-growing, trailing, or drooping plants._--These may be used for +baskets and edgings. Flowering kinds are: Sweet alyssum, lobelia, +_Fuchsia procumbens_, mesembryanthemum, _Oxalis pendula_, _O. +floribunda_ and others, _Russelia juncea_, _Mahernia odorata_ or +honey-bell. + +_Foliage plants of drooping habit._--Vincas, _Saxifraga sarmentosa_, +Kenilworth ivy, tradescantia or Wandering Jew, _*Festuca glauca_, +othonna, _*Isolepsis gracilis_, English ivy, _Selaginella denticulata_ +and others. Some of these plants flower quite freely, but the flowers +are small and of secondary consideration. Those with an asterisk (*) +droop but slightly. + +_PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE OF 50 deg._ + +_Upright flowering plants._--Azaleas, cyclamens, carnations, +chrysanthemums, geraniums, Chinese primroses, stevia, marguerite or +Paris daisy, single petunias, _Anthemis coronaria_, camellias, ardisia +(berries), cineraria, violets, hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, the Easter +lily when in bloom, and others. + +_Upright foliage plants._--Pittosporum, palms, aucuba, euonymus (golden +and silvery variegated), araucaria, pandanus, dusty miller. + +_Climbing plants._--English ivy, maurandia, senecio or parlor ivy, +lygodium (climbing fern). + +_Drooping or trailing plants._--Flowering kinds are: Sweet alyssum, +_Mahernia odorata_, Russelia and ivy geranium. + +_Bulbs in the Window-Garden._--The single Roman hyacinth is an excellent +house plant. Its flowers are small, but they are graceful and especially +well suited for cutting. The bulbs are easily forced, and are managed +like other hyacinths. The secret of forcing the Dutch bulbs and most +others is to pot them and then, after watering the pots, set them away +in a cool, dark place until the pot is filled with roots. They may be +placed in the cellar "to root up," or be buried 3 or 4 inches deep in +the soil. It is well to delay potting them until such time as they can +be kept cool while forming their roots. A temperature of about 40 deg. to +45 deg. suits them during this period. In most cases it is well to select +pots 5 or 6 inches in diameter and place from three to six bulbs in a +pot, according to the size of the bulbs and the plants. The pot having +been filled with soil, it is only necessary to press them down till the +tip, or about one-fourth, shows above the soil. After this a slight +jarring or sharp rap will settle the soil. They are then watered and set +away, as before mentioned. If kept dark and cool they will need no more +watering until they are brought out and begin to grow, when they may be +watered freely. + +[Illustration: Window-garden] + +Hyacinths, tulips and narcissus all require about the same treatment. +When well rooted, which will be in six or eight weeks, they are brought +out and given a temperature of some 55 deg. to 60 deg. till the flowers +appear, when they should be kept in a cooler temperature, say 50 deg. + +The Easter lily is managed the same way, only, to hasten its flowers, it +should be kept at not lower than 60 deg. at night. Warmer will be better. +Lilies may be covered an inch or more deep. + +Freesias may be potted six or more in a pot of mellow soil, and then +started into growth at once. At first they might be given a night +temperature of 50 deg., and 55 deg. to 60 deg. when they have begun to +grow. + +Bulbs like the snowdrop and crocus are planted several or a dozen in a +pot and buried, or treated like hyacinths; but they are very sensitive +to heat, and require only to be given the light when they have started +to grow, without any forcing. Forty to 45 deg. will be as warm as they ever +need be kept. See the article on _Bulbs_; also, the advice given for the +various plants under their respective names. + +_Pests._--Window-Garden pests are discussed under _Insects_. + + +WINTER-KILLING is induced by a late fall growth, and also by a dry, +unprotected soil. All tender woody plants should be well ripened before +cold weather comes: cease tillage early: do not apply stimulating +manures late in the season. Mulch all tender or half hardy plants (see +_Mulch_). Even hardy plants are benefited by a mulch. When possible, it +is better to bend plants to the ground and cover them than to wrap them +up as they stand; but this cannot be done with tall or stiff subjects. +Wrapping in straw or burlaps affords excellent protection, but it is +possible to wrap too heavily. A barrel, less the heads, may be set over +small plants and then filled with leaves or other loose litter; or a +cylinder of wire chicken-screen may be substituted for the barrel. +Remove the protection in the spring before the buds start. See that mice +do not nest in the barrel or in the mulch. + + +ZINNIA. Showy hardy annuals. The old formal type of Zinnias has given +place to a race of freer forms which are excellent plants either for +color effect or for cutting. The colors have been varied and brightened, +the flowers doubled and the plants dwarfed. Seed should be sown in a +hotbed or house in March, transplanted once at least before planting +out, and set in well enriched soil. Or, the seed may be sown where the +plants are to grow. The tall varieties (3 feet) should stand 18 to 24 +inches apart. These are best for masses at a distance. + + +_The Best and Newest Rural Books_ + +BOOKS ON LEADING TOPICS CONNECTED WITH AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE ARE +HERE MENTIONED. EACH BOOK IS THE WORK OF A SPECIALIST, UNDER THE +EDITORIAL SUPERVISION OF PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY, OF THE CORNELL +UNIVERSITY, OR BY PROFESSOR BAILEY HIMSELF, AND IS READABLE, CLEAR-CUT +AND PRACTICAL. + + +THE RURAL SCIENCE SERIES + +Includes books which state the underlying principles of agriculture in +plain language. They are suitable for consultation alike by the amateur +or professional tiller of the soil, the scientist or the student, and +are freely illustrated and finely made. + +The following volumes are now ready: + +THE SOIL. By F. H. KING, of the University of Wisconsin. 303 pp. 45 +illustrations. 75 cents. + +THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND. By I. P. ROBERTS, of Cornell University. +Fifth edition. 421 pp. 45 illustrations. $1.25. + +THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. By E. G. LODEMAN, late of Cornell University. +399 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.00. + +MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. By H. H. WING, of Cornell University. Fifth +edition. 311 pp. 43 illustrations. $1.00. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 516 +pp. 120 illustrations. $1.25. + +BUSH-FRUITS. By F. W. CARD, of Rhode Island College of Agriculture and +Mechanic Arts. Second edition. 537 pp. 113 illustrations. $1.50. + +FERTILIZERS. By E. B. VOORHEES, of New Jersey Experiment Station. Third +edition. 332 pp. $1.00. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. By L. H. BAILEY. Third edition. 300 pp. +92 illustrations. $1.25. + +IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. By F. H. KING, University of Wisconsin. 502 pp. +163 illustrations. $1.50. + +THE FARMSTEAD. By I. P. ROBERTS. 350 pp. 138 illustrations. $1.25. + +RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. By GEORGE T. FAIRCHILD, Ex-President of the +Agricultural College of Kansas. 381 pp. 14 charts. $1.25. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING. By L. H. BAILEY 468 pp. 144 +illustrations. $1.25. + +THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. By W. H. JORDAN, of New York State Experiment +Station. 450 pp. $1.25 net. + +FARM POULTRY. By GEORGE C. WATSON, of Pennsylvania State College. 341 +pp. $1.25 net. + +New volumes will be added from time to time to the RURAL SCIENCE SERIES. +The following are in preparation: + +PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University. + +THE PRINCIPLES OF STOCK BREEDING. By W. H. BREWER, of Yale University. + +PLANT PATHOLOGY. By B. T. GALLOWAY and associates, of U. S. Department +of Agriculture. + +CARE OF ANIMALS. By N. S. MAYO, of Connecticut Agricultural College. + +THE POME FRUITS (Apples, Pears, Quinces). By L. H. BAILEY. + +THE FARMER'S BUSINESS HANDBOOK. By I. P. ROBERTS, of Cornell +University. + + +THE GARDEN-CRAFT SERIES + +Comprises practical hand-books for the horticulturist, explaining and +illustrating in detail the various important methods which experience +has demonstrated to be the most satisfactory. They may be called manuals +of practice, and though all are prepared by Professor BAILEY, of Cornell +University, they include the opinions and methods of successful +specialists in many lines, thus combining the results of the +observations and experiences of numerous students in this and other +lands. They are written in the clear, strong, concise English and in the +entertaining style which characterize the author. The volumes are +compact, uniform in style, clearly printed, and illustrated as the +subject demands. They are of convenient shape for the pocket, and are +substantially bound in flexible green cloth. + +THE HORTICULTURIST'S RULE-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 312 pp. +75 cts. + +THE NURSERY-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fifth edition. 365 pp. 152 +illustrations. $1.00. + +PLANT-BREEDING. By L. H. BAILEY. 293 pp. 20 illustrations. $1.00. + +THE FORCING-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. 266 pp. 88 illustrations. $1.00. + +GARDEN-MAKING. By L. H. BAILEY. Fifth edition. 417 pp. 256 +illustrations. $1.00. + +THE PRUNING-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 545 pp. 331 +illustrations. $1.50. + +THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK. By C. E. HUNN and L. H. BAILEY. 250 pp. Many +marginal cuts. $1.00. + + +WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY + +THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE: A Collection of Evolution Essays Suggested +by the Study of Domestic Plants. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of +Horticulture in the Cornell University. + +FOURTH EDITION--515 PAGES--22 ILLUSTRATIONS--$2.00 + +To those interested in the underlying philosophy of plant life, this +volume, written in a most entertaining style, and fully illustrated, +will prove welcome. It treats of the modification of plants under +cultivation upon the evolution theory, and its attitude on this +interesting subject is characterized by the author's well-known +originality and independence of thought. Incidentally, there is stated +much that will be valuable and suggestive to the working horticulturist, +as well as to the man or woman impelled by a love of nature to +horticultural pursuits. It may well be called, indeed, a philosophy of +horticulture, in which all interested may find inspiration and +instruction. + + THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE comprises thirty essays touching + upon The General Fact and Philosophy of Evolution (The Plant + Individual, Experimental Evolution, Coxey's Army and the + Russian Thistle, Recent Progress, etc.); Expounding the Fact + and Causes of Variation (The Supposed Correlations of Quality + in Fruits, Natural History of Synonyms, Reflective + Impressions, Relation of Seed-bearing to Cultivation, + Variation after Birth, Relation between American and Eastern + Asian Fruits, Horticultural Geography, Problems of Climate and + Plants, American Fruits, Acclimatization, Sex in Fruits, + Novelties, Promising Varieties, etc.); and Tracing the + Evolution of Particular Types of Plants (the Cultivated + Strawberry, Battle of the Plums, Grapes, Progress of the + Carnation, Petunia, The Garden Tomato, etc.). + + +THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of +Horticulture in the Cornell University. + +472 PAGES--125 ILLUSTRATIONS--$2.00 + +In this entertaining volume, the origin and development of the fruits +peculiar to North America are inquired into, and the personality of +those horticultural pioneers whose almost forgotten labors have given us +our most valuable fruits is touched upon. There has been careful +research into the history of the various fruits, including inspection of +the records of the great European botanists who have given attention to +American economic botany. The conclusions reached, the information +presented, and the suggestions as to future developments, cannot but be +valuable to any thoughtful fruit-grower, while the terse style of the +author is at its best in his treatment of the subject. + + THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS discusses The Rise of the + American Grape (North America a Natural Vineland, Attempts to + Cultivate the European Grape, The Experiments of the Dufours, + The Branch of Promise, John Adlum and the Catawba, Rise of + Commercial Viticulture, Why Did the Early Vine Experiments + Fail? Synopsis of the American Grapes); The Strange History of + the Mulberries (The Early Silk Industry, The "Multicaulis + Craze,"); Evolution of American Plums and Cherries (Native + Plums in General, The Chickasaw, Hortulana, Marianna and Beach + Plum Groups, Pacific Coast Plum, Various Other Types of Plums, + Native Cherries, Dwarf Cherry Group); Native Apples + (Indigenous Species, Amelioration has begun); Origin of + American Raspberry-growing (Early American History, Present + Types, Outlying Types); Evolution of Blackberry and Dewberry + Culture (The High-bush Blackberry and Its Kin, The Dewberries, + Botanical Names); Various Types of Berry-like Fruits (The + Gooseberry, Native Currants, Juneberry, Buffalo Berry, + Elderberry, High-bush Cranberry, Cranberry, Strawberry); + Various Types of Tree Fruits (Persimmon, Custard-Apple Tribe, + Thorn-Apples, Nut-Fruits); General Remarks on the Improvement + of our Native Fruits (What Has Been Done, What Probably Should + Be Done). + + +LESSONS WITH PLANTS: Suggestions for Seeing and Interpreting Some of the +Common Forms of Vegetation. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture +in the Cornell University, with delineations from nature by W. S. +HOLDSWORTH, of the Agricultural College of Michigan. + +SECOND EDITION--491 PAGES--446 ILLUSTRATIONS--12 MO--CLOTH--$1.10 NET + +There are two ways of looking at nature. The _old way_, which you have +found so unsatisfactory, was to classify everything--to consider leaves, +roots, and whole plants as formal herbarium specimens, forgetting that +each had its own story of growth and development, struggle and success, +to tell. Nothing stifles a natural love for plants more effectually than +that old way. + +The new way is to watch the life of every growing thing, to look upon +each plant as a living creature, whose life is a story as fascinating as +the story of any favorite hero. "Lessons with Plants" is a book of +stories, or rather, a book of plays, for we can see each chapter acted +out if we take the trouble to _look_ at the actors. + + "I have spent some time in most delightful examination of it, + and the longer I look, the better I like it. I find it not + only full of interest, but eminently suggestive. I know of no + book which begins to do so much to open the eyes of the + student--whether pupil or teacher--to the wealth of meaning + contained in simple plant forms. Above all else, it seems to + be full of suggestions that help one to learn the language of + plants, so they may talk to him."--DARWIN L. BARDWELL, + _Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton_. + + "It is an admirable book, and cannot fail both to awaken + interest in the subject, and to serve as a helpful and + reliable guide to young students of plant life. It will, I + think, fill an important place in secondary schools, and comes + at an opportune time, when helps of this kind are needed and + eagerly sought."--Professor V. M. SPALDING, _University of + Michigan_. + +FIRST LESSONS WITH PLANTS + +An Abridgement of the above. 117 PAGES--116 ILLUSTRATIONS--40 CENTS +NET. + + +BOTANY: An Elementary Text for Schools. By L. H. BAILEY. + +355 PAGES--500 ILLUSTRATIONS--$1.10 NET + +"This book is made for the pupil: 'Lessons With Plants' was made to +supplement the work of the teacher." This is the opening sentence of the +preface, showing that the book is a companion to "Lessons With Plants," +which has now become a standard teacher's book. The present book is the +handsomest elementary botanical text-book yet made. The illustrations +illustrate. They are artistic. The old formal and unnatural Botany is +being rapidly outgrown. The book disparages mere laboratory work of the +old kind: the pupil is taught to see things as they grow and behave. The +pupil who goes through this book will understand the meaning of the +plants which he sees day by day. It is a revolt from the dry-as-dust +teaching of botany. It cares little for science for science's sake, but +its point of view is nature-study in its best sense. The book is divided +into four parts, any or all of which may be used in the school: the +plant itself; the plant in its environment; histology, or the minute +structure of plants; the kinds of plants (with a key, and descriptions +of 300 common species). The introduction contains advice to teachers. +The book is brand new from start to finish. + + "An exceedingly attractive text-book."--_Educational Review._ + + "It is a school book of the modern methods."--_The Dial._ + + "It would be hard to find a better manual for schools or for + individual use."--_The Outlook._ + +*** + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + No. 66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + +THE CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURE: By L. H. BAILEY, of Cornell +University, assisted by WILHELM MILLER, and many expert cultivators and +botanists. + +4 VOLS.--OVER 2800 ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS--CLOTH--OCTAVO $20.00 NET PER +SET. HALF MOROCCO, $32.00 NET PER SET + +This great work comprises directions for the cultivation of +horticultural crops and original descriptions of all the species of +fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants known to be in the +market in the United States and Canada. "It has the unique distinction +of presenting for the first time, in a carefully arranged and perfectly +accessible form, the best knowledge of the best specialists in America +upon gardening, fruit-growing, vegetable culture, forestry, and the +like, as well as exact botanical information.... The contributors are +eminent cultivators or specialists, and the arrangement is very +systematic, clear and convenient for ready reference." + + "We have here a work which every ambitions gardener will wish + to place on his shelf beside his Nicholson and his Loudon, and + for such users of it a too advanced nomenclature would have + been confusing to the last degree. With the safe names here + given, there is little liability to serious perplexity. There + is a growing impatience with much of the controversy + concerning revision of names of organisms, whether of plants + or animals. Those investigators who are busied with the + ecological aspects of organisms, and also those who are + chiefly concerned with the application of plants to the arts + of agriculture, horticulture, and so on, care for the names of + organisms under examination only so far as these aid in + recognition and identification. To introduce unnecessary + confusion is a serious blunder. Professor Bailey has avoided + the risk of confusion. In short, in range, treatment and + editing, the Cyclopedia appears to be emphatically useful; ... + a work worthy of ranking by the side of the Century + Dictionary."--_The Nation._ + +THIS WORK IS SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION, AND TERMS AND FURTHER +INFORMATION MAY BE HAD OF THE PUBLISHERS. + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + No. 66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + +Extra, missing, or misprinted punctuation has been corrected without +note. Variation in hyphenation (e.g. house plants vs. house-plants), and +capitalization in some botanical names has been left as in the original. + +In the ASCII version, the degree symbol has been replaced with "deg." +Hyphens have been added to numbers with fractions (e.g. one and one half +is 1-1/2), and hyphens indicating a range of heights were changed to the +word "to" in the following passages: grow 1 to 2-1/2 ft. high (p. 5); +Grow 1-1/2 to 2 ft. high (p. 52); should stand 1-1/2 to 2 ft. apart (p. +56); 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 ft. high (p. 74). Accents and ligatures have also +been removed. + +The following changes were also made to the text: + +p. 9: couservatory to conservatory + +p. 12: Burridgianum to Burridgeanum (Cosmidium Burridgeanum) + +p. 13: autumnale to autumnalis (Adonis autumnalis.) + +p. 23: herbacous to herbaceous + +p. 41: Beaume to Baume (26 deg. Baume) + +p. 55: batchelor's to bachelor's (bachelor's buttons) + +p. 56: Callirhoe to Callirrhoe + +p. 89: rocommended to recommended (the treatment recommended for Crocus) + +p. 122: establishd to established (when well established) + +p. 132: 80, deg. to 80 deg., (begins to fall below 80 deg.,) + +p. 133: witholding to withholding (gradually withholding water) + +p. 207: seed to seeds (six seeds in each hill) + +p. 233: ipomeas to ipomoeas and Ipomea to Ipomoea + +p. 233: Cobea to Cobaea + +Advertisements (end of book): science' to science's (science for +science's sake), and the repeated headings "WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY" +removed. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Practical Garden-Book, by +C. E. Hunn and L. H. 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