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+Project Gutenberg's The Practical Garden-Book, by C. E. Hunn and L. H. Bailey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Practical Garden-Book
+       Containing the Simplest Directions for the Growing of the
+       Commonest Things about the House and Garden
+
+Author: C. E. Hunn
+        L. H. Bailey
+
+Release Date: December 8, 2010 [EBook #34602]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, S.D., and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  The Garden-Craft Series
+  EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY
+
+
+THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK
+
+  _CONTAINING THE SIMPLEST DIRECTIONS
+  FOR THE GROWING OF THE COMMONEST
+  THINGS ABOUT THE HOUSE AND GARDEN_
+
+  BY
+
+  C. E. HUNN
+
+  AND
+
+  L. H. BAILEY
+
+  _THIRD EDITION_
+
+  New York
+  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+  LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
+  1903
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1900
+  BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+  ***
+
+  Set up and electrotyped March, 1900
+  Reprinted February, 1901, and June, 1903
+
+  Mount Pleasant Press
+  J. Horace McFarland Company
+  Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
+
+
+
+
+Like the love of music, books and pictures, the love of gardens comes
+with culture and leisure and with the ripening of the home life. The
+love of gardens, as of every other beautiful and refining thing, must
+increase to the end of time. More and more must the sympathies enlarge.
+There must be more points of contact with the world. Life ever becomes
+richer. Gardening is more than the growing of plants: it is the
+expression of desire.
+
+As there must be many gardeners, so there must be many books. There must
+be books for different persons and different ideals. The garden made by
+one's own hands is always the best garden, because it is a part of
+oneself. A garden made by another may interest, but it is another
+person's individuality. A poor garden of one's own is better than a good
+garden in which one may not dig. Many a poor soul has more help in a
+plant in the window than another has in a plantation made by a gardener.
+
+I would emphasize the home garden, made by the members of the family. I
+would preach the beauty of the common plants and the familiar places.
+These things are never old. Many times I have noted how intently an
+audience of plant-lovers will listen to the most commonplace details
+respecting the cultivation of plants with which they have been always
+familiar. There was nothing new in what they heard; but they liked to
+have the old story told over again, and every detail called up a memory.
+
+The same questions are asked every year, and they always will be
+asked,--the questions about the simplest garden operations. Upon this
+desire for commonplace advice the horticultural journals live. A journal
+which publishes only things that are new would find little support. Some
+of these common questions I have tried to answer in this little book. I
+wish them answered in the simple and direct phrase of the gardener.
+Therefore I asked my friend C. E. Hunn, gardener to the Horticultural
+Department of Cornell University, who lives with plants, to write advice
+for one who would make a garden; and this he did in a summer vacation.
+These notes, edited and amplified, now make this book.
+
+                                                    L. H. BAILEY.
+
+  HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT,
+  CORNELL UNIVERSITY.
+  ITHACA, N. Y., February 22, 1900.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK
+
+***
+
+
+ABOBRA VIRIDIFLORA. A handsome tender climber with tuberous roots, that
+may be taken up in the fall and stored in a cellar. The foliage is dark
+and glossy, the flowers small and inconspicuous; but the small scarlet
+fruits are very effective in contrast to the leaves, making it a
+desirable screen plant. It is sold by seedsmen. Seeds sown as soon as
+warm weather comes will give plants which bloom in the open (in a warm
+soil and exposure), and which reach a height of 5-8 ft. It is sometimes
+grown as a glasshouse plant. It is cucurbitaceous (allied to melons and
+gourds).
+
+
+ABRONIA. Californian trailing perennials, but treated as hardy annuals.
+They thrive in any warm, open garden soil, and are very satisfactory for
+the margins of beds or borders. The little flowers are borne in
+clusters. _A. latifolia_ or _arenaria_ (yellow) and _A. umbellata_ or
+_grandiflora_ (pink) are the leading kinds. Usually sown where they are
+to bloom. Peel the husk off the seed before sowing.
+
+
+[Illustration: Abutilon striatum]
+
+ABUTILONS, or FLOWERING MAPLES as they are called by many, make fine
+house or bedding plants. Common kinds may be grown from seed or from
+cuttings of young wood. If the former, the seed should be sown in
+February or March in a temperature of not less than 60°. The seedlings
+should be potted when from four to six leaves have grown, in a rich,
+sandy soil. Frequent pottings should be made to insure a rapid growth,
+making plants large enough to flower by fall. Or, the seedlings may be
+planted out in the border when danger of frost is over, and taken up in
+the fall before frost: these plants will bloom all winter. About
+one-half of the newer growth should be cut off when they are taken up,
+as they are very apt to spindle up when grown in the house. When grown
+from cuttings, young wood should be used, which, after being well
+rooted, may be treated in the same manner as the seedlings. The
+varieties with variegated leaves have been improved until the foliage
+effects are equal to the flowers of some varieties; and, these are a
+great addition to the conservatory or window garden. The staple
+spotted-leaved type is _A. Thompsoni_. A compact form, now much used for
+bedding and other outdoor work, is _Savitzii_, which is a horticultural
+variety, not a distinct species. The old-fashioned green-leaved _A.
+striatum_, from which _A. Thompsoni_ has probably sprung, is one of the
+best. _A. megapotamicum_ or _vexillarium_ is a trailing or drooping
+red-and-yellow-flowered species, which is excellent for baskets. It
+propagates readily from seed. Abutilons are most satisfactory for house
+plants when they are not much more than a year old. They need no special
+treatment.
+
+
+ACONITUM. MONK'S HOOD. WOLF'S BANE. Hardy herbaceous perennials allied
+to larkspurs. They are showy border plants, usually flowering the first
+year from seed, if the seed is started early, and bearing panicles of
+quaint hood-shaped, rich flowers. The colors have a wide range, but are
+usually deep blue. The improved varieties are much superior in size and
+markings. Aconitums are most effective when planted in a mixed border:
+the flower stalks being held well up, show the blossoms to good
+advantage. Seed may be sown every two years, as the plants in their
+year-old and 2-year-old stage have the largest blossoms. Sow in gentle
+heat in March, transplanting to border when the weather is settled.
+Roots may be divided if desired, but best results are to be expected
+from seedlings. _A. Napellus_ is the commonest one. The plants are very
+poisonous if eaten. Bloom in early summer. 2-3 ft.
+
+
+ACROCLINIUM. A low-growing everlasting annual flower, white, violet, or
+rose in color. Seeds should preferably be started in a hotbed or window,
+and planted out when danger of frost is past; the flowers should be
+gathered when half expanded and hung in the shade to dry. Half-hardy.
+Plant 1 foot apart. Grow 10-15 in. high. See _Everlastings_.
+
+
+[Illustration: Adlumia cirrhosa]
+
+ADLUMIA. MOUNTAIN FRINGE. ALLEGHENY VINE. One of the daintiest of
+climbers, making a very rapid growth, and when once established seeding
+itself and thriving for years, growing 10 or 15 feet in a season. Give
+rich, rather moist soil. It is biennial, blooming the second year.
+Flowers like those of the bleeding heart and other dicentras. It is
+native.
+
+
+ADONIS. A low-growing hardy annual or perennial of the easiest culture.
+It makes a fine mass effect, as the flowers are a striking dark scarlet
+or crimson color, and the plants are very free and continuous bloomers.
+Sow early in the spring where wanted. The perennial yellow-flowered
+sorts sometimes bloom the first year from seed. Adonises are very neat
+in habit, and the foliage is fine and interesting. 10-15 in.
+
+
+AGAPANTHUS. AFRICAN LILY. A tuberous-rooted, well known conservatory or
+window plant. It lends itself to many conditions and proves satisfactory
+a large part of the year, the leaves forming a green arch over the pot,
+covering it entirely in a well grown specimen. The flowers are borne in
+a large cluster on stems growing from 2 to 3 ft. high, as many as two or
+three hundred bright blue flowers often forming on a single plant. A
+large, well grown plant throws up a number of flower-stalks through the
+early season. The one essential to free growth is an abundance of water
+and an occasional application of manure water. Propagation is effected
+by division of the offsets, which may be broken from the main plant in
+early spring. After flowering, gradually lessen the quantity of water
+until they are placed in winter quarters, which should be a position
+free from frost and moderately dry. The Agapanthus, being a heavy
+feeder, should be grown in strong loam to which is added well rotted
+manure and a little sand.
+
+
+[Illustration: Ageratum]
+
+AGERATUM. A half-hardy annual, used as a border plant, for ribbon
+bedding for mass effect, or in mixed beds of geranium, coleuses and
+other plants. The seeds germinate readily, but as the plant is only
+half-hardy and is usually wanted in flower when planted out, it is usual
+to sow the seed in boxes placed in hotbeds or windows in March,
+transplanting the seedlings to small boxes or pots and growing the young
+plants on until the 1st of May, when they may be planted out. Pieces of
+young wood root very easily, and the gardener usually increases his
+stock by cuttings. The dwarf varieties are the most desirable, and the
+two colors, blue and white, may be planted together. 2-3 ft. Plants may
+be taken up in the fall and set in the house; cut them back severely.
+
+
+ALLEGHENY VINE. See _Adlumia_.
+
+
+ALMOND is about as hardy as the peach, but it blooms so early in the
+spring that it is little grown east of the Pacific slope. It is an
+interesting ornamental tree, and its early bloom is a merit when the
+fruit is not desired. The Almonds commonly sold by nurserymen in the
+east are hard-shell varieties, and the nuts are not good enough for
+commerce. The Almond fruit is a drupe, like the peach, but the flesh is
+thin and hard and the pit is the "Almond" of commerce. Culture the same
+as for peach.
+
+Flowering Almond is a very early-flowering bush, excellent for
+shrub-borders. It is usually grafted on plum stock, and one must take
+care to keep down the plum sprouts which sometimes spring from the root.
+
+
+ALOE. Succulent tropical plants, sometimes seen in window gardens. Of
+easy culture. See that the pots have perfect drainage. Make a soil of
+sandy loam, with one-third or one-fourth part of broken brick. Pot
+firmly. Water whenever needed, but the soil and drainage should be such
+that the earth does not remain soggy or become sour. Aloes thrive year
+after year without repotting. Usually propagated by cuttings. _A.
+variegata_ is the commonest species.
+
+
+ALONSOA. Tender annual. Not very well known, but a bright plant for
+second-row border or a low bedding plant. Planted against shrubbery or
+other protection after danger of frost is over, it lightens up a dark
+corner. 2-3 ft. Plant 10-15 in. apart, in a warm place protected from
+wind.
+
+
+ALSTRÖMERIA. The Alströmerias belong to the amaryllis family, being
+tuberous-rooted plants, having leafy stems and terminating in a cluster
+of from 10 to 50 small lily-shaped flowers of rich colors. Most of the
+kinds should be given pot culture, as they are easily grown and are not
+hardy in the open in the north. The culture is nearly that of the
+amaryllis,--a good, fibrous loam with a little sand, potting the tubers
+in early spring or late fall. Start the plants slowly, giving only water
+enough to cause root growth; but after growth has become established, a
+quantity of water may be given. After flowering they may be treated as
+are amaryllis or agapanthus. The plants grow 1-2½ ft. high. The
+flowers often have odd colors.
+
+
+ALTHÆA. See _Hollyhock_.
+
+
+[Illustration: Sweet Alyssum]
+
+ALYSSUM, SWEET. A low-growing, hardy, white-flowered, very fragrant
+annual which is much used for edgings, window boxes, and the like. It is
+of the easiest culture in any soil, but thrives best in a garden loam of
+moderate fertility. Seeds may be sown as early as the ground can be well
+prepared in spring. The plant will begin to bloom when 2 or 3 inches
+high, and continue to bloom, as it grows, until after the first hard
+frosts. It makes a mat 1 to 2 ft. across. If immediate effects are not
+desired, the plants should be thinned out or transplanted to stand half
+a foot apart. It rarely stands more than a foot high. In the fall,
+plants may be cut back and put into pots or boxes, and they will bloom
+in the window. Better results in winter blooming are secured by starting
+seeds in boxes in August, September or October. There are certain hardy
+perennial yellow-flowered Alyssums which are useful for prominent
+edgings and for rockwork.
+
+
+[Illustration: Prince's Feather]
+
+AMARANTUS. Decorative annuals. One species (with erect spikes) is known
+as PRINCE'S FEATHER, another (with variegated foliage) as JOSEPH'S COAT,
+and still another (with drooping spikes) as LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. Probably
+the finest of the list is _A. salicifolius_, often called Fountain
+Plant. This has graceful willow-shaped leaves, banded and tipped with
+carmine, bronze and orange. The tall kinds make fine screens for
+unsightly objects. They may also be used against masses of green to add
+color. The Amaranths are half-hardy or tender plants, and should be sown
+in boxes in March or April, to be planted out after all danger of frost
+is past. Seeds may also be sown where the plants are to stand. They were
+once among the most popular of garden plants, but for a few years have
+been neglected. Fine colors have recently been developed, and they are
+again becoming favorites. As they are rather coarse and weedy plants, do
+not use them with dainty flowers. Most kinds grow 2-3 ft. high and
+spread 2-3 ft.
+
+
+AMARYLLIS. Popular name of a variety of house or conservatory tender
+bulbs, but properly applied only to the Belladonna Lily. Most of them
+are hippeastrums, but the culture of all is similar. They are
+satisfactory house plants. The one objection to their culture is the
+habit of the flower-stalk starting into growth before the leaves start.
+This is caused in most cases by stimulating root growth before the bulb
+has had sufficient rest. The bulbs should be dormant for four or five
+months in a dry place with a temperature of about 50°. When wanted to be
+brought into flower, the bulbs, if to be repotted, should have all the
+dirt shaken off and potted in soil composed of fibrous loam and
+leaf-mold, to which should be added a little sand. If the loam is a
+heavy one, place the pot in a warm situation; a spent hotbed is a good
+place. Water as needed, and as the flowers develop liquid manure may be
+given. If large clumps are well established in 8- or 10-inch pots, they
+may be top-dressed with new soil containing rotted manure, and as growth
+increases liquid manure may be given twice a week until the flowers
+open. After flowering, gradually withhold water until the leaves die.
+The most popular species for window gardens is _A. Johnsoni_ (properly a
+hippeastrum), with red flowers.
+
+
+AMETHYST. See _Browallia_.
+
+
+AMMOBIUM. A half-hardy perennial everlasting with white flowers. Thrives
+best in sandy soil. Sow seeds where plants are to stand. Although
+perennial, it blooms the first year from seed, and is usually treated as
+an annual. 2-3 ft. high. Plant 12-18 in. apart.
+
+
+AMMONIACAL CARBONATE OF COPPER. See under _Bordeaux Mixture_.
+
+
+ANCHUSA. Hardy annuals and perennials, fit for heavy borders. The plants
+grow to the height of 2 to 3 feet and bear purple or blue flowers, which
+are showy either on the plant or in bouquets. Propagated from seed sown
+in early spring, either where the plants are to stand or in boxes or
+hotbeds. The common kind is annual. Blooms in summer.
+
+
+ANEMONE. WIND FLOWER. A group of hardy perennials. The best known of
+this genus is _A. Japonica alba_, or Honorine Jobert. This species
+blooms from August to November, and is at that season the finest of
+border plants. The pure white flowers, with lemon-colored stamens, are
+held well up on stalks 2-3 ft. high. The flower stems are long and
+excellent for cutting. This species may be propagated by division of the
+plants or by seed. The former method should be put into practice in the
+spring; the latter as soon as the seeds are ripe in the fall. Sow the
+seed in boxes in a warm, sheltered situation in the border or under
+glass. The seed should be covered lightly with soil containing a
+quantity of sand and not allowed to become dry. A well enriched,
+sheltered position in a border should be given. There are red-flowered
+varieties.
+
+[Illustration: Spray of Anemone Japonica]
+
+The varieties of _A. coronaria_ are tuberous-rooted plants. The tubers
+of these should be planted in the fall, late in September or early in
+October, in a well enriched, sheltered border, setting the tubers 3 in.
+deep and from 4-6 in. apart. The surface of the border should be mulched
+with leaves or strawy manure through the severe winter weather,
+uncovering the soil in March. The flowers will appear in April or May,
+and in June or July the tubers should be taken up and placed in a dry
+place in sand until the following fall. This section is not as well
+known as it should be. The range of color is very wide. The flowers are
+often 2 in. across, and are lasting. These tubers may be planted in pots
+in the same manner as in the border, bringing them into the
+conservatory or house at intervals through the winter, where they make
+an excellent showing when in bloom.
+
+The little wild Wind Flowers are easily colonized in a hardy border.
+
+
+ANNUALS. The annual flowers of the seedsmen are those which give their
+best bloom in the very year in which the seeds are sown. True annuals
+are those plants which complete their entire life-cycle in one season.
+Some of the so-called annual flowers will continue to bloom the second
+and third years, but the bloom is so poor and sparse after the first
+season that it does not pay to keep them.
+
+Most annuals will bloom in central New York if the seeds are sown in the
+open ground when the weather becomes thoroughly settled. But there are
+some kinds, as Cosmos and Moonflowers, for which our season is commonly
+too short to give good bloom. These kinds may be started early in the
+house or in hotbeds; and similar treatment may be given any plants of
+which it is desired to secure blooms before the normal time.
+
+[Illustration: A box garden]
+
+Prepare the ground thoroughly and deep. Annuals must make a quick
+growth. See that the soil contains enough humus or vegetable mold to
+make it rich and to enable it to hold moisture. If the ground is not
+naturally rich, spade in well-rotted manure or mold from the woods. A
+little commercial fertilizer may help in starting off the plants
+quickly. Prepare the land as early in spring as it is in fit condition,
+and prevent evaporation by keeping the surface loose by means of raking.
+
+If the flowers are to be grown about the edges of the lawn, make sure
+that the grass roots do not run underneath them and rob them of food and
+moisture. It is well to run a sharp spade deep into the ground about the
+edges of the bed every two or three weeks for the purpose of cutting off
+any grass roots which may have run into the bed. If beds are made in the
+turf, see that they are 3 ft. or more wide, so that the grass roots will
+not undermine them. Against the shrub borders, this precaution may not
+be necessary. In fact, it is desirable that the flowers fill all the
+space between the overhanging branches and the sod.
+
+Sow the seeds freely. Many will not germinate. Even if they do all
+germinate, the combined strength of the rising plantlets will break the
+crust on the hard soils; and in the thinning which follows, only strong
+and promising plants are allowed to remain. Better effects are also
+often secured when the colors are in masses, especially if the flowers
+are thrown into the bays of heavy shrub borders.
+
+[Illustration: Flowers against a border]
+
+Plants continue to bloom for a longer period if they are not allowed to
+produce seeds. The flowers should be picked, if possible, as soon as
+they begin to fade.
+
+In the selection of the kinds of annuals, one's personal preference must
+be the guide. Yet there are some groups which may be considered to be
+standard or general-purpose plants. They are easily grown almost
+anywhere, and are sure to give satisfaction. The remaining plants are
+mostly such as have secondary value, or are adapted to particular
+purposes or uses.
+
+The groups which most strongly appeal to the writer as staple or
+general-purpose types are the following: Petunias, phloxes, pinks or
+dianthuses, larkspurs or delphiniums, calliopsis or coreopsis, pot
+marigold or calendula, bachelor's button or _Centaurea Cyanus_,
+clarkias, zinnias, marigolds or tagetes, collinsias, gilias, California
+poppies or eschscholtzias, verbenas, poppies, China asters, sweet peas,
+nemophilas, portulacas, silenes, candytufts or iberis, alyssum, stocks
+or matthiolas, morning-glories, nasturtiums or tropæolums.
+
+Annual flowers possess a great advantage over perennials in the fact
+that they appeal strongly to the desire for experiment. The seeds are
+sown every year, and there is sufficient element of uncertainty in the
+results to make the effort interesting; and new combinations can be
+tried each year.
+
+Do not cut the old stalks down in the fall. They will stand in the snow
+all through the winter, and remind you of the bursting summer time and
+the long-ripening fall; and the snow-birds will find them in the short
+days of winter.
+
+Some of the most reliable and easily grown annuals for the north are
+given in the following lists (under the common trade names):
+
+_WHITE FLOWERS_
+
+  Ageratum Mexicanum album.
+  Alyssum, Common Sweet.
+  Alyssum, Sweet, compacta.
+  Centranthus macrosiphon albus.
+  Convolvulus major.
+  Dianthus, Double White Margaret.
+  Iberis amara.
+  Iberis coronaria, White Rocket.
+  Ipomoea hederacea.
+  Lavatera alba.
+  Malope grandiflora alba.
+  Matthiola (Stocks), Cut and Come Again.
+  Matthiola, Dresden Perpetual.
+  Matthiola, Giant Perfection.
+  Matthiola, White Pearl.
+  Mirabilis longiflora alba.
+  Nigella.
+  Papaver (Poppy), Flag of Truce.
+  Papaver, Shirley.
+  Papaver, The Mikado.
+  Phlox, Dwarf Snowball.
+  Phlox, Leopoldii.
+  Zinnia.
+
+_YELLOW FLOWERS_
+
+  Cacalia lutea.
+  Calendula officinalis, Common.
+  Calendula officinalis, Meteor.
+  Calendula sulphurea.
+  Calendula suffruticosa.
+  Calliopsis bicolor marmorata.
+  Calliopsis cardaminæfolia.
+  Calliopsis elegans picta.
+  Cosmidium Burridgeanum.
+  Erysimum Peroffskianum.
+  Eschscholtzia Californica.
+  Hibiscus Africanus.
+  Hibiscus, Golden Bowl.
+  Ipomoea coccinea lutea.
+  Loasa tricolor.
+  Tagetes, various kinds.
+  Thunbergia alata Fryeri.
+  Thunbergia alata aurantiaca.
+  Tropæolum, Dwarf, Lady Bird.
+  Tropæolum, Tall, Schulzi.
+  Zinnia.
+
+_BLUE FLOWERS_
+
+  Ageratum Mexicanum.
+  Ageratum Mexicanum, Dwarf.
+  Browallia Czerniakowski.
+  Browallia elata.
+  Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact.
+  Centaurea Cyanus minor.
+  China Asters of several varieties.
+  Convolvulus minor.
+  Convolvulus minor unicaulis.
+  Gilia achilleæfolia.
+  Gilia capitata.
+  Iberis umbellata.
+  Iberis umbellata lilacina.
+  Kaulfussia amelloides.
+  Kaulfussia atroviolacea.
+  Lobelia Erinus.
+  Lobelia Erinus, Elegant.
+  Nigella.
+  Phlox variabilis atropurpurea.
+  Salvia farinacea.
+  Specularia.
+  Verbena, Black-blue.
+  Verbena coerulea.
+  Verbena, Golden-leaved.
+  Whitlavia gloxinoides.
+
+_RED FLOWERS_
+
+  Cacalia, Scarlet.
+  Clarkia elegans rosea.
+  Convolvulus tricolor roseus.
+  Dianthus, Half Dwarf Early Margaret.
+  Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual.
+  Dianthus Chinensis, Double.
+  Gaillardia picta.
+  Ipomoea coccinea.
+  Ipomoea volubilis.
+  Matthiola annuus (Stocks).
+  Matthiola, Blood-red Ten Weeks.
+  Matthiola grandiflora, Dwarf.
+  Papaver (Poppy) cardinale.
+  Papaver, Double.
+  Papaver, Mephisto.
+  Phaseolus multiflorus.
+  Phlox, Large-flowering Dwarf.
+  Phlox, Dwarf Fireball.
+  Phlox, Black Warrior.
+  Salvia coccinea.
+  Saponaria.
+  Tropæolum, Dwarf, Tom Thumb.
+  Tropæolum, Dwarf.
+  Verbena hybrida.
+  Verbena hybrida, Scarlet Defiance.
+  Zinnia.
+
+_GOOD FOR EDGINGS OF BEDS AND WALKS_
+
+  Alyssum, Sweet.
+  Brachycome.
+  Collinsias.
+  Dianthuses or Pinks.
+  Gypsophila muralis.
+  Iberis or Candytufts.
+  Leptosiphons.
+  Lobelia Erinus.
+  Nigellas.
+  Nemophilas.
+  Portulacas or Rose Moss.
+  Saponaria Calabrica.
+  Specularia.
+
+_KINDS WHICH CONTINUE TO BLOOM AFTER FROST_
+
+  Abronia umbellata.
+  Adonis æstivalis.
+  Adonis autumnalis.
+  Argemone grandiflora.
+  Calendulas.
+  Callirrhoë.
+  Carduus Benedictus.
+  Centaurea Cyanus.
+  Centauridium.
+  Centranthus macrosiphon.
+  Cerinthe retorta.
+  Cheiranthus Cheiri.
+  Chrysanthemums.
+  Convolvulus minor.
+  Convolvulus tricolor.
+  Dianthus of various kinds.
+  Elscholtzia cristata.
+  Erysimum Peroffskianum.
+  Erysimum Arkansanum.
+  Eschscholtzias, in several varieties.
+  Gaillardia picta.
+  Gilia Achilleæfolia.
+  Gilia capitata.
+  Gilia laciniata.
+  Gilia tricolor.
+  Iberis affinis.
+  Lavatera alba.
+  Matthiolas or Stocks.
+  Oenothera rosea.
+  Oenothera Lamarckiana.
+  Oenothera Drummondii.
+  Phlox Drummondii.
+  Podolepis affinis.
+  Podolepis chrysantha.
+  Salvia coccinea.
+  Salvia farinacea.
+  Salvia Horminum.
+  Verbenas.
+  Vicia Gerardii.
+  Virginian Stocks.
+  Viscaria elegans.
+  Viscaria oculata.
+  Viscaria coeli-rosa.
+
+
+ANTIRRHINUM. See _Snapdragon_.
+
+
+APPLE, the "King of Fruits," thrives over a wider range of territory and
+under more varied conditions than any other tree fruit. This means that
+it is easy to grow. In fact, it is so easy to grow that it usually is
+neglected; and people wonder why the trees do not bear.
+
+The selection of varieties of Apples for home use is, to a large extent,
+a personal matter; and no one may say what to plant. A variety that is
+successfully grown in one section may prove disappointing in another.
+One should study the locality in which he wishes to plant and choose
+those varieties which are the most successfully grown there,--choosing
+from amongst the successful kinds those which he likes best and which
+seem best to meet the purposes for which he is to grow them. When the
+selection is made, the trees should be procured from a near-by
+nurseryman, if possible, as one is then able to select his own trees,
+receive them in the shortest time, and plant them before they have
+become dry.
+
+The land on which an orchard is to be planted should have been in
+cultivation at least two years previous to setting the trees and be in a
+fine physical condition. Dig the hole broad and deep enough to take in
+all the roots left after pruning off the bruised ends caused by digging
+up the tree, and trim back the branches at least two-thirds, making a
+smooth cut. Set the trunk in the center of the hole, and sift the fine
+dirt down through the roots, slightly lifting the tree once or twice in
+order that the fine soil may settle under the roots, making congenial
+soil for the new roots to run through. Fill in over the roots, gradually
+firming the soil above with the feet. When the hole is full, firm the
+soil around the trunk to prevent whipping by the wind, leaving the
+surface level. If the trees are set in the fall a slight earthing up to
+the trunk may be beneficial in certain soils, and if set in a dry spring
+a mulch of straw or grass will benefit them. Two- or 3-year-old trees
+(usually the latter) are the most desirable for planting in home
+grounds. Commercial orchards are often planted exclusively with
+2-year-olds.
+
+[Illustration: Spray of Apples]
+
+In orchard cultivation, Apple trees are usually planted 35 to 40 ft.
+apart each way. In home grounds they may be placed somewhat closer than
+this, especially if they are planted upon the boundaries, so that the
+limbs may project freely in one direction.
+
+It is ordinarily advisable, especially in the humid climates east of the
+Great Lakes, to have the body of the tree 3½ to 4½ ft. long. The limbs
+should be trimmed up to this point when the tree is set. From three to
+five main branches may be left to form the framework of the top. These
+should be shortened back one-fourth or one-half when the tree is set.
+Subsequent pruning should keep the top of the tree open and maintain it
+in more or less symmetrical form. See _Pruning_.
+
+In orchard conditions, the trees should be kept in clean culture,
+especially for the first few years; but this is not always possible in
+home yards. In lieu of tillage, the sward may be mulched each fall with
+stable manure, and commercial fertilizer may be applied each fall or
+spring. If fruit is wanted rather than foliage and shade, care should be
+taken not to make ground too rich but to keep it in such condition that
+the tree is making a fairly vigorous growth, with good strong foliage,
+but is not overgrowing. An Apple tree in full bearing is usually in good
+condition if the twigs grow from 10 to 18 in. each season. All
+leaf-eating insects may be kept off by spraying with Paris green. The
+Appleworm or codlin-moth may be kept in check by spraying with Paris
+green as soon as the blossoms fall, and again a week or ten days later.
+The leaf blight or apple-scab fungus may be kept in check by spraying
+with Bordeaux mixture just before the flowers open, and again after they
+fall (see _Spraying_). A close watch should be kept for borers. Whenever
+the bark appears to be dead or sunken in patches, remove it and search
+for the cause. A borer will usually be found underneath the bark. About
+the base of the tree the most serious injury occurs from borers, since
+the insect which enters there bores into the hard wood. His presence can
+be determined by the chips which are cast from his burrows. The only
+remedy is to dig out the larvæ. If they have got far into the wood, they
+can be killed by running a flexible wire into the burrows.
+
+Apple trees should begin to bear when three to five years planted, and
+at ten years should be bearing good crops. With good treatment, they
+should continue to bear for thirty or more years. It is cheaper to buy
+trees from the nursery than to attempt to raise them for oneself.
+
+The dwarf Apples are secured by grafting any variety on the Paradise or
+Doucin stocks, which are simply small-growing varieties of Apples.
+Dwarfs are much used in the Old World. There is no reason why they
+should not be used for home gardens in this country. They may be planted
+8 to 10 ft. apart, and trained in various ways. The body or trunk should
+not be more than 1 or 2 ft. long. The top should be headed-in each year
+a third or a half of the annual growth. Dwarfs bear sooner than
+standards. A dwarf in full bearing should produce from a peck to a
+bushel of apples. Usually only the finer or dessert variety of Apples
+should be grown on dwarf trees.
+
+Many of the local varieties of Apples are excellent for home use. From
+the following list of dessert varieties, one can select a good
+assortment for the home garden:
+
+_Summer._--Early Joe, Primate, Garden Royal, Summer Pearmain, Early
+Harvest, Summer Rose, Sweet Bough, Summer Queen, Early Strawberry,
+Williams Favorite.
+
+_Fall._--Chenango, Dyer, Jefferis, Jersey Sweet, Maiden Blush,
+Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Mother (late fall to winter), Twenty Ounce.
+
+_Winter._--Newtown Pippin, Golden Russet, Bellflower, Belmont, King
+(late fall S. of N. Y.), Grimes Golden, Melon, Hubbardston (Nonesuch),
+Northern Spy, Jonathan, Fameuse or Snow, Lady, Rambo, Canada Red, York
+Imperial, Pomme Gris, Esopus Spitzenburg, Swaar, Peck Pleasant, Rhode
+Island Greening, Tallman Sweet, Sutton Beauty, Wagener, Seek-no-further.
+
+
+APRICOT. This fruit, usually thought to be too tender for the winters in
+the latitude of New York, has proved as hardy as the peach. Given the
+right conditions as to soil and exposure, it will yield abundant crops,
+ripening its fruits about three weeks in advance of early peaches. It
+would seem that more attention should be given to its cultivation. In
+western New York commercial orchards are now producing crops of as fine
+fruit as that brought from California. The introduction of the Russian
+varieties, a few years ago, added to the list several desirable kinds
+that have proved hardier and a little later in blooming than the old
+kinds. The fruits of the Russian varieties, while not as large as the
+other varieties, fully equal many of them in flavor, and they are very
+productive. The soil for Apricots should be rather dry; especially
+should the subsoil be such that no water may stand around the roots. The
+exposure should be to the north or west to retard the blooming period,
+as the one great drawback to their successful fruiting is the early
+blooming and subsequent freezing of the flowers or small fruits.
+
+The two serious difficulties in the growing of Apricots are the ravages
+of the curculio (see _Plum_) and the danger to the flowers from the
+spring frosts. It is usually almost impossible to secure fruits from one
+or two isolated Apricot trees, because the curculios will take them all.
+It is possible, also, that some of the varieties need cross-pollination.
+The Apricot usually thrives best on strong soil; but otherwise the
+treatment which is given the peach suits the Apricot very well. The
+Russian varieties bear more profusely and with less care than the
+old-fashioned and larger kinds. Amongst the best kinds of Apricots are
+Montgamet, Jackson, Royal, St. Ambroise, Early Golden, Harris, Roman and
+Moorepark. In the east, Apricots are commonly worked on plums, but they
+also thrive on the peach.
+
+
+AQUARIUM. A pleasant adjunct to a living room or conservatory is a large
+glass globe or glass box containing water, in which plants and animals
+are living and growing. A solid glass tank or globe is better than a box
+with glass sides, because it does not leak, but the box must be used if
+one wants a large Aquarium. For most persons it is better to buy the
+Aquarium box than to attempt to make it. Four things are important in
+making and keeping an Aquarium (according to Miss Rogers, in Cornell
+Nature-Study Leaflet No. 11):
+
+"(1) The equilibrium between plant and animal life must be secured and
+maintained. Animals do not thrive in water where no plants are growing.
+Nature keeps plants and animals in the same pond, and we must follow her
+lead. The plants have three valuable functions in the Aquarium. First,
+they supply food for the herbivorous creatures. Second, they give off a
+quantity of oxygen which is necessary to the life of the animals. Third,
+they take up from the water the poisonous carbonic acid gas which passes
+from the bodies of the animals. Just how the plants do this is another
+story. (2) The Aquarium must be ventilated. Every little fish, snail and
+insect wants air. A certain quantity of air is mixed with the water, and
+the creatures must breathe that or come to the surface for their
+supply. How does Mother Nature manage the ventilation of her aquaria,
+the ponds and streams? The plants furnish part of the air, as we have
+seen. The open pond, whose surface is ruffled by every passing breeze,
+is constantly being provided with fresh air. A tadpole or a fish can no
+more live in a long-necked bottle than a boy can live in a chimney. (3)
+The temperature should be kept between 40° and 50° Fahr. Both nature and
+experience teach us this. A shady corner is a better place for the
+Aquarium than a sunny window on a warm day. (4) It is well to choose
+such animals for the Aquarium as are adapted to life in still water.
+Unless one has an arrangement of water pipes to supply a constant flow
+of water through the Aquarium, it is best not to try to keep creatures
+that we find in swift streams. Practical experience shows that there are
+certain dangers to guard against. Perhaps the most serious results come
+from overstocking. It is better to have too few plants or animals than
+too many of either. A great deal of light, especially bright sunlight,
+is not good for the Aquarium. A pond that is not shaded soon becomes
+green with a thick growth of slime, or algæ. This does not look well in
+an Aquarium, and is apt to take up so much of the plant-food that the
+other plants are starved out. The plants in the school-room window will
+shade the Aquarium nicely, just as the trees and shrubs on its banks
+shade the pond. If we find this slime forming on the light side of our
+miniature pond we put it in a darker place, shade it heavily so that the
+light comes in from the top only, and put in a few more snails. These
+will make quick work of the green slime, for they are fond of it, if we
+are not."
+
+The aquatic plants of the neighborhood may be kept in the
+Aquarium,--such things as myriophyllums, charas, eel-grass, duckmeats or
+lemnas, cabomba or fish grass, arrowleafs or sagittaria, and the like;
+also the parrot's feather, to be bought of florists (a species of
+myriophyllum). Of animals, there are fishes (particularly minnows),
+water insects, tadpoles, clams, snails. If the proper balance is
+maintained between plant and animal life, it will not be necessary to
+change the water so frequently.
+
+
+AQUATICS AND BOG PLANTS. Many water plants are easily grown, and make a
+fine addition to the home garden. The sedges and other bog plants, the
+cyperus or umbrella plant, the common wild water lily, and in large
+grounds the nelumbium or Egyptian lotus, all may be grown with ease. For
+restricted grounds any of these, with the exception of the nelumbium,
+may be grown in tubs made by sawing an oaken barrel in two, filling each
+half from one-third to one-half with soil composed of good loam, sand
+and leaf-mold, setting the plants well into the soil and filling the
+tubs with water. These tubs should be sunk to the rim in the borders or
+lawn, both for a good appearance and to prevent too great evaporation.
+By a little care in filling with water, these plants may be well grown
+through the hottest weather. Most of the foreign water lilies are not
+hardy, but some of them may be grown with ease if the pond is covered in
+winter.
+
+Native Aquatics may be colonized in streams or ponds. If artificial
+ponds are to be made, do not get them too deep. A foot or 15 inches is
+sufficient depth of water to stand above the crowns of the plants; and
+the greatest depth of water should not be more than 2½ ft. for all
+kinds of water lilies. Half this depth is often sufficient. The soil
+should be 1 to 2 ft. deep, and very rich. Cow manure may be mixed with
+rich loam. Roots of hardy water lilies may be planted as soon as the
+pond is clear of frost, but the tender kinds (which are also to be taken
+up in the fall) should not be planted till it is time to plant out
+geraniums. Sink the roots into the mud so that they are just buried, and
+weight them down with a stone or clod. In cold climates, protect the
+pond of hardy Aquatics by throwing boards over the pond and covering
+with hay, straw or evergreen boughs. It is well to supply an additional
+depth of water as a further protection.
+
+
+AQUILEGIA. COLUMBINE. These hardy perennials are general favorites for
+borders and rockwork. Blooming early in the season, they may be said to
+head the procession of the perennials. The ease with which they may be
+cultivated, their freedom of bloom, their varied colors and odd shape
+entitle them to the front rank among hardy plants. They are propagated
+by division of the plants in the spring or from seed sown in the fall.
+Seedlings may be expected to bloom well the second year. They require a
+moist, partially sheltered situation, with exposure to the sun. The
+common wild Columbine (often called "honeysuckle") is easily grown and
+is very attractive. Clumps of Columbine should stand 12-18 in. apart.
+2-3 ft. high.
+
+
+ARAUCARIA, or NORFOLK ISLAND PINE, is now sold in pots by florists as a
+window plant. The common species (_A. excelsa_) is most excellent for
+this purpose, making a symmetrical evergreen subject. It keeps well in a
+cool window, or on the veranda in the summer. Protect it from direct
+sunlight, and give plenty of room. If the plant begins to fail, return
+it to the florist for recuperation.
+
+
+ARGEMONE. See _Prickly Poppy_.
+
+
+ARISTOLOCHIA, or DUTCHMAN'S PIPE. A strong, woody twiner with very
+large, heavy leaves, forming a dense screen and having peculiarly shaped
+flowers. But one species is considered hardy north, _A. Sipho_. This
+will grow without special treatment and prove a satisfactory ornamental
+screen or porch plant. Reaches a height of 20 or 30 ft. Young plants
+need some protection in cold winters.
+
+
+ARTICHOKE. A tall, coarse perennial of the thistle tribe, producing
+flower-heads which are edible. When once established, it will last in
+bearing for a number of years. While this plant is not generally grown
+in this country, its merit as a supplementary vegetable for salads or
+cooking is great. It is usually grown from suckers from the root, but a
+start can be made by sowing the seed. Sow in a border or seed box and
+transplant to the garden in early summer; and the following year a crop
+may be had. The parts of the plant used are the flower-heads and the
+young suckers, the former boiled or eaten raw as a salad. The young
+shoots may be tied together and blanched, using them like asparagus or
+Swiss chard. The fleshy scales of the head and the soft "bottom" of the
+head are the parts used. But few of these plants would be needed for a
+family, as they produce a number of flower-heads to a plant and a
+quantity of suckers. The plants should be set from 2 to 3 ft. apart in
+the row, the rows being 3 ft. apart. This vegetable is not quite hardy
+in the north, but a covering of leaves or barnyard litter to the depth
+of a foot will protect them well. The plant, being a perennial, will
+continue to yield for a number of years under good cultivation. These
+plants make no mean decorative subjects, either massed or in a mixed
+border, and from the rarity of their culture are always objects of
+interest.
+
+
+ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM, is a wholly different plant from the above,
+although it is commonly known as "Artichoke" in this country. It is a
+species of sunflower which produces potato-like tubers. These tubers may
+be used in lieu of potatoes. They are very palatable to hogs; and when
+the plant becomes a weed--as it often does--it may be exterminated by
+turning the hogs into it. Hardy.
+
+
+ARUNDO, or REED, is one of the best of bold and ornamental grasses,
+excellent for the center of a large formal bed, or for emphatic points
+in a mixed border. It is perennial and hardy in the northern states, but
+it is advisable to give it a mulch on the approach of winter. Thrives in
+any rich soil, doing best where somewhat moist. 8-12 ft. The clumps
+enlarge year by year.
+
+
+ASPARAGUS. A hardy herbaceous perennial, much grown for the soft,
+edible, early spring shoots. The culture of this, the finest of early
+vegetables, has been simplified in the past few years, and at present
+the knowledge required to successfully plant and grow a good supply need
+not be that of a professional. The old method of excavating to the depth
+of 3 ft. or more, throwing in from 4 to 6 in. of broken stone or bricks
+for drainage, then filling to within 16 to 18 in. of the surface with
+well rotted manure, with 6 in. of soil upon which to set the roots, has
+given place to the simple practice of plowing or digging a trench from
+14 to 16 in. deep, spreading well rotted manure in the bottom to the
+depth of 3 or 4 in.; when well trodden down covering the manure with 3
+or 4 in. of good garden soil, then setting the plants, with the roots
+well spread out, covering carefully with soil to the level of the
+garden, and firming the soil with the feet. This will leave the crowns
+of the plants from 4 to 5 in. below the surface. In setting, 1-year-old
+plants will prove more satisfactory than older ones, being less liable
+to suffer from injury to the root system than those which have made a
+larger growth. Two years after setting the crop may be cut, but not
+sooner if a lasting bed is desired, as the effort to replace the stalks
+has a tendency to weaken the plant unless the roots are well
+established. The yearly treatment of an Asparagus bed consists of
+cleaning off tops and weeds in the fall and adding a dressing of well
+rotted manure to the depth of 3 or 4 in., this manure to be lightly
+forked into the bed the following spring; or, the tops may be allowed to
+stand for winter protection and the mulch left off. A top-dressing of
+nitrate of soda, at the rate of 200 pounds per acre, is often beneficial
+as a spring stimulant, especially in the case of an old bed. Good
+results will also follow an application of bone meal or superphosphate
+at the rate of from 300 to 500 pounds per acre. The practice of sowing
+salt on an Asparagus bed is almost universal. Still, beds that have
+never received a pound of salt are found to be as productive as those
+having received an annual dressing. Nevertheless, a salt dressing is
+recommended. In stubborn, heavy soil the best method to pursue in making
+a permanent bed would be to throw out all the dirt from the trench and
+replace with good, fibrous loam. Two rows of Asparagus 25 ft. long and 3
+ft. apart would supply a large family with an abundance throughout the
+season, and if well taken care of will last a number of years. Conover's
+Colossal is the variety most generally grown, and is perhaps the most
+satisfactory sort. Palmetto, a variety originating at the south, is also
+very popular. A newer variety, called Donald White, originating near
+Elmira, N. Y., is recommended by the trade.
+
+
+ASPERULA. Hardy annuals and perennials. The low-growing Asperula, with
+its blue or white flowers, is not as often used as it should be. The
+profusion of small flowers and the long season entitle it to a place in
+low borders. The flowers have a pleasing fragrance. Asperulas may be
+used effectively on rockwork. The common white species, or Woodruff,
+grows less than 1 foot. Grown readily from seeds, and blooms the first
+year. All Asperulas thrive best in a rather moist soil.
+
+
+ASTERS, CHINA. Half-hardy annuals, of easy culture. The China Aster has
+been for years a great favorite in both old-fashioned and modern
+gardens. With the improvements in shapes and colors, they are now the
+rivals of the chrysanthemum. As early as 1731 single white and red
+Asters were grown and described in England, and by 1845 they are
+mentioned as being very numerous in New England. The Germans were,
+perhaps, the first to improve the Asters, and the type most admired and
+sought fifty years ago was the full-quilled varieties. Now, however, the
+informal type replaces the stiff, formal quilled flowers of that period.
+Compare the Comet Aster of to-day with the Asters of even twenty years
+ago, and note the looseness of its broad rays, giving an artistic value
+far beyond the tall, stiff, purple-blue or whites of that period.
+
+[Illustration: China Aster]
+
+The early Asters will bloom in August if the seed is sown in the open
+early in the season. They are represented by the Queen of the Market and
+Queen of Spring, either of which, if started in a hotbed or window, will
+begin to bloom the last of July. The Queen of the Market is probably the
+freest of growth, and with its long stems makes a very desirable variety
+for cut-flowers. In fact, in the rich, mellow soil in which Asters
+delight, this variety is likely to have its large flowers on stems so
+long and slender that the plants will need stakes.
+
+The Victoria Asters hold a well deserved place among the leading
+varieties, and with high culture will generally lead in size and
+profusion of bloom, the colors ranging from white to the darkest blue.
+The plants are also well adapted to pot culture. The chrysanthemum-flowered
+Asters, both tall and dwarf, are excellent, as are the Truffaut
+Perfection and Peony-flowered. The Comet Asters are amongst the best.
+The New Branching type is now in great favor.
+
+The culture of China Asters is easy. For early bloom the seeds should be
+sown in March in boxes of light soil and covered one-quarter of an inch
+with soil, the soil pressed down or firmed over them and the boxes
+placed in a hotbed or a sunny window and attention given to watering.
+When the seedlings are one inch high they should be transplanted to
+other boxes, setting the plants 3 inches apart or put into 2-inch pots.
+These should be again placed in a frame and grown along until the ground
+has become comparatively warm. The soil will need to be well enriched,
+mellow, and if slightly moist under the surface the results will be all
+that could be wished. Asters will grow fairly well on rather light soil,
+even if not very rich, but the best results can only be obtained when
+the highest culture is given. If the rust attacks the plants, spray
+with ammoniacal carbonate of copper.
+
+
+[Illustration: Spray of wild Aster]
+
+ASTER, NATIVE. Wild Asters are one of the glories of the American
+autumn. They grow almost everywhere in the north and east,--along
+roadsides, in meadows and swales. Their colors range from pure white to
+pink, and purple, and blue. From August until winter closes in, they are
+conspicuous features of the landscape, vying with the goldenrods in form
+and color, but surpassing them in color-range. Most of them are greatly
+improved when transferred to the border. They become more attractive in
+general habit, and the flowers are usually more profuse and sometimes
+larger. They are of the easiest possible culture. They can be removed to
+home grounds in the fall or spring, and, with little care until they are
+established, will make most attractive displays of autumn color. The
+species are numerous and much confused, and it is not necessary to make
+a list of them here. Because of their free and careless habit, they are
+better adapted to planting in borders than in the formal flower beds.
+
+[Illustration: Wild Asters]
+
+
+AUBRIETIA DELTOIDEA. A very handsome little trailing hardy perennial,
+covered with attractive purple flowers in early spring. Should be
+planted in masses for best effect. Propagated by cuttings or seeds,
+usually the latter. Excellent for rockwork and permanent low edgings.
+
+
+AURICULA. A half-hardy perennial of the Primrose tribe (_Primula
+Auricula_), very popular in Europe, but little grown in this country on
+account of the hot, dry summers. In this country usually propagated by
+seed, as for Cineraria; but special varieties are perpetuated by
+offsets. Seeds sown in February or March should give blooming plants
+for the next February or March. Keep the plants cool and moist, and away
+from the direct sun during the summer. Gardeners usually grow them in
+frames. In the fall, they are potted into 3-inch or 4-inch pots, and
+made to bloom either in frames as for violets or in a cool conservatory
+or greenhouse. In April, after blooming has ceased, repot the plants and
+treat as the previous year. From the best plants, offsets may be taken
+and treated the same as seedlings. As with most annual-blooming
+perennials, best results are to be expected with year-old or 2-year-old
+plants. Auriculas grow 6-8 in. high. Colors white and many shades of red
+and blue.
+
+
+AZALEAS are less grown in this country than in Europe, largely because
+of our hot, dry summers and severe winters. There are two common types
+or classes,--the hardy or Ghent Azaleas, and the Indian Azaleas.
+
+Ghent Azaleas thrive in the open along the seacoast as far north as
+southern New England. They require a sandy, peaty soil, and are treated
+as other shrubs are. The large flower-buds are liable to injury from the
+warm suns of late winter and early spring, and to avoid this injury the
+plants are often protected by covers or shades of brush. In the interior
+country, little attempt is made to flower Azaleas permanently in the
+open, although they may be grown if carefully tended and well protected.
+Both Ghent and Indian Azaleas are excellent pot-plants, for bloom in
+late winter and spring. The plants are imported in great numbers from
+Europe, and it is better to buy these plants than to attempt to
+propagate them. Pot them up in large-sized pots, keep them cool and
+backward for a time until they are established, then take them into a
+conservatory temperature, in which carnations and roses thrive. They
+should be potted in a soil made of half peat or well decayed mold and
+half rich loam; add a little sand. Pot firmly, and be sure to provide
+sufficient drainage. Keep off red spider by syringing. After blooming,
+the plants may be thinned by pruning out the straggling growths, and
+repotted. Set them in a frame or in a semi-shaded place during summer,
+and see that they make a good growth. The wood should be well ripened in
+the fall. After cold weather sets in, keep the Indian or evergreen kinds
+half-dormant by setting them in a cool, dull-lighted cellar or pit,
+bringing them in when wanted for bloom. The Ghent or deciduous kinds may
+be touched with frost without injury; and they may be stored in a cellar
+until wanted.
+
+
+BACHELOR'S BUTTON. _Centaurea Cyanus_ and also _Gomphrena_. Sometimes
+applied to double-flowered Crowfoots.
+
+
+[Illustration: Balloon Vine]
+
+BALLOON VINE, or CARDIOSPERMUM. Annual tender tendril climber of very
+rapid growth. Seed should not be planted until the soil becomes warm. A
+very pretty effect can be had by allowing the vine to run over some
+coarser vine, or into an evergreen tree. The balloon-like capsules show
+to good advantage between the leaves. It is also useful for covering
+piles of brush. Grows 8-12 ft. high. Give a warm, sunny place.
+
+
+BALSAMS, or IMPATIENS. Tender annuals, producing both single and double
+flowers of many colors. These well known favorites are usually to be
+found in old-fashioned gardens. They are very likely to seed themselves,
+coming up in unexpected places and flourishing in neglect. They do best,
+however, in rich, sandy soil. If the seed is sown in boxes late in April
+and the plants transplanted several times they will be much dwarfer and
+the flowers much more double. A stately, though very formal and stiff,
+effect may be had by planting a row of Balsams in the rear of a low
+border, pinching off all the side shoots as they start and growing the
+plant to a single stem. This will become covered with the large blooms,
+giving it the appearance of a perfect column of flowers. Balsams are
+injured by the slightest frost. Seeds germinate quickly. Plants should
+stand 12-18 in. apart. They grow 18-30 in. high.
+
+
+BARTONIA. Hardy annual, with golden yellow, brilliant flowers. The
+tall-growing Bartonia (_B. aurea_) may be used in a mixed border to good
+advantage. It is a bushy plant, reaching 2-3 ft. high. The dwarf kind
+may be used as a border plant or in a rock garden, or as an edging. The
+fragrance of both tall and dwarf is very pronounced in the evening. The
+Bartonias are very easy to grow in a warm soil and sunny exposure. Their
+numerous thread-like, long stamens are very interesting.
+
+
+BASKET PLANTS. In order to have a good hanging basket, it is necessary
+that some provision be made to prevent too rapid drying out of the
+earth. It is customary, therefore, to line the pot or basket with moss.
+Open wire baskets, like a horse muzzle, are often lined with moss and
+used for the growing of plants. Prepare the earth by mixing some well
+decayed leaf-mold with rich garden loam, thereby making an earth which
+will retain moisture. Hang the basket in a light place, but still not in
+a direct sunlight; and, if possible, avoid putting it where it will be
+exposed to drying wind. In order to water the basket, it is often
+advisable to sink it into a pail or tub of water. Various plants are
+well adapted to hanging baskets. Among the drooping or vine-like kinds
+are the strawberry geranium, Kenilworth ivy, maurandya, German ivy,
+canary-bird flower, _Asparagus Sprengeri_, ivy geranium, trailing
+fuchsia, wandering Jew, and othonna. Among the erect-growing plants
+which produce flowers, _Lobelia Erinus_, sweet alyssum, petunias,
+oxalis, and various geraniums are to be recommended. Among foliage
+plants such things as coleus, dusty miller, begonia, and some geraniums
+are adaptable.
+
+
+[Illustration: Climax basket]
+
+BASKETS. For the picking and handling of fruit in the home garden, the
+common Climax basket, in various sizes, is the best receptacle. In
+these baskets the products may be sold. When the baskets are sent to
+market or to a friend, they should be neat and new looking; therefore
+keep them in a dry, dark place, as in an attic or loft, to prevent them
+from becoming warped and discolored.
+
+
+BEAN. Under the general name of Bean, many kinds of plants are
+cultivated. They are all tender, and the seeds, therefore, should not be
+planted until the weather is thoroughly settled; and the soil should be
+warm and loose. They are all annuals in northern countries, or treated
+as such.
+
+The Bean plants may be classified in various ways. In respect to
+stature, they may be thrown into three general categories; viz., the
+pole or climbing Beans, the bush Beans, and the strict-growing or
+upright Beans (as the Broad or Windsor Bean). In respect to their uses,
+Beans again may be divided into three categories; viz., those which are
+used as string or snap Beans, the entire pod being eaten; those which
+are used as shell Beans, the full-size but immature Beans being shelled
+from the pod and cooked; dry Beans, or those which are eaten in their
+dry or winter condition. The same variety of Bean may be used for all of
+these three purposes at different stages of its development; but as a
+matter of fact, there are varieties which are better for one purpose
+than the other. Again, Beans may be classified in respect to their
+species. Those species which are best known are as follows: (1) Common
+Bean, or _Phaseolus vulgaris_, of which there are both tall and bush
+forms. All the common snap and string Beans belong here, as also the
+Speckled Cranberry types of pole Beans, and the common field Beans. (2)
+The Lima Beans, or _Phaseolus lunatus_. The larger part of these are
+pole Beans, but lately dwarf or bush varieties have appeared. (3) The
+Scarlet Runner, _Phaseolus multiflorus_, of which the Scarlet Runner
+and White Dutch Runner are familiar examples. The Scarlet Runner is
+usually grown as an ornamental vine, and it is perennial in warm
+countries, but the Beans are edible as shelled Beans. The White Dutch
+Runner is oftener cultivated for food. (4) The Yard-Long, or Asparagus
+Bean, _Dolichos sesquipedalis_, which produces long and weak vines and
+very long, slender pods. The green pods are eaten, and also the shelled
+Beans. The French Yard-Long is the only variety of this type which is
+commonly known in this country. This type of Bean is popular in the
+Orient. (5) The Broad Beans, of which the Windsor is the common type.
+These are much grown in the Old World for stock feed, and they are
+sometimes used for human food. They grow to one strict, central, stiff
+stalk, to a height of 2-4 or 5 ft., and they are very unlike other kinds
+of Beans in appearance. In this country, they are very little grown on
+account of our hot and dry summers. In Canada they are somewhat grown,
+and are sometimes used in the making of ensilage.
+
+The culture of the Bean, while of the easiest, often proves a failure as
+far as the first crop is concerned, because of planting the seed before
+the ground has become warm and dry. No vegetable seed will decay quicker
+than Beans, and the delay caused by waiting for the soil to become warm
+and free from excessive moisture will be more than made up by the
+rapidity of growth when finally they are planted. Beans will grow in
+most any soil, but the best results may be obtained by having the soil
+well enriched and in good physical condition. From the 5th to the 10th
+of May in the latitude of central New York, it will be safe to plant
+Beans for an early crop. The Beans may be dropped 2 inches deep in
+shallow drills, the seeds to lie 3 inches apart. Cover to the surface of
+the soil, and if the ground be dry, firm it with the foot or the back of
+the hoe. For the bush varieties, allow 2 ft. between the drill-rows, but
+for the dwarf Limas 2½ ft. is better. Pole Limas are usually planted
+in hills 2-3 ft. apart in the rows. Dwarf Limas may be sown thinly in
+drills.
+
+A large number of the varieties of both the green-podded and the
+wax-podded Beans are used almost exclusively as snap Beans, to be eaten
+with the pod while tender. The various strains of the Black Wax are the
+most popular string Beans. The pole or running Beans are used either
+green or dried, and the Limas, both tall and dwarf, are well known for
+their superior flavor either as shelled or dry Beans. The old-fashioned
+Cranberry or Horticultural Lima type (a pole form of _Phaseolus
+vulgaris_) is probably the best shell Bean, but the trouble of poling
+makes it unpopular. Dwarf Limas are much more desirable for small
+gardens than the pole varieties, as they may be planted much closer, the
+bother of procuring poles and twine is avoided, and the garden will have
+a more sightly appearance. Both the dwarf Limas and pole Limas require a
+longer season in which to mature than the bush varieties, and only one
+planting is usually made. But the bush varieties may be planted at
+intervals of two weeks from the first planting until the 10th of August.
+Each planting may be made on ground previously occupied by some
+early-maturing crop. Thus, the first to third plantings may be on ground
+from which has been harvested a crop of spinach, early radish or
+lettuce; after that, on ground where early peas have been grown; and the
+later sowings where beets or early potatoes have grown. String Beans for
+canning are usually taken from the last crop. One quart of seed will
+plant 100 ft. of drill; or 1 quart of Limas will plant 100 hills.
+
+Limas are the richest of Beans, but they often fail to mature in the
+northern states. The land should not be very rich in nitrogen (or stable
+manure), else the plants will run too much to vine and be too late.
+Select a fertile sandy or gravelly soil with warm exposure, use some
+soluble commercial fertilizer to start them off, and give them the best
+of culture. Aim to have the pods set before the droughts of midsummer
+come. Good trellises for Beans are made by wool twine stretched between
+two horizontal wires, one of which is drawn a foot above the ground and
+the other 6 or 7 ft. high.
+
+Bean plants are not troubled by insects to any extent, but they are
+sometimes attacked by blight. When this occurs, do not plant the same
+ground to Beans again for a year or two.
+
+
+BEDDING. This term is used to designate the massing of plants in the
+open ground for the purpose of making a bold display of color. This
+color may be obtained with flowers or with strong effects of foliage.
+Bedding is ordinarily a temporary species of planting; that is, the bed
+is filled anew each year. However, the term may be used to designate a
+permanent plantation of plants which are heavily massed so as to give
+one continuous or emphatic display of form or color. Some of the best
+permanent bedding masses are made of the various hardy ornamental
+grasses, as eulalias, arundo, and the like.
+
+Some bedding is very temporary in its effect. Especially is this true of
+spring Bedding, in which the plants used are tulips, hyacinths, crocuses
+or other early-flowering bulbous plants. In this case, the ground is
+usually occupied later in the season by other plants. These later plants
+are usually annuals, the seeds of which are sown amongst the bulbs as
+soon as the season is far enough advanced; or the annuals may be started
+in boxes and the plants transplanted amongst the bulbs as soon as the
+weather is fit. Many of the low-growing and compact, continuous-flowering
+annuals are excellent for summer Bedding effects. Some of the best
+plants for this purpose are mentioned in the following list:
+
+  Adonis æstivalis.
+  Adonis autumnalis.
+  Ageratum Mexicanum.
+  Ageratum Mexicanum, dwarf.
+  Bartonia aurea.
+  Cacalia.
+  Calendula officinalis, in several forms.
+  Calendula pluvialis.
+  Calendula Pongei.
+  Calendula sulphurea, fl. pl.
+  Calendula suffruticosa.
+  Calliopsis bicolor marmorata.
+  Calliopsis cardaminæfolia.
+  Calliopsis elegans picta.
+  Callirrhoë involucrata.
+  Callirrhoë pedata nana.
+  Callirrhoë pedata.
+  Centaurea Americana.
+  Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact.
+  Centaurea Cyanus minor.
+  Centaurea suaveolens.
+  Chrysanthemum Burridgeanum.
+  Chrysanthemum carinatum.
+  Chrysanthemum coronarium.
+  Chrysanthemum tricolor.
+  Convolvulus minor.
+  Convolvulus tricolor.
+  Cosmidium Burridgeanum.
+  Delphinium, single.
+  Delphinium, double.
+  Dianthus, Double White Half Dwarf Margaret.
+  Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual.
+  Dianthus Caryophyllus semperflorens.
+  Dianthus Chinensis, double.
+  Dianthus dentosus hybridus.
+  Dianthus Heddewigii.
+  Dianthus imperialis.
+  Dianthus laciniatus, Salmon Queen.
+  Dianthus plumarius.
+  Dianthus superbus, dwarf fl. pl.
+  Dianthus, Picotee.
+  Elscholtzia cristata.
+  Eschscholtzia Californica.
+  Eschscholtzia crocea.
+  Eschscholtzia, Mandarin.
+  Eschscholtzia tenuifolia.
+  Gaillardia picta.
+  Gaillardia picta Lorenziana.
+  Gilia achilleæfolia.
+  Gilia capitata.
+  Gilia laciniata.
+  Gilia linifolia.
+  Gilia nivalis.
+  Gilia tricolor.
+  Godetia Whitneyi.
+  Godetia grandiflora maculata.
+  Godetia rubicunda splendens.
+  Hibiscus Africanus.
+  Hibiscus, Golden Bowl.
+  Iberis affinis.
+  Iberis amara.
+  Iberis coronaria.
+  Iberis umbellata.
+  Impatiens or Balsam.
+  Lavatera alba.
+  Lavatera trimestris.
+  Linum grandiflorum.
+  Madia elegans.
+  Malope grandiflora.
+  Matricaria eximia plena.
+  Matthiola or Stock, in many forms.
+  Matthiola, Wallflower-leaved.
+  Matthiola bicornis.
+  Nigella or Love-in-a-Mist.
+  Oenothera Drummondii.
+  Oenothera Lamarckiana.
+  Oenothera rosea.
+  Oenothera tetraptera.
+  Papaver or Poppy, of many kinds.
+  Papaver cardinale.
+  Papaver glaucum.
+  Papaver umbrosum.
+  Petunia, Ring of Emerald.
+  Phlox Drummondii, in many varieties.
+  Portulaca.
+  Salvia farinacea.
+  Salvia Horminum.
+  Salvia splendens.
+  Schizanthus papilionaceus.
+  Schizanthus pinnatus.
+  Silene Armeria.
+  Silene pendula.
+  Tagetes or Marigold, in many forms.
+  Tagetes erecta.
+  Tagetes patula.
+  Tagetes signata.
+  Tropæolum, Dwarf.
+  Verbena auriculæflora.
+  Verbena Italica striata.
+  Verbena hybrida.
+  Verbena coerulea.
+  Verbena, Golden-leaved.
+  Viscaria coeli-rosa.
+  Viscaria elegans picta.
+  Viscaria oculata.
+  Zinnia, Dwarf.
+  Zinnia elegans alba.
+  Zinnia, Tom Thumb.
+  Zinnia Haageana.
+  Zinnia coccinea plena.
+
+Summer bedding is often made by perennial plants which are carried over
+from the preceding year, or better, which are propagated for that
+particular purpose in February and March. Such plants as geranium,
+coleus, alyssum, scarlet salvia, ageratum and heliotrope may be used for
+these beds. It is a common practice to use geranium plants which are in
+bloom during the winter for bedding out during the summer, but such
+plants are tall and ungainly in form and have expended the greater part
+of their energies. It is better to propagate new plants by taking
+cuttings or slips late in the winter and setting out young, fresh,
+vigorous subjects.
+
+Very bold and subtropical effects can be made by planting in the open
+such things as palms, bananas, crotons, araucarias, caladiums and
+cannas. Plants like bananas and palms, which are kept normally in pots,
+would better be left in the pots and plunged to the rims rather than
+turned out directly into the soil. In order to attain quick and
+continuous effects, it is advisable to set the plants rather close. As
+such plants are likely to be injured by strong winds, it is well to have
+subtropical beds in a somewhat protected place.
+
+Another type of bed is that which attempts to make patterns or designs,
+or carpet-bedding. There are comparatively few plants which are adapted
+to this purpose, for the plants must be such as will stand shearing and
+which have very strong and constant colors of foliage. The most popular
+bedding plants are coleus (particularly the yellow Golden Bedder)
+achyranthes, alternanthera, _Centaurea gymnocarpa_, and such succulent
+plants as the house leeks. Some of the annual flowers may also be used
+for strong color effects, as _Lobelia Erinus_ and sweet alyssum.
+Ordinarily the making of carpet-beds should be left to professional
+gardeners, since it requires much skill and care to make and keep the
+beds in perfect condition; and a ragged or imperfect carpet-bed is worse
+than no bed at all. Carpet-beds are really curiosities, and they have no
+more legitimate place in the general pictorial landscape design area
+than painted stones or sheared evergreens. Therefore, they should be
+placed by themselves at one side, where they do not interfere with the
+general design of the place. In public parks they make a very useful
+attraction when set off by themselves, the same as zoölogical gardens or
+other attractions do.
+
+
+BEEFSTEAK GERANIUM is _Begonia_.
+
+
+BEETS. Being one of the hardiest of spring vegetables, the seed may be
+sown as early in the spring as the ground can be worked. A light, sandy
+soil is the best on which to grow Beets to perfection, but any well
+tilled garden soil will raise satisfactory crops. On heavy soil the
+turnip Beet gives the best results, as the growth is nearly all at or
+above the surface. The long varieties, having tapering roots running
+deep into the soil, are apt to be misshapen unless the physical
+condition of the soil is such that the roots meet with little
+obstruction. A succession of sowings should be made, at intervals of
+from two to three weeks, until late summer, as the Beets are much more
+desirable in their young stage than when they have become old and woody.
+The Mangel-Wurzel and the Sugar Beet are usually grown as a field crop,
+and will not enter into the calculations of the home garden.
+
+[Illustration: Early Beets]
+
+In order to hasten the season of the extra-early crop of Beets, the
+seeds may be sown in boxes or in the soil of a hotbed in February or
+March, transplanting the small plants to the open ground at the time the
+first sowing of seed is made. As the flat or turnip-rooted varieties
+grow at the surface of the ground, the seed may be sown thickly, and as
+the more advanced roots are large enough to use they may be pulled,
+leaving room for the later ones to develop, thus growing a quantity in a
+small area and having a long season of small Beets from one sowing. For
+winter use the late July sown seed will give the best roots, growing
+through the cool months of the fall to a medium size and remaining firm
+without being tough or stringy. These may be dug up after light frosts
+and before any severe cold weather, and stored in barrels or boxes in
+the cellar, using enough dry dirt to fill spaces between the roots and
+cover them to the depth of 6 inches. These roots, thus packed in a cool
+cellar, will be fit to use through the entire winter months. When it can
+be had, florists' or sphagnum moss is an excellent medium in which to
+pack roots for winter.
+
+The early round or turnip varieties are best for early and summer use.
+The Long Blood Beets may be used for storing, but these require a longer
+season of growth.
+
+
+BEGONIAS. Tender bedding and house plants. Next to the geranium,
+Begonias are probably the most popular for house culture of the entire
+plant list. The ease of culture, profusion of bloom or richness of
+foliage, together with their adaptability to shade, make them very
+desirable.
+
+Begonias may be divided into three sections: the fibrous-rooted class,
+which contains the winter-flowering varieties; the tuberous-rooted,
+those which bloom through the summer, the tuber resting through the
+winter; and the Rex forms, or Beefsteak Geraniums, having large
+ornamental leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Fibrous-rooted Begonia]
+
+The fibrous-rooted kinds may be propagated by seed or cuttings, the
+latter being the usual method. Cuttings of half-ripened wood root
+easily, making a rapid growth, the plants flowering in a few months.
+
+The tuberous-rooted varieties are propagated by division of the tuber or
+from seed, the former being rarely done except to increase the stock of
+some extra fine variety. The seeds, like those of all Begonias, are very
+small, and should be sown with great care. Simply sprinkle them on the
+surface of the soil, which should be a mixture of leaf-mold and sand,
+with the addition of a small amount of fibrous loam. Watering should be
+done by setting the pot or box in which the seeds are sown in water,
+allowing the moisture to ascend through the soil. When the soil has
+become completely saturated, set the box in a shady situation, covering
+it with glass or some other object until the tiny seedlings appear.
+Never allow the soil to become dry. The seedlings should be
+transplanted, as soon as they can be handled, into boxes or pots
+containing the same mixture of soil, setting each plant down to the
+seed-leaf. They will need three or four transplantings before they reach
+the blooming stage, and at each one after the first, the amount of
+fibrous loam may be increased until the soil is composed of one-third
+each of loam, sand and leaf-mold. The addition of a little well rotted
+manure may be made at the last transplanting. These tuberous-rooted
+Begonias make superior bedding plants if given a shady situation and
+deep soil; but for the amateur they are perhaps better grown as
+pot-plants, for one is able to give them better conditions by that
+method. The flowers are both double and single, ranging in color from
+pure white and yellow to pink and red. After flowering the plants will
+die down and the tubers, after drying off, may be placed in a dry, warm
+place until spring.
+
+[Illustration: Rex Begonia]
+
+The Rex type, having no branches, is propagated from the leaves. The
+large mature leaves are used. The leaf may be cut into sections having
+at the base a union of two ribs. These pieces of leaves may be inserted
+in the sand as any other cutting. Or a whole leaf may be used, cutting
+through the ribs at intervals and laying the leaf flat on the
+propagating bench or other warm, moist place. In a short time young
+plants having roots of their own will form. These may be potted when
+large enough to handle, and will soon make good sized plants. Rex
+Begonias usually grow little during winter. Be sure that the pots are
+well drained, so that the soil does not become sour. New plants--those a
+year or so old--are usually most satisfactory. Keep them away from
+direct sunlight.
+
+An insidious disease of Begonia leaves has recently made its appearance.
+The best treatment yet known is to propagate fresh plants, throwing away
+the old stock and the dirt in which it is grown.
+
+
+BELLIS PERENNIS. See _Daisy_.
+
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Briton Blackberry]
+
+BLACKBERRIES. The one essential to the successful growing of
+Blackberries is a moist soil,--not one in which water will stand, but
+one rich enough in humus to hold sufficient moisture to carry the crop
+through the growing season. It is usually found best to plant in the
+fall, earthing up slightly around the plants. The distance between the
+plants should be regulated by the variety. The smaller-growing kinds (as
+Early Harvest and Wilson) may be planted 4 x 7 ft., the rank-growing
+varieties (as Snyder) 6 x 8 ft. Thorough cultivation throughout the
+season will help in a material degree to hold the moisture necessary to
+perfect a good crop. The soil should be cultivated very shallow,
+however, so as not to disturb the roots, as the breaking of the roots
+starts a large number of suckers that have to be cut out and destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: Shears for cutting out old canes]
+
+Blackberries, like dewberries and raspberries, bear but one crop on the
+cane. That is, canes which spring up this year bear next year. From 3 to
+6 canes are sufficient to be left in each hill. The superfluous ones are
+thinned out soon after they start from the ground. The old canes should
+be cut out soon after fruiting and burned. The new shoots should be
+pinched back at the height of 2 or 3 ft. if the plants are to support
+themselves. If to be fastened to wires, they may be allowed to grow
+throughout the season and be cut back when tied to the wires in winter
+or early spring. Tools for the cutting out of the old canes are well
+represented in the pictures. Shears are used for shortening-in the
+canes.
+
+[Illustration: Shears for heading-in bushes]
+
+Blackberry plants are sometimes laid down in cold climates,--the tops
+being bent over and held to the ground by earth or sods thrown on their
+tips.
+
+[Illustration: Knife hook for cutting out old canes]
+
+Snyder is the most popular commercial variety; but Agawam, Ancient
+Briton, Taylor, and others are better in quality. A new patch should be
+planted every five or six years.
+
+
+BLUE BOTTLE. See _Centaurea Cyanus_.
+
+
+BORDEAUX MIXTURE is a fungicide, used to combat mildews, leaf-diseases,
+blights, etc. It is sprayed on the plants with a spray pump or syringe,
+or it may be applied with a whisk broom. Apply enough of it so that the
+foliage looks blue. It is made as follows: Copper sulfate, 6 pounds;
+quicklime, 4 pounds; water, 40 to 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper
+sulfate by putting it into a bag of coarse cloth and hanging this in a
+vessel holding at least four gallons, so that it is just covered by the
+water. Use an earthen or wooden vessel. Slake the lime in an equal
+amount of water. Then mix the two and add enough water to make 40
+gallons. It is then ready for immediate use, but will keep for some
+time. If the mixture is to be used on peach foliage, it is advisable to
+add an extra pound of lime to the above formula. When applied to such
+plants as carnations or cabbages, it will adhere better if a pound of
+hard soap is dissolved in hot water and added to the mixture. For rots,
+molds, mildews, and all fungous diseases.
+
+Whilst Bordeaux Mixture is the best general fungicide, it discolors the
+plants until it washes off. On ornamental plants, therefore, a colorless
+fungicide may be preferable. In such cases, use the ammoniacal carbonate
+of copper solution, as follows: Copper carbonate, 1 ounce; ammonia, 1
+volume 26° Baumé, 7/8 volumes water (enough to dissolve the copper);
+water, 9 gallons. The copper carbonate is best dissolved in large
+bottles, where it will keep indefinitely, and it should be diluted with
+water as required. For the same purposes as Bordeaux Mixture.
+
+
+BORDER. The word border is used to designate the heavy or continuous
+planting about the boundaries of a place, or along the walks and drives,
+or against the buildings, in distinction from planting on the lawn or in
+the interior spaces. A border receives different designations, depending
+upon the kinds of plants which are grown therein; that is, it may be a
+shrub border, a flower border, a hardy border for native and other
+hardy plants, a vine border, and the like. As a rule, the most effective
+planting is that which is thrown into masses, for one plant reinforces
+the other, and the flowers have a good setting or background. Very
+striking displays of foliage and flowers and plant forms can be made
+when massed together. As a rule, plants are more easily grown when
+planted in a border, since the whole area can be kept cultivated with
+ease; and if a plant becomes weak or dies, its place is readily filled
+by the neighboring plants spreading into it. Planting in masses is also
+essential to the best arrangement of the yard, since the basis of any
+landscape is a more or less continuous greensward (see _Lawn_). The
+house occupies the central part of the area, and the sides are heavily
+massed or planted so as to make a framework for the whole place. The
+border may be mixed,--that is, composed of a great variety of
+plants,--or it may be made up of one continuous thing. In long and very
+striking borders, it is often best to have the background--that is, the
+back row--of one general type of plant in order to give continuity and
+strength to the whole group. In front of this a variety of plants may be
+set, if one desire.
+
+[Illustration: Planting by the steps]
+
+The land should be rich. The whole ground should be plowed or spaded and
+the plants set irregularly in the space; or the back row may be set in a
+line. If the border is composed of shrubs, and is large, a horse
+cultivator may be run in and out between the plants for the first two or
+three years, since the shrubs will be set from 2 to 4 ft. apart.
+Ordinarily, however, the cultivating is done by hand tools. After the
+plants are once established and the border is filled, it is best to dig
+up as little as possible, for the digging disturbs the roots and breaks
+off the crowns. It is usually best to pull out the weeds and give the
+border a top-dressing each fall of well rotted manure. If the ground is
+not very rich, a sprinkling of ashes or some commercial fertilizer may
+be given from time to time. The border should be planted so thick as to
+allow the plants to run together, thereby giving one continuous effect.
+Most shrubs should be set 3 feet apart. Things as large as lilacs may go
+4 feet and sometimes even more. Common herbaceous perennials, like
+bleeding heart, delphiniums, hollyhocks, and the like, should go from 12
+to 18 inches. On the front edge of the border is a very excellent place
+for annual and tender flowering plants. Here, for example, one may make
+a fringe of asters, geraniums, coleus, or anything else which he may
+choose (see _Flower Beds_).
+
+The border is an excellent place in which to colonize native or other
+interesting plants. A person comes across an attractive plant on his
+tramp and wishes it were in his garden. Whatever the time of year, he
+may break off the top close to the ground, take up the roots and plant
+them in the border. If a little attention is given to the plant for the
+first two or three weeks, as watering or mulching or shading, it should
+become established and give satisfactory bloom the following year.
+Two-thirds of the herbs which one would take up in this way, even in
+midsummer, should grow. Into the heavy borders about the boundaries of
+the place the autumn leaves will drift and afford an excellent mulch. If
+these borders are planted with shrubs, the leaves may be left there to
+decay, and not be raked off in the spring. The general outline of the
+border facing the lawn should be more or less wavy or irregular,
+particularly if it is on the boundary of the place. Alongside a walk or
+drive, the margins may follow the general directions of the walk or
+drive.
+
+There are three rules for the choosing of plants for a hardy border.
+Choose (1) those which you like best, (2) those which are adapted to the
+climate and soil, (3) those which are in place or in keeping with that
+part of the grounds. See _Herbs_, _Shrubs_, _Trees_.
+
+
+BORECOLE is _Kale_.
+
+
+BORERS. There is no sovereign remedy for borers except to dig them out.
+Do not rely upon washes or other applications. If trees are examined two
+or three times a year, it is not a laborious undertaking to dig them
+out, as they will not be deep in the wood. If they do get deep in the
+wood, thrust a wire into the burrow. By the chips cast from the holes,
+or by the dead bark, the presence of borers may be detected. Apple and
+peach trees are particularly liable to attack. The flat-headed
+apple-tree borer works just underneath the bark on any part of the trunk
+or large branches. The round-headed apple-tree borer eats into the wood
+at the crown.
+
+
+BOXES of many sizes can be utilized in which to grow plants. Excellent
+effects of bulbs and annuals may be had in old soap boxes. The boxes may
+be placed in the best situations for the growth of the plants, and they
+can receive better attention than the large flower bed. Vines planted
+about the edge will hide the sides,--such vines as Kenilworth ivy,
+moneywort, maurandya, trailing fuchsia, and the like.
+
+
+BRACHYCOME. See _Swan River Daisy_.
+
+
+BROCCOLI. This is almost identical with the Cauliflower, except that it
+usually requires a longer season and matures in the fall. It is grown
+more generally in Europe than in this country. The special merit of
+Broccoli is its adaptability for late summer planting and its rapid
+growth in the late fall. It is said that a large proportion of Broccoli
+is used in the manufacture of pickles. The culture is the same as for
+Cauliflower,--deep, moist soil well enriched, cool weather, and the
+destruction of the cabbage worm.
+
+The young plants may be grown in a coldframe or in a well protected
+border, sowing the seed about the 15th of May, transplanting into rows
+in July. In sections in which early fall frosts are not to be feared,
+the plants may be set two weeks later, say August 1, as all vegetables
+of the cabbage family make the best growth through the cool months of
+September and October. The plants should be set 18 in. apart in the
+rows, the rows being from 2½ ft. to 3 ft. apart.
+
+
+BROWALLIA ELATA is a very fine tender annual, giving a border or mixed
+bed a dash of amethyst blue not often found in flowers. It is a
+strong-growing plant with a profusion of bloom, and no doubt one of the
+choicest plants of its color in cultivation. There are other species
+with white flowers that serve as contrast, and may be grown with this.
+All of the kinds may be taken up and potted in the fall, cutting the
+plant well back, and a profusion of bloom may be obtained through the
+winter months if attention is given to pinching off the seed pods. In
+the garden, let the plants stand 12 in. apart. The plants grow 1-2 ft.
+high.
+
+
+BRUSSELS SPROUTS. This is a vegetable that should be more generally
+known, as it is one of the choicest of the cabbage family, and may be
+had at its best after the season for cauliflower has passed. It is the
+better for being touched by the fall frosts. The parts used are the
+buttons or sprouts (miniature cabbage heads) that grow thickly along the
+stem. These should be cut off rather than broken. The very small hard
+"sprouts" or buttons are the best. The culture is essentially the same
+as for late cabbage or broccoli. One ounce will sow 100 ft. of drill, or
+make upward of 2,000 plants. Set plants in field 2-3 ft. apart. They
+require the entire season in which to grow.
+
+
+BUDDING. See _Grafting_.
+
+
+BULBS. The outdoor culture of bulbs is extremely simple. They care for
+themselves throughout a greater part of the year, many of them flowering
+when no other plants are able to grow and bloom out of doors.
+
+While all the so-called Holland bulbs will thrive in any kind of soil,
+they will all do better by being planted in a deep, sandy soil well
+enriched with well rotted manure. But do not let the manure come into
+direct contact with the bulb. Even heavy clay soil may be fitted for the
+growing of bulbs by the addition of sharp sand, either worked into the
+soil or placed directly under the bulb when planted. To make a bulb bed,
+choose, if possible, a sandy soil and throw out the top soil to the
+depth of 6 in. Put into the bottom of the bed about 2 in. of well rotted
+manure and spade it into the soil. Throw back half of the top soil,
+level it off nicely, set the bulbs firmly on this bed and then cover
+them with the balance of the soil; in this way one will have the bulbs
+from 3 to 4 in. below the surface. In the fall months the top of the
+ground is cooler than at the depth of 5 or 6 in. and the top of the bulb
+will not want to grow, while the bottom, which is always in a hurry,
+will send out roots, to push out the leaves and flowers the next spring.
+When the weather is cold enough to freeze a hard crust on the soil, the
+bed should have its winter overcoat. This may be straw, hay, cornstalks
+or leaves spread over the bed to the depth of 6 in. if the material is
+coarse; but if leaves are used, 3 in. will be enough, because the leaves
+lay close together and may smother out the frost that is in the ground
+and let the bulbs start. What we want is to keep them asleep until
+spring, because if they start too early the hard freezes of March and
+early April will spoil their beauty if the leaves or flowers are near or
+above the surface. Early in April, in New York, the covering may be
+removed gradually, and should all be off the beds before the leaves show
+above the ground.
+
+If there is no sandy place for the beds, make them as directed, leaving
+the stones in the bottom of the bed for drainage. Then, when ready to
+set the bulb, place a large handful of sand where the bulb is to go and
+set the bulb on it. This will keep the water from standing around the
+bulb. Very fine results may be had on heavy soil by this method.
+
+As to kinds of bulbs, select hyacinths, tulips or narcissus or
+daffodils, with snowdrops or crocuses of various colors around the edge.
+For the culture of these and other bulbs, see the various articles
+throughout the book.
+
+_The growing of flowering bulbs through the winter_ adds to the list of
+house plants a charming variety. The labor, time and skill required is
+much less than that of growing many of the larger plants more commonly
+used for winter decorations. The larger number of winter bulbs may be
+left out of doors until within four to six weeks of the time when they
+are wanted in flower. Hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, and crocus can be
+made to flower in the winter without difficulty. Secure the bulbs so as
+to be able to pot them by the middle or last of October, or if earlier
+all the better. The soil should be rich, sandy loam, if possible; if
+not, the best one can get, to which add about one-fourth the bulk of
+sand and mix thoroughly. If ordinary flower pots are to be used, put in
+the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, charcoal or small stones for
+drainage, then fill the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on
+the dirt the top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot. Fill
+around it with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing above the
+dirt. If the soil is heavy, a good plan is to sprinkle a small handful
+of sand under the bulb to carry off the water, the same as is done in
+the beds outdoors. If one does not have pots he may use boxes. Starch
+boxes are a good size to use, as they are not heavy to handle; and
+excellent flowers are sometimes obtained from bulbs planted in old
+tomato cans. If boxes or cans are used, care must be taken to have holes
+in the bottoms to let the water run out. A large size hyacinth bulb
+will do well in a 5-inch pot. The same size pot will do for three or
+four narcissuses or eight to twelve crocuses.
+
+After the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles, they
+should be placed in a cool place, either in a cold pit or cellar, or on
+the shady side of a building, or, better yet, plunged or buried up to
+the rim of the pot in a shady border. This is done to force the roots to
+grow while the top stands still; as only the bulbs with good roots will
+give good flowers. When the weather gets so cold that a crust is frozen
+on the soil, the pots should be covered with a little straw, and as the
+weather gets colder more straw must be used. In from six to eight weeks
+after planting the bulbs, they should have made roots enough to grow the
+plant, and they may be taken up and placed in a cool room for a week or
+so, after which, if they have started into growth, they may be taken
+into a warmer room where they can have plenty of light. They will grow
+very rapidly now and will want lots of water, and after the flowers
+begin to show, the pots may stand in a saucer of water all the time.
+When just coming into bloom the plants may have full sunlight part of
+the time to help bring out the color of the flowers.
+
+
+BUSHES. See _Shrubs_.
+
+
+CABBAGE. For an early crop, the plants must be started either in
+February or early March, or the previous September and wintered over in
+coldframes. This latter method was once a common practice by gardeners
+near large cities, but the building of greenhouses to replace the many
+hotbeds of the market-gardener has changed the practice in many
+localities, and now most of the early Cabbages in the north are grown
+from seed sown in January, February or March. The plants are hardened
+off in March and early April and planted out as early as possible. The
+private grower, or one with a small garden, may often procure his early
+plants from the market-gardener much cheaper than he can grow them, as
+usually only a limited number of early Cabbage plants are wanted; but
+for the midseason and main crop, the seed may be sown in May or June,
+setting the plants in July.
+
+[Illustration: Early Cabbage]
+
+For early planting, the number of varieties is limited to three or four.
+For an intermediate crop the list is more extended, and the late
+varieties are very numerous. The early list is headed by the Jersey
+Wakefield, a variety which heads very quickly, and, although not one of
+the solid kinds, is generally grown. The Early York and Winnigstadt are
+good varieties to follow it. The latter especially is solid and of very
+good quality. For the midseason, the Succession and All Season are of
+the best, and for the winter supply the Drumhead, Danish Ball and Flat
+Dutch types are the leaders. One of the best of the Cabbages for table
+use is seldom seen in the garden--the Savoy Cabbage. It is a type with
+netted leaves, making a large, low-growing head, the center of which is
+very solid and of excellent flavor, especially late in the fall, when
+the heads have had a slight touch of frost. Savoy should be grown in
+every private garden.
+
+The seed-bed should be made mellow and rich. A good border will do. The
+seed is sown preferably in rows, thus allowing thinning of the plants
+and the pulling of any weeds that germinate. The young plants will well
+repay attention to watering and thinning. The rows should be 3 or 4 in.
+apart. When the plants are large enough to transplant, they may be
+planted where early vegetables have been grown. Set the plants from 18
+to 24 in. apart in the row, the rows being 3 ft. apart for the
+medium-growing kinds. One ounce of seed will furnish about two thousand
+plants. All Cabbages require deep and rich soil, and one that holds
+moisture well.
+
+The best remedy for the Cabbage worm is to kill the first brood on the
+very young plants with Paris green. After the plants begin to head,
+pyrethrum or salt water may be used. On a small area, hand-picking may
+be recommended.
+
+The maggot is the most serious Cabbage pest. After studying the seventy
+odd remedies proposed, Slingerland concludes that 6 are efficient and
+practicable: growing the young plants in closely covered frames; tarred
+paper cards placed snugly about the base of the plants to keep the fly
+away; rubbing the eggs from the base of the plant; hand-picking of the
+maggots; treating the plants with emulsion of carbolic acid; treating
+them with carbon bisulfide. The insecticidal materials are injected or
+poured into the soil about the base of the plant.
+
+Respecting these two insecticides, Slingerland remarks: "Always use the
+crude carbolic acid, as it is much cheaper than the purified and is
+nearly, if not quite, as effective. It will probably be safer if used as
+an emulsion than if simply diluted with water. We would advise that it
+be made by the follow formula: 1 pound of hard soap or 1 quart of soft
+soap dissolved in 1 gallon of boiling water, into which 1 pint of crude
+carbolic acid is then poured and the whole mass agitated into an
+emulsion, which will remain in this condition for a long time. In
+treating the plants, take one part of this standard emulsion and dilute
+it with 30 equal parts of water; it probably can be used stronger
+without injury to the plants. If the emulsion is cold and semi-solid,
+use several parts of warm water at first. Begin the treatment early, a
+day or two after the plants are up, or in the case of Cabbages and
+Cauliflowers the next day after they are set in the field, and repeat it
+once each week or 10 days until about May 20 in our state. While we have
+little faith in the preventive effects of the early treatments, we do
+believe that the emulsion will then kill many of the eggs and recently
+hatched maggots. If it could be applied with some force through a
+syringe or force pump, it might not be necessary to go to the trouble of
+first removing some of the earth from about the plants. It must be
+remembered that its success will depend on the eggs or maggots being hit
+with it. None of the Cabbages in our experiment were injured in the
+least by an application containing nearly twice as much of the acid, and
+there is but little danger of its injuring the tenderest foliage of
+radishes, turnips or onions; if any injury manifests itself on these
+crops, dilute the emulsion with 40 or 50 or more parts of water, instead
+of 30. A knapsack or wheelbarrow sprayer would prove a very useful
+instrument in applying the emulsion on a large scale."
+
+The carbon bisulfide is best injected into the soil by means of a
+long-nosed syringe. Slingerland (Cornell Bulletin 78) illustrates a
+specially made syringe or injector for this purpose: "Thus Cabbage
+plants can be treated once, and once is usually sufficient, at the rate
+of about 10 plants for 1 cent for the liquid, using about 1 teaspoonful
+to each plant. As the injector will last for years, and several
+neighbors might join in the purchase and use of one instrument, its cost
+would practically not influence this estimate of the cost of killing the
+maggots. We believe it is the cheapest, most effective, and most
+practicable method yet devised for fighting this pest on crops of
+Cabbages and cauliflowers; on crops of radishes, turnips, or onions it
+will probably be too expensive except where choice or new varieties are
+attacked. The carbolic acid emulsion will prove the most practicable on
+these last crops."
+
+The club-root, which causes the roots to become greatly thickened and
+distorted, is difficult to manage if Cabbages or allied plants are grown
+continuously on land in which diseased plants have been raised. Changing
+the location of the Cabbage or Cauliflower patch is the best procedure.
+If very different crops, as corn, potatoes, peas, tomatoes, etc., are
+grown on the land, the disease will be starved out in two or three
+years.
+
+
+CACALIA. TASSEL FLOWER. LADIES' PAINT BRUSH. A quaint old annual, in two
+colors, scarlet and orange. It is easily grown, and makes a fine
+second-row plant for a border, contrasting well with Browallia or
+Ageratum. Sow where the plants are to stand. Let plants stand 10-12
+inches apart. Grow 1½-2 ft. high.
+
+
+CACTUS. This class of plants is often seen in small collections of house
+plants, to which they add interest, being altogether different from
+other plants. All Cacti are easy to grow, requiring but little care and
+enduring the heat and dryness of a living room much better than most
+other plants. Their requirements are ample drainage and a sandy soil.
+Cactus growers usually make a soil by mixing pulverized plaster or lime
+refuse with garden loam, using about two-thirds of the loam. The very
+fine parts, or dust, of the plaster, are blown out, else the soil is
+likely to cement. They may be rested at any season by simply setting
+them away in a dry place for two or three months, and bringing them into
+heat and light when they are wanted. As new growth advances they should
+have water occasionally, and when in bloom they should be watered
+freely. Withhold water gradually after blooming until they are to be
+rested.
+
+Some of the most common species in cultivation are the Phyllocactus
+species, often called the Night-blooming Cereus. These are not the true
+Night-blooming Cereuses, which have angular or cylindrical stems,
+covered with bristles, while this has flat, leaf-like branches; the
+flowers of these, however, are very much like the Cereus, opening at
+evening and closing before morning, and as the Phyllocacti may be grown
+with greater ease, blooming on smaller and younger plants, they are to
+be recommended. See _Cereus_.
+
+The Epiphyllum, or Lobster Cactus, is one of the best of the family,
+easy of culture. It bears bright-colored blossoms at the end of each
+joint. When in flower, which will be through some of the winter months,
+this requires a richer soil than the other Cacti. Opuntias, or prickly
+pears, are often grown as border plants through the summer. In fact, all
+the family may be planted out, and if a number of varieties are set in a
+bed together they make a striking addition to the garden. Be very
+careful not to bruise the plants. It is better to plunge them in the
+pots than to turn them out of the pots.
+
+
+[Illustration: Caladium or Colocasia]
+
+CALADIUM. Tuberous-rooted, tender perennial plants which are used for
+conservatory decorations, and also for subtropical and bold effects in
+the lawn. The plants which are commonly known under this name are really
+Colocasias. The plants should be rested during the winter, being kept in
+a warm cellar or under a greenhouse bench, where they are not liable to
+frost or dampness. The roots are usually kept covered with earth during
+the winter, but they are kept dry. Early in the spring the roots are put
+into boxes or pots and are started into growth, so that by the time
+settled weather comes they will be 1 or 2 feet high and ready to set
+directly into soil. When set out of doors, they should be given a place
+which is protected from strong winds, and one which does not receive the
+full glare of direct sunlight. The soil should be rich and deep, and the
+plants should have an abundance of water. Caladiums are most excellent
+plants for striking effects, especially against a house, high shrubbery
+or other background. If they are planted by themselves, they should be
+in clumps rather than scattered as single specimens, as the effect is
+better. See that they get a good start before they are planted in the
+open ground.
+
+
+CALCEOLARIA. Small greenhouse herbs which are sometimes used in the
+window-garden. They are not very satisfactory plants for window
+treatment, however, since they suffer from dry atmosphere and from
+sudden changes of temperature. In the window-garden they should be
+protected from strong, direct sunlight. They are grown from seeds. If
+the seeds are sown in early summer and the young plants are transplanted
+as they need, flowering specimens may be had for the late fall and early
+winter. In the growing of the young plants, always avoid exposing them
+to direct sunlight; but they should be given a place which has an
+abundance of screened or tempered light. A new crop of plants should be
+raised each year. There is a race of shrubby Calceolarias, but it is
+little known in this country. One or two species are annuals which are
+adaptable to cultivation in the open garden, and their little,
+ladyslipper-like flowers are attractive. However, they are of secondary
+importance as annual garden flowers.
+
+
+CALENDULA. These are the well known POT MARIGOLDS, and add a bright spot
+to any garden. Annual. Especially are they fine in the cool days of the
+fall, when many of the annual flowers have gone to seed. The places of
+short-lived plants may be filled by sowing seed of Calendulas in May,
+scattering them through the border and allowing the plants to grow where
+they come up. Easy of growth and hardy. 1-2 ft. high. Should stand 8-12
+in. apart. Colors, yellow and orange.
+
+
+[Illustration: California Poppy]
+
+CALIFORNIA POPPY (_Eschscholtzia Californica_). Low perennial,
+poppy-like plant, grown as a hardy annual. It is certainly one of the
+best low-growing annuals, blooming through a long season and being at
+its best through the cool days of fall, after touched by frost. Most of
+the varieties have flowers of fine shades of orange or yellow, making a
+bright spot in the border at all times. They are like the pot marigolds,
+in that once planted they seed themselves. They are never out of place,
+and should be left to bloom wherever they may be. Flowers open only in
+sunshine. As cut-flowers they are excellent, a large bowl of them
+glowing like a golden ball, especially if they are emphasized by a few
+blue larkspurs or bachelor's buttons.
+
+Propagated by seed, which would best be sown as soon as ripe, thus
+giving the plant an early start, and having bloom through the season.
+They make attractive mats of foliage. 12-18 in. high. Let the plants
+stand 10-20 in. apart.
+
+
+CALLA (properly _Richardia_). EGYPTIAN LILY. All things considered, this
+is one of the most satisfactory of winter house plants, lending itself
+to various conditions. The requirements of the Calla are rich soil and
+an abundance of water, with the roots confined in as small a space as
+possible. If a too large pot is used the growth of foliage will be very
+rank, at the expense of the flowers, but by using a smaller sized pot
+and applying liquid manure the flowers will be produced freely. A 6-inch
+pot will be large enough for all but an exceptionally large bulb. If
+desired, a number of bulbs may be grown together in a larger pot. The
+soil should be very rich but fibrous--at least one-third well rotted
+manure will be none too much, mixed with equal parts of fibrous loam and
+sharp sand. The tubers should be planted firmly and the pots set in a
+cool place to make roots. After the roots have partially filled the pot,
+the plant may be brought into heat and given a sunny position and an
+abundance of water. An occasional sponging or washing of the leaves will
+free them from dust. No other treatment will be required until the
+flowers appear, when liquid manure may be given. The plant will thrive
+all the better at this time if the pot is placed in a saucer of water.
+In fact, the Calla will grow finely in an aquarium. The Calla may be
+grown through the entire year, but it will prove more satisfactory, both
+in leaf and flower, if rested through part of the summer. This may be
+done by laying the pots on their sides in a dry, shady place under
+shrubbery, or if in the open slightly covered with straw or other litter
+to keep the roots from becoming extremely dry. In September or October
+they may be shaken out, cleaning off all the old soil, and repotted, as
+already mentioned. The offsets may be taken off and set in small pots
+and given a year's growth, resting them the second year and having them
+in flower that winter.
+
+The spotted Calla has variegated foliage and is a fine plant for mixed
+collections. This blooms in the spring, which will lengthen the season
+of Calla bloom. The treatment of this is similar to that of the common
+Calla.
+
+
+CALLIOPSIS is a garden name for _Coreopsis_.
+
+
+CALLIRRHOË. _C. pedata_ is a hardy annual which has large, graceful
+blossoms of violet or red. Is it a very free-blooming plant. Should be
+started in a frame and planted out where wanted. 2-3 ft. high and grows
+bushy. Plants should stand 1½-2 ft. apart.
+
+
+CAMELLIA. Years ago Camellias were very popular, but they have been
+crowded out by the informal flowers of recent times. Their time will
+come again. They are half-hardy woody plants, blooming in late winter
+and spring. During the blooming season keep them cool--say not over 50°
+at night and a little higher by day. When blooming is done they begin to
+grow, then give them more heat and plenty of water. See that they are
+well ripened by winter. Always screen them from direct sunlight. Do not
+try to force them in early winter, after the growth has ceased. Their
+summer quarters may be in a protected place in the open air. Propagated
+by cuttings in winter, which should give blooming plants in two years.
+Use a porous soil for Camellias, with considerable leaf-mold.
+
+
+CAMPANULA. BELL FLOWER. But one of the Campanulas commonly listed by
+seedsmen is an annual,--_C. macrostyla_, a clean-leaved plant, growing 2
+feet high, spreading over the ground, and bearing a profusion of large,
+violet, bell-shaped flowers. The Canterbury Bell is the best known. It
+is biennial, but if started early and transplanted will bloom the first
+season. The perennial Campanulas are most excellent for borders. _C.
+Carpatica_ is particularly good for edgings.
+
+
+CANARY BIRD FLOWER. See _Nasturtium_.
+
+
+[Illustration: Candytuft]
+
+CANDYTUFT. Well known sweet-scented hardy annuals, in red, purple, and
+white; easy of culture and fine for cutting. One of the best of edging
+plants for the front row. The plants grow from 6 in. to 1 ft. tall. Sow
+seeds where the plants are to grow, letting plants stand 6-12 in. apart.
+They do not last the entire season, and successive sowings may well be
+made. There are also perennial kinds.
+
+
+CANNA is now the favorite bedding plant. The improvements made in the
+past ten years, in size and markings of the flowers, have created a
+liking for the plant. The tropical effect of a large bed of Cannas,
+either mixed or of one color, is not surpassed by any other plant used
+for bedding purposes.
+
+[Illustration: Canna]
+
+The Canna may be grown from seed and had in bloom the first year by
+sowing in February or March, in boxes or pots placed in hotbeds or
+warmhouse, first soaking the seeds in warm water for a short time.
+Attention to transplanting as needed and removal to the ground only when
+it is well warmed are the necessary requirements. The majority of
+Cannas, however, are grown from pieces of the roots (rhizomes), each
+piece having a bud. The roots may be divided at any time in the winter,
+and if early flowers and foliage are wanted the pieces may be planted in
+a hotbed or warmhouse in early April, started into growth and planted
+out where wanted as soon as the ground has warmed and all danger of
+frost is over. A hardening of the plants, by leaving the sash off the
+hotbeds, or setting the plants in shallow boxes and placing the boxes
+in a sheltered position through May, not forgetting a liberal supply of
+water, will fit the plants to take kindly to the final planting out.
+After frost has injured the tops, the roots may be dug, choosing, if
+possible, a dry day. The soil is shaken off and the roots stored in a
+warm, dry place through the winter. If the cellar is too dry the roots
+are liable to shrivel, in which case it would be best to cover them with
+soil or sand, filling in around the roots to exclude the drying air.
+
+Cannas grow 3 to 7 ft. high. For dense mass effects, plant 12-18 in.
+apart. For individual plants, or for best bloom, give more room. Fine
+clumps may be had by planting out the entire old root, not dividing it.
+Cannas want a rich, warm soil and a sunny place. They are very easy to
+grow.
+
+
+CANTERBURY BELL is a _Campanula_.
+
+
+CARBONATE OF COPPER. See _Bordeaux Mixture_.
+
+
+CARDIOSPERMUM. See _Balloon Vine_.
+
+
+CARNATIONS are of two types, the outdoor or garden varieties, and the
+indoor or forcing kinds. Normally, the Carnation is a hardy perennial,
+but the garden kinds, or Marguerites, are usually treated as annuals.
+The forcing kinds are flowered but once, new plants being grown each
+year from cuttings.
+
+Marguerite Carnations bloom the year the seed is sown, and with a slight
+protection will bloom freely the second year. They make attractive house
+plants if potted in the fall. The seeds of these Carnations should be
+sown in boxes in March and the young plants set out as early as
+possible, pinching out the center of the plant to make them branch
+freely. Give the same space as for garden pinks.
+
+[Illustration: Carnation]
+
+The winter-flowering Carnations have become prime favorites with all
+flower lovers, and a collection of winter house plants seems incomplete
+without them. Carnations grow readily from cuttings made of the suckers
+that form around the base of the stem, the side shoots of the flowering
+stem, or the main shoots before they show flower buds. The cuttings from
+the base make the best plants in most cases. These cuttings may be taken
+from a plant at any time through the fall or winter, rooted in sand and
+potted up, to be held in pots until the planting out time in the spring,
+usually in April, or any time when the ground is ready to handle. Care
+should be taken to pinch out the tops of young plants while growing in
+the pot, and later while in the ground, causing them to grow stocky and
+send out new growths along the stem. The young plants should be grown
+cool, a temperature of 45° suiting them well. Attention should be given
+to spraying the cuttings each day while in the house to keep down the
+red spider, which is very partial to the Carnation. In the summer, the
+plants are grown in the field, and not in pots. The soil in which they
+are to be planted should be moderately rich and loose. Clean cultivation
+should be given throughout the summer. Frequently pinch out the tops.
+The plants are taken up in September and potted firmly, and well
+watered; then set in a cool, partially shaded situation until root
+growth has started, spraying the foliage often, and watering the plant
+only as it shows need of water.
+
+[Illustration: Carnation cutting]
+
+The usual living-room conditions as to moisture and heat are not such as
+the Carnation demands, and care must be taken to overcome the dryness by
+spraying the foliage and setting the plant in a position not exposed to
+the direct heat of a stove or the sun. In commercial houses, it is not
+often necessary to spray established plants. Pick off most or all of the
+side buds, in order to add to the size of the leading flowers. After
+all is said, it is probably advisable in most cases to purchase the
+plants when in bloom from a florist, and after blooming either throw
+them away or store them for planting in the spring, when they will bloom
+throughout the summer.
+
+
+CARPET BEDDING. See _Bedding_.
+
+
+[Illustration: Early Carrots]
+
+CARROT, while essentially a farm crop in this country, is nevertheless a
+most acceptable garden vegetable. It is hardy and easily grown. The
+extra-early varieties may be forced in a hotbed, or seed may be sown as
+soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring. The stump-rooted, or
+half-long varieties, are sown for the general garden crop. Well
+enriched, mellow loam, deeply dug or plowed, is best suited to the
+requirements of Carrots. The seed for the main crop may be sown as late
+as July 1. Sow thickly, thinning to 3-4 in. in the row. The rows, if in
+a garden that is hand-worked, may be 12 in. apart. If the cultivation is
+done by a horse, the rows should be from 2 to 3 ft. apart. One ounce
+will sow 100 feet of drill.
+
+
+[Illustration: Castor Bean]
+
+CASTOR OIL PLANT. In the entire list of quick-growing plants there is
+none that excels this for rapidity of growth, grace of foliage and rich
+effect. Used either as a specimen plant, with cannas, caladiums, or for
+a tropical bed, or as a screen, it gives the most satisfactory results.
+Seeds sown early in the house, and the plants grown in the full light,
+make fine, stocky plants to set out about the middle of May. With rich
+soil and plenty of water, they will grow without a check until frost.
+Height, 5-12 ft. For screens, plant 3-4 ft. apart. There are varieties
+with differing shades of foliage.
+
+
+CAULIFLOWER. The general culture of Cauliflower is much like that of
+cabbage, except that the Cauliflower, being more tender, should be more
+thoroughly hardened off before setting out. Still, it is essential that
+the plants be set out as early as possible, as the warm weather of June
+causes them to make imperfect heads unless the soil is filled with
+moisture. No garden crop will as well repay the cost and time of
+thorough irrigation, either by running the water between the rows or
+applying it directly to the plants. When it is impossible to furnish
+water, it would be a good plan to mulch heavily with straw or some other
+substance. This mulch, if put on just after a heavy rain, will hold the
+moisture for a long time. When the heads begin to form the outside
+leaves may be brought together and tied above the head, excluding the
+direct sunshine and keeping the head white and tender. No vegetable will
+respond more quickly to good culture and well manured soil than the
+Cauliflower, and none will prove such an utter failure when neglected.
+It is imperative that care be taken to destroy all the cabbage worms
+before the leaves are tied in, as after that it will be impossible to
+see or reach them. Cauliflower prospers best in moist soil and a cool
+climate. From 1,000 to 1,500 plants may be grown from 1 ounce of seed.
+Good Cauliflower seed is very expensive.
+
+[Illustration: Cauliflower]
+
+For winter crop, seeds may be started in June or July, as for late
+cabbage.
+
+Erfurt, Snowball and Paris are popular early varieties. Nonpareil and
+Algiers are good late kinds.
+
+
+CELERIAC, or TURNIP-ROOTED CELERY. This tuber has the celery flavor in a
+pronounced degree, and is used for flavoring soups and for celery salad.
+It may be served raw, sliced in vinegar and oil, or boiled. The culture
+is the same as given for celery, except that no earthing or blanching is
+required. About an equal number of plants are obtained from the same
+weight of seed as from celery seed. Celeriac is extensively used abroad,
+but, unfortunately, is little grown in America.
+
+
+CELERY has become one of the favorite relish and salad vegetables, and
+is now very generally grown. The self-blanching varieties have
+simplified the culture so that the amateur, as well as the expert, may
+have a supply through at least six months of the year. The so-called new
+culture, which consists of setting the plants close together and causing
+them to shade each other, can be recommended for the garden when a
+supply of well rotted manure is to be had, and when any amount of water
+is available. This method is as follows: Fork or spade into the soil a
+large quantity of manure to the depth of 10-12 in., pulverize the soil
+until the ground for the depth of 4-6 in. is in very fine condition.
+Then set the plants in rows 10 in. apart and the plants but 5 or 6 in.
+apart in the rows. It will be seen that plants set as close as this will
+soon fill the soil with a mass of roots and must have large amounts of
+plant-food, as well as a large quantity of water; and the making of such
+a bed can be recommended only to those who can supply these needs.
+
+[Illustration: Celery]
+
+The common practice in home gardens is to plow or dig a shallow trench,
+setting the plants in the bottom and hoeing in the soil as the plants
+grow. The distance apart of the rows and plants will depend on the
+varieties. For the dwarf varieties, such as White Plume, Golden
+Self-blanching and others of that type, the rows may be as close as 3
+ft. and the plants 6 in. in the rows. For the large-growing varieties,
+as Kalamazoo, Giant Pascal and, in fact, most of the late varieties,
+the rows may be from 4½ to 5 ft. apart and the plants 7 or 8 in. in
+the row.
+
+The seed for an early crop should be sown in February or early in March
+in shallow boxes, which may be placed in a hotbed or sunny window, or
+sown directly in the soil of a hotbed. Cover the seeds thinly and press
+the soil firmly over them. When the seedling plants are about one inch
+high they should be transplanted to other boxes or hotbeds, setting the
+plants 1 in. apart in rows 3 in. apart. At this transplanting, as with
+the following ones, the tall leaves should be cut or pinched off,
+leaving only the upright growth, as with the utmost care it is almost
+impossible to prevent the outside leafstalks from wilting down and
+dying. The roots of the plants should also be trimmed back at each
+transplanting in order to increase the feeding roots. The plants should
+be set as deep as possible, care being taken, however, not to allow the
+heart of the plant to be covered up. The varieties usually grown for an
+early crop are the so-called self-blanching varieties. They may be made
+fit for the table with much less labor than the late crop, the shade
+required to blanch the stalks being much less. When only a few short
+rows are grown in a private garden, screens of lath may be made by
+driving stakes on each side of the row and tacking lath on, leaving
+spaces of an inch or more for the light to enter; or each head may be
+wrapped in paper, or a tile drain pipe may be set over the plant. In
+fact, any material that will exclude the light will render the stalks
+white and brittle.
+
+The seed for the main or fall crop should be sown in April or early May
+in a seed bed prepared by forking fine, well rotted manure into a fine
+soil, sowing the seed thinly in rows 8 or 10 in. apart, covering the
+seed lightly and firming over the seed with the feet, hoe or back of a
+spade. This seed bed should be kept moist at all times until the seed
+germinates, either by close attention to watering or by a lath screen.
+The use of a piece of cloth laid directly on the soil, and the bed wet
+through the cloth, is often recommended, and if the cloth is always wet
+and taken off the bed as soon as the seed sprouts it can be used. After
+the young plants have grown to the height of 1 or 2 in. they must be
+thinned out, leaving the plants so that they do not touch each other,
+and transplanting those thinned--if wanted--to other ground prepared in
+the same manner as the seed bed. All these plants may be sheared or cut
+back to induce stockiness.
+
+If in a private garden, the ground on which the fall crop is usually set
+will likely be land from which a crop of some early vegetable has been
+taken. This land should be again well enriched with fine, well rotted
+manure, to which may be added a liberal amount of wood ashes. If the
+manure or ashes are not easily obtained, a small amount may be used by
+plowing or digging out a furrow 8 or 12 in. deep, scattering the manure
+and ashes in the bottom of the trench and filling it up almost level
+with the surface. The plants should be set about the middle of July,
+preferably just before a rain. The plant bed should have a thorough
+soaking shortly before the plants are lifted, and each plant be trimmed,
+both top and root, before setting. The plants should be set from 5 to 6
+in. apart in the rows and the earth well firmed around each one.
+
+The after-cultivation consists in thorough tillage until the time of
+"handling" or earthing up the plants. This process of handling is
+accomplished by drawing up the earth with one hand while holding the
+plant with the other, packing the soil well around the stalks. This
+process may be continued until only the leaves are to be seen. For the
+private grower, it is much easier to blanch the Celery with boards or
+paper, or if the Celery is not wanted until winter, the plants may be
+dug up, packed closely in boxes, covering the roots with soil, and
+placed in a dark, cool cellar, where the stalks will blanch themselves.
+In this manner Celery may be stored in boxes in the house cellar. Put
+earth in the bottom of a deep box, and plant the Celery in it. An ounce
+of seed will furnish about three thousand plants.
+
+
+CENTAUREA. Showy annuals and perennials. _C. Cyanus_ is the CORN FLOWER
+or BACHELOR BUTTON, familiar to every flower lover, and always seen in
+old-fashioned gardens. This is a fine plant for borders or mixed beds,
+and also gives good flowers for bouquets. A bunch of the Corn Flower,
+with a sprinkling of yellow marigolds or California poppy, makes a rich
+effect. These Centaureas are easy of culture, seeding themselves after
+once being planted, and coming up year after year in great profusion.
+There are blue, white and rose varieties. Annuals. 2-3 ft. Hardy.
+
+The silver-leaved Centaureas are used only for foliage effects. They are
+excellent for ribbon beds or border lines. The seed of these should be
+started in a hotbed or box in March, the young plants being set out
+where wanted when the ground becomes warm. These species are perennials,
+and are sometimes grown from cuttings. _C. candidissima_ and _C.
+gymnocarpa_ are among the best white-leaved bedders.
+
+
+CENTRANTHUS. Low-growing hardy annuals in two colors, red and white.
+They make very effective covering for low rockwork, and are also
+suitable for vases or lawn baskets. Sow where the plants are to stand,
+or start indoors if early bloom is wanted. 1 ft. Thin to 10-12 in.
+apart.
+
+
+CENTURY PLANT, or AGAVE. These are fine ornamental plants for the
+window-garden or conservatory, requiring but little care and growing
+slowly, thus needing repotting only at long intervals. When the plants
+have outgrown their usefulness as house plants, they are still valuable
+as porch decorations, for plunging in rockwork or about rustic nooks.
+The striped-leaved variety is the most desirable, but the common type,
+with its blue-gray leaves, is highly ornamental.
+
+There are a number of dwarf-growing species of Agave that are not so
+common, although they may be grown with ease. Such plants add novelty to
+a collection, and may be used through the summer as noted above or
+plunged with cactus in a bed of tropical plants. All succeed well in
+loam and sand in equal parts, adding a little leaf-mold in the case of
+the small varieties. The more common species are propagated by suckers
+from around the base of the established plants. A few kinds having no
+suckers must be grown from seed. As to watering, they demand no special
+care. Agaves will not stand frost.
+
+
+CEREUS. Under the name of NIGHT-BLOOMING CEREUSES, several species of
+Cacti are cultivated. The name is sometimes applied to species of
+Phyllocactus, the flowers of which, in white and shades of red,
+sometimes open at nightfall. Phyllocactuses are easy to grow. See
+_Cactus_. The true Night-blooming Cereuses, however, are species of the
+genus Cereus. The commonest one is _C. nycticalus_, but _C.
+grandiflorus_, _C. triangularis_ and others are occasionally seen. These
+true Night-blooming Cereuses all have long rod-like stems, which are
+cylindrical or angular. These stems often reach a height of 10 to 30
+ft., and they need support. They should be trained along a pillar or
+tied to a stake. They are uninteresting leafless things during a large
+part of the year; but in midsummer, after they are three or more years
+old, they throw out their great tubular flowers, which open at nightfall
+and wither and die when the light strikes them next morning. They are
+very easily grown, either in pots or planted in the natural soil in the
+conservatory. The only special care they need is good drainage at the
+roots, so that the soil will not become soggy.
+
+
+CHERRY. Of Cherries there are two common types, the sweet Cherries and
+the sour Cherries. The sweet Cherries are larger and taller-growing
+trees. They comprise the varieties known as the Hearts, Bigarreaus and
+Dukes. The sour Cherries include the various kinds of Morellos and pie
+Cherries, and these usually ripen after the sweet Cherries. The sour
+Cherries make low, round-headed trees. The fruits are extensively used
+for canning. Cherry trees should be planted when 2 and 3 years old. Too
+rich soil tends to make growth at the expense of fruit, particularly in
+the sweet Cherries. For the sweet types, a strong, gravelly loam is
+best. Sour Cherries thrive well on clay loams.
+
+Trees of the sour Cherry should be planted 18 by 18 ft. apart, in well
+prepared under-drained soil. The trees may be slightly trimmed back each
+year, keeping the head low and bushy.
+
+[Illustration: Sweet Cherry]
+
+The sweet Cherries have proved disappointing in many instances from the
+rotting of the fruit. This may never be entirely avoided, but good
+cultivation, soil not too rich in nitrogen, attention to spraying, and
+picking the fruit when dry, will lessen the loss very much. In years of
+severe rotting, the fruit should be picked before it becomes fully ripe,
+placed in a cool, airy room and allowed to color. It will be nearly as
+well flavored as if left on the tree; and, as the fungus usually attacks
+only the ripe fruit, a considerable part of the crop may be saved. Set
+the trees 25 or 30 ft. apart.
+
+[Illustration: Black Tartarian Cherry]
+
+Leaf-blight is readily controlled by timely spraying with Bordeaux
+mixture. The curculio or fruit worm is best controlled by jarring, as
+for plums (which see).
+
+Of sweet Cherries, Windsor is the most popular variety. Other good kinds
+are Napoleon, Governor Wood, Dikeman, Black Tartarian. Of sour Cherries,
+Ostheim and Early Richmond are very early and productive, but better
+kinds are Montmorency and English Morello.
+
+
+CHERVIL. The curled Chervil is a good addition to the list of garnishing
+vegetables, and adds flavor to dishes when it is used to season. Sow
+seeds and cultivate the same as parsley.
+
+The tuberous Chervil resembles a short carrot or parsnip. It is much
+esteemed in France and Germany. The tubers have somewhat the flavor of a
+sweet potato, perhaps a little sweeter. They are perfectly hardy, and,
+like the parsnip, the better for frosts. The seed may be sown in
+September or October, as it does not keep well; or as soon as the ground
+is fit to work in the spring, it being slow to germinate after the
+weather becomes hot and dry. One packet of seed will give all the plants
+necessary.
+
+
+CHESTNUTS. Of Chestnuts there are three types in cultivation: the
+European, the Japanese, and the American. The American, or native
+Chestnuts, of which there are several improved varieties, are the
+hardiest and most reliable, and the nuts are the sweetest, but they are
+also the smallest. The Japanese varieties are usually injured by the
+winter in central New York. The European varieties are somewhat hardier,
+and some of the varieties will thrive in the northern states. Chestnuts
+are very easily grown. They usually bear better when two or more trees
+are planted near each other. There are few really good Chestnut orchards
+in North America, but Chestnut planting is now considerably agitated.
+Sprouts in old Chestnut clearings are often allowed to remain, and
+sometimes they are grafted to the improved varieties. The young trees
+may be grafted in the spring by the whip-graft or cleft-graft method;
+but the cions should be perfectly dormant, and the operation should be
+very carefully done. Even with the best workmanship, a considerable
+percentage of the grafts are likely to fail or to break off after two or
+three years. The most popular single variety of Chestnut is the Paragon,
+which bears large and excellent nuts when the tree is very young. When
+the home ground is large enough, two or three of these trees should be
+planted near the borders.
+
+
+CHICORY. The Magdeburg Chicory is the variety usually spoken of, it
+being the one most extensively grown. The roots of this, after being
+ground and roasted, are used either as a substitute or an adulterant of
+coffee.
+
+The Witloof, a form of Chicory, is used as a salad, or boiled and served
+in the same manner as Cauliflower. The plants should be thinned to 6 in.
+In the latter part of summer they should be banked up like celery, and
+the leaves used after becoming white and tender. This and the common
+wild Chicory are often dug in the fall, the leaves cut off, the roots
+packed in sand in a cellar and watered until a new growth of leaves
+starts. These leaves grow rapidly and are very tender, making a fine
+salad vegetable. One packet of seed of the Witloof will furnish plants
+enough for a large family.
+
+
+[Illustration: Chrysanthemum]
+
+CHRYSANTHEMUMS are both annual and perennial. The annual Chrysanthemums
+must not be confounded with the well known fall-flowering kinds, as they
+will prove a disappointment if one expects large flowers of all colors
+and shapes. The annuals are mostly coarse-growing plants, with an
+abundance of bloom and a rank smell. The flowers are single in most
+cases, and not very lasting. They are useful for massing and also for
+cut-flowers. They are among the easiest of hardy annuals to grow. The
+stoniest part of the garden will usually suit them. 1-2 ft. Colors white
+and shades of yellow, the flowers daisy-like.
+
+Amongst perennial kinds, _Chrysanthemum frutescens_ is the well known
+Paris Daisy or Marguerite, one of the most popular of the genus. This
+makes a very fine pot-plant for the window-garden, blooming throughout
+the winter and spring months. It is usually propagated by cuttings,
+which, if taken in spring, will give large blooming plants for the next
+winter. Gradually transfer to larger pots or boxes, until the plants
+finally stand in 6-inch or 8-inch pots or in small soap boxes. There is
+a fine yellow-flowered variety.
+
+[Illustration: Chrysanthemums in a box]
+
+In variety of form and color, and in size of bloom, the florists'
+Chrysanthemum is one of the most wonderful of plants. It is a late
+autumn flower, and it needs little artificial heat to bring it to
+perfection. The great blooms of the exhibitions are produced by growing
+only one flower to a plant and by feeding the plant heavily. It is
+hardly possible for the amateur to grow such specimen flowers as the
+professional florist or gardener does; neither is it necessary. A
+well-grown plant with fourteen to twenty flowers is far more
+satisfactory as a window plant than a long, stiff stem with only one
+immense flower at the apex. Their culture is simple, much more so than
+that of many of the plants commonly grown for house decoration. Although
+their season of bloom is short, the satisfaction of having a fall
+display of flowers before the geraniums, begonias and other house plants
+have recovered from their removal from out of doors, repays all efforts.
+
+[Illustration: Cutting of Chrysanthemum]
+
+Cuttings taken in March or April, planted out in the border in May, well
+tended through the summer and lifted before frost in September, will
+bloom in October or November. The ground in which they are planted
+should be moderately rich and moist. The plants may be tied to stakes.
+When the buds show, all but the center one of each cluster on the
+leading shoots should be picked off, as also the small lateral branches.
+A thrifty bushy plant thus treated will usually have flowers large
+enough to show the character of the variety, also enough flowers to make
+a fine display. As to the receptacle into which to put them when lifted
+from the border, it need not be a flower pot. A pail or soap box, with
+holes bored for drainage, will suit the plant just as well, and by
+covering the box with cloth or paper the difference will not be noticed.
+If cuttings are not to be had, young plants may be bought of the
+florists and treated in the manner described. Buy them in midsummer or
+earlier.
+
+[Illustration: Vase of small Chrysanthemums]
+
+It is best not to attempt to flower the same plant two seasons. After
+the plant has bloomed, the top may be cut down, and the box set in a
+cellar and kept moderately dry. In February or March, bring the plant to
+the sitting-room window and let the shoots start from the root. These
+shoots are taken for cuttings to grow plants for the fall bloom.
+
+[Illustration: Hardy Chrysanthemum]
+
+There is a hardy race of Chrysanthemums, very excellent for the border.
+Mulch in winter. The best bloom is usually given the first and second
+years.
+
+
+CINERARIA. A tender greenhouse plant. It may be grown as a house plant,
+although the conditions necessary to the best results are hard to obtain
+outside of a greenhouse. The conditions for their growing are a cool
+temperature, frequent repotting and guarding against the attacks of the
+greenfly. Perhaps the last is the most difficult, and with one having no
+facilities for fumigating, it will be almost impossible to prevent the
+difficulty. A living room usually has too dry air for Cinerarias. The
+seed, which is very minute, should be sown in August or September to
+have plants in bloom in January or February. Sow the seed on the surface
+of fine soil and water very lightly to settle the seeds into the soil. A
+piece of glass or a damp cloth may be spread over the pot or box in
+which the seeds are sown, to remain until the seeds are up. Always keep
+the soil damp, but not wet. When the seedlings are large enough to
+repot, they should be potted singly in 2- or 3-inch pots. Before the
+plants have become pot-bound, they should again be repotted into larger
+pots, until they are in at least a 6-inch pot in which to bloom. In all
+this time, they should be grown cool and, if not possible to fumigate
+them with tobacco smoke, the pots should stand on tobacco stems, which
+should be moist at all times. The general practice, in order to have
+bushy plants, is to pinch out the center when the flower buds show,
+causing the lateral branches to start, which they are slow to do if the
+central stem is allowed to grow. Plants bloom but once.
+
+
+CIVES. These belong to the onion family, and are propagated by division
+of the root. They may be planted in a permanent place in the border,
+and, being hardy, will remain for years. The leaves are the parts used,
+as the roots are very rank in flavor. The leaves may be cut frequently,
+as they readily grow again.
+
+
+CLARKIA. The Clarkias are among the popular hardy edging and vase
+annuals, bearing rose, white or bordered flowers in great profusion. The
+double-flowering varieties are the most showy, but the single ones will
+prove very satisfactory. The seeds may be sown where the plants are
+wanted, or started in frames for earlier flowers. 6-18 in. high. Thin to
+6-12 in. apart. Plant in a warm soil and sunny place.
+
+
+CLEMATIS. One of the best of woody climbing vines. The common _C.
+Flammula_, _Virginiana_, _paniculata_ and others are used frequently to
+cover division walls or fences, growing year after year without any care
+and producing quantities of flowers. _C. paniculata_ is now planted very
+extensively. The panicles of star-shaped flowers entirely cover the vine
+and have a pleasant fragrance. One of the best of all fall-flowering
+vines, and hardy North. Clings well to a chicken-wire trellis.
+
+The large-flowered section, of which Jackmani is perhaps the best known,
+is very popular for pillar or porch climbers. The flowers of this
+section are large and showy, running from pure white, through blue, to
+scarlet. Of this class, the most serviceable purple is Jackmani; white,
+Henryi; blue, Ramona; crimson, Madame E. André.
+
+The Flammula class may be propagated by division of the roots. The
+large-flowered kinds are propagated by layers or root-grafting on _C.
+Flammula_ and others.
+
+[Illustration: Clematis paniculata]
+
+A deep, mellow, rich soil, naturally moist, will suit the requirements
+of Clematis. In dry times apply water freely, particularly for the
+large-flowered kinds. Also provide trellis or other support as soon as
+they begin to run. Clematis usually blooms on the wood of the season:
+therefore prune in winter or early spring, in order to secure strong new
+flowering shoots. The large-flowered kinds should be cut back to the
+ground each year; and other kinds may be similarly treated unless they
+are wanted for permanent bowers.
+
+The Clematis root disease is the depredation of a nematode or eel-worm.
+It is seldom troublesome in ground which thoroughly freezes.
+
+
+CLIMBERS. Treated under _Vines_.
+
+
+COBÆA. This is most commonly seen in the greenhouse, although it is one
+of the best of tender climbers for porches. Seed sown in February or
+March, and grown in gentle heat, will make suitable plants for setting
+out by June. It may also be grown from cuttings of the young wood, taken
+in February and rooted in brisk heat. The flowers of _C. scandens_ are
+shaped very much like those of the Campanulas, but are larger. They open
+a greenish white and deepen to a dark purple in the course of a few
+days. The vines in full bloom have a gradation of colors as the flowers
+are in different stages of development. The variegated form of _C.
+scandens_ should be propagated by cuttings to hold the variegation.
+Grows 10-15 ft. Tender. Climbs by means of tendrils.
+
+
+COCKSCOMB. _Celosia cristata_ is the well known Cockscomb, having combs
+or heads of scarlet, crimson, rose and yellow. The combs are often
+saved for winter bouquets by cutting them off before thoroughly ripe and
+drying them. The feathered section comprises tall-growing plants with
+plumes of various colors which, with the colored leaves of some
+varieties, make a striking feature in a border. The Celosias, being
+tender, should be started in a hotbed or frame, potted off when out of
+the seed-leaf, and planted out in well enriched soil after danger of
+frost is past, 1½-2½ ft. high.
+
+
+COLDFRAME. A Coldframe is a simple, low structure, covered with glass or
+oiled paper or cloth, in which plants are grown without artificial heat.
+It differs from the hotbed in the fact that it has no bottom heat. The
+atmosphere in the Coldframe is warmer than that outside, because it is
+protected from the winds and because there is more or less of the sun's
+heat stored up in the earth. For the details of construction of the
+Coldframe, see _Hotbed_.
+
+A Coldframe is ordinarily used for later work than the hotbed: that is,
+seeds may be sown in a Coldframe from two to three and sometimes four
+weeks in advance of their sowing in the open; whereas in a hotbed the
+seeds may be started from one to three months earlier than they may be
+out of doors. Coldframes are sometimes used for the wintering over of
+hardy plants which are started in the fall. For example, cabbage seed
+may be sown in September in a Coldframe and the young plants may be
+protected therein during the winter. If they are properly grown and
+hardened off, they will not be injured by the winter, even though they
+freeze. Lettuce and sometimes cauliflowers are carried over in the same
+way. Coldframes are also used to receive plants which have outgrown the
+hotbed and must be transplanted. Plants which need hardening off may
+also be transplanted from the hotbed into the Coldframe. The Coldframe
+in these cases is an intermediate stage between the hotbed and the open
+field.
+
+
+COLEUS. A well known foliage plant for pot culture or bedding. It was
+used very extensively at one time in ornamental bedding and ribbon
+borders, but owing to its being tender has lost in favor, and its place
+is largely taken by other plants. Cuttings root very readily. It may
+also be grown from seed, although the types have not become fixed, and a
+large number of differently marked plants may be had from the same
+packet. This would not be a drawback in the window-garden, unless a
+uniform effect is wished. Sow the seed in gentle heat in March. Make new
+plants from cuttings each year, and throw the old ones away.
+
+
+COLLARDS. This is a name given to a kind of kale, used when young as
+greens; also to young cabbages used in the same way. The seed of any
+early cabbage may be sown thickly in rows 18 inches apart, from early
+spring to late fall. The plants are cut off when 6 or 8 inches high and
+boiled as are other greens. The kale Collards is grown in the South,
+where cabbages fail to head. It grows to the height of 2 to 6 feet,
+furnishing a large quantity of leaves.
+
+
+COLLINSIA. A hardy annual that should be sown in the fall, where wanted,
+if early flowers are desired. The flowers of all the varieties are
+showy, either in masses or planted in a border. Give them a position
+near the front, as the plants rarely exceed 18 inches in height.
+
+
+COLUMBINE. See _Aquilegia_.
+
+
+COMPOST. See _Manure_.
+
+
+CONVOLVULUS. See _Morning-Glory_.
+
+
+COREOPSIS, or CALLIOPSIS. Very showy hardy annuals, growing from 1 to 3
+feet high, and covered throughout the season with a profusion of bloom.
+The colors range from lemon-yellow to dark velvety brown. Excellent for
+cutting, and very effective in mixed borders. They thrive in any garden
+soil if they have full sunlight. Sow where they are to grow, letting the
+plants stand 6-12 in. apart for mass effects.
+
+
+CORN SALAD. This is one of the earliest spring salad vegetables, coming
+into condition to use with spinach, and needing the same culture. Sown
+in the fall, and covered with straw or hay when cold weather sets in, it
+will start into rapid growth when the covering is removed in March or
+April. Or the seed may be sown in early spring, and plants will be fit
+to use in six or eight weeks. One packet of seed will suffice for a
+small family.
+
+
+CORN, SWEET, is not so generally used as it should be. Usually when
+planted at all, only one planting of one kind is made. The ears come to
+edible maturity almost simultaneously, and a short season of Sweet Corn
+is the result. The first planting should be made from May 1 to 10,
+planting early, intermediate and late varieties at the same time, then
+at intervals of two weeks until the middle of July, when the late
+varieties should be planted, thus having a succession from the first
+crop until October. The soil for Corn should be rich in plant-food, and
+the coarser manure left from the preparation of the ground for small
+crops may be used to good advantage. Corn for the garden is better
+planted in drills, the drills 3 feet apart, dropping the seed from 10 to
+12 inches apart in the drills. One quart of seed will plant 200 hills.
+
+For extra early, Marblehead, Adams, Vermont, Minnesota and Early Cory
+are favorites. For later crop, Crosby, Hickox, Shoe Peg and Stowell
+Evergreen are now popular.
+
+
+COSMOS. The Cosmos grown in a locality free from early fall frosts is
+certainly a beautiful thing, but there are probably few flowers that
+have caused so much disappointment to the flower lover in the North. The
+seed germinates very freely. The plants grow with great vigor, and if
+the season permits, an abundance of bloom may be had in September. An
+early-flowering strain of dwarf Cosmos has been offered by the trade for
+several years; and each year there seems to be an improvement in the
+size and colors, so the time may shortly come when this will equal the
+late-flowering varieties, making the culture of Cosmos more
+satisfactory. Cosmos flowers are borne on long stems, and the colors are
+in white and fine shades of red. The foliage is also fine. Seed should
+be sown in gentle heat, in the greenhouse, hotbed or window in early
+April, and the young plants transplanted when 2 inches high, setting the
+plants well down in the soil and giving at least 3 inches between the
+plants, as they are very likely to spindle up, with weak stems, if
+crowded. When danger of frost is over, set them out in a warm, well
+sheltered position, 3 feet apart. After the plants start into growth,
+pinch out the top to induce a bushy growth. If situated where the wind
+can whip them, they should have a stake driven close to the stem, and be
+tied to it for support. Flowers of Cosmos are on the order of single
+Dahlias.
+
+
+CRANBERRY. The growing of Cranberries in artificial bogs is an American
+industry. The common large Cranberry of markets is also a peculiarly
+American fruit, since it is unknown in other countries except as the
+fruit is shipped there. Cranberries are grown in bogs, which may be
+flooded. The whole area is kept under water during the winter time,
+largely to prevent the plants from winter injury by the heaving and
+freezing and thawing of the bogs. Flooding is also employed at intervals
+for the purpose of drowning out insects, mitigating drought, and
+protecting against frost and fires. Every good Cranberry bog should have
+facilities for flooding. The ordinary practice is to choose a bog which
+has a creek running through it, or through which some creek or ditch may
+be diverted. At the lower side of the bog flood gates are provided, so
+that when the gates are shut the water backs up and floods the area. It
+is best that the bog be comparatively flat, so that the water will be
+of approximately equal depth over the whole area. At the shallowest
+places the water should stand about a foot above the plants. The water
+is usually let on the bog early in December and kept on until April or
+early May. No flooding is done during the rest of the year unless there
+is some particular occasion therefor.
+
+All the wild and turfy growth should be taken off the bog before the
+vines are set. This is done either by digging it off and removing it
+bodily, or by drowning it out by means of a year's flooding. The former
+method is generally considered to be the better. After the turfy growth
+is removed, the bog is smoothed and covered 2 or 3 in. deep with clean
+sand. The vines are now set, the lower ends of them being shoved through
+the sand into the richer earth. In order to prevent a too rapid and
+tangled growth of vine, it is customary to resand the bog every three or
+four years to a depth of one-fourth or one-half inch. When sanding is
+not practicable, the vines may be mown off when they become too
+luxuriant.
+
+The plants for setting are merely cuttings or branches of the vines.
+These cuttings may be from 5 to 10 in. long. They are inserted into the
+ground in a hole made by a crowbar or stick. They are usually planted at
+distances of 12 to 18 in. each way, and the vines are allowed to cover
+the entire ground as with a mat. In three years a good crop should be
+secured, if the weeds and wild growth are kept down. A crop ranges
+between 50 to 100 barrels per acre.
+
+
+CRESS. The Upland Cress, or the true PEPPER GRASS, may be grown on any
+garden soil. Sow early in the spring. It makes a rapid growth and can be
+cut from four to five weeks. Succession of sowings must be made, as it
+runs quickly to seed. The curled variety is the one usually grown, as
+the leaves may be used for garnishing as well as for salads. One packet
+of seed will be sufficient for each sowing. Any good soil will do. Sow
+thickly in drills 12-18 in. apart. In summer it runs to seed quickly,
+so that it is usually grown in spring and fall.
+
+The Water Cress is more exacting in its culture, and can only be
+successfully grown in moist places, such as edges of shallow,
+slow-running creeks, open drains, or beds excavated near such streams. A
+few plants for private use may be grown in a frame, provided a retentive
+soil is used and attention given to watering the bed often. Water Cress
+may be propagated from pieces of the stem, used as cuttings. If one is
+fond of Water Cress, it is well to colonize it in some clean creek or
+pool. It will take care of itself year by year. Seeds may also be used
+for propagating it.
+
+
+CROCUS. A hardy bulb, easily grown and giving good satisfaction either
+in the border or scattered through the lawn. They are also forced for
+winter (see _Bulbs_). They are so cheap and lasting that they may be
+used in quantity. A border of them along the edges of walks, little
+clumps of them in the lawn, or masses in a bed, give the first touch of
+color as the spring opens. They may be forced with ease planted in pots
+or shallow boxes, put away in a cool place and brought into the house at
+any time through the winter. A low temperature will bring them into
+bloom in perfection in about four weeks from the time they are brought
+in. They can be had in the window-garden in this way.
+
+A sandy soil suits the Crocus admirably. Plant in the fall, in the open,
+setting them 3 to 4 inches deep. When they show signs of failing, take
+up the bulbs and reset them. They tend to rise out of the ground,
+because the new bulb or corm forms on the top of the old one. If best
+results are desired, it is well to renew the bed occasionally by buying
+new bulbs. Crocus beds may be filled later in the season with
+quick-growing annuals.
+
+
+CROTON. Under this name many varieties and so-called species of Codiæum
+are grown for conservatory decoration, and latterly for foliage bedding
+in the open. The colors and shapes of the leaves are very various and
+attractive. The Crotons make good window-garden subjects, although they
+are very liable to the attack of the mealy bug. They are propagated
+readily by cuttings of half-ripened wood any time during winter or
+spring. The plants should be given an abundance of light in order to
+bring out their fine colors; but it is usually advisable to screen them
+from the direct rays of the sun when they are grown under glass. If the
+red spider or the mealy bug attack them, they may be syringed with
+tobacco water. Plants which are propagated indoors during the winter may
+be massed in beds out of doors during the summer, where they make very
+striking effects. Give them rich, deep soil, and be sure that they are
+syringed frequently enough on the under side of the leaves to keep down
+the red spider. If the plants have been gradually subjected to strong
+light before they are taken out of doors, they will stand the full
+sunlight and will develop their rich colors to perfection. In the fall
+they may be taken up, cut back and used for window-garden or
+conservatory subjects. Crotons are shrubs or small trees, and they may
+be transferred into large pots or tubs and grown on into large tree-like
+specimens.
+
+
+CUCUMBER. For early use, the Cucumber is usually started in a hotbed or
+coldframe by sowing the seed on pieces of sod 4 to 6 inches square,
+turned grass side down. Three or four seeds are placed on or pushed into
+each piece of sod and covered with 1 to 2 inches of fine soil. The soil
+should be well watered and the glass or cloth placed over the frame. The
+roots will run through the sod. When the plants are large enough to set
+out, a flat trowel or a shingle may be slipped under the sod and the
+plants moved to the hill without check. In place of sod, old quart berry
+boxes are good; after setting in the hill the roots may force their way
+through the cracks in the baskets. The baskets also decay rapidly.
+Flower pots may be used. These plants from the frames may be set out
+when danger of frost is over, usually by the 10th of May, and should
+make a very rapid growth, yielding good-sized fruits in two months. The
+hills should be made rich by forking in a quantity of well rotted
+manure, and given a slight elevation above the garden--not high enough
+to allow the wind to dry the soil, but slightly raised so that water
+will not stand around the roots. One ounce of seed will plant fifty
+hills. The hills may be 4-5 ft. apart each way.
+
+[Illustration: Cucumbers]
+
+The White Spine is the leading general-purpose variety. For very early
+or pickling sorts, the Chicago, Russian, and other picklings are good.
+
+The striped beetle is an inveterate pest on Cucumbers and squashes.
+Following is the latest advice (Hall and Sirrine, New York State
+Experiment Station): "Poisons can be used with success against these
+beetles for only a short time in the spring, when they begin to feed;
+and again, in the fall, against beetles of the new brood. This fall
+poisoning will succeed only where there is not an abundance of wild fall
+flowers; for the beetles will desert any poisoned crop for the
+unpoisoned flowers and will feed upon the flowers to a considerable
+extent, anyhow, if they are to be found. Green arsenite, dry, gave best
+results. It was found a waste of the poisons to apply them in Bordeaux
+mixture, as the mixture so repelled the insects that they would not eat
+the sprayed vines to secure the poison. These poisons, applied in water,
+are liable to burn or stunt the plants. It is necessary, then, if we
+wish to poison the beetles, to use a trap crop to attract the insects
+and to apply the poison to this crop instead of to the plants we design
+to protect. On small areas it may be advisable to shut in the small
+plants of the growing crop by the well known cloth-topped boxes; by the
+tent-like cloth covers spread over arched hoops or wires; by boxes made
+from a rectangular piece of cloth and two short 6-inch boards with
+cleats attached to insert in the soil and hold the boards upright; or
+even 6-inch wire plate-covers. Covers, however, are too expensive on
+large areas, and they have the disadvantage of frequently making the
+plants weak, so that winds will snap them off or twist and ruin them
+when the covers have to be removed. If covers are used alone, their
+removal leaves the unprotected vines not only for feeding places but for
+breeding places for the beetles.
+
+"Bordeaux mixture, if thoroughly and frequently applied, makes as
+efficient a protection as the covers, is much cheaper, and at the same
+time protects the plants from diseases. This mixture (1-to-11 formula)
+should be sprayed upon the Cucumbers when they are just well up, again
+when they show the third leaf, and the third time just before the plants
+commence to form runners. The early application can probably best be
+made with a knapsack sprayer, and later ones by any good pump sprayer.
+The three applications should not cost over $2 per acre. The Bordeaux
+mixture is a much better repellant, according to station tests, than
+kerosene, turpentine, tobacco dust, cow manure, burdock infusion, slug
+shot, bug death, or any other known compound. Indeed, all materials of
+this class, supposed to drive away the beetles by their distasteful
+odor, proved failures when used alone. Air-slaked lime, dusted over the
+vines, will make them unpalatable to the beetles, but the lime is liable
+to stunt the plants. It may be used, with care, by those whose crop is
+not large enough to warrant purchase of a spraying outfit.
+
+"All of these appliances or applications, covers, Bordeaux mixture or
+lime, merely protect the young plants until they are strong enough to
+stand the injury from the beetles; they do not kill the insects. To do
+this, trap crops are needed. As the squash is the beetle's favorite food
+plant, this vegetable should be planted--in single rows along the
+margins of small patches, in several rows around large fields--about
+four days before the Cucumbers or melon seeds are sown. When these trap
+plants are up and the beetles appear about them, dust about half the
+plants with green arsenite, reserving the other half for use if rain or
+heavy dew makes the poison soluble and kills the vines first treated.
+The beetles, attracted by their favorite tidbit, will feed upon the
+squash vines and be poisoned by the arsenite. When the Cucumbers or
+melons are up, unless they are protected by covers, spray with Bordeaux,
+and poison more of the squash vines. When the beetles commence to pair,
+the squashes may be cultivated up, leaving only a few vines for the
+beetles to feed upon at flowering time, as the insects prefer the squash
+flowers and will not molest the others. Beans may be used with some
+success as a fall catch crop, where wild flowers are not too plentiful.
+They should be planted on the Cucumber or melon fields; and when the
+beetles leave the old vines to feed upon the fresh bean plants, they
+should be treated to liberal doses of poison as well."
+
+The mildew on the vines can be prevented by Bordeaux mixture spray.
+
+
+[Illustration: Currants]
+
+CURRANTS. The Currant, being one of the hardiest and most productive of
+fruits, is often neglected, the patch allowed to become foul with grass,
+never thinned or trimmed, the worms eating the leaves until, in the
+course of time, the plants weaken and die. Along the fence is no place
+to plant Currants, or, indeed, any other fruit; plant out in the open,
+at least 5 feet from anything that will interfere with cultivation. No
+fruit crop will respond more readily to good care than the Currant.
+Clean cultivation and a liberal use of manure or fertilizers will
+certainly be followed by well paying crops. One- or two-year-old plants
+may be set 4 by 6 feet. Trim the bush by cutting off most of the suckers
+below the surface of the ground. If the season is dry, a mulch of straw
+or leaves will assist the plants to establish themselves.
+
+The red and white Currants bear mostly on two-year-old or older wood. A
+succession of young shoots should be allowed to grow to take the place
+of the old bearing wood. Cut out the canes as they grow older. The
+partial shade afforded by a young orchard suits the Currant well, and if
+the ground is in good condition no bad results will follow to the
+orchard, provided the Currants are removed before the trees need the
+entire feeding space.
+
+A Currant patch should continue in good bearing for 10 to 20 years, if
+properly handled. One very important point is to keep the old, weak
+canes cut out, and a succession of two to four new ones coming from the
+root each year. For home use, White Imperial and Moore's Ruby are
+excellent. Prince of Wales is a heavy bearer and excellent for cooking.
+Wilder, Victoria, Cherry and White Grape are meritorious varieties.
+
+To combat the Currant worm, spray thoroughly with Paris green to kill
+the first brood, just as soon as holes can be seen in the lower
+leaves--usually before the plants are in bloom. For the second brood, if
+it appear, spray with white hellebore. For borers, cut out and burn the
+affected canes.
+
+
+CUTTINGS. Cuttings are parts of plants which are inserted in soil or
+water with the intention that they shall grow and make new plants. They
+are of various kinds. They may be classified, with reference to the age
+of the wood or tissue, into two classes; viz., those made from perfectly
+hard or dormant wood (taken from the winter twigs of trees and bushes),
+and those made from more or less immature or growing wood. They may be
+classified again in respect to the part of the plants from which they
+are taken, as root Cuttings, tuber Cuttings (as the ordinary "seed"
+planted for potatoes), stem Cuttings and leaf Cuttings.
+
+[Illustration: The planting of dormant wood Cuttings]
+
+Dormant wood Cuttings are used for grapes, currants, gooseberries,
+willows, poplars and many other kinds of soft-wooded trees and shrubs.
+Cuttings are ordinarily taken in fall or winter, but cut into the proper
+lengths and then buried in sand or moss where they do not freeze, in
+order that the lower end may heal over or callus. In the spring these
+Cuttings are set in the ground, preferably in a rather sandy and well
+drained place. Usually, hardwood Cuttings are made with two to four
+joints or buds, and when they are planted, only the upper bud projects
+above the ground. They may be planted erect, as the picture shows, or
+somewhat slanting. In order that the Cutting may reach down to moist
+earth, it is desirable that it should not be less than 6 inches long;
+and it is sometimes better if it is 8 to 12 inches. If the wood is
+short-jointed, there may be several buds on a Cutting of this length;
+and, in order to prevent too many shoots from arising from these buds,
+the lowermost buds are often cut out. Roots will start as readily if the
+lower buds are removed, since the buds grow into shoots and not into
+roots. Cuttings of currants, grapes, gooseberries, and the like may be
+set in rows which are far enough apart to admit of easy tillage either
+with horse or hand tools, and the Cuttings may be placed from 3 to 8
+inches apart in the row. After the Cuttings have grown for one season,
+the plants are usually transplanted and given more room for the second
+year's growth, after which time they are ready to be set in permanent
+plantations. In some cases, the plants are set at the end of the first
+year; but two-year plants are stronger and usually preferable.
+
+[Illustration: Root Cutting, which has given rise to a shoot]
+
+Root Cuttings are used for blackberries, raspberries, and a few other
+things. They are ordinarily made of roots from the size of a lead pencil
+to one's little finger, and are cut in lengths from 3 to 5 inches long.
+The Cuttings are stored the same as stem Cuttings and allowed to
+callus. In the spring they are planted in a horizontal or nearly
+horizontal position in moist, sandy soil, being entirely covered to a
+depth of 1 or 2 inches.
+
+Softwood or greenwood Cuttings are always rooted under cover; that is,
+in a greenhouse, coldframe or dwelling house. They are usually made of
+wood which is mature enough to break when it is bent sharply. When the
+wood is so soft that it will bend and not break, it is too immature, in
+the majority of plants, for the making of good Cuttings. One to two
+joints is the proper length of a greenwood Cutting. If of two joints,
+the lower leaf should be cut off and the upper leaves cut in two, so
+that they do not present their entire surface to the air and thereby
+evaporate the plant juices too rapidly. If the Cutting is of only one
+joint, the lower end is usually cut just above a joint. In either case,
+the Cuttings are usually inserted in sand or well washed gravel, nearly
+or quite up to the leaves. Keep the bed uniformly moist throughout its
+depth, but avoid any soil which holds so much moisture that it becomes
+muddy and sour. These Cuttings should be shaded until they begin to emit
+their roots. Coleus, geraniums, fuchsias, and nearly all the common
+greenhouse and house plants, are propagated by these Cuttings or slips.
+
+Leaf Cuttings are often used, for the fancy-leaved begonias, gloxinias,
+and a few other plants. The young plant usually arises most readily from
+the leaf-stalk or petiole. The leaf, therefore, is inserted into the
+ground much as a green Cutting is. Begonia leaves, however, will throw
+out young plants from the main veins when these veins or ribs are cut.
+Therefore, well-grown and firm begonia leaves are sometimes laid flat on
+the sand and the main veins cut; then the leaf is weighted down with
+pebbles or pegs so that these cut surfaces come into intimate contact
+with the soil beneath. The begonia leaf may be treated in various other
+ways and still give good results. See _Begonia_.
+
+In the growing of all greenwood Cuttings, it is well to remember that
+they should have a gentle bottom heat; the soil should be such that it
+will hold moisture and yet not remain wet; the air about the tops should
+not become close and stagnant, else the plants will damp off; and the
+tops should be shaded for a time.
+
+[Illustration: Cuttings inserted in a double pot]
+
+An excellent method of starting Cuttings in the living room is to make a
+double pot, as shown in the picture. Inside a 6-inch pot, set a 4-inch
+pot. Fill the bottom, _a_, with gravel or bits of brick, for drainage.
+Plug the hole in the inside pot. Fill the spaces between, _c_, with
+earth, and in this set the Cuttings. Water may be poured into the inner
+pot, _b_, to supply the moisture.
+
+
+CUTWORMS. Probably the remedy for Cutworms most often practiced in
+gardens, and which cannot fail to be effective when faithfully carried
+out, is hand-picking with lanterns at night or digging them out from
+around the base of the infested plants during the day. Bushels of
+Cutworms have been gathered in this way, and with profit. When from some
+cause success does not attend the use of the poisoned baits, discussed
+next, hand-picking is the only other method yet recommended which can be
+relied upon to check Cutworm depredations.
+
+By far the best methods yet devised for killing Cutworms in any
+situation are the poisoned baits; hand-picking is usually unnecessary
+where they are thoroughly used. Poisoned bunches of clover or weeds have
+been thoroughly tested, even by the wagon-load, over large areas, and
+nearly all have reported them very effective; lamb's quarters (pigweed),
+pepper-grass and mullein are among the weeds especially attractive to
+Cutworms. On small areas the making of the baits is done by hand, but
+they have been prepared on a large scale by spraying the plants in the
+field, cutting them with a scythe or machine, and pitching them from
+wagons in small bunches wherever desired. Distributed a few feet apart
+between rows of garden plants at nightfall, they have attracted and
+killed enough Cutworms often to save a large proportion of the crop; if
+the bunches can be covered with a shingle, they will keep fresher much
+longer. The fresher the baits, and the more thoroughly the baiting is
+done, the more Cutworms one can destroy. However, it may sometimes
+happen that a sufficient quantity of such green succulent plants cannot
+be obtained early enough in the season in some localities. In this case,
+and we are not sure but in all cases, the poisoned bran mash can be used
+to the best advantage. It is easily made and applied at any time, is not
+expensive, and thus far the results show that it is a very attractive
+and effective bait. A tablespoonful can be quickly dropped around the
+base of each cabbage or tomato plant, small amounts can be easily
+scattered along the rows of onions, turnips, etc., or a little dropped
+on a hill of corn, cucumbers, etc. It was used on sweet potato hills in
+New Jersey last year, and "served as a complete protection, the Cutworms
+preferring the bran." It is well to apply it on the evening of the day
+the plants are set out.
+
+The best time to apply these poisoned baits is two or three days before
+any plants have come up or been set out in the garden. If the ground has
+been properly prepared, the worms will have had but little to eat for
+several days and they will thus seize the first opportunity to appease
+their hunger upon the baits, and wholesale destruction will result. The
+baits should always be applied at this time wherever Cutworms are
+expected. But it is not too late usually to save most of a crop after
+the pests have made their presence known by cutting off some of the
+plants. Act promptly and use the baits freely.--_M. V. Slingerland._
+
+[Illustration: Protection from cutworms]
+
+Cutworms may be kept away from plants by making a collar of stiff paper
+or tin about the base, as in the picture; but this is not practicable on
+a large scale.
+
+
+CYCLAMEN. A tender greenhouse tuberous plant, sometimes seen in the
+window-garden. Cyclamens may be grown from seed sown in April or
+September in soil containing a large proportion of sand and leaf-mold.
+If sown in September, they should be wintered in a coolhouse. In May
+they should be potted into larger pots and placed in a shaded frame, and
+by July will have become large enough for their flowering pot, which
+should be either a 5- or 6-inch one. They should be brought into the
+house before danger of frost, and grown cool until through flowering. A
+temperature of 55° suits them while in flower. After flowering, they
+will need a rest for a short time, but should not become very dry, or
+the bulb will be injured. When they start into growth, they should have
+the old soil shaken off and be potted into smaller pots. At no time
+should more than half the tuber be under the soil.
+
+Tubers large enough to flower the first year may be obtained from the
+seedsmen at moderate prices; and unless one has facilities for growing
+the seedlings for a year, purchase of the tubers will give the best
+satisfaction. The soil best suited to the Cyclamen is one containing two
+parts leaf-mold, 1 part each of sand and loam.
+
+
+DAFFODILS are a kind of Narcissus. They are hardy, and require the
+treatment recommended for Crocus. They may be naturalized in the grass,
+but they usually do not persist long on account of our hot, dry summers.
+Daffodils have been much improved of late. Plant in the fall, 4-6 in.
+deep. Excellent old garden plants.
+
+
+DAHLIA. The Dahlia is an old favorite which, on account of its formal
+flowers, has been in disfavor for a few years, although it has always
+held a place in the rural districts. Now, however, with the advent of
+the cactus and semi-cactus types (or loose-flowered forms), and the
+improvement of the singles, it again has taken a front rank among late
+summer flowers, coming in just in advance of the Chrysanthemum.
+
+[Illustration: Dahlia]
+
+The single varieties may be grown from seed, but the double sorts should
+be grown from cuttings of young stems or from division of the roots. If
+cuttings are to be made, it will be necessary to start the roots early
+either in a hotbed or house. When the growth has reached 4 or 5 inches,
+they may be cut from the plant and rooted in sand. Care should be taken
+to cut just below the joint, as a cutting made between two joints will
+not form tubers. The most rapid method of propagation of named varieties
+is to grow from cuttings in this way. In growing the plants from roots,
+the best plan is to place the whole root in gentle heat, covering
+slightly. When the young growth has started, the roots may be taken up,
+divided, and planted out 3 to 4 feet apart. This plan will ensure a
+plant from each piece of root, whereas if the roots are divided while
+dormant, there is danger of not having a bud at the end of each piece,
+in which case no growth will start.
+
+[Illustration: Dahlia]
+
+The Dahlia flourishes best in a deep, rich, moist soil, although very
+good results can be had on sandy soil, provided plant-food and moisture
+are furnished. Clay should be avoided. If the plants are to be grown
+without stakes, the center of each plant should be pinched out after
+making two or three joints. By doing this the lateral branches will
+start near the ground and be stiff enough to withstand the winds. In
+most home gardens the plants are allowed to reach their full height, and
+are tied to stakes if necessary. Dahlias are very susceptible to frost.
+The tall kinds reach a height of 5-8 feet.
+
+After the first frost, lift the roots, let them dry in the sun, shake
+off the dirt, trim off tops and broken parts, and store them in a
+cellar as you would potatoes. Cannas may be stored in the same place.
+
+
+DAISY. The perennial English Daisy, or _Bellis perennis_, is a prime
+favorite as an edging plant. The cheerful little flowers show early in
+the spring, and with a little care bloom continuously through a long
+season. They should be given well enriched, moist soil, and be mulched
+through hot weather. The usual method of propagation is by division of
+the crowns, made in cool weather. They may also be grown from seed, but
+the chances are that many inferior flowers will be produced. Set the
+plants 3 or 4 inches apart. Height 3 to 5 inches. The colors are white,
+pink and red. Hardy if mulched in winter, but best results are obtained
+if plants are renewed frequently.
+
+Many other plants are called Daisy, particularly the wild Asters, the
+Ox-eye Daisy or Whiteweed, and the Paris Daisy (_Chrysanthemum
+frutescens_).
+
+
+DAMPING OFF is the rotting off of cuttings or young plants near the
+surface of the soil. It is the work of fungi; but these fungi are
+injurious because they find conditions congenial to their rapid growth.
+Prevention is worth more than cure. See that the soil is wet clear
+through, not wet on top and dry beneath. Keep it as dry as possible on
+the surface. Avoid soggy soils. On peaty soils, sprinkle sand or coal
+ashes to keep the top dry. Give the plants free circulation of air. Give
+them abundance of room. If Damping Off threatens, transplant.
+
+
+DANDELION. This common weed would hardly be recognized if seen under
+cultivation in the vegetable garden. The plants attain a large size and
+the leaves are much more tender. The seed may be selected from the best
+field-growing plants, but it is better to buy the French seed of the
+seedsmen.
+
+Sow in spring in well manured soil, either in drills or in hills 1 foot
+apart. A cutting of leaves may be had in September or October, and some
+of the stools may stand until spring. The delicacy of the leaves may be
+improved by blanching them, either by the use of boards or earth. One
+trade packet of seed will supply a large number of plants. The whole
+plant is destroyed when the crop of leaves is taken.
+
+
+DATURA. BRUGMANSIA. Large-growing annuals with large, trumpet-shaped
+flowers. The coloring of some of the flowers is very attractive, but the
+odor of the plant is unpleasant. Plants should be set 4 feet apart. They
+grow 3-4 feet high, bear large leaves, and therefore make good low
+screens. Frost kills them. Sow seed where plants are to grow; or,
+better, start them in the house three or four weeks before the weather
+is fit for planting outside. Some of the Daturas are weeds. The great
+spiny seed pods are interesting.
+
+
+DELPHINIUM. See _Larkspur_.
+
+
+DEWBERRY. The Dewberry may be called an early trailing blackberry. The
+culture of this, as of the blackberry, is very simple; but, unlike the
+latter, some support should be given to the canes, as they are very
+slender and rank growers. A wire trellis or large-meshed fence-wire
+answers admirably; or (and this is the better general method) they may
+be tied to stakes. The fruits are large and showy, which, combined with
+their earliness, makes them desirable; but they are usually deficient in
+flavor. The Lucretia is the leading variety in cultivation.
+
+[Illustration: Lucretia Dewberry]
+
+Lay the canes on the ground in winter. In the spring tie all the canes
+from each plant to a stake. After fruiting, cut the old canes and burn
+them (as for blackberries). In the meantime, the young canes (for next
+year's fruiting) are growing. These may be tied up as they grow, to be
+out of the way of the cultivator. Dewberries are one to two weeks
+earlier than blackberries.
+
+
+DIANTHUS, or PINK. Under this head are included Chinese Pinks, Sweet
+William, Picotee, Carnation (which see), and the perennial or Grass
+Pinks. All of them are general favorites.
+
+The Chinese Pinks (_Dianthus Chinensis_, or _Heddewigii_) are now very
+popular. They are biennials, but flower the first year from seed, and
+are treated as hardy annuals. They have a wide range of color and
+markings. Some of them are as double as a rose, and are edged, splashed
+or lined with other colors. The single ones are very brilliant and are
+profuse bloomers. Sow seeds where plants are to stand, or if early bloom
+is desired, start in the house. Set the plants 6-10 in. apart. They grow
+8-15 in. high. They bloom until after frost. Of easiest culture in any
+good soil, and should be even more popular. The petals are often quite
+deeply and oddly cut.
+
+The Sweet William is an old-fashioned perennial, having flowers of many
+combinations of color, growing for several years when once planted, but
+being the better for renewal every two years. Raising new stock from
+seeds is usually better than dividing old plants. Of late years, the
+Sweet William has been much improved.
+
+The perennial garden or Grass Pinks are low-growing, with highly
+perfumed flowers. They are very useful for permanent edgings, although
+the grass is likely to run them out unless a clean strip is kept on
+either side. Divide the old plants when the edging begins to fail; or
+raise new plants from seed. Seedlings usually do not bloom much the
+first year. Usually perfectly hardy.
+
+
+[Illustration: Dibbers]
+
+DIBBERS are hand tools used for making holes in which to set plants or
+to drop seeds. They are better than a hoe or a spade for most
+transplanting. For small plants, as cabbages and tomatoes, a cylindrical
+Dibber is generally used. (See the lower one in the cut.) It can be made
+from an old spade handle or any hardwood stick. When broad holes are
+wanted, the triangular iron Dibber (sold by dealers) is excellent. It is
+particularly useful in hard soils.
+
+
+DICENTRA includes the Bleeding Heart; also the native little Dutchman's
+Breeches and Squirrel Corn, and a few other species. All are hardy
+perennials of the easiest culture, blooming in spring. In common with
+all perennial herbs, they are benefited by a winter mulch of leaves or
+litter. Propagated by dividing the clumps.
+
+
+DICTAMNUS. FRAXINELLA or GAS PLANT. An old border plant (perennial herb)
+with white or pale red flowers. The leaves of the plant emit a strong
+odor when rubbed, likened to that of the lemon verbena. It has been
+advertised as the Gas Plant from the fact that the plant exudes an oily
+matter that may be ignited, especially in warm, dry weather. Propagated
+by seeds, which should be sown as soon as ripe. The plant blooms the
+third year, and improves with age. Set plants 3 feet apart. Height 2 to
+3 feet.
+
+
+DILL. An annual aromatic herb that will seed itself if seeds are left to
+ripen, and an abundance of plants may always be had. The culture is of
+the easiest. The seeds are often used to flavor pickles.
+
+
+DISEASES. Diseases of plants may be caused by some physiological
+disturbance to the plant system, or by the incursions of some parasitic
+organism, as insects or fungi. The work of insects, however, is
+ordinarily not classed with plant Diseases (see _Insects_). Of Diseases
+which are caused by plant parasites or by physiological disturbances,
+there are two general groups:
+
+(1) Parasitic fungous Diseases, such as the apple-scab, black-rot and
+mildew of the grape, leaf-blight of the plum and pear, black-knot, and
+the like. These Diseases are characterized by definite spots,
+discolorations or excrescences, which are more or less scattered over
+the surface of the leaf, fruit or branch. As a rule, the leaves and
+fruits which are attacked have a tendency to drop from the tree. The
+general treatment for these Diseases is to spray with some fungicidal
+mixture, like the Bordeaux mixture or the ammoniacal carbonate of
+copper. The treatment is useful in proportion as it is applied early and
+thoroughly. After the fungus once gets into the tissues of the
+host-plant, it is difficult, if not impossible, to kill it. If, however,
+the fungicide is upon the plant before the fungus is, the parasite may
+not be able to obtain a foothold. Even after it does obtain a foothold,
+it is probable, however, that the spray will check its spread by
+preventing the development of its external parts.
+
+(2) The physiological and bacterial Diseases, or those which are termed
+constitutional troubles. In these cases there are rarely any definite
+spots, as in the attacks of parasitic fungi, but the entire leaf, or
+even the entire plant, or a large part of it, shows a general weakening
+and Disease, as if there were some cutting off of the accustomed source
+of nourishment. Such Diseases are very likely to be seen in a general
+yellowing and death of the leaf, in the dying of the leaf along the main
+veins and around the edges, showing that the difficulty is one which
+affects the entire leaf, and not any particular part of it. In general,
+there is a tendency for the foliage in plants so attacked to wither up
+and hang on the tree for a time. The peach-yellows and pear blight are
+Diseases of this kind. There are no specific treatments for troubles of
+this sort. They must be approached by what physicians call
+prophylaxis--that is, by methods of sanitation and prevention. The
+diseased plants or parts are cut away and burned. All those conditions
+which seem to favor the development of the Disease are removed.
+Varieties which are particularly susceptible are discarded. Careful
+management in matters of this sort is often much more important than any
+attempt at specific treatment.
+
+
+DOLICHOS. Mentioned under _Hyacinth Bean_.
+
+
+DRACÆNAS of the conservatories (properly mostly CORDYLINES) are
+sometimes used as house plants. Protect from direct sunlight, keep an
+even and fairly high temperature, water freely when they are growing.
+When the plants begin to fail, return them to the florist for
+recuperation, where they may have equable conditions. They are handsome
+long-leaved foliage plants, excellent for jardinieres.
+
+
+DRAINAGE serves two purposes: first, to carry superfluous water from the
+land; second, to lower the water-table or hard-pan, and to make the soil
+loose and friable above. Nearly all hard clay lands are much benefited
+by draining, even though they are not too wet. The region of free or
+standing water is lowered and air is admitted into the soil, rendering
+it fine and mellow. For carrying off mere surface water, surface or open
+ditches are sufficient; but if the soil is to be ameliorated, the drain
+must be beneath the surface. The best underdrains are those which use
+hollow or cylindrical tiles, but very good results may be had by making
+drains from stones. In regions where there are many flat stones, a very
+good conduit may be laid with them, but they are likely to get out of
+order. If there is considerable fall to the ditch, the bottom may be
+filled for the space of 10 inches or a foot with common stones rolled
+in, and the water will find its way between them. If the stones are even
+deeper than this, the results will be better; and such ditches also
+provide place for disposing of superfluous stones.
+
+The deeper the ditch the further it will draw on either side. It should
+always be deep enough to be protected from freezing, particularly if
+tiles are used. Three feet should be the least depth, and 3½ feet is
+a good average depth. Drains as deep as this need not be placed oftener
+than 2 to 3 rods apart, unless, in garden conditions, it is desired to
+very thoroughly ameliorate a heavy clay soil, in which case they may be
+placed every 20 feet. The better the fall the quicker the drain will act
+and the more permanent it will be, as it will tend to clean itself and
+not fill up with silt. It is important that the outlet be entirely free,
+and it should be protected with stones or mason work. The roots of some
+trees, particularly of willows and elms, are attracted by tile drains,
+and often fill up the pipes. When the drain goes near such trees,
+therefore, it is well to cement the joints. In general practice,
+however, the joints should not be cemented, because a large part of the
+drainage water enters at those places. In laying the tiles, it is well
+to cover the joints with inverted sod, tarred paper, wisps of straw,
+stones or other material. This prevents the fresh earth from falling in
+between the joints, and by the time the material is decayed the earth
+will have become so thoroughly set that no further trouble will result.
+Although under-drains take off superfluous water, nevertheless an
+under-drained soil will hold more moisture than one which is not
+drained, particularly in the case of clay lands with high subsoils. This
+is because fine, mallow soils are able to hold more moisture than very
+loose and open or very dense and compact ones. A well constructed
+underdrain should last indefinitely.
+
+
+DUTCHMAN'S PIPE. See _Aristolochia_.
+
+
+ECHEVERIA. Tender succulents largely used for carpet bedding and rock
+gardens. _Echeveria secunda_ is sometimes called OLD-HEN-AND-CHICKENS,
+from the little plants that grow out from the stem of the parent plant
+and show around the edges of the rosette top; but the hardy
+Hen-and-Chickens of old gardens is a different but closely allied plant
+(_Sempervivum tectorum_). All the species are of easy culture and thrive
+on sandy soil. They should not be planted out until all danger of frost
+is over and the ground thoroughly warm. Propagated by the offsets.
+Height 3 inches. The name Echeveria is now given up by botanists for
+_Cotyledon_.
+
+
+EGG-PLANT. GUINEA SQUASH. Unless one has a greenhouse or a very warm
+hotbed, the growing of Egg-plants in the North should be left to the
+professional gardener, as the young plants are very tender, and should
+be grown without a check. The seed should be sown in the hotbed or
+greenhouse about April 10, keeping a temperature of from 65° to 70°.
+When the seedlings have made three rough leaves, they may be pricked out
+into shallow boxes, or, still better, into 3-inch pots. The pots or
+boxes should be plunged to the rim in soil in a hotbed or coldframe so
+situated that protection may be given on chilly nights. The 10th of June
+is early enough to plant them out in central New York. The soil in which
+they are to grow cannot well be made too rich, as they have only a short
+season in which to develop their fruits. The plants are usually set 3
+feet apart each way. A dozen plants are sufficient for the needs of a
+large family, as each plant should yield from two to six large fruits.
+The fruits are fit to eat at all stages of growth, from those the size
+of a large egg to their largest development. One ounce of seed will
+furnish 600 to 800 plants.
+
+[Illustration: New York Purple Egg-plant]
+
+The New York Improved Purple is the standard variety. Black Pekin is
+good. For early, or for a short-season climate, the Early Dwarf Purple
+is excellent.
+
+
+ENDIVE. As a fall salad vegetable, this should be better known, it being
+far superior to lettuce at that time and as easily grown. For fall use,
+the seed may be sown from June to August, and as the plants become fit
+to eat about the same time from sowing as lettuce does, a succession may
+be had until cold weather. The plants will need protection from the
+severe fall frosts, and this may be given by carefully lifting the
+plants and transplanting to a frame, where sash or cloth may be used to
+cover them in freezing weather. The leaves, which constitute practically
+the whole plant, are blanched before being used, either by tying
+together with some soft material or by standing boards on each side of
+the row, allowing the top of the boards to meet over the center of the
+row. The rows should be 1½ or 2 feet apart, the plants 1 foot apart
+in the rows. One ounce of seed will sow 150 feet of drill.
+
+
+ESCHSCHOLTZIA. See _California Poppy_.
+
+
+EUTOCA. Hardy early-flowering annuals having pink or blue flowers, good
+for masses. Sow seed early where wanted. Height 1 foot. Eutocas are
+properly classed with Phacelias.
+
+
+EVERGREENS. Evergreens are plants which hold their foliage in winter.
+Ordinarily, however, in this country the word Evergreen is understood to
+mean coniferous trees with persistent leaves, as pines, spruces, firs,
+cedars, junipers, arborvitæ, retinosporas, and the like. These trees
+have always been favorites with plant lovers, as they have very
+distinctive forms and other characteristics. Many of them are of the
+easiest culture. It is a common notion that, since spruces and other
+conifers grow so symmetrically, they will not stand pruning; but this is
+an error. They may be pruned with as good effect as other trees, and if
+they tend to grow too tall the leader may be cut out without fear. A new
+leader will arise, but in the meantime the upward growth of the tree
+will be somewhat checked, and the effect will be to make the tree dense.
+The tips of the branches may also be headed in with the same effect. The
+beauty of an Evergreen lies in its natural form; therefore, it should
+not be sheared into unusual shapes, but a gentle trimming back, as
+suggested, will tend to prevent the Norway spruce and others from
+growing open and ragged. After the tree attains some age, 4 or 5 inches
+may be taken off the ends of the main branches every year or two with
+good results. This slight trimming is ordinarily done with Waters'
+long-handled pruning shears.
+
+There is much difference of opinion as to the proper time for the
+transplanting of Evergreens, which means that there is more than one
+season in which they may be moved. It is ordinarily unsafe to transplant
+them in the fall in northern climates or bleak situations, since the
+evaporation from the foliage during the winter is likely to injure the
+plant. The best results are usually secured when they are transplanted
+just as new growth is beginning, rather late in the spring. Some people
+also plant them in August, and the roots secure a hold of the soil
+before winter. In transplanting conifers, it is very important that the
+roots be not exposed to the sun. They should be moistened and covered
+with burlaps or other material. The holes should be ready to receive
+them. If the trees are large, or if it has been necessary to trim in the
+roots, the top should be cut when the tree is set. Large Evergreens
+(those 10 feet and more high) are usually best transplanted late in
+winter, at a time when a large ball of earth may be moved with them. A
+trench is dug around the tree, it being deepened a little day by day so
+that the frost can work into the earth and hold it in shape. When the
+ball is thoroughly frozen, it is hoisted onto a stone-boat and moved to
+its new position.
+
+For low hedges or screens, one of the most serviceable Evergreens is the
+arborvitæ in its various forms. Red cedars are also useful. Perhaps the
+handsomest of all of them for such purposes is the ordinary hemlock
+spruce; but it is usually difficult to move. Transplanted trees from
+nurseries are usually safest. If the trees are taken from the wild, they
+should be selected from open and sunny places. For neat and compact
+effects near porches and along walks, the dwarf retinosporas are very
+useful. Most of the pines and spruces are too coarse for planting very
+close to the house. They are better at some distance removed, where they
+serve as a background to other planting. If they are wanted for
+individual specimens, they should be given plenty of room, so that the
+limbs will not be crowded and the tree become misshapen. Whatever else
+is done to the spruces and firs, the lower limbs should not be trimmed
+up, at least not until the tree has become so old that the lowest
+branches die. Some species hold their branches much longer than others.
+The oriental spruce (_Picea orientalis_) is one of the best in this
+respect. The occasional slight heading-in, which we have mentioned, will
+tend to preserve the lower limbs, and it will not be marked enough to
+alter the form of the tree.
+
+
+EVERLASTINGS are flowers which retain their shape and usually their
+color when they are dried. Most of them are members of the composite
+family. In order to have them hold shape and color, cut them with very
+long stems just before they are fully expanded, and hang them in an airy
+place away from the sun. They are all annuals, or grown as such, and are
+of very easy culture. Sow seeds where the plants are to stand. Good
+kinds are Ammobium, Gomphrena or Bachelor's Buttons, Rhodanthe,
+Helichrysum, Xeranthemum, and Acroclinium. Certain wild composites may
+be similarly used, particularly Anaphalis and species of Gnaphalium.
+Some of the grasses make excellent additions to dry bouquets (see
+_Grass_). With these dry bouquets, various seed pods look well.
+
+
+FENZLIA. Little hardy annuals, having a profusion of bloom through the
+entire summer. The flowers are a delicate pink, with yellow throat
+surrounded by dark spots. A charming edging plant or window box subject.
+Sow the seed in boxes or where plants are wanted, and thin to the
+distance of 10 inches. Height 3 to 4 inches. Now classed with Gilia.
+
+
+FERNS. Probably the one Fern grown most extensively as a house plant is
+the small-leaved Maidenhair Fern (or _Adiantum gracillimum_). This and
+other species are among the finest of house plants, when sufficient
+moisture can be given. They make fine specimens, as well as serving the
+purpose of greenery for cut-flowers. Other species often grown for house
+plants are _A. cuneatum_ and _A. Capillus-Veneris_. All these do well in
+a mixture of fibrous sod, loam, and sand, with ample drainage material.
+They may be divided if an increase is wanted.
+
+Other Ferns for house culture include _Nephrolepis exaltata_. This is no
+doubt the most easily grown of the list, flourishing in a sitting-room.
+The new variety of _N. exaltata_, called the Boston Fern (see figure),
+is a decided addition to this family, having a drooping habit, covering
+the pot and making a fine stand or bracket plant.
+
+[Illustration: Boston Fern]
+
+Several species of Pteris, particularly _P. serrulata_, are valuable
+house Ferns, but require a warmer situation than those mentioned above.
+They will also thrive better in a shady or ill-lighted corner.
+
+Perfect drainage and care in watering have more to do with the
+successful growing of Ferns than any special mixture of soils. If the
+drainage material in the bottom of the pot or box is sufficient, there
+is little danger of over-watering; but water-logged soil is always to be
+avoided. Do not use clay soils. Ferns need protection from the direct
+sunshine, and also a moist atmosphere. They thrive well in a close glass
+box, or window-garden, if the conditions can be kept equable.
+
+The native Ferns transplant easily to the garden, and they make an
+attractive addition to the side of a house, or as an admixture in a
+hardy border. The Ostrich and Cinnamon Ferns are the best subjects. Give
+all outdoor Ferns a place which is protected from winds, otherwise they
+will shrivel and perhaps die. Screen them from the hot sun, or give them
+the shady side of the building. See that the soil is uniformly moist,
+and that it does not get too hot. Mulch with leaf-mold in the fall.
+
+
+FERTILIZERS. Soil is productive when it has good physical texture,
+plant-food, and a sufficient supply of moisture. Even though it has an
+abundance of plant-food, if its texture is not good, it will not raise a
+good crop. Soil has good texture when it is open, mellow, friable,
+rather than loose and leachy, or hard and cloddy. Commercial Fertilizers
+add plant-food, but usually they have only a small influence in
+correcting faulty texture. Therefore, before concentrated Fertilizers
+are applied to land, it should be gotten into good physical condition by
+judicious tillage and by the incorporation of vegetable mold or humus.
+The leading source of humus in most gardens is stable manure. See
+_Manure_.
+
+The plant-food in commercial Fertilizers is largely in a soluble or
+quickly available condition. Therefore, a little Fertilizer applied late
+in the fall or early in the spring will tend to start the plants off
+quickly in the spring and to cause them to become established before the
+trying weather of summer. For garden purposes, it is usually advisable
+to buy one of the so-called complete Fertilizers; that is, one which
+contains nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. If a luxuriant growth of
+stalk and foliage is wanted rather than flowers or fruit, an application
+of nitrogen alone is usually advisable. The most readily available
+nitrogen in commercial form is that which is afforded by nitrate of soda
+and sulfate of ammonia. In garden practice this may be applied at the
+rate of 300 to 400 pounds an acre, although this quantity is more than
+is profitable to use in most general field or agricultural conditions.
+If it is desired to have stout, stocky plants, with early and profuse
+bloom, it is ordinarily advisable to use somewhat sparingly of nitrogen
+and to use a little more heavily of potash and phosphoric acid. This is
+especially true of the leguminous plants, which have the power of
+appropriating atmospheric nitrogen, and among such plants are sweet
+peas. Heavy fertilizing of sweet pea land with strong stable manure
+tends to make the vines grow too tall and to bear comparatively few
+flowers. For dressing of lawns, a Fertilizer which is comparatively rich
+in nitrogen is usually to be advised.
+
+An important value of commercial Fertilizers is to use them to start off
+the plants quickly in the spring. The food is available and acts at
+once. When used for this purpose, the Fertilizer may be applied in the
+hill; but when it is desired for the enriching of the land and for the
+support of the crop throughout the season, it should be applied to the
+entire surface. Always avoid putting the Fertilizer on the crown of the
+plant, or directly in contact with it. It is usually better to work the
+Fertilizer in lightly. For most garden operations, it is better to apply
+in spring.
+
+
+FEVERFEW. See _Pyrethrum_.
+
+
+FIG. The Fig is little grown in the East except as a curiosity, but on
+the Pacific coast it has gained more or less prominence as an orchard
+fruit. The trees are usually planted at distances of about 18 to 25 feet
+apart. Figs will stand considerable frost, and seedling or inferior
+varieties grow out of doors without protection as far north as Virginia.
+Many of the varieties fruit on young sprouts, and, inasmuch as the roots
+will stand considerable cold, these varieties will often give a few Figs
+in the northern states. Figs have been fruited in the open ground in
+Michigan. In all frosty countries, however, the Fig should be laid down
+during the winter time. The following notes from Professor Massey, of
+North Carolina, indicate how this may be done:
+
+"The light hoar-frosts that have occurred here affected vegetation only
+on low grounds, and today (November 5) our gardens on high ground show
+no signs of frost. Lima beans and tomato vines are as green as in summer
+time, and this morning we gathered ripe Figs from our trees in the
+garden--the latest I have ever known Figs to ripen. As the early crop of
+Figs ripens in July (if it escapes the winter frosts, for the fruit is
+now set on the trees), and the late crop begins in August and continues
+to ripen in succession till frost, it is easy to see what a desirable
+fruit the Fig is. In this section it is easy to have a great abundance
+of Figs, and it is possible almost anywhere in the United States to have
+both early and late crops in abundance by taking a little trouble to
+protect the trees in winter. Years ago the writer grew Figs in abundance
+in a very cold locality in northern Maryland, and never failed to get a
+good crop. Where the winter temperature seldom drops lower than 18° or
+20° above zero, Figs will need no special protection if sheltered from
+cold winds. In colder climates they should be branched from the ground,
+and, after the leaves have fallen, be bent to the ground in four bundles
+and covered with earth, making a sharp mound over the center and sloping
+off like a four-pointed star or cross, as shown in the cuts, taken from
+Bulletin 74 of North Carolina Experiment Station."
+
+[Illustration: Branches of Fig tree pegged down]
+
+[Illustration: Fig branches covered with earth]
+
+
+FLOWER BEDS. Two classes of subjects are to be considered in the
+discussion of Flower Beds: those concerned with the location of the bed;
+those concerned with the actual making of the bed itself. Most persons
+do not consider the former subject. If one wants a flower garden in
+which there is to be a collection of plants grown for the plants' sake,
+the garden should be placed at the rear or one side, and may be laid out
+in regular fashion like a vegetable garden. If the flowers are to be a
+part of the home picture,--that is, a part of the place itself,--then
+they may be freely distributed amongst the border planting, or as
+edgings along groups of shrubbery. It is rarely, if ever, allowable to
+place formal beds in the lawn in home grounds. The place for
+carpet-bedding is usually in parks or other public areas, in sections
+which are set aside and devoted to that particular purpose, the same as
+another section may be devoted to a zoölogical garden, play-ground or to
+other specific use. Flowers which are grown in the middle of the lawn
+have little relation to other planting, and they have no background to
+show them off to good advantage. It is also difficult to grow them in
+small beds in the grass, since they are exposed to sun and wind, and the
+grass roots absorb the food and moisture. In the formal bed, every
+effort must be made to keep it prim, otherwise it becomes displeasing;
+whereas, if the flowers are planted more or less promiscuously in large,
+irregular borders, or along the edge of shrubbery, the failure of one or
+even of a dozen plants is not a serious matter. The growing of plants in
+formal designs requires so much care and attention that a large part of
+the fun of plant-growing is lost. Such plant-growing should ordinarily
+be left to those who make a business of it.
+
+In making a Flower Bed, see that the ground is well drained; that the
+subsoil is deep; that the land is in a mellow and friable condition, and
+that it is rich. Each fall it may have a mulch of rotted manure or of
+leaf-mold, which may be spaded under deeply in the spring; or the land
+may be spaded and left rough in the fall, which is a good practice when
+the soil has much clay. Make the Flower Beds as broad as possible, so
+that the roots of the grass running in from either side will not meet
+beneath the flowers and rob them of food and moisture. It is well to add
+a little commercial fertilizer each fall or spring.
+
+
+FLOWERING MAPLE. See _Abutilon_.
+
+
+FORGET-ME-NOT. This old favorite grows so easily, looks so cheerful, and
+with a little care will bloom so long, that it should have a place in
+every collection of flowering plants. It is perennial, but the best
+results may be had by dividing the roots as often as every other year;
+or seedlings may be taken up from around the old plants. They require a
+moist soil, with shade a part of the day. They will thrive exceedingly
+if grown in a frame like pansies. Easily grown from seeds, usually
+blooming the first fall. Excellent for low edgings. Height 6 inches.
+
+
+FOUR-O'CLOCK. MIRABILIS. Tender annual, a plant of old-fashioned
+gardens, and always interesting. Grows 2 to 3 feet high. Drop seeds
+where the plants are to stand, thinning them to 12 to 18 inches apart.
+The colors are white and pink. There are variegated-leaved forms; also
+dwarfs. Excellent for the back row in a bed of annuals.
+
+
+[Illustration: Foxglove]
+
+FOXGLOVE, or DIGITALIS. Foxgloves make most effective border plants,
+either as a background or planted among other things. The tall
+flower-spikes are covered during the blooming period with funnel-shaped
+drooping flowers in various colors and with fine markings. Some of the
+newer varieties have flowers that rival the Gloxinias in shadings and
+markings. The plants are perfectly hardy, growing in one situation for a
+number of years; but, as with many other perennials, they are all the
+better for being divided at intervals. They may be grown readily from
+seed. Sow in boxes under glass or in the border where wanted. They bloom
+the second year. A rich, deep soil and partial shade suit their
+requirements. Period of bloom, July and August. Height 2 to 4 feet.
+
+
+FRAME. See _Hotbed_ and _Coldframe_.
+
+
+FREESIA. One of the best and most easily handled winter-flowering bulbs.
+The white or yellowish bell-shaped flowers are produced on slender
+stalks just above the foliage, to the number of six to eight in a
+cluster. They are very fragrant, and last for a considerable time when
+picked. The bulbs are small, and look as though they could not produce a
+growth of foliage and flowers, but even the smallest mature bulb will
+prove satisfactory. Several bulbs should be planted together in a pot,
+box or pan, in October, if wanted for the holidays, or later if wanted
+at Easter. The plants bloom from ten to twelve weeks from planting,
+under ordinary care. No special treatment is required; keep the plants
+cool and moist through the growing season. The soil should contain a
+little sand mixed with fibrous loam, and the pot should be well drained.
+After flowering, gradually withhold water and the tops will die down,
+after which the roots may be shaken out and rested until time to plant
+in fall. Care should be taken to keep them perfectly dry. The bulbs
+increase rapidly from offsets. Plants may also be grown from seed, which
+should be sown as soon as ripe, giving blooming plants the second or
+third year. Height 12 or 15 inches. Easy to bloom in the window. The
+white form (_Freesia refracta alba_) is the best. See _Bulbs_.
+
+
+FRITILLARIA, or FRITILLARY. Bulbous plants, the commoner species hardy.
+Only the Crown Imperial is well known in this country. This is an
+old-fashioned plant, which takes care of itself when once planted. The
+other hardy Fritillarias are treated like tulips.
+
+
+FROST. The light frosts of late spring and of early fall may be
+prevented by any means which will keep the air in motion, or which will
+fill the air with moisture or cloud-like vapor, so that there is less
+radiation from the ground. When frost is expected, it is well to water
+the plants and the ground thoroughly. This will ordinarily protect them
+from two or three degrees of still frost. The water should be applied
+just at nightfall. On larger areas, it is often practicable to make a
+smudge. In order to be effective, the smudge must be rather dense and
+lie over the whole area, and it should be kept up until the danger from
+frost is past. Material which burns very slowly and with much smoke is
+preferable. Moist manure or straw or other litter is useful. Materials
+which are dry enough to blaze are of little use. Ordinarily, frost comes
+towards morning. It is well to have the piles of rubbish ready at
+nightfall and have them lighted toward the latter part of the night,
+when the frost is expected. The smudge should be kept up until sunrise.
+It is well to have these piles of smudge material on all sides of the
+area; or if the area is on a slope, it may be sufficient to have them on
+the upper side, for there is usually a movement of air down the hillside
+and the area will thereby be covered with the smudge. For a thorough
+protection, it is best to have many small piles rather than a few large
+ones. If the piles are placed every ten feet around the areas, better
+results are to be expected. There are especially prepared tar-like
+materials for use in smudging plantations, but they are little used in
+this country, although some of them are excellent.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fuchsia]
+
+FUCHSIA. Well-known window or greenhouse shrub. It is readily grown from
+cuttings. Soft, green wood should be used for cuttings, and it will root
+in about three weeks, when the cuttings should be potted. Take care not
+to have them pot-bound while in growth, but do not over-pot when bloom
+is wanted. Given warmth and good soil, they will make fine plants in
+three months or less. In well protected, partially shady places they may
+be planted out, growing into miniature bushes by fall. Plants may be
+kept on from year to year; and if the branches are well cut back after
+blooming, abundant new bloom will come. But it is usually best to make
+new plants each year from cuttings, since young plants usually bloom
+most profusely and demand less care. Fuchsias are amongst the best of
+window subjects.
+
+
+FUMIGATION is mentioned under _Insects_.
+
+
+FUNGI. Flowerless, leafless plants, living mostly on food (either living
+or dead) which has been prepared by other plants or by animals, Molds,
+mushrooms and puff-balls are familiar examples. Some of the parasitic
+kinds cause great damage to the plants or animals on which they live.
+Examples of these injurious parasitic kinds are apple-scab fungus,
+potato mildew, grape mildew, corn smut fungus, and the like. Most of
+these are combated by spraying with materials containing copper or
+sulfur.
+
+
+FUNKIA, or DAY LILY. Hardy perennial herbs, growing in dense clumps and
+bearing attractive foliage. They are of the easiest culture. _F.
+subcordata_, the white-flowered species, is commonest. Of blue-flowered
+forms there are several, of which _F. ovata_ (or _F. cærulca_) is
+perhaps the best. Funkias are excellent for borders, or as a formal
+edging to long walks or drives. There are variegated forms. Funkias grow
+12 to 24 inches high, and the flower clusters stand still higher.
+Propagated by dividing the roots. Day Lily is a name applied also to
+species of Hemerocallis, which are yellow-flowered lilies.
+
+
+GAILLARDIAS are plants that should have a place in every garden, either
+as border plants or for cutting. The flowers are very showy and lasting
+in bouquets, as well as on the plants. The double form has perfect balls
+of color. Gaillardias are both annual and perennial. The perennials
+usually have flowers much larger than the annuals; and they bloom the
+first year if seed is started early. These are also propagated by seed
+or cuttings. If from seed, it should be sown under glass in February or
+March, setting out the young plants where wanted when danger of frost is
+over. The cuttings may be made of the new growth in the fall and
+wintered over in the house. Set 2 feet apart. Height 2 feet, blooming
+from July until hard frosts. The perennials are usually orange.
+
+[Illustration: Gaillardia picta]
+
+The annual kind (_Gaillardia picta_ of florists) is probably the best
+kind for the home garden. It is of the easiest culture. Hardy. Two feet.
+Sow seeds where plants are to bloom. The colors of the flowers are in
+rich shades of yellow and red.
+
+
+GALANTHUS. See _Snowdrop_.
+
+
+GARLIC. An onion-like plant, the bulbs of which are used for flavoring.
+Little known in this country except amongst those of foreign birth. It
+is multiplied the same as multiplier onions--the bulb is broken apart
+and each bulbule or "clove" makes a new compound bulb in a few weeks.
+Hardy; plant in early spring, or in the South in the fall. Plant 2 to 3
+inches apart in the row.
+
+
+GAS PLANT is _Dictamnus_.
+
+
+GERANIUM. What are generally known as Geraniums are, strictly speaking,
+Pelargoniums, which see. The true Geraniums are mostly hardy plants, and
+therefore should not be confounded with the tender Pelargoniums.
+Geraniums are worthy a place in a border. They are hardy perennials, and
+may be transplanted early in the spring, setting them 2 feet apart.
+Height 10 to 12 inches.
+
+The common wild Cranesbill (_Geranium maculatum_) improves under
+cultivation, and is an attractive plant when it stands in front of
+taller foliage.
+
+
+GILIA. Low-growing hardy annuals, good for front borders or rockwork,
+growing from seed very quickly and continuing in flower a long season.
+They will do well in light soil. Sow seed in the fall or early spring
+where plants are wanted. _Gilia tricolor_, blue, white and yellow, is
+the best, but there are excellent white and red sorts.
+
+
+GLADIOLUS. A popular summer-flowering bulbous plant, thriving best in
+moist, sandy loam, that has had an application of well rotted manure the
+previous year. No manure should be used the year of planting, as it has
+a tendency to rot the bulbs. Plantings may be made from the time the
+ground is in condition to work in the spring until late in June. In
+planting, the bulbs should be set 3 inches deep and 8 to 10 inches
+apart, unless they are to be grown in groups, when they may be planted
+five or six in the space of 1 foot. Stakes should be furnished each
+plant to support the flower-spike. When in groups, one stake may be
+used, setting it in the middle of the circle.
+
+Gladioli are increased by bulblets formed around the old bulbs (or
+corms), or they may be grown from seed. The bulblets should be planted
+in drills in April or May, and will grow to flowering size in one or two
+years. In the same way, seed sown early in drills, grown through the
+summer, the little bulbs taken up and stored through the winter and
+again planted out, will often make bulbs large enough to flower the
+second year.
+
+Care should be taken to lift all bulbs before freezing weather, as most
+varieties are tender. They should be harvested with the tops on, and
+laid away in a cool, dry place to ripen. The tops are then cut off and
+the bulbs stored in a dry place (fit for potatoes, but drier) until
+wanted the following spring. See _Bulbs_.
+
+
+GLAUCIUM, or HORNED POPPY. The kind most cultivated (_G. luteum_) has
+bright yellow flowers in July and September. The flowers, contrasting
+with the deep cut glaucous leaves, make a fine effect in the mixed or
+ribbon border. Seed may be sown in the open ground where wanted. Thin to
+12 inches apart. Height 12 to 20 inches. Perennial; but treated as a
+hardy annual.
+
+
+GLOXINIA. Choice greenhouse tuberous-rooted perennials, sometimes seen
+in window gardens, but really not adapted to them. Gloxinias must have a
+uniform moist and warm atmosphere and protection from the sun. They will
+not stand abuse or varying conditions. Propagated often by
+leaf-cuttings, which should give flowering plants in one year. From the
+leaf, inserted half its length in the soil (or sometimes only the
+petiole inserted) a tuber arises. This tuber, after resting until
+midwinter or later, is planted and flowering plants soon arise.
+Gloxinias also grow readily from seeds, which may be germinated in a
+temperature of about 70°. Flowering plants may be had in a year if seeds
+are sown in late winter or early spring. This is the usual method. Soil
+should be porous and rich.
+
+
+GODETIA. Very free-blooming annuals in fine colors, harmonizing well
+with the California poppy. Many of the varieties are beautifully
+blotched with contrasting colors. They are very satisfactory plants for
+solid beds or border lines, blooming from June to October. Seed may be
+sown in heat, and seedlings planted in open ground at a distance of 18
+inches apart when danger of frost is over. A rather poor soil will cause
+them to bloom better than one very rich, as they are inclined to make a
+rank growth. Height 1 to 2 feet.
+
+
+GOLDEN FEATHER. See _Pyrethrum_.
+
+
+GOLDENROD (_Solidago_ of many species). The Goldenrod of the wayside is
+so familiar that the thought of bringing it into the garden is
+distasteful to many persons. But if given a suitable place in a well
+enriched border, no plant has greater possibilities. A large clump
+against a hedge of green, or massed behind a well grown plant of the
+blue-flowering wild asters, makes a striking contrast. They bloom late
+in the season, and the rich yellow and golden colors and the graceful
+forms are always pleasing.
+
+[Illustration: Goldenrod]
+
+Goldenrods will grow more vigorously and the blooms be larger if the
+roots are divided every third or fourth year. There are several species
+catalogued by nurserymen, and some of the stock is superior to the wild
+type, either having a larger truss of flowers or blooming later.
+Goldenrods range in height from 2 to 6 feet. All are easily propagated
+by division. Transplant in the fall, if convenient, although spring
+planting may be equally successful.
+
+
+GOMPHRENA. BACHELOR'S BUTTON. GLOBE AMARANTH. A useful everlasting for
+winter bouquets. Seed may be sown in heat in March, the plants
+transplanted once before setting out to cause them to grow stocky and
+branching; or seed may be sown in a warm place where the plants are to
+grow. The flowers, to retain their colors, should be cut before fully
+expanded and dried in a dark, airy place. See _Everlastings_. Set the
+plants 18 inches apart. Height 12 inches. The heads resemble clover
+heads. The term Bachelor's Button is also given to the cornflower
+(_Centaurea Cyanus_).
+
+
+GOOSEBERRY. Since the advent of the practice of spraying with fungicides
+to prevent mildew, the culture of the Gooseberry has increased. There is
+now no reason why, with a little care, good crops of many of the best
+English varieties may not be grown. The price for good fruits of
+Gooseberry is usually remunerative, as the market is rarely overstocked
+by the sudden ripening of the crop, since the fruits ripen through a
+long season. A large part of the crop is picked green for culinary
+purposes. The leading market variety is Downing, a native sort, which is
+little subject to mildew. Several of the English varieties have proved
+of value, having larger fruits than the natives. Whitesmith, Chautauqua,
+Triumph and Industry are among the best.
+
+[Illustration: Gooseberries]
+
+The propagation of the Gooseberry is similar to that of the currant,
+although the practice of earthing up a whole plant, causing every branch
+thus covered to throw out roots, is common with the European varieties.
+The rooted branches are cut off the following spring and planted in
+nursery rows or sometimes directly in the field. In order to succeed
+with this method, the plant should have been cut back to the ground so
+that all the shoots are yearling.
+
+Pruning is essentially the same as for the currant (which see); and the
+treatment of the currant worm is the same as for that fruit.
+
+Gooseberries should be set (either in fall or spring) 3 to 4 feet
+apart; rows 5 to 7 feet apart. Select a rich, rather moist soil. The
+tops need no winter protection. If mildew and worms are to be kept in
+check, spraying must be begun with the very first sign of trouble and be
+thoroughly done.
+
+
+GOURDS are valuable as rapid-growing screen vines, the curious fruits of
+many varieties adding much to their attractiveness. Cultivation the same
+as for melons or squashes. Height 10 to 15 feet. Provide a chicken-wire
+trellis; or let them run on a brush pile.
+
+
+GRAFTING. Grafting is the operation of inserting a piece of a plant into
+another plant with the intention that it shall grow. It differs from the
+making of cuttings in the fact that the severed part grows in another
+plant rather than in the soil. There are two general kinds of
+Grafting--one of which inserts a piece of branch in the stock (Grafting
+proper), and one which inserts only a bud with little or no wood
+attached (budding). In both cases the success of the operation depends
+upon the growing together of the cambium of the cion (or cutting) and
+that of the stock. The cambium is the new and growing tissue which lies
+underneath the bark and on the outside of the growing wood. Therefore,
+the line of demarcation between the bark and the wood should coincide
+when the cion and stock are joined. The plant upon which the severed
+piece is set is called the stock. The part which is removed and set into
+the stock is called a cion if it is a piece of a branch, or a bud if it
+is only a single bud with a bit of tissue attached. The greater part of
+Grafting and budding is done when the cion or bud is nearly or quite
+dormant. That is, Grafting is usually done late in winter and early in
+spring, and budding may be done then, or late in summer, when the buds
+have nearly or quite matured.
+
+The prime object of Grafting is to perpetuate a kind of plant which will
+not reproduce itself from seed or of which seed is very difficult to
+obtain. Cions or buds are therefore taken from this plant and set into
+whatever kind of plant is obtainable and on which they will grow. Thus,
+if one wants to propagate the Baldwin apple, he does not for that
+purpose sow seeds thereof, but takes cions or buds from the tree and
+grafts them into some other apple tree. The stocks are usually obtained
+from seeds. In the case of the apple, young plants are raised from seeds
+which are obtained mostly from cider factories, without reference to the
+variety from which they came. When the seedlings have grown to a certain
+age, they are budded or grafted; and thereafter they bear fruit like
+that of the tree from which the cions were taken.
+
+[Illustration: The bud severed from its twig]
+
+[Illustration: The bud tied]
+
+[Illustration: The bud inserted]
+
+There are many ways in which the union between cion and stock is made.
+Budding may be first discussed. It consists in inserting a bud
+underneath the bark of the stock, and the commonest practice is that
+which is shown in the illustrations. Budding is mostly performed in
+July, August and early September, when the bark is still loose or will
+peel. Twigs are cut from the tree which it is desired to propagate, and
+the buds are cut off with a sharp knife, a shield-shaped bit of bark
+(with possibly a little wood) being left with them (see illustration).
+The bud is then shoved into a slit made in the stock, and it is held in
+place by tying with some soft strand. In two or three weeks the bud will
+have "stuck" (that is, it will have grown fast to the stock), and the
+strand is cut to prevent its strangling the stock. Ordinarily the bud
+does not grow until the following spring, at which time the entire stock
+or branch in which the bud is inserted is cut off an inch above the bud;
+and the bud thereby receives all the energy of the stock. Budding is the
+commonest Grafting operation in nurseries. Seeds of peaches may be sown
+in spring, and the plants which result will be ready for budding that
+same August. The following spring, or a year from the planting of the
+seed, the stock is cut off just above the bud (which is inserted near
+the ground), and in the fall of that year the tree is ready for sale;
+that is, the top is one season old and the root is two seasons old, but
+in the trade it is known as a 1-year-old tree. In apples and pears the
+stock is usually two years old before it is budded, and the tree is not
+sold until the top has grown two or three years. Budding may be
+performed also in the spring, in which case the bud will grow the same
+season. Budding is always done in young branches, preferably in those
+not more than one year old.
+
+[Illustration: Whip-graft]
+
+Grafting is the insertion of a small branch (or cion), usually bearing
+more than one bud. If Grafting is done on small stocks, it is customary
+to employ the whip-graft, which is illustrated in the margin. Both stock
+and cion are cut across diagonally, and a split made in each, so that
+one fits into the other. The graft is tied securely with a string, and
+then, if it is above ground, it is also waxed carefully. In larger limbs
+or stocks, the common method is to employ the cleft-graft. This consists
+in cutting off the stock, splitting it and inserting a wedge-shaped cion
+in one or both sides of the split, taking care that the cambium layer of
+the cion matches that of the stock. The exposed surfaces are then
+securely covered with wax. Grafting is usually performed early in the
+spring, just before the buds swell. The cions should have been cut
+before this time, when they were perfectly dormant. Cions may be stored
+in sand in the cellar or in the ice house, or they may be buried in the
+field. The object is to keep them fresh and dormant until they are
+wanted.
+
+[Illustration: Cleft-graft]
+
+[Illustration: Cleft-grafting a Cactus]
+
+If it is desired to change the top of an old plum, apple or pear tree to
+some other variety, it is usually done by means of the cleft-graft. If
+the tree is very young, budding or whip-grafting may be employed. On an
+old top the cions should begin to bear when three to four years old. All
+the main limbs should be grafted. It is important to keep down the
+suckers or water-sprouts from around the grafts, and part of the
+remaining top should be cut away each year until the top is entirely
+changed over (which will result in two to four years).
+
+A good wax for covering the exposed parts is made as follows: Resin, 4
+parts by weight; beeswax, 2 parts; tallow, 1 part. In making the wax,
+the materials are first broken up and melted together. When thoroughly
+melted the liquid is poured into a pail or tub of cold water. It soon
+becomes hard enough to handle, and it is then pulled and worked over
+until it becomes tough or "gets a grain," at which stage it becomes the
+color of very light-colored manilla paper. When wax is applied by hand,
+the hands must be well greased. Hard cake tallow is the best material
+for this purpose. In top-grafting large trees, it is well to carry a
+supply of tallow when waxing, by smearing the backs of the hands before
+entering the tree.
+
+
+GRAPE. One of the surest of fruit crops is the Grape, a crop each year
+being reasonably certain after the third year from the time of setting
+the vines. The Grape does well on any soil that is under good
+cultivation and well drained. A soil with considerable clay is better
+under these circumstances than a light, sandy loam. The exposure should
+be to the sun; and the place should admit of cultivation on all sides.
+One- or 2-year-old vines should be planted, either in the fall or early
+spring. At planting the vine is cut back to 3 or 4 eyes, and the roots
+are well shortened in. The hole in which the plant is to be set should
+be large enough to allow a full spreading of the roots. Fine soil should
+be worked around the roots and firmed with the feet. If the season
+should be dry, a mulch of coarse litter may be spread around the vine.
+If all the buds start, the strongest one or two may be allowed to grow.
+
+The canes arising from these buds should be staked and allowed to grow
+through the season; or in large plantations the first-year canes may be
+allowed to lie on the ground. The second year one cane should be cut
+back to the same number of eyes as the first year. After growth begins
+in the spring, two of the strongest buds should be allowed to remain.
+These two canes now arising may be grown to a single stake through the
+second summer, or they may be spread horizontally on a trellis. These
+are the canes which form the permanent arms or parts of the vine. From
+them start the upright shoots which, in succeeding years, are to bear
+the fruits.
+
+[Illustration: Grape]
+
+In order to understand the pruning of Grapes, the operator must fully
+grasp this principle: _Fruit is borne on wood of the present season,
+which arises from wood of the previous season._ To illustrate: A growing
+shoot, or cane of 1899, makes buds. In 1900 a shoot arises from each
+bud; and near the base of this shoot the Grapes are borne (1 to 4
+clusters on each). While every bud on the 1899 shoot may produce shoots
+or canes in 1900, only the strongest of these new canes will bear fruit.
+The skilled Grape-grower can tell by the looks of his cane (as he prunes
+it in winter) which buds will give rise to the Grape-producing wood the
+following season. The larger and stronger buds usually give best
+results; but if the cane itself is very big and stout, or if it is very
+weak and slender, he does not expect good results from any of its buds.
+A hard, well-ripened cane the diameter of a man's little finger is the
+ideal size.
+
+Another principle to be mastered is this: _A vine should bear only a
+limited number of clusters_,--say from 30 to 80. A shoot bears clusters
+near its base; beyond these clusters the shoot grows on into a long,
+leafy cane. An average of two clusters may be reckoned to a shoot. If
+the vine is strong enough to bear 60 clusters, 30 good buds must be left
+at the pruning (which is done from December to late February).
+
+The essential operation of pruning a Grape vine, therefore, is each year
+to cut back a limited number of good canes to a few buds, and to cut off
+entirely all the remaining canes or wood of the previous season's
+growth. If a cane is cut back to 2 or 3 buds, the stub-like part which
+remains is called a spur. Present systems, however, cut each cane back
+to 8 or 10 buds (on strong varieties), and 3 or 4 canes are left,--all
+radiating from near the head or trunk of the vine. The top of the vine
+does not grow bigger from year to year, after it has once covered the
+trellis, but is cut back to practically the same number of buds each
+year. Since these buds are on new wood, it is evident that they are each
+year farther and farther removed from the head of the vine. In order to
+obviate this difficulty, new canes are taken out each year or two from
+near the head of the vine, and the 2-year or 3-year-old wood is cut
+away.
+
+The training of Grapes is a different matter. A dozen different systems
+of training may be practiced on the same trellis and from the same style
+of pruning,--for training is only the disposition or arrangement of the
+parts.
+
+On arbors, it is best to carry one permanent arm or trunk from each root
+over the framework to the peak. Each year the canes are cut back to
+short spurs (of 2 or 3 buds) along the sides of this trunk.
+
+Grapes are set from 6 to 8 feet apart in rows which are 8 to 10 feet
+apart. A trellis made of 2 or 3 wires is the best support. Slat
+trellises catch too much wind and blow down. Avoid stimulating manures.
+In very cold climates, the vines may be taken off the trellis in early
+winter and laid on the ground and lightly covered with earth. Along the
+boundaries of home lots, where Grapes are often planted, little is to be
+expected in the way of fruit because the ground is not well tilled. For
+mildew and rot, spray with Bordeaux mixture. See _Spraying_.
+
+Concord is the most cosmopolitan variety, but its quality is not the
+best. For the home garden, a good selection may be made from the
+following list: Winchell or Green Mountain, Campbell Early, Worden,
+Concord, Niagara, Moore Diamond, Vergennes, Agawam, Salem, Wilder, Iona,
+Brighton, Delaware.
+
+
+GRAPERY. The European grapes rarely thrive out of doors in eastern
+America. Grape houses are necessary, with or without artificial heat.
+Fruit for home use may be grown very satisfactorily in a cold Grapery
+(without artificial heat). A simple lean-to against the south side of a
+building or wall is cheap and serviceable. When a separate building is
+desired, an even-span house running north and south is preferable. There
+is no advantage in having a curved roof, except as a matter of looks. A
+compost of four parts rotted turf to one of manure is laid on a sloping
+cement bottom outside the house, making a border 12 feet wide and 2 feet
+deep. The cement may be replaced with rubble on well drained soils, but
+it is a poor makeshift. Every three years the upper 6 inches of the
+border should be renewed with manure. The border inside the house is
+prepared likewise. Two-year-old potted vines are planted about 4 feet
+apart in a single row. Part of the roots go through a crevice in the
+wall to the outer border and part remain inside; or all may go outside
+if the house is desired for other purposes. One strong cane is trained
+to a wire trellis hanging at least 18 inches from the glass, and is cut
+back to 3 feet the first year, 6 the second, and 9 the third. Do not be
+in a hurry to get a long cane. Pruning is on the spur system, as
+recommended for arbors on page 120. The vines are usually laid on the
+ground for winter and covered with leaves or wrapped with cloth.
+
+As soon as the buds swell in early spring, tie the vines to the trellis
+and start out one shoot from each spur, rubbing off all others. After
+the berries begin to color, however, it is better to leave all further
+growth to shade the fruit. Pinch back each of these laterals two joints
+beyond the second bunch. To keep down red spider and thrips, the
+foliage should be sprayed with water every bright morning except during
+the blooming season. At least one-third of the berries should be thinned
+from each bunch; do not be afraid of taking out too many. Water the
+inside border frequently all through the summer, and the outside
+occasionally if the season is dry. Mildew may appear in July. The best
+preventives are to syringe faithfully, admit air freely, and sprinkle
+sulfur on the ground.
+
+Fruit may be kept fresh on the vines in a warm (or artificially heated)
+Grapery until late December: in a coldhouse it must be picked before
+frost. After the fruit is off, ventilate from top and bottom and
+withhold water, so as to thoroughly ripen the wood. Along in November
+the canes are pruned, covered with straw or wrapped with mats and laid
+down till spring. Black Hamburg is superior to all other varieties for a
+cold Grapery; Bowood Muscat, Muscat of Alexandria and Chasselas Musque
+may be added in the warmhouse. Good vines will live and bear almost
+indefinitely.--_S. W. Fletcher._
+
+
+GRASSES of various kinds are grown for ornament, the most popular types
+being the hardy perennials, which make attractive clumps in the lawn or
+border. The best of the permanent kinds in the North are the various
+sorts of Eulalia (properly Miscanthus). When once established they
+remain for years, making large and bold clumps. The striped kind, or
+zebra grass, is particularly good. These grasses thrive in any good
+soil. They grow from 4 to 7 feet high. The great reed, or _Arundo
+Donax_, is a bold subject and perfectly hardy. In a rich and rather
+moist soil, it grows 10 to 12 feet high when well established. Pampas
+Grass is most excellent in the Middle States and South. Some of the big
+native grasses and sedges make attractive lawn clumps.
+
+Grasses are also grown for dry or everlasting bouquets. For this
+purpose, small-growing delicate annual species are mostly used. Good
+types are species of agrostis, briza, bromus, eragrostis, and
+pennisetum. Seeds of these and of others are sold by seedsmen. With
+ordinary treatment, they thrive in any garden soil.
+
+For notes on sod-making, see _Lawn_.
+
+
+GREENHOUSE. In America the word Greenhouse has come to be applied to all
+kinds of glass-houses in which plants are grown. Originally the word was
+applied to those houses in which plants are merely preserved or kept
+green during the winter. Other types of glass-houses are the
+conservatory, in which plants are displayed; stove or hothouse, in which
+plants are grown in a high temperature; the propagating pit, in which
+the multiplication of plants is carried forward; and the houses which
+have various temperatures, as cold, cool and intermediate. The
+principles which underlie the construction and management of
+glass-houses are too extensive to be discussed here. The reader should
+refer to special books on the topic. For the general subject, Taft's
+"Greenhouse Construction" and "Greenhouse Management" are excellent. For
+particular applications to floriculture, Hunt's "How to Grow
+Cut-flowers" is a standard work. For applications to the forcing of
+vegetable crops, Bailey's "Forcing-Book" may perhaps be consulted.
+
+The smaller the glass-house the more difficult it is to manage, because
+it is likely to be more variable in temperature, moisture and other
+conditions. This is particularly true if the house is a small lean-to
+against the south side of a dwelling house, for it becomes very hot at
+midday and comparatively cold at night. In order to moderate the heat in
+these little houses, it is ordinarily advisable to use ground glass for
+the roof or to whitewash it. The house conservatory may be heated by a
+coal stove, but the best results are rarely to be attained in this case.
+A stove is likely to leak gas, and the temperature is more or less
+uneven. The best results are to be attained when the conservatory is
+heated by steam or hot water, piped in the modern fashion with wrought
+iron pipes, which go together with threads. If the conservatory is
+heated from the heater which supplies the dwelling house, it should have
+an extra amount of pipe; otherwise it will be necessary to keep the
+dwelling house too hot for comfort in order to maintain the conservatory
+at its proper temperature. It is always best, when practicable, to heat
+the conservatory with a separate apparatus. There are various small hot
+water and steam heaters, the size of coal stoves, which are excellent
+for the purpose. For a small conservatory, hot water is usually
+preferable to steam, since it is less likely to fluctuate. For large
+establishments, however, the steam is usually the better. For further
+discussions of related subjects, see _Hotbed_, _Window Garden_,
+_Potting_ and _Watering_.
+
+
+GREVILLEA. A very graceful greenhouse plant, suitable for house culture.
+The plants grow freely from seed, and until they become too large are as
+decorative as ferns. Grevilleas are really trees, and are valuable in
+greenhouses and rooms only in their young state. They withstand much
+abuse. They are now very popular as jardiniere subjects. Seeds sown in
+spring will give handsome plants by the next winter.
+
+
+GYPSOPHILA. BABY'S BREATH. _Gypsophila muralis_ is one of the dainty
+little plants called Baby's Breath. It is a low-growing annual forming
+compact mounds of green, thickly covered with little pink flowers. It is
+one of the most attractive border plants in cultivation. It is also a
+charming pot-plant. _G. paniculata_ is a hardy perennial having panicles
+of bluish white flowers. This is very graceful, and the flowers are fine
+for cutting and for use with sweet pea bouquets or with other choice
+flowers. The panicles are so lasting that they may be used in winter
+bouquets. The annuals may be planted 1 foot apart; the perennials 3
+feet. Both are readily grown from seed, and bloom the first year.
+
+
+HARDY. A relative term, used to denote a plant which endures the climate
+(particularly the winter climate) of a given place. Half-hardy plants
+are those which withstand some frost or uncongenial conditions, but will
+not endure the severity of the climate. Tender plants are those which
+are injured by light frosts.
+
+
+HEDGES. Hedges are much less used in this country than in Europe, and
+for several reasons. Our climate is dry, and most Hedges do not thrive
+so well here as there; labor is high-priced, and the trimming is
+therefore likely to be neglected; our farms are so large that much
+fencing is required; timber and wire are cheaper than live Hedges.
+However, they are used with good effects about the home grounds. In
+order to secure a good Hedge, it is necessary to have a thoroughly
+well-prepared, deep soil, to set the plants close, and to shear them at
+least twice every year. For evergreen Hedges the most serviceable plant
+in general is the arborvitæ. The plants may be set at distances of 1 to
+2½ feet apart. For choice Hedges about the grounds, particularly
+outside the northern states, some of the retinosporas are very useful.
+One of the most satisfactory of all coniferous plants for Hedges is the
+common hemlock, which stands shearing well and makes a very soft and
+pleasing mass. The plants may be set from 1 to 3 feet apart. Other
+plants which hold their leaves and are good for Hedges are the common
+box and the privets. Box Hedges are the best for very low borders about
+walks and flower beds. The dwarf variety can be kept down to a height of
+6 inches to a foot for any number of years. The larger-growing varieties
+make excellent Hedges 3, 4 and 5 feet high. The ordinary privet or prim
+holds its leaves well into winter in the North. The so-called
+Californian privet holds its leaves rather longer and stands better
+along the seashore. In the southern states, nothing is better than
+_Citrus trifoliata_.
+
+For Hedges of deciduous plants, the most common species are the
+buckthorn, the European thorn apple or cratægus, osage orange, and
+various kinds of roses.
+
+Hedges should be trimmed the year after they are set, although they
+should not be trimmed very closely until they reach the desired or
+permanent height. Thereafter they should be sheared into the desired
+form in spring or fall. If the plants are allowed to grow for a year or
+two without trimming, they lose their lower leaves and become open and
+straggly. Osage orange and some other plants are plashed--that is, the
+plants are set at an angle rather than perpendicularly, and they are
+wired together in such a way that they make an impenetrable barrier just
+above the surface of the ground.
+
+
+HELIANTHUS. See _Sunflower_.
+
+
+HELICHRYSUM. These are perhaps the most popular of the Everlastings
+(which see), having large flowers of several colors. They grow readily
+from seed, blooming from July to October. Height 10 inches to 2 feet.
+Should be planted or thinned to stand 18 inches apart.
+
+
+HELIOTROPE. A universal favorite house or border plant, growing readily
+from cuttings or seeds, and producing quantities of fragrant violet,
+purple or white flowers. One of the best methods of cultivation is to
+set a strong plant in the border and peg the new growths to the ground,
+where they will root and form a perfect mat, flowering profusely during
+the fall months until frost. They will endure the temperature of a
+living room well if the room is not too dry. Red spider is a natural
+enemy of the Heliotrope, and when once it obtains a foothold is a very
+difficult pest to manage, but frequent syringing with water will keep it
+in check. A light, rich soil and an abundance of heat are their
+requirements. Height 1 to 3 feet. Propagated by cuttings or layers.
+
+
+HELLEBORE (White Hellebore) is often used for the killing of
+currant-worms and other insects (see _Currant_). It is not so poisonous
+as the arsenites, and therefore is to be preferred when it is necessary
+to apply a poison to nearly ripe fruit. It is usually applied in a
+spray with water, at the rate of 1/3 ounce to the gallon. It is harmless
+to foliage.
+
+
+HELLEBORUS, or CHRISTMAS ROSE, may be had in flower at the holidays if
+grown in a frame and protected. The usual time for it to flower in the
+open border is in March or early April. It will continue to bloom for
+many years if grown in a shady place. Roots may be divided as an
+increase is wanted. It may also be grown from seeds; and seedlings may
+be expected to bloom a year from the spring in which they are sown.
+Height 6 to 10 inches.
+
+
+HEMEROCALLIS, or YELLOW DAY LILY. The advice given under Funkia will
+apply to this.
+
+
+HERBS are plants which die to the ground in winter. They may be annual,
+biennial, or perennial. For a list of annual Herbs suitable for the
+flower garden, see the articles on _Annuals_ and _Bedding_. A border or
+free mass of perennial Herbs is one of the charms of any place. It is
+informal, easy of care, and self-sustaining. The large part of the mass
+should be composed of common and hardy things--wild or from gardens--and
+incidental features may be made of the choicer and rarer exotics. In
+most cases, plants look better when judiciously mixed than when planted
+one kind in a bed. See _Border_.
+
+
+HIBISCUS. Annuals and perennials, some of them shrubs, with showy,
+hollyhock-like flowers. The annual Hibiscuses are very satisfactory.
+They grow quickly and flower freely. The flowers are usually white or
+yellow, of large size, and appear from July on. The herbaceous perennial
+kinds are amongst the best of hardy border plants, blooming in late
+summer and fall. The commonest of these is _Hibiscus Moscheutos_. Give
+rich, moist soil.
+
+The greenhouse species are old favorites. They may be used in outdoor
+bedding through the summer, lifted in the fall and cut back. Keep rather
+dry and dormant during winter. Propagated by cuttings.
+
+
+HIPPEASTRUM. Consult _Amaryllis_.
+
+
+[Illustration: Common hoe]
+
+[Illustration: Scarifier]
+
+HOES should be of several patterns if the most efficient work is to be
+done in the garden. The ordinary Hoe is adapted only to the rougher and
+coarser Hoe-work, such as digging and fitting the ground. For much of
+the subsequent tillage, some of the narrow-blade and pointed Hoes are
+excellent. For cutting off weeds, the push Hoe or scarifier is
+excellent.
+
+
+[Illustration: Hollyhocks]
+
+HOLLYHOCK. These old garden favorites have been neglected of late years,
+primarily because the Hollyhock rust has been so prevalent, destroying
+the plants or making the unsightly. The double varieties seem to suffer
+the most; and for that reason, and from the fact that the less formal
+type is in favor, the single varieties are now the most generally grown.
+Their culture is very simple. The seed is usually sown in July or
+August, and the plants set where wanted the following spring. They will
+bloom the same year in which they are transplanted--the year following
+the seed-sowing. New plants should be set every two years, as the old
+crowns are apt to rot or die after the first flowering. For rust, spray
+early with Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal carbonate of copper.
+
+
+HOP, ORNAMENTAL. _Humulus Japonicus_, or the annual HOP, is one of the
+best rapid-growing screen vines in cultivation. It makes a dense canopy
+of attractive foliage. The leaves are finely cut, and in one variety
+variegated with white. This variegated variety is a fine vine for a
+porch or front screen, always attracting attention to its markings. This
+Hop is propagated by seed sown in boxes in March. When once established,
+it will seed itself and start as soon as the soil becomes warm. Set
+plants 4 to 8 feet apart. Height 8 to 20 feet.
+
+
+HORSERADISH. As a kitchen garden vegetable, this is usually planted in
+some out-of-the-way spot and a piece of the root dug as often as needed,
+the fragments of roots being left in the soil to grow for further use.
+This method results in having nothing but tough, stringy roots, very
+unlike the product of a properly planted and well cared for bed. The
+best roots are those planted in the spring at the time of setting early
+cabbage, and dug as late the same fall as the weather will permit. It
+becomes, therefore, an annual crop. The roots for planting are small
+pieces, from 4 to 6 inches long, obtained when trimming the roots dug in
+the fall. These pieces may be packed in sand and stored until wanted the
+following spring. In planting, the roots should be set with the upper
+end 3 inches below the surface of the ground, using a dibber or
+sharp-pointed stick in making the holes. The crop may be planted between
+rows of early-sown beets, lettuce or other crop, and given full
+possession of the ground when these crops are harvested. Where the
+ground is inclined to be stiff or the subsoil is near the surface, the
+roots may be set in a slanting position. In fact, many gardeners
+practice this method of planting, thinking that the roots make a better
+growth and are more uniform in size.
+
+
+HOTBED. A Hotbed is a frame or box which has artificial heat and a
+transparent covering and in which plants are grown. It differs from a
+coldframe (which see) in the fact that it has artificial bottom heat.
+This bottom heat is usually supplied by fermenting organic matter,
+chiefly horse manure, but hot air, hot water or steam conveyed in pipes,
+may be employed. It is covered with sash of which the normal or standard
+size is 3 feet wide and 6 feet long. These sashes are laid crosswise the
+box or frame. The standard size of frame is 6 feet wide and 12 feet
+long. A "frame," therefore, accommodates four sashes. However, the frame
+may be of any length desired. This frame is ordinarily made of boards,
+and the back of it is 3 or 4 inches higher than the front, so that the
+sashes slope to the sun. It is customary to have a space of 6 to 10
+inches between the earth and the sash on the lower or front side. The
+manure which is used to heat the bed may be placed on top of the ground
+and the frame set on the pile, or it may be placed in a pit. If the land
+is warm and well drained, it is ordinarily better to have a pit from 1
+to 2 feet deep and to set the frame over it. This is especially the case
+if it is desired to have a permanent Hotbed yard. The place in which the
+frames are set should be protected from the cold and prevailing winds by
+a rising slope, a high board fence, a building, hedge, or other
+obstruction. If the frame yard is near the main buildings, it will be
+much more accessible in rainy or snowy times, and the plants are likely
+to have better care. Water should also be handy.
+
+[Illustration: Section of a Hotbed]
+
+The time of starting a Hotbed will depend upon the kinds of plants to be
+grown, the amount of time which one wishes to gain, and something, also,
+on the quality of the manure. The hardier the plant the earlier it can
+be started. In the latitude of New York, from the first to the middle of
+March is the usual time for starting a Hotbed. In this bed are sown
+seeds of early flowers and such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower,
+tomato, etc. In the raising of any plants in the Hotbed, it is very
+essential that they do not become "drawn" or "leggy." In order to
+prevent this, they must be given plenty of room, thorough ventilation on
+all pleasant days, and not too great heat. It is well to transplant them
+once or twice before they are finally set in the field, especially if
+they are started, in New York, as early as the first or middle of March.
+When they are transplanted, they can be set in another Hotbed or in a
+coldframe; but it is important that the succeeding frames in which they
+are set should not be very much colder than the one in which they grew,
+else they may become stunted. It is well, however, to transplant them
+into a gradually cooler and freer atmosphere in order to harden them
+off, so that they may go into the open ground without danger. On every
+pleasant day, raise the sash at the upper end 1 or 2 inches, or if the
+sun shines brightly and the wind does not blow, give even more air; and
+eventually strip off the sashes entirely. It is very important that the
+plants are not kept too close and grown too soft. It is usually
+advisable to sow cabbage, lettuce and other hardy plants in different
+frames from tomatoes and other tender things, in order that the proper
+requirements may be given to each. At night the Hotbeds (at least early
+in the season) will need more protection than the glass sash. It was
+formerly the custom to use thick rye-straw mats to cover Hotbeds, but it
+is now a common practice to use the straw matting which can be bought of
+carpet dealers. This is rolled out on the sashes at night in one or two
+thicknesses; and if the weather is sharp, board shutters, the size of
+the sash, may be laid on top. As the manure heat begins to fail give
+more and more air, so that the plants may be able to shift for
+themselves when the bottom heat is finally exhausted.
+
+Fresh horse manure is the material which is commonly used for the
+heating of Hotbeds. If it can be secured from livery stables, so that it
+is all of nearly or quite the same age, better results may be expected.
+Manure from highly fed horses usually heats better than that from horses
+which receive little grain, or in which there is very much litter. Put
+the manure in a pile, preferably under cover, and as soon as it shows
+signs of heating, fork it over in order to mix the entire mass and to
+cause it to heat evenly. When it is steaming throughout the whole mass,
+it may be put in the bed. Assuming that the Hotbed has a pit beneath it,
+it is well to put in 2 or 3 inches of coarse litter in order to keep the
+manure off the cold ground. The manure is then put in and tramped down,
+in layers of 4 to 6 inches each. If the manure is of the right
+consistency, it will pack without becoming dense and soggy; that is, it
+will spring a little beneath the feet. If it has too much litter, it
+will fluff up under the feet and not pack well. From 18 to 24 or even 30
+inches of manure is placed in the pit. On top, an inch of dry straw or
+light leaf-mold may be placed to serve as a distributor of the heat to
+the earth above. From 3 to 4 inches of rich, light earth is placed upon
+this, in which to sow the seed. The manure will ordinarily heat
+violently for a few days. Place a soil thermometer in it, and as soon as
+the temperature begins to fall below 90° the seeds of tomatoes and
+egg-plants may be sown; and when it begins to fall below 80°, the seeds
+of cabbages, lettuce and cauliflower may be sown. If the frame is not
+placed over a pit and the manure is put on top of the ground, it will be
+necessary to allow the body of manure to project 1 or 2 feet in all
+directions in order to prevent the edges of the bed from freezing.
+
+In starting plants in a Hotbed, one must not expect to gain as much time
+in the crop as he gains in the starting of the seeds: that is, if he
+starts the seeds two months ahead of the normal season, he will not gain
+two months in the ripening of the crop. Ordinarily, he cannot expect to
+gain much more than one-half the time, particularly if the plants are
+transplanted to the field from the Hotbed.
+
+Some plants may be grown to maturity in the Hotbed, particularly lettuce
+and radishes. After Hotbeds have been emptied of their plants, the
+sashes may be stored away, and the frames, with their spent manure, used
+for the growing of an early summer crop of melons or cucumbers.
+
+
+HOUSE PLANTS. See _Window-Garden_.
+
+
+[Illustration: Hyacinth bean]
+
+HYACINTH BEAN (_Dolichos Lablab_). A very rapid-growing twiner, bearing
+fragrant flowers of purple or white. It is a fine screen plant. Plant
+seeds when the ground is warm where the plants are to grow; or they may
+be started early in pots. Height 10 feet.
+
+
+HYACINTHS are most popular winter- or spring-flowering bulbs. Hyacinths
+are hardy, but they are often used as window or greenhouse plants. They
+are easy to grow and very satisfactory. For winter flowering the bulbs
+should be procured early in the fall, potted in October in soil composed
+of loam, leaf-mold and sand. If ordinary flower pots are used, put in
+the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, charcoal or small stones for
+drainage; then fill the pot with dirt, so that when the bulb is planted
+the top will be on a level with the rim of the pot. Fill in around the
+bulb with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing. These pots of
+bulbs should be placed in a cold pit, cellar or on the shady side of a
+building. In all cases, plunge the pot in some cool material (as
+cinders). Before the weather becomes cold enough to freeze a crust on
+the ground, the pots should have a protection of straw or leaves to keep
+the bulbs from severe freezing. In from six to eight weeks the bulbs
+should have made roots enough to grow the plant, and the pots may be
+placed in a cool room for a short time. When the plants have started
+into growth, they may be placed in a warmer situation. Watering should
+be carefully attended to from this time, and when the plant is in bloom
+the pot may be set in a saucer or other shallow dish containing water.
+After flowering, the bulbs may be ripened by gradually withholding water
+until the leaves die. They may then be planted out in the border, where
+they will bloom each spring for a number of years, but will never prove
+satisfactory for forcing again. The open ground culture of Hyacinths is
+the same as for tulips, which see. See _Bulbs_.
+
+_Water Culture of Hyacinths._--The Hyacinth is the most popular of the
+Dutch bulbs for growing in vases. The Narcissus may be grown in water,
+and do just as well, but it is not as pretty in glasses as the Hyacinth.
+Glasses for Hyacinths may be had of florists who deal in supplies, and
+in various shapes and colors. The usual form is tall and narrow, with a
+cup-like mouth to receive the bulb. They are filled with water, so that
+it will just reach the base of the bulb when it has been placed in
+position in the cup above. The vessels of dark-colored glass are
+preferable to those of clear glass, as roots prefer darkness. When the
+glasses, or bowls as above mentioned, have been arranged, they are set
+away in a cool, dark place to form roots like potted bulbs. Results are
+usually secured earlier in water than in soil. To keep the water sweet,
+a few lumps of charcoal may be put in the glass. As the water
+evaporates, add fresh; add enough so that it runs over, and thereby
+renews that in the glass. Do not disturb the roots by taking out the
+bulb.
+
+
+HYDRANGEA. One of the commonest lawn shrubs is _Hydrangea paniculata_.
+The commonest fault in growing it is scattering the plants over the
+lawn, where they suffer in the competition with grass roots, and do not
+show off to advantage. It is far better to mass them in front of taller
+things. The Hydrangea blooms on wood of the season; therefore it should
+be pruned after bloom--in winter or early spring (see _Pruning_). Cut
+back heavily, in order to secure the strong new shoots upon which the
+flowers are borne.
+
+
+HYSSOP. See _Sweet Herbs_.
+
+
+ICE PLANT, or MESEMBRYANTHEMUM. Fine little plants for rockwork or
+edging. The majority of the species are greenhouse and window plants,
+but a few can be recommended for outdoor planting. A very sunny
+location, with gravelly soil, will give the best results, either in the
+open or in the house. Easily propagated by pieces of the plant laid on
+moist sand in a somewhat sunny place. The common Ice Plant of
+window-gardens is readily grown from seeds or slips. It is prized for
+its glandular-glistening thick foliage (whence the common name). The
+little flowers, which open in sunshine, are also interesting.
+
+
+IMPATIENS SULTANI is a generally known conservatory plant, making a
+charming pot subject for warm greenhouse or a room. It is readily
+propagated from seed or cuttings, seed being preferable. Flowers bright
+pink-red. Of easy culture in a fairly moist atmosphere. Height about 18
+inches.
+
+
+INSECTS. For horticultural purposes, Insects might be grouped into three
+general classes: borers, or those which live inside the plant tissue;
+chewing Insects which live on the outside of the plant; and the sucking
+Insects.
+
+As a general statement, it may be said that the digging out of borers is
+the only complete remedy. Sometimes an application of something to the
+body of the tree may keep them out, but it is always uncertain; and it
+usually involves more work than to dig them out. All trees which are
+subject to borers (especially apples, peaches and pears) should be
+examined at least twice every year. See _Borers_.
+
+[Illustration: Moth of one of the borers]
+
+[Illustration: A beetle borer]
+
+The general run of chewing or biting Insects may be killed by the
+arsenical poisons. Such Insects are the common types of worms and
+beetles which feed on foliage. The leading poison which is now used for
+this purpose is Paris green (which see). Hellebore and pyrethrum are
+useful when it is not advisable to use arsenical poisons.
+
+The sucking Insects include all the kinds of plant lice, the squash bug
+and all the scale Insects. These are dispatched by some material which
+kills by external application, especially material which has kerosene or
+petroleum in it. The common material heretofore used for this purpose is
+kerosene and soap emulsion; but it is now believed that the emulsion of
+kerosene and water is fully as efficient, and since machines have been
+perfected for automatically mixing it, it is a much more practicable
+remedy. See _Kerosene Emulsion_.
+
+[Illustration: Weevil--a chewing insect]
+
+In the fighting of all Insects, success depends upon taking them in
+time. If something is known of the life history of the Insect, very much
+will be gained, for the operator may be on hand as soon as the Insect is
+expected to appear.
+
+_Insects on House Plants._--The most troublesome or common Insects with
+which the amateur is likely to meet in the window-garden or conservatory
+are the red spider, mite, mealy bug, aphis, and scale.
+
+The red spider is a very minute Insect with a reddish body. Its presence
+may be suspected whenever plants are growing in a warm and dry place.
+Usually it first appears on the under side of leaves, but it multiplies
+rapidly, and will soon not be so choice of position. It sucks the juices
+of the leaves, and they soon indicate the injury by a dull appearance,
+and also, in many cases, by small whitish or paler areas on the upper
+surfaces. The mite is of similar habits and size, but is of a pale
+color, with black on its back. It appears under the same conditions as
+the red spider. These pests are small, but are very serious if allowed
+to multiply unchecked. They should be looked after as soon as their
+presence is detected.
+
+The remedy is to arrange for keeping the air about the plants more
+moist, and giving drenchings of the foliage with clear or soapy water.
+The latter is most effective. The soap used may be simply the common
+washing soap, or that sold at drug stores known as whale-oil soap. In
+fighting them, care must be used not to keep the soil soaked with water,
+or it will check the plants in vigor and only add to the strength of the
+enemy. Even florists sometimes get into just such a predicament.
+Flagging and extreme variations in dryness and humidity of the air,
+checking the vigor of plants, favor the appearance and presence of the
+red spider quite as much as extreme and continued dryness of the air.
+
+The aphids or plant lice are readily discernable when they appear on
+plants, as they are sure to do under nearly all conditions. They are
+small, have elongated, succulent bodies, move about slowly and
+awkwardly, on rather long, hairlike legs, and are most commonly of a
+pale green color, though often brown or reddish, and sometimes of other
+shades. Fumigation of the plants in a closed box with burning tobacco
+stems will kill them. Latterly florists evaporate a liquid extract of
+tobacco (which is sold by dealers in florists' supplies) by dropping a
+hot iron into a pan of it. A tea made by soaking tobacco stems in water
+for a few hours, and applied with a syringe, is effective, and a safe
+remedy in inexperienced hands. A tablespoonful of tobacco sheep-dip, or
+extract of tobacco, to a couple of gallons of water, also makes an
+effective syringing or dipping solution. As mentioned above, we should
+use care, especially in the winter time, when the soil often dries out
+slowly, to avoid soaking it when already wet or sufficiently moist.
+
+[Illustration: One of the kind which sucks its food]
+
+Mealy bug has a small, flat, tortoise-shaped body, from about
+one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch long. The Insects collect in
+masses in the axils of the leaves. They are covered with a white mealy
+or cottony substance, and are readily recognized, although persons
+unfamiliar with their appearance have sometimes mistaken them for bits
+of down or cotton lodged upon the foliage or in the axils of the leaves.
+The young are small, and likely to escape observation unless one looks
+closely. They are flat, of a creamy or pinkish tint, and lie close to
+the surface of the leaves, especially on the under surface. Coleus and
+bouvardias are among the plants upon which mealy bugs are most often
+found. Owing to the oily nature of their covering, it is difficult to
+wet their bodies with any ordinary liquid that may be applied for the
+purpose of destroying them. Fir-tree oil is one of the most effective
+remedies for them. This liquid is rather expensive, but for a small
+collection a gallon can will last for a long time. It is also effective
+against other Insects. For mealy bugs, two tablespoonfuls of the oil to
+one pint of water will make an effective dipping or spraying solution.
+Soft or rain-water should be used, and tin, wooden, or earthenware
+vessels. Galvanized iron vessels are to be avoided. Apply forcibly with
+a syringe or atomizer, preferably in the evening. If effective, the
+mealy bug will turn buff-color. For other Insects, except for the scale,
+mentioned below, the solution will not need to be more than half or a
+fourth so strong. Where there are only a few mealy bugs, the plant may
+be gone over with a soft brush and the Insects crushed.
+
+[Illustration: The codlin-moth]
+
+Scales are most commonly of a brown or whitish color, flat or
+tortoise-shaped, and easily seen. They adhere closely by the under
+surface of their bodies to the stems, branches, and foliage of woody
+plants. The mature Insect is stationary, and its body at length becomes
+a shell containing hundreds of eggs. These hatch, and the young emerge
+from the shell, crawl about and settle, to develop into the familiar
+form. A strong solution of fir-tree oil, like that used for mealy bugs,
+is a good remedy. A strong solution of whale-oil soap, made by adding an
+ounce or more of the soap to three gallons of water, even more if
+necessary, is also useful in combating them. After dipping or syringing
+the plants they may be allowed to stand over night, when they should be
+rinsed off with clear water. Applications may need repeating every three
+or four days until the Insects are gotten rid of. It is difficult, for a
+time, to tell when they are dead. If killed, the bodies will fall off
+easily, and in the case of the soft-shelled species shrivel up somewhat
+after a time. Kerosene and water emulsion (see _Kerosene_) will kill
+them.
+
+
+INSECTICIDE. A substance which will kill insects. Insecticides are of
+two general classes--those that kill by contact (see _Kerosene_), and
+those that poison the insect (see _Paris Green_ and _Hellebore_).
+
+
+IRIS. Many handsome perennials, of which the Blue Flag is familiar to
+every old-fashioned garden. Most Irises thrive best in a rather moist
+soil, and some of them may be colonized in the water in margins of
+ponds. Gardeners usually divide them into two sections--the
+tuberous-rooted or rhizomatous, and the bulbous. A third division--the
+fibrous-rooted--is sometimes made. The common and most serviceable
+species belong to the tuberous-rooted section. Here belongs the
+beautiful and varied Japanese Iris, _Iris lævigata_ (or _I. Kæmpferi_),
+which is among the most deserving of all hardy perennials. Most of these
+Irises need no special care. They are propagated by division of the
+rootstocks. Plant the pieces 1 foot apart if a mass effect is desired.
+When the plants begin to fail, dig them up, divide the roots, discard
+the old parts and grow a new stock, as before. _I. Susiana_, of this
+section, is one of the oddest of Irises, but it is not quite hardy in
+the North. Of the bulbous section, most species are not hardy in the
+North. The bulbs should be taken up and replanted every two or three
+years. The Persian and Spanish Irises belong here. The bulbs give rise
+to but a single stem.
+
+
+KALE. A low-growing, spreading plant belonging to the cabbage family and
+extensively used for winter and spring greens. The same culture as given
+to late cabbage is suitable. At the approach of severe freezing weather
+a slight protection is given in the North. The leaves remain green
+through the winter and may be gathered from under the snow at a time
+when material for greens is scarce. Some of the Kales are very
+ornamental because of their blue and purple curled foliage. The Scotch
+Curled is the most popular variety. Kales are extensively grown at
+Norfolk, Va., and southward, and shipped north in winter. Let the plants
+stand 18 to 30 inches apart. Young cabbage plants are sometimes used as
+Kale. See _Collards_. Borecole is a kind of Kale. Sea Kale is a wholly
+different vegetable (which see).
+
+
+KEROSENE is fatal to insects. It is likely to injure plants if applied
+full strength, although if applied in full sunlight (so that evaporation
+takes place rapidly) it may do no harm. It is safest to apply it in
+dilution. Of late, there are pumps which mix or emulsify Kerosene and
+water in definite proportions, and this mixture (in the proportion of
+1/5 or ¼ Kerosene) is fatal to insects and usually harmless to plants.
+The standard Kerosene emulsion is with soap, but the perfection of
+mechanical devices for emulsifying it with water is probably destined to
+supplant the soap emulsion.
+
+_Kerosene Emulsion._--Hard soap, ½ pound; boiling soft water, 1
+gallon; Kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in the water, add the
+Kerosene, and churn with a pump for 5 to 10 minutes. Dilute 10 to 25
+times before applying. Use strong emulsion, diluted four times in
+winter, for all scale insects. For insects which suck, as plant-lice,
+mealy bugs, red spider, thrips, bark-lice or scale. Cabbage-worms,
+currant-worms, and all insects which have soft bodies can also be
+successfully treated.
+
+
+KOHLRABI. This vegetable looks like a leafy turnip growing above ground.
+If used when small (2 to 3 inches in diam.), and not allowed to become
+hard and tough, it is of superior quality. It should be more generally
+grown. The culture is very simple. A succession of sowings should be
+made from early spring until the middle of summer, in drills 18 inches
+to 2 feet apart, thinning the young plants to 6 or 8 inches in the rows.
+It matures as quickly as turnips. One ounce of seed to 100 feet of
+drill.
+
+
+[Illustration: Lantana]
+
+LANTANA is a popular greenhouse pot-plant, and is occasionally seen in
+window-gardens, being grown for the profusion of its orange-red,
+heliotrope-shaped flowers. In the South, and sometimes in the North, it
+is planted out for the summer. It is very easy to grow, and also to
+propagate by means of cuttings. Although the flowers of the common
+species are ill-scented, the profusion of bloom makes it desirable.
+
+
+LARKSPUR. DELPHINIUM. The Larkspurs are among the very best hardy
+plants, being free-flowering and having a good habit. They should be in
+every mixed border, particularly the perennial kinds. The tall
+flower-spikes, showing above the cut foliage, give the plant a striking
+effect. The flowers are in shades of blue in most varieties. The plants
+are propagated by division of root or from seed. The latter method will
+give good results, although the resulting plants are not likely to be
+the same variety as the seed plant.
+
+As winter approaches, a covering of coarse litter should be thrown over
+the crowns of the perennial kinds. The plants will come into bloom in
+late June and continue for a long season. Plants should be set 3 to 5
+feet apart if in rows, but they are seen to better advantage when mixed
+with other border plants. Height of plants from 3 to 5 feet.
+
+The annual Larkspur may be grown from seed sown in heat and transplanted
+to the ground in May; or seed may be sown where the plants are wanted
+and the seedlings thinned to 1 foot. These seedlings will bloom in June,
+and continue through the summer. Plants grow from 8 to 18 inches high.
+
+
+LATHYRUS. See _Pea, Everlasting_; also, _Sweet Pea_.
+
+
+LAWNS. In order to have a good Lawn, two things are essential: first, a
+pleasing surface or contour; second, a dense, firm sod.
+
+Inasmuch as the Lawn is, or should be, a permanent thing, it is
+necessary that the greatest care be exercised to grade the land and to
+thoroughly prepare it before any seeds are sown. About a new building
+the filling should be allowed to settle, so that the finished surface
+will slope gradually away from the foundations and the steps. If the
+land is very hard clay, or if the place is rather low, it is always well
+to lay tile under-drains at frequent intervals. Everything should be
+done to cause the land to be deep and loose, so that the grass roots
+will run far into the soil and not be pressed for lack of moisture in a
+dry time. If the land has not had applications of manure in recent
+years, it is well to plow in, or to spade in, a liberal quantity of
+well-rotted litter from the barnyard. Work this into the soil as deeply
+as possible. If the hardpan is rather high, it is well to subsoil the
+area or to trench it (that is, to spade it up two or three spades deep).
+If the land is apparently not fertile in plant-food, it is well to add a
+dressing of some commercial fertilizer to the surface when the grass
+seed is sown. This will start the grass quickly and allow it to get a
+foothold before the severe weather of midsummer comes.
+
+[Illustration: It is fun to make a garden]
+
+[Illustration: A garden corner]
+
+The kind of grass seed to sow will depend upon the region and also upon
+the personal tastes of the owner. The one standard Lawn grass is June
+grass or blue grass (_Poa pratensis_). The seeds of this grass are sold
+in the hulls, and therefore the bushel weighs only fourteen pounds. Not
+less than two and one-half to three bushels should be sown to the acre.
+In the southern states, June grass will not hold, and Bermuda grass is
+used, being sown about as thick as recommended for the June grass. There
+are various prepared Lawn grass mixtures which are excellent, but the
+June grass alone will give a very excellent Lawn in a short time.
+Whether one shall sow white clover in his Lawn depends mostly upon his
+personal taste. If he likes the white clover, it is well to put in a
+quart or two of seed to the acre, sowing it separately from the June
+grass in order to get an even distribution. Some persons like to see the
+white clover in certain parts of the Lawn. It thrives very well where
+the land is rather moist. In parts of the East, Rhode Island bent grass
+is used for lawns.
+
+[Illustration: A nursery]
+
+The grass seed should be sown in the cool of the year. It may be sown in
+September and thereby become established before winter; or it may be
+sown very early in the spring. In newly made Lawns, it is a good plan to
+grade the area thoroughly in the fall, allowing it to settle in the
+winter; and then, if the surface remains even, to sow the grass seed on
+one of the latest snows in spring. By sowing it on the snow, one can see
+that it is distributed evenly; and when the snow melts, the seed is
+carried into the land and does not need covering. It is well to sow
+three or four quarts per acre of timothy seed, for the timothy
+germinates very quickly, and makes a green area the first season, but is
+killed out as soon as the June grass gains a foothold. Timothy will not
+stand the continued cutting, whereas the June grass will. The timothy,
+therefore, serves as a temporary covering to the land, indicating where
+the borders are, and thereby outlining the area for the Lawn mower to
+cut. The timothy seed should be sown separately from the June grass in
+order to insure even distribution. On hard lands it is well to sow two
+or three quarts per acre of crimson clover seed. The long roots of this
+plant tend to improve the physical condition of the soil; and when they
+decay, they leave nitrogen in the soil for the grass to use. Since
+crimson clover is an annual plant, it will not do any permanent mischief
+in the Lawn.
+
+[Illustration: A lawn, with planting on the sides]
+
+The first season the weeds will probably come up thickly, especially if
+the land is rich. These weeds should not be pulled, for whenever one is
+pulled out of the ground, many grass plants are rooted up and the
+surface is made uneven. The only way in which to keep down weeds is to
+mow them frequently with a Lawn mower. They will not appear in any great
+numbers the second year, unless there should be some perennial weeds,
+like dandelion or dock; and these may be pulled out the first fall or
+the following spring.
+
+It is rare that one secures a perfectly good and uniform sod from one
+sowing of seed; especially is this true if the soil varies in different
+parts of the area. If the surface contour is satisfactory, it is unwise
+to dig up the areas on which the seed has not caught. It is best to rake
+them over with a steel rake in fall or spring, sowing on a little
+commercial fertilizer rather rich in nitrogen, and sow more seed. Nearly
+every Lawn will need patching in this way from year to year. If the Lawn
+is attended to in fall and spring by sowing grass seed, the weeds will
+rarely do serious mischief. When weeds are troublesome on the Lawn, it
+means that there is not sufficient grass, and every effort should be
+made to get more grass. Therefore, when the perennial weeds are pulled
+out, sow more grass seed.
+
+[Illustration: A picturesque rill on the lawn]
+
+When narrow-leaved plantain bothers, it is an indication that the land
+is too poor and dry for grass. In such cases, the land usually lacks
+humus or vegetable matter; and in various severe incursions of the
+plantain, it may be necessary to spade up the weedy areas and to work
+rotted manure into the soil. Usually, however, the plantain can be
+killed out by enriching the soil and sowing more grass seed. The common
+practice of sprinkling Lawns is nearly always pernicious, since the
+water is not supplied in sufficient amount to wet down very far, and the
+grass tends to make surface roots. When the watering is omitted the
+plants suffer. The more a Lawn is sprinkled, the more the grass depends
+upon the sprinkling. If it is necessary to water the Lawn, the water
+should be allowed to run directly from the hose until the surface area
+is completely soaked. It is best to do this at nightfall. When the water
+is applied by means of a sprinkler, a large part of it evaporates and
+does no good to the ground. The fundamental treatment of the Lawn is to
+have the land so deep and porous that the grass roots strike deep into
+the soil and do not need the surface water. A Lawn which is well made
+will need watering only in unusually dry times.
+
+Mow the Lawn frequently when it is growing rapidly,--in spring and early
+summer. In the fall mow less frequently, and let it go into the winter
+with a long coat of grass. If the Lawn is mown as often as is needed, it
+will not be necessary to rake off the trimmings. In fall, top-dress the
+Lawn with commercial fertilizer at the rate of 500 pounds to the acre.
+If the Lawn has not been raked clean of all the trimmings and decayed
+refuse which covers the surface of the ground, it is not necessary to
+dress it with stable manure; for manure is unsightly, unsavory, and
+often brings in weeds. Many persons make the mistake of raking the Lawn
+clean in late fall.
+
+Closely associated with the making of the Lawn is the general
+arrangement of the planting. It is the common fault to scatter the
+planting. Much better effects are secured by massing or grouping the
+planting. See _Borders_ and _Flower Beds_. Particularly along the
+boundaries and about the foundations of buildings, the shrubbery and
+other plants may be massed to excellent effect. In large places there
+should be more or less mass planting along the walks and drives. In the
+curves and retreats of these plantings one will find many pleasant
+corners; and here the children may have their play-houses and their
+pets. A little brook winding across a corner or along one side of a Lawn
+may make a pleasant picture if it is allowed to take on a half-wild
+character.
+
+
+[Illustration: A layer]
+
+LAYERS are parts (usually stems) of plants laid down on the earth while
+still attached to the parent, with the expectation that they will take
+root and can then be separated as independent plants. All vine-like
+plants can be propagated readily by means of Layers; so can most
+soft-wooded plants, as willows, maples, currants, etc. It is usual to
+put down the branches in the fall. In a year they should be ready to be
+severed from the parent. They may also be made in spring, before growth
+starts. See that the layered part rests in moist earth. Usually roots
+arise more freely if the shoot is cracked or notched at the buried
+point. The Layer may be held down by a forked stick ("pegged down"), or
+by a stone or clod. See that the shoot does not throw up suckers behind
+the layered part.
+
+[Illustration: Several layers from one vine]
+
+
+LEEK. This belongs to the onion family, and is used mostly as flavoring
+for soups. Well grown Leeks have a very agreeable and not very strong
+onion flavor. Leek is of the easiest culture, and is usually grown as a
+second crop, to follow beets, early peas, and other early stuff. The
+seed should be sown in a seed-bed in April or early May and the
+seedlings planted out in the garden in July, in rows 2 feet apart, the
+plants being 6 inches apart in the rows. The plants should be set deep
+if the neck or lower part of the leaves is to be used in a blanched
+condition. The soil may be drawn towards the plants in hoeing, to
+further the blanching. Being very hardy, the plants may be dug in late
+fall, and stored in the same manner as celery, in trenches or in a cool
+root-cellar. One ounce of seed to 100 feet of drill.
+
+
+LETTUCE is probably the most extensively grown salad vegetable. It is
+now in demand, and is procurable, every month in the year. The winter
+and early spring crops are grown in forcing-houses and coldframes, but a
+supply from the garden may be had from April to November, by the use of
+a cheap frame in which to grow the first and last crops, relying on a
+succession of sowings for the intermediate supply. Seed for the first
+crop may be sown in a coldframe in March, growing the crop thick and
+having many plants which are small and tender; or, by thinning out to
+the distance of 3 inches and allowing the plants to make a larger
+growth, the plants pulled up may be set in the open ground for the next
+crop. Sowings should be made in the garden from April to October, at
+short intervals. A moist location should be selected for the July and
+August sowings. The early and late sowings should be of some
+loose-growing variety, as they are in edible condition sooner than the
+cabbage or heading varieties.
+
+[Illustration: Plant of heading lettuce]
+
+The cabbage varieties are far superior to the loose-growing kinds for
+salads. To be grown to perfection, they should have very rich soil,
+frequent cultivation and an occasional stimulant, such as liquid manure
+or nitrate of soda. The Cos Lettuce is an upright-growing type much
+esteemed in Europe, but less grown here. The leaves of the full grown
+plants are tied together, thus blanching the center, making it a
+desirable salad or garnishing variety. It thrives best in summer. One
+ounce of seed will grow 3,000 plants or sow 100 feet of drill. In the
+garden, plants may stand 6 inches apart in the rows, and the rows may be
+as close together as the system of tillage will allow.
+
+
+LILY. Bulbous plants of many kinds. It has been said of this family of
+plants that it has no "poor relations," each of them being perfect in
+itself. Many of the choicest kinds are comparatively unknown, although
+easy to cultivate. In fact, all of the Lilies may be grown with
+comparative ease. A light, rich, well-drained soil, mellow to the depth
+of at least 1 foot, a handful of sand under each bulb if the soil is
+inclined to be stiff, and planting so that the crown of the bulb will be
+at least 4 inches below the surface, are the general requirements. One
+exception to the depth of planting is _Lilium auratum_, or Golden-Banded
+Lily. This should be planted deeper--at least 8 inches below the
+surface--as the new bulbs form over the old one and soon bring the bulbs
+to the surface if they are not planted deep.
+
+While Lilies may have partial shade, they should never be planted near
+or under trees. The shade or protection of tall-growing, herbaceous
+plants is sufficient. In fact, the best results, both as to growth and
+effect, may be had by planting amongst low shrubbery or border plants.
+Most kinds are the better for remaining undisturbed for a number of
+years; but if they are to be taken up and divided, or moved to other
+quarters, they should not be allowed to become dry. The small bulbs, or
+offsets, may be planted in the border, and if protected will grow to
+flowering size in two or three years. In taking up bulbs for division it
+is best to do so soon after the tops die after blooming. At least this
+should be done early in the fall, not later than October, giving the
+plants a chance to become established before freezing weather. A mulch
+of coarse litter or evergreen boughs should be placed over the bulbs
+after the ground has become frozen, to be gradually removed as the
+spring advances.
+
+[Illustration: Easter Lily]
+
+As pot-plants some Lilies are very satisfactory, especially those that
+may be forced into bloom through the winter. The best kinds for this
+purpose are _L. Harrisii_ (Easter Lily), _L. longiflorum_, and _L.
+candidum_. Others may be forced with success, but these are the ones
+most generally used. The winter culture of these for forcing is the
+same as for Hyacinths (in pots), which see. The article on _Bulbs_ gives
+directions for both outdoor and indoor growing which are directly
+applicable to Lilies.
+
+
+LILY, CHINESE SACRED. See _Narcissus_.
+
+
+LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. A perfectly hardy little plant, bearing racemes of
+small white bell-shaped flowers in early spring. For ordinary
+cultivation, sods or mats of roots may be dug from any place in which
+the plant is colonized. Usually it thrives best in partial shade; and
+the leaves make an attractive mat on the north side of a building, or
+other shady place, in which grass will not grow. The plants will take
+care of themselves year after year.
+
+For forcing indoors, imported roots or "pips" are used, as the plants
+are grown for this particular purpose in parts of Europe. These roots
+may be planted in pots, and treated as recommended for winter-flowering
+bulbs, under _Bulbs_. Florists force them in greater heat, however,
+often giving them a bottom heat of 80° or 90°; but skill and experience
+are required in order to attain uniformly good results in this case.
+
+
+LINE. A garden Line is one of the most convenient things connected with
+garden operations. It is always wanted when long rows of seed are to be
+sown, and it is also necessary in laying out walks or drives. A very
+simple, yet handy, holder for a line is shown on the margin. The pin is
+driven in the soil at the starting point, and the line is unwound as the
+operator walks towards the end of the row. A line should be 100 feet
+long for common garden operations.
+
+[Illustration: A garden Line]
+
+
+LOBELIA. Some of these are well-known garden plants, being used very
+freely as edging for ribbon beds or basket plants. They require a loose,
+rich soil, and some stimulant when in full flower. The flowers continue
+through a long season. They propagate freely from seed. _Lobelia
+Erinus_, in blue, 6 inches high, is one of the most popular of all
+annual edging plants. In Europe various perennial Lobelias are popular,
+but they are seldom seen in American gardens.
+
+
+LONDON PURPLE. Discussed under _Paris Green_.
+
+
+LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. See _Amarantus_.
+
+
+MANURE adds plant-food to the soil, and it also improves the texture or
+physical condition of the soil. This latter effect is often its greatest
+value. If one wants mere plant-food alone, he may often do better to add
+it in some more concentrated form. See _Fertilizers_. Manure, when
+thoroughly incorporated with the soil, makes the ground congenial for
+the plant. It is important, in garden operations, that the Manure be
+rotted or composted, or "short" or "fine," as the gardeners say. It then
+incorporates readily with the soil and quickly gives up its fertility.
+Manure is composted by letting it decay in piles. The compost pile
+should be flat on top, so that it will catch the rains, and 3 to 5 feet
+high.
+
+The most desirable Manure for the garden and for house plants is
+probably old cow Manure. It does not burn or lose its strength. It may
+be kept for a number of years if piled under shelter, becoming more
+available each year. It mixes well with soil and leaf-mold. When once
+rotted, this manure is very lasting and easily assimilated by plants.
+Horse Manure is very likely to become overheated, and to lose its value;
+and it is too loose and dry for many purposes. Pig Manure, unless well
+composted with soil or refuse, is usually too heavy and rich. Sheep
+Manure is at its best when used in a liquid form, although it is most
+excellent to mix with soil to loosen it.
+
+All garden refuse, such as vines, leaves, decaying vegetables, will make
+Manure if composted with soil; and if the wash water is thrown on the
+compost pile much fertility will be added. Wood ashes from stoves, the
+chip dirt from the woodshed--in fact, almost any substance that will
+decay--will furnish plant-food, and should be added to the compost pile.
+This pile should be turned often, to mix the material.
+
+When practicable, it is best to apply Manure in the fall, as it then has
+time to become incorporated with the soil before spring. Beds which are
+to be used for flowers next year may be dressed with Manure in the fall
+and deeply spaded, leaving the surface rough and loose. It is well to be
+careful that the Manure does not contain weed seeds.
+
+
+MARIGOLD. The Marigolds of the old-fashioned gardens are still among the
+best of plants for fall color. They are hardy annuals of the easiest
+culture, and are always certain of giving strong and excellent results.
+They have been much improved of late years. The old-fashioned African
+Marigolds grow 2 to 3 feet high, and they are useful for scattering in
+mixed borders or making large masses or displays of color in the remoter
+parts of the place. The French or dwarf Marigolds grow about 1 foot high
+and are more tufty in their habit. They are better adapted for edgings
+than for mass effects in the main parts of the grounds. All Marigolds
+may be sown where the plants are to stand, since the flowers are usually
+not wanted until late summer or early fall, at which time they usually
+give their best bloom. If they are wanted earlier, however, the seeds
+may be started in the house or hotbed. Tall varieties may be allowed to
+stand from 10 to 18 inches apart and the dwarfs at somewhat less
+distances.
+
+
+MATTHIOLA will be found under _Stocks_.
+
+
+MIGNONETTE. Probably no flower is more generally grown for its fragrance
+than this. The Mignonette needs a cool soil, only moderately rich, shade
+part of the day, and careful attention to cutting the flower-stalks
+before the seeds are ripe. If a sowing be made in late April, followed
+by a second sowing in early July, the season may be extended until
+severe frosts. There are few flowers that will prove as disappointing if
+the treatment it needs is omitted. Height 1 to 2 feet. Treated as a
+half-hardy annual. It can be sown in pots late in summer and had in the
+house in winter.
+
+
+MOON-FLOWERS are species of Morning-Glories that open their flowers at
+night. A well-grown plant trained over a porch trellis, or allowed to
+grow at random over a low tree or shrub, is a striking object when in
+full flower at dusk or through a moonlit evening. In the southern states
+the Moon-Flower is a perennial, but even when well protected does not
+survive the winters in the North. Cuttings may be made before danger of
+frost and wintered in the house, or the plants may be grown from seed
+sown in January or February. Cuttings usually give best results in the
+northern states, as the seasons are not long enough for seed plants to
+give good bloom. Seeds should be scalded or filed just before sowing.
+The true Moon-Flower is _Ipomoea Bona-Nox_, white-flowered; but there
+are other kinds. This grows 20 to 30 feet where the seasons are long
+enough.
+
+
+[Illustration: Morning-Glories]
+
+MORNING-GLORY is perhaps the most popular of all twining herbs, because
+of the ease with which it may be grown, the quickness with which it
+covers the object, and the quantities of bright, cheerful flowers it
+bears. Many of the kinds--in fact all that are generally known--may be
+readily grown from seed, flowering early in the summer. Tender annuals.
+Give rich soil and plenty of water. The beautiful cypress vine belongs
+to this group. It requires the same treatment as the Morning-Glory, but
+the seeds should be scalded just previous to sowing.
+
+Dwarf Morning-Glories (_Convolvulus tricolor_). They come into flower
+much sooner than the tall climbing varieties, and are covered with
+flowers through a long season. They may be used with fine effect in
+vases or large hanging baskets. Give a full sunny exposure. May thrive
+on soil that is not very rich. They grow 1 foot high. Half-hardy
+annuals.
+
+
+MULBERRY. Both for fruit and ornament the Mulberry should be more
+generally planted. Even if the fruit is not to the taste, the tree is
+naturally open-centered and round-headed, and is an interesting subject;
+some of the varieties have finely cut leaves. The fruits are in great
+demand by the birds, and after they begin to ripen the strawberry beds
+and cherry trees are free from robins and other fruit-eating birds. For
+this reason alone they are a valuable tree for the fruit-grower. Trees
+may be purchased cheaper than one can propagate them.
+
+If planted in orchard form, place them 25 to 30 feet apart. About the
+borders of a place they can go closer. The Russian varieties are often
+planted for windbreaks, for they are very hardy and thrive under the
+greatest neglect; and for this purpose they may be planted 8 to 20 feet
+apart. The Russians make excellent screens. They stand clipping well.
+New American, Trowbridge and Thorburn are leading kinds of fruit-bearing
+Mulberries for the North. The true Downing is not hardy in the northern
+states; but New American is often sold under this name. Mulberries
+thrive in any good soil, and need no special treatment.
+
+
+MULCH is used both in protecting plants from the severe freezing of
+winter and the severe drought of summer. The same material may be used
+in either case, although it is now considered best to make an earth
+Mulch to prevent evaporation and retain the moisture through the dry
+season. This earth Mulch is made by breaking the crust of the soil and
+leaving it in fine particles. This may be done with a horse cultivator,
+a hoe or a rake. In fact, any tool which leaves the top of the soil
+loose will be instrumental in preventing evaporation of soil water. See
+_Tillage_. The Mulching of the ground around blackberries, currants,
+gooseberries, or raspberries with straw or hay is often practiced to
+keep the fruits clean; and the winter Mulch of strawberry beds is used
+between the rows for the same purpose, as well as to retain moisture and
+to afford winter protection. Winter Mulch usually consists of leaves,
+straw, hay, rough manure, boughs of evergreens, or any coarse material
+that will protect the plants from severe freezing and the heaving caused
+by alternate freezing and thawing. This winter Mulch should be removed
+as spring advances, unless it is of such a character as to be worked
+into the soil to add fertility or to loosen heavy lands. Near the
+seacoast salt hay is considered to be an ideal Mulch. The winter Mulch
+must not contain too strong or heavy manures, or plants may be injured
+by the leaching. For flower borders and shrubbery, muck or peat makes a
+good winter Mulch. Ordinarily the Mulch may be placed on to the depth of
+4 to 6 inches, and if it is of loose material it may be still deeper. If
+dry and loose, mice may nest in it and girdle the trees or bushes. Even
+perfectly hardy plants are benefited by a winter Mulch, because it
+improves the soil. Autumn leaves, as they drift into shrubberies, make
+an ideal Mulch; it is not always necessary to remove these leaves. See
+_Lawn_.
+
+
+MUSHROOM. There is no science of Mushroom growing. Certain conditions
+have been found to give success, but it is not known why. These
+conditions may be imitated ever so closely and complete failure result.
+There are many "systems" advised, each system the result of somebody's
+success; but one cannot be sure of success by following any one of them.
+Good results are frequently attained when all rules are broken. The
+following paragraphs are from "Farmers' Bulletin," No. 53 (by William
+Falconer), of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (March, 1897):
+
+Mushrooms are a winter crop, coming in from September till April or
+May--that is, the work of preparing the manure begins in September and
+ends in February, and the packing of the crop begins in October or
+November and ends in May. Under extraordinary conditions the season may
+begin earlier and last longer, and, in fact, it may continue all summer.
+
+Mushrooms can be grown almost anywhere out of doors, and also indoors
+where there is a dry bottom in which to set the beds, where a uniform
+and moderate temperature can be maintained, and where the beds can be
+protected from wet overhead, and from winds, drought, and direct
+sunshine. Among the most desirable places in which to grow Mushrooms are
+barns, cellars, closed tunnels, sheds, pits, greenhouses, and regular
+Mushroom houses. Total darkness is not imperative, for Mushrooms grow
+well in open light if shaded from sunshine. The temperature and moisture
+are more apt to be equable in dark places than in open, light ones, and
+it is largely for this reason that Mushroom houses are kept dark.
+
+[Illustration: Mushroom]
+
+The best fertilizer for Mushrooms, so far as the writer's experience
+goes, is fresh horse manure. Get together a lot of this material (short
+and strawy) that has been well trampled and wetted in the stable. Throw
+it into a heap, wet it well if it is at all dry, and let it heat. When
+it begins to steam turn it over, shake it well so as to mix thoroughly
+and evenly, and then tramp it down solid. After this let it stand till
+it again gets quite warm, then turn, shake, trample as before, and add
+water freely if it is getting dry. Repeat this turning, moistening and
+trampling as often as it is needful to keep the manure from "burning."
+If it gets intensely hot, spread it out to cool, after which again throw
+it together. After being turned in this way several times, and the heat
+in it is not apt to rise above 130° F., it should be ready to make up in
+the beds. By adding to the manure at the second or third turning
+one-fourth or one-fifth of its bulk of loam, the tendency to intense
+heating is lessened and its usefulness not at all impaired. Some growers
+prefer short manure exclusively, that is, the horse droppings, while
+others like a good deal of straw mixed in with this. The writer's
+experience, however, is that, if properly prepared, it matters little
+which is used.
+
+Ordinarily the beds are only 8 to 10 inches deep; that is, they are
+faced with 10-inch-wide hemlock boards, and are only the depth of this
+board. In such beds put a layer of fresh, moist, hot manure, and trample
+it down firm until it constitutes half the depth of the bed; then fill
+up with the prepared manure, which should be rather cool (100° to 115°
+F.) when used, and pack all firmly. If desired, the beds can be made up
+entirely of the prepared manure. Shelf beds are usually 9 inches deep;
+that is, the shelf is bottomed with 1-inch boards and faced with
+10-inch-wide boards. This allows about 8 inches for manure, and 1 inch
+rising to 2 inches of loam on top. In filling the shelf beds the bottom
+half may be of fresh, moist or wettish, hot manure, packed down solid,
+and the top half of rather cool prepared manure, or it may be made up of
+all prepared manure. As the shelf beds can not be trodden and can not be
+beaten very firm with the back of the fork, a brick is used in addition
+to the fork.
+
+The beds should be spawned after the heat in them has fallen below 100°
+F. The writer considers 90° F. about the best temperature for spawning.
+If the beds have been covered with hay, straw, litter or mats, these
+should be removed. Break each brick into twelve or fifteen pieces. The
+rows should be, say, 1 foot apart, the first one being 6 inches from the
+edge, and the pieces should be 9 inches apart in the row. Commencing
+with the first row, lift up each piece, raise 2 to 3 inches of the
+manure with the hand, and into this hole place the piece, covering over
+tightly with the manure. When the entire bed is spawned pack the surface
+all over. It is well to cover the beds again with straw, hay or mats, to
+keep the surface equally moist. The flake spawn is planted in the same
+way as the brick spawn, only not quite so deep.
+
+At the end of eight or nine days the mulching should be removed and the
+beds covered with a layer of good loam 2 inches thick, so that the
+Mushrooms can come up in and through it. This gives them a firm hold,
+and to a large extent improves their quality and texture. Any fair loam
+will do. That from an ordinary field, wayside or garden is generally
+used, and it answers admirably. There exists an idea that garden soil
+surfeited with old manure is unfit for Mushroom beds because it is apt
+to produce spurious fungi. This, however, is not the case. In fact, it
+is the earth most commonly used. For molding the beds the loam should be
+rather fine, free and mellow, so that it can be easily and evenly spread
+and compacted firmly into the manure.
+
+If an even atmospheric temperature of from 55° to 60° F. can be
+maintained, and the house or cellar containing the Mushroom beds is kept
+close and free from drafts, the beds may be left uncovered, and should
+be watered if they become dry. But no matter where the beds are
+situated, it is well to lay some loose hay or straw or some old matting
+or carpet over them to keep them moist. The covering, however, should be
+removed just as soon as the young Mushrooms begin to appear above
+ground. If the atmosphere is dry, the pathways and walls should be
+sprinkled with water. The mulching should also be sprinkled, but not
+enough to cause the water to soak into the bed. However, if the bed
+should get dry, do not hesitate to water it.
+
+
+MUSKMELON. The natural soil for melons is a light, sandy loam, well
+enriched with rotted manure, although good crops may be grown on soil
+naturally heavy if the hills are prepared as they should be. When only
+heavy soil is available, the dirt where the seeds are to be planted
+should be thoroughly pulverized and mixed with fine, well rotted manure.
+A sprinkling of leaf-mold or chip-dirt will help to lighten it. On this
+hill from ten to fifteen seeds may be sown, thinning to four or five
+vines when danger of insects is over. The season may be advanced and the
+damage from insects lessened by starting the plants in hotbeds. This may
+be done by using fresh sod, cut into 6-inch pieces, placing them
+grass-side down in the hotbed, sowing eight to ten seeds on each piece,
+and covering with 2 inches of light soil. When all danger of frost is
+over, and the ground has become warm, these sods may be carefully lifted
+and set in the prepared hills. The plants usually grow without check,
+and fruit from two to four weeks ahead of those from seed planted
+directly in the hill. Old quart berry boxes are excellent to plant seeds
+in, as, when they are set in the ground, they very quickly decay,
+causing no restriction to the roots. Netted Gem, Hackensack, Emerald
+Gem, Montreal, Osage, and the Nutmeg Melon are popular varieties. One
+ounce of seed will plant about fifty hills.
+
+[Illustration: Muskmelon]
+
+For insects, see _Cucumber_.
+
+
+MUSK PLANT is an old-fashioned house plant of easy culture. Raise a new
+stock from seeds as soon as the plants begin to fail.
+
+
+NARCISSUS. Hardy bulbous plants, including the daffodils, jonquils, and
+other forms. The ease with which these plants may be grown, the beauty
+and fragrance of the flowers, as well as their lasting qualities when
+cut, would seem to make their culture in this country more popular than
+it is. Good bulbs planted in September or October are sure to bloom in
+April or May. The bulbs may remain in the ground for a number of years,
+although the best results will be had by digging them up every three
+years, and resetting in a different location. Select a moist, loamy
+soil, slightly protected from the sun. No manure should come directly in
+contact with the bulb, but if needed to hold moisture the manure may be
+spaded down to the depth of twelve inches.
+
+[Illustration: Narcissus]
+
+Narcissus may be forced into flower through the winter, as described
+under _Bulbs_. The most popular for winter bloom is the "Chinese Sacred
+Lily." This grows in water without any soil whatever. Secure a bowl or
+glass dish, about three times the size of the bulb; put some pretty
+stones in the bottom; set in the bulb and build up around it with stones
+so as to hold it stiff when the leaves have grown; tuck two or three
+small pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep the water sweet, then
+fill up the dish with water and add a little every few days, as it
+evaporates. Set the dish in a warm, light place. In about six weeks the
+fragrant, fine white flowers will fill the room with perfume.
+
+
+[Illustration: Nasturtium]
+
+NASTURTIUMS (_Tropæolums_) are both dwarf and climbing. The Dwarf
+Nasturtiums make one of the most showy second-row plants for the border.
+The colors of the flowers have a wide range and the plants bloom
+profusely. It is not, however, the plant in flower that is the greatest
+consideration, but the flowers themselves as cut-flowers. No flower
+makes a finer display in vase or bowl than these rich colors, all
+harmonizing well and lighting up a room as very few of the common easily
+grown flowers do. The same may be said of the tall-growing Nasturtiums,
+although the flowers of these form part of their effectiveness as screen
+vines. Few climbers make a more rapid growth, and none are better
+adapted to hide unsightly objects in our yards or gardens.
+
+[Illustration: Dwarf Nasturtium]
+
+For a long season of flowers and a large growth of vine the seed should
+be sown late in March or early in April, in boxes or pots, the plants
+carried along until the first of May, and planted out where wanted. The
+dwarf varieties bloom more freely and the flowers are of better color in
+rather poor soils, while for rapid growth of vine a well enriched border
+would be the best. The dwarf varieties may be planted 2 or 3 feet apart,
+and the tall ones as wanted to make a screen. The tall kinds grow 5 to 8
+feet. All Nasturtiums are tender.
+
+
+NICOTIANA. Tender annuals (or grown as annuals). They are fine plants
+for borders or pots, the tall-growing varieties making a very fine show
+when in flower, having pure white flowers with long, tubular necks, the
+season of bloom being from July to October. The seeds are very fine, and
+should be sown on the surface of the soil, in boxes or pots. When
+planted out they should be set from 2 to 5 feet apart, according to
+kind. Some of the giant Nicotianas are excellent subjects for temporary
+screens; so is tobacco, which is also a Nicotiana.
+
+[Illustration: Nicotiana affinis]
+
+_Nicotiana affinis_ is one of the best of all garden flowers. Its long
+white flowers are fragrant at evening. They close in the hot sun. It is
+a half-hardy annual of easiest culture. Height 2 to 3 feet.
+
+
+OeNOTHERA. EVENING PRIMROSE. A very interesting group of plants,
+opening their flowers at evening. Many of them are fragrant and attract
+night insects, especially the large moths, seldom seen until dusk. The
+opening of the flowers of the large-flowering varieties is a source of
+pleasure and surprise, as one flower follows another in opening, and in
+a large plant the late opening flowers seem to burst all at one time.
+The perennial species may be propagated by division or seed, the
+annuals by seed. Set the tall kinds 2 to 3 feet apart. Height 1 to 3
+feet. All of easy culture.
+
+
+[Illustration: Okra or Gumbo]
+
+OKRA. From the green pods of this vegetable is made the well-known Gumbo
+soup of the South, where the plant is more extensively grown than in the
+North. The pods are also used in their green state for stews, and are
+dried and used in winter, when they are nutritious, and form no little
+part of the diet in certain sections of the country. The seeds are very
+sensitive to cold and moisture, and should not be sown until the ground
+has become warm--the last week in May or the first of June being early
+enough in New York. The seed should be sown in a drill 1 inch deep, the
+plants thinned to stand 12 inches in the row. Give the same culture as
+for corn. One ounce will sow 40 feet of drill. Dwarf varieties are best
+for the North. Green Density and Velvet are leading varieties.
+
+
+OLEANDER. While there are many named varieties of the Oleander, but two
+are often seen in general cultivation. These are the common red and
+white varieties. Both these, as well as the named varieties, are of easy
+management and well adapted to home culture, growing in pots or tubs for
+several years without special care. Well-grown specimens are very
+effective as porch or lawn plants, or may be used to good advantage in
+mixed beds of tall-growing plants, plunging the pot or tub to the rim in
+the soil. The plants should be cut back after flowering. They should be
+rested in any out-of-the-way place through the winter. When brought out
+in the spring, they should be given sun and air in order to make a
+sturdy growth. Propagation is effected by using well-ripened wood for
+cuttings, placed in a close frame; or the slips may be rooted in a
+bottle or can of water, care being taken to supply water as evaporation
+takes place. After being rooted, they may be potted, using soil with a
+large proportion of sand. Well established plants may be repotted in
+good loam and well rotted manure.
+
+
+ONIONS are grown from seeds ("black seed") for the main crop. They are
+also grown from sets (which are very small Onions, arrested in their
+development), from "tops" (which are bulblets produced in the place of
+flowers), and from multipliers or potato onions, which are compound
+bulbs.
+
+[Illustration: Early Onions]
+
+The extremely early crop of Onions is grown from sets, and the late or
+fall crop is grown from seed sown in April or early May. The sets may be
+saved from the crop harvested the previous fall, saving no bulbs
+measuring over ¾ of an inch in diameter, or, better, they may be
+purchased from the seedsman. These sets should be planted as early as
+possible in the spring, preferably on land that has been manured and
+trenched in the fall. Plant in rows 12 inches apart, the sets being 2 or
+3 inches in the row. Push the sets well down into the ground and cover
+with soil, firming them with the feet or a roller. In cultivating, the
+soil should be thrown towards the tops, as the white stems are usually
+sought as an indication of mildness. The crop will be in condition to
+use in from three to four weeks, and may be made to last until small
+seed Onions are to be had. Tops or multipliers may also be used for the
+early crop.
+
+In growing Onions from seed, it is only necessary to say that the seed
+should be in the ground very early in order that the bulbs make their
+growth before the extreme hot weather of August, when, for want of
+moisture and because of the heat, the bulbs will ripen up while small.
+Early in April, in New York, if the ground is in condition, the seed
+should be sown thickly in drills from 12 to 16 inches apart, and the
+ground above the seeds well firmed. Good cultivation and constant
+weeding is the price of a good crop of Onions. In cultivating and
+hoeing, the soil should be kept away from the rows, not covering the
+growing bulbs, but allowing them to spread over the surface of the
+ground. When the crop is ready to be harvested, the bulbs may be pulled
+or cultivated up, left to dry in double rows for several days, the tops
+and roots taken off, and the bulbs stored in a dry place. Later in the
+season they may be allowed to freeze, covering with chaff or straw to
+hold them frozen, and kept until early spring; but this method is
+usually unsafe with beginners, and always so in a changeable climate.
+Onion seed should always be fresh when sown--preferably of the last
+year's crop. One ounce of Onion seed will sow 100 feet of drill.
+
+One of the recent methods of obtaining extra large bulbs from seed is to
+sow the seed in a hotbed in February or early March, and transplant to
+the open ground in April.
+
+The Danvers, Prizetaker, Globe and Wethersfield are favorite varieties,
+with the addition of White Queen or Barletta for pickling.
+
+
+OXALIS. A number of hardy species of this are excellent plants for
+rockwork and edging. The greenhouse species are very showy, growing
+without extra care, and blooming freely through the late winter and
+spring months; these are mostly increased by bulbs, a few by division of
+the root. _O. violacea_ is one of the commonest of house-plants. Give a
+sunny window, for the flowers open only in sun or very bright light. The
+bulbous kinds are treated as recommended for _Bulbs_, except that the
+bulbs must not freeze.
+
+
+PALMS. No more graceful plant for room decoration can be found than a
+well-grown specimen of some species of Palms. Most Palms are well
+adapted for this purpose when small, and as the growth is usually very
+slow, a plant may be used for many years. Again, the plants thrive
+better in partial shade. They may be grown in a sitting or drawing-room
+more satisfactorily than most house-plants. One of the frequent causes
+of failure in the culture of the Palm is the over-potting and subsequent
+over-watering. A Palm should not be repotted until the mass of roots
+fills the soil; then a pot only a size larger should be used. Use ample
+drainage in the bottom to carry off excess of water. Although the plants
+need a moist soil, water standing at their roots proves injurious. A
+soil composed of well rotted sod, leaf-mold and a little sand will meet
+their requirements. Among the best Palms for house culture are Arecas,
+_Cocos Weddelliana_, Latania, Kentia, Chamærops and Phoenix. Cycas may
+also be regarded as a Palm.
+
+[Illustration: Palms]
+
+The date Palm may be grown from seed of the common commercial date. Seed
+of the other varieties may be purchased from leading seedsmen, but, as
+the seed germinates only under favorable conditions, and the Palm is a
+very slow-growing plant while young, the best plan is to purchase the
+plants from a dealer when wanted. When the plants become weak or
+diseased, take them to a florist for treatment and recuperation.
+
+[Illustration: A table Palm]
+
+
+PANDANUS, or SCREW PINE. The _Pandanus utilis_ and _P. Veitchii_ are
+exceedingly ornamental, and are well adapted to house culture. The
+singular habit of growth, bright, glossy leaves, and the ability to
+withstand the dust and shade of a dwelling room, make them a desirable
+addition to the house collection. They are propagated by the offsets or
+young plants that grow around the base of the trunk; or they may be
+increased by seed. If by the former method, the offsets should be cut
+off and set in sand, at a temperature of 65° or 70°. The cuttings root
+slowly and the plants for a time make a very slow growth. The general
+cultural treatment is that of palms, which see.
+
+
+[Illustration: Pansies]
+
+PANSY is without doubt the most popular spring flower in cultivation.
+The strains of seed are many, each containing great possibilities. The
+culture is simple and the results are sure. Seed sown in August or
+September, in boxes or a frame, will make plants large enough to reset
+in November and bloom the following March; or they may be left until
+March in open seed-beds before setting out. Also, if they are sown very
+thinly in the frames they may remain undisturbed through the winter,
+blooming very early the following spring. The frame should be protected
+by mats, boards or other covering through the severe cold, and as the
+sun gains strength, care should be taken to keep them from heaving by
+alternate thawing and freezing. Seed sown in boxes in January or
+February will make fine blooming plants by April, taking the place of
+those blooming earlier.
+
+The requisites for satisfactory Pansy culture are rich, moist, cool
+soil, protection from the noonday sun, and attention to keeping them
+from going to seed. As the ground becomes warm a mulch of leaf-mold or
+other light material should be spread over the bed to retain moisture
+and exclude heat. Spring and fall give the best bloom.
+
+
+PARIS GREEN is the leading arsenical insecticide. It is usually applied
+in a water spray, at the rate of 1 pound of the poison to 150 to 200
+gallons of water. Add ½ pound of lime to prevent injury to foliage.
+Potatoes will usually stand a stronger mixture; peaches and some other
+plants do not need one so strong. Make the Paris Green into a paste with
+water before adding it to the 200 gallons, that it may mix better. Paris
+Green may be added to Bordeaux mixture with excellent results, counting
+the Bordeaux as if it were so much water; in this case it will not be
+necessary to add lime to the Paris Green. The Paris Green is used only
+for chewing insects, as worms and beetles. London purple is used in the
+same way.
+
+
+[Illustration: Parsley grown in a box]
+
+PARSLEY. The curled Parsley is used almost exclusively as a garnish for
+meats and salads, although the flavor in soups is fine. The seed is slow
+to germinate, and often the second or third sowing is made, thinking the
+first is a failure; but usually after what would seem a long time the
+young plants will be seen. When sown in the open ground, it should be
+thinned to stand 3 or 4 inches in the row, the rows being 10 to 12
+inches apart. A few plants in a border will give a supply for a large
+family, and with a little protection will live over winter. Roots may be
+lifted in the fall, put into boxes or old cans, and grown in a sunny
+window for winter use.
+
+
+PARSNIPS are one of the vegetables that are the better for the winter's
+freeze, although they are of good quality if taken up after the fall
+frosts and packed in soil, sand or moss in the cellar. The seed, which
+must be not over one year old, should be sown as early as possible in
+well prepared soil, firmed with the feet or roller. As the seed
+germinates rather slowly the ground often becomes crusted or baked over
+the seeds, in which case it should be broken and fined with a garden
+rake. This operation often means the success of the crop. Radish or
+cabbage seeds may be sown with the Parsnip seed to mark the row and
+break the crust. One ounce of seed will sow 200 feet of drill. Thin to 6
+inches apart in the row.
+
+
+PEA. Who does not long for the time when early Peas are fit to use? And
+how many know the great difference in quality between the smooth and the
+wrinkled Peas? The first are a little the earliest to be planted and to
+become fit for use, and on that account should be planted in a small
+way. For the kitchen-garden the dwarf and half-dwarf varieties are the
+best, as the tall kinds will need brush or wire to support them, causing
+considerable trouble and labor and not being as neat in appearance. The
+tall varieties yield a larger crop than the dwarfs, but as the rows must
+be made from 3 to 5 feet apart, the dwarf ones, which are planted only 6
+to 8 inches apart, will give as large a yield on the same area. Always
+plant double rows of the tall varieties: that is, two rows from 4 to 6
+inches apart, with the brush or wire between, the double rows being from
+3 to 5 feet apart, according to varieties. The dwarf varieties should be
+planted four rows in a block, each row being only 6 or 8 inches apart.
+The Peas on the two center rows may be picked from the outside. Leave a
+space of 2 feet and plant the same. At the time of the first planting
+only the smooth varieties should be sown, but by the middle of April in
+New York the ground will be warm and dry enough for the wrinkled sorts.
+A succession should be sown that will come to maturity one after the
+other, extending the season six or eight weeks. If a further supply is
+wanted the early quick-maturing varieties may be sown in August, usually
+giving a fair crop of Peas in September and early October. In the hot
+weather of midsummer they often do not thrive so well. One quart of seed
+will plant about 100 feet of drill.
+
+
+PEA, EVERLASTING (_Lathyrus latifolius_). These Peas do not have the
+colors or fragrance of the Sweet Pea, but are fine for planting against
+rocks, stumps, or fences. They bloom through a long season, and, being
+perfectly hardy, will live for years. Height 2 to 6 feet. Raised from
+seeds or from cuttings, usually the former. Keep the seed pods picked
+off to lengthen period of bloom.
+
+
+PEA, SWEET. See _Sweet Pea_.
+
+
+PEACH. Given the proper exposure, Peaches may be fruited in many
+sections where now it is thought impossible to have a crop. It is
+usually the practice of the amateur to set Peach trees in the shelter of
+some building, exposed on the south or east to the sun, and "in a
+pocket" as regards winds. This should be reversed, except in the close
+vicinity of large bodies of water. The fruit buds of Peaches will stand
+very cold weather when perfectly dormant, often as low as 12° or 18°
+below zero in New York; but if the buds once become swollen,
+comparatively light freezing will destroy the crop. Therefore, if the
+trees be set on elevations where a constant air drainage may be
+obtained, sheltered, if at all, on the south and east, from the warming
+influence of the sun, the buds will remain dormant until the ground
+becomes warm, and the chances of a failure will be lessened. This advice
+applies mostly to interior sections. A well drained, sandy loam or
+gravelly soil suits the Peach better than a heavy soil; but if the
+heavier soil is well drained, good crops may be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: Peaches]
+
+Peaches are short-lived at best, and one should be satisfied with three
+or four crops from each tree. They bear young, usually a partial crop
+the third year. If a crop may be had every other year until the trees
+are eight or ten years old, they will have well repaid the effort of
+cultivation. But they often bear twice this long. Young trees may be set
+every four or five years to replace older ones, thus having trees at a
+bearing age at all times on a small place. Trees should be set 14 to 18
+feet apart each way. A good selection of varieties for home use would be
+Early York, Alexander, Halo Early, Mountain Rose, Early Crawford,
+Wheatland, Stump, Elberta, Stevens, Oldmixon, Late Crawford and Smock.
+
+Peach trees are always bought when they are one year old, that is, one
+year from the bud. For example, the bud is set in the fall of 1898. It
+remains dormant until the spring of 1899, when it pushes into vigorous
+growth; and in the fall of 1899 the tree is ready for sale. Peach trees
+which are more than a year old are scarcely worth the buying. It is a
+common practice, when setting Peach trees, to prune them back to a whip,
+leaving a stub bearing not more than one bud where each branch is cut
+off.
+
+The three great enemies of the Peach are the borer, the yellows and the
+curculio.
+
+The borer is best handled by digging it out every spring and fall. Trees
+which are attacked by the borer have an exudation of gum about the
+crown. If the borers are dug out twice a year they will not get
+sufficient start to make the operation very laborious. It is the only
+sure way.
+
+The yellows is a communicable disease, the cause of which is not
+definitely known. It shows itself in the fruit ripening prematurely,
+with distinct red spots which extend through the flesh, and later by the
+throwing out of fine, branching, twiggy tufts along the main branches.
+The only treatment is to pull out the trees and burn them. Other trees
+may be set in the same places.
+
+For a discussion of curculio, see the remarks under _Plum_.
+
+
+PEAR. No fruit plantation should be considered complete without trees of
+various kinds of Pears, ripening fruits from early in August till
+winter. The late varieties are generally good keepers, and extend the
+season into February, thus supplying fruit for six or seven months.
+
+As the Pear grows to perfection on quince, the dwarf tree is peculiarly
+adapted to planting on small home grounds, and is often used as a
+boundary plant, or to serve the purpose of a screen. These dwarf trees
+should be set deep--4 to 6 inches below the union--to prevent the stock
+from growing. Dwarf trees may be set as near together as 10 to 16 feet,
+while the standard or tall-growing Pears should be set 18 to 25 feet
+apart. Trees are planted when two or three years old.
+
+[Illustration: Bartlett Pears]
+
+The Pear thrives on clay soil, if well underdrained, and for this reason
+may succeed in places where other fruits might fail. A good, steady
+growth should be maintained, but the use of nitrogenous manures should
+be avoided, as they tend to make a rank growth and invite attacks of
+Pear blight, which is the worst enemy of the Pear. For summer fruits:
+Osband's Summer, Bartlett, Clapp and Manning Elizabeth are among the
+best. For autumn: Duchess, Flemish Beauty, Bosc, Louise Bonne, Seckel
+and Sheldon. For winter fruit: Anjou, Clairgeau, Lawrence and Winter
+Nelis are excellent. Kieffer is an excellent commercial fruit, but it is
+too poor to be given space in the home ground except as an ornamental
+tree.
+
+Of the Pear blight, Duggar writes as follows:
+
+"REMEDIES. (_a_) _The knife and the saw._--With a disease working as
+this does, it is very evident that there is no chance either for cure or
+prevention by means of spraying. The heroic treatment of the knife and
+saw must be adopted and vigorously pursued, as has been claimed from the
+beginning. The blackened leaves alone must not serve as signs of the
+diseased area, but one must examine carefully the branches and remove
+them 6 inches or more below the lowest discolorations. Often before
+cutting, pruners slice the bark downward to see where the injury ends.
+This should not be done; it is better to be sure that you are below the
+infected area, and run no such risk of infecting anew the tissues below.
+The cut surfaces of larger limbs and branches should be painted for
+protection against wound rots.
+
+"(_b_) _When to cut._--Cutting out diseased portions should be done
+whenever the disease is evident. This may check the injuries
+temporarily; but it has been shown that much can be done in the autumn
+to prevent the establishment of the disease the following spring. It has
+long been known that the disease may pass the winter in the branches by
+a slow growth in the neighborhood of late infections. Thorough work of
+eradication should especially be performed after the season of growth.
+Then cut out every diseased branch and burn, so that in the spring when
+the succulent growth begins again, there will be few places in which
+insects may come in contact with the bacterial exudations.
+
+"(_c_) _Conditions favoring the disease._--The knife is our only hope of
+extermination; but there are undoubtedly conditions which favor the
+disease. In a succulent, rapidly growing tree the bacteria find more
+favorable conditions for their development than in one which grows
+slowly, yet with sufficient vigor. For this reason, too much nitrogenous
+manure is dangerous; and, for the same reason, a succulent growth
+induced by severe pruning should be avoided."
+
+
+[Illustration: Pelargonium, or Geranium]
+
+PELARGONIUMS. Here belong the plants known as Geraniums--the most
+satisfactory of house-plants, and extensively used as bedding plants. No
+plants will give better returns in leaf and flower; and these features,
+added to the ease of propagation, make them general favorites. Cuttings
+of partially ripened wood root very easily, grow to blooming size in a
+short time, and, either planted out or grown in a pot, make fine
+decorations. The common or "Fish" Geraniums are much more satisfactory
+when not more than a year old. Take cuttings from the old plants at
+least once a year. In four or five months the young plants begin to
+bloom. Plants may be taken up from the garden and potted, but they
+rarely give as much satisfaction as young, vigorous subjects. Repot
+frequently until they are in 4- to 5-inch pots; then let them bloom.
+
+The show Pelargoniums are those commonly known as Lady Washington
+Geraniums. These have but one period of bloom, usually in April, but
+they make up in size and coloring. This section is more difficult to
+manage as a house plant than the common Geranium, needing more direct
+light to keep it stocky, and being troubled by insects. Still, all the
+trouble taken to grow them will be well repaid by the handsome blossoms.
+Take cuttings in late spring, after flowering, and blooming plants may
+be had the following year. Good results are sometimes secured by keeping
+these plants two or three years. Cut back after each blooming season.
+
+For house culture the Geraniums need a rich, fibrous loam, with the
+addition of a little sand; good drainage is also an essential.
+
+
+PEONY. The herbaceous Peony has long had a place in the garden, and is
+now in general use as an early flowering plant. It is perfectly hardy,
+and free from the many diseases and insects that attack so many fine
+plants. The single and semi-double varieties are very fine, the flowers
+becoming large as the plant becomes well established. The herbaceous
+section is readily increased by division. The tree Peonies are increased
+by grafting. They grow in some cases to the height of 3 or more feet,
+and are covered with large, very double flowers of rich colors. Height 2
+to 3 feet.
+
+
+PEPPERS are tender while young, although they will endure a heavy frost
+in the fall. Their culture is that recommended for eggplants. A small
+seedsman's packet of seed will be sufficient for a large number of
+plants, say two hundred. The large Bell Peppers are the mildest, and are
+used for making "stuffed Peppers" and other dishes. The small, hot
+Peppers are used for seasoning and sauces.
+
+[Illustration: Bell Pepper]
+
+
+PETUNIA. The improvement made in the size and markings of the Petunia
+has been marked of late. Now almost every shade of color may be found,
+aside from yellow. A bed of Petunias makes a mass of color equaled by
+few other flowers. They also make very fine single plants for pots,
+baskets or window-boxes, blooming freely through the winter, and
+emitting a delicate fragrance. The single varieties grow freely from
+seed, but if plants of one special color are wanted cuttings should be
+made. These cuttings root easily and bloom early. Cuttings will have to
+be made of the double varieties to increase their number. For common
+Petunias, sow seeds where plants are to grow, in a warm, sunny place;
+or, for earlier bloom, seeds may be started in the house. Thin to 8 to
+12 inches apart. The season of bloom is cut short only by frost or other
+causes.
+
+[Illustration: Petunia]
+
+
+PHLOX. Both the perennial and the annual Phloxes are most valuable.
+Excepting the petunia, no plant will give the profusion of bloom with as
+little care as the annual Phlox (_Phlox Drummondii_). Masses of one
+color or of contrasting colors make very effective ribbon borders or
+edging beds. The perennial species are very showy, having almost as wide
+a range of color as the annuals. They grow to the height of 3 feet. They
+are most effective in the back row of a border. The perennials have been
+much improved of late. They are hardy.
+
+The annual Phlox is propagated by seed sown early in the spring in the
+border, or in March in boxes and transplanted. The perennial Phlox is
+increased by division of the roots, the flowers being larger and more
+highly colored by dividing at least every three years. The annual Phlox
+blooms early, and continues until late in the fall. The perennial blooms
+from July to frost.
+
+
+PINK. See _Dianthus_ and _Carnation_.
+
+
+PLUM. Of Plums there are three general or common types: first, the
+common Domestica or European Plum, which gives rise to all the older
+varieties, like Lombard, Bradshaw, Green Gage, the Prunes, the Egg
+Plums, the Damsons, and the like; second, the Japanese Plums, which
+have become popular within the last ten years, and which are adapted to
+a wider range of country than the Domesticas; third, the native Plums of
+several species or types, which are adapted to the plains, the middle
+and southern states, where the Domestica Plums do not thrive, and some
+kinds to the cold North.
+
+Wherever the Domestica and Japanese Plums can be grown, the native Plums
+are not destined to become popular; but many of the natives are much
+hardier than others, and are therefore adapted to regions in which the
+Domestica and Japanese are not safe. Others of them are well adapted to
+the middle and southern states. The Domestica and Japanese Plums are
+considerably hardier than peaches, but not so hardy as the apple. The
+northern limit of their general cultivation is the southern peninsula of
+Michigan, central and southern Ontario, central New York and central New
+England.
+
+Plums thrive on a great variety of soils, but they do better, as a rule,
+on those which are rather heavy and have a considerable content of clay.
+In fact, many of the varieties will thrive on clay as hard as that upon
+which pears will grow. On the other hand, they often thrive well upon
+light, and even almost sandy soils.
+
+The trees are set when they are two and three years from the bud. It is
+preferable to have Plum trees on stocks of the same species, but it is
+not always possible to secure them at the nurseries. In the South, Plums
+are worked mostly on peach roots, and these make excellent trees where
+the climate is not too severe, and especially upon the lighter lands on
+which they are planted in the South. In the North the larger part of the
+Plum stocks are grown on the Myrobalan Plum roots. This Myrobalan is an
+Old World species of Plum, of smaller growth than the Domestica. This
+stock, therefore, tends to dwarf the tree, and it is also likely to
+throw up sprouts from the roots. Plum trees are set from 12 to 18 feet
+apart. Many growers like to set them 8 feet apart in rows, and have the
+rows from 16 to 20 feet apart.
+
+Plums are pruned much the same as apples and pears. That is, the top is
+thinned out from year to year, and all superfluous branches and broken
+or diseased wood are removed. If the soil is very strong and the trees
+are close together, it may be well to head them in a little each year,
+especially those varieties which grow very strong and robust.
+
+The varieties of Plums are very numerous. Of the Domestica or European
+type, some of the best are Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Jefferson, Reine
+Claude, Coe Golden Drop, Quackenbos, Fellemburg, German Prune, Copper.
+The Lombard is the most cosmopolitan variety, and is always sure to give
+a crop, but the quality is not so good as that of the others mentioned.
+For culinary purposes, some of the Damsons, which are very small-fruited
+varieties, are excellent. Of Japanese Plums, the best so far tested for
+the North are Red June, Abundance, Burbank, Chabot and Satsuma. For a
+very early cherry-like Plum for home use, the Berger is excellent. Of
+the native Plums, the most cosmopolitan variety is Wild Goose. Excellent
+varieties are Weaver, Quaker, Forest Garden, Wayland, and others.
+
+[Illustration: Plums]
+
+There are four leading difficulties in the growing of Plums--leaf
+blight, fruit rot, black knot, and curculio.
+
+The leaf blight usually comes on about midsummer, the leaves becoming
+spotted and dropping off. The remedy for this trouble is to spray
+thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture, beginning soon after the fruits have
+set, and before the trouble begins to show.
+
+The fruit rot may be prevented by the same means--that is, by spraying
+with Bordeaux mixture. It is usually best to begin just after the fruits
+are well set. A very important consideration in the checking of this
+disease is to thin the fruit so that it does not hang in clusters. If
+one fruit touches another, the rot spreads from fruit to fruit in spite
+of the spraying. Some varieties, like Lombard and Abundance, are
+susceptible to this injury.
+
+The black knot is best kept in check by cutting out the knots whenever
+they can be seen, and burning them. As soon as the leaves drop, the
+orchard should be gone over and all knots taken out. Orchards which are
+thoroughly sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for the leaf blight and
+fruit-rot fungus are less liable to attacks of black knot.
+
+The curculio, or the insect which is the parent of the worms in the
+fruit, is the inveterate enemy of the Plum and other stone fruits. The
+mature beetle lays the eggs in the fruits when they are very small,
+usually beginning its work about as soon as the flowers fall. These eggs
+soon hatch, and the little maggot bores into the fruit. Those fruits
+which are attacked whilst very young ordinarily fall from the tree, but
+those which are attacked when they are half or more grown may adhere to
+the tree, but are wormy and gummy at the picking time. The mature
+beetles are sluggish in the mornings, and are easily jarred from the
+trees. Taking advantage of this fact, the fruit-grower may jar them into
+sheets; or, in large orchards, into a large canvas hopper, which is
+wheeled from tree to tree upon a wheelbarrow-like frame, and under the
+apex of which is a tin can into which the insects roll. There is a slit
+or opening in one side of the hopper, which allows the tree to stand
+nearly in the middle of the canvas. The operator then gives the tree two
+or three sharp jars with a padded pole or mallet. The edges of the
+hopper are then quickly shaken with the hands and the insects roll down
+into the tin receptacle. In this receptacle there is kerosene oil, or it
+may be emptied from time to time. Just how long this machine is to be
+run in the orchard will depend entirely upon circumstances. It is
+advisable to use the catcher soon after the blossoms fall, for the
+purpose of finding out how abundant the insects are. If a few insects
+are caught upon each tree, there is indication that there are enough of
+the pests to make serious trouble. If after a few days the insects seem
+to have disappeared, it will not be necessary to continue the hunt. In
+some years, especially in those succeeding a very heavy crop, it may be
+necessary to run the curculio-catcher every morning for four or five
+weeks; but, as a rule, it will not be necessary to use it oftener than
+two or three times a week during that season; and sometimes the season
+may be shortened by one-half. The insects fall most readily when the
+weather is cool, and it, therefore, is best to get through the whole
+orchard, if possible, before noon. Upon cloudy days, however, the
+insects may be caught all day. A smart man can attend to 300 to 400
+full-bearing trees in six hours if the ground has been well rolled or
+firmed, as it should be before the bugging operation begins. But whether
+the operation is troublesome or not, it is the price of Plums, and the
+grower must not expect to succeed long without it. The same treatment is
+essential to the saving of peaches and rarely, also, of sour cherries.
+
+
+POPPY. These showy annuals and perennials should be more generally
+grown. Nothing will lighten up a corner better than the hardy oriental
+Poppy, or the solid crimson or scarlet annual Poppies. All of the
+varieties grow readily from seed, which, in most cases, should be sown
+where the plants are to bloom. The seeds of the oriental and the Iceland
+Poppy may be sown in pots, the plants wintered over in a frame and
+carefully planted out the second spring. The Poppy is very impatient of
+root disturbance, however, and the safest method is to sow the seed
+where wanted.
+
+
+PORTULACA, or ROSE MOSS. Brilliant little tender annuals, low-growing
+and sun-loving. They usually seed themselves, and once established will
+continue for years. Many of the varieties will produce a good percentage
+of flowers as double as roses and of many colors. Seed should be sown
+where wanted. They bloom freely in light, sandy soil in the full blaze
+of the sun.
+
+
+POTATO. The common practice of growing Potatoes in ridges or elevated
+hills is wrong, unless the soil is so wet that this practice is
+necessary to insure proper drainage; but in this case the land is not
+adapted to the growing of Potatoes. If the land is elevated into ridges
+or hills, there is a great loss of moisture by means of evaporation.
+During the last cultivating the Potatoes may be hilled up slightly in
+order to cover the tubers; but the hills should not be made in the
+beginning. Land for Potatoes should be rather loamy in character, and
+ought to have a liberal supply of potash, either naturally or supplied
+in the drill, by means of an application of sulfate of potash. See that
+the land is deeply plowed or spaded, so that the roots can penetrate
+deeper. Plant the Potatoes 3 or 4 inches below the natural surface of
+the ground. It is ordinarily best to drop the pieces in drills. A
+continuous drill may be made by means of dropping one piece every 6
+inches, but it is usually thought best to drop two pieces about every 12
+to 18 inches. The drills are far enough apart to allow good cultivation.
+If horse cultivation is used, the drills should be at least 3 feet
+apart.
+
+[Illustration: Potatoes]
+
+Small Potatoes are considered not to be so good as large ones for
+planting. One reason is because too many sprouts arise from each one,
+and these sprouts are apt to crowd each other. The same is true of the
+tip end or seed end of the tuber. Even when it is cut off, the eyes are
+so numerous that one secures many weak shoots rather than two or three
+strong ones. It is ordinarily best to cut the Potatoes to two or three
+eyes, leaving as much tuber as possible with each piece. From seven to
+eight bushels of Potatoes are required to plant an acre.
+
+For a very early crop in the garden, tubers are sometimes sprouted in
+the cellar. When the sprouts are 4 to 6 inches high the tubers are
+carefully planted. It is essential that the sprouts are not broken in
+the handling. In this practice, also, the tubers are first cut into
+large pieces, so that they will not dry out too much.
+
+The staple remedy for the Potato bug is Paris green, 1 pound of poison
+to 150 to 200 gallons of water, with a little lime (see _Paris Green_).
+For the blight, spray with Bordeaux mixture, and spray thoroughly.
+Bordeaux mixture will also keep away the flea beetle to a large extent.
+
+
+POTATO, SWEET. See _Sweet Potato_.
+
+
+POTTING. The operation of potting a plant, while in itself simple, is
+very often associated with success or failure in the growth of the
+plant. The first and most common reason of failure is using too large a
+pot; the second, imperfect drainage; and the third, the poor physical
+condition of the soil.
+
+[Illustration: Too deep]
+
+[Illustration: Plant too high]
+
+A small-rooted cutting or a feeble plant should have a pot only large
+enough to hold soil sufficient to surround the roots to the extent of 1
+or 2 inches. More soil would hold too much moisture, thus excluding the
+air. As the plants grow and the ball of dirt becomes well covered with
+white roots, and before these roots become dark in color, the plant
+should be repotted, using a pot one size larger and usually a little
+richer soil. This operation should continue until the plant has made the
+desired growth. If it is desired to grow a geranium, fuchsia, begonia,
+or plants of a similar character, large enough for a window plant--say
+to the height or breadth of two feet,--a 6-inch pot will be large
+enough, provided the soil is rich enough to continue the growth of the
+plant while in flower. It often happens that pots of the various sizes
+are not to hand; and in case the pot is too large, it should have the
+drainage increased until it will take up as much room in the bottom as
+the pot is too large. Bear in mind that the soil should not hold free
+water. After the plant has filled the pot with roots it will often be
+necessary to supply more food as the soil becomes exhausted. This may be
+done by digging out the top soil down to the young, white roots,
+replacing with new soil in which a little rotted manure, a pinch of
+bone-meal or other plant-food, has been added. Liquid manure may be
+used. This liquid manure is made from well rotted cow-, horse-, or
+sheep-manure thrown into a tub or barrel, covered with water, and
+allowed to stand until the strength of the manure is soaked out. This
+liquid should be diluted before using with clear water until it has the
+color of weak coffee. If used with judgment, nothing will cause a better
+growth or a greater quantity of flowers.
+
+[Illustration: Too full]
+
+[Illustration: Careless]
+
+The drainage may consist of any coarse material, such as old broken
+pots, small stones, pieces of charcoal, and the like, over which should
+be placed small broken sod or a little moss to keep the dirt from
+washing through and eventually stopping up the crevices through which
+the excess water should flow.
+
+[Illustration: Good!]
+
+A safe rule to follow in first potting the majority of house-plants, is
+to use one-third turf-loam, one-third leaf-mold or decayed leaves, and
+one-third sand, thoroughly mixed. Reduce the amount of leaf-mold and
+sand at successive pottings, adding a little well rotted manure, until,
+when the plants have been potted in 6-inch pots, at least four-fifths of
+the soil is turfy loam. Press the soil firmly in the pot and around the
+plant. Never fill the pot level full of soil, else the plant cannot be
+watered.
+
+
+PRICKLY POPPIES, or ARGEMONES, are hardy annuals, with large, bluish
+striking foliage and yellow flowers. They are easily grown in a warm
+soil and sunny exposure. Sow the seeds where the plants are to stand.
+Thin to 12 to 18 inches apart. They grow 2 feet high.
+
+
+PRIMULAS, or PRIMROSES, are of various kinds. One of them is the
+Auricula (which see). Others are hardy border plants. The true or
+English cowslip is one of these; also the plants commonly known as
+Polyanthus. Hardy Primulas grow 6 to 10 inches high, sending up trusses
+of yellow and red flowers in early spring. Propagated by division, or by
+seed sown a year before the plants are wanted. Give them rich, moist
+soil.
+
+The Primula of the winter-garden is mostly the _P. Sinensis_ (Chinese
+Primrose), grown very extensively by florists as a Christmas plant. With
+the exception of the full double varieties, it is usually grown from
+seed. The seed sown in March or April will make large flowering plants
+by November or December, if the young plants are shifted to larger pots
+as needed. The seed should be sown on the flat surface of the soil,
+composed of equal parts loam, leaf-mold and sand. The seed should be
+pressed down lightly and the soil watered carefully to prevent the seed
+from being washed into the soil. Very fine sphagnum moss may be sifted
+over the seed, or the box set in a moist place, where the soil will
+remain wet until the seeds germinate. When the plants are large enough
+they should be potted separately or pricked out into shallow boxes.
+Frequent pottings or transplantings should be given until September,
+when they should be in the pots in which they are to bloom. The two
+essentials to successful growth through the hot summer are shade and
+moisture. Height 6 to 8 inches. Bloom in winter and spring.
+
+At present the "baby Primrose" (_Primula Forbesi_) is popular. It is
+treated in essentially the same way as the Sinensis. All Primulas are
+impatient of a dry atmosphere and fluctuating conditions.
+
+
+PRINCE'S FEATHER. See _Amarantus_.
+
+
+PRUNES are varieties of plums with firm, meaty flesh, and which readily
+make dried fruit. Some of the Prunes are commercially grown in the East,
+but they are sold in the green state as other plums are; and they are
+adapted to all the uses of other plums. Prunes are cultivated like other
+plums.
+
+
+PRUNING. There are two general types of inquiry connected with the
+question of Pruning: First, that which has to do with the healing of the
+wounds; and second, that which has to do with the shaping of the top and
+the general welfare of the tree.
+
+[Illustration: Improper way to make the wound]
+
+[Illustration: Proper way]
+
+[Illustration: Before]
+
+[Illustration: After]
+
+When a limb is cut off, it heals by being covered with callus tissue,
+which grows out from the cambium zone between the bark and wood and
+rolls over the face of the wound. The hard wood itself never heals;
+that is, the cells do not have the power of making new cells; therefore
+the old wood is simply covered up, or hermetically sealed as a cap is
+put on a fruit jar. It is evident, therefore, that no kind of dressing
+will hasten the healing of this wound. The merit of a dressing is to
+keep the wound sound and healthy until the callus naturally covers it
+over. All things considered, the best dressing is probably thick
+linseed-oil paint.
+
+So far as the wound is concerned, the best time for Pruning is
+ordinarily in the spring, when the vital activities are beginning; but
+the season also influences fruit-bearing and wood-making, and these
+questions should be considered. Those wounds heal best which are on
+strong main limbs, where there is a full flow of nutritious sap. The
+limb should be cut off so that the wound is parallel with the trunk upon
+which it sits, and close to it. That is to say, the longer the stub, the
+less rapid in general is the healing of the wound. It is the custom to
+cut the limb just outside the bulge at its base; but, in most cases, it
+is better to cut through this bulge, and to have the wound close to the
+main trunk.
+
+[Illustration: Before pruning]
+
+[Illustration: After pruning]
+
+Heavy Pruning of the top tends to the production of wood; therefore the
+severe Pruning of orchard trees, following three or four years of
+neglect, sets the trees into heavy wood-bearing, and makes them more
+vigorous. Such treatment generally tends away from fruit-bearing. This
+heavy Pruning is usually necessary in neglected orchards, however, to
+bring trees back into shape and to revitalize them; but the best
+Pruning-treatment of an orchard is to Prune it a little every year. It
+should be so Pruned that the tops of the trees will be open, that no two
+limbs will interfere with each other, and so that the fruit itself will
+not be so abundant as to overload the tree. Pruning is a means of
+thinning. In general, it is best to prune orchard trees late in winter
+or early in spring. It is ordinarily better, however, to leave peaches
+and other tender fruits until after the buds have swollen, or even after
+the flowers have fallen, in order that one may determine how much they
+have been injured by the winter. Grapevines should be Pruned in winter
+or not later (in New York) than the first of March. If Pruned later than
+this, they may bleed. The above remarks will apply to other trees as
+well as to fruits.
+
+[Illustration: Sickle saw]
+
+[Illustration: Combined saw and knife. Goes on a long handle]
+
+[Illustration: Curved Pruning saw]
+
+[Illustration: Common double edge saw]
+
+It should be borne in mind that Pruning has two objects: one is to
+merely trim the tree or to make it assume some designed shape; the other
+is to make the tree more vigorous or more fruitful, or to make some
+other change in its character. These ideals are well illustrated in the
+Pruning of ornamental shrubs. If one wants to have the shrubs sheared
+into some particular shape, the shearing may be done at almost any time
+of the year; in fact, it is better to do it two or three times each year
+in order to keep the trees trim and neat. If, however, the desire is to
+secure more flowers, the case is a very different one. Some shrubs and
+trees bear their flowers on the wood of the preceding year. Such, for
+example, are the early flowering shrubs like lilacs and the snowballs.
+The flower buds are made the fall before. In this case, Pruning the
+shrub in winter cuts off the flower buds. The ideal time for Pruning
+them, therefore, is just after the flowers have passed. The flower buds
+will form later in the season for the production of the flowers the
+following spring. Other shrubs, however (particularly those which
+blossom late in the season), bear on wood of the current year's growth.
+That is, the clematis blossoms in late summer and fall on wood which
+grew that same season. The greater the quantity of strong wood which
+grows in any season, therefore, the greater the quantity of bloom in
+that season. With such shrubs, it is well to Prune in winter or early
+spring, and to Prune rather heavily. The abundance of new shoots which
+arise may be expected to bear flowers later on in the same season.
+
+Following are some shrubs which, for best results in flower-bearing, may
+be Pruned when dormant (in winter): camellia, Jackmani type of clematis,
+cornus, hibiscus (shrubby), hydrangea, many loniceras or honeysuckles,
+philadelphus or mock-orange, some spireas.
+
+Shrubs which may be Pruned when in leaf (just after blooming): lilac,
+deutzia, weigelas, exochorda, spring-flowering loniceras, tree peony,
+flowering almond, some spireas and viburnums, wistaria.
+
+The marginal illustrations show how apple, pear and plum trees may be
+Pruned when received from the nursery. Cut back the roots to fresh,
+unbroken wood.
+
+[Illustration: Waters' tree Pruner--for limbs out of reach]
+
+[Illustration: Pruning shears]
+
+[Illustration: An excellent Pruning saw. The blade is on a swivel]
+
+Various kinds of useful tree Pruners are shown in the margins. See also
+_Scraping_.
+
+
+PUMPKIN. See _Squash_.
+
+
+PYRETHRUM. The little, low-growing yellow-foliaged Feverfew, called
+Golden Feather, is used extensively for edging and design beds.
+Propagated by cuttings, as are geraniums.
+
+The tall-growing species are very fine border plants, being easy to grow
+and having showy flowers, in colors ranging from white through lilac to
+crimson. Their flowers appear in June and last a month, when, if the
+plants are cut down, they will flower again in the fall. The Persian
+insect powder is made from the dried flower heads of some of these
+species. Propagated by seed or division. Hardy and fine.
+
+
+RADISHES should be grown quickly in order to have them at their best.
+They become tough and woody if grown slowly or allowed to stay in the
+ground too long. A light soil, well enriched, will grow most of the
+early varieties to table size in from three to five weeks. To have a
+supply through the early months, sowings should be made every two weeks.
+For summer, the large white or gray varieties are best. The winter
+varieties may be sown in September, harvested before severe frosts, and
+stored in sand in a cool cellar. When they are to be used, if thrown
+into cold water for a short time they will regain their crispness. Sow
+Radishes thickly in drills, 12 to 18 inches apart. Thin as needed.
+
+[Illustration: Spring Radishes]
+
+
+RASPBERRY. Both the red and black Raspberries are essentials of a good
+garden. A few plants of each will produce a supply of berries for a
+family through six or eight weeks, provided both early and late
+varieties are planted. A cool situation, soil that will hold moisture
+without being wet, and a thorough preparation of the ground, are the
+conditions necessary to success. The black-cap Raspberries should be set
+3 to 4 feet apart, the rows 6 or 7 feet; the red varieties 3 feet
+apart, the rows 5 feet apart. Spring setting is usually preferable.
+
+As with blackberries and dewberries, Raspberries bear on last year's
+canes, and these canes bear but once. Therefore cut out the old canes
+after fruiting, or before the following spring, thus destroying such
+insects and fungi as may have lodged on them. New canes should have
+grown in the meantime, 3 to 6 to a hill.
+
+The first year after the plants are set the canes should be pinched back
+when they reach the height of from 30 to 36 inches. If a very vigorous
+growth has been made the first season two canes may be left for
+fruiting, but in the case of weak growth, only one cane should be
+allowed to fruit. In case of low-growing varieties--those that have been
+pinched back short--a mulch of straw or grass around the plants at
+fruiting time will help to hold the moisture, and also serve to keep the
+fruits clean in case of heavy rains. A Raspberry plantation will last
+three to five years. The black varieties are propagated by layers, the
+tip of a cane being laid in the soil in midsummer; by fall the tip will
+have taken root and may be separated. The red varieties are propagated
+by suckers from the roots. In nurseries both blacks and reds are often
+propagated by means of root-cuttings.
+
+[Illustration: Black Raspberries]
+
+For red rust, pull out the plant, root and branch, and burn it. Short
+rotations--fruiting the plants only two or three years--and burning the
+old canes and trimmings, will do much to keep Raspberry plantations
+healthy. Spraying will have some effect in combating anthracnose.
+Raspberries may be bent over to the ground so that the snow will protect
+them, in severe climates.
+
+Varieties are always changing in favor. Good black-caps are Gregg, Ohio,
+and Kansas. Good red and purple sorts are Shaffer, Cuthbert, Loudon, and
+others.
+
+
+RHODODENDRONS are broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which require a fibrous
+or peaty soil and protection from bleak winds and hot suns in winter. It
+is well to plant them amongst trees for protection. In the North, mulch
+heavily with leaves in the fall. See that the soil is made fibrous with
+leaf-mold or other material. Rhododendrons bloom from winter buds:
+therefore prune just after flowering, if at all.
+
+
+RHUBARB, or PIE PLANT. This is usually propagated by division of the
+fleshy roots, small pieces of which will grow if separated from the old,
+established roots and planted in rich, mellow soil. Poor soil should be
+made rich by spading out at least 3 feet of the surface, filling with
+well rotted manure to within 1 foot of the level, throwing in the top
+soil and setting the roots with the crowns 4 inches below the surface,
+firming them with the feet. The stalks should not be cut for use until
+the second year, but the first, as well as the succeeding falls, some
+coarse manure should be thrown over the crowns, to be forked or spaded
+in lightly when spring opens.
+
+In growing seedling Rhubarb, the seed may be sown in a coldframe in
+March or April, protected from freezing, and in two months the plants
+will be ready to set in rows, 12 inches apart. Give the plants good
+cultivation, and the following spring they may be set in a permanent
+place. At this time the plants should be set in well prepared ground, at
+a distance each way of from 4 to 5 feet, and treated as those set with
+pieces of roots.
+
+If given good care and well manured, the plants will live for years and
+yield abundantly. Two dozen good roots will supply a large family.
+
+
+RICINUS. See _Castor Oil Plant_.
+
+
+ROSES. It seems to be the first desire of the home maker, when he
+considers the planting of his grounds, to set out Roses. As a matter of
+fact, it should be one of the last things to do. Roses are essentially
+flower garden subjects, rather than lawn subjects. That is to say, the
+flowers are their chief beauty. They have very little to commend them in
+the way of foliage or habit, and they are inveterately attacked by
+insects and sometimes by fungi. In order to get the best results with
+Roses, they should be placed in a bed by themselves, where they can be
+tilled and pruned and well taken care of; and they should be grown as
+specimen plants, as other flower garden plants are. The ordinary garden
+Roses should rarely be grown in mixed borders of shrubbery.
+
+[Illustration: Wild Roses]
+
+If it is desired to have Roses in mixed borders, then the single and
+informal types should be chosen. The best of all these is _Rosa rugosa_.
+This has not only attractive flowers through the greater part of the
+season, but it also has very interesting foliage and a striking habit.
+The great profusion of bristles and spines gives it an individual and
+strong character. Even without the flowers, it is valuable to add
+character and cast to a foliage mass. The foliage is not attacked by
+insects or fungi, but remains green and glossy throughout the year. The
+fruit is also very large and showy, and persists on bushes well through
+the winter. Some of the wild Roses are also very excellent for mixing
+into foliage masses, but, as a rule, their foliage characteristics are
+rather weak, and they are liable to be attacked by thrips.
+
+Probably the most extensively grown class of Roses is the Remontant or
+Hybrid Perpetual. These, while not constant bloomers, are so easy of
+culture and give such good returns for the care and labor, that their
+popularity grows each year. The list of good varieties is very
+extensive, and while a few, such as General Jacqueminot, Paul Neyron,
+Marshall P. Wilder, Victor Verdier, Anne de Diesbach, and Ulrich
+Brunner, are seen in most collections, one cannot go far wrong in
+planting any of the list. Two of the Hybrid Chinese Roses may go with
+the Remontants, having the same season of bloom and being about as
+hardy. These are Magna Charta and Mme. Plantier.
+
+The next group in point of hardiness, and superior to the foregoing in
+continuity of bloom, are the Hybrid Noisettes, such as Coquette des
+Alpes, Coquette des Blanches, and Elise Boelle. The blooms of these are
+white, often tinted with pink, very double and fragrant.
+
+The Hybrid Tea section, containing Duchess of Albany, La France, Meteor
+and Wootton, is very fine. These are not hardy in the North, but if
+protected by a frame, or if grown in pots, wintered in a pit, no class
+of Roses will give more general satisfaction.
+
+The Bourbon section contains three of the best bedding Roses,--Apolline,
+Hermosa, and Souvenir de la Malmaison. These will bloom continually
+through the fall months until severe frost, and with a little protection
+will prove hardy.
+
+The Bengal Roses, of which Agrippina is a leading variety, bloom through
+a long season, but are not hardy, and should be protected in a pit. They
+also make very fine pot-plants.
+
+The Moss Roses are well known, and are desirable in a general
+collection.
+
+The little Polyantha Roses, with Cecile Brunner and Clothilde Soupert as
+two of the best, are always attractive, either when planted out or grown
+in pots.
+
+The climbing Roses, which bloom later in the season than the Remontants,
+are very useful as pillar and screen plants. The old Queen of the
+Prairies and Baltimore Belle are still in favor. A newer and better
+variety is the Crimson Rambler.
+
+The Tea Roses have proved more disappointing to the amateur than any
+other. No one can resist the temptation to try to have a few of these
+highly perfumed, richly colored Roses, but unless one has a
+conservatory or an especially favored location in the house, the results
+do not pay for the trouble. A few blooms may be had outdoors with plants
+set in the spring, but on the approach of winter they must be taken up
+and protected by more secure means than is taken with other Roses. If
+potted and grown in the house, they are the first plants to become
+infested with red spider; or if grown cool enough to escape that pest,
+they will be subject to an attack of mildew. Still, the results are well
+worth striving for, and a few persons will find the proper conditions;
+but the Tea Rose is essentially a florist's flower.
+
+[Illustration: Hybrid Tea Rose]
+
+All Roses are heavy feeders and require rich, moist soil. A clay soil,
+if well enriched and having perfect drainage, is ideal. Pruning should
+be carefully done, preferably in the spring. All weak growth should be
+cut out and the balance well cut back. The flowers of all Roses, except
+the Yellow Persian and the Harrison's Yellow, being borne on the new
+wood, the bushes should be cut back half or more of their growth.
+
+In the majority of cases, Roses on their own roots will prove more
+satisfactory than budded stock. On own-rooted stock, the suckers or
+shoots from below the surface of the soil will be of the same kind,
+whereas with budded Roses there is danger of the stock (usually Manetti
+or Dog Rose) starting into growth and, not being discovered, outgrowing
+the bud, taking possession, and finally killing out the weaker growth.
+Still, if the plants are set deep enough to prevent adventitious buds of
+the stock from starting, there is no question that finer Roses may be
+grown than from plants on their own roots.
+
+The summer insects that trouble the Rose are best treated by a forceful
+spray of clear water. This should be done early in the day and again at
+evening. Those having city water or good spray pumps will find this an
+easy method of keeping Rose pests in check. Those without these
+facilities may use whale oil soap, fir-tree oil, good soap suds, or
+Persian insect powder.
+
+
+ROSES IN WINTER. Although the growing of Roses under glass is a business
+which would better be left to florists, as already said, the following
+advice may be useful to those who have conservatories:
+
+When growing forcing Roses for winter flowers, florists usually provide
+raised beds, in the best-lighted houses they have. The bottom of the bed
+or bench is left with cracks between the boards for drainage; the cracks
+are covered with inverted strips of sod, and the bench is then covered
+with four or five inches of fresh, fibrous loam. This is made from
+rotted sods, with decayed manure incorporated at the rate of about one
+part in four. Sod from any drained pasture-land makes good soil. The
+plants are set on the bed in the spring or early summer, from 12 to 18
+inches apart, and are grown there all summer.
+
+During the winter they are kept at a temperature of 58° to 60° at night,
+and from 5° to 10° warmer during the day. The heating pipes are often
+run under the benches, not because the Rose likes bottom heat, but to
+economize space and to assist in drying out the beds in case of their
+becoming too wet. The greatest care is required in watering, in guarding
+the temperature and in ventilation. Draughts result in checks to the
+growth and in mildewed foliage.
+
+Dryness of the air, especially from fire heat, is followed by the
+appearance of the minute red spider on the leaves. The aphis, or green
+plant louse, appears under all conditions, and must be kept down by
+syringing with tobacco-tea or fumigation with tobacco stems.
+
+An effectual and preferable method now employed for destroying the aphis
+is to fumigate with the vapor arising from a pan containing a gallon of
+water and a pint of strong extract of tobacco. To generate the vapor, a
+piece of red-hot iron is dropped into the pan. From one to three or four
+pans are required to a house, according to its size. For the red
+spider, the chief means of control is syringing with either clear or
+soapy water. If the plants are intelligently ventilated and given, at
+all times, as much fresh air as possible, the red spider is less likely
+to appear. For mildew, which is easily recognized by its white, powdery
+appearance on the foliage, accompanied with more or less distortion of
+the leaves, the remedy is sulfur in some form or other. The flowers of
+sulfur may be dusted thinly over the foliage; enough merely to slightly
+whiten the foliage is sufficient. It may be dusted on from the hand in a
+broadcast way, or applied with a powder-bellows, which is a better and
+less wasteful method. Again, a paint composed of sulfur and linseed oil
+may be applied to a portion of one of the steam or hot-water heating
+pipes. The fumes arising from this are not agreeable to breathe, but
+fatal to mildew. Again, a little sulfur may be sprinkled here and there
+on the cooler parts of the greenhouse flue. Under no circumstances,
+however, ignite any sulfur in a greenhouse. The vapor of burning sulfur
+is death to plants.
+
+[Illustration: A Hybrid Perpetual Rose]
+
+_Propagation._--The writer has known women who could root Roses with the
+greatest ease. They would simply break off a branch of the Rose, insert
+it in the flower-bed, cover it with a bell-jar, and in a few weeks they
+would have a strong plant. Again they would resort to layering; in which
+case a branch, notched half way through on the lower side, was bent to
+the ground and pegged down so that the notched portion was covered with
+a few inches of soil. The layered spot was watered from time to time.
+After three or four weeks roots were sent forth from the notch and the
+branch or buds began to grow, when it was known that the layer had
+formed roots.
+
+Several years ago a friend took a cheese-box, filled it with sharp sand
+to the brim, supported it in a tub of water so that the lower half inch
+of the box was immersed. The sand was packed down, sprinkled, and
+single-joint Rose cuttings, with a bud and a leaf near the top, were
+inserted almost their whole length in the sand. This was in July, a hot
+month, when it is usually difficult to root any kind of cutting;
+moreover, the box stood on a southern slope, facing the hot sun, without
+a particle of shade. The only attention given the box was to keep the
+water high enough in the tub to touch the bottom of the cheese-box. In
+about three weeks he took out three or four dozen of as nicely rooted
+cuttings as could have been grown in the greenhouse.
+
+[Illustration: Vase of Roses]
+
+The "saucer system," in which cuttings are inserted in wet sand
+contained in a saucer an inch or two deep, to be exposed at all times to
+the full sunshine, is of a similar nature. The essentials are, to give
+the cuttings the "full sun" and to keep the sand saturated with water.
+
+Whatever method is used, if cuttings are to be transplanted after
+rooting, it is important to pot them off in small pots as soon as they
+have a cluster of roots one-half inch or an inch long. Leaving them too
+long in the sand weakens the cutting.
+
+
+SAGE is a perennial, but best results are secured by resowing every two
+or three years. Give a warm, rich soil. Hardy.
+
+
+SALPIGLOSSIS. Very fine half-hardy annuals. The flowers, which are borne
+in profusion, are of many colors, and rival in markings most other
+annuals. The flowers are short-lived if left on the plant, but will hold
+well if cut and placed in water. Seed should be sown in heat in
+February or March, the seedlings grown along until May, when they may be
+planted out. It is usually best to pinch out the centers of the plants
+at this time to cause them to branch.
+
+
+SALSIFY, or VEGETABLE OYSTER. Salsify is one of the best of winter and
+early spring vegetables, and should be grown in every garden. It may be
+cooked in several different ways. The seed should be sown as early in
+the spring as possible. Handle the same as parsnips in every way. The
+roots, like parsnips, are the better for the winter freeze, but part of
+the crop should be dug in the fall, and stored in soil or moss in a
+cellar for winter use.
+
+[Illustration: Salsify]
+
+
+SALVIA. The SCARLET SALVIA (or SAGE) is a well known tender perennial,
+blooming late in the fall and making a fine effect in beds or borders.
+It is easily transplanted, and large plants removed to the house
+continue in bloom for some time. The blue and white species are both
+desirable summer flowering plants, and the low-growing Silver Leaf Sage
+is well adapted for edging. Propagated from seed, cuttings, or by
+division. Height 2 to 3 feet.
+
+[Illustration: Salvia coccinea]
+
+
+SAN JOSÉ SCALE has now become a wide-spread pest. It has been introduced
+into the eastern states from the Pacific slope. It is a minute scale
+insect the size of a small pinhead, shield-shaped, with a raised center.
+There are various native and comparatively harmless scales which look
+very much like it, and an expert is usually needed to distinguish them.
+The San José Scale can usually be distinguished, however, by its very
+serious results. In favorable seasons it spreads with enormous rapidity,
+covering the branches of many kinds of plants, sapping their juices, and
+either killing or reducing them to such a low state of vitality as to
+render them useless; or they are killed by the winter. The indications
+are that the scale will never be so serious in the moist, cool climates
+of the northeastern states as it is in the hotter and drier climates of
+the West. It has been found by careful experiments that it can be killed
+by a spray of kerosene and water (see _Kerosene_) in a proportion of one
+part of kerosene to four or five of water. This material is applied with
+a mechanical pump mixer, and the application should be made on a sunny
+day so that evaporation soon takes place. Spraying with kerosene in
+cloudy weather is very likely to result in injury to the plants. Some
+experimenters have found crude petroleum to be a specific for the San
+José Scale.
+
+It is not to be expected that the San José Scale can be exterminated any
+more than the tent caterpillar or apple scab can. It follows, therefore,
+that we should spray for the San José Scale as we do for other pests. It
+is such a serious pest, however, that the state or province should take
+measures to hold it in check. Some system of inspection should be
+inaugurated, and it is probably best that nursery stock be fumigated
+with hydrocyanic gas before it is sold. This gas is exceedingly
+poisonous, however, and should never be handled by the inexperienced.
+Whenever it is used, it should be under the control of experts. Plants
+or plantations which are badly infested with the scale would better be
+destroyed.
+
+
+SCABIOSA. MOURNING BRIDE. A useful annual, producing a profusion of
+bloom through the greater part of the summer if not allowed to go to
+seed. The flowers range in color from white to rich purple, are borne on
+long stems, and are very lasting. The seed may be sown where the plants
+are wanted, or to hasten the season of bloom may be sown in boxes in
+February and grown along to be planted out in April.
+
+
+SCARLET RUNNER. One of the pole or running beans (_Phaseolus
+multiflorus_). It is a great favorite with people from the Old World,
+especially English and Germans. This bean is used either as an
+ornamental vine for porches or trellises, or as a screen to hide
+unsightly objects. The red flowers are very showy, either on the plant
+or in bouquets. The green pods are excellent as string beans, and the
+dried beans are of superior quality. Seed should not be sown until the
+ground has become thoroughly warm; or the plants may be started in the
+house.
+
+
+SCRAPING of trees is rarely to be advised, except in fruit plantations.
+The old and hanging bark on apple and pear trees may be taken off in
+order to destroy the hiding places of insects and the breeding places of
+fungi, and also to make the plantation look more neat and kempt. Only
+the loose outer bark should be removed, however. Trees should not be
+scraped to the quick. If there is moss on trees, it can be destroyed
+readily by a spray of Bordeaux mixture.
+
+A large part of the beauty of an ornamental tree lies in its
+characteristic bark, and it is very rare that such trees should be
+scraped.
+
+
+SCREENS. See _Windbreak_.
+
+
+SCREW PINE. See _Pandanus_.
+
+
+SEA-KALE shoots are very highly prized as a delicacy when blanched. The
+seed should be sown in a hotbed early in the spring, plants transplanted
+to the garden when from 2 to 3 inches high, and given high cultivation
+through the season, being covered with litter on the approach of winter.
+The young stalks are blanched early the following spring by covering
+with large pots or boxes, or by banking with sand or other clean
+material. The Dwarf Green Scotch, Dwarf Brown, and Siberian are among
+the leading varieties. Sea-kale is eaten much as asparagus is. Highly
+prized by those who know it.
+
+Sea-Kale is also propagated by cuttings of the roots 4 or 5 inches
+long, planted directly in the soil in spring. The plant is perennial,
+and the early shoots may be bleached year after year.
+
+
+SEED SOWING. The general rule in sowing seeds is to cover them twice or
+three times their thickness. This rule will apply to the majority of
+seeds, but in many plants of a naturally short season of bloom or
+growth, an instance of which is the sweet pea, it may be advisable to
+sow the seed deeper, that the roots may have sufficient moisture and be
+in a cool temperature through the hot summer months. Also, in sowing
+very minute seed, as tobacco, petunia, begonia, and others of like size,
+care should be taken to have them only under the surface of the
+soil,--simply pressed down with a smooth surface or allowed to settle
+into the soil with the soaking in of the water. The soil for all seeds
+should be loose and porous, in order to allow the excessive moisture to
+escape and the warmth to penetrate, but should be firmed directly over
+the seeds to induce an upward flow of moisture. One of the most common
+mistakes in sowing seed is in sowing all kinds at the same time without
+regard to the season, thus causing a failure with some, while others
+grow freely. All tender seed should be sown only when the ground has
+become thoroughly warm, while seeds of the so-called hardy plants may be
+sown as early in the spring as the ground is fit to work. A few kinds of
+seed are the better for soaking, especially such as for some reason have
+been delayed in sowing. Sweet pea seed is benefited by soaking if not
+put into the ground until the soil is warm. Seed of canna, moonflower
+and others with hard shells may be scraped until the outer shell is
+pierced or is very thin.
+
+It is generally better to buy garden seeds than to grow them, for those
+who make a business of seed-growing become expert in the cultivation and
+selection of the plants.
+
+
+SEEDS of most plants should be kept dry and also rather cool. It is
+always better to rely upon fresh seeds. Test them in boxes in the house,
+if possible, before planting them in the open. If beans, peas, corn or
+other Seeds become buggy, pour a little bisulfide of carbon (very
+inflammable) into them. The material will not injure the Seeds even if
+poured on them. It soon evaporates. A teaspoonful will kill the insects
+in four quarts of Seeds, if the receptacle is tight.
+
+Most tree Seeds should be kept moist until planted. They are usually
+buried or kept in sand.
+
+
+SENSITIVE PLANT (_Mimosa_). This curious plant is often grown for the
+amusement it affords by its habit of closing its leaves and dropping the
+leaf-stalk whenever the plant is touched. Seed should be sown in heat
+early in the season, and the plants grown in pots or a protected border.
+The seed is sold by all seedsmen. The plant grows readily in a
+temperature suited to beans. It will not stand frost. The young plants
+are usually the most sensitive.
+
+
+SHADE TREES. The best Shade Trees are usually those which are native to
+the particular region, since they are hardy and adapted to the soil and
+other conditions. Elms, maples, basswoods, and the like, are nearly
+always reliable. In regions in which there are serious insect enemies or
+fungous diseases, the trees which are most likely to be attacked may be
+omitted. For instance, in parts of the East the elm leaf beetle is a
+very serious pest; and it is a good plan in such places to plant other
+trees than elms. Amongst the best exotic trees for shade in the northern
+parts of the country are the Norway maple, European lindens, horse
+chestnut, and the European species of elm. Trees for shade should
+ordinarily be given sufficient room that they may develop into full size
+and symmetrical heads. The trees may be planted as close as 10 or 15
+feet apart for temporary effect; but as soon as they begin to crowd they
+should be thinned.
+
+
+SHELTER-BELTS. See _Windbreak_.
+
+
+SHRUBBERY. Shrubs have two kinds of values or uses: first, they are
+useful for their own sakes or as individual specimens; and second, for
+use in the making of foliage masses or groups. Ordinarily they are used
+only for the former purpose in home grounds; but their greatest use is,
+nevertheless, in heavy masses about the borders of the place or in the
+angles of the building. That is to say, they should contribute to the
+general design of the place or to its pictorial effect. If they are
+planted in Shrubberies or masses, the flowers are still as interesting
+and as showy as they are when the bushes are planted alone. In fact, the
+flowers usually show to better advantage, since they have a heavy
+background of foliage. In the Shrubbery mass the bushes are more easily
+cared for than when they are scattered as single specimens over the
+lawn. The single specimen which is irregular, or ragged, or untidy, is
+an undesirable object; but such a specimen may contribute an
+indispensable part to the border mass. In the border they do not need
+the attention to pruning that they do in the lawn. The main part of the
+Shrubbery mass should be made of the stronger, larger growing and
+coarser Shrubs; and the more delicate ones, or those with highly colored
+leaves or showy flowers, may be placed near the inner edge of the
+plantation. Shrubs which are valued chiefly for their flowers or showy
+foliage, as, for example, the _Hydrangea paniculata_, may be planted
+just in front of a bold Shrubbery mass, so that they will have a
+background to show off their beauties. Further directions for the
+lay-out of the grounds will be found under the articles _Lawns_ and
+_Borders_.
+
+It is ordinarily best to plow or spade the entire area in which the
+Shrubs are to be set. For a year or two the ground should be tilled
+between the Shrubs, either by horse tools or by hoes and rakes. If the
+place looks bare, seeds of quick-growing flowers may be scattered about
+the edges of the mass. The larger Shrubs, like lilacs and syringas, may
+be set about 4 feet apart; but the smaller ones should be set about, 2
+feet apart if it is desired to secure an immediate effect. If after a
+few years the mass becomes too crowded, some of the specimens may be
+removed. Throw the Shrubs into an irregular plantation, not in rows, and
+make the inner edge of the mass more or less undulating and broken. It
+is a good practice to mulch the plantation each fall with light manure,
+leaf-mold or other material. Even though the Shrubs are perfectly hardy,
+this mulch greatly improves the land and promotes growth. After the
+Shrub borders have become two or three years old, the drifting leaves of
+fall will be caught therein and will be held as a mulch. It is often
+advisable not to remove these leaves, but to allow them to remain year
+after year, where they make a fine covering of leaf-mold. When the
+Shrubs are first planted, they are headed back one-half or more; but
+after they are established they are not to be pruned, but allowed to
+take their own way, and after a few years the outermost ones will droop
+and meet the greensward.
+
+Good Shrubs are numerous. Some of the best are those to be found in
+woods and along roadsides. They are hardy. Of Shrubs which are generally
+adaptable for the North, the following are excellent:
+
+  Barberries.
+  Box.
+  Burning Bush, or Euonymus.
+  Bush Honeysuckles.
+  Bush Willows.
+  Caryopteris, blooming in August and September.
+  Cotoneasters.
+  Desmodiums, or Lespedezas, blooming in fall.
+  Dwarf Sumac. _Rhus copallina._
+  Elders. Native species are excellent.
+  Exochorda, with profuse white bloom in spring.
+  Flowering Almond.
+  Flowering Crabs.
+  Flowering Currants.
+  Forsythias, or Golden Bells.
+  Fringe Tree, or Chionanthus.
+  Hawthorns.
+  Hydrangeas.
+  Indian Currant. _Symphoricarpos vulgaris._
+  Japanese Quince.
+  Kerria, or Corchorus.
+  Lilacs.
+  Mock Orange, or Philadelphus.
+  New Jersey Tea, or Ceanothus.
+  Osiers, or Dogwoods.
+  Privet.
+  Rose Acacia.
+  Roses (see _Roses_).
+  Smoke Tree.
+  Snowballs. The Japanese is preferable.
+  Snowberry. _Symphoricarpos racemosus._
+  Spireas of many kinds.
+  Viburnums of many kinds.
+  Weigelas.
+  White Alder. _Clethra alnifolia._
+  Witch Hazel. Blooms on the eve of winter.
+  Xanthoceras sorbifolia.
+
+
+SILENE, or CATCHFLY. Some of the Silenes are hardy annuals of very easy
+culture. Sow seeds where the plants are to stand; or, if early results
+are desired, seeds may be started in boxes. The plants thrive in any
+garden soil, even if it is not very rich. Colors red, or sometimes
+running to white. One foot. Let plants stand 6 to 10 inches apart.
+
+
+SMILAX of the florists is closely allied to asparagus. While it cannot
+be recommended for house culture, the ease with which it may be grown
+and the uses to which the festoons of leaves may be put, entitle it to a
+place in the conservatory or greenhouse. Seed sown in pots or boxes in
+January or February, the plants shifted as needed until planted on the
+bench in August, will grow fine strings of green by the holidays. The
+plants should be set on low benches, giving as much room as possible
+overhead. Green-colored strings should be used for the vines to climb
+on, the vines frequently syringed to keep down the red spider, which is
+very destructive to this plant, and liquid manure given as the vines
+grow. The soil should contain a good proportion of sand and be enriched
+with well-rotted manure. After the first strings are cut, a second
+growth fully as good as the first may be had by cleaning up the plants
+and top-dressing the soil with rotted manure. Slightly shading the house
+through August will add to the color of the leaves. The odor from a vine
+of Smilax thickly covered with the small flowers is very agreeable.
+
+
+SNAPDRAGON, or ANTIRRHINUM. An old garden favorite, flowering freely
+through a long season. The dwarf strain is well adapted for bedding or
+borders. Any light soil, well enriched with rotted manure, will grow
+Snapdragons to perfection. Distinct varieties should be propagated by
+cuttings, as they do not come true from seed. Sow seed early in the
+spring.
+
+Although bloom may be obtained the first year, late sown plants
+sometimes persist over winter and bloom early in the spring. Snapdragons
+make good window plants.
+
+
+SNOWDROP (_Galanthus_). This is one of the earliest flowers of spring,
+always welcome. It should be planted in the edge of the border. The
+bulbs may be planted in October in any good border soil and left
+undisturbed for years; or they may be potted at that time, and after
+forming roots be gently forced into bloom in winter.
+
+
+SNOWFLAKE (_Leucoium_). Culture same as for _Snowdrop_.
+
+
+SODDING. In general, the best way to secure a lawn is by the sowing of
+seed (see _Lawn_), since it is the least expensive way. For small areas,
+and along the sides of walks and drives, sods may be used. The results
+are quicker. Unless the sod is of the right kind, however, and very
+carefully laid, the results are not so good as with seed.
+
+[Illustration: Sod-cutter, for trimming sod edgings]
+
+The sod which is best adapted to the Sodding of lawns is that which
+comes from an old, closely grazed pasture. Sod from a sheep pasture is
+supposed to be best. Such sod has been so closely grazed that it has
+made a very dense mat of roots, and all the weeds have been destroyed.
+The droppings of the animals also make the ground rich. The sod should
+be cut in very thin strips. It should not be more than an inch and
+one-half or two inches in thickness. If it is thicker than that, it is
+heavy and bulky to handle, and is not so easily laid. Ordinarily, the
+sod is cut in strips ten inches or a foot wide. A board is laid on the
+sod and the strip is cut along either side of it with a sod cutter or a
+sharp spade. Two men then roll up the sod. One stands on the strip of
+sod with his face toward the man who, with the spade, cuts it loose
+beneath. As it is cut loose, the man on the strip rolls the sod so that
+the upper surface is on the inside of the roll. Strips longer than ten
+or twelve feet make rolls which are too heavy to handle with ease.
+
+[Illustration: Cutting sod]
+
+The soil upon which the sod is to be placed should be very loose, so
+that the sod, can be pounded down firmly. Some heavy pounder should be
+used, as a block of wood. It is usually impossible to pound down sod
+with the back of a spade sufficiently firm unless the soil is very
+loose. The sod should be pounded until the top is about level with the
+surrounding soil. This insures contact with the soil beneath, so that
+there are no air spaces and no likelihood of drying out. Sod pounded
+down as firmly as this should grow very readily. If a sod edging is
+laid along walks and drives, it should be pounded down an inch or more
+lower than the surrounding loose land which is seeded, because the loose
+land will finally settle; otherwise the sod border is likely to be
+higher than adjacent land after a year or two.
+
+If there are uneven places on the sodded area, these depressions can be
+filled in with very loose, fine soil; and the grass will grow through
+it. In dry weather, a sodded area may be mulched with a half inch of
+fine loam to protect it.
+
+
+SOILS. Soils are of many kinds. The classification of soils depends upon
+one's point of view. Gardeners ordinarily call a good, friable,
+dark-colored, rich Soil a garden loam. No Soil is so good that it cannot
+be improved. It is improved in two general ways: by tilling (see
+_Tillage_), and by the application of various substances.
+
+In considering the improvement of lands by the application of foreign
+substances, two distinct things are to be considered: the improvement of
+the physical texture, or tilth, of the Soil; the increasing of its
+plant-food. These are coördinate objects. In some cases one may be of
+prime importance, and in another case the other may be more necessary.
+Lands which have a fair store of available plant-food may be
+unproductive. Such lands may be very greatly benefited by stable manure,
+even though that manure may have lost a large part of fertility by being
+baptized under the eaves of the barn. If plant-food alone is needed,
+then some concentrated or commercial fertilizer may be the best thing to
+apply. In most cases the main or chief amelioration of the land is to be
+wrought by tillage, stable manures, mulches, green crops, and the like;
+if special results are desired, commercial fertilizers may be added more
+or less liberally, as the case demands (see _Manures_, _Fertilizers_).
+
+The top-dressing of Soils is often very beneficial because it tends to
+prevent the escape of moisture, and often improves the physical texture.
+If the material contains plant-food, the land will also be directly
+enriched. The trimmings from lawns may be a distinct protection to
+lands if allowed to remain (see _Lawns_); and the leaves which blow into
+clumps of shrubbery may often be allowed to remain with good results.
+However, if the leaves become too thick year after year, they tend to
+induce a surface rooting of the shrubs. This, however, may be no
+disadvantage unless the mulch were finally to be removed. One of the
+very best top-dressings for borders and shrubbery is spent tan bark,
+since it does not pile up on the ground, but tends to work into it.
+Well-rotted sawdust often has the same effect. These materials are much
+used by gardeners, when they can be had, since they can be raked into
+the soil in the spring, and need not be removed.
+
+
+SOLIDAGO. See _Goldenrod_.
+
+
+[Illustration: Spade]
+
+[Illustration: Shovel]
+
+SPADES and SHOVELS must be a part of every garden equipment. The common
+and most useful forms are shown in the cuts, but long-handled tools are
+more useful for the loading of earth, the making of ditches, the
+spreading of mulches, and the like. It pays to buy the steel tools, with
+strongly strapped handles.
+
+
+SPEARMINT is prized by many people as a seasoning, particularly for the
+Thanksgiving and holiday cookery. It is a perennial and perfectly hardy,
+and will live in the open garden year after year. If a supply of the
+fresh herbage is wanted in winter, remove sods of it to the house six
+weeks before wanted. Place the sods in boxes, and treat as for house
+plants. The plants should have been frosted and become perfectly dormant
+before removal.
+
+
+SPINACH. Probably the most extensively grown early spring vegetable,
+being in great demand as greens. The earliest crop that finds its way to
+market is gathered from seed sown in September or October, often
+protected by frames or other means through the severe winter, and cut
+soon after growth starts in early spring. Even as far north as New York
+Spinach may stand over winter without protection. Spinach is forced by
+placing sash over the frames in February and March, protecting the young
+leaves from severe freezing by mats or straw thrown over the frames.
+Seed may be sown in early spring for a succession; later in the season
+seed of the New Zealand Summer Spinach may be sown, and this will grow
+through the heat of the summer and yield a fine quality of leaves. The
+seed of this kind being very hard, should be scalded and allowed to soak
+a few hours before sowing. This seed is usually sown in hills about
+three feet apart, sowing four to six seeds in each hill. The spring and
+winter Spinach should be sown in drills 12 to 14 inches apart, one ounce
+being sufficient for 100 feet of drill. Remember that common Spinach is
+a cool-weather (fall and spring) crop.
+
+
+SPRAYING. Of late years Spraying has come to be one of the most
+important of all horticultural operations. Most kinds of injurious fungi
+and insects can be combated by a water spray in which various poisons or
+injurious substances are contained. There are two general classes of
+Spraying material: first, fungicides, or those which are used for the
+control of fungi or plant diseases; second, insecticides, or those which
+are used for the control of insect enemies.
+
+The fungicides usually contain copper or sulfur, or both. The most
+popular and generally useful fungicide is the Bordeaux mixture (which
+see). It should be borne in mind that most injurious fungi work on the
+interior of the leaf or stem, and only the spore-bearing parts come to
+the surface. It is therefore very important that Spraying with
+fungicides be done very early in order to prevent the fungus from
+getting a hold. It is much better to Spray once very thoroughly than to
+Spray a half dozen times carelessly. It is important that the entire
+surface of the foliage or stems be covered with the material in order to
+prevent the access of the fungi.
+
+Of insecticides, there are two general types: those which kill by
+external contact and are applied to plant lice, scale insects, and all
+other insects which suck their food; and the poisonous compounds which
+are used for the chewing insects, as all the tribes of worms and
+beetles. Of the former class, the most important material is kerosene in
+various forms (which see). Of the latter kind is Paris green (which
+see). For insects, Spray just as soon as the attack is evident. Paris
+green and Bordeaux mixture may be used together.
+
+The best pump for Spraying is the one which throws the stream the
+greatest distance with the least amount of liquid, and the best nozzle
+is that which distributes the material most finely and evenly. For
+Spraying plants close at hand, the Vermorel nozzle is now the most
+popular. If it is desired to reach the tops of large trees, some other
+nozzle should be used, as the McGowen, Boss, or other types. Every
+outfit should have two or three kinds of nozzles for different kinds of
+work. Get a pump with much power.
+
+Spray thoroughly. The general rule is to spray the entire plant until
+the material begins to drip, at which time it may be supposed that the
+plant is covered completely. When and how often one should Spray, and
+what material he should use, will depend entirely upon the difficulty
+which he is endeavoring to combat. Most fruit trees should be Sprayed
+before they bloom and again just afterwards. Sometimes they will need
+Spraying again.
+
+
+SPREKELIA. Culture of _Amaryllis_.
+
+
+SQUASH. The time of planting, method of preparing the hills and after
+culture are the same as for cucumbers and melons (which see), except
+that for the Early Bush varieties the hills should be 4 or 5 feet apart,
+and for the later running varieties from 6 to 8 feet apart. From eight
+to ten seeds should be planted in each hill, thinning to four plants
+after danger from bugs is over. Of the early Squashes, one ounce of seed
+will plant fifty hills; of the later varieties, one ounce will plant but
+eighteen to twenty hills. For winter use, varieties of the Hubbard type
+are best. For summer use, the Crooknecks and Scallop Squashes are
+popular. In growing winter Squashes in a northern climate, it is
+essential that the plants start off quickly and vigorously: a little
+chemical fertilizer will help. Pumpkins are grown the same as Squashes.
+
+[Illustration: Hubbard Squash]
+
+[Illustration: Scallop or Patty-pan Summer Squash]
+
+
+SQUILLS (_Scilla_). BLUE BELL. WILD HYACINTH. Well-known bulbous plants,
+most of them hardy. They plant well with snowdrops and crocus, flowering
+at the same time, but continuing longer in bloom. The colors are red,
+pink, blue or white. The blue varieties have very fine shades of color.
+Should be planted in October and remain undisturbed.
+
+
+STOCKS. The Ten-weeks and the biennial or Brompton Stocks, are found in
+nearly all old-fashioned gardens. Most gardens are thought to be
+incomplete without Stocks, and the use of the biennial flowering species
+as house plants is increasing. The Ten-weeks Stock is usually grown from
+seed sown in hotbed or boxes in March. The seedlings are transplanted
+several times previous to being planted out in early May. At each
+transplanting the soil should be made a little richer. The double
+flowers will be more numerous when the soil is rich.
+
+The biennial species should be sown the season previous to that in which
+flowers are wanted, the plants wintered over in a cool house, and grown
+on the following spring. They may be planted out through the summer and
+lifted into pots in August or September for winter flowering. These may
+be increased by cuttings taken from the side shoots; but the sowing of
+seed is a surer method, and unless an extra fine variety is to be saved,
+it would be the best one to pursue. Height 10 to 15 inches.
+
+
+STORING. The principles which are involved in the Storing of perishable
+products, as fruits and vegetables, differ with the different
+commodities. All the root crops, and most fruits, need to be kept in a
+cool, moist and uniform temperature if they are to be preserved a great
+length of time. Squashes, sweet potatoes, and some other things, need to
+be kept in an intermediate and what might be called a high temperature;
+and the atmosphere should be drier than for most other products. The low
+temperature has the effect of arresting decomposition and the work of
+fungi and bacteria. The moist atmosphere has the effect of preventing
+too great evaporation and the consequent shriveling. In the Storing of
+any commodity, it is very important to see that the product is in proper
+condition for keeping. Discard all specimens which are bruised or which
+are likely to decay. Much of the decay of fruits and vegetables in
+Storage is not the fault of the Storage, but is really the work of
+diseases with which the materials are infested before they are put into
+Storage. For example, if potatoes and cabbages are affected with the
+rot, it is practically impossible to keep them any length of time.
+
+Apples, winter pears, and all roots, should be kept at a temperature
+somewhat near the freezing point. It should not raise above 40° Fahr.
+for best results. Apples can even be kept at one or two degrees below
+the freezing point if the temperature is kept uniform. Cellars in which
+there are heaters are likely to be too dry and the temperature too
+high. In such cases it is well to keep fresh vegetables and fruits in
+tight receptacles, and pack the roots in sand or moss in order to
+prevent shriveling. In these places, apples usually keep better if
+headed up in barrels than if kept on racks or shelves. In moist and cool
+cellars, however, it is preferable for the home supply to place them on
+shelves, not piling them more than five or six inches deep, for then
+they can be sorted over as occasion requires. In case of fruits, be sure
+that the specimens are not over-ripe when placed in storage. If apples
+are allowed to lie in the sun for a few days without being packed, they
+will ripen so much that it is very difficult to keep them.
+
+[Illustration: A good out-door cellar]
+
+Cabbages should be kept at a low and uniform temperature, and water
+should be drained away from them. They are Stored in many ways in the
+field, but success depends so much upon the season, particular variety,
+ripeness, and the freedom from injuries by fungi and insects, that
+uniform results are rarely secured by any method. The best results are
+to be expected when they can be kept in a house which is built for the
+purpose, in which the temperature can be kept uniform and the air fairly
+moist. When Stored out of doors, they are likely to freeze and thaw
+alternately; and if the water runs into the heads, mischief is likely to
+result. Sometimes they are easily Stored by being piled into a conical
+heap on well-drained soil and covered with dry straw, and the straw
+covered with boards. It does not matter if they are frosted, provided
+they do not thaw out frequently. Sometimes cabbages are laid head down
+in a shallow furrow plowed in well-drained land, and over them is thrown
+straw, the stumps being allowed to project through the cover. It is only
+in winters of rather uniform temperature that good results are to be
+expected from such methods.
+
+In the Storing of all things, especially those which have soft and green
+matter, as cabbages, it is well to provide for the heating of the
+produce. If the things are buried out of doors, it is important to put
+on a very light cover at first so that the heat may escape. Cover them
+gradually as the cold weather comes on. This is important with all
+vegetables that are placed in pits, as potatoes, beets and the like. If
+covered deeply at once, they are likely to heat and rot. All pits made
+out of doors should be on well-drained and preferably sandy land.
+
+When vegetables are wanted at intervals during the winter from pits, it
+is well to make compartment pits, each compartment holding a wagon load
+or whatever quantity will be likely to be wanted at each time. These
+pits are sunk in well-drained land, and between each of the two pits is
+left a wall of earth about a foot thick. One pit can then be emptied in
+cold weather without interfering with the others.
+
+An outside cellar is better than a house cellar in which there is a
+heater, but it is not so handy. If it is near the house, it need not be
+inconvenient, however. A house is usually healthier if the cellar is not
+used for storage. House cellars used for storage should have a
+ventilating shaft.
+
+
+[Illustration: Strawberries]
+
+STRAWBERRY. The saying that Strawberries will grow on almost any soil is
+misleading, although true. Some varieties of Strawberries will grow on
+certain soils better than other varieties. What these varieties are can
+only be determined by an actual test, but it is a safe rule to select
+such varieties as prove good in many localities. As to the methods of
+culture, so much depends on the size of the plot, the purpose for which
+the fruit is wanted, and the amount of care one is willing to give, that
+no set rule can be given for a garden in which but few plants are grown
+and extra care can be given. Large fruits and a number of them may be
+had by growing to the single plant, keeping off all runners and relying
+on numerous fruit-crowns on one plant for the crop of berries. Or
+Strawberries may be grown by the narrow matted-row system, in which the
+runners, before rooting, should be turned along the rows at a distance
+of from 4 to 6 inches from the parent plant. These runners should be the
+first ones made by the plant and should not be allowed to root
+themselves, but "set in." This is not a difficult operation; and if the
+runners are separated from the parent plant as soon as they become well
+established, the drain on that plant is not great. All other runners
+should be cut off as they start. The row should be about 12 inches wide
+at fruiting time. Each plant should have sufficient feeding ground, full
+sunlight, and a firm hold in the soil. This matted-row system is perhaps
+as good a method, either in a private garden or field culture, as could
+be practiced. With a little care in hoeing, weeding and cutting off
+runners, the beds seem to produce as large crops the second year as the
+first.
+
+[Illustration: Well planted Strawberry]
+
+The old way of growing a crop was to set the plants 10 to 12 inches
+apart, in rows 3 feet apart, and allow them to run and root at will, the
+results being a mass of small, crowded plants, each striving to obtain
+plant-food and none of them succeeding in getting enough. The last, or
+outside runners, having but the tips of their roots in the ground, are
+moved by the wind, heaved by the frost, or have the exposed roots dried
+out by the wind and sun.
+
+[Illustration: Pot-grown Strawberry]
+
+Ground rich in potash produces the firmest and best flavored berries.
+Excessive use of stable manure, usually rich in nitrogen, should be
+avoided, as tending to make too rank growth of foliage and berries of a
+soft texture.
+
+Except in the case of a skillful grower in a favored locality, the fall
+setting of plants is not to be recommended. The preparation of the soil
+and care of the plants more than overbalance the partial crop obtained
+the following spring.
+
+In the single-plant or hill system the plants should be set 12 inches
+apart, in rows 3 feet apart. In the narrow matted row system the plants
+should be set 18 inches apart, in rows 3½ feet apart. The first method
+requires about 14,000 plants per acre, the second about 8,000 plants.
+
+The winter treatment of a Strawberry bed should consist in covering the
+plants, when the ground is frozen, in November or December, with straw
+or hay. Salt marsh hay, if obtainable, is the best, as no weed seeds are
+introduced. Cover the soil and the plants to the depth of 3 to 6 inches.
+As soon as growth begins in spring, rake the mulch off, allowing it to
+lie between the rows; or, if the soil is hard or weedy, it may be taken
+off the patch entirely, the ground tilled, and then replaced for the
+purpose of holding moisture and keeping the berries clean.
+
+Usually, Strawberries may be fruited twice or three times; but on rich
+soil, with extra good care, the first crop may be very heavy, and the
+patch may be plowed up thereafter. Some varieties do not produce pollen,
+and not more than two rows of these should be planted without a row of a
+pollen-bearing kind.
+
+The rust and mildew may be held in check by Bordeaux mixture. It is
+usually sufficient to spray after the blooming season (or at any time
+the first year the plants are set), in order to secure healthy foliage
+for the next year.
+
+
+SUNFLOWER (_Helianthus_). People who know only the coarse annual
+Sunflower are not aware of the beauty which it is possible to secure
+with the herbaceous perennials belonging to that family. No border
+should be without a few of the hardy species. Their blooming period
+extends from early in August until heavy frost. The color runs from
+light lemon to the richest orange, and the range of growth from 3 to 10
+feet, thus enabling one to scatter them through the border without any
+formal arrangement. They are of the easiest culture. Plants may be dug
+in the wild or bought of nurserymen. The domesticated double _Helianthus
+multiflorus_ is always valuable.
+
+[Illustration: Double Sunflower]
+
+[Illustration: Orgyalis Sunflower]
+
+[Illustration: Wild Sunflower Plant]
+
+Of the annual Sunflowers, there are some which are not generally
+cultivated that should receive more attention. The silver-leaved species
+from Texas (_H. argophyllus_), and the small, light lemon-yellow
+variety, are two of the best.
+
+[Illustration: Wild Sunflower]
+
+
+SWAINSONA. This makes a very desirable house plant, blooming through the
+late winter and early spring months. The blossoms, which resemble those
+of the pea, are borne in long racemes. The foliage is finely cut,
+resembling small locust leaves, and adds to the beauty of the plant, the
+whole effect being exceedingly graceful. It may be grown from seed or
+cuttings. Propagate a new stock each year. The flowers are large and
+pure white. The plant has been called the "Winter Sweet Pea," but the
+flowers are not fragrant.
+
+
+SWAN RIVER DAISY (_Brachycome iberidifolia_) is a charming little border
+plant, growing to the height of 12 to 15 inches, and bearing quantities
+of blue or white flowers. The flowers last a long time when cut, and
+give a vase of flowers a light, graceful effect. The seed should be sown
+in boxes, hotbed, or windows; or, in warm garden soil, the seed may be
+sown where the plants are to stand. Only half hardy, and should not be
+planted out until settled weather. Annual.
+
+
+SWEET CORN. See _Corn_.
+
+
+SWEET HERBS. The Herb garden should find a place on all amateurs'
+grounds. Herbs may readily be made profitable by disposing of the
+surplus to the green grocer and the druggist. The latter will often buy
+all that the housewife wishes to dispose of, as the general supply of
+medicinal herbs is grown by specialists, and goes into the hands of the
+wholesaler and is often old when received by the local dealer. The
+seedsmen's catalogues mention upwards of forty different Herbs,
+medicinal and culinary. The majority of them are perennial, and will
+grow for many years if well taken care of. However, it is better to
+resow every three or four years. The annual kinds are raised from seeds
+each year. Beds 4 feet square of each of the Herbs will supply an
+ordinary family.
+
+
+SWEET PEA. No annual receives greater attention these days than the
+Sweet Pea. Sweet Pea exhibitions are held in several sections of the
+country, the press gives considerable space to the discussion of
+varieties, and the public generally is interested in the growing or
+buying of the flower. On any occasion the Sweet Pea is in place. A
+bouquet of shaded colors, with a few sprays of galium or the perennial
+gypsophila, makes one of the choicest of table decorations. Deep, mellow
+soil, early planting and heavy mulching suit them admirably. Sow the
+seeds as soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring, making a drill
+5 inches deep. Sow thickly and cover with 2 inches of soil. When the
+plants have made 2 or 3 inches growth above the soil, fill the drill
+nearly full, leaving a slight depression in which water may be caught.
+After the soil is thoroughly soaked with water, a good mulch will hold
+the moisture. To have the ground ready in early spring, it is a good
+plan to trench the soil in the fall. The top of the soil then dries out
+very quickly in the spring and is left in good physical condition.
+Frequent syringing with clear water will keep off the red spider that
+often destroys the foliage, and attention to picking the seed pods will
+lengthen the season of bloom. If the finest flowers are wanted, do not
+let the plants stand less than 8-12 inches apart.
+
+[Illustration: Sweet Pea]
+
+A succession of sowings may be made at intervals through May and June,
+and a fair fall crop obtained if care is taken to water and mulch; but
+the best results will be secured with the very early planting. In the
+middle and southern states, the seed may be planted in fall,
+particularly in lighter soils. It is easy to get soils too rich in
+nitrogen for Sweet Peas; in such case, they will run to vine at the
+expense of flowers. If the plants are watered, apply enough to soak the
+soil, and do not water frequently.
+
+
+SWEET POTATOES are grown from sprouts planted on ridges or hills, not by
+planting the tubers, as with the common or Irish potato. The method of
+obtaining these sprouts is as follows: In April, tubers of Sweet
+Potatoes are planted in a partially spent hotbed by using the whole
+tuber (or if a large one, by cutting it in two through the long way),
+covering the tubers with 2 inches of light, well firmed soil. The sash
+should be put on the frames and only enough ventilation given to keep
+the Potatoes from decaying. In ten or twelve days the young sprouts
+should begin to appear, and the bed should be watered if dry. The
+sprouts when pulled from the tuber will be found to have rootlets at the
+lower end and along the stems. These sprouts should be about 3 to 5
+inches long by the time the ground is warm enough to plant them out. The
+ridges or hills should be prepared by plowing out a furrow 4 to 6
+inches deep. Scatter manure in the furrow and plow back the soil so as
+to raise the center at least 6 inches above the level of the soil. On
+this ridge the plants are set, placing the plants well in to the leaves,
+and about 12 to 18 inches apart in the rows, the rows being from 3 to 4
+feet apart. The after cultivation consists in stirring the soil between
+the ridges; and as the vines begin to run they should be lifted
+frequently to prevent rooting at the joints. When the tips of the vines
+have been touched by frost the crop may be harvested, the tubers left to
+dry a few days, and stored in a dry, warm place. To keep Sweet Potatoes,
+store in layers in barrels or boxes in dry sand, and keep them in a dry
+room. See that all bruised or chilled potatoes are thrown out.
+
+
+SYRINGING plants with water has two general offices: to clean the plants
+of pests or of dirt; to check evaporation or transpiration from the
+plant itself.
+
+Gardeners look upon water as a good insecticide. That is, if it can be
+thrown upon the plants somewhat forcibly by means of a syringe or pump,
+or by the hydrant hose, it will wash off the insects and drown many of
+them. The water should be applied in a fine and somewhat forcible spray.
+Care should be taken that the plant is not torn or bruised. The red
+spider is one of the most serious pests on house plants, and, in a dry
+season, on plants about the lawn. It thrives in a dry atmosphere. It
+usually lives on the under sides of the leaves. Syringing the plants
+frequently will destroy the pests. The thrips and slugs on rose bushes
+can nearly always be kept in check if one can spray or syringe his
+plants frequently. See _Spraying_.
+
+Syringing to check transpiration from the foliage is very useful with
+plants which are recently transplanted. For instance, when carnations
+are taken from the field and placed in the house, it is well to syringe
+them occasionally until they have become established. The same is true
+with cuttings.
+
+In Syringing plants, it is well to take care that the ground does not
+become too wet; otherwise the plant may suffer at its root. In the
+house, plants should rarely be syringed except when the weather is
+bright, so that they may soon dry off. The plant should not go into the
+night with wet foliage. Out of doors in hot weather, it is best to
+syringe toward nightfall. The foliage will ordinarily not suffer in such
+cases. With plants in the house, it is necessary to keep the leaves dry
+most of the time in order that fungi may not breed. This is true of
+carnations, which are very liable to attacks of the rust.
+
+Plants are sometimes syringed or sprayed to protect them from frost. See
+_Frost_.
+
+
+TERRACES may be desirable for two reasons: to hold a very steep slope;
+to afford an architectural base for a building.
+
+It is rarely necessary to make a distinct Terrace in the lawn. Even if
+the lawn is very steep, it may be better to make a gradual slope than to
+cut the place in two with a Terrace. A Terrace makes a place look
+smaller. It is always difficult to make and to keep in repair. The
+surface is not readily cut with a lawn mower. Unless the sod is very
+dense, the upper corner tends to wash off with the rains and the foot
+tends to fill in. Nature does not have straight banks unless they are
+rock. The illustration in the margin shows how it is possible to treat a
+sloping lawn. In the distance is a distinct, sharp-angled Terrace; but
+in the foreground this Terrace has been carried out into the lawn, so
+that the slope is an agreeable one.
+
+[Illustration: A slope is better than a terrace]
+
+If it is necessary to Terrace a yard in order to hold it, the Terrace
+would better be at one side rather than in the middle. In that case, one
+is able to secure a good breadth of lawn. If the Terrace is at the
+outer side next the street, a perpendicular, mason-work, retaining wall
+may be constructed. If it is on the inner side of the lawn, it may be
+placed close to the building and be made to appear as a part of the
+architecture: it may be made the base of the building. If this is done,
+there should be a balustrade around the edge of the Terrace to give it
+architectural feeling. The descent from the Terrace to the lawn may be
+made by means of steps, so as to add to the architectural aspect of the
+place. Terraces are most in place about buildings which have many strong
+horizontal lines; they do not lend themselves so well to buildings in
+the Gothic style. The general tendency is to make too many Terraces. The
+cases are relatively few in which they may not be dispensed with.
+
+
+THINNING of fruit has four general uses: to cause the remaining fruit to
+grow larger; to increase the chances of annual crops; to save the
+vitality of the tree; to enable one to combat insects and diseases by
+destroying the injured fruit.
+
+The Thinning of fruit is nearly always done soon after the fruit is
+thoroughly set. It is then possible to determine which of the fruits are
+likely to persist. Peaches are usually Thinned when they are the size of
+one's thumb. If Thinned before this time, they are so small that it is
+difficult to pick them off; and it is not so easy to see the work of the
+curculio and thereby to select the injured fruits. Similar remarks will
+apply to other fruits. The general tendency is, even with those who Thin
+their fruits, not to Thin enough. It is usually safer to take off what
+would seem to be too many than not to take off enough. The remaining
+specimens are better. Varieties which tend to overbear profit very
+greatly by Thinning. This is notably the case with many Japanese plums,
+which, if not Thinned, are very inferior.
+
+Thinning may also be accomplished by pruning. If one knows where the
+fruit buds are, cutting them off will have the effect of removing the
+fruit. In the case of tender fruits, like peaches, however, it may not
+be advisable to Thin very heavily by means of pruning, since the fruit
+may be still further Thinned by the remaining days of winter, by late
+spring frost, or by the leaf-curl or other disease. However, the proper
+pruning of a peach tree in winter is, in part, a Thinning of the fruit.
+The peach is borne on the wood of the previous season's growth. The best
+fruits are to be expected on the strongest and heaviest growth. It is
+the practice of peach-growers to remove all the weak and immature wood
+from the inside of the tree. This has the effect of Thinning out the
+inferior fruit and allowing the energy of the tree to be expended on the
+remainder. Apples are rarely Thinned; but in many cases, Thinning can be
+done with profit. On all home grounds, fruits should be Thinned whenever
+the trees are very full. In general, the best time to thin the fruit, as
+already said, is when the fruits have become large enough to be seen and
+handled. The discarded fruits should be burned if they contain insects
+or fungi.
+
+
+THUNBERGIA. Tender climbers, making very pretty low screens. They are at
+their best when grown along the ground where the moisture keeps them
+free from the attacks of red spider. Some of the kinds are very fine
+vase or basket plants. All may be grown easily from seed. Annuals, 4 to
+6 feet. Flowers white and yellow.
+
+[Illustration: Thunbergia alata]
+
+
+TILLAGE. By Tillage is meant the stirring of the soil. Tillage is the
+fundamental operation in agricultural practice. Most farmers till for
+three reasons: to get the seed into the land; to keep the weeds down;
+and to get the crop out of the land. The real reason for Tillage,
+however, is to ameliorate the land; that is, Tillage makes the soil
+mellow and fine, and an agreeable place in which plants may grow. It
+enables the soil to hold moisture, to present the greatest feeding
+surface to roots, to allow the circulation of air, and intensifies many
+chemical activities. Tilling the soil is the first means of making it
+productive. If one understands the many forces that are set at work, the
+Tilling of the soil becomes one of the most interesting and exciting of
+all agricultural operations.
+
+[Illustration: For hand Tilling]
+
+The exact method of Tilling the soil in any particular case must be
+determined by many circumstances. Light soils are handled differently
+from heavy soils; and much depends also upon the season of the year in
+which the Tillage is done. In all ordinary soils, the effort should be
+made to work them deep, so that there is a deep reservoir for the
+storage of moisture and a large area in which roots can work. Subsequent
+Tillage throughout the growing season is performed very largely for the
+purpose of keeping the top of the soil loose and fine so that the
+moisture from beneath cannot pass off into the atmosphere. This loose
+layer of soil, extending two or three inches from the surface, may
+itself be very dry; but it breaks up the capillary connection between
+the lower soil and the air, and thereby prevents evaporation. This
+surface layer of loose, mellow soil is often spoken of as the
+earth-mulch. It answers much the same purpose as a mulch of straw or
+leaves in interposing a material between the moist soil and the air
+through which the moisture cannot rise. If this mulch is repaired as
+often as it should be, weeds cannot grow; but the object of the Tilling
+is more to make and maintain the mulch than to destroy weeds. The
+surface should be Tilled shallow in the growing season as often as it
+tends to become compact or encrusted. This will be after every rain, and
+usually as often as once in ten days when there is no rain. The tools to
+be used for this surface Tillage are those which will comminute or fine
+the soil most completely without compacting it or leaving it in ridges
+or in furrows. In garden work, a fine rake is the ideal thing; whereas
+in field work, some of the wire-tooth weeders or smoothing harrows are
+excellent. In fields which are hard and lumpy, however, it will be
+necessary to use heavier and rougher tools.
+
+[Illustration: Steel rake]
+
+In order to break down hard clay soils, one must exercise great care not
+to work them when they are wet; and also not to work them very much when
+they are dry. There is a time, shortly after a rain, when clay lumps
+will break to pieces with a very slight blow. At this time it is well to
+go over them with a harrow or a rake. After the next rain, they can be
+gone over again, and before the end of the season the soil should be in
+fine condition. An excellent way of breaking down clay land is to plow
+or spade it in the fall and allow it to weather in the winter. In such
+cases the land should not be raked or harrowed, but allowed to lie rough
+and loose. Very hard clay lands sometimes run together or cement if
+handled in this way, but this will not occur if the land has stubble or
+sod or a dressing of manure, for the fibrous matter will then prevent it
+from puddling. Lime sown on clay land at the rate of twenty to forty
+bushels to the acre also has a distinct effect in pulverizing it. This
+may be sown in fall, or preferably in spring when the land is plowed.
+
+One of the most important ways of ameliorating land is to work vegetable
+matter into it so as to give it humus. Soils which are loose, black and
+friable contain much of this vegetable mold. In many cases the chief
+value of stable manure is to add this humus to the soil. Many soils need
+humus more than they need plant-food, and hence stable manure gives
+better results in those cases than commercial fertilizers. The farmer
+secures the humus by plowing under stubble and sod, and occasional green
+crops.
+
+
+TOMATO. The early fruits are very easily grown by starting the plants in
+a greenhouse, hotbed or in shallow boxes placed in windows. A pinch of
+seed sown in March will give all the early plants a large family can
+use. When the plants have reached the height of two or three inches they
+should be transplanted into 3-inch flower pots, old berry boxes or other
+receptacles, and allowed to grow slow and stocky until time to set them
+out, which is from May 15 on (in New York). They should be set in rows
+four or five feet apart, the plants being the same distance in the rows.
+Some support should be given to keep the fruits off the ground and to
+hasten the ripening. A trellis of chicken-wire makes an excellent
+support, as does the light lath fencing that may be bought or made at
+home. Stout stakes, with wire strung the length of the rows, afford an
+excellent support. A very showy method is that of a frame made like an
+inverted V, which allows the fruits to hang free; with a little
+attention to trimming, the light reaches the fruits and ripens them
+perfectly. This support is made by leaning together two lath frames. The
+late fruits may be picked green and ripened on a shelf in the sun; or
+they will ripen if placed in a drawer.
+
+[Illustration: Tomato]
+
+One ounce of seed will be enough for from twelve to fifteen hundred
+plants. A little fertilizer in the hill will start the plants off
+quickly. The rot is less serious when the vines are kept off the ground
+and the rampant suckers are cut out.
+
+
+TOOLS of many kinds, and well chosen, are one of the joys of a garden.
+There is great satisfaction in a well-made, clean tool which does its
+work well. Keep the tools bright. They should be under cover, and in
+place, when not in use. A cupboard may be built by the rear porch, or in
+the barn or carriage house. See that the cupboard is in a dry place.
+Various Tools have been mentioned in the preceding pages, and other
+useful kinds are shown in the article on _Weeds_.
+
+
+TRANSPLANTING. This operation the gardener calls in one instance
+"pricking out." This means taking young seedling plants from the seed
+box as soon as they are large enough to be handled--usually when the
+first "rough" leaves have developed--and replanting them in other boxes
+or pots, either singly or at a greater distance apart than they were
+when in the seed boxes. The term is used in the operation of setting out
+plants from the hotbed, frame or house to the garden; also in removing
+shrubs or trees. Transplant on a cloudy day, and just before a rain, if
+possible.
+
+
+TRIMMING is a term which is ordinarily confounded with pruning (which
+see). The word "Trimming," however, should be restricted to the shaping
+of the trees and not to the thinning of the tree or to pruning for wood,
+fruit or other special object. Trimming is only one of the means of
+pruning. Trimming is mostly used in the case of hedges. It is also used
+to keep evergreens in shape. Many ornamental plants are also Trimmed
+into various forms, although it is a question if such Trimming is
+usually wise. Fruit trees should be pruned, as a rule, rather than
+Trimmed: that is, they usually should be allowed to take their natural
+form, the pruner taking out the superfluous wood and keeping them within
+manageable bounds.
+
+
+TROPÆOLUM. See _Nasturtium_.
+
+
+TUBEROSE. The Tuberose requires more heat to grow to perfection than it
+is usually possible to give here in the North. If planted in the border
+they will not start into growth until the ground has become thoroughly
+warm--usually after the middle of June,--making the season before frost
+too short for their perfect growth and flower. However, if started in
+loose soil or moss in a warm room or on benches of a greenhouse, the
+roots will soon start from the tuber and make a fine growth. If planted
+out in June with a good ball of roots they are likely to bloom before
+frost. If any danger of frost is feared they may be lifted into pots or
+boxes and taken into the house, when they will bloom without a check. As
+with other bulbs, a sandy soil will suit.
+
+
+TUBEROUS BEGONIA. A large bed of these covered with crimson, pink,
+white, or yellow flowers, ranging from 2 to 4 and even 6 inches in
+diameter, some double, some single, is a striking sight. Yet such a
+sight is not uncommon about the large eastern cities where the Tuberous
+Begonia is now used somewhat for bedding.
+
+Our interior summers are more trying, and so far, few in the west have
+succeeded so well with the Tuberous Begonia as a bedding plant. It makes
+a fine summer-blooming pot-plant, however, for the greenhouse or window,
+and with due attention to its requirements, it may be used as a bedding
+plant. It properly falls under greenhouse plants in its requirements.
+
+[Illustration: Double Tuberous Begonia]
+
+C. L. Allen, writing of its culture in his work on "Bulbs and
+Tuberous-Rooted Plants," says: "The principal point learned in regard to
+its culture is, that it must be treated as a plant and not as a bulb.
+The enthusiastic florist, seeing the many good qualities of the plant,
+has led amateurs to believe it could be treated as a bulb, and planted
+out in the same manner as the gladiolus or tigridia and kept dormant
+during the winter in the same manner. This is a great mistake, as the
+tubers will not endure as long a period of rest and cannot be exposed to
+the air for a long time without seriously injuring their vitality. The
+tubers must be kept in dry earth or sand, until they show signs of
+growth, which will be not later than the first of March; then they may
+be started into rapid growth. After the eyes are fully developed the
+tubers may be divided: each eye will make a plant. Then they are treated
+in all respects like greenhouse plants, and grown on until the proper
+season for their planting out. This is not before the first of June, as
+Begonias are quite sensitive to cold nights, but not at all to heat. At
+that time the plants should be fully 6 inches in height and
+proportionately strong. Such plants will make a grand display the entire
+season, rather delighting in great heat."
+
+[Illustration: Tuberous Begonia, single.]
+
+In starting the tubers in March, they should be placed in moist sand or
+moss in a temperature of 60° to 65°, either in the greenhouse or window.
+After the buds are well started the tubers may be divided as pointed
+out, or planted whole. They prefer a rich, rather sandy soil. When they
+are well under way give them all the light and air they will bear, and
+keep them close to the glass to avoid "legginess" and to insure a firm,
+sturdy growth. A week before planting them out they should be given
+abundance of air and light to "harden off" the plants preparatory to
+setting them in sun and wind.
+
+The beds should be in a somewhat sheltered place where they will be
+partially shaded from the hot midday sun. Let the soil be well enriched
+with old manure or humus and thoroughly worked over to a depth of one
+foot. During dry periods the beds will need watering from time to time;
+but never water them when the sun is shining full on them, or the
+foliage may be scorched. A mulch of leaf-mold or old manure will be
+helpful in keeping the soil moist and the roots cool.
+
+Before frost the tubers should be carefully taken up and gradually dried
+in the shade, after which they are to be placed in dry sand or earth, in
+shallow boxes, and kept till time to start them in the spring. They
+should be kept in a cool place, secure from frost and away from stoves
+or heating pipes.
+
+For amateurs it is better to recommend buying bulbs of the several
+colors, instead of attempting to grow them from seeds, which are
+extremely small and require early sowing, warmth and close attention.
+
+
+TULIPS are hardy and easy to grow. The advice given under _Bulbs_,
+_Crocus_ and _Hyacinth_ applies to Tulips. They may be forced for winter
+bloom (see under _Window-Gardens_). The garden bed will last several
+years if well cared for, but most satisfactory bloom is secured if the
+old bulbs are taken up every two or three years and replanted, all the
+inferior ones being cast aside. When the stock begins to run out, buy
+anew. Plant in October, 4 to 6 inches deep.
+
+[Illustration: Tulip as a pot-plant]
+
+
+TURNIPS and RUTABAGAS are usually a fall crop, from seed sown in July
+and early August, although many kitchen gardens have them from spring
+sown seed. The culture is easy. Sow in drills 12 inches apart. They will
+become edible in from six to eight weeks. They are cool-weather crops,
+and the tops stand much frost. If maggots bother, do not raise them on
+the same land again for three or four years. Bordeaux mixture repels the
+flea-beetles. One ounce will sow 150 feet of drill.
+
+
+VARIETIES. It is usually one of the first desires of the intending
+planter to inquire about Varieties. It is one of the secondary things to
+be considered, however, for the first thing to do is to prepare the
+land, to determine whether one's soil and site are adapted to the plant
+in question, and to discuss other matters of a general nature. When all
+the fundamental things are settled, then the question of Varieties,
+which is a special matter, may be taken up. Although the selection of
+Varieties is a very special matter, it is nevertheless essential to
+success or satisfaction in the growing of any plant.
+
+It should first be considered that the selection of Varieties is very
+largely a personal matter. The man should grow the Varieties which he
+likes. This is especially true in the selection of Varieties for the
+home grounds, in which case the market ideals enter very little into the
+problem. Having satisfied one's own mind as to what kinds of Varieties
+he would like, he may then inquire of the neighbors and of experts if
+those Varieties are adapted to the soil and climate. If he intends to
+grow for market, he should canvass the market demands thoroughly before
+choosing the Varieties. The lists of Varieties in books, bulletins, and
+seedmen's catalogues are hints, not rules. As a general statement, it
+may be said that the only way to determine the best variety for one's
+own conditions is to experiment. There is intense satisfaction in the
+experimenting itself. The best lists of Varieties are those which are
+recommended for some specific purpose, and which represent the combined
+opinions of many expert growers. It is rare that one man's judgment
+should be final, particularly with respect to fruits or plants which are
+grown in general outdoor conditions. Under glass a gardener can make his
+climate and conditions, and therefore he can adapt his conditions to his
+plants. The experiment station test usually represents but one man's
+opinion. It may be a more valuable opinion than that of another man, but
+it is not final. It should be studied in connection with other lists,
+particularly those made by practical growers. If one desires to choose
+Varieties, therefore, he should consult the best growers of those plants
+in his immediate neighborhood; he should call upon the experiment
+station of his state or province; and he should consult the most recent
+writings on the subject.
+
+
+VEGETABLE GARDEN. It is one of the choicest of pleasures to raise one's
+own vegetables. Make the Vegetable Garden ample, but economize labor.
+Plant the things in rows, not in beds. Then they can be tilled easily,
+either by horse- or hand-tools. Wheel-hoes will accomplish most of the
+labor of tillage in a small garden. Have the rows long, to avoid waste
+of time in turning and to economize the land. One row can be devoted to
+one vegetable; or two or more vegetables of like requirements (as
+parsnips and salsify) may comprise a row. Have the permanent vegetables,
+as rhubarb and asparagus, at one side, where they will not interfere
+with the plowing or tilling. The annual vegetables should be grown on
+different parts of the area in succeeding years, thus practicing
+something like a rotation of crops. If radish or cabbage maggots or
+club-root become thoroughly established in the plantation, omit for a
+year or more the vegetables on which they live.
+
+[Illustration: Lay-out of a farm Vegetable Garden]
+
+Make the soil deep, mellow and rich before the seeds are sown. Time and
+labor will be saved. Rake the surface frequently to keep down weeds and
+to prevent the soil from baking (see _Tillage_). Radish seeds sown with
+celery or other slow-germinating seeds will come up quickly, breaking
+the crust and marking the rows. About the borders of the Vegetable
+Garden is a good place for flowers to be grown for the decoration of the
+house and to give to friends. Along one side of the area rows of bush
+fruits may be planted.
+
+A home Vegetable Garden for a family of six would require, exclusive of
+potatoes, a space not over 100 by 150 feet. Beginning at one side of the
+garden and running the rows the short way (having each row 100 feet
+long) sowings may be made, as soon as the ground is in condition to
+work, of the following:
+
+Fifty feet each of parsnips and salsify.
+
+One hundred feet of onions, 25 feet of which may be potato or set
+onions, the balance black-seed for summer and fall use.
+
+Fifty feet of early beets, 50 feet of lettuce, with which radish may be
+sown to break the soil and be harvested before the lettuce needs the
+room.
+
+One hundred feet of early cabbage, the plants for which should be from
+a frame or purchased. Set the plants 18 inches to 2 feet apart.
+
+One hundred feet of early cauliflower; culture same as for cabbage.
+
+Four hundred and fifty feet of peas, sown as follows:
+
+  100 feet of extra early.
+  100 feet of intermediate.
+  100 feet of late.
+  100 feet of extra early, sown late.
+   50 feet of dwarf varieties.
+
+If trellis or brush is to be avoided, frequent sowings of the dwarfs
+will maintain a supply.
+
+After the soil has become warm and all danger of frost has passed, the
+tender vegetables may be planted, as follows:
+
+Corn in five rows 3 feet apart, three rows to be early and intermediate,
+and two rows late.
+
+One hundred feet of string beans, early to late varieties.
+
+Vines as follows:
+
+  10 hills of cucumbers, 6 x 6 feet.
+  20 hills of muskmelon, 6 x 6 feet.
+   6 hills of early squash, 6 x 6 feet.
+  10 hills of Hubbard, 6 x 6 feet.
+
+One hundred feet of okra.
+
+Twenty eggplants. One hundred ft. (25 plants) tomatoes.
+
+Six large clumps of rhubarb.
+
+An asparagus bed 25 feet long and 3 feet wide.
+
+Late cabbage, cauliflower and celery are to occupy the space made vacant
+by removing early crops of early and intermediate peas and string beans.
+
+A border on one side or end will hold all herbs, such as parsley, thyme,
+sage, hyssop, mints.
+
+
+VERBENA. The Verbena is one of the most satisfactory garden plants,
+blooming early. Bloom continues through the dry, hot days of summer. As
+the cool weather of the fall comes on, Verbenas increase in size of
+plant and flower until killed by severe frost. Plants grown from seed
+sown in a hotbed or house early in the spring, transplanted into pots or
+boxes when large enough, and planted out as soon as the ground has
+become warm, are more vigorous and seem to have more fragrance than
+those grown from cuttings. Many of the strains have become so well fixed
+that the colors come true from seed. Cuttings are often employed, but
+the handling of stock plants is a difficult matter except in the hands
+of a professional, and when plants are wanted in quantity it is cheaper
+to buy them of the plantsman than to grow them from seed or attempt to
+keep over stock plants. Therefore, for the home garden, seed-grown
+plants are usually most satisfactory. Give a sunny position. Thin to 10
+to 15 inches apart each way.
+
+[Illustration: Verbena]
+
+
+VINCA, or PERIWINKLE. Trailing plants. Useful in covering unsightly
+places, for vases, urns or baskets. Some of the species (as the common
+evergreen, mat-like "running myrtle") are hardy, but the most useful
+ones need the protection of a house through the winter. The
+variegated-leaved kinds are fine for winter decorations. Propagated
+mostly by cuttings. Perennials.
+
+
+VINES. The use of Vines for screens and pillar decorations has increased
+in the last decade until now they may be seen in nearly all grounds. The
+tendency has been towards using the hardy Vines, of which the
+ampelopsis, or Virginia creeper, is one of the most common. It is a very
+rapid grower, and lends itself to training more readily than many
+others. The Japan ampelopsis (_A. tricuspidata_ or _Veitchii_) is a fine
+clinging Vine, growing very rapidly when once established, and being
+brilliantly colored after the first fall frosts. It clings closer than
+the other, but is not so hardy. Either of these may be grown from
+cuttings or division of the plants. Two woody twiners of recent
+introduction are the actinidia and the akebia, both from Japan. They
+are perfectly hardy, and are rapid growers. The former has large, thick,
+glossy leaves, not affected by insects or disease, growing thickly along
+the stem and branches, making a perfect thatch of leaves. It blooms in
+June. The flowers, which are white with a purple center, are borne in
+clusters, followed by round or longish edible fruits. The akebia has
+very neat cut foliage, quaint purple flowers, and often bears ornamental
+fruit. Other hardy Vines are the wistaria, clematis, tecoma (or
+trumpet-flower), aristolochia (or Dutchman's pipe), hedera (or ivy), and
+loniceras (or honeysuckles).
+
+[Illustration: A vine support for a porch]
+
+Of the tender Vines, the nasturtiums and ipomoeas are the most common,
+while the adlumia (p. 3), balloon vine (p. 28), passion vine, and the
+gourds (p. 115), are frequently used. One of the best of recent
+introduction is the annual hop, especially the variegated variety. This
+is a very rapid growing Vine, seeding itself each year, and needing
+little care. See _Hop_. All the tender Vines should be planted after all
+danger of frost is over.
+
+_ANNUAL HERBACEOUS CLIMBERS_
+
+_Tendril-climbers_
+
+  Adlumia (biennial).
+  Balloon Vine.
+  Cobæa.
+  Gourds.
+  Nasturtiums.
+  Sweet Pea.
+  Wild Cucumber.
+
+_Twiners_
+
+  Beans, Flowering.
+  Cypress Vine.
+  Dolichos.
+  Hop, Japanese.
+  Ipomoea.
+  Moonflower.
+  Morning-glory.
+  Thunbergia.
+  Yam, Chinese, or Cinnamon Vine (perennial from a hardy tuber).
+
+_PERENNIAL WOODY CLIMBERS FOR THE OPEN_
+
+_Tendril-climbers_
+
+  Ampelopsis tricuspidata.
+  Clematis of many kinds.
+  Grape of various kinds.
+  Greenbrier.
+  Ivy (by roots).
+  Roses (scramblers).
+  Trumpet Creeper (by roots).
+  Virginia Creeper.
+
+_Twiners_
+
+  Actinidia polygama.
+  Akebia quinata.
+  Aristolochia, or Dutchman's Pipe.
+  Bittersweet, or Celastrus.
+  Honeysuckles.
+  Moonseed.
+  Wistaria.
+
+
+[Illustration: Violets]
+
+VIOLET. While the culture of Violets as house-plants rarely proves
+successful, there is no reason why a good supply may not be had
+elsewhere through the greater part of the winter and the spring months.
+A sheltered location being selected, young plants from runners may be
+set in August or September. Have the ground rich and well drained. These
+plants will make fine crowns by December, and often will bloom before
+weather sufficiently cold to freeze them. In order to have flowers
+through the winter, it will be necessary to afford some protection to
+the plants. This may best be done by building a frame of boards large
+enough to cover the plants, making the frame in the same way as for a
+hotbed, four to six inches higher at the back than the front. Cover the
+frame with sash or boards, and as the weather becomes severe, mats or
+straw should be placed over and around the frame to protect the plants
+from freezing. Whenever the weather will permit, the covering should be
+removed and air admitted, but no harm will come if the frames are not
+disturbed for several weeks. A large amount of sunlight and a high
+temperature through the middle of winter are to be avoided, for if the
+plants are stimulated a shorter period of bloom will result. In April
+the frame may be removed, the plants yielding the later part of the crop
+without protection. Violets belong with the "cool" plants of florists.
+When well hardened off, considerable frost does not harm them. They
+should always be kept stocky. Start a new lot from runner-plants each
+year. They thrive in a temperature of 55° to 65°.
+
+
+WALKS. The place for a Walk is where it is needed. It should go directly
+between two points. It need not be straight, but if it is curved, the
+curve should be direct. That is, the pedestrian should be conscious that
+he is going in the direction in which he desires to go, and is not
+making a detour for the simple purpose of following the walk.
+Convenience should be the first thing to be considered. After the Walks
+have been laid in the most convenient places, the question of
+ornamenting the borders may be considered. It is always well to avoid,
+so far as possible, the bisecting of lawns by Walks, as that makes two
+lawns where there should be only one. The larger a greensward can be
+made to look, the more park-like and natural is the place. Avoid taking
+the Walks circuitously around the borders unless they are laid for the
+simple purpose of making a ramble to show off the grounds. All Walks
+which are designed for serious use should appear to be necessary, direct
+and convenient.
+
+Some soils which contain considerable loam and sand will pack with
+tramping and will make good Walks, but it is usually necessary to lay
+some material on the soil. Gravel, cinders, and the like, may be better
+than the natural surface; but in many cases they are worse, since the
+surface is loose and is unpleasant to walk on. In Walks which are on
+decided slopes, and down which the water is likely to run, any loose
+material is very objectionable, since it runs to the low places. The
+best material for Walks, all things considered, is cement, or what is
+called artificial stone. If well made, it is as durable as flagging, and
+is not so likely to get out of place. It holds its surface perfectly
+year after year.
+
+The only objection to cement Walks is when they are more or less
+temporary, for in such cases they cannot be moved. There is often very
+serious difficulty in securing good cement Walks, but the difficulties
+are easily overcome. They are chiefly two: there is not sufficient
+draining material beneath the cement; and the cement itself is not made
+strong enough. There should be at least a foot of loose material, as
+brickbats or cinders, below the cement cover; and if the place is low
+and likely to hold water, there should be still greater drainage. Pound
+the material down, or let it stand for some time until it becomes
+thoroughly settled together. Then lay the cement in two courses. The
+first course may be three or four inches thick and made of well mixed
+mortar, comprising three parts Portland cement, one part water lime, and
+two to three times as much sharp sand as Portland. When this has become
+partially hardened, but before it is set and while still moist, put on a
+finishing layer of one inch, made of one part Portland cement, one part
+water lime, and one part sharp sand. It is important that the materials
+be very thoroughly mixed. See that the edges of the walk are made square
+and true by laying down a form of boards lengthwise the area before the
+cement is put on. The edges should be as thick as the middle, for a thin
+crust on the edge tends to snap off. A walk made in this way on a
+well-drained foundation will last almost indefinitely. It is best that
+it be made in such season that it can become thoroughly set before
+frosty weather comes.
+
+
+WALLFLOWER. A favorite plant for pots or garden, having a clove-like
+fragrance. Seed of most varieties should be sown the year before wanted.
+One kind, being an annual, will flower the same season the seed is sown.
+Hardy. Two to 3 feet.
+
+
+WASHING orchard trees is an old practice. It usually results in making
+a tree more vigorous. One reason is that it destroys insects and fungi
+which lodge underneath the bark; but probably the chief reason is that
+it softens the bark and allows the trunk to expand. It is possible,
+also, that the potash from the soap or lye eventually passes into the
+ground and affords some plant-food. Trees are ordinarily Washed with
+soap suds or with a lye solution. The material is usually applied with
+an old broom or a stiff brush. The scrubbing of the tree is perhaps
+nearly or quite as beneficial as the application of the wash itself.
+
+It is customary to wash trees late in spring or early in summer, and
+again in the fall, with the idea that such Washing destroys the eggs and
+the young of borers. It no doubt will destroy borers if they are just
+getting a start, but it will not keep away the insects which lay the
+eggs, and will not destroy the borers which have found their way
+underneath the bark. It is perhaps quite as well to wash the trees very
+early in the spring, when they are starting into growth. It is an old
+practice to wash trees with strong lye when they are affected with the
+oyster-shell bark louse. The modern method of treating these pests,
+however, is to spray with some kerosene compound when the young growth
+is starting, for at that time the young insects are migrating to the new
+wood and they are very easily destroyed.
+
+
+WATERING HOUSE PLANTS. It is impossible to give rules for the Watering
+of plants. Conditions that hold with one grower are different from those
+of another. Advice must be general. Give one good Watering at the time
+of potting, after which no water should be given until the plants really
+need it. If, on tapping the pot, it gives out a clear ring, it is an
+indication that water is needed. In the case of a soft-wooded plant,
+just before the leaves begin to show signs of wilt, is the time for
+Watering. When plants are taken up from the ground, or when plants have
+their roots cut back in repotting, gardeners rely, after the first
+copious Watering, on syringing the tops of the plants two or three
+times each day, until a new root-growth has started, Watering at the
+roots only when absolutely necessary. Plants that have been potted into
+larger pots will grow without the extra attention of syringing, but
+those from the borders, that have had their roots mutilated or
+shortened, should be placed in a cool, shady spot and be syringed often.
+One soon becomes familiar with the wants of individual plants, and can
+judge closely as to need of water. All soft-wooded plants with a large
+leaf-surface need more water than hard-wooded plants, and a plant in
+luxuriant growth of any kind more than a plant that has been cut back or
+become defoliated. When plants are grown in living-rooms, moisture must
+be supplied from some source, and if no arrangement has been made for
+having a moist air the plants should be syringed often. See _Syringing_.
+
+[Illustration: Watering pot]
+
+
+WATERMELON. The culture of this is essentially the same as that for
+muskmelons (which see), except that most varieties require a warmer
+place and longer period of growth. Give the hills a distance of from 6
+to 10 feet apart. Choose a warm, "quick" soil and sunny exposure. It is
+essential, in the North, that the plants grow rapidly and come into
+bloom early. One ounce of seed will plant thirty hills.
+
+
+WAX PLANT. The Wax Plant, or HOYA, is one of the commonest of
+window-garden plants, and yet it is one which people usually have
+difficulty in flowering. However, it is one of the easiest plants to
+manage if a person understands its nature. It is naturally a
+summer-blooming plant, and should rest during the winter time. In the
+winter, keep it just alive in a cool and rather dry place. If the
+temperature does not go above 50° Fahr., so much the better; neither
+should it go much lower. In late winter or spring, the plant is brought
+out to warm temperature, given water and started into growth. The old
+flower-stems should not be cut off, since new flowers come from them as
+well as from the new wood. When it is brought out to be started into
+growth, it may be repotted, sometimes into a size larger pot, but always
+with more or less fresh earth. The plant should increase in value each
+year. In conservatories, it is sometimes planted out in the ground and
+allowed to run over a wall, in which case it will reach a height of many
+feet.
+
+
+WEEDS. Many very strong Weeds are a compliment to one's soil: only good
+soil produces them. But they are not a compliment to one's tillage. If
+the soil is well prepared and well tilled to conserve moisture and to
+unlock plant-food (see _Tillage_), Weeds will find little chance of
+growing. Stir the ground often: it benefits the ground and keeps out the
+Weeds. Plant vegetables in long straight rows rather than in beds, for
+thereby tillage is made easier. For beds and for small plants, the
+hand-weeders (as shown in the margin) are very efficient. They save
+laborious finger-work. Weed seeds are often distributed in manure,
+especially if Weeds have been allowed to grow and ripen on the piles.
+See that pernicious Weeds do not seed about the premises. For the
+treatment of weedy lawns, see the article _Lawns_.
+
+[Illustration: Potato hook and weed-puller]
+
+[Illustration: Finger-weeder]
+
+[Illustration: Trowel and angle-weeder]
+
+
+WINDBREAKS. There is the greatest difference of opinion as to the value
+of Windbreaks for fruit plantations. These differences arise from the
+fact that a Windbreak may be of great benefit in one place, but a
+disadvantage in another. It is always advisable to break the force of
+very strong winds, for such winds tend to injure the trees when laden
+with fruit or ice, and they blow off the fruit; and in dry countries
+they cause the soil to become parched. If the wind is usually warmer
+than the area, however, particularly in the winter time, it is better
+not to stop it, but to allow it to circulate through the plantation.
+This is the case in areas which lie close to large bodies of water. The
+wind coming off the water is warmer than that off the land, and tends
+thereby to protect the fruit plantation from severe cold. A circulation
+of air is desirable in late spring and early fall in order to avoid the
+still frosts. Therefore, if the area is very closely surrounded by dense
+plantations, it may have what the fruit-growers call "stagnant air;" but
+thinning out the Windbreak on one or two sides, or cutting holes through
+it, may allow the air to move through, thereby affording atmospheric
+drainage and insuring greater immunity from the light local frosts.
+
+It is ordinarily better to break the force of the winds than to stop or
+deflect them. That is, the Windbreak may be thin enough to allow the
+wind to take its normal direction, but its force is broken. A stone wall
+or a very dense hedge of evergreens may cause the wind to rise over the
+plantation or to be deflected to one side; and this, in many cases, as
+already said, may be a decided disadvantage. The philosophy of a good
+Windbreak for fruit plantations may be summed up in this way: the force
+of heavy winds should be broken; warm winds should be allowed to
+circulate freely through the plantation; still air should be avoided.
+
+Ordinarily, one or two rows of deciduous trees are sufficient
+protection. When the plantation is very much exposed to very cold or
+land winds, a thick evergreen screen may be a decided advantage. It is
+usually better to have the heavy Windbreak on the upper side of the
+area, so that it may not interfere with the natural drainage of the cold
+air down the slope. In making a Windbreak, it is important that those
+trees be chosen which will not become harboring places for orchard
+enemies. The wild cherry, for example, is inveterately attacked by the
+tent caterpillar, and the wild crabs and wild plums are likely to breed
+orchard insects. If the Windbreak is planted some time in advance of
+the orchard, the row of fruit trees next the Windbreak will be very
+likely to suffer from lack of moisture and food.
+
+A different type of Windbreak is that which is desired for a shelter
+belt about the home grounds. The matter of atmospheric drainage does not
+enter into this problem to any great extent. Such shelter belt is
+usually placed at the extreme edge of the home yard, toward the heaviest
+or prevailing wind. It may be a dense plantation of evergreens. If so,
+the Norway spruce is one of the best for general purposes. For a lower
+belt, the arborvitæ is excellent. Some of the pines, as the Scotch or
+Austrian, are also to be advised, particularly if the belt is at some
+distance from the residence. As a rule, the coarser the tree the farther
+it should be placed from the house.
+
+Persons may desire to use the Windbreak as a screen to hide undesirable
+objects. If these objects are of a permanent character, as a barn or an
+unkempt property, evergreen trees should be used. For temporary screens,
+any of the very large-growing herbaceous plants may be used. Very
+excellent subjects are sunflowers, the large-growing nicotianas, castor
+beans, large varieties of Indian corn, and plants of like growth. Very
+efficient summer screens may be made with ailanthus, paulownia,
+basswood, sumac, and other plants which tend to throw up succulent
+shoots from the base. After these plants have been set a year or two,
+they are cut back nearly to the ground every winter or spring, and
+strong shoots are thrown up with great luxuriance during the summer,
+giving a dense screen and presenting a semi-tropical effect. For such
+purposes, the roots should be planted only two or three feet apart. If,
+after a time, the roots become so crowded that the shoots are weak, some
+of the plants may be removed. Top-dressing the area every fall with
+manure will tend to make the ground rich enough to afford a very heavy
+summer growth.
+
+
+WIND FLOWER. See _Anemone_.
+
+
+WINDOW-GARDENS. _The Summer Window Garden_.--This type of gardening is
+particularly suited to those who live in the crowded city, where the
+want of other space makes the Window-Garden the only one possible.
+
+[Illustration: A summer window ledge]
+
+Handsomely finished boxes, ornamental tiling, and bracket work of wood
+and iron suitable for fitting out windows for the growing of plants, are
+on the market; but such, while desirable, are by no means necessary. A
+stout pine box of a length corresponding to the width of the window,
+about 10 inches wide and 6 deep, answers quite as well as a finer box,
+since it will likely be some distance above the street, and its sides,
+moreover, are soon covered by the vines. A zinc tray of a size to fit
+into the wooden box may be ordered of the tinsmith. It will tend to keep
+the soil from drying out so rapidly, but it is not a necessity. A few
+small holes in the bottom of the box will provide for drainage; but with
+carefulness in watering these are not necessary, since the box by its
+exposed position will dry out readily during summer weather, unless the
+position is a shaded one. In the latter case provision for good drainage
+is always advisable.
+
+Since there is more or less cramping of roots, it will be necessary to
+make the soil richer than would be required were the plants to grow in
+the garden. The most desirable soil is one that does not pack hard like
+clay, nor contract much when dry, but remains porous and springy. Such a
+soil is found in the potting soil used by florists, and it may be
+obtained from them at from 50 cts. to $1 a barrel. Often the nature of
+the soil will be such as to make it desirable to have at hand a barrel
+of sharp sand for mixing with the soil, to make it more porous and
+prevent baking.
+
+Some pot the plants and then set them in the window-box, filling the
+spaces between the pots with moist moss. Again, they are planted
+directly in the soil. The former method, as a general rule, is to be
+preferred in the winter Window-Garden; the latter during the summer.
+
+The plants most valuable for the purpose are those of drooping habit,
+such as lobelias, tropæolums, _Othonna crassifolia_, Kenilworth ivy, and
+sweet alyssum. Such plants may occupy the front row, while back of them
+may be the erect-growing plants, like geraniums, heliotropes, begonias,
+etc.
+
+Just what plants will be most suitable will depend on the exposure. For
+the shady side of the street, the more delicate kinds of plants may be
+used. For full exposure to the sun, it will be necessary to select the
+more vigorous-growing kinds. In the latter position, suitable plants for
+drooping would be: *tropæolums, *passifloras, the single petunias, sweet
+alyssum, lobelias, verbenas, mesembryanthemums. For erect-growing
+plants: geraniums, heliotropes, etc. If the position is a shaded one,
+the drooping plants might be of the following: tradescantia, Kenilworth
+ivy, *senecio or parlor ivy, sedums, *moneywort, vinca, *smilax,
+*lygodium or climbing fern. Erect-growing plants would be dracænas,
+palms, ferns, coleus, centaurea, spotted calla, and others.
+
+For shady situations the main dependence is upon plants of graceful form
+or handsome foliage; while for the sunny window the selection may be of
+blooming plants. Of the plants above mentioned for these two positions,
+those marked with an asterisk (*) are of climbing habit, and may be
+trained up about the sides of the window. Others will be found among the
+climbing plants mentioned under _Vines_, _Annuals_ and _Basket Plants_.
+
+After the plants have filled the earth with roots, it will be desirable
+to give the surface of the soil among the plants a very light sprinkling
+of bone-dust or a thicker coating of rotted manure from time to time
+during the summer; or instead of this, a watering with weak liquid
+manure about once a week. This is not necessary, however, until the
+growth shows that the roots have about exhausted the soil.
+
+In the fall the box may be placed on the inside of the window. In this
+case it will be desirable to thin out the foliage somewhat, shorten in
+some of the vines, and perhaps remove some of the plants. It will also
+be desirable to give a fresh coating of rich soil. Increased care will
+be necessary, also, in watering, since the plants will have less light
+than previously, and, moreover, there may be no provision for drainage.
+
+_The Winter Window-Garden_ may consist simply of a jardiniere, or a few
+choice pot-plants on a stand at the window, or of a considerable
+collection, with more or less elaborate arrangements for their
+accommodation in the way of box, brackets, shelves and stands. Expensive
+arrangements are by no means necessary, nor is a large collection. The
+plants and flowers themselves are the main consideration, and a small
+collection well cared for is better than a large one unless it can be
+easily accommodated and kept in good condition.
+
+The window for plants should have a southern, south-eastern or eastern
+exposure. Plants need all the light they can get in the winter,
+especially those which are expected to bloom. The window should be
+tight-fitting. Shutters and a curtain will be an advantage in cold
+weather.
+
+Plants like a certain uniformity in conditions. It is very trying on
+them, and often fatal to success, to have them snug and warm one night
+and shivering in a temperature only a few degrees above freezing the
+next. Some plants will live in spite of it, but they cannot be expected
+to prosper. Those whose rooms are heated with steam, hot water or hot
+air will have to guard against keeping rooms too warm fully as much as
+keeping them too cool. Rooms in brick dwellings that have been warm all
+day, if shut up and made snug in the evening will often keep warm over
+night without heat except in the coldest weather. Rooms in frame
+dwellings, and exposed on all sides, soon cool down.
+
+It is difficult to grow plants in rooms lighted by gas, as the burning
+gas vitiates the atmosphere. Most living-rooms have too dry air for
+plants. In such cases the bow window may be set off from the room by
+glass doors; one then has a miniature conservatory.
+
+While keeping the plants at a suitable temperature, we must not forget
+that plants love moisture, or a humid atmosphere, and that our
+living-rooms ordinarily are very dry. A pan of water on the stove or on
+the register and damp moss among the pots, will afford plants the
+necessary humidity.
+
+The foliage will need cleansing from time to time to free it from dust.
+A bath tub provided with a ready outlet for the water is an excellent
+place for this purpose. The plants may be turned on their sides and
+supported on a small box above the bottom of the tub. Then they may be
+freely syringed without danger of making the soil too wet. It is usually
+advisable not to wet the flowers, however, especially the white waxen
+kinds, like hyacinths. The foliage of Rex begonias should be cleansed
+with a piece of dry or only slightly moist cotton. But if the leaves can
+be quickly dried off by placing them in the open air on mild days, or
+moderately near the stove, the foliage may be syringed.
+
+[Illustration: A window-box]
+
+The window-box in the room will be seen near at hand, so may be more or
+less ornamental in character. The sides may be covered with ornamental
+tile held in place by moulding; or a light lattice-work of wood
+surrounding the box is pretty. But a neatly made and strong box of about
+the dimensions mentioned on page 242, with a strip of moulding at the
+top and bottom, answers just as well; and if painted green, or some
+neutral shade, only the plants will be seen or thought of. Brackets,
+jardinieres and stands may be purchased of any of the larger florists.
+
+The window-box may consist of merely the wooden box; but a preferable
+arrangement is to make it about eight inches deep instead of six, then
+have the tinsmith make a zinc tray to fit the box. This is provided with
+a false wooden bottom, with cracks for drainage, two inches above the
+real bottom of the tray. The plants will then have a vacant space below
+them into which drainage water may pass. Such a box may be thoroughly
+watered as the plants require without danger of the water running on the
+carpet. Of course, a faucet should be provided at some suitable point on
+a level with the bottom of the tray, to permit of its being drained
+every day or so if the water tends to accumulate. It would not do to
+allow the water to remain long; especially should it never rise to the
+false bottom, as then the soil would be kept too wet.
+
+Some persons attach the box to the window, or support it on brackets
+attached below the window-sill; but a preferable arrangement is to
+support the box on a low and light stand of suitable height provided
+with rollers. It may then be drawn back from the window, turned around
+from time to time to give the plants light on all sides, or turned with
+the handsome side in as may be desired, and so on.
+
+Often the plants are set directly in the soil; but if they are kept in
+pots they may be rearranged, changed about to give those which need it
+more light, etc. Larger plants which are to stand on shelves or brackets
+may be in porous earthenware pots; but the smaller ones which are to
+fill the window-box may be placed in heavy paper pots. The sides of
+these are flexible, and the plants in them therefore may be crowded
+close together with great economy in space. When pots are spaced, damp
+sphagnum or other moss among them will hold them in place, keep the soil
+from drying out too rapidly, and at the same time give off moisture, so
+grateful to the foliage.
+
+In addition to the stand, or box, a bracket for one or more pots on
+either side of the window, about one-third or half way up, will be
+desirable. The bracket should turn on a basal hinge or pivot, to admit
+of swinging it forward or backward. These bracket plants usually suffer
+for moisture, and are rather difficult to manage.
+
+Florists now usually grow plants suitable for Window-Gardens and winter
+flowering, and any intelligent florist, if asked, will take pleasure in
+making out a suitable collection. The plants should be ordered early in
+the fall; the florist will then not be so crowded for time and can give
+the matter better attention.
+
+Most of the plants suitable for the winter Window-Garden belong to the
+groups which florists grow in their medium and cool houses. The former
+are given a night temperature of about 60°, the latter about 50°. In
+each case the temperature is 10 to 15° higher for the daytime. Five
+degrees of variation below these temperatures will be allowable without
+any injurious effects; even more may be borne, but not without more or
+less check to the plants. In bright, sunny weather the day temperature
+may be higher than in cloudy and dark weather.
+
+_PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE OF 60°_
+
+_Upright flowering plants._--Abutilons, browallias, calceolaria "Lincoln
+Park," begonias, bouvardias, euphorbias, scarlet sage, richardia or
+calla, heliotropes, fuchsias, Chinese hibiscus, jasmines, single
+petunias, swainsona, billbergia, freesias, geraniums, cupheas.
+
+_Upright foliage plants._--Muehlenbeckia, _Cycas revoluta_, _Dracæna
+fragrans_ and others, palms, cannas, _Farfugium grande_, achyranthes,
+ferns, araucaria, epiphyllums, pandanus or "screw pine," _Pilea
+arborea_, _Ficus elastica_, _Grevillea robusta_.
+
+_Climbing plants._--_Asparagus tenuissimus_, _A. plumosus_, _Cobæa
+scandens_, smilax, Japanese hop, Madeira vine (Boussingaultia),
+_Senecio mikanioides_ and _S. macroglossus_ (parlor ivies). See also
+list below.
+
+_Low-growing, trailing, or drooping plants._--These may be used for
+baskets and edgings. Flowering kinds are: Sweet alyssum, lobelia,
+_Fuchsia procumbens_, mesembryanthemum, _Oxalis pendula_, _O.
+floribunda_ and others, _Russelia juncea_, _Mahernia odorata_ or
+honey-bell.
+
+_Foliage plants of drooping habit._--Vincas, _Saxifraga sarmentosa_,
+Kenilworth ivy, tradescantia or Wandering Jew, _*Festuca glauca_,
+othonna, _*Isolepsis gracilis_, English ivy, _Selaginella denticulata_
+and others. Some of these plants flower quite freely, but the flowers
+are small and of secondary consideration. Those with an asterisk (*)
+droop but slightly.
+
+_PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE OF 50°_
+
+_Upright flowering plants._--Azaleas, cyclamens, carnations,
+chrysanthemums, geraniums, Chinese primroses, stevia, marguerite or
+Paris daisy, single petunias, _Anthemis coronaria_, camellias, ardisia
+(berries), cineraria, violets, hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, the Easter
+lily when in bloom, and others.
+
+_Upright foliage plants._--Pittosporum, palms, aucuba, euonymus (golden
+and silvery variegated), araucaria, pandanus, dusty miller.
+
+_Climbing plants._--English ivy, maurandia, senecio or parlor ivy,
+lygodium (climbing fern).
+
+_Drooping or trailing plants._--Flowering kinds are: Sweet alyssum,
+_Mahernia odorata_, Russelia and ivy geranium.
+
+_Bulbs in the Window-Garden._--The single Roman hyacinth is an excellent
+house plant. Its flowers are small, but they are graceful and especially
+well suited for cutting. The bulbs are easily forced, and are managed
+like other hyacinths. The secret of forcing the Dutch bulbs and most
+others is to pot them and then, after watering the pots, set them away
+in a cool, dark place until the pot is filled with roots. They may be
+placed in the cellar "to root up," or be buried 3 or 4 inches deep in
+the soil. It is well to delay potting them until such time as they can
+be kept cool while forming their roots. A temperature of about 40° to
+45° suits them during this period. In most cases it is well to select
+pots 5 or 6 inches in diameter and place from three to six bulbs in a
+pot, according to the size of the bulbs and the plants. The pot having
+been filled with soil, it is only necessary to press them down till the
+tip, or about one-fourth, shows above the soil. After this a slight
+jarring or sharp rap will settle the soil. They are then watered and set
+away, as before mentioned. If kept dark and cool they will need no more
+watering until they are brought out and begin to grow, when they may be
+watered freely.
+
+[Illustration: Window-garden]
+
+Hyacinths, tulips and narcissus all require about the same treatment.
+When well rooted, which will be in six or eight weeks, they are brought
+out and given a temperature of some 55° to 60° till the flowers appear,
+when they should be kept in a cooler temperature, say 50°.
+
+The Easter lily is managed the same way, only, to hasten its flowers, it
+should be kept at not lower than 60° at night. Warmer will be better.
+Lilies may be covered an inch or more deep.
+
+Freesias may be potted six or more in a pot of mellow soil, and then
+started into growth at once. At first they might be given a night
+temperature of 50°, and 55° to 60° when they have begun to grow.
+
+Bulbs like the snowdrop and crocus are planted several or a dozen in a
+pot and buried, or treated like hyacinths; but they are very sensitive
+to heat, and require only to be given the light when they have started
+to grow, without any forcing. Forty to 45° will be as warm as they ever
+need be kept. See the article on _Bulbs_; also, the advice given for the
+various plants under their respective names.
+
+_Pests._--Window-Garden pests are discussed under _Insects_.
+
+
+WINTER-KILLING is induced by a late fall growth, and also by a dry,
+unprotected soil. All tender woody plants should be well ripened before
+cold weather comes: cease tillage early: do not apply stimulating
+manures late in the season. Mulch all tender or half hardy plants (see
+_Mulch_). Even hardy plants are benefited by a mulch. When possible, it
+is better to bend plants to the ground and cover them than to wrap them
+up as they stand; but this cannot be done with tall or stiff subjects.
+Wrapping in straw or burlaps affords excellent protection, but it is
+possible to wrap too heavily. A barrel, less the heads, may be set over
+small plants and then filled with leaves or other loose litter; or a
+cylinder of wire chicken-screen may be substituted for the barrel.
+Remove the protection in the spring before the buds start. See that mice
+do not nest in the barrel or in the mulch.
+
+
+ZINNIA. Showy hardy annuals. The old formal type of Zinnias has given
+place to a race of freer forms which are excellent plants either for
+color effect or for cutting. The colors have been varied and brightened,
+the flowers doubled and the plants dwarfed. Seed should be sown in a
+hotbed or house in March, transplanted once at least before planting
+out, and set in well enriched soil. Or, the seed may be sown where the
+plants are to grow. The tall varieties (3 feet) should stand 18 to 24
+inches apart. These are best for masses at a distance.
+
+
+_The Best and Newest Rural Books_
+
+BOOKS ON LEADING TOPICS CONNECTED WITH AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE ARE
+HERE MENTIONED. EACH BOOK IS THE WORK OF A SPECIALIST, UNDER THE
+EDITORIAL SUPERVISION OF PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY, OF THE CORNELL
+UNIVERSITY, OR BY PROFESSOR BAILEY HIMSELF, AND IS READABLE, CLEAR-CUT
+AND PRACTICAL.
+
+
+THE RURAL SCIENCE SERIES
+
+Includes books which state the underlying principles of agriculture in
+plain language. They are suitable for consultation alike by the amateur
+or professional tiller of the soil, the scientist or the student, and
+are freely illustrated and finely made.
+
+The following volumes are now ready:
+
+THE SOIL. By F. H. KING, of the University of Wisconsin. 303 pp. 45
+illustrations. 75 cents.
+
+THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND. By I. P. ROBERTS, of Cornell University.
+Fifth edition. 421 pp. 45 illustrations. $1.25.
+
+THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. By E. G. LODEMAN, late of Cornell University.
+399 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.00.
+
+MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. By H. H. WING, of Cornell University. Fifth
+edition. 311 pp. 43 illustrations. $1.00.
+
+THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 516
+pp. 120 illustrations. $1.25.
+
+BUSH-FRUITS. By F. W. CARD, of Rhode Island College of Agriculture and
+Mechanic Arts. Second edition. 537 pp. 113 illustrations. $1.50.
+
+FERTILIZERS. By E. B. VOORHEES, of New Jersey Experiment Station. Third
+edition. 332 pp. $1.00.
+
+THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. By L. H. BAILEY. Third edition. 300 pp.
+92 illustrations. $1.25.
+
+IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. By F. H. KING, University of Wisconsin. 502 pp.
+163 illustrations. $1.50.
+
+THE FARMSTEAD. By I. P. ROBERTS. 350 pp. 138 illustrations. $1.25.
+
+RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. By GEORGE T. FAIRCHILD, Ex-President of the
+Agricultural College of Kansas. 381 pp. 14 charts. $1.25.
+
+THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING. By L. H. BAILEY 468 pp. 144
+illustrations. $1.25.
+
+THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. By W. H. JORDAN, of New York State Experiment
+Station. 450 pp. $1.25 net.
+
+FARM POULTRY. By GEORGE C. WATSON, of Pennsylvania State College. 341
+pp. $1.25 net.
+
+New volumes will be added from time to time to the RURAL SCIENCE SERIES.
+The following are in preparation:
+
+PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University.
+
+THE PRINCIPLES OF STOCK BREEDING. By W. H. BREWER, of Yale University.
+
+PLANT PATHOLOGY. By B. T. GALLOWAY and associates, of U. S. Department
+of Agriculture.
+
+CARE OF ANIMALS. By N. S. MAYO, of Connecticut Agricultural College.
+
+THE POME FRUITS (Apples, Pears, Quinces). By L. H. BAILEY.
+
+THE FARMER'S BUSINESS HANDBOOK. By I. P. ROBERTS, of Cornell
+University.
+
+
+THE GARDEN-CRAFT SERIES
+
+Comprises practical hand-books for the horticulturist, explaining and
+illustrating in detail the various important methods which experience
+has demonstrated to be the most satisfactory. They may be called manuals
+of practice, and though all are prepared by Professor BAILEY, of Cornell
+University, they include the opinions and methods of successful
+specialists in many lines, thus combining the results of the
+observations and experiences of numerous students in this and other
+lands. They are written in the clear, strong, concise English and in the
+entertaining style which characterize the author. The volumes are
+compact, uniform in style, clearly printed, and illustrated as the
+subject demands. They are of convenient shape for the pocket, and are
+substantially bound in flexible green cloth.
+
+THE HORTICULTURIST'S RULE-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 312 pp.
+75 cts.
+
+THE NURSERY-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fifth edition. 365 pp. 152
+illustrations. $1.00.
+
+PLANT-BREEDING. By L. H. BAILEY. 293 pp. 20 illustrations. $1.00.
+
+THE FORCING-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. 266 pp. 88 illustrations. $1.00.
+
+GARDEN-MAKING. By L. H. BAILEY. Fifth edition. 417 pp. 256
+illustrations. $1.00.
+
+THE PRUNING-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 545 pp. 331
+illustrations. $1.50.
+
+THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK. By C. E. HUNN and L. H. BAILEY. 250 pp. Many
+marginal cuts. $1.00.
+
+
+WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY
+
+THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE: A Collection of Evolution Essays Suggested
+by the Study of Domestic Plants. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of
+Horticulture in the Cornell University.
+
+FOURTH EDITION--515 PAGES--22 ILLUSTRATIONS--$2.00
+
+To those interested in the underlying philosophy of plant life, this
+volume, written in a most entertaining style, and fully illustrated,
+will prove welcome. It treats of the modification of plants under
+cultivation upon the evolution theory, and its attitude on this
+interesting subject is characterized by the author's well-known
+originality and independence of thought. Incidentally, there is stated
+much that will be valuable and suggestive to the working horticulturist,
+as well as to the man or woman impelled by a love of nature to
+horticultural pursuits. It may well be called, indeed, a philosophy of
+horticulture, in which all interested may find inspiration and
+instruction.
+
+   THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE comprises thirty essays touching
+   upon The General Fact and Philosophy of Evolution (The Plant
+   Individual, Experimental Evolution, Coxey's Army and the
+   Russian Thistle, Recent Progress, etc.); Expounding the Fact
+   and Causes of Variation (The Supposed Correlations of Quality
+   in Fruits, Natural History of Synonyms, Reflective
+   Impressions, Relation of Seed-bearing to Cultivation,
+   Variation after Birth, Relation between American and Eastern
+   Asian Fruits, Horticultural Geography, Problems of Climate and
+   Plants, American Fruits, Acclimatization, Sex in Fruits,
+   Novelties, Promising Varieties, etc.); and Tracing the
+   Evolution of Particular Types of Plants (the Cultivated
+   Strawberry, Battle of the Plums, Grapes, Progress of the
+   Carnation, Petunia, The Garden Tomato, etc.).
+
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of
+Horticulture in the Cornell University.
+
+472 PAGES--125 ILLUSTRATIONS--$2.00
+
+In this entertaining volume, the origin and development of the fruits
+peculiar to North America are inquired into, and the personality of
+those horticultural pioneers whose almost forgotten labors have given us
+our most valuable fruits is touched upon. There has been careful
+research into the history of the various fruits, including inspection of
+the records of the great European botanists who have given attention to
+American economic botany. The conclusions reached, the information
+presented, and the suggestions as to future developments, cannot but be
+valuable to any thoughtful fruit-grower, while the terse style of the
+author is at its best in his treatment of the subject.
+
+   THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS discusses The Rise of the
+   American Grape (North America a Natural Vineland, Attempts to
+   Cultivate the European Grape, The Experiments of the Dufours,
+   The Branch of Promise, John Adlum and the Catawba, Rise of
+   Commercial Viticulture, Why Did the Early Vine Experiments
+   Fail? Synopsis of the American Grapes); The Strange History of
+   the Mulberries (The Early Silk Industry, The "Multicaulis
+   Craze,"); Evolution of American Plums and Cherries (Native
+   Plums in General, The Chickasaw, Hortulana, Marianna and Beach
+   Plum Groups, Pacific Coast Plum, Various Other Types of Plums,
+   Native Cherries, Dwarf Cherry Group); Native Apples
+   (Indigenous Species, Amelioration has begun); Origin of
+   American Raspberry-growing (Early American History, Present
+   Types, Outlying Types); Evolution of Blackberry and Dewberry
+   Culture (The High-bush Blackberry and Its Kin, The Dewberries,
+   Botanical Names); Various Types of Berry-like Fruits (The
+   Gooseberry, Native Currants, Juneberry, Buffalo Berry,
+   Elderberry, High-bush Cranberry, Cranberry, Strawberry);
+   Various Types of Tree Fruits (Persimmon, Custard-Apple Tribe,
+   Thorn-Apples, Nut-Fruits); General Remarks on the Improvement
+   of our Native Fruits (What Has Been Done, What Probably Should
+   Be Done).
+
+
+LESSONS WITH PLANTS: Suggestions for Seeing and Interpreting Some of the
+Common Forms of Vegetation. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture
+in the Cornell University, with delineations from nature by W. S.
+HOLDSWORTH, of the Agricultural College of Michigan.
+
+SECOND EDITION--491 PAGES--446 ILLUSTRATIONS--12 MO--CLOTH--$1.10 NET
+
+There are two ways of looking at nature. The _old way_, which you have
+found so unsatisfactory, was to classify everything--to consider leaves,
+roots, and whole plants as formal herbarium specimens, forgetting that
+each had its own story of growth and development, struggle and success,
+to tell. Nothing stifles a natural love for plants more effectually than
+that old way.
+
+The new way is to watch the life of every growing thing, to look upon
+each plant as a living creature, whose life is a story as fascinating as
+the story of any favorite hero. "Lessons with Plants" is a book of
+stories, or rather, a book of plays, for we can see each chapter acted
+out if we take the trouble to _look_ at the actors.
+
+   "I have spent some time in most delightful examination of it,
+   and the longer I look, the better I like it. I find it not
+   only full of interest, but eminently suggestive. I know of no
+   book which begins to do so much to open the eyes of the
+   student--whether pupil or teacher--to the wealth of meaning
+   contained in simple plant forms. Above all else, it seems to
+   be full of suggestions that help one to learn the language of
+   plants, so they may talk to him."--DARWIN L. BARDWELL,
+   _Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton_.
+
+   "It is an admirable book, and cannot fail both to awaken
+   interest in the subject, and to serve as a helpful and
+   reliable guide to young students of plant life. It will, I
+   think, fill an important place in secondary schools, and comes
+   at an opportune time, when helps of this kind are needed and
+   eagerly sought."--Professor V. M. SPALDING, _University of
+   Michigan_.
+
+FIRST LESSONS WITH PLANTS
+
+An Abridgement of the above. 117 PAGES--116 ILLUSTRATIONS--40 CENTS
+NET.
+
+
+BOTANY: An Elementary Text for Schools. By L. H. BAILEY.
+
+355 PAGES--500 ILLUSTRATIONS--$1.10 NET
+
+"This book is made for the pupil: 'Lessons With Plants' was made to
+supplement the work of the teacher." This is the opening sentence of the
+preface, showing that the book is a companion to "Lessons With Plants,"
+which has now become a standard teacher's book. The present book is the
+handsomest elementary botanical text-book yet made. The illustrations
+illustrate. They are artistic. The old formal and unnatural Botany is
+being rapidly outgrown. The book disparages mere laboratory work of the
+old kind: the pupil is taught to see things as they grow and behave. The
+pupil who goes through this book will understand the meaning of the
+plants which he sees day by day. It is a revolt from the dry-as-dust
+teaching of botany. It cares little for science for science's sake, but
+its point of view is nature-study in its best sense. The book is divided
+into four parts, any or all of which may be used in the school: the
+plant itself; the plant in its environment; histology, or the minute
+structure of plants; the kinds of plants (with a key, and descriptions
+of 300 common species). The introduction contains advice to teachers.
+The book is brand new from start to finish.
+
+   "An exceedingly attractive text-book."--_Educational Review._
+
+   "It is a school book of the modern methods."--_The Dial._
+
+   "It would be hard to find a better manual for schools or for
+   individual use."--_The Outlook._
+
+***
+
+  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+  No. 66 Fifth Avenue  NEW YORK
+
+
+THE CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURE: By L. H. BAILEY, of Cornell
+University, assisted by WILHELM MILLER, and many expert cultivators and
+botanists.
+
+4 VOLS.--OVER 2800 ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS--CLOTH--OCTAVO $20.00 NET PER
+SET. HALF MOROCCO, $32.00 NET PER SET
+
+This great work comprises directions for the cultivation of
+horticultural crops and original descriptions of all the species of
+fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants known to be in the
+market in the United States and Canada. "It has the unique distinction
+of presenting for the first time, in a carefully arranged and perfectly
+accessible form, the best knowledge of the best specialists in America
+upon gardening, fruit-growing, vegetable culture, forestry, and the
+like, as well as exact botanical information.... The contributors are
+eminent cultivators or specialists, and the arrangement is very
+systematic, clear and convenient for ready reference."
+
+   "We have here a work which every ambitions gardener will wish
+   to place on his shelf beside his Nicholson and his Loudon, and
+   for such users of it a too advanced nomenclature would have
+   been confusing to the last degree. With the safe names here
+   given, there is little liability to serious perplexity. There
+   is a growing impatience with much of the controversy
+   concerning revision of names of organisms, whether of plants
+   or animals. Those investigators who are busied with the
+   ecological aspects of organisms, and also those who are
+   chiefly concerned with the application of plants to the arts
+   of agriculture, horticulture, and so on, care for the names of
+   organisms under examination only so far as these aid in
+   recognition and identification. To introduce unnecessary
+   confusion is a serious blunder. Professor Bailey has avoided
+   the risk of confusion. In short, in range, treatment and
+   editing, the Cyclopedia appears to be emphatically useful; ...
+   a work worthy of ranking by the side of the Century
+   Dictionary."--_The Nation._
+
+THIS WORK IS SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION, AND TERMS AND FURTHER
+INFORMATION MAY BE HAD OF THE PUBLISHERS.
+
+  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+  No. 66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+
+Extra, missing, or misprinted punctuation has been corrected without
+note. Variation in hyphenation (e.g. house plants vs. house-plants), and
+capitalization in some botanical names has been left as in the original.
+
+The following changes were made to the text:
+
+p. 9: couservatory to conservatory
+
+p. 12: Burridgianum to Burridgeanum (Cosmidium Burridgeanum)
+
+p. 13: autumnale to autumnalis (Adonis autumnalis.)
+
+p. 13: Callirrhöe to Callirrhoë
+
+p. 23: herbacous to herbaceous
+
+p. 41: Beaumé to Baumé (26° Baumé)
+
+p. 55: batchelor's to bachelor's (bachelor's buttons)
+
+p. 56: Callirhoë to Callirrhoë
+
+p. 89: rocommended to recommended (the treatment recommended for Crocus)
+
+p. 122: establishd to established (when well established)
+
+p. 132: 80,° to 80°, (begins to fall below 80°,)
+
+p. 133: witholding to withholding (gradually withholding water)
+
+p. 207: seed to seeds (six seeds in each hill)
+
+p. 233: ipomeas to ipomoeas and Ipomea to Ipomoea
+
+p. 233: Cobea to Cobæa
+
+Advertisements (end of book): science' to science's (science for
+science's sake), and the repeated headings "WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY"
+removed.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Practical Garden-Book, by 
+C. E. Hunn and L. H. Bailey
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK ***
+
+***** This file should be named 34602-8.txt or 34602-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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