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authorRoger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>2025-10-14 20:00:58 -0700
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Butterflies and Moths, by William S. Furneaux
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Butterflies and Moths
+ (British)
+
+
+Author: William S. Furneaux
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 25, 2010 [eBook #34131]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Simon Gardner, Chris Curnow, and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made
+available by Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+ file which includes the original illustrations.
+ See 34131-h.htm or 34131-h.zip:
+ (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34131/34131-h/34131-h.htm)
+ or
+ (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34131/34131-h.zip)
+
+
+ Images of the original pages are available through
+ Internet Archive. See
+ http://www.archive.org/details/butterfliesmoths00furn
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+ In this Plain Text version of the book only symbols from the
+ ASCII character set have been used.
+
+ Text in italic typeface is enclosed by underscores (_italics)_.
+
+ Text in small capital typeface is displayed as ALL UPPER CASE.
+
+ Text in bold typeface is enclosed by equal symbols (=bold=).
+
+ [OE] and [oe] represent upper and lower case oe ligatures.
+
+ [psi] and [gamma] represent the respective Greek letters of
+ that name.
+
+ An acute accent is represented ['e].
+
+ Diaeresis is represented [:e].
+
+ Instances of distinctive font symbols (T, V, W, Y) which occur
+ in the names and descriptions of several species etc. are shown
+ in upper case.
+
+ Note that numerous taxonomic names have changed since 1894.
+ The formatting of Latin names also differs from current
+ conventions; _e.g._, in this book species names are typically,
+ but not invariably, capitalised. No attempt has been made to
+ update this.
+
+ Some minor changes have been made to obvious format and
+ punctuation inconsistencies, but other inconsistent usages have
+ been retained. Where obvious typographical errors have been
+ corrected, these are listed at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+
+BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS
+
+(British)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+OUT-DOOR WORLD LIBRARY.
+
+ THE OUT-DOOR WORLD; or, Young Collector's Handbook. By W. FURNEAUX,
+ F.R.G.S. With 18 Plates, 16 of which are coloured, and 549
+ Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._
+
+ BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (BRITISH). By W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S. With 12
+ coloured Plates and 241 Illustrations in the Text. 10_s._ 6_d._ net.
+
+_To be followed by_
+
+ BRITISH BIRDS. By W. H. HUDSON, F.Z.S. With a Chapter on Structure
+ and Classification by FRANK E. BEDDARD, F.R.S.
+
+ LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. By W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S.
+
+ BRITISH MAMMALS AND REPTILES.
+ AND OTHER VOLUMES.
+
+ London: LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO.
+ New York: 15 East 16th Street.
+
+[Illustration: Plate I
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS
+
+(British)
+
+by
+
+W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S.
+
+Author of 'The Out-Door World, Or Young Collector's Handbook'
+
+[Illustration]
+
+With Twelve Coloured Plates and Numerous Illustrations in the Text
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+London
+Longmans, Green, and Co.
+And New York. 15 East 16th Street
+1894
+
+All rights reserved
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The favourable reception with which the 'Out-door World' has been
+greeted has encouraged the publishers to issue a series of volumes
+dealing in fuller detail with the various branches of Natural History
+treated of in that work. Necessarily each subject was only briefly
+touched upon, but the study is of so enticing a character that 'appetite
+grows by feeding,' and the students of the 'Out-door World,' having
+tasted the sweetness of companionship with Nature, will not rest
+satisfied with the help afforded by that handbook. Each one will want to
+go deeper into that particular department which most appeals to his own
+inclinations.
+
+The present volume is written expressly for those who desire to extend
+their knowledge of the British Lepidoptera, or, to use the more popular
+names, 'Butterflies and Moths.'
+
+The general characteristics of this interesting order of insects are
+described somewhat fully, but, of course, it would be impossible to give
+an individual account of all the British Lepidoptera in a work of this
+size, so a selection has been made such as will satisfy the requirements
+of the great majority of those who intend to take up this particular
+branch of entomology. The number of British Butterflies, however, is
+so limited that a place has been found for a figure and a description of
+every species; and, of the larger moths, many of the common and typical
+kinds have been included. An introduction to the study of the
+Micro-lepidoptera has also been added.
+
+No trouble has been spared to render this work thoroughly practical. In
+addition to the verbal descriptions of so many species, twelve coloured
+plates and a large number of woodcuts have been specially prepared to
+help the student in his work. It is believed that the extreme care with
+which these have been produced will render them of the greatest
+assistance to the collector in the recognition of his specimens.
+
+But he has not only to recognise his specimens--he must first catch
+them; and here full directions have been given to insure success in this
+part of his work, as well as in the management, preservation, and
+arrangement of his captures.
+
+The Author hopes that this volume may be the means of adding many happy
+hours--hours of the purest enjoyment--to the lives of those whom he has
+succeeded in luring into the fields and lanes and woods of the Out-door
+World.
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+ PART I
+
+ _STRUCTURE AND LIFE HISTORY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+ CHAP. PAGE
+
+ I. GENERAL CHARACTERS 1
+
+ II. THE EGG 16
+
+ III. THE LARVA 22
+
+ IV. THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS 40
+
+ V. CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA 55
+
+
+ PART II
+
+ _WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD_
+
+ VI. CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 63
+
+ VII. COLLECTING OVA, LARVAE, AND PUPAE 98
+
+ VIII. REARING LEPIDOPTERA 112
+
+ IX. SETTING AND PRESERVING 122
+
+ X. PRESERVING OVA, LARVAE AND PUPAE 130
+
+ XI. THE CABINET--ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS 134
+
+
+ PART III
+
+ _BRITISH BUTTERFLIES_
+
+ XII. THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES' 139
+
+ XIII. THE FRITILLARIES, VANESSAS, AND THE PURPLE EMPEROR 154
+
+ XIV. THE BROWNS AND HEATHS 173
+
+ XV. THE HAIRSTREAKS, COPPERS AND BLUES 183
+
+ XVI. THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS 196
+
+
+ PART IV
+
+ _COMMON BRITISH MOTHS_
+
+ XVII. SPHINGES 203
+
+ XVIII. BOMBYCES 217
+
+ XIX. THE NOCTUAE 239
+
+ XX. GEOMETRAE 268
+
+ XXI. THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA 290
+
+
+ APPENDICES
+
+ I. COMPLETE CLASSIFIED LIST OF BRITISH MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA 309
+
+ II. THE LEPIDOPTERIST'S CALENDAR 326
+
+ REFERENCES TO COLOURED PLATES 347
+
+ INDEX 351
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ _COLOURED PLATES_
+
+ 1-7. BRITISH BUTTERFLIES _Frontispiece_
+ 8. LARVAE AND PUPAE OF BRITISH BUTTERFLIES }
+ 9. SPHINGES }
+ 10. BOMBYCES } _At end_
+ 11. NOCTUAE }
+ 12. NOCTUA AND GEOMETRAE }
+
+ _Full references accompany the Plates._
+
+ _ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT_
+
+ FIG. PAGE
+
+ 1. SCALES FROM THE WINGS OF BUTTERFLIES 1
+ 2. PORTION OF THE WING OF A BUTTERFLY FROM WHICH SOME OF THE
+ SCALES HAVE BEEN REMOVED 2
+ 3. BODY OF A BUTTERFLY--UNDER SIDE 3
+ 4. SECTION OF THE EYE OF AN INSECT 4
+ 5. ANTENNAE OF BUTTERFLIES 5
+ 6. ANTENNAE OF MOTHS 5
+ 7. SECTION OF THE PROBOSCIS OF A BUTTERFLY 7
+ 8. DIAGRAM OF THE WINGS OF A BUTTERFLY 9
+ 9. THE UNDEVELOPED FORE LEG OF A BUTTERFLY 10
+ 10. THE FOUR STAGES OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY
+ (_Pieris Brassicae_) 14
+ 11. EGG OF THE MEADOW BROWN BUTTERFLY 20
+ 12. EGG OF THE SPECKLED WOOD BUTTERFLY 20
+ 13. EGG OF THE VAPOURER MOTH 20
+ 14. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE CLOUDED YELLOW BUTTERFLY 22
+ 15. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY BUTTERFLY 23
+ 16. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE PURPLE EMPEROR BUTTERFLY 24
+ 17. AN ICHNEUMON FLY (_Cryptus Migrator_) 25
+ 18. ANOTHER ICHNEUMON FLY (_Pimpla Instigator_) 25
+ 19. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE ANGLE SHADES MOTH (_Meticulosa_) 26
+ 20. WALKING LEG OF A CATERPILLAR 28
+ 21. LARVA OF THE YELLOW UNDERWING MOTH (_Pronuba_) 28
+ 22. LARVA OF THE CRIMSON SPECKLED MOTH (_Pulchella_) 28
+ 23. LARVA OF THE LOBSTER MOTH (_Fagi_) 28
+ 24. CATERPILLAR OF THE IRON PROMINENT MOTH (_Dromedarius_) 29
+ 25. LARVA OF THE BRIMSTONE MOTH (_Luteolata_) 29
+ 26. THE CLASPERS OF A CATERPILLAR 30
+ 27. THE HOMES OF LEAF MINERS AND LEAF ROLLERS 33
+ 28. THE COCOON OF THE EMPEROR MOTH 40
+ 29. THE COCOON OF THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET (_Filipendulae_) 40
+ 30. THE PUPA OF THE PRIVET HAWK (_Ligustri_) 44
+ 31. THE CHRYSALIS OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Brassicae_) 44
+ 32. THE PUPA OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY (_Aglaia_) 45
+ 33. THE PUPA OF THE BLACK-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Crataegi_) 45
+ 34. THE PUPA OF THE CURRANT MOTH 45
+ 35. PUPA OF THE PALE TUSSOCK MOTH (_Pudibunda_) 45
+ 36. A BUTTERFLY, JUST AFTER EMERGING 50
+ 37. A BUTTERFLY AT REST (LARGE COPPER) 57
+ 38. A MOTH AT REST (GOTHIC) 57
+ 39. A WIRE FRAME FOR A BUTTERFLY NET 65
+ 40. STICK FOR THE NET 65
+ 41. THE METAL Y 66
+ 42. PATTERN FOR THE NET 67
+ 43. THE CYANIDE BOTTLE 68
+ 44. SECTION OF THE LAUREL BOX 70
+ 45. THE CHLOROFORM BOTTLE 72
+ 46. }
+ 47. } FITTINGS FOR THE COLLECTING BOX 75
+ 48. }
+ 49. }
+ 50. FRAME OF NET FOR COLLECTING INSECTS ON LAMPS AND WINDOWS 87
+ 51. A TRAP FOR CATCHING MOTHS 88
+ 52. METAL JOINT FOR LANTERN AND NET 91
+ 53. NET AND LANTERN FOR TAKING MOTHS FROM HIGH BLOSSOMS 91
+ 54. FRAME FOR THE SUGARING NET 94
+ 55. CAGE FOR DECOY FEMALES 96
+ 56. A SUGAR TRAP 96
+ 57. A LARVA GLASS 114
+ 58. A LARVA GLASS 114
+ 59. A LARVA CAGE 115
+ 60. SECTION OF A SETTING BOARD 123
+ 61. SECTIONS OF SETTING BOARDS 123
+ 62. A BUTTERFLY ON THE SETTING BOARD 124
+ 63. ANOTHER METHOD OF SETTING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 126
+ 64. A BLOWPIPE FOR LARVAE 131
+ 65. THE BATH WHITE--UNDER SIDE 147
+ 66. THE CLOUDED YELLOW--FEMALE 151
+ 67. THE SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 155
+ 68. THE PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 156
+ 69. THE QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 157
+ 70. THE DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 158
+ 71. THE HIGH-BROWN FRITILLARY 159
+ 72. THE SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 160
+ 73. THE GREASY FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 161
+ 74. The GLANVILLE FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE 162
+ 75. THE COMMA--UNDER SIDE 164
+ 76. THE PURPLE EMPEROR--UNDER SIDE 172
+ 77. THE MARBLED WHITE--UNDER SIDE 174
+ 78. THE WOOD ARGUS--UNDER SIDE 176
+ 79. THE GRAYLING--UNDER SIDE 178
+ 80. THE LARGE HEATH--UNDER SIDE 179
+ 81. THE RINGLET--UPPER SIDE 180
+ 82. THE MARSH RINGLET--UNDER SIDE 181
+ 83. THE BROWN HAIRSTREAK--MALE 184
+ 84. THE WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK 184
+ 85. THE PURPLE HAIRSTREAK--MALE 186
+ 86. THE GREEN HAIRSTREAK 186
+ 87. THE TAILED BLUE--UNDER SIDE 188
+ 88. THE SILVER-STUDDED BLUE--UNDER SIDE 189
+ 89. THE COMMON BLUE--UNDER SIDE 191
+ 90. THE CLIFDEN BLUE--UNDER SIDE 191
+ 91. THE CHALK-HILL BLUE--UNDER SIDE 192
+ 92. THE HOLLY BLUE--UNDER SIDE 193
+ 93. THE MAZARINE BLUE--UNDER SIDE 194
+ 94. THE SMALL BLUE--UNDER SIDE 194
+ 95. THE LARGE BLUE--UNDER SIDE 195
+ 96. THE SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER--UNDER SIDE 201
+ 97. THE DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK MOTH 205
+ 98. THE LARVA OF ATROPOS 206
+ 99. THE CATERPILLAR OF EUPHORBIAE 207
+ 100. THE SMALL ELEPHANT HAWK MOTH 208
+ 101. THE POPLAR HAWK 209
+ 102. THE BROAD-BORDERED BEE HAWK 212
+ 103. THE HORNET CLEARWING OF THE POPLAR 213
+ 104. THE CURRANT CLEARWING 213
+ 105. THE FORESTER 214
+ 106. THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET 215
+ 107. THE LARVA OF FILIPENDULAE 215
+ 108. THE GREEN SILVER-LINED 217
+ 109. THE SHORT-CLOAKED MOTH 218
+ 110. THE MUSLIN MOTH 218
+ 111. THE COMMON FOOTMAN 219
+ 112. THE LARVA OF JACOBAEAE 219
+ 113. THE SCARLET TIGER 220
+ 114. THE BUFF ERMINE 222
+ 115. THE WHITE ERMINE 222
+ 116. THE GHOST SWIFT--FEMALE 223
+ 117. THE COMMON SWIFT 224
+ 118. THE GOAT MOTH 225
+ 119. THE LARVA OF LIGNIPERDA (LESS THAN HALF FULL SIZE) 225
+ 120. THE LEOPARD MOTH 226
+ 121. THE LARVA OF PYRINA (ONLY PARTLY GROWN) 226
+ 122. THE BROWN TAIL 227
+ 123. THE GIPSY--MALE 227
+ 124. THE BLACK ARCHES--MALE 228
+ 125. THE VAPOURER MOTH--MALE 228
+ 126. THE FEMALE VAPOURER 228
+ 127. LARVA OF THE VAPOURER MOTH 229
+ 128. THE DRINKER--MALE 230
+ 129. THE OAK HOOK TIP 233
+ 130. THE CHINESE CHARACTER 233
+ 131. THE POPLAR KITTEN 234
+ 132. THE PUSS MOTH 235
+ 133. THE COXCOMB PROMINENT 235
+ 134. THE LARVA OF BUCEPHALA 236
+ 135. THE CHOCOLATE TIP 237
+ 136. THE PEACH BLOSSOM 237
+ 137. THE YELLOW HORNED 238
+ 138. THE MARBLED BEAUTY 240
+ 139. THE GREY DAGGER 240
+ 140. THE POPLAR GREY 241
+ 141. THE FIGURE OF EIGHT 241
+ 142. THE BROWN-LINE BRIGHT-EYE 242
+ 143. THE SMOKY WAINSCOT 243
+ 144. THE COMMON WAINSCOT 243
+ 145. THE BULLRUSH 244
+ 146. THE FROSTED ORANGE 245
+ 147. THE FLAME 245
+ 148. THE LIGHT ARCHES 246
+ 149. THE FLOUNCED RUSTIC 246
+ 150. THE CABBAGE MOTH 247
+ 151. THE DOT 247
+ 152. THE RUSTIC SHOULDER-KNOT 248
+ 153. THE MARBLED MINOR 248
+ 154. THE MOTTLED RUSTIC 249
+ 155. THE TURNIP MOTH 250
+ 156. THE HEART AND DART 251
+ 157. THE GARDEN DART 251
+ 158. THE FLAME SHOULDER 252
+ 159. THE LESSER BROAD BORDER 252
+ 160. THE LESSER YELLOW UNDERWING 253
+ 161. THE GOTHIC 254
+ 162. THE OLD LADY 254
+ 163. THE COMMON QUAKER 255
+ 164. THE CHESTNUT 256
+ 165. THE PINK-BARRED SALLOW 256
+ 166. THE DUN-BAR 257
+ 167. THE BROAD-BARRED WHITE 257
+ 168. THE ANGLE SHADES 258
+ 169. THE GREY ARCHES 259
+ 170. THE SHEARS 260
+ 171. THE BRIGHT-LINE BROWN-EYE 260
+ 172. THE EARLY GREY 261
+ 173. THE SHARK 262
+ 174. THE BURNISHED BRASS 263
+ 175. THE SILVER Y 264
+ 176. THE RED UNDERWING 266
+ 177. THE LIGHT EMERALD 270
+ 178. THE AUGUST THORN 271
+ 179. THE PEPPERED MOTH 272
+ 180. THE WILLOW BEAUTY 273
+ 181. THE LARGE EMERALD 274
+ 182. THE COMMON EMERALD 274
+ 183. THE LACE BORDER 275
+ 184. THE RIBAND WAVE 276
+ 185. THE BLOOD-VEIN 276
+ 186. THE COMMON WAVE 277
+ 187. THE CLOUDED SILVER 277
+ 188. THE V MOTH 278
+ 189. THE COMMON HEATH 279
+ 190. THE BORDERED WHITE--MALE 279
+ 191. THE CURRANT MOTH 280
+ 192. THE SPRING USHER 281
+ 193. THE MARCH MOTH 282
+ 194. THE NOVEMBER MOTH 282
+ 195. THE TWIN-SPOT CARPET 283
+ 196. THE GRASS RIVULET 283
+ 197. THE NETTED PUG 284
+ 198. THE NARROW-WINGED PUG 284
+ 199. THE BRINDLED PUG 284
+ 200. THE SMALL SERAPHIM 285
+ 201. THE BLUE-BORDERED CARPET 285
+ 202. THE BEAUTIFUL CARPET 286
+ 203. THE COMMON CARPET 286
+ 204. THE SILVER GROUND CARPET 287
+ 205. THE GARDEN CARPET 287
+ 206. THE YELLOW SHELL 288
+ 207. THE SMALL PH[OE]NIX 288
+ 208. THE SMALL MALLOW 289
+ 209. THE TABBY OR GREASE MOTH 291
+ 210. THE MEAL MOTH 292
+ 211. THE SMALL MAGPIE 292
+ 212. THE MOTHER-OF-PEARL 293
+ 213. THE GARDEN PEBBLE 293
+ 214. THE BEAUTIFUL CHINA MARK 294
+ 215. GONODACTYLA 295
+ 216. OSTEODACTYLUS 295
+ 217. PENTADACTYLA 295
+ 218. HEXADACTYLA--ENLARGED 296
+ 219. PHRAGMITELLUS--ENLARGED ONE-HALF 297
+ 220. HAMELLUS--SLIGHTLY ENLARGED 297
+ 221. TRISTELLUS 297
+ 222. HORTUELLUS 298
+ 223. MELLONELLA 298
+ 224. XYLOSTEANA WITH WINGS CLOSED 299
+ 225. VIRIDANA 300
+ 226. CRISTANA--ENLARGED 300
+ 227. LECHEANA 300
+ 228. PRUNIANA 300
+ 229. SALICELLA 301
+ 230. OCTOMACULANA--ENLARGED 301
+ 231. CIRSIANA--ENLARGED 302
+ 232. POMONELLA 302
+ 233. ZOEGANA--ENLARGED 302
+ 234. FAGELLA 303
+ 235. CUPRELLA 304
+ 236. PADELLUS 304
+ 237. NERVOSA--TWICE NATURAL SIZE 304
+ 238. GEOFFRELLA 305
+ 239. IBIPENNELLA--ENLARGED 305
+ 240. COMPLANELLA--ENLARGED 306
+ 241. AURELLA--ENLARGED 307
+
+
+
+
+PART I
+
+STRUCTURE AND LIFE-HISTORY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_GENERAL CHARACTERS_
+
+
+The word _Lepidoptera_, which you see at the head of this page, is the
+name of the order of insects to which this volume is to be devoted. It
+is formed from two Greek words, one (_lepis_) signifying a _scale_, and
+the other (_pteron_) denoting a _wing_; and was applied by the great
+naturalist Linnaeus to the scaly-winged insects popularly known as
+Butterflies and Moths.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SCALES FROM THE WINGS OF BUTTERFLIES.]
+
+Every one of my readers has undoubtedly handled some of the interesting
+creatures of this group--having been led to do so either by the extreme
+beauty of their clothing, or, perhaps, from a murderous intent in order
+to protect his own garments from the ravages of a supposed marauder. A
+light mealy powder will probably have been observed afterwards on the
+fingers that have touched the victim's wings.
+
+This powder, although it sometimes presents a beautiful glossy surface
+when spread over the skin, does not exhibit any definite form or
+structure without a more minute examination. Yet these are the scales
+that led the immortal naturalist to invent the somewhat long but useful
+term _Lepidoptera_.
+
+The very next time the opportunity offers itself, dust off a little of
+the mealy powder with a small and very soft brush on to a strip of white
+paper or a slip of glass, and examine it with a powerful lens or the low
+power of a compound microscope. What a sight you will then behold! Each
+little particle of dust is a beautifully formed scale, stamped with a
+number of minute rounded projections, and often displaying the most
+gorgeous colours. A great variety of designs and tints are often
+exhibited by the 'dust' from a single wing. Take, for instance, for your
+inspection, scales from the wing of one of our commonest insects, the
+Small Tortoiseshell Butterfly (Plate III), and you will be surprised at
+the pleasing contrasts. But when your curiosity leads you to deal with
+others in the same manner, the varied display of forms and colours is
+simply amazing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PORTION OF THE WING OF A BUTTERFLY FROM WHICH
+SOME OF THE SCALES HAVE BEEN REMOVED.]
+
+In order that we may learn still more of the structure of the wings of
+the _Lepidoptera_, we will examine a portion of one from which some of
+the scales have been removed, again bringing the lens or the microscope
+into our service. We now see that the scales are arranged in rows with
+great regularity on a thin and transparent membrane, which is supported
+by a system of branching rays. And the membrane itself, in parts which
+have been laid bare, is marked with regular rows of dots--the points at
+which the scales were originally attached by means of short hollow rods.
+
+The framework that supports the thin membrane we have spoken of as
+consisting of a system of _rays_, but to these the terms _veins_,
+_nerves_, _nervures_, or _nervules_ are more commonly applied by various
+naturalists. We cannot do better, however, than adhere to the name
+originally used, for the structures in question do not perform the
+functions of veins, though at first they contain blood, nor are they
+themselves parts of the nervous systems of the insects to which they
+belong.
+
+The result of our examination of the wings of butterflies and moths has
+been to justify the application of the term _Lepidoptera_; but we must
+now study other equally important and interesting features of the
+structure of these insects. First, let us note the general form of the
+body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--BODY OF A BUTTERFLY--UNDER SIDE.
+
+1-7, segments of the abdomen; 8, anal extremity; _a_, antennae; _b_,
+tarsus; _c_, tibia; _d_, femur; _e_, palpi; _f_, head; _g_, thorax.]
+
+A cursory glance at this portion of the creature's anatomy will show
+that it consists of three distinct and well-defined parts. In front
+there is the head, the size of which is somewhat small in proportion.
+Two very large eyes make up the greater portion of its bulk. It is
+remarkable, too, that butterflies possess eyes proportionately much
+larger than those of moths. Now, since butterflies always fly by day,
+and moths are, generally speaking, nocturnal insects, we might be led to
+suppose that the reverse of this arrangement would have suited the
+creatures better; for a small eye, we should think, would be able to
+collect sufficient light in the daytime to form a bright image, and a
+larger light-receiving area would be necessary during the darker hours
+for the same purpose. But it is evident that the sense of vision must
+depend on other conditions besides the size of the eye; and as these
+conditions are not understood in relation to the eyes of insects, any
+attempt at an explanation would be quite useless.
+
+The eye of a butterfly or moth is worthy of a closer examination, for it
+is a most beautiful and marvellous structure. The outer globular
+transparent membrane--the _cornea_--is divided into a large number of
+minute polygonal _facets_, each one of which admits light into a small
+conical compartment surrounded by a coloured membrane, and supplied with
+a fibre of the nerve of vision (the _optic_ nerve). Hence the eye is
+often spoken of as _compound_.
+
+If you look closely into the eyes of various butterflies and moths you
+will generally see a ground colour of grey, blue, brown, or black; but
+when viewed at certain angles in a strong light the most gorgeous hues
+of metallic brilliancy--gold, copper, and bronze--are to be observed.
+All such colours are due to the reflection of light from the colouring
+matter that lies between the numerous conical compartments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--SECTION OF THE EYE OF AN INSECT.]
+
+A glance at the section of a compound eye will show you that all the
+little cones radiate from a common centre. And, as each little
+compartment is surrounded by opaque colouring matter, it is clear that
+perpendicular rays only are capable of penetrating to its base and
+exciting the nerve fibre that lies there. Thus each little division of a
+compound eye forms its own image of the object that happens to be
+exactly opposite its facet. But how many facets do we find in a single
+eye? Sometimes only a few hundreds, but sometimes as many as seventeen
+or eighteen thousand! We must not, however, conclude that the nature of
+the vision of butterflies and moths is necessarily very different from
+our own. We have two eyes, but the images formed by them are both
+blended, so that we do not see double. We can understand, therefore,
+that the thousands of images formed in a single eye may be blended
+together so as to form one continuous picture. Still there remains this
+difference: while in our own case the two images formed by the two eyes
+are practically the same, in the case of insects every one of the little
+conical tubes of a compound eye forms an image of an object that cannot
+possibly be formed by any one of the others. Thus, if the lepidopterous
+insect sees a continuous picture of its surroundings, such a picture is
+produced by the overlapping and blending, at their edges, of hundreds or
+thousands of distinct parts.
+
+There is yet another interesting difference between the vision of these
+insects and that of ourselves. As already stated, our two eyes are both
+turned toward the same point at the same time. But look at the
+butterfly's eyes. Here are no movable eyeballs, and the two eyes, placed
+as they are at the _sides_ of the head, are always turned in _opposite_
+directions. The corneae, too, are very convex; and consequently the range
+of vision is vastly wider than ours. A boy is often easily surprised by
+a playmate who approaches him stealthily from behind, but did you ever
+try the same game with a butterfly? I have, many a time. After getting
+cautiously so near to a butterfly at rest as to be able to distinguish
+between its head and its hinder extremity, I have quietly circled round
+it so as to approach it from behind, being at the time under the
+impression that it wouldn't see me under those circumstances. But not
+the slightest advantage did I derive from this stratagem, for the
+position and construction of its eyes enabled it to see almost all ways
+at once.
+
+In addition to the two compound eyes, the _Lepidoptera_, or at least
+most of them, are provided with two small simple eyes; but these are
+generally so hidden among the closely set hair that covers the head,
+that it is doubtful whether they are of much service as organs of
+vision.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ANTENNAE OF BUTTERFLIES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ANTENNAE OF MOTHS.]
+
+The antennae proceed from two points close to the upper borders of the
+eyes. They are jointed organs, and are of very different forms in the
+various species of _Lepidoptera_. They are generally long, slender, and
+clubbed at the extremity in butterflies, but exhibit several minor
+points of difference which we shall have to note later on. In moths the
+antennae are sometimes long, slender, and pointed. Some are thick, and
+more or less prismatic in form; while others are slightly or deeply
+pectinated or comb-like. The antennae of butterflies are always
+straight, or only slightly curved; and, although the insects can sway
+them bodily, they have no power to bend them, or to stow them away in
+any place of shelter. Moths, on the other hand, when at rest, are almost
+invariably found to have their antennae snugly tucked under the wings,
+and brought so closely against the side of the head for this purpose
+that even the uncovered portion is often difficult to find.
+
+There are two other prominent appendages belonging to the heads of the
+_Lepidoptera_. These are the _labial palpi_ or feelers of the lips. They
+are generally easily seen, projecting forward on the under side of the
+head, sometimes so long and conspicuous as to give one the idea of a
+snout or long nose. The palpi are jointed--usually in three parts--are
+covered with scales, and often furnished with hairs or bristles.
+
+If you watch a moth or butterfly when it is feeding on the sweet juices
+of a flower, or on some kind of artificial sweet with which you have
+provided it, you will observe its long trunk or _proboscis_, by which
+food is sucked up. This instrument is so long and slender that it seems
+almost impossible that it can be a tube through which a liquid freely
+passes. But a careful examination will show that this is the case. It is
+composed of two separate pieces--two half tubes, which, when closely
+applied to each other, form a very thin and flexible pipe, perfectly
+air-tight and adapted for suction. Sometimes you can see a butterfly or
+moth manipulating with its proboscis as if it required readjustment in
+some way or other. It has split the tube throughout its length, so that
+it now looks like two exceedingly fine hairs. Then, after a short time,
+the two halves are put together again, and immediately, as if by magic,
+become a single tube in which no kind of seam is to be observed without
+a powerful magnifier.
+
+In order to observe the nature of such a wonderful arrangement we must
+have recourse to the aid of a good microscope. Thus assisted, we can see
+at once how the junction of the two sides of the proboscis is brought
+about so quickly and so perfectly. The inner edges of each half are very
+regularly fringed with lines of closely set hairs--so regular, in fact,
+are they, that they give one the idea of long yet minute beautifully
+formed combs. When the two parts are brought together, the hairs of two
+opposite edges interlock, those on one side exactly filling the spaces
+between those of the other.
+
+The microscope also reveals another interesting fact, viz. that the
+proboscis is not a single tube, but, although so remarkably thin, is
+really a set of three distinct pipes, one lying on each side of the
+central one. It is said that the central tube only is used for sucking
+up the liquid food, and there seems to be some doubt as to the uses of
+the other two. Some naturalists are of opinion that the latter are air
+tubes, and are connected with the respiration of the insect; while
+others say that through these the insects eject a thin watery fluid with
+which to dissolve or dilute those sweetmeats that are not sufficiently
+liquid to be readily sucked up. But possibly both these opinions are
+correct, the proboscis serving all three of the purposes here named. The
+only observation of my own bearing on the subject is this. While a moth
+was feeding on a drop of syrup in a strong light, a powerful lens
+revealed drops, of liquid, mingled with bubbles of air, passing
+alternately _up and down_ the two lateral tubes of the proboscis. At the
+same time the upward current of syrup in the central tube was by no
+means steady and continuous.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--SECTION OF THE PROBOSCIS OF A BUTTERFLY.]
+
+When this organ is not in use, it is beautifully coiled into a close
+spiral which lies between the labial palpi. The length varies
+considerably in different insects, and consequently the number of turns
+in the spiral must differ also. Sometimes there are less than two turns,
+while some of the longer ones form spirals of from six to ten turns.
+
+In concluding our brief account of the head of lepidopterous insects it
+is, I suppose, hardly necessary to add that there is no kind of chewing
+apparatus to be described; all the members of this order, at least in
+the perfect state, deriving the whole of the little nourishment they
+require entirely by suction through the proboscis or 'trunk.'
+
+The second division of the body is the _thorax_. This is much larger
+than the head, and consists of three ring-like segments, joined one
+behind the other so intimately that the lines of junction are hardly
+visible, even after the thick clothing of fine hair has been brushed
+off. Behind the thorax is the abdomen, which is composed of several
+segments, the junctions between the rings often being most distinct.
+
+From the sides of the thorax proceed the two pairs of wings, the general
+structure of which we have already to a certain extent examined. But
+when we are a little farther advanced in our insect studies, we shall
+have to become acquainted with detailed descriptions given as aids to
+the identification of species. Now, such descriptions cannot be
+satisfactory, either to the one who gives or to him who receives, unless
+expressed in such definite terms as render a misunderstanding
+impossible. A botanist cannot give an accurate and concise description
+of a flower without the use of certain names and expressions which have
+gradually become an almost necessary part of his vocabulary; neither can
+an entomologist give a really useful, and, at the same time, a
+_succinct_ description of an insect unless he is acquainted with the
+names of its parts. Therefore, seeing that we distinguish the various
+species of butterflies and moths _mainly_ by the arrangement and colour
+of the markings of their wings, it is really necessary that we should
+know the names of the different parts of these organs. For this reason I
+have inserted drawings of a fore and of a hind wing of a butterfly,
+together with the names of the various parts of the wings, and also the
+names of the principal rays or _nervures_. Yet I would not advise any
+young entomologist to attempt to commit to memory all the names given.
+Rather use the diagram for reference when occasion requires, more
+particularly when you have an insect in your possession that you desire
+to study. In ordinary descriptions of butterflies and moths the names of
+the _nervures_ are not so generally used as those of the _parts_ of the
+wing. Consequently it is exceedingly useful to know what is meant by the
+terms _base_, _costal margin_, _apex_, _hind margin_, _anal angle_,
+_inner margin_, _discoidal cell_ &c. as applied to the wing.
+
+The two pairs of wings are attached to the second and third segments of
+the thorax; but of the _three_ pairs of legs, which we have next to
+consider, one pair arises from each of the three segments. The
+arrangement of these limbs is well shown in the sketch on page 3, as are
+also the names of the different parts of the limb, the latter being
+given for reference by the reader when the need arises.
+
+All insects, in their perfect state, we are told, have three pairs of
+legs; but if you examine the under surface of certain butterflies, such
+as the Marbled White, or any of the Vanessas, Browns, or Heaths, it is
+quite likely that you will raise objection to such a statement; for in
+these you may possibly see only four legs. But this is the result of a
+too cursory observation. Look a little more closely at your specimen,
+and you will see a pair of smaller legs folded up under the fore part of
+the thorax. By means of a blunt needle you can straighten out these
+limbs, and then the difference in length to be observed between them and
+the other four is very striking indeed. They are also thinner than the
+middle and hind legs; and, unlike these, are not provided with claws.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--DIAGRAM OF THE WINGS OF A BUTTERFLY.
+
+I. _Fore wing._--1-5, subcostal nervules; 6, 7, discoidal nervules;
+8-10, median nervules; 11, submedian nervure; 12, internal nervure;
+13-15, disco-cellular nervules; 16, interno-median nervule; 17, median
+nervure; 18, subcostal nervure; _a_, costal nervure; _b_, costa or
+anterior margin; _c_, apex or anterior angle; _d_, posterior or hind
+margin; _e_, posterior or anal angle; _f_, interior or inner margin;
+_g_, base; _h_, discoidal cell.
+
+II. _Hind wing._--1, 2, subcostal nervules; 3, discoidal nervule; 4-6,
+median nervules; 7, submedian nervure; 8, precostal nervure; 9,
+subcostal nervure; 10, median nervure; 11, 12, disco-cellular nervules;
+_a_, costal nervure; _b_, costa or anterior margin; _c_, apex or
+anterior angle; _d_, hind margin; _e_, tail or caudal appendage; _f_,
+anal angle; _g_, abdominal or inner margin; _h_, base.]
+
+These imperfectly developed legs are, of course, quite useless as far as
+walking is concerned; indeed, it is extremely doubtful as to whether
+they are of any service whatever to the owner. On one occasion,
+however, while watching a Peacock Butterfly apparently engaged in
+cleaning its divided proboscis, I observed that this organ was
+frequently passed under the thorax, and that the front pair of legs were
+pressed against it on each side, while it was being drawn outward
+between them. It is probable, therefore, that these limbs constitute a
+pair of brushes by means of which the fine grooves of the divided trunk
+are cleared of any solid or sticky matter that may lodge therein. It is
+certain that moths, and those butterflies that possess six _equal_ legs,
+use the front pair for this same purpose. The former, also, employ them
+for brushing their antennae, which seem to be, by the way, particularly
+sensitive to different kinds of irritation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--THE UNDEVELOPED FORE LEG OF A BUTTERFLY.]
+
+It is a well-known fact that tobacco smoke has a powerful influence on
+certain small insects; and even though it can hardly be regarded as a
+perfect all-round insecticide, it is certainly more or less
+objectionable to the larger and hardier species. A short time since,
+while watching a number of newly emerged moths of the _Sphinx_ group,
+and at the same time enjoying the solace afforded by the luxurious weed,
+a puff of the smoke was accidentally allowed to play into the box in
+which my pets were for the time imprisoned. Immediately they rubbed
+their front legs vigorously over the antennae, as if to remove the
+obnoxious irritant that had thus intruded on their presence. Similar
+observations have led many naturalists to suppose that the antennae are
+the seat of various senses, such as those of touch, hearing, and smell.
+Seeing that insects do not, as far as we know, possess special organs
+for all the five senses which we enjoy (and it is interesting to note
+here that some insects certainly experience other sensations which are
+quite beyond our ken), we can quite understand the common tendency to
+locate the seats of certain of the senses in such easily affected parts
+as the antennae. But little, I believe, has been definitely proved save
+that the antennae are sensitive to touch and to irritants generally.
+
+While speaking of the senses of insects, I cannot refrain from
+mentioning a most remarkable example of a peculiar sensitiveness that
+has been observed in certain moths of the family _Bombyces_ (page
+217)--notably the Oak Eggar, the Emperor, and the Kentish Glory. Take a
+newly emerged female of either of these species, shut her up in a small
+box, conceal the box in your pocket, and then walk about in some
+country spot known to you as being one of the haunts of that species of
+moth. Then, if any of the males of the same species happen to be in the
+neighbourhood, they will settle or hover about close to the female
+which, although still concealed and quite out of their reach, has
+attracted them to the spot.
+
+What a marvellously acute sense this must be, that thus enables the
+insects to scent out, as it were, their mates at considerable distances,
+even when doubly surrounded by a wooden box and the material of a coat
+pocket! You would naturally expect that entomologists have turned this
+wonderful power to account. Many a box has been filled with the
+beautiful Kentish Glories of the male kind, who had been led into the
+snare by the attractions of a virgin Glory that they were never to
+behold. Many an Emperor has also been decoyed from his throne to the
+place of his execution, beguiled by the imaginary charms of an Empress
+on whom he was never to cast one passing glance. And these and other
+similar captures have been made in places where, without the employment
+of the innocent enchantress, perhaps not a single male could have been
+found, even after the most diligent search.
+
+Speaking of this surprising sense, I am again tempted to revert to the
+antennae; for it is a remarkable fact that the males of those species of
+moths which exhibit the power of thus searching out their mates, are
+just those that are also remarkable for their very broad and deeply
+pectinated antennae--a fact that has led to the supposition that the
+power in question is located in the antennae, and is also proportional to
+the amount of surface displayed by these organs.
+
+Up to the present time we have been considering the butterfly and moth
+in their perfect forms, but everybody knows that the former is not
+_always_ a butterfly, nor is the latter always a moth; but that they
+both pass through certain preparatory stages before they attain their
+final winged state.
+
+We shall now notice briefly what these earlier stages are, leaving the
+detailed descriptions of each for the following chapters.
+
+The life of the perfect butterfly or moth is of very short duration,
+often only a few days, nearly the whole of its existence having been
+spent in preparing itself for the brief term to be enjoyed
+
+ ... in fields of light,
+ And where the flowers of Paradise unfold.
+
+It may be interesting to consider of what use the metamorphoses of
+insects are, and to what extent these metamorphoses render them fit for
+the work they have to do.
+
+It is certain that the chief work of insects, taken as a whole, is to
+remove from the earth the excess of animal and vegetable matter. If they
+are to do this work effectually, it is clear that they must be very
+voracious feeders, and also be capable of multiplying their species
+prodigiously. Now each of these powers requires the special development
+of a certain set of organs, and an abnormal development of one set must
+necessarily be produced at the expense of the other. Hence we find
+insects existing in two distinct stages, with or without an intermediate
+quiescent state, during the first of which the digestive apparatus is
+enormously developed, while the reproductive organs occupy but very
+little space; then, during the other stage, the digestive apparatus is
+of the simplest possible description, and the organs of reproduction are
+in a perfect state of development.
+
+Allowing, then, that the chief work of the insect is the removal of
+surplus organic matter, we can see that a large share of its life should
+be spent in the larval or grub stage, and that the perfect state _need_
+not occupy any more time than is necessary for the fertilisation of the
+eggs that almost completely fill the body of the female at the time of
+her emergence from the chrysalis shell.
+
+Many insects undergo their metamorphoses by slow degrees, but the
+_Lepidoptera_, after existing for some considerable period without any
+important visible change in structure, pass by a rapid transition into
+the next state. Thus, a caterpillar, that has not altered in general
+form for several weeks, changes into a chrysalis within the course of a
+few days; and again, after a period of quiescence that may extend
+throughout the whole of the colder months, becomes a perfect butterfly
+or moth within twenty minutes of the moment of its emergence.
+
+But this suddenness is more apparent than real, as may easily be proved
+by internal examinations of the insect at various stages of growth;
+showing that we are led astray by the rapidity of _external_
+changes--the mere _moultings_ or castings of the skin--while the gradual
+transformations proceeding within are not so readily observed.
+
+We have already said that the life of the perfect butterfly or moth is
+short. A few days after emergence from the chrysalis case, the female
+deposits her eggs on the leaves or stems of the plant that is to sustain
+the larvae. Her work is now accomplished, and the few days more allowed
+her are spent in frolicking among the flowers, and sucking the sweet
+juices they provide. But males and females alike--bedecked with the most
+gorgeous colours and overflowing with sportive mirth when first they
+take to the wing--soon show the symptoms of a fast approaching end.
+Their colours begin to fade, and the beauty-making scales of the wings
+gradually disappear through friction against the petals of hundreds of
+flowers visited and the merry dances with scores and scores of playful
+companions. At last, one bright afternoon, while the sun is still high
+in the heavens, a butterfly, more weary than usual, with heavy and
+laborious flight, seeks a place of rest for the approaching night. Here,
+on a waving stalk, it is soon lulled to sleep by a gentle breeze.
+
+Next morning, a few hours before noon, the blazing sun calls it out for
+its usual frolics. But its body now seems too heavy to be supported by
+the feeble and ragged wings, and, after one or two weak attempts at
+play, incited by the approach of a younger and merrier companion, it
+settles down in its final resting place. On the following morning a dead
+butterfly is seen, still clinging by its claws to a swinging stem, from
+which it is eventually thrown during a storm.
+
+The tale of the perfect moth is very similar to the above, except that
+it is generally summoned to activity by the approach of darkness.
+
+We see, then, that butterflies and moths exhibit none of that quality
+which we term parental affection. Their duty ends with the deposition of
+the eggs, and the parents are dead before the young larvae have
+penetrated the shell that surrounds them.
+
+Yet it is wonderful to see how unmistakably the females generally lay
+their eggs on the very plants that provide the necessary food for their
+progeny, as if they were not only conscious of and careful concerning
+the exact requirements of their offspring, but also possessed such a
+knowledge of botanical science as enabled them to discriminate between
+the plant required and all others.
+
+Has the perfect insect any selfish motive in this apparently careful
+selection of a plant on which to lay its eggs? Does the female herself
+derive any benefit from the particular plant chosen for this purpose? In
+most cases, certainly not. For it often happens that the blossom of this
+plant is not by any means one of those that supply the sweets which
+insects love, and still more frequently does it occur that the eggs are
+deposited either before the flowers have appeared or after they have
+faded.
+
+Neither can we easily impute to the insect an acquired knowledge of the
+nature and wants of her offspring, or an acquaintance with botany
+sufficient to enable her to distinguish plant forms. Our only solution
+of the problem (which is really no solution at all) is to attribute the
+whole thing to that inexplicable quality which we are pleased to term
+_natural instinct_. It is to be observed, however, that it is not _all_
+butterflies and moths that display this unerring power. Some few seem to
+deposit their eggs indiscriminately on all kinds of herbage. But, I
+believe, the larvae of these species are generally grass feeders, and
+would seldom have to travel far from any spot without meeting with an
+acceptable morsel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--THE FOUR STAGES OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY
+(_Pieris Brassicae_). _a_, larva; _b_, pupa; _c_, imago; _d_, egg.]
+
+But we must now pass on to a brief consideration of the other stages of
+the insect's existence. After a time, varying from a few days to several
+months, the young caterpillars or larvae make their appearance. They soon
+commence feeding in right earnest. Their period of existence in this
+state varies from a few weeks to several months, and even, in some
+cases, to years. During this time their growth is generally very rapid,
+and they undergo a series of _moults_ or changes of skin, of which we
+shall have more to say in a future chapter. Then, when fully grown, they
+prepare for an apparently quiescent form, which we speak of as the
+_pupa_ or chrysalis, and in which they again spend a very variable
+period, extending over a few days, weeks, or months. Now, inclosed in a
+protective case, each pupa is undergoing a remarkable change. Some of
+its old organs are disappearing, and others are developing; and, after
+all the parts of the future insect have been developed as far as its
+narrow shell will permit, it bursts forth into the world as a perfect
+insect or _imago_.
+
+Its wings at first are small, shapeless, and crumpled in a most
+unsightly fashion; but it is not long before they assume their full
+size, beautiful form, and gorgeous colouring. Then, in about another
+hour or two, the wings, at first soft and flaccid, have become
+sufficiently dry and stiff to bear their owner rapidly through the air.
+
+We have thus observed some of the more striking features in the
+structure of the butterfly and moth in its most perfect state; and
+alluded in a very brief manner to the various stages through which these
+creatures must necessarily pass before finally reaching this stage. But
+now we must study these earlier stages more closely, and watch the
+insects during the marvellous transitions they are destined to undergo.
+This we shall do in the following chapters.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_THE EGG_
+
+
+I suppose you are all acquainted with the general structure of the hen's
+egg, having dissected several, in your own way, many a time.
+
+Its outer covering, which you speak of as the 'shell,' you have observed
+is hard and brittle. It is composed of a _calcareous_ or limy substance,
+known chemically as _carbonate of lime_. If you put some pieces of it
+into an egg cup, and throw over them a little vinegar or any other
+liquid acid, you will see them gradually dissolve away, and small
+bubbles of carbonic acid gas will rise into the air. Then again, if you
+take a long and narrow strip of the shell, and hold one end of it in a
+gas or lamp flame, after a short time that end will become softer, and
+will glow brightly in the flame, for it is converted into lime--the same
+substance that is used by the builders for making their mortar--and the
+bright glow is really a miniature _lime light_, such as is always
+produced when a piece of lime is made intensely hot.
+
+Just inside this shell you have seen a thin membrane or skin that is
+easily peeled off the substance of the egg itself. Next to this comes
+the 'white' of the egg, which is really colourless while liquid, but
+turns white and more or less solid in the cooking. Last of all, in the
+centre of this, you have noticed the oval yellow mass that is termed the
+'yoke' or 'yolk,' and which contains the embryo of the future chick.
+
+Now if you imagine this egg to be reduced in size till two or three
+dozen of them would be required to form a single line about one inch
+long, the outer calcareous shell to be entirely removed, the skin or
+membrane to be converted into a firmer substance of a horny nature, and,
+finally, the yolk to be absent and the whole internal space to be filled
+with the 'white,' you will then have some idea of the nature of the egg
+of a butterfly or moth.
+
+To put the matter more briefly, then, we will say that the eggs of these
+insects are simply little liquid masses, usually of a colourless
+substance, surrounded by a horny and flexible covering.
+
+Such a description may certainly give you some idea of the nature of the
+eggs of insects, but no amount of book reading will serve the purpose so
+well or be so pleasant as the examination of the eggs themselves. During
+the summer months very little difficulty will be experienced in finding
+some eggs in your own garden. Turn over some leaves and examine their
+under surfaces, choosing especially those plants which show, by their
+partially eaten leaves, that they are favourites with the insect world.
+Or you may amuse yourself by catching a number of butterflies--common
+'Whites' are as good for the purpose as any--and temporarily confine
+them in a wooden or cardboard box, containing a number of leaves from
+various plants, and covered with gauze. In this way you are sure to
+obtain a few females that have not yet laid all their eggs; and if you
+watch your prisoners you will soon see them carefully depositing the
+eggs on the under surfaces of leaves, bending their abdomens round the
+edges if there is not sufficient room to get themselves completely
+under. And then, when you are satisfied with the number of eggs thus
+obtained for your examination, you can have the pleasure of seeing all
+your liberated captives flying joyfully in the free air.
+
+In giving these simple instructions I have assumed that the reader has
+not yet learnt any of the characters by which female butterflies are to
+be distinguished from their lords and masters; but I hope that he will
+know soon, at least with regard to a good many species, from which
+individuals he may most reasonably expect to obtain eggs, and so be able
+to avoid the imprisonment, even though only temporary, of insects which
+cannot satisfy his wants.
+
+Again, it is not necessary, after all, that butterflies should be
+captured for the purpose of obtaining eggs. Watch them as they hover
+about among your flowers. Some, you will observe, are intent on nothing
+but idle frolicking; and you may conclude at once that _these_ have no
+immediate duty to perform. Others are flying without hesitation from
+flower to flower, gorging themselves with the sweets of life: these are
+not the objects of your search. But you will descry certain others,
+flying round about the beds and borders with a steadier and more
+matronly air, taking little or no notice of their more frivolous
+companions, and paying not the slightest heed to the bright
+nectar-producing cups of the numerous flowers. These are seriously
+engaged with family affairs only. Watch one of them carefully, and as
+soon as she has settled herself on a leaf, walk steadily towards her
+till you are near enough to observe her movements. She will not move
+unless you approach too closely, for, like busy folk generally, she has
+no time to worry about petty annoyances. You will now actually witness
+the deposition of the eggs exactly as carried on in the perfect freedom
+of nature; and the eggs themselves may be taken either for examination
+or for the rearing of the caterpillars.
+
+Some species of _Lepidoptera_ lay some hundreds of eggs, and it is
+seldom that the number laid by one female is much below a hundred.
+
+As already stated, the under surfaces of leaves are generally chosen for
+the deposit of eggs, but a few of the insects we are considering always
+select the upper surface for this purpose. Thus the Puss Moth (page
+235), and two or three others resembling it, though much smaller, known
+as the Kittens (page 234), invariably lay them on the upper surface. And
+this is the more surprising since the eggs of these moths are brown or
+black, and consequently so conspicuous on the green leaves as to be in
+danger of being sighted by the numerous enemies of insects.
+
+The Hairstreak Butterflies (page 183) afford another exception to the
+general rule, for their eggs are deposited on the _bark_ of the trees
+and shrubs (birch, sloe, elm, oak, and bramble) on which their larvae
+feed.
+
+At the moment each egg is laid it is covered with a liquid sticky
+substance, so that it is immediately glued to the leaf or stem as soon
+as it is deposited. The sticky substance soon dries, causing the egg to
+be so firmly fastened in its place that it is often impossible to force
+it off without destroying it completely.
+
+Some of the _Lepidoptera_ deposit their eggs singly, or in small
+irregular clusters; but by far the larger number set them very regularly
+side by side, in so compact a mass that it would be impossible to place
+them on a smaller area without piling one on top of another. This is not
+accomplished with the aid of the sight, for the insect performing her
+task with such precision often has her head on one side of a leaf or
+stem while arranging her eggs on the other. If you take the trouble to
+watch her, you will see that she carefully _feels_ out a place for each
+egg by means of the tip of her abdomen immediately before laying it.
+
+The eggs are laid by moths and butterflies at various seasons of the
+year. In some cases they are deposited early in the spring, even before
+the buds of the food plants have burst; and the young larvae, hatched a
+few weeks later, commence to feed on the young and tender leaves. Then,
+throughout the late spring, the whole of the summer and autumn, and even
+till the winter frosts set in, the eggs of various species are being
+laid.
+
+Those deposited during the warm weather are often hatched in a few days,
+but those laid toward the autumn remain unchanged until the following
+spring.
+
+In this latter case the frosts of the most severe winter are not capable
+of destroying the vitality of the eggs. In many instances the perfect
+insect or the larva would be killed by the temperature of an average
+winter day, but the vitality of the eggs is such that they have been
+subjected to a temperature, artificially produced, of fifty degrees
+below the freezing point, and even after this the young larvae walked out
+of their cradles at their appointed time just as if nothing unusual had
+occurred.
+
+Experiments have also been performed on the eggs with a view of
+determining how far their vitality is influenced by high temperatures.
+We know that the scorching midsummer sun has no destructive influence on
+them, but these experiments prove that they are not influenced by a
+temperature only twenty degrees below the boiling point--actually a
+considerably higher temperature than is _necessary_ to properly cook a
+hen's egg.
+
+Let us now examine a number of eggs of different species, that we may
+note some of the many variations in form and colour.
+
+With regard to colour, we have already observed that the eggs of a few
+species are black; but more commonly they are much lighter--pearly
+white, green, yellow, and grey being of frequent occurrence.
+
+The great variety of form, however, will provide a vast amount of
+enjoyment to anyone who possesses a good magnifying lens or a small
+compound microscope. Some are globular, others oval; while many others
+represent cups, basins, and domes. Then we have miniature vases, flasks,
+bottles with short necks, and numerous figures that must remind a
+juvenile admirer of the sweet cakes and ornamental jellies that have so
+often gladdened his longing eyes.
+
+Again, the beautifully sculptured surfaces of a large number are even
+more striking than their general shapes. Some are regularly ribbed from
+top to bottom with parallel or radiating ridges, and at the same time
+marked with delicate transverse lines. Others are beautifully pitted or
+honeycombed, some ornamented with the most faithful representation of
+fine wicker-work, while a few are provided with a cap, more or less
+ornamental, that is raised by the young larva when about to see the
+world for the first time. A few of these beautiful forms are here
+illustrated and named, and another has already appeared on page 14, but
+an enthusiastic young naturalist may easily secure a variety of others
+for his own examination.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--EGG OF THE MEADOW BROWN BUTTERFLY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--EGG OF THE SPECKLED WOOD BUTTERFLY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--EGG OF THE VAPOURER MOTH.]
+
+It may be surmised from the accompanying illustrations that the form of
+the egg is always the same for any one species. This is really the case,
+and consequently an experienced entomologist can often decide on the
+name of the butterfly or moth that deposited a cluster of eggs he
+happens to find in his rambles and searchings; but in such decisions he
+is always greatly assisted by a knowledge of the food plants of the
+various insects, and sometimes also by the manner in which the eggs are
+arranged.
+
+We have seen that the period during which the _Lepidoptera_ remain in
+the egg stage is very variable, and depends largely on the season in
+which they were laid; but it is often possible to tell when to expect
+the young larvae by certain changes which take place in the appearance of
+the egg. As the horny covering of the egg is transparent, the gradual
+development of the caterpillar from the clear fluid can be watched to a
+certain extent; but if you have a microscope, and would like to witness
+this development to perfection, proceed as follows.
+
+Arrange that some butterflies and moths shall lay their eggs on strips
+of glass of convenient dimensions for microscopic work--three inches
+long by one wide is the usual size for this kind of work. This is easily
+accomplished by placing a proper selection of female insects in a rather
+small box temporarily lined with such 'slips.' When a few eggs have thus
+been secured, all you have to do is to examine them at intervals with
+your microscope, always using the reflector so as to direct a strong
+light _through_ the eggs from below.
+
+But even without such an arrangement some interesting changes are to be
+observed. As a rule, the colour of the egg turns darker as the time for
+the arrival of the infant larva approaches, and you will often be able
+to see a little brown or black head moving slightly within the 'shell.'
+You may know then that the hatching is close at hand, and the movements
+of the tiny creature are well worth careful watching. Soon a small hole
+appears in the side of the case, and a little green or dark cap begins
+to show itself. Then, with a magnifier of some kind, you may see a pair
+of tiny jaws, working horizontally, and not with an up-and-down motion
+like our own, gradually gnawing away at the cradle, till at last the
+little creature is perfectly free to ramble in search of food.
+
+Strange to say, the young larva does not waste a particle of the horny
+substance that must necessarily be removed in securing its liberty, but
+devours it with an apparent relish. Indeed, it appreciates the flavour
+of this viand so highly that it often disposes of the whole of its
+little home, with the exception of the small circular patch by which it
+was cemented to the plant. When the whole brood have thus dispensed with
+their empty cradles, there remains on the stem or leaf a glittering
+patch of little pearly plates.
+
+After the performance of this feat the young caterpillar starts off in
+life on its own account with as much briskness and confidence as if it
+had previously spent a term in the world under the same conditions; but
+we must reserve an account of its doings and sufferings for our next
+chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+_THE LARVA_
+
+
+In almost every case the young caterpillar, on quitting the 'shell' of
+the egg, finds itself standing on and surrounded by its natural food,
+and immediately commences to do justice to the abundant supply. It will
+either nibble away at the surface of the leaf, removing the soft
+cellular substance, so that the leaf exhibits a number of
+semi-transparent patches when held up to the light, or it will make
+straight for the edge, and, closing its horizontal jaws on either side,
+bite the leaf completely through, and thus remove a small piece each
+time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE CLOUDED YELLOW
+BUTTERFLY.]
+
+Several naturalists have amused themselves by performing experiments and
+making calculations on the efficiency of the masticating and digesting
+powers of the caterpillar. The illustrious R['e]aumur, for example, proved
+that some of the cabbage eaters disposed of more than twice their own
+weight of food in twenty-four hours, during which time their weight
+increased one-tenth. Let us see what this would be equivalent to in
+human beings: A man weighing eleven stone would devour over three
+hundred pounds of food in a day, and at the end of that day weigh about
+fifteen pounds more than he did at the beginning!
+
+So the young caterpillar eats, and rests, and grows, till, while still
+young, its body has become too large for the already tightened skin. It
+evidently feels very uncomfortable. Its appetite fails, and it remains
+for a time perfectly quiet in one spot, having previously spun a little
+carpet of silk to form a firm foothold during its temporary
+indisposition. Its colours have also become dingy, and anyone, not
+understanding the character of its growth, might easily be led to
+suppose that the poor creature was displaying the earlier symptoms of a
+serious and perhaps fatal illness.
+
+But soon an encouraging symptom is observed. The caterpillar begins to
+get restless. Its front segments are turned alternately right and left,
+and are also made to swell out much beyond their normal size. Then in a
+very short time--often less than a minute from the first appearances of
+restlessness--the skin, which has become somewhat dry and brittle,
+splits along the back over the second, third and fourth segments,
+revealing a new and bright coat beneath. The caterpillar continues its
+struggles and, in addition to the previous movements, causes the
+swelling to move backward along the body. This, acting like a wedge,
+causes the rent in the old coat to extend in that direction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY
+BUTTERFLY.]
+
+The caterpillar now draws its head backward, and, with a few convulsive
+struggles, pulls the front segments out of their old skin, and passes
+its head out of the rent in the back. With its foremost segments thus
+rendered perfectly free, it walks straight out of the old garment, which
+is left still fixed by the legs to the silken carpet.
+
+The larva, although now fresh and smart in its appearance, is exhausted
+by these struggles and its prolonged fast. The new skin, moreover, is
+very soft and tender, even to the cases of the head and legs, which are
+normally very hard. But a short period of rest suffices to dry its skin
+and sharpen its appetite, and then it eats more vigorously than ever.
+
+We will now leave the caterpillar for a moment while we look at its
+cast-off clothes. They are still clinging to a stem so firmly that they
+can scarcely be removed without injury. The hard shell that covered the
+head and jaws is perfect in form, and so are the claws and cases of the
+legs. All the hairs or spines that happened to adorn the previous owner
+still retain their positions; and the whole skin, although always more
+or less shrivelled, is sometimes so slightly altered in form that it
+might be mistaken for a living caterpillar if not closely examined.
+
+But this is not all. For, according to the accounts of some
+authoritative observers, the lining of the digestive organs, which is
+really a continuation of the outer skin, is cast off (or rather cast
+_out_) at the same time, as are also the linings of the larger breathing
+tubes which are presently to be described.
+
+We have seen that some caterpillars, on quitting their egg cases (which
+may really be regarded as the first moult), make their first meal of the
+old covering. So also some of them, in their future moultings, exhibit
+an apparently useless economy (seeing that they are surrounded by an
+abundance of their natural vegetable diet) by devouring their old coats!
+In the face of this fact we can hardly describe them as strict
+vegetarians.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE PURPLE EMPEROR
+BUTTERFLY.]
+
+Having thus passed through its first hardship, the caterpillar has by no
+means seen the end of the troubles and dangers that beset it; for,
+during its existence in the larval state, it has to go through a series
+of three, four, five, or even six moults, all of which are periods of
+considerable inconvenience, and perhaps even pain, and frequently prove
+fatal. And it is by no means an uncommon thing to meet with the lifeless
+body of an unfortunate individual who, as shown by its shabby appearance
+and the silken carpet under its feet, has evidently fallen a victim to
+the dangerous process of ridding itself of an old garment.
+
+But this is only one of the many dangers to which caterpillars are
+exposed. Throughout every hour of the day the sharp and hungry eyes of
+the numerous insect-eating birds are searching the leaves for such
+delicacies to satisfy the wants of themselves and their broods. The
+lively little lizards, too, during the sunny hours are busily engaged in
+searching them out among the foliage of heaths and banks.
+
+Very formidable enemies also exist in the form of Ichneumon and other
+species of flies, which pierce the skins of caterpillars with their
+sharp _ovipositors_, and lay their eggs within the bodies of the
+unfortunate victims. As soon as the young larvae are hatched from these
+eggs, they commence feeding on the fatty substance stored beneath the
+caterpillar's skin. They carefully avoid, at first, attacking the vital
+organs of their host's body, and in this way secure for themselves a
+more lasting supply of fresh food. When the fatty substance is nearly
+all gone, they eat their way into the more important structures, of
+course steadily growing all the time; and so, even though the body of
+the caterpillar is rapidly diminishing, the total bulk shows often no
+very appreciable decrease in size. When the larvae of the flies are fully
+fed, they either change to the pupa within the carcase of their host, or
+eat their way out of its body and construct for themselves a cocoon in
+which to undergo the transformation.
+
+As for the caterpillar itself, it sometimes dies before the time for its
+metamorphosis has arrived; but it often changes to the chrysalis before
+its fate is sealed. In this latter case, a number of flies, having
+undergone their final transformation within the chrysalis shell (there
+being but little else than shell remaining of the victim's body), break
+forth from the remains of the carcase somewhere about the time at which
+the butterfly or moth should have appeared.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--AN ICHNEUMON FLY (_Cryptus Migrator_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--ANOTHER ICHNEUMON FLY (_Pimpla Instigator_).]
+
+Caterpillars have also their nocturnal enemies and devourers, among
+which may be mentioned frogs, toads, newts, and insect-eating mammals.
+
+We must now learn something of the structure of caterpillars; and then
+become acquainted with their habits, and the change to the chrysalis or
+pupa.
+
+Take a caterpillar from your garden, preferably a full-grown one of a
+rather large species, that is not very densely covered with hair, and
+examine it carefully as we note the main points in its structure. The
+first point that strikes our notice is the division of its body into
+segments or rings, separated from each other by a more or less distinct
+line or slight constriction of the body.
+
+There are thirteen of these segments, reckoning, as is usual, the head
+as the first.
+
+The head is usually very hard, and often of a much darker colour than
+the rest of the body. It is also frequently divided into two lobes by a
+couple of oblique lines, between which the parts of the mouth are
+situated. The two powerful horizontal jaws, to which we have already
+referred, are very hard and sharp, and curved like a sickle, and
+therefore splendidly adapted for biting from the edges of leaves. The
+head is also provided with a pair of antennae, usually very short and
+inconspicuous and protected by a horny covering.
+
+Unlike the perfect insect, the caterpillar has no large compound eyes,
+but twelve very small simple eyes, situated on the cheeks, very near the
+mouth--six on each side.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE ANGLE SHADES MOTH
+(_Meticulosa_).]
+
+If you examine them with a magnifier, you see that each one is provided
+with a small and very convex lens--a lens of very _short focus_, such as
+would be used for the examination of small objects held very near to the
+eye. From this arrangement we should be inclined to conclude that the
+caterpillar can see only those objects that are close to its mouth; and
+this idea is strengthened if you place one in a box containing a number
+of leaves, one of which is that of its own food plant. It will wander
+about the box, apparently looking at every part of every leaf it passes,
+after the manner of a very short-sighted individual, and never taking a
+general look round. A butterfly or a moth can see a flower in the
+distance, for it flies unhesitatingly from one to another in the
+straightest and shortest path, but if you place a caterpillar in the
+centre of a ring composed of a leaf of its food plant and nine others
+from other plants, the chances are (nine to one) that it will _not_ walk
+towards what it would like to have.
+
+Again, the eyes are situated on the _lower_ part of the cheek, directed
+slightly downward, and are therefore adapted for seeing what is just
+under its jaws as it walks along. Had we no knowledge whatever of the
+caterpillar's twelve little eyes, we should probably have thought that
+it sought out its food by some sense other than that of vision.
+
+Another important and interesting feature of the head is the
+silk-spinning apparatus, situated under cover of the lower lip. This
+consists of two tubular glands, corresponding to our own salivary
+glands, the special purpose of which is to secrete a viscid fluid that
+solidifies on exposure to air. The opening by which the fluid escapes is
+so situated that the caterpillar can easily apply it to the surface of
+any object over which it is walking, and then, by drawing or turning
+away its head, cause a silken fibre to be produced.
+
+Some caterpillars make use of this spinning apparatus only on a few
+special occasions, but others, more especially some of the smaller
+species, seem to have it always in use, so that if at any time you
+suddenly start them into the air by giving a smart tap to the plant or
+twig on which they rest, they invariably fall slowly on the end of a
+growing web, the spinning of which they stop as soon as they consider
+they have fallen far enough. Sometimes, as you are walking through a
+wood, you will see hundreds, nay, thousands of little caterpillars thus
+suspended, swinging gently in the breeze. Not long since, after only a
+few minutes' walk among the trees of Epping Forest, I found I was
+decorated with several dozens of these swingers with which I had come
+into collision--in this case consisting chiefly of the larvae of the
+Green Tortrix Moth (_Tortrix viridana_).
+
+Now let us examine the caterpillar's limbs. Attached to each of the
+second, third, and fourth segments is a pair of true walking legs,
+corresponding with those of the perfect insect. These are covered with a
+hard and shining substance, and are also each provided with a hook. The
+fifth and sixth segments have no limbs at all, nor have the eleventh and
+twelfth, but some or all of the others (seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth,
+and thirteenth) are furnished with a pair of claspers which we shall
+presently describe.
+
+First, as regards the number of claspers, it will be seen from what has
+just been said that this is not always the same. Some caterpillars
+possess five pairs, thus making up the total number of walking
+appendages to sixteen. In fact, we must regard this as the _usual_
+number. But there are at least a few hundred exceptions to the rule.
+Many of the _Bombyces_ (page 217), for example, have only four pairs of
+claspers; and in others of the same group the fifth pair is present, but
+only partially developed, and quite useless for walking.
+
+Look at the peculiar caterpillar of the Lobster Moth (fig. 23)--a
+creature that differs from most other caterpillars not only in its
+claspers, but in many other respects too. Observe its long and slender
+legs, its humped middle segments, and its upturned hindermost segment,
+of enormous size and mounted with a pair of clubbed 'horns.' This last
+segment you will observe, has no claspers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--WALKING LEG OF A CATERPILLAR.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21--LARVA OF THE YELLOW UNDERWING MOTH (_Pronuba_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--LARVA OF THE CRIMSON SPECKLED MOTH
+(_Pulchella_).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--LARVA OF THE LOBSTER MOTH (_Fagi_).]
+
+Another allied caterpillar is that of the Iron Prominent Moth (fig. 24).
+This one also has humped segments, and the claspers of the thirteenth
+segment are imperfectly developed.
+
+A large number of other exceptions to the general rule are to be found
+in the caterpillars of the Geometer Moths (page 268), one of which is
+here represented. These have generally only two pairs of claspers, one
+pair on each of the tenth and last segments, so that there is a distance
+equal to the combined length of six segments between the hindermost true
+leg and the first pair of claspers. But even among the Geometers there
+are variations to be observed in the number of claspers, and some of
+these will be pointed out in our brief descriptions of the commoner
+species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--CATERPILLAR OF THE IRON PROMINENT MOTH
+(_Dromedarius_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--LARVA OF THE BRIMSTONE MOTH (_Luteolata_).]
+
+These limbs which we have been calling claspers are known by several
+other names. Thus they are termed 'pro-legs,' 'temporary legs,' 'false
+legs,' and 'abdominal legs;' but if you watch a caterpillar as it walks
+up a stalk or along the edge of a leaf, you will certainly agree that
+the term 'clasper' is everything that could be desired. But why not call
+them legs, seeing that they are used in walking? The reason is that they
+differ in many respects from the three foremost pairs of limbs as
+regards structure, persistency, and function. The true legs, as we have
+called them, continue to exist, though concealed, in the chrysalis
+state, and again appear, far more perfectly developed, in the butterfly
+or moth, but the claspers are no more to be seen after the caterpillar
+has passed into the quiescent stage. We have noticed, too, that the true
+legs are pointed and clawed, also that they are protected by a hard and
+horny covering; but examine a large caterpillar, holding it between the
+fingers and thumb with its under side uppermost, and you will soon see
+that the claspers are not at all hard, but soft and fleshy; not pointed,
+but often terminating in a broad flat circular surface. You will also
+observe, as the creature struggles to escape from your grasp, and tries
+to get a hold on something with its claspers, that these limbs, if we
+may so call them, are retractile, and are sometimes completely drawn
+into the body. Finally, examine the broad end of a clasper with a
+magnifier, and you will see it surrounded by a circle of little hooks,
+turning in all directions. You will no longer wonder how it is that a
+caterpillar can hold so tenaciously to a piece of twig that it is often
+almost impossible to remove it without injury.
+
+Now put your caterpillar down, so that you may observe its gait. If it
+happens to be one with the full complement of sixteen limbs, you see
+that at each stride it makes but little progress. The segments contract
+and relax alternately and in succession, thus sending a series of
+wave-like motions along the body, and urging onward the front segments
+while the claspers keep the hinder portion firmly fixed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--THE CLASPERS OF A CATERPILLAR.]
+
+But if your caterpillar is one of the Geometers, with only two, or
+perhaps three, pairs of claspers, the mode of procedure is very
+different. The creature stretches its body out at full length, often
+raising its head high in the air, and swinging its long body right and
+left with a most furious motion, as if to hastily scan the
+neighbourhood. Then, having satisfied itself as to the _direction_ of
+its proposed course (which, by the way, is often changed considerably at
+almost every stride), it holds on by the true legs and pulls its hinder
+quarters forward till the body forms almost a closed loop, with the
+fourth segment nearly touching the ninth. The claspers now become the
+holdfasts. The little hooks with which they are provided are firmly
+fixed to the surface on which it is walking; and the body being again
+straightened out to its utmost length, the same man[oe]uvre is repeated.
+So, you see, the insect progresses by strides equal in length to about
+six segments of the body, and these the longest segments generally; and
+the rate at which the strides succeed each other, especially in some of
+the smaller species, is really astonishing.
+
+We have seen the caterpillar in the act of taking its walk, and now we
+will give it a twig of its food plant so that we may see it feed. It
+walks up the twig without hesitation--for caterpillars (excepting those
+which feed on roots) always seem to move upward when in search of
+food--and soon finds itself on a leaf. Over this it walks till it
+reaches the edge; and, grasping the edge firmly between the claspers, so
+as to give perfectly free play to its legs and head, it stretches its
+body at full length, and takes a series of bites as it brings its head
+backward in a curve. When the head has thus been brought close to its
+fore legs, the body is again extended, and the same ground is gone over
+again.
+
+If the caterpillar is a fairly large and hardy one, it will bite through
+the smaller veins, and perhaps even the larger ones; but the smaller
+species often change their position on reaching a moderately thick vein,
+and so devour little else than the soft cellular substance of the leaf.
+In any case, it is astonishing to see how rapidly the leaf disappears
+under the influence of the powerful jaws and marvellous digestive
+apparatus of the hungry grub.
+
+Those who take a delight in watching the _movements_ of caterpillars are
+sure to be interested in observing them when at rest; for at such times
+the various attitudes assumed are as pleasing and instructive as are
+their active moments. And these attitudes are all the more interesting
+on account of the mimicry by which the creatures often baffle their
+numerous enemies. We may profitably spend a little time in studying a
+few cases in point.
+
+Many species, when at rest, fix themselves by means of their claspers to
+a small twig or leaf stalk, or on the midrib of the leaf itself. Here
+they remain perfectly still, with their bodies perfectly straight or
+with head slightly raised. I need hardly say that these generally fix
+themselves on the _under_ side of the leaves and stalks, thus securing
+themselves against the attacks of the feathered foes above. But some
+birds are equal to the caterpillars in this matter; and it is really
+amusing to see them hopping about beneath the leaves in our gardens,
+every now and again slyly turning one eye upward, and smartly plucking
+an unwary grub from its resting place.
+
+The precautions of the caterpillar, however, do not end merely with the
+selection of an under surface. You will find that the bright green
+species invariably settle on a leaf or a _green_ stalk, while the darkly
+coloured insects often choose a twig covered with a brownish bark. Some
+even make for the _trunk_ of the tree on which they feed, and here
+remain quite still in a vertical position, so that they look just like a
+ridge in the bark, the colour of which is faithfully imitated by their
+skin. Further, many of the caterpillars that resort to this stratagem
+have bodies that are notched or knotted and spotted in such a manner
+that the resemblance to their surroundings is so perfect as to defy any
+but the most experienced eye. And even this is not all, for a number of
+these mimics of the insect world never venture to feed by day, but take
+in their quantum of provisions during the dark hours, and practise their
+deceptions throughout the day.
+
+Most of the Geometer caterpillars, of which we have already spoken, are
+well trained in the art of deception. You are out on a caterpillar hunt,
+and engaged in carefully turning over the twigs of the hazel or some
+other shrub, so that you may the more readily examine the under surfaces
+of the leaves. At last you lay hold of a small broken twig for this very
+purpose. To your astonishment it is very soft, and readily bends between
+your fingers. You look more closely at this peculiar piece of stick, and
+find, to your surprise, that you have grasped a looper caterpillar that
+was standing out at an angle just like a broken twig, supported by its
+two pairs of claspers, and coloured and knotted exactly like the little
+branch on which it rested.
+
+At other times you meet with little green caterpillars of the same
+group, supporting themselves in exactly the same manner on a small twig,
+and looking just like a leaf stalk from which the blade had fallen or
+been devoured.
+
+What a wonderful power is exhibited in the grasp of the claspers and the
+tension of the muscles, enabling the caterpillar to fix itself and
+retain its position for so long a time! Imagine an acrobat fixing
+himself by his hands on an upright pole, throwing out his body at an
+angle, and without any further support retaining his position motionless
+for several hours!
+
+Other experiences of the larva hunter are equally interesting and,
+perhaps, even more tantalising. He is engaged in very cautiously turning
+over the leaves of a certain food plant from which he hopes to obtain
+the larva of a much-coveted species. Then, just as his eye catches a
+glimpse of the very object of his search, down falls the caterpillar,
+rolled up into a little ball, among the herbage below. This latter is
+diligently and patiently examined. But no, the anticipated prize is
+nowhere to be seen. It is probably a green one, and this adds to the
+difficulty of the patient entomologist. Then, as he carefully separates
+the low herbs, hoping to find the spot where the larva had fallen, the
+insect, rolled up into a compact little ball, only sinks deeper and
+deeper into the maze.
+
+Many caterpillars avoid capture in this manner, while others seek to
+avoid detection by remaining perfectly motionless, even when roughly
+handled. They allow themselves to drop from their resting place on the
+slightest sign of danger, and, when the alarm is over and all is quiet
+again, they ascend the food plant and resume their position.
+
+Some caterpillars not only rest, but even feed under cover, quite secure
+from most, if not all, of their enemies. Several of them feed on roots,
+and many a farmer can relate sad experiences of the havoc committed by
+these caterpillars on his turnips and other crops. Then there are those
+which feed on flowers and buds, completely burying themselves in the
+dense mass of food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--THE HOMES OF LEAF MINERS AND LEAF ROLLERS.]
+
+We must conclude this brief account of resting and hiding places and
+attitudes of caterpillars by a few observations on the leaf miners and
+leaf rollers.
+
+The former are very small caterpillars--the larvae of certain small
+moths--that eat burrows into leaves without doing any considerable
+injury to the outer _epidermis_, and thus prepare a safe resting place
+within the substance of their food.
+
+The latter, also mostly of small size, make themselves secure by curling
+a leaf or a portion of a leaf into a cylinder, and holding it in
+position by means of a number of silken threads.
+
+If you examine a leaf thus curled you will soon be convinced that a
+considerable number of the extremely delicate threads must be necessary
+to hold it in position; but, if you would like to know how a very small
+and feeble caterpillar can manage to roll up a comparatively large and
+rigid leaf, you must watch the little creature at its work.
+
+You need have but little difficulty in finding a willing worker, for
+such caterpillars are extremely numerous. Take a few out of their
+self-made homes, place them on a sprig of the food plant, and you will
+soon have the pleasure of seeing one start its extraordinary work.
+
+At first it spins a number of threads stretching from the edge of a leaf
+to about the middle of the surface. These threads are not tight by any
+means, and the leaf is, as yet, unchanged in position. But now the
+little mechanic exhibits a tact that almost seems to prove a knowledge
+of the principles of its art. Each thread in turn is pulled _at right
+angles_ at its middle, and then fastened by means of the creature's
+spinneret. Each time this is done the edge of the leaf is bent round _a
+little_; and when at last the cylinder is completed, a number of other
+threads are stretched across from the scroll to the flat part of the
+leaf to secure it firmly in its place.
+
+Many caterpillars are solitary in their habits: that is, they are always
+found singly, whether walking, resting, or feeding. But a large number
+of species are gregarious, living in dense clusters either throughout
+their larval state or, perhaps, only while young. In many such cases it
+is difficult or even impossible to find any reason for this gregarious
+tendency--to discover any advantage that the insects may derive from the
+habit. Many species, however, are true co-operators in the defence of
+their communities. The caterpillars of such live in clusters, sometimes
+several scores in each, and all help in the spinning of a complicated
+mass of silk fibres, which, with the leaves and twigs they join
+together, form a safe home in which they can rest, feed, or change to
+the chrysalis state. In early summer hundreds of such caterpillar
+'nests' are to be seen in many of our hawthorn and other hedgerows.
+
+Before closing our general account of the caterpillar we must have a
+word to say about the breathing apparatus, more especially as in our
+future descriptions we shall frequently have to mention the colours and
+markings which surround the openings in its body through which the air
+supply is admitted.
+
+If you examine the sides of the segments of a caterpillar, using a lens
+if the insect is a small one, you will observe some little round holes,
+often inclosed in a ring or a patch of some prominent colour. These are
+the _spiracles_ or openings of a series of air tubes called _tracheae_.
+These latter divide and subdivide within the body of the caterpillar,
+the branches of one often uniting with those of another, thus forming a
+really complicated arrangement of air pipes by which the supply of
+oxygen is distributed.
+
+A microscopic examination of a portion of one of the tracheae will show
+that its walls are supported by an elastic spiral of a firm substance.
+This arrangement serves to keep the air passages open, and secures for
+the caterpillar a free supply of air at times when a contraction of the
+segments would otherwise cause the tubes to collapse.
+
+There are nine spiracles on each side of the caterpillar's body, and
+never more than one in the side of the same segment. The head, which we
+have been regarding as the first segment, has no spiracles. The second
+segment has a pair--one on each side. There are none in the third and
+fourth; but all the segments, from the fifth to the twelfth inclusive,
+have each a pair; the last (thirteenth) segment has none.
+
+We have already observed the general arrangement of the caterpillar's
+limbs; but perhaps it may be interesting and even convenient to the
+reader to give here a little table that will show at a glance the
+disposition of both limbs and spiracles.
+
+ First segment--head Two short antennae, two jaws,
+ and twelve eyes.
+ Second " Legs and spiracles.
+ Third " Legs only.
+ Fourth " Legs only.
+ Fifth " Spiracles only.
+ Sixth " Spiracles only.
+ Seventh " Spiracles, and sometimes
+ claspers.
+ Eighth " Spiracles, and sometimes
+ claspers.
+ Ninth " Spiracles, and sometimes
+ claspers.
+ Tenth " Spiracles, and generally
+ claspers.
+ Eleventh " Spiracles only.
+ Twelfth " Spiracles only.
+ Thirteenth " Claspers only, and these
+ occasionally absent.
+
+We must now watch the caterpillar through its later days, to see how it
+prepares for passing into the pupal stage, and to witness the various
+interesting changes that take place at this period.
+
+When fully grown, it ceases to eat, and begins to wander about in search
+of a convenient spot for the coming event. Its colours fade, and the
+body becomes appreciably smaller, especially in length, as it ejects the
+whole contents of its digestive apparatus. According to some accounts,
+it even evacuates the lining of the intestines with their contents.
+
+A great variety of situations are chosen by the different species at
+this time. Some will fix themselves on their own food plant, and there
+remain till they finally emerge in the perfect state, suspending
+themselves from a silken carpet, hiding themselves in a rolled leaf, or
+constructing a cocoon of some kind. A large number walk down the food
+plants, and undergo their changes in moss that happens to lie at the
+foot; or construct a cocoon on the surface of the ground, utilising for
+the purpose any decayed leaves, fragments of vegetable matter, or pieces
+of earth or small stones. Many seek a further protection than this, and
+burrow into the soil, where they either lie in a little oval cell that
+they prepare, or in a cocoon constructed by spinning together some
+particles of earth. Again, there are those caterpillars, chiefly of
+butterflies that frequent our gardens, which find their way to the
+nearest wall or fence, and there secure themselves in a sheltered nook.
+We will watch a few of these varied methods of procedure, taking as our
+first instance the caterpillar of the common Large White or Cabbage
+Butterfly.
+
+When fully fed, this larva seeks out a sheltered spot, generally
+selecting the under surface of some object, or of the ledge of a wall or
+fence. Sometimes it will not even leave its food plant, though it
+generally walks some considerable distance before a suitable shelter is
+found. Having satisfied itself as to the site of the temporary abode, it
+sets to work at spinning a silken carpet. At first the threads spread
+over a rather wide area, and seem to be laid in a somewhat irregular and
+aimless manner; but after a little time its labours are concentrated on
+one small spot, where it spins several layers of silk fibres.
+
+This done, it fixes the little hooks of the claspers firmly in its
+carpet bed, and then proceeds with a highly interesting movement. It is
+not satisfied with only the one mode of suspension. In fact, this alone
+would hardly be safe, for when it casts its skin, as it is shortly about
+to do, its claspers will all disappear; and although it afterwards
+secures itself by the 'tail,' it would be dangling in such a manner as
+to swing with every breeze--a very unsatisfactory state of affairs,
+especially with those that pupate late in the summer and remain in the
+pupal state throughout the winter storms.
+
+Its next procedure, then, is to make a strong silk band round the middle
+of its body, so as to keep it close to the surface against which it
+rests. But how is this to be done? It bends its head round till the
+spinning organ can be applied to a point close beside the middle of its
+body. Here it fixes one end of a thread; and then, gradually twisting
+its body, brings its head round to the other side, still keeping it
+close to the same segment, and fastens the other end of the thread
+exactly opposite the point at which it started.
+
+The head is now brought back to its former position, thus adding another
+thread to the band; and the process is repeated several times, till at
+last the caterpillar is satisfied with the thickness and strength of the
+cord formed.
+
+Now it straightens out its body as if to rest from its labours; but the
+work is not yet complete. Soon it exhibits much restlessness. Its
+foremost segments are seen to shorten, and consequently become thicker.
+Then the skin splits, and the last moult of the caterpillar commences.
+The movements that follow are exactly similar to those we have already
+described in connection with one of the earlier moults: the alternate
+and successive contractions of all the segments gradually force back the
+old coat, and this is finally thrown entirely off by a somewhat vigorous
+wriggling of the 'tail.'
+
+Then, for a moment, the creature is supported only by its silken cord.
+But this lasts _only_ for a moment. For, as soon as it is quite free
+from the old garment, it applies its tail to the densest part of the
+carpet it had prepared at the start, and secures its hinder extremity by
+means of little hooks.
+
+But what a change has now come over the creature! It is no longer a
+caterpillar. Its head is no longer distinct, although we can readily
+make out the positions of the eyes. Its mouth and jaws have quite
+disappeared, and the legs and claspers are apparently gone. The three
+segments that bore the legs are no longer distinctly separable, though
+in reality they still exist. The head and thorax are peculiarly shaped;
+and, instead of being cylindrical, are angled and ridged; but, beneath
+the soft greenish skin--the new garment--we can discern the outline of
+a pair of small wings, and see a proboscis and a pair of long antennae.
+Also the six long legs of the future butterfly can be traced with care.
+
+The abdomen is conical in form, coming to a sharp point at the end, and
+its segments are quite distinct.
+
+No stranger to the metamorphoses of insects would connect the present
+form with that of a caterpillar; they are so very unlike. And yet the
+time occupied in the whole change, from the spinning of the carpet, does
+not occupy more than about thirty or thirty-five hours.
+
+The apparent suddenness of this change is really surprising, but in
+reality the transformation is not nearly so sudden as it appears.
+Dissection of a caterpillar a few days before the final moult is due
+will show that the changes are already going on. In fact, a simple
+removal of the skin will prove that the organs of the future butterfly
+are developing. Still, in proportion to the short time occupied, the
+change is extremely great; and it may reasonably be inquired, Why so
+great a change within so short a space of time?--why is not the change
+continued steadily and equally through the larval existence? The reason
+has already been hinted at. Caterpillars are living eating machines,
+whose office is to remove excess of vegetable matter. Consequently they
+must have their jaws and bulky digestive apparatus in full development
+to the end. If these organs were to _gradually_ disappear as the
+caterpillar reaches its non-eating stages, it would simply be starved to
+death. So the change from the larval to the pupal state, which we may
+regard as the final moult of the caterpillar, is a far greater change
+than any of the preceding ones, and occupies a proportionately longer
+time, although it is principally confined to the last few days of the
+caterpillar life.
+
+A number of caterpillars, and especially those of the butterflies,
+suspend themselves when about to change; and the peculiarities of the
+modes adopted must be left for our descriptions of species in a future
+chapter; but we will find room here for one more interesting example,
+taking this time the larva of one of the commonest of the Vanessas (page
+166)--the Small Tortoiseshell Butterfly.
+
+The caterpillars of this insect are gregarious when young; and if ever
+you meet with one, you are almost sure to be able to obtain a hundred or
+so without much searching. But as they grow older they feed singly, yet
+generally without straying very far from their birthplace.
+
+When full grown they sometimes stray to a neighbouring plant or fence to
+undergo the change to a chrysalis, but more commonly they are perfectly
+satisfied with the protection afforded by the leaves of their food
+plant. We will now watch one of these as we did the larva of the Large
+White Butterfly.
+
+Of course the under side of the leaf is chosen. Here a silken carpet is
+spun as before described; but the caterpillar, instead of clinging with
+_all_ its claspers, suspends itself in a vertical position by its
+hindermost pair only.
+
+Here it hangs, head downwards, awaiting the coming events. The splitting
+and casting of the skin goes on just as in the case of the Large White,
+but there is this puzzle to be solved: how can the insect shuffle itself
+out of its old coat without falling to the ground, leaving the cast-off
+garments still hanging by the hooks of the claspers? This really seems a
+matter of impossibility, since the little hooks which alone suspend the
+insect are thrown off with the skin of the claspers.
+
+The thing is managed in this way. As the skin slowly splits through the
+wrigglings of the apparently uncomfortable occupant, it is gradually
+pushed backward--that is, upward--till it is in a shrivelled condition,
+and the body of the insect is nearly free. But the chrysalis thus
+brought to light is provided with little hooks on the end of its 'tail'
+by which it can attach itself to the irregularities of the crumpled
+coat. Its conical abdomen is also very flexible, and it can, by bending
+this, seize hold of a ridge in the skin, holding it between the
+segments. Thus, although practically quite free from the old garb, it
+never falls to the ground.
+
+There is now, however, another point to be attended to. The newly formed
+chrysalis desires to be entirely independent of its cast-off skin, and
+to suspend itself directly from the silky carpet it has prepared. To
+this end it works steadily for a time, alternately bending its supple
+abdomen from side to side, gripping the folds of the skin between the
+segments, pulling its body a little higher at each movement, and
+securing itself at each step by the little hooks at its extremity.
+
+So it climbs, and at last it reaches the network of silk fibres, and
+thrusts the tip of its abdomen among them till some of the hooks have
+taken hold. Not satisfied with this, it turns its body round and round
+to get the little hooks so entangled between the silk fibres that a fall
+is impossible, and in so doing it frequently pushes the old skin out of
+its place so that it falls to the ground.
+
+Although the caterpillars of this species do not show any great
+gregarious tendency when nearly full fed, yet it is not an uncommon
+thing to find several hanging from the under surface of one leaf, all
+being attached to the one common carpet at which all had worked. And
+when bred in confinement, a number will often spin in company in a
+corner of their cage. I have thus obtained a cluster of thirty-seven
+pupae, all hanging by the 'tails' to the same mass of silk, which was so
+small that they formed quite a compact mass of beings with their tails
+close together.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--THE COCOON OF THE EMPEROR MOTH.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--THE COCOON OF THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET
+(_Filipendulae_).]
+
+We have seen that the Large White Butterfly makes itself secure by a
+silk band round its middle, while the 'Tortoiseshell' is fixed only by
+its tail. But the extra provision for the safety of the former is not so
+necessary in the case of the latter, as it never spends more than two or
+three weeks in the pupal state. Here it is the perfect insect that
+braves the winter, and not the chrysalis.
+
+There is a great variety in the means taken by the caterpillars of moths
+to protect themselves during their metamorphoses, but we shall have
+space for only a few illustrations.
+
+A clever cocoon is spun by the larva of the Emperor Moth (_Pavonia_). It
+is pear-shaped, and composed of a brownish silk; and is so constructed
+that the newly emerged moth can easily walk out of the small end without
+breaking a fibre, while the entry of an insect enemy from without is
+impossible.
+
+This is managed as follows. A number of rather stiff threads are made to
+project from the small end of the cocoon, and these converge as they
+pass outward so that the ends are all near together. The other portions
+of the cocoon are of compact silk, and any insect intruder that ventures
+to enter by what we may almost term the _open_ end is met by a number of
+spikes, as it were, that play on it at every attempt. Many of these
+wonderful cocoons may be found during the winter months attached to the
+food plants of this insect.
+
+Of the silken cocoons spun by various caterpillars some are so thin and
+light that the chrysalis can easily be seen through them, and others are
+so densely woven as to be quite opaque. A great difference is also to be
+observed in the adhesive power of the silk fibres. In some cases little
+threads of silk can be pulled off the cocoon; but some of them, that of
+the Oak Eggar (page 229) for example, look as if they had been
+constructed of paper rather than of silk, because, at the time of
+spinning, the moist silk fibres stuck so closely together.
+
+An extreme case of this character is to be met with in the cocoon of the
+Puss Moth (page 235); for here the fluid from the spinneret of the
+caterpillar does not harden at once on exposure to air, and so the
+threads become thoroughly united together, thus forming a solid gluey
+cocoon.
+
+When the Puss caterpillar is about to change, it descends the tree
+(poplar, willow, or sallow) till it is within a few feet of the ground.
+Then it commences gnawing away at the bark, at the same time cementing
+all the pieces together with the gluey substance from its spinning
+glands. In this way it surrounds itself with a very hard cocoon, which
+so closely resembles the surrounding bark in colour that detection is
+difficult indeed.
+
+But how will the caterpillar proceed if it is removed from its native
+tree and has no bark to gnaw? That you can easily answer for yourself,
+or rather Puss will answer it for you. Go and search among the poplars,
+willows and sallows in the month of July. You may possibly come across a
+caterpillar that is just in the act of creeping down the bark in search
+of a resting place; but if not you may be successful in obtaining a few
+either by examining the twigs, or you may start them from their hiding
+places by smartly tapping the smaller branches with a strong stick.
+
+Having secured one or more larvae, take them home, and they will give
+some rather novel performances. If they are not fully grown, you must
+supply them with fresh leaves every day till they refuse to eat; and
+then is the time for your experiments. Shut one in a little wooden box,
+and you will have the pleasure of watching it construct a cocoon of
+chips of wood that it has bitten out with its powerful jaws, all joined
+together into a hard shell by means of transparent glue. Shut another
+Puss in a glass vessel--a tumbler, for instance--either by placing it
+under the inverted vessel, or by covering over the top. Perhaps it will
+not be superfluous to mention that, should you place it under an
+inverted vessel, this vessel should not stand on a polished table, for,
+whatever be the material, unless _extremely_ hard, it is sure to be
+utilised in the manufacture of the cocoon.
+
+Let us suppose, then, that the caterpillar is under an inverted tumbler
+that stands on a plate or saucer. Now it is for _you_ to decide what
+material shall be used in the construction of the new home. Give Puss
+some fine strips of brightly coloured ribbon, and it will construct a
+very gaudy house by gluing them together. Or, provide it with sawdust,
+pieces of rag, glass beads, sand, paper, anything in fact; and the
+material will be 'made up' into a cocoon more or less ornamental
+according to the nature of the supply.
+
+But what if you give it _nothing_ with which to work, and so inclose it
+that nothing its jaws can pierce is within its reach? For instance, shut
+it in with tumbler and saucer as before, inverting the former on the
+latter, and give it no material whatever. What will it do now? We will
+watch and see.
+
+At first it is very restless, and walks round and round the edge of the
+tumbler, evidently a little dissatisfied with the prospects. Then, after
+a little while, the events of nature transpiring in their fixed order
+regardless of trivial mishaps, the glutinous fluid begins to flow from
+the creature's spinning glands, and it moves about in a somewhat aimless
+fashion, applying the transparent adhesive matter both to tumbler and
+saucer.
+
+It seems now to become a little more reconciled to its unnatural
+surroundings; and, making the best of bad matters, keeps its body in one
+place, and starts the construction of a ridge or barrier all round
+itself. By the continued application of the creature's spinneret this
+barrier is made gradually thicker and higher, till at last the
+overhanging sides meet and the caterpillar is inclosed in its
+self-constructed prison. But the walls of this prison are so transparent
+that every movement can be watched; and, after the insect has spent a
+few days in completing the cocoon, we can see it cast off its old skin,
+and appear in the new garb of a fine greenish chrysalis.
+
+Its soft green skin soon hardens and turns to a rich dark brown colour,
+and it settles down for a long rest lasting till the following May or
+June.
+
+When the whole operation of building is completed, lift up the tumbler,
+and up will come the saucer too. The two are firmly glued together by
+the substance secreted; and the power of this as a cementing material
+will be well illustrated if you endeavour by mere pulling force to
+separate the two articles.
+
+The Puss is not the only caterpillar that works up a foreign material
+with the contents of the spinning organs. There are several others, in
+fact, that use for this purpose fragments of wood or other parts of the
+food plants; and a still larger number bind together leaves, fresh or
+dead, or particles of earth or other matter. Several such cocoons will
+be described in our accounts of individual species in another chapter.
+We shall now devote a little space to a few general remarks on the
+chrysalides and the final metamorphosis of butterflies and moths.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+_THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS_
+
+
+As soon as the last moult of the caterpillar is over, the chrysalis that
+had already been developing under the cover of the old skin is exposed
+to full view; and although the perfect insect is not to be liberated for
+some time to come, yet some of its parts are apparently fully formed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--THE PUPA OF THE PRIVET HAWK (_Ligustri_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--THE CHRYSALIS OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY
+(_Brassicae_).]
+
+The newly exposed skin of the chrysalis is very soft and moist, but as
+it hardens it forms a membranous or horny covering that protects and
+holds firmly in place the trunk and the various limbs and appendages
+that are distinctly to be traced on the under surface.
+
+If, however, you examine a chrysalis directly after the moult is over,
+you will often find that the wings, antennae, proboscis, and legs of the
+future butterfly can be easily separated from the trunk of the body on
+which they lie by means of a blunt needle, and can be spread out so as
+to be quite free from that surface.
+
+In form the chrysalides of butterflies and moths are as variable as the
+caterpillars. Many of the former are sharply angular like that of the
+'Small Tortoiseshell' already mentioned; but some of the
+butterflies--the Skippers (page 197)--have smooth and tapering
+chrysalides, and so have most of the moths.
+
+In colour they are equally variable. Some are beautifully tinted with
+delicate shades of green, some spotted on a light ground, some striped
+with bands more or less gaudy and distinct, but the prevailing tint,
+especially among the moths, is a reddish brown, often so deep that it is
+almost a black.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--THE PUPA OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY
+(_Aglaia_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--THE PUPA OF THE BLACK-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY
+(_Crataegi_).]
+
+As a rule there is no marked resemblance between the different stages of
+the same insect. Thus, a brilliantly coloured caterpillar may change to
+a dull and unattractive chrysalis, from which may emerge a butterfly or
+moth that partakes of the colours of neither. But in a few cases there
+_are_ colours or other features that remain persistent throughout the
+three stages, or show themselves prominently in two.
+
+An interesting example in point is that of the Magpie or Currant Moth
+(page 279). The caterpillar of this moth is cream-coloured, with orange
+stripes along the sides, and very bold black markings down the back. The
+chrysalis, which is at first entirely yellow, afterwards turns black
+with the exception of some yellow transverse bands. Then, the moth
+exhibits the same colours as these two earlier stages, with the same
+degree of boldness; for its pale cream-coloured wings, tinted with
+patches of yellow, are marked with numerous deep black spots. Thus, in
+this case, we find the same general character of the colouring
+throughout the insect's existence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--THE PUPA OF THE CURRANT MOTH.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--PUPA OF THE PALE TUSSOCK MOTH (_Pudibunda_).]
+
+Another interesting example, though not so striking as the last, is to
+be found in the case of a group of moths known as the _Liparidae_. The
+caterpillars of these are remarkable for their very hairy bodies, often
+ornamented by several bold brush-like tufts. The chrysalides are also
+hairy; and several of the moths themselves are not only thickly clad
+with shaggy hair, but a bold tuft often tips the abdomen.
+
+We must not leave these few remarks on the characters of chrysalides
+without a mention of the brilliant spots of burnished gold that decorate
+the pupae of certain butterflies. This is the feature that led to the
+invention of the term _chrysalis_, which is derived from the Greek word
+_chrysos_, meaning _gold_. For the same reason the term _aurelia_ has
+been applied to the pupae of _Lepidoptera_, this being derived from
+_aurum_--the Latin name for gold.
+
+Strictly, then, these two terms apply only to the pupae of a certain
+number of the butterflies; but the former is now generally used to
+designate the pupae of all the _Lepidoptera_, and is even extended to the
+corresponding stages of insects of other orders.
+
+If you examine one of these gold-speckled chrysalides, the brilliant
+metallic lustre seems to belong to the outer surface, just as if certain
+spots had been tipped with real gold; but after the butterfly has
+quitted its case the beautiful golden spots are gone. This proves that
+the metallic appearance is not due to reflection from the outer surface
+of the chrysalis, but to a reflection from some structure beneath it.
+This latter is a very thin membrane which lies just under the outer
+transparent covering of the chrysalis.
+
+The period during which the _Lepidoptera_ remain in the chrysalis state
+varies very considerably in different species, and also depends more or
+less on the temperature. As a rule, when a caterpillar pupates before
+the end of the summer, it remains dormant in the pupal condition for
+only a few weeks; but, if late in the summer or in the autumn, it
+remains in this condition throughout the winter, and emerges in the
+following spring or early summer.
+
+Both these conditions are illustrated in the life history of the Large
+White or Cabbage Butterfly--an insect with which we have already become
+acquainted. We get two distinct broods of this butterfly every year, the
+first appearing in May and the second in August. The eggs of the first
+brood hatch in about a fortnight, and the larvae are full grown about
+four weeks later. These then change to chrysalides, from which the
+perfect insects (the second brood) emerge in a few weeks--the period
+varying slightly with the temperature of the season. From the eggs of
+this second brood we get another invading army of cabbage eaters that
+change to pupae late in the summer. These remain dormant till the
+following April, and may be found in numbers throughout the winter,
+attached to the walls and fences of kitchen and market gardens.
+
+If, then, the pupae of the same species are so influenced by the
+temperatures of the seasons, can we limit or prolong the period of
+quiescence by subjecting them to high or low temperatures artificially
+produced? Most certainly we can; and every practical entomologist knows
+how to obtain the perfect butterflies and moths of certain species long
+before their appointed times, or, if he desires it, to compel them to
+remain in their dormant stage long after the natural period has
+terminated.
+
+Sometimes an enthusiastic insect hunter obtains a large number of what
+we may term 'winter pupae,' by collecting and breeding various species.
+He also anticipates a number of successful captures of perfect insects
+during the following summer. Thus, from two distinct sources, he obtains
+a goodly assortment of butterflies and moths, the setting, preserving,
+and arranging of which entails an immense amount of home work.
+
+Under such circumstances he will sometimes endeavour to cause some of
+his pupae to emerge before their accustomed time, so that he may get some
+of his insects 'on the boards' before his field work is in full swing,
+and so avoid a rush, or prevent the loss of insects that will be spoiled
+before he has time to take them in hand.
+
+This process of hurrying up his pupae he calls 'forcing,' and simply
+consists in keeping them for a time in a warm room or hothouse where the
+high temperature is pretty constant.
+
+On the other hand, the entomologist may desire to try the effect of a
+continued _low_ temperature on his pupae. This he can do by placing his
+pupae in an ice house. Such experiments have often been performed, and
+the results are very interesting. In some cases the emergence of the
+perfect insect has been delayed for many months, and even years; and
+then, after an exposure to a normal temperature lasting only a week or
+two, the winged insect has made its appearance just as if nothing
+unusual had happened.
+
+Such are the effects of _extreme_ temperatures on the duration of the
+chrysalis state; and we naturally infer, from such results, that the
+pupa under natural conditions is influenced, though in a lesser degree,
+by the variations experienced with the seasons, especially in such a
+fickle climate as our own.
+
+The insect hunter has always to bear this in mind, and particularly so
+when he sets out on a search for certain desired species. Suppose, for
+example, he has set his mind on the capture of a certain butterfly that
+_usually_ appears in the _first_ week in May. Before finally naming the
+day, he has to consider what the weather has been during the last few
+weeks, and if he finds that this has been much warmer than the average
+for the corresponding periods in the past, he selects a day in _April_,
+earlier or later according to the difference between the present season
+and the average.
+
+If he does not pay due attention to such considerations, he will
+sometimes find that all the insects netted are shabby and much worn,
+even though, under average conditions, he would be catching newly
+emerged and brilliant specimens. This, then, will explain how it is that
+we so often see in entomologists' periodicals startling accounts of
+'early captures,' and of the appearance of certain insects late in the
+season that _ought_ not to have emerged till the following summer.
+
+I will give just one illustration of these variations. The beautiful
+Orange Tip Butterfly (Plate I, fig. 7) generally appears about the
+middle of May in the southern counties. Farther north it is of course a
+little later. In the north of England it has been taken in June; and in
+Scotland as late as July. On the other hand, I have taken it in
+Gloucestershire as early as March, on a rather bleak day with a cold
+east wind; and, withal, in a field on the slope of the Cotswolds fully
+exposed to the unfavourable breeze; but it was evident that, in this
+case, the butterfly had been enticed from its winter quarters by the
+milder weather of the few previous weeks.
+
+It may be as well, in passing, to observe that it is not only the pupa
+that is influenced by temperature. The hatching of eggs may be forced by
+high temperatures, or be retarded by exposure to cold; and in nature the
+period of incubation varies with the seasons. The larvae, too, grow
+faster or more slowly, or pupate earlier or later from similar causes.
+And so no very definite date or period can be assigned to any one stage
+of any insect.
+
+Now let us return to one of the chrysalides that we have already watched
+through the earlier stages of its existence, and follow it in its future
+development.
+
+It is now, as we say, in its quiescent or dormant condition, but we must
+not suppose that it is always in a profound sleep, nor can we say that
+it is insensible to its surroundings. Touch it gently or surprise it
+with a puff of air from your mouth, and it will begin to wag its pointed
+tail, sometimes with such vigour as to send the body rolling round and
+round in its box. Lay it on a bed of cocoa-nut fibre or finely sifted
+soil and let it remain _quite undisturbed_ for a few hours or days, and
+you will probably find that, by occasional movements of its body, it has
+made a slight depression in its bed, and lies partly submerged. I have
+known some chrysalides to completely bury themselves in this way during
+the course of a day or two, and others to partly expose themselves after
+having been lightly covered. Others again, I have observed, will move
+smartly if a strong light is suddenly turned on them. Many, too,
+certainly appear to have a strong objection to exposure to the direct
+rays of a hot sun; for, when thus exposed, they will struggle
+persistently, as if to work their bodies into some shady corner. I would
+not advise a young entomologist to try this experiment, however, if he
+values the pupae he possesses, for direct sunlight is undoubtedly very
+harmful to many species, and perhaps it is to all.
+
+Some chrysalides are not nearly so active as has just been represented;
+in fact, there are many which seem to show no signs of life during the
+greater part of the time spent in that state. But in all, whether
+apparently active or not, certain important internal changes are at
+work. We have already noticed that, even in the last days of the
+_larval_ existence, some of the organs of the future imago are to be
+traced. But these are as yet imperfectly developed. We have also
+observed that a continuation of these changes, gradually carried on,
+would be impossible in a voracious feeder; so the insect, now fully
+grown, and no longer requiring a supply of food, settles down in perfect
+quiet, submitting itself quite passively to any further changes that
+nature may demand.
+
+It has already suffered the loss of its claspers. Its wonderful jaws
+that did so much damage (for good or evil as the case may be) to the
+vegetable world are now gone, and the bulky digestive apparatus has
+rapidly dwindled to useless dimensions. These and other changes, already
+in progress, have to be perfected while the creature is in a restful and
+helpless condition, though they may often be retarded or even suspended
+during cold weather when progress would certainly bring it to an
+untimely end.
+
+But now the grandest of all these transformation scenes is nigh at hand.
+The protective skin is already loosening from the almost perfect imago,
+and consequently feels softer and far more yielding than it did when in
+close contact with the body: the swaddled butterfly or moth (for such
+the pupa is) is slowly preparing to throw off its imprisoning garb. The
+wings and large compound eyes are assuming their final colours, which
+now begin to show themselves through the more or less transparent skin,
+and the long legs, the perfectly formed antennae, and the slender
+proboscis, all of which are folded closely under the creature's thorax,
+now begin to move within their loosened sheaths.
+
+Now let us watch it closely, for one of the most wonderful sights ever
+witnessed by a naturalist is about to be presented to our view. We think
+we can observe slight movements; and, it may be, we can actually see the
+struggling insect endeavouring to set itself free. The legs and
+proboscis are moving within the loosened skin; and lo! as we watch these
+motions, the prison wall bursts with a slight snapping noise (at least,
+such is the case with some of the larger species), and in a moment out
+pop a few long legs which immediately struggle for a foothold. The
+proboscis also appears, alternately lengthening itself out and coiling
+into a spiral, as if impatient to reach the sweet nectar from the bottom
+of some fragrant flower cup.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36--A BUTTERFLY, JUST AFTER EMERGING.]
+
+All this takes place in less time than one requires to describe it; and,
+before many seconds have passed, the struggling insect has quite
+completed its last moult, and is bidding good-bye to the rent garment
+that has done it good service for so long a time.
+
+But how dreadfully disappointing! Did we not say only a few minutes
+since, that a beautiful butterfly or moth was about to emerge? How,
+then, is this? Here is an odd-looking creature, such as we have never
+seen before! True, it has the right kind of body, though even that is so
+soft and heavy that it is fairly dragged along as the insect walks. Its
+antennae, too, seem to be just the right thing--that is, just what we
+were expecting to see. But oh! the wings! Are we looking at a
+deformity?--a failure on the part of Nature to produce what she ought?
+
+We will not judge hastily, but continue to watch it a little longer. It
+seems very restless at first, and, with the fluttering apologies for
+wings, drags its heavy body along till it reaches some surface up which
+it can climb. If nothing of the kind is close at hand you may place a
+_rough_ upright stick in its path, and it will immediately begin to
+ascend. Its motto is now 'Excelsior!' and its ambition to rise may be so
+great that, on reaching the very top of the stick provided for it, it
+struggles for a still higher position in life till, failing to get a
+foothold in the air itself, it falls to the ground and has to retrace
+its steps.
+
+I once thought I would like to test the perseverance of a large moth in
+performing its first upward journey; and as it was one from a chrysalis
+to be found in nature at the foot of a tree that attains some
+considerable height, I was, of course, prepared to exercise a little
+patience myself.
+
+As soon as the moth had emerged, I placed it at the bottom of a window
+curtain that hung from about eight feet high to the floor. In less than
+half a minute it had reached the top, and was struggling hard to get
+still higher. I took it down, and again placed it at the bottom. Up it
+went as fast as before; and this was repeated nine times with exactly
+the same result. For the tenth time I placed the persevering creature at
+the bottom of the curtain; and, after it had walked about halfway up, it
+_suddenly_ stopped, apparently quite satisfied with having travelled a
+distance of over seventy feet in an upward direction. Its six legs were
+immediately arranged symmetrically in a business-like manner, and there
+it settled quite still, as if it had some definite object in stopping
+just exactly in that spot.
+
+But we must now return to our own insect, which has by this time settled
+itself in a similar manner on the stick we provided for it. The peculiar
+organs which represent the wings, though so very small, show distinctly,
+in miniature, the colour and pattern of the fully developed wings of the
+species. An interesting change is just now commencing. These wings are
+apparently growing larger, but the development is very unequal, so that
+they become curled and crumpled till they are even more unsightly than
+before. All seems to be going amiss. But this lasts only for a short
+time. The fluid from the body steadily rushes into the _nervures_,
+causing the wings to expand, and in a few minutes the beautiful pinions
+are stretched to the full extent, assume their normal shape, and expose
+the full glory of their brilliant colours.
+
+It may be interesting if I give an example showing the exact time taken
+for the full development of the wings of a certain insect. So I will
+here quote an entry from my note book; and, by the way, let me strongly
+advise all my young readers who follow up this subject to habitually
+enter in a book kept specially for the purpose all facts which strike
+them as they pursue their study of nature. The note to which I refer
+runs as follows:
+
+'Early on the evening of the 22nd [April] I selected a few chrysalides
+of Populi [the Poplar Hawk Moth, page 209] which, from the looseness of
+their cases, were thought to be just on the point of emerging. At 8.46
+one of them showed signs of restlessness; and, after a few vigorous
+movements, during which it rolled itself over on the glass [I had placed
+the pupae on a piece of plate glass so that slight movements might be
+more easily detected], the front of its case was suddenly thrust off
+with considerable force; and in _less than four seconds_ the imago was
+quite free and crawling on the table. After trying hard to reach a
+higher point than was provided for about four minutes, it rested to
+expand its wings--now about seven-sixteenths of an inch long, or
+one-third the total length of the body. At 9 o'clock the wings reached
+half the length of the body, and were much curled. At 9.12 they were
+fully expanded and straightened out.'
+
+From this extract we see that the whole period from the bursting of the
+case to the full expansion of the wings was only twenty-six minutes; and
+it will be well to remind the reader that the process occupies even a
+much shorter time than this with many species, both of butterflies and
+moths. It will be observed, also, that the _evening_ was chosen as the
+time for the observation. There was a reason for this. The Poplar Hawk
+Moth, as is the case with many others, almost invariably emerges from
+the chrysalis in the evening--usually after dark. But it may be
+mentioned in passing that a far larger number of the _Lepidoptera_ as
+invariably emerge in the morning.
+
+Again we will return to our newly emerged insect, for there are still
+one or two interesting points to observe. The wings have fully expanded,
+it is true, but how very limp they are! Take the creature on the tip of
+your finger and hold it so that its body is in a horizontal position.
+Immediately the wings bend downward with their own weight, so soft and
+flexible are they. The body, too, is still very soft, and apparently
+much too heavy for flight. Then, if you place it on a flat surface, it
+will immediately try to find some perpendicular or overhanging surface
+from which it can suspend itself by means of its legs, so that the
+pendant and straightened wings are in the best possible position for
+drying. As the insect walks away in search of such a resting place, the
+body still drags as it did before, and the wings bend over, either both
+on one side or one on each side of the body.
+
+It is some time before the wings are sufficiently dry and rigid for
+flight, but the period varies greatly with different species. Some of
+the small butterflies and moths take to flight long before an hour has
+passed, but in many cases several hours elapse before the creature
+starts from its first resting place. Butterflies that emerge in the
+morning spend their first day actively on the wing; but the nocturnal
+moths that emerge early in the day do not fly till evening twilight.
+When, however, the time arrives, the insect flutters its wings as if to
+test their power before committing itself to the air; and frequently,
+after only a few seconds spent in this preparatory exercise, off it
+darts with astonishing rapidity. But others seem far more cautious. They
+vibrate their wings, sometimes with such rapidity that they are lost in
+a kind of mist, and with such power that their bodies would be carried
+suddenly into the air were they not firmly anchored by three pairs of
+hooked claws. Then, continuing the rapid vibration, they move slowly
+along, always holding on firmly by one or more legs, as if to still
+further satisfy themselves concerning the efficiency of their wings.
+Then they venture on a few short trial trips from one neighbouring
+object to another, and at last gain sufficient confidence for a long
+voyage.
+
+How strange must be the feelings of a winged insect during its first
+flight! After a long period during which it was a helpless, crawling
+grub, and this followed by a term of imprisonment during which it was
+almost or quite shut off from the world, it now suddenly acquires such
+great powers of locomotion that it is often a match for ourselves.
+
+But, alas! this life is short. A few days spent in sporting with those
+it meets and in sucking the sweet juices of many flowers; then a day or
+two during which the female deposits its eggs; again a few days employed
+in pleasures that become less and less attractive, till, at last, the
+creature becomes weary of life and settles down to die.
+
+We have now traced the complete life history of the _Lepidoptera_ from
+the egg to the perfect insect, avoiding descriptions that apply only to
+certain species as far as possible, excepting where such are useful as
+illustrations.
+
+Only one thing more remains to be done before we start in real earnest
+with our practical work. We shall shortly be giving hints on the modes
+of capture, the 'setting' and the preservation of butterflies and moths.
+And in so doing we shall often have to observe important points in which
+our dealings with these two great divisions of the order will differ
+very materially. Hence we must not consider ourselves ready to proceed
+with the practical portion of the entomologist's labours till we are
+perfectly satisfied that we know the main features that enable us to
+distinguish between the butterflies and the moths, and also know just a
+little concerning the subdivisions on each side.
+
+This, then, shall form the subject of the next short chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+_CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+
+The _Lepidoptera_ are divided into two very unequal groups, to which we
+have so frequently alluded as 'Butterflies' and 'Moths.' And, although
+these two terms are popularly applied in a fairly accurate manner, yet,
+strange to say, very few persons indeed have any definite knowledge of
+the differences that entomologists recognise between the two groups.
+
+Every entomologist has his circle of sympathetic and, perhaps, even
+admiring friends. Consequently, many a little package is sent round to
+his abode 'with great care,' accompanied by a note or a message
+concerning the fine 'butterfly I have just caught, and thought you would
+like to add to your collection.'
+
+The 'butterflies' that so frequently reach us through these channels
+nearly always turn out to be _brightly coloured_ moths, and this
+naturally gives one the idea that the popular notion as to the
+classification of the _Lepidoptera_ is based on colour or brilliancy of
+design, the term 'butterfly' being applied to the gayer species, and
+'moth' to the more dingy members of the race.
+
+There is really some shadow of a reason in this method of nomenclature,
+for butterflies _are usually_ more brightly clad than moths; but the
+scientific classification, at least as far as the main divisions and
+subdivisions are concerned, has nothing whatever to do with colour or
+design; and we must at once acquaint ourselves with the fact that there
+_are_ very dingy butterflies, and most beautiful and highly coloured
+moths.
+
+How shall we account for the fact that the specimens so kindly sent us
+by our friends are generally moths? Is it because moths are more
+numerous and more frequently seen? They are certainly more numerous;
+for, while our butterflies do not number seventy species, the other
+division contains about two thousand. Yet, in spite of this fact, moths
+are not generally observed as much as butterflies, for the former are
+nearly all night-fliers, and the latter _always_ fly by day and rest by
+night.
+
+Still our question remains unanswered. The reason is this. The captives
+sent us are seldom caught on the wing. Most of our grown-up friends,
+even though they admire our own pluck and general carelessness
+concerning the remarks of the spectators of our entomological antics,
+would not themselves like to be seen, hat in hand, chasing a butterfly;
+and the night-flying moths are, of course, less frequently observed. But
+they often, in the course of their daily employments, meet with a large
+moth fast asleep in some corner of a dwelling house, workshop, or
+outhouse. Such moths are easily caught while in the midst of their
+slumbers, and, as they often make no attempt to fly by day, are as
+easily transferred to a box suitable for transmission by messenger or by
+post.
+
+In the above few remarks we have alluded to some features by which the
+two great groups of the _Lepidoptera_ may be distinguished; but we have
+already referred (page 5) to a far more important one in our description
+of the various forms of antennae. All butterflies--at least all _British_
+butterflies--have knobbed or clubbed antennae, while the corresponding
+organs of all our moths terminate in a sharp point.
+
+This distinction obtains in all British _Lepidoptera_, and is so far
+regarded as the most important basis of classification that naturalists
+have derived from it the two Greek terms that are synonymous with our
+two popular names--butterflies and moths. The scientific name for the
+former group is _Rhopalocera_--a term derived from two Greek words, one
+signifying a horn, and the other a club, and thus meaning 'club-horned.'
+The corresponding name for moths is _Heterocera_, derived from the same
+source, and meaning 'variously horned.'
+
+But, although we find embodied in these two long and formidable names an
+unerring mark of distinction between British butterflies and moths, we
+must not neglect other less important facts which, though less
+distinctive, are not without interest.
+
+Observe a butterfly at rest. Its wings are turned vertically over its
+back, and brought so closely together that they often touch. In this
+position the 'upper' surfaces of the 'upper' wings are completely hidden
+from view, and the 'under' surfaces are exposed on the two sides,
+except that those of the 'upper' pair are partly hidden by the other
+pair.
+
+Now look at a moth under the same circumstances, and you will generally
+find the wings lying over its body, which is almost or completely hidden
+beneath them. As a rule the upper pair together form a triangular
+figure, and entirely cover the second pair; but in some cases a portion
+of each of the under wings extends beyond the margin of those above
+them, and in others the upper pair extend so far forward that nearly the
+whole of the under wings is exposed behind them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--A BUTTERFLY AT REST (LARGE COPPER).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--A MOTH AT REST (GOTHIC).]
+
+Again, the wings of butterflies are so rigid that they can never be
+folded; but you will observe that the under wings of moths are generally
+very thin, soft, and pliant, and are neatly pleated lengthwise when not
+in use.
+
+Another feature deserving notice is a slight difference to be often
+observed in the form of the body. The butterfly, which generally has a
+slender body, has a distinct constriction or waist between the thorax
+and abdomen. This is not so apparent with moths, and especially with the
+thick-bodied species.
+
+The _Rhopalocera_ or Butterflies are divided into _Families_, each of
+which contains insects that possess certain features in common by which
+they may all be distinguished from the members of any other family.
+
+The British species represent eight families. They are as follows:
+
+1. _Papilionidae._--Containing only one British species--the beautiful
+Swallow-tail (Plate I, fig. 1).
+
+2. _Pieridae._--Containing ten species. These are often known
+collectively as the 'Whites,' but include four butterflies that are
+distinguished by beautiful shades of yellow and orange.
+
+3. _Nymphalidae._--This family contains seventeen insects, among them
+being several splendid species. It includes the Fritillaries and
+Vanessas.
+
+4. _Apaturidae._--Of this we have only one representative--the Purple
+Emperor (Plate V, fig. 1).
+
+5. _Satyridae._--Including the 'Browns' and 'Heaths,' and numbering
+eleven species.
+
+6. _Lycaenidae._--Including the Hairstreaks, 'Coppers,' and 'Blues,' in
+all seventeen species.
+
+7. _Erycinidae._--Containing only the 'Duke of Burgundy.'
+
+8. _Hesperiidae._--This family contains seven British butterflies
+commonly known as the 'Skippers.'
+
+Although all the members of the same family resemble each other in
+certain points of structure, or in their habits, yet we can often find
+among them a smaller group differing from all the others in one or two
+minor particulars. Such smaller groups are called _Genera_.
+
+To make this all quite clear we will take an example.
+
+The Brimstone Butterfly (Plate II, fig. 4) belongs to the second
+family--_Pieridae_, _all_ the members of which are distinguished from
+those of the other families by the characteristics mentioned on page
+141.
+
+But our Brimstone Butterfly possesses another very prominent feature in
+which it differs from all the other British _Pieridae_, and that is the
+conspicuous projecting angles of both fore and hind wings. Among the
+foreign species of the family we are considering there are several that
+possess these angles; but as there are no others among our own members,
+the 'Brimstone' is placed by itself in the list of British _Lepidoptera_
+as the only member of the genus _Gonopteryx_ or 'angle-winged'
+butterflies.
+
+Thus the full relationship of this butterfly to other insects may be
+shown in the following manner:
+
+ _The Brimstone Butterfly._
+
+ =ORDER.=--_Lepidoptera_
+ =Section.=--_Rhopalocera_
+ FAMILY.--_Pieridae_
+ _Genus._--_Gonopteryx_
+ Species.--_Rhamni_
+
+Now, every butterfly has a Latin or Greek name in addition to that by
+which it is popularly known. I should have said _two_ Latin or Greek
+names. The first of these is always the _generic_ name, and the second
+is the one by which we denote the particular member or _species_ of that
+genus. Thus, the scientific name of the Brimstone Butterfly is
+_Gonopteryx Rhamni_.
+
+'But,' the reader may be inclined to ask, 'why should we not be
+satisfied with the one popular name only?' And, 'If we _must_ have a
+separate scientific name, could we not find suitable terms among our
+English words to build up such a name--one that might express the
+principal characteristics of the insect, and also serve all the purposes
+of classification?'
+
+Such questions sound very reasonable, and so they are. But the
+entomologist's answer is this. We ourselves may get on well without the
+help of the dead languages, but we have brother naturalists all over the
+world, speaking a great variety of different languages. We endeavour to
+help one another--to exchange notes and generally to assist one another
+in our labours; and this can be greatly facilitated if we all adopt the
+same system of nomenclature. The educated of most of the great nations
+generally know something of Latin and Greek, and consequently the
+adoption of these languages is generally acceptable to all.
+
+This sounds well, but for my own part I believe that if we are to make
+any branch of natural history a popular study, especially with the
+young, we must to a certain extent avoid anything that may prove
+distasteful. There is no doubt whatever that many a youngster has been
+turned away from the pursuit of the study of nature by the formidable
+array of almost unpronounceable names that stretch nearly halfway across
+a page; and those who desire to make such a study pleasant to beginners
+should be very cautious with the use of these necessary evils. One would
+think, on glancing over some of the scientific manuals that are written
+'especially for the young,' that the authors considered our own too mean
+a language for so exalted a purpose, for in such works we find all or
+nearly all the popular names by which the schoolboy knows certain
+creatures he has seen entirely omitted, and the description of a species
+appended to a long Latin term that conveys no idea whatever to the
+reader, who is studying the description of a well-known animal or plant
+and doesn't know it.
+
+Our plan will be to give the popular names throughout, except in the
+case of those few species that are not so well known as to have
+received one; but the scientific names will always be given as well for
+the benefit of those readers who would like to know them. And the short
+description of the method of classification just given will enable the
+more ambitious of my readers to thoroughly understand the table of
+British butterflies and moths toward the end of the book.
+
+This table includes _all_ the British species of butterflies and of the
+larger moths; and the arrangement is such as to show clearly the
+divisions into sections, families, &c. It will therefore be of great
+value for reference, and as a guide for the arrangement of the specimens
+in the cabinet.
+
+In the foregoing description of the method of classification butterflies
+only are mentioned; but the division and arrangement of moths is carried
+out in just the same manner except that the system is a little more
+complicated. The number of moths is so large in comparison, that we are
+able to select from them some very large groups the species of which
+possess features in common. These groups are termed _tribes_, and are
+again divided into families just like the butterflies. Thus the
+arrangement of moths includes _tribes_, _families_, _genera_ and
+_species_. We will take an example by way of illustration as we did
+before, and ask the reader to verify the same by comparison with our
+table:
+
+ _Example._--The 'Common Tiger' (Plate X, fig. 3).
+
+ =ORDER.=--_Lepidoptera_
+ =Section.=--_Heterocera_
+ TRIBE.--_Bombyces_
+ FAMILY.--_Cheloniidae_
+ _Genus._--_Arctia_
+ Species.--_Caia_
+ Scientific Name.--_Arctia Caia._
+
+I have already said that the Latin and Greek names of butterflies and
+moths are not at all necessary to the young entomologist. It is quite
+possible to be well acquainted with the natural history of these
+creatures, and to derive all the pleasure and benefits that the study of
+them can afford without the knowledge of such names; but most
+entomologists go in for them, often to the entire exclusion of the
+popular English terms.
+
+There are those who consider themselves (or would have us consider them)
+expert entomologists because they have the power to vomit forth a long
+list of scientific names of butterflies and moths which (to them) have
+no meaning whatever; and it is astonishing that we meet with so many
+youngsters who can rattle away such terms, and, at the same time, are
+totally ignorant of the real nature of the creatures they name.
+
+If you wish to be a naturalist in the true sense of the term, study your
+_specimens_, and take but little pains to commit their hard names to
+memory; and you will then find that the latter will gradually become
+your own property without any special effort on your part. Your
+continued reference to illustrated works and museum collections will
+bring them to you almost unconsciously, and you will generally find your
+entomological vocabulary extending as rapidly as your cabinet becomes
+filled.
+
+Again, with regard to the _meanings_ of the scientific terms, don't
+trouble much about them. It unfortunately happens that in a very large
+number of cases these names are ill chosen, and do not in any way refer
+to the distinguishing characteristics of the species to which they are
+applied. You will observe, too, if you look at the table, that many
+insects have _two_ scientific names applied to the species, one being
+placed in brackets after the other. In such cases both these names are
+in common use, having both been applied by independent authorities, and
+the insertion of the two will prove an assistance at times.
+
+It is a common practice with entomologists, in their communications, to
+use only the second or _specific_ name of insects. Thus, they would
+speak of the Brimstone Butterfly as _Rhamni_, and not _Gonopteryx
+Rhamni_. When _writing_ a communication, however, they very commonly
+place in front of the specific name the initial letter of the first or
+_generic_ name. Thus the full title of the butterfly just mentioned
+would be abbreviated to _G. Rhamni_.
+
+Having said so much concerning the principles of classification and
+nomenclature, we will pass on to the practical portion of the
+entomologist's work.
+
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+_CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS_
+
+
+It is not at all surprising that entomology should prove such a
+fascinating study to the young, and more especially that portion which
+deals with the department we are now considering. Butterflies and moths
+are among the most beautiful and most interesting of living creatures.
+The study of their life history is enchanting, and the creatures
+themselves are of such a size as to be conveniently handled and
+preserved, and withal occupy so little space that anyone with only
+moderate accommodation may possess a fairly typical collection.
+
+Compare the work of the entomologist with that of one whose hobby is the
+study of mammals. The latter has to deal with large and cumbersome
+objects, a collection of which requires an enormous amount of space;
+and, unless he has the time and means to travel in foreign countries, he
+cannot get together a good typical collection of specimens representing
+his particular branch, for the few British mammals contain no
+representatives of several of the orders into which the class is
+divided.
+
+Entomology is undoubtedly, _par excellence_, _the_ study for youngsters.
+It is equally suited to the studious and to those of an adventurous turn
+of mind. It leads its follower into the bright sunshine and the flowery
+meadows; and with body and mind pleasantly occupied, the joy of living
+is deeply felt. The necessary apparatus can be made by anyone. No
+dangerous gun is required, and there are no precipitous rocks to scale.
+When the autumn flowers fade the year's work of the entomologist is not
+done, for the arranging of his cabinet and the demands of his living
+specimens keep him more or less actively engaged until the flowers of
+the following spring call both him and the insects he loves once more
+into the field. And so, season after season, and year after year, he
+finds himself engrossed in labours so fascinating that idleness--the
+curse of so many of our youths--is with him an impossibility.
+
+I assume that the readers of this book have a desire to take up the
+study of one branch of entomology--that of butterflies and moths--in
+real earnest; that they intend not only to _read_ about these
+interesting insects, but to _know_ them. And there is only one way in
+which one may really get to know living creatures; that is by searching
+them out in their haunts, observing their growth and habits, and by an
+occasional close examination in order to become acquainted with their
+structure.
+
+Hence I shall in this, the practical portion of the work, give such
+information as will assist the beginner in catching, preserving,
+rearing, breeding, and arranging the specimens that are to form his
+collection.
+
+
+_Catching Butterflies_
+
+There was a time when we would try to capture a butterfly at rest on a
+flower by a quick sweep of the hand, or, more commonly, by a sharp
+downward stroke of the cap. We were led to this action by a mere
+childish love of sport, or by a desire to possess an insect simply
+because it was pretty. When we succeeded in securing our prize, we
+handled it somewhat carelessly, often passing it from one hand to the
+other, or boxing it in our closed and perspiring fist till our fingers
+were dusted with the pretty microscopic scales of the creature's wings,
+and the wings themselves, stripped of all their beautiful clothing, were
+merely transparent and veined membranes. Having thus carelessly but
+unintentionally deprived the creature of its greatest beauty, we set it
+free, often in such a damaged or exhausted condition that the poor thing
+could scarcely fly.
+
+But our childish ideas and inclinations have vanished. Now we would
+rather watch the insect than catch it, for we find much pleasure and
+interest in its varied movements. And if for purposes of study we
+occasionally require to make one captive, we proceed in such a manner as
+to preserve its beauty unimpaired. The cap now gives place to a
+well-made and suitable net; and we are careful to provide ourselves with
+sufficient and proper accommodation for our captives.
+
+It is probable that many of my readers are as yet unacquainted with the
+nature of an entomologist's requirements for field work, so we shall
+describe them, confining ourselves at first to those that are required
+for a butterfly hunt.
+
+First and foremost comes the net. This essential portion of your
+equipment may be either purchased or constructed by yourself. Very
+little skill is required to enable you to do the former. Provided your
+pocket is well charged, you may start off at once to the dealer in
+naturalists' appliances, and treat yourself to a complete outfit. But
+even in this case a little advice may not be out of place. See that what
+you purchase is very _strongly_ made. You can get nicely finished nets
+constructed on the most convenient principles, made to fold and go in an
+ordinary coat pocket, but with _weak joints_. See that you have the most
+convenient form of net by all means, but do not go in for convenience
+and appearance at the expense of strength and durability. Nothing is
+more annoying than to find your net give way just when you are in the
+midst of a good day's sport.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--A WIRE FRAME FOR A BUTTERFLY NET.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.]
+
+The folding net is certainly very convenient, for you can conceal it in
+your pocket while you are walking through town or travelling in a
+railway carriage, and thus avoid that contemptuous gaze which certain of
+the public are prone to cast on a poor 'bug hunter.' And although such
+nets are generally purchased, yet they _may_ be constructed by anyone
+who has had experience in the working of metals. But other forms of
+nets, equally useful and even stronger, can be made by anybody; and I
+will give a few hints on two or three different ways of putting them
+together.
+
+A very simple and strong frame for a net may be made as follows: Get a
+piece of stout iron or brass wire about forty inches in length, and bend
+it into a circle with the two ends, turned out about two inches each, at
+right angles to the circumference as shown in the accompanying sketch.
+
+Now take a good tough stick, the length of an ordinary walking stick,
+and cut out two grooves opposite each other at the end, just large
+enough to take the straight ends of the wire. The end of the stick will
+now resemble fig. 40 in shape. Place the ends in their grooves, and bind
+them tightly to the stick by a good many turns of rather fine wire.
+
+A frame well made after this fashion is as strong as anything you could
+desire, but it has the disadvantage of being always fixed to the handle,
+thus preventing the use of the latter as a walking stick when you are
+not directly engaged in your entomological work.
+
+A much more convenient frame may be made by thrusting the ends of a
+piece of cane into the two narrow arms of a metal Y. You may purchase
+the Y at any of the naturalists' stores, or you can make one yourself if
+you know how to perform the operation of soldering. I have always made
+mine with odds and ends of brass tubing such as old gas pipes. One piece
+must be just the size to fix on the stick; and the other two must fit
+the cane tightly. The three pieces must be filed off at the proper
+angles, and the doubly bevelled end of the wider tube must then be
+flattened down to the width of the smaller ones before soldering. If you
+decide to buy one, give the preference to strong brass rather than the
+cheaper and more fragile ones made of tinned iron.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41. THE METAL Y.]
+
+The advantage of such an arrangement over the last frame is evident at
+once. The cane, with net attached, can be pulled out of the Y when not
+in use, and bent small enough to go in the pocket or a satchel; and the
+Y can also be separated from the stick, thus allowing the latter to be
+used as a walking stick.
+
+Some entomologists speak very favourably of what is known as the
+'umbrella net'--a large and light net that will shut up like an
+umbrella, and may even be made to look very much like this useful
+protector, but the possession of such an imitation is somewhat
+tantalising in a pelting shower. The ring of this net consists of two
+steel springs attached to a couple of brass hinges, one of which is
+fixed near one end of the handle, while the other slides up and down in
+the gamp fashion.
+
+One other form of net--'the clap net'--although still occasionally seen,
+has had its best days. Two sticks are provided to this one, so that the
+two sides of the net may be brought together on the insect; but as both
+hands are required to manage it, it is almost surprising that it ever
+had any advocates at all.
+
+When your frame is completed, sew round it a strip of strong calico, to
+which the net itself may be afterwards sewn, for the lighter material of
+the net is too delicate to stand the constant friction against the metal
+or cane frame.
+
+The material usually employed in making the 'bag' is called leno. It can
+be purchased at most of the drapers' shops, and three colours--white,
+yellow and green--are usually kept in stock. Measure the circumference
+of your net frame, and see that you get sufficient leno to make a good
+full net. Suppose, for instance, that the circle of your frame measures
+thirty-six inches round, then your leno should be at least forty inches
+in length. Fold this double, and then cut out two pieces of the shape
+shown in fig. 42, letting the depth of the net be nearly or quite equal
+to the width of the material. There is nothing to be done now but to
+stitch the bag together and sew it to the calico on the ring.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+At first you will find the leno rather stiff and harsh, but a damping
+and good rubbing between the hands will soften it down; or, if you
+prefer it, you may soften the material by a slight washing before
+cutting out the net. The latter is perhaps the better plan, for the
+washing will remove the objectionable 'dressing' that renders the
+material rather hard and stiff.
+
+Of the three colours mentioned above, green is the one most generally
+chosen, because it is more in harmony with the surroundings of a
+butterfly catcher; but many prefer the white leno to the green, as the
+insects are more easily seen in a net of this colour. Yellow is
+certainly not a desirable tint.
+
+As a rule it will be necessary to kill an insect as soon as it is
+captured. This is always the case with butterflies unless you require to
+keep them alive either to watch their movements or to obtain eggs. For
+this purpose you will require a killing bottle or box containing some
+volatile substance.
+
+The selection of this necessary piece of apparatus is a point deserving
+of much consideration, for so many different forms are in use by
+different entomologists, and so many advocates each declare that his own
+plan is far superior to that of any of the others, that the final
+decision is not to be worked out in a moment. The best thing for a
+beginner is to try as many as he can, and then, after some considerable
+experience of his own, he will be able to decide which apparatus suits
+himself best.
+
+I recommend this because it is impossible to say of any one plan that it
+is the best, for that which gives perfect satisfaction to one individual
+will often fail to give anything but annoyance in the hands of another.
+
+To enable my young readers to follow the advice I have just given, I
+will describe some of the commonly used killing arrangements and show
+how they should be used.
+
+I will take first the 'cyanide bottle.' This is a wide-mouthed bottle,
+containing a very poisonous substance called _cyanide of potassium_. It
+is fitted with a good sound cork. The 'cyanide' is a solid substance,
+and must be fixed in some way or other at the bottom of the bottle so
+that it cannot shake about and damage the butterflies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--THE CYANIDE BOTTLE.]
+
+A cyanide bottle can be purchased ready for use at the cost of a
+shilling or thereabouts; but if you are old enough to be trusted with
+deadly poisons, you may buy the 'cyanide' of a chemist who knows you
+well and is satisfied as to your intentions, and then prepare your own.
+Every entomologist should know how to do this, for the poison loses its
+power after some time, and it is not always convenient to leave your
+bottle in the hands of a chemist or a 'naturalist' to have it recharged.
+This will cost you more than it would to do it yourself, but that is
+nothing compared with the annoyance that may result when, the night
+before an anticipated butterfly hunt, you are calmly told that 'your
+bottle will be ready in a few days.' You can charge it yourself in a few
+minutes if you can manage to keep a small supply of 'cyanide' in stock,
+and it is ready for use very shortly after.
+
+Here is the _modus operandi_.--Purchase an ounce or two of the cyanide
+of potassium, and immediately put it into a stoppered or well-corked
+bottle. Label it at once, not only with the name, but also with the word
+POISON in very large and conspicuous letters. This dangerous chemical is
+often sold in sticks that look much like certain 'sugar sticks' I was
+acquainted with in my younger days; but whether this is or is not the
+case with your cyanide, see that the bottle is kept quite out of the
+reach of the inquisitive and sugar-loving juveniles of the house.
+
+The quantity above mentioned is more than you will require for the first
+'charge,' but you will soon experience the convenience of having a
+supply always at hand for recharging when your cyanide bottle fails to
+do its work expeditiously, or when an accident calls for the somewhat
+sudden appearance of a new one.
+
+Now procure a bottle for your work. Its mouth must be wide enough to
+take the largest insect you hope to catch, and the widest part of the
+bottle need not be much larger. Get a perfectly sound cork to fit it
+tightly; and, to insure the more perfect exclusion of air, paint over
+the top of the cork with melted paraffin wax.
+
+Dissolve a few drams of the cyanide in a little water, using a glass rod
+to stir up the mixture till the solid has all disappeared; and be
+careful that neither the solid nor the solution touches the skin if it
+should be in the slightest degree scratched or broken. Now sprinkle
+plaster of Paris into the solution, a little at a time, and stir all the
+while. As soon as the mixture begins to set, pour it into your bottle as
+cleanly as you can--that is, without touching the sides--and press it
+down with the flat end of a stick if it is not level. Now cork it, and
+put the bottle away in a cool place till required for use.
+
+This is, I think, the best way of charging the bottle; but there are two
+other common methods that may, perhaps, be regarded as a little more
+simple. One is this: put a few small lumps of the 'cyanide' into your
+bottle, and then cover them with a stiff mixture of plaster of Paris and
+water, and press down as before. The other plan is to cover the
+'cyanide' with a few thicknesses of blotting paper, cut just a little
+larger than the inside of the bottle. The first of these two methods is
+fairly satisfactory, but I have always found that the charge, when made
+in this way, has a tendency to become wet and pasty, in which condition
+it will spoil the wings of the insects. The other is very objectionable,
+especially for field work, for the blotting paper fails to keep its
+place while you are on the chase. If the plaster is used, the mixing
+must be done quickly and without hesitation, or the mixture will become
+solid before you can press it into your bottle.
+
+We will not enter now into the _pros_ and _cons_ of the cyanide bottle,
+but will consider the advantages and disadvantages of the various
+methods of killing the insects after we have noticed a few more.
+
+The 'laurel box' has had many devoted advocates, although it does not
+seem to be much in use now. It is a very good arrangement, however, but
+is a little more troublesome than the cyanide bottle, as it requires
+frequent replenishing.
+
+A very good laurel box may be prepared as follows. Get a small tin box
+of cylindrical form, measuring about five inches by two, and cut a
+circle of perforated zinc or wood just the size to fit it snugly as a
+false bottom without any danger of falling out of its place. Now gather
+some of the young leaves of the green laurel bush, and beat them almost
+to a pulp with a mallet or hammer. Place this in your tin box, and press
+down the perforated false bottom on it. The bruised laurel leaves give
+off a very powerful odour, which stupefies butterflies immediately.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--SECTION OF THE LAUREL BOX.
+
+_a_, space for insects; _b_, perforated partition; _c_, bruised laurel
+leaves.]
+
+Of course the reader may be able to think of various other ways in which
+the laurel box may be made. Any arrangement will do providing the vapour
+can come to the insects without allowing the leaves to touch their
+wings; and any ingenious youth could manufacture a more satisfactory
+article than the one I have mentioned. My desire is, as far as possible,
+to give instructions that may easily be carried out by anyone, even if
+he has not the slightest mechanical skill, leaving the clever youth,
+sometimes, the opportunity of displaying his own inventive power. But in
+this case I will give a few suggestions concerning other ways in which a
+laurel killer may be constructed. A firm and _fixed_ false bottom is a
+decided advantage. This is easily managed by fixing a circular piece of
+perforated zinc or 'tin' by means of a little solder; or even a wood
+partition may be used, fixed with a few brads, driven into it from the
+outside. With the fixed partition, however, you must have a lid at each
+end of the box. This is easily managed if you get two tins of the same
+size, knock out the bottom of one, and fit the lid of the other in its
+place.
+
+I have heard of laurel boxes without any partition save a piece of rag
+in which the bruised leaves are wrapped. The whole is _pressed_ into the
+box so firmly that it is not likely to be displaced while you are on the
+chase. I do not recommend this, for in addition to the chance of its
+slipping there is a danger of the sap of the leaves exuding through the
+rag and spoiling the insects' wings. But if the reader should prefer to
+try this on account of its simplicity, it will probably occur to him
+that a bottle may be used instead of a tin box.
+
+A well-made laurel box, with a fixed metal partition, is a piece of
+apparatus strongly to be recommended to all young entomologists who
+desire to test the relative value of the various poisons that are used
+by the different experts; for with it any one of these substances can be
+used. In the poison compartment you can place pieces of 'cyanide'
+wrapped in blotting paper, or any kind of porous substance moistened
+with liquid ammonia, chloroform, benzole, or any other volatile liquid
+insecticide. All the above-named substances are declared to be 'the
+best,' so they must all be worth the trial.
+
+'Cyanide' is valued on account of its lasting powers. A cyanide bottle
+well charged will retain its efficiency throughout a whole season. I
+always recharge two in the spring, one for active service in the field
+and the other as a reserve force; and these kept in a cool place do good
+execution throughout the year. If they should exhibit a slight failing,
+a few minutes' warming before a fire will improve them; but for field
+work it is better to recharge. At the same time see that the corks are
+in good condition.
+
+Next to the 'cyanide,' the bruised laurel takes the first rank for
+permanency; but you must not expect this to last many days. For a few
+days' continuous work one charge will suffice, but if the laurel box has
+not been in use for some time you must have a fresh supply.
+
+The liquid poisons, such as ammonia, chloroform, and benzole, are so
+volatile that they are very powerful for a short time, but so much
+vapour is lost each time the box is opened that it is absolutely
+necessary to carry a bottle of the one you use into the field with you.
+Also see that you have sufficient of the blotting paper or other
+absorbent to prevent the liquid from leaking through the perforations of
+the partition.
+
+If you choose ammonia--a substance that is not regarded as a poison, and
+is therefore easily obtained from any chemist--always get the strongest,
+and see that it is labelled 'Liq. Ammonia, S.G. .880' as a guarantee. A
+small bottle such as you can conveniently carry in the waistcoat pocket
+will contain sufficient for a day's work. Use only a few drops at a
+time, but renew frequently. Although the ammonia corrodes cork, yet a
+good cork is far preferable for the pocket to a glass stopper, for its
+elasticity prevents it from losing its hold, and the liquid from
+saturating your pocket and its surroundings; but a glass stopper is
+certainly better for the stock solution kept at home.
+
+Most of the above remarks apply equally well to benzole and to
+chloroform, but the latter is so powerful a poison that a very little is
+required for a day's work, and consequently a very small bottle is more
+convenient. The dealers in naturalist's appliances supply metal
+'chloroform bottles' with screw stoppers and a small nozzle that will
+allow the liquid to run out only in drops. This is a very good
+arrangement, since it enables you to avoid the 'drop too much' which is
+not only unnecessary and therefore wasteful, but saves you from
+experiencing the disappointment of an empty bottle before your work is
+half done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--THE CHLOROFORM BOTTLE.]
+
+Some entomologists recommend the solid carbonate of ammonium instead of
+liquid ammonia, but this is not so powerful. It must be remembered that
+we have the butterflies to consider, as well as our own convenience, in
+the selection of the poisons we use. It is the opinion of many
+well-known entomologists that 'insects cannot feel pain,' and that we
+are therefore at liberty to deal with them in any way we please. Still
+it is as well to save all possible suffering, and be satisfied with no
+killing box that is not practically instantaneous in its effects.
+
+Among other poisons used by entomologists I may mention sulphur fumes
+and tobacco smoke. The former may be obtained by burning a little
+sulphur or a sulphured lucifer match under the perforations of a killing
+box of the pattern described, and the latter--well, every smoker knows
+that. I should at once condemn the former method, at least for field
+work, as troublesome and inconvenient; and as to the other, I have tried
+the effect of a puff (and many puffs) of tobacco smoke on an imprisoned
+insect, but was so dissatisfied with the result that I am not likely to
+do so again.
+
+We have now considered a good many insecticides more or less suitable to
+our purpose, but there still remains the unsolved problem as to which is
+the best. Each one has its advantages. For _convenience_ nothing beats
+the cyanide bottle. It is very speedy in its action, and the use of a
+bottle is a little preferable to a metal box, for you can always satisfy
+yourself as to its efficiency without opening it. Cyanide, chloroform,
+benzole, and some others render the insects more or less brittle and
+stiff, so that it is not so easy to 'set' them for the cabinet. Perhaps,
+if you happen to have a supply of growing laurel close at hand, you
+cannot do better than stick to the laurel box. The time taken in
+bruising up a few leaves is inconsiderable, and the moisture given off
+from them will keep your insects moist and supple, or will even 'relax'
+them if they have become rigid. But try various plans for yourself, and
+you will be able to settle a question which all the entomologists in the
+world cannot answer for you--which method answers best in _your_ hands.
+
+The next item for our consideration is the 'collecting box.' This is
+merely a box in which the butterflies are pinned as soon as they are
+dead. Here, again, we shall note a few variations from which a selection
+can be made according to the means or the ingenuity of the reader. For a
+couple of shillings you can obtain a good zinc collecting box, lined
+with cork, of oval form (a most convenient shape for the pocket), and
+quite large enough for one day's captures; and half that modest sum will
+purchase a wooden box, also lined with cork, adapted to the same
+purpose.
+
+As with many other things, so with collecting boxes, the cheapest is
+often the dearest in the end. You may feel inclined to save a shilling
+by buying a wooden box, but you are sure to discard it after a little
+practical experience for a metal one. We shall speak a little later on
+concerning the advisability of 'setting' the butterflies as soon as
+possible after capture; but this is not always practicable, especially
+after a good day's catch. Now, if the insects are pinned in a wooden
+box, they soon become dry and rigid, and consequently cannot be 'set'
+till they have been put through the more or less tedious process of
+'relaxing.' If you use a wooden collecting box you will often find, on a
+hot and dry day, that all or nearly all your butterflies are rigid
+before you arrive home; but a metal box will keep them moist and supple,
+so that you can even put off the setting till the following day if you
+are unable to do it immediately after your return.
+
+Another point worth considering is the best economy of space. If your
+collecting box is only about one inch deep inside, you have room for
+only one layer of pinned insects; but a box only a little deeper may be
+lined with cork both at top and bottom, and thus be made to accommodate
+double the number. The zinc boxes sold by the dealers are generally
+lined with cork in this manner, and are, of course, deep enough for the
+double layer of specimens; but the wooden boxes are sometimes lined on
+the bottom only. After these few remarks you will at once see the
+economy of expending the extra shilling on the former.
+
+Although the prices of collecting boxes are low, yet there are many who
+would prefer making their own, and there is much to be said in favour of
+this. A great deal of pleasure is to be derived from the construction of
+your own apparatus, especially when that apparatus is afterwards to be
+used in the pursuit of a delightful hobby. During the whole of the time
+thus engaged, you are looking forward with the most pleasurable feelings
+to the glorious treat before you, and every joint you make seems to
+bring you nearer to the realisation of your joys. During the bleak
+winter months there is no better employment for an entomologist who has
+a little spare time than the preparation for the next outing. It is just
+one of those artful schemes by which he seeks to get as much pleasure
+out of life as it is capable of affording. How many there are who, for
+the lack of a pleasant and instructive hobby, find their leisure hours
+the most dismal of all, and who complain of the toil and wearisomeness
+of their lot! The mournful thought with them is, 'Is life worth living?'
+but who ever heard such an expression from the lips of an active
+entomologist?
+
+But I must have done with moralising and proceed to business. The
+question is--How shall we set to work about the construction of a
+collecting box? If it is to be a wooden one, select or make a box of
+such a size as to suit your pocket or satchel, and cover the bottom, and
+lid too if the depth allows of it, with sheet cork or slices of good
+wine corks, about one-eighth of an inch thick, fixed on with glue.
+
+The metal box is not quite so easy, but even here you may save yourself
+much work by keeping your eyes open. Very neat little collecting boxes
+can be made out of the flat metal boxes in which are sold certain
+favourite brands of tobacco. Some of these are just the right depth, and
+also of a very convenient size for the coat pocket. Beg one of these
+boxes from a smoking friend, and if the lid is not held by a hinge (a
+great advantage, by the way), you can easily solder on a brass one.
+
+All that remains now is the fixing of the cork. Buy a sheet of cork at a
+naturalist's shop, this being a commodity always in stock, and cut out
+two pieces just the size to cover the bottom and the lid.
+
+Gum and glue are not very satisfactory as fixing agents, for, as you
+will presently learn, there are times when it will be necessary to keep
+the box moist, and moisture softens both these substances. The cork must
+be fixed by means of little strips of metal. Here are two ways of doing
+this:
+
+First.--Cut a few little strips of sheet tin, each about two inches long
+and one-eighth wide. Double and bend them as shown in fig. 46, and
+solder them to the surfaces which the cork is to cover (fig. 47). As the
+cork is pushed in its place, these little slips are allowed to force
+themselves through slits in it made by means of a penknife, and then the
+ends are bent over as shown in fig. 48. Two or three such fasteners will
+be quite sufficient to hold down each sheet of cork.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+Second.--Put the sheets of cork in their places _first_, then make a few
+little slits through both metal and cork with the point of a penknife,
+and then bind the two together with a few ordinary paper fasteners. This
+arrangement is shown in section in fig. 49.
+
+Just one point more concerning the metal collecting box. You will often
+call moisture to your aid in keeping the butterflies flexible and soft.
+This will have but little action on zinc, but will sooner or later cause
+the 'tin' (really tinned iron) box to rust. Here, then, is a point in
+favour of zinc, but still a home-made 'tin' collector will last a long
+time if kept dry when not in use.
+
+As already hinted, there are times when it is desirable to take home
+certain butterflies alive, either for a study of their movements or for
+the purpose of securing eggs for breeding. To this end you must provide
+yourself either with a number of 'chip boxes' with a few small holes
+pricked in the cover, or with some metal boxes with perforations for the
+admission of air. If the latter, you will have no difficulty in
+securing a few 'tin' boxes of suitable size, but, as the surface of the
+metal is very smooth, you should always introduce a few leaves or
+something else that will provide a foothold for the inmates.
+
+The last item of the outfit is the pins. Ordinary draper's pins are
+quite out of the question. They are far too thick and clumsy for the
+collector's work. If you are not already acquainted with the
+'entomological pins,' you had better ask a dealer to give you a sample
+card. This will be very useful for reference until you become well
+acquainted with the various lengths, thicknesses, numbers and prices.
+The card will contain one of each kind, with price and number attached.
+
+If you fix a butterfly with the ordinary pin, you may find the latter
+partly covered over with verdigris after a time. This bright green
+substance is formed by the action of decomposing animal matter on the
+copper of the pin, and gives a very unsightly appearance to the
+specimen. To avoid this the entomological pins are either silvered,
+blackened or gilded. The silvered pins tarnish after a time, but the two
+other kinds keep their colour well, and are therefore better. The gilded
+ones are rather expensive and unnecessary, and perhaps the black ones
+are to be preferred to the silvered, although they are rather more
+costly.
+
+Most dealers will supply you with a box of mixed pins, each box
+containing about six different sizes. This is very convenient for those
+who work in a rather small way; but if you intend to make entomology a
+prolonged study you had better get an ounce or so of each of the more
+useful sizes.
+
+Butterflies vary much in size, and Nos. 3 to 8 are the most useful sizes
+of pins to fix them; No. 3 being for the largest, and 8 for the
+smallest.
+
+Supposing all the foregoing requisites to be quite ready, still you are
+really by no means prepared for all your work. The butterflies captured
+should be set as soon as possible after your return, and everything
+required for _this_ part of the work must be in perfect trim. Yet I
+think it will be more convenient just now to confine our attention to
+the subject of 'Catching Butterflies,' leaving all the indoor work to
+form the substance of another chapter. Our next point, then, shall be
+the consideration of seasons, times, and localities.
+
+The earliest of the butterflies make their appearance on the wing in
+April, or, if the weather is mild, towards the end of March; and from
+this time you can find employment up to the end of September or the
+beginning of October--a period of about seven months. But it must not be
+supposed that all parts of this long season are equally prolific, and
+will yield equally valuable catches. Remember the short term of a
+butterfly's life, and bear in mind that each one has its own regular
+season in which to spend the winged state; you will then see that anyone
+who wishes to 'work' as many species as possible must arrange his
+outings in accordance with the insects' own times.
+
+Some butterflies are double-brooded, and the two broods may not come
+forth at certain fixed times. Hence they seem to be on the wing almost
+without cessation for several months together, and therefore need not
+have a special day set apart for them. But others are more uniform in
+their date of appearance, and die off at about the same time. To catch
+such as these you must be careful to watch the weather, make allowance
+for any severities that may tend to cause a delay, or an unusually high
+temperature that may hasten their emergence, and then select a day in
+which you may expect to find them fresh and unworn. A week too early,
+and none are to be seen; a week too late, and nearly all you catch are
+worn and worthless.
+
+A glance at our Calendar (Appendix II) will give you a few illustrations
+in point. Thus you will observe that May is a month for the 'Whites,'
+early 'Blues' and certain of the Fritillaries; July for most of the
+Hairstreaks and Browns, and so on. Before you have been long collecting
+you will have captured the very common species, and then you will find
+that your butterfly hunts are very unproductive unless you make it a
+point to try for certain species at the proper times.
+
+Time, however, is not the only thing to take into account when preparing
+for a day with the butterflies. It is equally important that we should
+carefully select our locality in accordance with the known haunts of the
+various species. As long as you are simply working up the common kinds,
+you may wander almost at random in waste places, flowery meadows, corn
+fields, railway banks, &c.; but when you have secured a few specimens of
+each of these, you must search out the favoured resorts of the more
+local and the rarer species. For instance, wooded spots must be visited
+if you are to take certain of the Fritillaries, oak woods for the Purple
+Emperor and the Purple Hairstreak, fenny districts for the beautiful
+Swallow-tail, and so forth. In some cases the butterflies are closely
+restricted to certain isolated localities, to which you must travel if
+determined to obtain them.
+
+There yet remains another important matter to consider, and that is the
+kind of day you shall select for your outing. Butterflies are not only
+strictly day-fliers, but most of them venture out only on bright days.
+Always choose as hot a day as possible, with a very bright sun. If you
+are to be out for a full day's collecting, manage to be on the hunting
+ground at about ten o'clock in the morning. As a rule there are not many
+out before this time, and some do not appear to stir till an hour later:
+still there are a few 'early birds' among them, one of which--the Wall
+Butterfly--I have seen on the wing before eight.
+
+If your season, your day, and your locality are all well chosen, you may
+reckon on a good six hours' work. At about four the butterflies begin to
+lag, and then drop into their hiding places, one by one, till only a few
+of the late stragglers remain on the wing.
+
+So far I have furnished some general instructions that may be regarded
+as preparatory to the start; but I will now give a few hints as to the
+mode of procedure when the day for field work has come.
+
+First, see that you have secured _all_ your apparatus, and that it is in
+perfect condition. What is more annoying than to find, after you have
+travelled some miles to get to your hunting ground, that you have left
+your screw ferrule at home, or that the soldering of your metal Y is
+just giving way? If you are troubled with a short memory, it will be
+advisable to make out a list of every requisite for your field work, and
+keep this for reference on all field days.
+
+Here is a list of your equipment for a day with the butterflies. Net,
+ferrule or Y, stick, collecting box (the cork of which should be damped
+if the box is a metal one), a few 'chip boxes' for live insects, killing
+apparatus, a good supply of pins of several sizes, a piece of string,
+needle and cotton, and your penknife.
+
+You observe in this list one or two items not previously mentioned,
+since they hardly come under the category of apparatus, but a moment's
+thought will convince you of their usefulness, especially in the case of
+a breakdown. If your net catches in a thorn--a very common
+occurrence--and a big rent is made, the needle and cotton will save you
+a deal of agony, and perhaps loss of temper. If your stick breaks under
+your exertions, the knife or the string may prove a most valuable
+companion. Your pins may be stuck in the cork of your collecting box,
+certainly the most convenient spot for immediate use; but you may also
+have a reserve store in a small pocket cushion, or arranged neatly on a
+strip of flannel which can be rolled up in the waistcoat pocket.
+
+At last you are on the hunting ground, fully equipped but inexperienced,
+and at first find yourself just a little awkward in the use of your new
+gear. Your experience with the cap has been a very wide one, and you are
+possibly an expert at knocking down 'Whites' in the streets and in your
+neighbour's kitchen gardens. Now you have to wield the net, and coax
+your captives into your killing bottle; hence a slight feeling of
+incompetence at first.
+
+You soon get over this, however, and within five minutes you may be seen
+furiously slashing away at all the poor butterflies that come within
+range, common 'Whites' and dingy 'Browns' receiving as much attention at
+your hands as any rare gem that may happen to cross your path.
+
+How different are the movements of an experienced collector! He walks
+stealthily along the route he has chosen, apparently taking but little
+notice of the majority of butterflies that approach and pass him. He has
+already secured his 'series' of nearly all the species, and is carefully
+on the watch for the gems that are required to complete his cabinet. His
+actions are slow and deliberate rather than rash; and he trusts more to
+his eyes than his legs.
+
+The beginner may take to his field work quite to his own satisfaction,
+and may travel homeward with a feeling of great pride over his first
+day's catch; but yet there are a few points in which a little advice may
+not be quite out of place, particularly so with regard to the management
+of the net, and the killing and pinning of the insects.
+
+Most of the butterflies may be caught on the wing, and it is far better
+to net them in the air than to sweep them off the herbage and flowers.
+If these are rather low, you should strike the net smartly _upwards_
+from below them, but of course this movement is impossible with insects
+that happen to be almost above your reach. If a butterfly is busily
+engaged in searching out its sweet food, flying from flower to flower,
+don't think of giving chase, but follow it up stealthily, and you will
+sooner or later get an opportunity of striking at it while in the air.
+Sometimes, however, you will see a powerful flier making a straight dash
+across your field, taking no notice whatever of the fragrant blossoms,
+but evidently engaged on some important errand. If such happens to be a
+species you require, then you must run for it, but you will probably be
+satisfied with only a few chases of this kind, particularly if the sun
+is very hot, and the ground diversified with clumps of furze, heather,
+'molehills,' and ditches.
+
+There are times when your only plan of netting a butterfly is to sweep
+it from a flower or leaf on which it has settled. If the vegetation is
+very low, you have simply to bring the net down upon it, and then,
+holding up the apex of the net with the other hand so as to give it room
+to fly, you can inclose it by grasping the lower part of the net as soon
+as the butterfly has fluttered upward. If the herbage is tall it is
+advisable to strike either upward or sideways at the insect, starting it
+from the leaf or flower on which it rests; for if you bring _down_ the
+net you will have to inclose the whole or part of the plant on which the
+butterfly has settled--a procedure that often ends in a torn net, or in
+the insect becoming damaged through being rubbed against the plant.
+
+Whenever you capture a butterfly by a sweep of the net through the air,
+you immediately turn the ring into a horizontal position, so that the
+bag of the net closes itself as it falls over the edge. This gives you
+an opportunity of examining the insect before you introduce your killing
+bottle. This is a very necessary precaution, for you are generally
+unable to judge of the condition of a butterfly while on the wing, and
+in some cases you cannot even be certain of the species. If, then, you
+were to call the killing bottle into requisition for every capture you
+make, you would certainly find yourself taking the life of many an
+insect that is of no use whatever to you. Always examine your specimens
+at the moment they have been secured, at least as far as it is possible
+to do so, by looking through the gauze; and let your examination be as
+brief as possible, or some of the butterflies that were at first in
+splendid condition will render themselves useless to you during their
+struggles to get away.
+
+When satisfied that an insect is likely to be of value to you, keep it
+in the apex of the net by grasping the bag beneath it with the left
+hand, and then introduce the opened killing bottle with the other hand.
+As a rule you will experience not the slightest difficulty in coaxing it
+into its trap, and then you quickly cover the mouth of the killing
+bottle with the gauze, then apply your left hand, using it as a
+temporary stopper for a few seconds, and now, the insect having been
+quieted, replace the cork.
+
+A good killing bottle is almost instantaneous in its action, not only
+stupefying, but immediately killing the insects; and as soon as you are
+sure that each specimen is quite dead, you may pin it in your collecting
+box.
+
+You must be cautious, however, on the one hand, that you do not take it
+out too soon. If you do you may find that it recovers from the mere
+stupefying effect of the poison, even after it has been pinned, and when
+you open your collecting box for the next butterfly, you are horrified
+at the sight of the poor victim struggling to free itself.
+
+On the other hand, don't keep the insects in the killing bottle too
+long. If you do you will soon have a number, one lying on another, and
+all tumbled about together while you are on the chase. Of course, under
+such circumstances you are sure to damage them more or less.
+
+Many collectors, although they may always use a killing bottle for
+moths, never employ one for butterflies, but kill them by pinching the
+thorax. It is well to know how to do this, for it sometimes turns out to
+be a really quicker process than that we have just been considering;
+and, more than this, you can resort to it should you break or lose your
+bottle while in the field. It is done in this manner: Bring the two
+opposite sides of the net together, closing them on the insect so that
+it cannot flutter. If now the wings are brought together over the back,
+all is right, but if not, give it just a little room to flutter till you
+have the opportunity of closing the gauze upon it with the wings in the
+desired position. Now pinch the thorax smartly between the finger and
+the thumb, applying the pressure outside the net, but be careful not to
+squeeze the abdomen. In a moment you will find the insect quite dead,
+and not in the least damaged unless you performed the operation
+clumsily.
+
+Now as to pinning. Hold the dead butterfly between the finger and thumb
+of the left hand, and pass a pin of convenient size through the centre
+of the thorax above, and push it through so that the point appears
+centrally on the under surface. It is now ready for your collecting box.
+
+So you work on till the sun begins to get low, and the butterflies
+become fewer and fewer, till only a few stragglers of common species are
+to be seen. Still there are a few hours of daylight and perhaps even of
+bright sunshine before you, and if you are not weary with the work done,
+you may very profitably spend these hours in the collection and study of
+the habits of moths.
+
+
+_Catching Moths by Day_
+
+The reason for choosing the sunny hours for butterfly collecting is
+obvious, all these lovers of brightness being then actively on the wing;
+and although many may be driven out of their hiding places by beating
+the herbage with the handle of your net, or even be searched out as they
+rest on stalks and leaves during dull days or at morning and evening
+twilight, yet such methods are comparatively tedious and unproductive.
+
+Some moths also are lovers of sunshine, and while engaged in butterfly
+hunting you will often meet with a moth flying briskly from flower to
+flower and taking its fill of both sweetness and brightness. Again, as
+you wade among flowery herbs in quest of butterflies you will certainly
+disturb a number of moths, causing them to take a short flight in search
+of a safer spot. Thus you will almost invariably find a few moths among
+the contents of your collecting box even though you made no special
+effort to seek them out. But we shall now see how we may set to work to
+obtain a successful catch of moths at times when butterflies are not so
+much in demand, or during the less brilliant hours of the day, when
+butterflies are at rest.
+
+The apparatus required for this work need not differ in any important
+respect from that recommended for butterflies. The same net is used, any
+reliable killing bottle will do, and the pins and collecting box used
+for butterflies are equally serviceable. But your mode of procedure is
+very different.
+
+As you walk towards your proposed hunting ground you will do well to
+examine the trunks of trees, old walls, and wooden fences. In this way
+you will meet with moths fast asleep, which are consequently easily
+taken. All you have to do is to hold the open killing bottle obliquely
+just below the insect, and then push it gently downward with a small
+twig or stalk. As a rule the moth will drop direct into the bottle and
+make no attempt to fly away; but some are very light sleepers, ready to
+take flight at the slightest disturbance; and when dealing with these
+you must be careful to bring the mouth of the killing bottle so closely
+round them that there is no room for flight except into the bottle
+itself. It is well, however, not to take long at this kind of searching,
+but to reserve as much as possible of your time for what you consider to
+be a very favourable locality.
+
+Speaking generally, a good locality for butterflies is a favourable one
+also for moths, and you will do well to give special attention to
+well-grown hedges, especially those that surround clover fields; also
+overgrown banks, the borders of woods, open spaces in woods, the trunks
+of isolated trees, gravel pits, and old chalk quarries.
+
+Walk beside or among the undergrowth of woods, or among the tall herbage
+of waste places, tapping the branches and twigs with the handle of your
+net as you go. Then, if your locality is well selected, you will rouse
+moths to flight at almost every stroke. Some of these will shoot upward
+among the lofty branches and disappear quite beyond your reach; others
+will fly rather low and somewhat heavily, giving you favourable
+opportunities to try your skill with the net; others, again, will fly
+only a yard or so, and alight on a neighbouring leaf, often remaining so
+quiet that the killing bottle is easily made to inclose them.
+
+There are moths that show a decided preference for large trees. These
+may be seen hovering about high branches during the evening twilight,
+and sometimes even in sunshine. In many such cases the chance of a
+capture seems hopeless, but occasionally one will descend so low that a
+watchful collector is able to secure it by a sweep of the net.
+
+If at any time you are in a locality by day where you suspect the
+presence of certain species of moths at rest among the upper branches of
+trees, such branches should be beaten if possible to dislodge the
+insects they may shelter. A long stick will often serve this purpose
+well, and, failing this, a few stones thrown among the branches may
+prove effectual. In the case of small and rather slender trees, a kick
+against the trunk will set the whole in vibration sufficient to surprise
+all the lodgers; and the same effect may be produced with larger trees
+by giving each a good sound blow with a mallet or some other suitable
+implement.
+
+This or any other plan of 'beating' for moths is much more conveniently
+worked by two collectors together than by one alone; for one engaged in
+beating the herbage cannot be at the same time fully on the alert with
+the net. If two persons are together, one may take the lead, armed with
+the beating stick only, while the other, only very slightly in the rear,
+is always ready to strike.
+
+We have said that butterflies should always be killed in the field, but
+this plan is not so universally adopted with moths. Many collectors
+carry a large supply of pill boxes when going out for the latter and
+then take as many as they possibly can by boxing them direct in these.
+This method of 'pill-boxing' is very simple in the case of the lazy and
+soundly sleeping moths. It is only necessary to hold the open box below
+the insect, and then cause it to fall by pressing the lid down gently on
+it from above.
+
+Many of the moths so caught will remain quiet in the boxes and can be
+taken home alive without much fear of damage. All may then be killed at
+the same time by packing all the pill boxes in some vessel of sufficient
+accommodation, and shutting them in with a little chloroform, ammonia,
+benzole, or other suitable poison. The vapour will soon find its way
+through the pores of the pill boxes, but, in order to make its action
+speedy, each one should have a few perforations in the lid.
+
+Whatever advantages this method may give to the collector who works at
+night, when the process of pinning would be more or less tedious, there
+is no necessity for its adoption during the day. The large number of
+pill boxes required is certainly far more bulky than the single
+collecting box that would accommodate all the day's captures; and
+although most of the insects boxed alive may be none the worse for the
+shaking they get, and may not damage themselves by fluttering in their
+small prisons, yet there is often a little loss on this score.
+
+If you do adopt the pill-boxing method, be very careful that you do not
+mix the occupied boxes with the empties; and unless you fix on some
+definite plan for the prevention of such an occurrence, you will often
+find yourself releasing a prisoner from a box you have just opened to
+receive a new-comer.
+
+Suppose that you start with all your empties in your right pocket. Then
+each one, as soon as it is tenanted, might be placed in the _left_, with
+the name of the insect, or any particular concerning it you would wish
+to note, pencilled on the lid.
+
+When examining the trunks of trees you will be continually meeting with
+specimens of very small Moths--_Pyralides_, _Crambi_, _Tortrices_, and
+_Tineae_--and at first may find some difficulty in boxing or bottling
+such small and delicate creatures. A grass stalk will enable you to tip
+some of them into your killing bottle, but some are so snugly packed in
+crevices of the bark that it is almost impossible to get them out
+without damage, even with a thin and slender stalk. But a sudden puff of
+wind from your mouth will often be sufficient to dislodge them and blow
+them into your net, and from this they are easily transferred to a box
+or bottle.
+
+These few hints will prove sufficient to start you on moth-hunting
+expeditions during the daytime, and will enable you to make good use of
+the dull days and cloudy hours when the butterflies are quiet; but we
+must now turn our attention to the night work of the entomologist, and
+see how we may attract and catch moths during their hours of work and
+play.
+
+
+_Searching for Moths at Night._
+
+It is a well-known fact that the night-flying moths are attracted by
+lights, a characteristic of these insects that it is difficult to
+explain. Their love of darkness is in many instances so decided that
+they absolutely refuse to take flight while the fading light of day
+still lingers on the horizon, and even display a great aversion to the
+rays of the moon; and yet these very same species will often rush madly
+into the fierce glare of a naked artificial light, or fly with an energy
+almost amounting to fury against the glass of a street lamp or lighted
+window.
+
+Puzzling as this peculiar tendency is, we can profitably turn it to our
+own account by making it a means of luring a number of moths into our
+presence.
+
+The simplest way of putting this mode of capture into effect is to post
+yourself at your open window, with net and cyanide bottle at hand, while
+the brightest light you can command casts its rays as far and as wide as
+possible into darkness outside. If you use an oil lamp for the purpose,
+let it stand just inside the window frame, or, if a jointed gas bracket
+happens to be situated beside the window, bend it round so that the rays
+may pass over a wide area outside.
+
+Two such lights are sometimes a very decided advantage--one quite
+outside the window to attract the moths from all possible points, and
+then another near the middle of the room to invite them inside. Whether
+you use either one or two lights, always see that it or they are so
+surrounded by a screen that the moths cannot by any possibility rush
+into the flame. There is nothing better for this purpose than a covering
+of light gauze, for this is not only a barrier for the prevention of the
+suicidal tendencies of the insects, but it also gives a good foothold to
+those who would like to rest and enjoy the luminous feast.
+
+You will soon begin to learn that moths, like ourselves, exhibit great
+differences in their ways of enjoying their festal moments. Some will
+satisfy themselves by flying _near_ the light in almost a straight
+course, hardly slackening their speed as they pass; or will, perhaps,
+make a hurried curve round the light and then pass on at once about
+other business. To catch these you must be always on the alert, with net
+in hand, ready to make a dash at the right moment. But many will make
+straight for the flame, and then, finding a barrier in the form of gauze
+or glass, will either flutter round and round as if dissatisfied with
+your attempt to save them from an untimely end, or else settle quietly
+on the screen to enjoy the brightness for a long period. The flutterers
+are usually easily covered by a glass or the open cyanide bottle, and as
+for those that settle down quietly, you can take them at your leisure.
+
+It will not do for a collector to depend solely on this method of
+obtaining moths, but at times when either his duties or the bad weather
+keeps him at home it affords him a means of capturing a few specimens
+that otherwise would have been missed. He may be even so busily engaged
+in other matters that he cannot afford the time to stand and watch with
+net in hand, but the insects that fly into his room and dance round the
+gas jet or inquisitively examine the white surface of the ceiling are
+easily netted or boxed without much loss of time.
+
+The chances of success at this kind of work will vary considerably with
+the aspect, the season, and the weather. If your window opens on a large
+flower or fruit garden, on a patch of wooded country with plenty of
+underwood, a piece of waste ground overgrown with rank vegetation, or a
+stretch of heath or moor, then you may expect a very large number of
+visitors; but if you are situated on a level and barren country, or in
+the dense atmosphere of a thickly populated district, you must not
+reckon on many intruders.
+
+As regards the season, this is more extended than that of the
+butterflies. A few species of moths may give you a call during the bleak
+nights of October and November, and also during the somewhat less dismal
+nights of February and March; but from April to September you may rely
+on a goodly number of captures. Of course you will not expect many of
+the 'rarities' and 'gems' to find you out; these are to be searched for
+in the open field in the manner to be presently described; but your
+lights will attract a large number of the commoner species of _Geometrae_
+and _Noctuae_, the former _chiefly_ during the early summer, and the
+latter more or less throughout the season.
+
+A little experience will show you that the atmospheric conditions form a
+very important consideration. The dark and warm nights are the most
+productive. Very little luck is to be anticipated when the full moon is
+throwing down her silvery rays from a clear sky; nor will you see many
+while a cold east or north-east wind is blowing. Under these conditions
+many moths prefer to keep in the sheltered nooks where they slept away
+the sunny hours of the day. They love a warm and moist air such as calls
+forth the odours of the fragrant blossoms that provide their sweets, and
+show no dislike to a fine drizzling rain that you yourself would prefer
+to avoid. A pelting shower will generally keep them under cover, but
+they delight in the fresh and moist air that immediately succeeds the
+passing storm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--FRAME OF NET FOR COLLECTING INSECTS ON LAMPS
+AND WINDOWS.]
+
+If you reside on the outskirts of a town an occasional tour of
+inspection of street lamps may add a few specimens to your collection,
+and some entomologists attach so much importance to the value of these
+luminaries that they provide themselves with a special net for the
+removal of moths from the glass and rails (fig. 50). The straight side
+marked _a_ is applied to the panes of glass when flutterers or settlers
+are to be taken, and the bend on the opposite side is to secure those
+that rest on the rail. Such a frame is easily made by bending a piece of
+stout wire to the required shape, and then soldering it to a ferrule to
+receive a long stick. The net itself should not be deep.
+
+Many different forms of traps are now made for catching moths, and these
+are deservedly coming rapidly into favour. They are generally
+constructed on a 'catch-'em-alive-oh' principle, and have the advantage
+that, after having been set, they may be left alone all night without
+any watching, and give an ambitious collector the opportunity of taking
+insects in his garden and searching in the open field both at the same
+time.
+
+One of these traps may be constructed as follows at the cost of only a
+few pence over the price of a small paraffin lamp. Put together a square
+box, the sides about two feet and the front open, or procure a suitable
+one from your grocer. Place a paraffin lamp with a bright tin reflector
+at the back of this, and make a hole in the top just over the chimney to
+allow the heated air to pass out freely. Three sheets of glass are now
+to be placed as shown in the sketch (fig. 51), one upright piece
+completely shutting off the lamp, and two others placed obliquely with a
+space between them just large enough to allow admission. These must be
+exactly the width of the box, and should not be permanently fixed, but
+simply resting on small wooden supports nailed on to the sides. When
+required for use, it is only necessary to light up the lamp, strew some
+dead leaves on the bottom of the box, and put the sheets in their
+places. It will be seen at once that the angles at which they are placed
+will direct all light-seekers into the lower compartment, whence they
+are not at all likely to find their way out again; and after vain
+endeavours to reach the light they finally settle down on the sides of
+the box or seek shelter among the dead leaves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--A TRAP FOR CATCHING MOTHS.]
+
+Occasionally it happens that an entomologist is lucky enough to claim
+the friendship of a person who, from the nature of his calling, is
+peculiarly well qualified to render him great assistance. Thus a
+friendly lamplighter, expert and patient in the use of the cyanide
+bottle or pill box, is capable of giving valuable aid at times; and the
+keeper of a lighthouse has it in his power to capture many a gem that is
+seldom seen on the wing; but, although much may be done by means of
+these and other stationary lights, this kind of work does not compare
+favourably with the night rambles of a naturalist in the very haunts of
+the objects of his search.
+
+For such out-door work in search of moths a good lantern is essential.
+An ordinary 'bull's-eye' is almost useless, for, although it
+concentrates a good light on certain objects, the narrow range of its
+rays constitutes a strong objection to its use for entomological work.
+For this purpose it is necessary that the rays of light not only pass in
+front of you, but also shoot off right and left to warn you of the
+approach of a moth before it is too late to wield the net. This wide
+range may be obtained by means of three flat glass sides, or, better
+still, by a bent plate glass front.
+
+In addition to this you must go out provided with your net, killing
+bottle, and a number of pill boxes. Choose your night according to the
+hints already given, and if you are on the look-out for any particular
+species, be careful that the date of your outing is well timed, making
+any necessary allowances for the forwardness or backwardness of the
+season, for a moth that is generally due on a certain _average_ time of
+the year may appear some weeks sooner if the preceding weeks have been
+unusually warm, or its emergence may be delayed considerably by the
+prevalence of cold east winds or a late frost.
+
+Make up your mind as to the field of your operations before you start,
+and if possible choose a route that will carry you through a variety of
+situations, so that you may pass the favourite haunts of a number of
+different species. Clearings in woods with an abundant undergrowth,
+waste places with plenty of tall and rank vegetation, overgrown railway
+banks, clover fields, the flowery borders of corn fields, plantations in
+parks, heaths and moors, sheltered and overgrown hollows such as chalk
+pits and old disused quarries, reed and marsh land, all these are good
+localities, each one inhabited by its own peculiar species, and if your
+route runs through a fair variety of such places you may, other things
+being equally favourable, depend on a good catch.
+
+See that your time also is well chosen. Of course you cannot say exactly
+what the night will be till it actually comes, and, as you have to start
+off before it is dark, you must consider the probabilities of the future
+from the present condition of the air. Let it be a night when a bright
+moon is not due, and if it follow a warm and moist day with a south or
+south-west wind, or if drizzly, so much the better; but let your feet be
+shod with boots that will permit you to wade through moist herbage
+without danger, and take a waterproof if necessary.
+
+It is always advisable to be on your hunting ground before twilight sets
+in, as a number of moths venture out before the sun has disappeared; and
+then you can work on till midnight if you feel inclined, or even extend
+your labours till the early hours of the morning.
+
+Before dusk you will meet with many of the little _Tortrices_ (page 298)
+in sheltered spots, and a little later the _Geometrae_ and Hawks will be
+on the wing. Thus, before dark, you may make good use of your net,
+dealing with your captures just in the same way as recommended in the
+case of butterflies.
+
+After a time, however, the lantern will have to be brought to your
+assistance in making known the whereabouts of the later species,
+consisting chiefly of the _Noctuae_, many of which do not make their
+appearance till it is quite dark. If now you carry your lantern in your
+left hand, your work will be rendered somewhat difficult and tedious,
+for, although one hand is sufficient to manage the net properly, you are
+compelled to rest your light on the ground every time you make a
+capture, as it is impossible to box your specimens unless both hands are
+quite free. This difficulty is easily overcome by suspending the lantern
+by means of a string or strap placed round your neck, allowing it to
+hang on your chest; and a further advantage is gained by having a second
+strap round your chest to prevent it from swaying about with every
+movement of your body. This arrangement gives you both hands perfectly
+free during the whole time, and also prevents the necessity of
+continually bringing yourself into a stooping or kneeling posture while
+you are examining or boxing the specimens you have netted.
+
+There are now two courses open to you. Either you can kill and pin the
+moths as you catch them, fixing each one securely in the collecting box,
+or you may simply shut each one in a separate pill box and leave the
+remainder of the work to be done at home. If the ordinary collecting box
+only is used, a little of your time is necessarily occupied in pinning
+and transferring, and if many insects are about such an occupation may
+appear to you to be a waste of valuable time. But this is not all. Often
+and often will you find that while thus engaged a splendid moth will
+come and flutter round your light; and, before you have time to drop
+your collecting box and pick up the net, the fine creature you would
+have prized has darted off again. This certainly seems to speak in
+favour of the pill-boxing method, but it must be remembered that a few
+of the moths will continue to flutter after they have been boxed, so
+that when you arrive home they are more or less damaged, a large number
+of the scales that once adorned the wings now lying on the sides and
+bottom of the boxes. Perhaps the best plan is to take both the
+collecting box and also a quantity of pill boxes, and a little
+experience will soon show you which is the better accommodation for
+certain kinds.
+
+Particular attention must be paid to flowers, some of which are very
+attractive to the _Noctuae_ especially. Sallow blossom in spring and ivy
+bloom in autumn should be carefully and frequently watched, and at
+other times the blossoms of heather, ragwort, bramble, clover, and
+various other flowers must be searched.
+
+As you cast the rays of the lantern on the feasting moths some will
+prove themselves very wary, and dart away at your approach; but others
+will take but little notice of your advance, and will continue to suck
+the sweet nectar, their eyes glaring like living sparks.
+
+As a rule the _Noctuae_ thus engaged are easily pill-boxed or caught
+direct in the cyanide bottle; but a few of the more restless species are
+to be made sure of only by a sweep of the net. Some will feign death as
+soon as disturbed, and allow themselves to drop among the foliage, where
+further search is generally fruitless.
+
+Another common difficulty arises from the inconvenient height of many of
+the attractive blossoms--often so great that it is impossible to reach
+them with the net, and very difficult to direct the rays of your lantern
+on them. This is particularly the case with sallow and ivy, the flowers
+of which are two rich sources of supply to the entomologist.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--NET AND LANTERN FOR TAKING MOTHS FROM HIGH
+BLOSSOMS.]
+
+Those who intend giving special attention to these blossoms should be
+provided with some form of apparatus that will enable them to extend
+their operations as high as possible. Perhaps the most effective
+arrangement is the well-known combination here figured. It consists of a
+long and stout stick, at the top of which is a tubular joint (fig. 52)
+that might be termed a T-piece were it not that the smaller part does
+not stand out at right angles to the other. In this is fixed, in a
+straight line with the stick, a short rod on which hangs a lantern--an
+ordinary bull's-eye answers well here; and in the smaller tube is
+another short rod carrying a shallow basin-shaped net, and of such a
+length that the net is just in advance of the lantern.
+
+At first sight this arrangement will strike you as being very
+unsatisfactory, there being no kind of trap to prevent the escape of the
+insects. But it must be remembered that moths are more or less addicted
+to habits of intemperance--that they will hold on to the supply of the
+sweet fluid they enjoy till they are ready to drop with intoxication.
+This being the case, some will fall into your net as soon as they are
+startled by the sudden and near approach of the glare of your lamp, and
+others are easily _made_ to fall therein by gently tapping the
+flower-bearing stems from below with the edge of the ring.
+
+Having become acquainted with this very sad propensity, which thus
+brings ruin to so many unfortunate moths, can we not yet further turn
+their evil doings to our own profit in our endeavours to become
+acquainted with their structure and history? Most certainly we can. All
+we have to do is to distribute in their haunts a bountiful supply of
+some artificial intoxicant such as they love, and then lie in wait for
+the victims that fall a prey to our snare. This process is known to
+entomologists as 'sugaring,' and is a splendid means of securing an
+abundance of species, often including some rare ones that are scarcely
+to be obtained by any other plan. Let us now inquire into the _modus
+operandi_ of this interesting operation.
+
+The first thing to do is to prepare the luring sweetmeat. Supply
+yourself with a quantity of strong, dark treacle, and also some dark
+brown sugar; always remembering, in the selection of these viands, that
+odour rather than purity is to be the guide. The best kinds of sugar are
+those very dark and moist brands imported in a raw state from the West
+Indies, nothing being better than that known as 'Jamaica Foots.'
+
+Mix about equal quantities of these with a little stale beer, and boil
+and stir till all the sugar is dissolved. The consistency of the mixture
+should be such that it will work well with a brush when used as a
+paint--not too thick, nor so thin that it is easily absorbed by the
+substance on which it is 'painted,' nor must it be in such a fluid
+condition that it easily runs.
+
+When satisfied on these points, transfer the mixture to a tin canister,
+see it properly covered, and set it aside as your 'stock' from which you
+can draw supplies as required. Now secure an ordinary painter's brush of
+convenient size, and a number of strips of linen or other rag, each one
+of which is fastened to a hook formed of bent wire. These items,
+together with the usual lantern, collecting box, pill boxes, and killing
+bottle, complete your outfit for the sugaring expedition.
+
+When the selected time for operations has arrived, take sufficient
+'sugar' for your night's work, mix it well with sufficient strong rum to
+give it a very decided odour, and start off at dusk with this and the
+other requisites just mentioned.
+
+The night chosen should be warm and calm, with a rather damp atmosphere,
+and no moon preferred. Let your locality be a well-wooded one;
+abounding, if possible, with giant oaks and other trees, and containing
+open spaces with plenty of underwood and rank herbage. Such localities
+are to be met with at their best in forest lands, and if you would do
+wonders at sugaring you cannot do better than arrange for spending your
+holidays in such a spot as the New Forest, taking with you sufficient
+'sugar' for several nights' work.
+
+Having reached a likely spot of no very great extent, you prepare for
+real work. Light up the lamp, and get out your sugaring tin and brush
+ready for action. Take your course along some definite track that you
+are sure to remember, painting vertical strips of sugar, about a foot
+long, on the trunks of trees or on palings, and hanging strips of rag
+that have just been steeped in the sugar on the branches of small trees
+and shrubs where you do not find good surfaces for the brush.
+
+After satisfying yourself concerning the amount of sugar distributed,
+retrace your steps, examining every patch of sugar as you go. It will
+not be long before signs of life appear. Earwigs, spiders, centipedes
+and slugs will soon search out the luscious feast, but unless the time
+and the locality are ill chosen, the lantern will soon reveal a goodly
+number of moths, with eyes glaring like little balls of fire, greedily
+devouring the bounteous repast. These will consist chiefly of _Noctuae_,
+but _Sphinges_, _Geometrae_ and numerous small species also join the
+company.
+
+Some will exhibit a restless disposition, either darting off before you
+make a close approach, or keeping their wings in rapid vibration as if
+to be fully prepared for a hasty retreat when occasion demands. These
+must receive your attention first; and, having secured them, proceed to
+box as many as you require of the more lazy and gluttonous species.
+
+As a rule, moths thus engaged are easily pill-boxed, but the livelier
+ones will not submit to such treatment without attempting to escape. The
+best way to secure these is either to cover them with the opened cyanide
+bottle (or its substitute), and replace the cork as soon as a favourable
+opportunity occurs; or to perform the same feat with a glass-bottomed
+pill box.
+
+The advantage of the latter over the ordinary boxes will be seen at
+once. After the insect is covered, its movements can be watched, and so
+a favourable opportunity can be seized for snapping on the lid.
+
+As already stated, some moths feign death when in danger, allowing
+themselves to fall in places where they are often quite safe from
+capture. Others allow themselves to fall simply because they have so
+gorged themselves with the intoxicating sweet that they can no longer
+maintain their hold. Both these classes of sugar seekers may easily be
+secured by means of a net commonly known as the 'sugaring net.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--FRAME FOR THE SUGARING NET.]
+
+This implement is so simple in its construction that anyone can easily
+make his own. The frame may consist of two straight wires or canes fixed
+in a metal Y, and the other ends joined by a piece of strong string or
+catgut as shown in fig. 54. The net itself need not be deep. As soon as
+you reach a tree where moths are feeding on the sugar, press the string
+of the net against the bark just below them. The string at once assumes
+the form of the trunk so well that you may be sure of every insect that
+falls while you are boxing.
+
+For this work both hands must be free, and this is easily managed in
+spite of the number of appliances called into service. The lantern is
+slung round your neck and secured by a strap round the chest. The
+'sugaring net' has a very short stick, and just while you are engaged in
+boxing specimens, it may be gently held against the trunk by a slight
+pressure of the body. But such precautions as these are necessary only
+when the night worker is out alone. There are many circumstances,
+however, that render the work of two or more in company much more
+enjoyable than that of a single-handed entomologist. The labours are
+considerably expedited where a division enables each one of the night
+ramblers to take a particular portion of the work; and if there is such
+a person as a nervous entomologist, that individual should on no account
+go a sugaring in lonely spots on dark nights. Every rustling leaf gives
+such a one a start; all footsteps are those of approaching disturbers of
+the peace; and when at last the invisible landowner or his keeper,
+attracted by the mysterious movements of the lamp, greets him with his
+gruff 'What's your business here?' then for the moment he forgets his
+enchanting hobby and wishes he were safely at home.
+
+It is certainly advisable to take a friend, whether an entomologist or
+not, on such expeditions; and if you intend working on private grounds,
+always make previous arrangements with the property owner, that you may
+fear no foes and dread no surprises; for a sugarer is far more sure of
+success in his work if he keeps a cool head and has nothing to think
+about for the time being but his moths and his boxes.
+
+A few hours at this interesting employment pass away very rapidly, and
+when midnight arrives there is often no great desire to leave off,
+especially when it is known that some species of moths are not very busy
+till very late at night. Still it is not advisable to surfeit oneself
+with even the sweets of life. Perhaps it is better as a rule to work the
+early species only on one night, and reserve another for the later ones.
+The searchings are then always carried on with vigour throughout, and
+the labours that are thus never made laborious ever retain their
+attractiveness in the future.
+
+It has often been observed that, when sugaring has been carried on for a
+few successive nights in the same locality, the success is greater each
+night than on the one preceding it. Hence it is a common practice to
+work a chosen 'run' for two, three, or more nights in succession; and
+some collectors even go so far as to lay on the bait for a night or two
+previous to starting work. For the same reason it is often advisable to
+continue the use of a fairly productive beat rather than to wander in
+search of a new one.
+
+In the neighbourhood of large towns one may often meet with patches of
+sugared bark that mark the course and extent of a brother entomologist's
+beat, and such are valuable to an inexperienced amateur in that they
+give him some idea of the nature of the localities that are chosen by
+more expert collectors. But it must be remembered that each entomologist
+has a moral right to a run he has baited, and that it is considered
+ungentlemanly, if not unjust, to take insects from sugar laid by
+another. I have sometimes seen cards, bearing the names of the
+collectors and the date of working, tacked on to baited trees and
+fences, thus establishing their temporary exclusive rights to the use of
+their runs. Such precautions are not necessary in large tracts of forest
+land, where the choice of runs is practically unlimited.
+
+There are two other modes of capture available to the moth
+collector--the use of decoy females, and the employment of 'sugar
+traps'--and both these may be used on the sugaring run, or at other
+times either in the woods or in your own garden.
+
+The wonderful acuteness of the sense by which the males of certain
+species are enabled to seek out the females has already been alluded to,
+and the possession of a suitable decoy will often bring you a number of
+beautiful admirers without the least trouble, except that taken in
+securing the decoy and preparing her temporary abode. It is absolutely
+necessary that the female moth be one that has recently emerged, and
+consequently you had better secure her in one of her earlier stages,
+either by previous rearing or by collecting the pupae.
+
+A little cage composed of a framework of wire covered with gauze must
+now be made. Perhaps the simplest pattern is that illustrated. Here the
+gauze is attached to two wire rings, only a few inches in diameter, and
+suspended by a string. Such a cage answers every purpose in the field,
+and has the advantage of folding into an exceedingly small space when
+not in use. It may be suspended in your garden or taken into the field
+whenever you have a suitable decoy at your disposal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--CAGE FOR DECOY FEMALES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--A SUGAR TRAP.]
+
+The sugar trap may be of much the same pattern as that in which a light
+is used, but if intended for field work it should be of a convenient
+size for portability. A lighter and far more convenient form may be
+constructed as follows:
+
+Procure a large cylindrical tin box, and cut a circular piece of
+perforated zinc just small enough to drop into it. Then make two wire
+rings, one a _little larger_ than the top of the tin, and the other only
+about an inch in diameter. Next make a conical net of leno, open at both
+ends, and of such a size that the two rings may form the frames of its
+two extremities. When the trap is required for use, cut a circular
+piece of flannel or other absorbent, steep it in sugar that has just
+been flavoured with rum, and place it in the bottom of the tin. Then
+place a few pebbles of equal size around the sides to support the zinc
+partition, drop in the partition, and then allow the net to hang on the
+rim as shown in the sketch.
+
+This arrangement will explain itself. The moths, attracted by the sweet
+perfume, flutter about in the net till at last they find their way
+through the small ring. Once in, they make further attempts to reach the
+sugar; and, at last, finding all efforts fruitless, and, like Paddy at
+the fair, not being able to discover the 'entrance out,' they finally
+settle down in a disappointed mood awaiting your pleasure.
+
+Perhaps another word of explanation is necessary here. Why not allow the
+poor creatures to reach the sugar that attracted them to the spot? The
+reason is this. They sometimes gorge themselves to such an extent that
+their bodies, dilated to the fullest capacity with syrup, are a bit
+troublesome when the insects are placed in the cabinet. It is therefore
+advisable to see that the zinc is so far above the sugar that the moths
+are unable to reach the latter by thrusting their extended proboscides
+through the perforations. A few dead leaves scattered on the zinc is
+also a useful addition, since it affords shelter to such of the insects
+as prefer it.
+
+This is a very useful trap to keep in one's garden throughout the
+season. It may not attract large numbers, but it has the advantage that
+it requires no watching. It is simply necessary to set it at dusk, and
+remove the captives in the morning or at your leisure.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+_COLLECTING OVA, LARVAE, AND PUPAE_
+
+
+We have already observed that insects should, as a rule, be set as soon
+as possible after their capture; and it would therefore seem that this
+is the proper place for instructions in this part of the work. But it so
+happens that butterflies and moths are to be obtained by means other
+than those already described, and we shall therefore consider these
+previous to the study of the various processes connected with the
+setting and preserving of our specimens.
+
+Were we to confine our attention to the capture of the perfect forms
+only, our knowledge of the _Lepidoptera_ would be scanty indeed, for we
+should then be ignorant of the earlier stages of the creatures' lives,
+and have no opportunity of witnessing the wonderful transformations
+through which they have to pass.
+
+Such an imperfect acquaintance with butterflies and moths will, I hope,
+not satisfy the readers of these pages; so it is intended, in the next
+two chapters, to give a little assistance to those who would like to
+know how to set to work at the collection of their eggs and larvae, how
+to search for the pupae, and how to rear the insects from the stage at
+which they are acquired till they finally emerge in the perfect form.
+
+These portions of an entomologist's work certainly take up a great deal
+of his time, and also require much patience and perseverance; but the
+advantages derived cannot be over-estimated, for in addition to the
+knowledge gained of the early stages of insect life, this kind of work
+will enable him to place in his cabinet a number of gems he would
+otherwise have not and probably know not. Occasionally a prize may be
+obtained in the form of a cluster of eggs (_ova_) of a rare species, in
+many instances the larvae are to be obtained with comparative ease, while
+the perfect insects of the same species are not often seen or not easily
+captured, and many a rare pupa has been dug out of its hiding place
+during a season when the entomologist had but little other work to
+occupy his time.
+
+These and other similar subjects we shall now consider in turn.
+
+
+_Collecting Ova_
+
+The collection of ova may be carried on more or less throughout the
+year. A number of moths are out in February, and even in January if the
+weather is mild. These soon lay their eggs, which are hatched about the
+time that the buds of the food plant are breaking. From this time till
+late in the summer the ova of various species are being deposited, the
+average period from laying to hatching being from two to three weeks.
+Then, during the autumn, when the leaves of food plants are turning
+brown and crisp, ova are still being laid, but these remain unchanged
+till the new buds of the following spring are bursting.
+
+Of course if you intend searching for the ova of particular species you
+must previously ascertain the favourite haunts of those species, become
+acquainted with their food plants, and also with the season or seasons
+during which the eggs are laid. But the few following hints will suffice
+as general instructions for the search.
+
+In nearly all cases we must expect to find ova on the food plants of the
+respective species, but at times, especially with certain moths, we may
+come across them in the most unlikely spots. Thus, it sometimes happens
+that a moth settles on a street lamp, and lays her eggs on the framework
+round the glass, or even on the glass itself. The same thing may take
+place on the sash or glass of a brightly lighted window.
+
+Such occurrences, however, we must regard as accidental and
+comparatively rare, and therefore we confine our searchings for ova to
+the food plants of the species we require.
+
+As a rule the under sides of the leaves will yield the most, but we have
+already noticed (page 18) that some moths leave their eggs exposed on
+the upper surface. Again, some larvae feed on flowers and seeds and
+fruit, and the eggs of such are deposited on these parts. Those insects
+which feed on the leaves of shrubs and trees often lay their eggs on
+trunks, branches and twigs. Sometimes these are laid singly, sometimes
+in dense clusters; and it is not unusual to find them arranged in rings
+or spirals with great regularity. When examining the trunks of trees for
+ova it is necessary to look well into the crevices of the bark, for some
+insects take particular care to lay them in deep sheltered chinks; but
+others take no such precautions, and deposit them on exposed ridges or
+plain surfaces where they are easily discovered.
+
+One difficulty of the ova collector lies in the fact that many insects
+lay on the upper branches of large trees. Of course a search for these
+is out of the question; but in places where the trees have been cut down
+a few years previously, and where a consequent undergrowth has
+developed, there are considerable chances of success with these species.
+Young saplings of trees often yield well, especially in places where
+tall trees of the same species are absent. It may be mentioned, too,
+that some moths (page 294) actually lay their eggs beneath the surface
+of water, depositing them on the under surfaces of floating pond weeds;
+and others (page 298) even enter the nests of wasps and bees for the
+same purpose. It is clear, then, from these few remarks, that the work
+of an ambitious collector of insects' eggs is by no means a monotonous
+task; for his employment takes him into the meadows and woods, leads him
+to the banks of ponds, and even compels him to tear down banks and
+hedges for the nests of _Hymenoptera_ at the risk of a sting or two.
+
+One of the most productive sources of eggs is undoubtedly the possession
+of captured females. When you are out netting butterflies you often see
+a female that is evidently engaged in her matronly duties. Instead of
+seeking food from the various flowers in her path, she pays attention
+only to the foliage, looking out a suitable leaf on which to deposit her
+eggs. Should you meet with an insect thus engaged which you would like
+to rear at home, or of which you would like to know the egg, secure it
+in a perforated pill box with a leaf of the proper plant; and it will
+often supply you with abundance of eggs for your purpose, in many cases
+depositing them in the box before you arrive home. The eggs of numerous
+species of moths are also to be easily obtained from captured females.
+
+Some insects do not seem inclined to deposit their eggs in captivity as
+freely as when at large, and in order to induce them to do so we must,
+as far as possible, put them in their natural conditions. Let them have
+plenty of room, and supply them with fresh twigs of their food plants,
+kept green by standing them in vessels of water. It is also advisable,
+supposing you are not well acquainted with the dispositions of the
+species you have, to keep a portion of the box well shaded from direct
+sunlight, and allow another part to be as bright as possible; for some
+species will not lay in a bright light, while others will not do so
+without it.
+
+Again, while some deposit their eggs within a few hours of quitting the
+pupa case, others do not lay for several days. With regard to the
+latter, it is frequently necessary to feed them while in captivity, by
+placing in the box a piece of rag or sponge that has been dipped in
+honey or syrup.
+
+Each batch of ova should be carefully examined with a view to knowing
+them by sight on a future occasion. A sketch should be made in your note
+book, showing every detail that you can make out with the aid of a good
+lens. Then observations concerning the season, colour of the eggs, the
+situation in which deposited, arrangement, and any other useful
+particulars, should be entered.
+
+In the next chapter some hints will be given concerning the management
+of ova and the rearing of the larvae from the time of hatching.
+
+
+_Collecting Larvae_
+
+This occupation is generally far more productive to the entomologist
+than searching for ova. The latter are very small, usually well
+concealed, and to be detected only by a careful scrutinising use of the
+eyes; but the superior size of the larvae, the frequent bright colouring,
+and the fact that they are easily beaten from their hold, render the
+searchings of their hunters comparatively easy and fruitful.
+
+Before setting out on a larva-hunting expedition, there are a few
+requisites to prepare. These include not only the implements for your
+work in the field, but also the cages in which you intend to rear your
+little captives. The latter are described a little later on under the
+head 'Rearing Lepidoptera,' and the former we will now briefly
+summarise.
+
+The outfit must consist of a quantity of suitable boxes, a stout hooked
+stick, a strong net, and a white material to place under the herbage
+while you are 'beating.'
+
+'Larva boxes' are usually made of zinc, and have little sliding doors in
+the lids, so that the lids need not be removed while out of doors after
+the fragment of the required food plant has been inserted. Such boxes
+are not by any means essential. Small tin boxes will answer all purposes
+nearly as well, providing a number of small holes be made in them for
+the admission of air. Chip boxes are also fairly satisfactory, but these
+also should be perforated. The best way to do this is to push a red-hot
+iron wire through the chip, making about half a dozen small holes in
+each box. This method will give you clean holes of a uniform size
+without otherwise injuring the boxes.
+
+Metal boxes possess the advantage that they keep the food plants moist
+for a long time, while chip boxes allow them to dry rather rapidly. Yet
+there are some larvae that do far better in the latter, since such a
+quantity of moisture exudes through their skins that they soon become
+uncomfortably wet if their apartment is not well ventilated. Under these
+circumstances perhaps it is better to take a supply of both, so that
+changes may be made as found necessary.
+
+One grave objection to chip boxes, however, is the weakness of the
+material. They are easily crushed by pressure, and a bottom or a top
+disc of wood often falls out; but this is easily overcome by gluing
+narrow strips of calico round the top and bottom edges. Chip boxes
+should always be treated in this way, and they will then last five or
+six times as long.
+
+Your supply of boxes should always include one large one of metal in
+which to bring home a supply of food for the larvae. If you have a
+botanist's vasculum, by all means take it, for nothing can serve this
+purpose better. If not, any rather large square tin box will do, and
+this may be carried in your satchel, or a couple of hooks may be
+soldered to it so that a leather strap can be fixed for slinging it over
+your shoulder.
+
+The net required is that commonly known as the 'sweep net.' It must be
+very strong, for it has to submit to rather rough usage. The frame must
+be made of thick wire; and the bag, which need not be more than a foot
+deep, should be of strong calico or holland.
+
+Now with regard to the white material previously mentioned. This may be
+a square of calico, hemmed round the edges. Nothing is more convenient
+than this, as it occupies but little room in the pocket when not in use,
+if neatly folded. The material need not be thick, but the larger it is
+the better. Many prefer a white umbrella or an ordinary umbrella with a
+white lining, but as this is only a matter of taste and convenience you
+must decide for yourself as to which you will use.
+
+If your field of operations is only a little way from your head
+quarters, and quantity of luggage therefore not a serious consideration,
+you may provide yourself with a heavy mallet, loaded if necessary with a
+pound or two of lead. This will prove very useful in shaking larvae from
+trees and large branches. Lastly, take a pencil and a note book or
+writing paper for your observations in the field.
+
+Now for the choice of the season. Larvae are to be found all the year
+round. Early in the spring, as soon as the buds are bursting, some break
+out of the eggs recently laid by the moths that appear in February and
+March. Later on, during April and May, a host of both butterflies and
+moths are busy arranging for their broods. Then, throughout the whole of
+the summer, thousands of caterpillars of all sorts and sizes are to be
+met with everywhere. And finally, during the bleak winter months, you
+may amuse yourself by digging the hybernators out of their hiding places
+where they rest themselves till the spring sun again calls them out to
+refresh them with the young and tender leaves of a new year. Thus,
+unless you are merely intending to search out certain species you happen
+to require, there is not much difficulty in settling on the season.
+
+The day selected should be dry, for your work lies among the herbage of
+banks, meadows, and woods, and nothing is more unpleasant than wading
+through a wet and dense vegetation, or beating down on yourself a shower
+of large drops from the branches of trees and shrubs.
+
+Having reached the hunting ground, the first thing to do is to look out
+for _signs_ of the presence of larvae rather than for the larvae
+themselves. Healthy vegetation with sound leaves must be passed by as
+untenanted; but the presence of partly eaten foliage immediately arouses
+suspicion.
+
+A little experience will soon enable you to distinguish between the
+ravages of larvae and of slugs, snails, wasps, &c. Some of the smaller
+larvae certainly eat out clean holes like those cut by _Hymenopterous_
+insects, but as a rule they bite away at the edges, leaving the midrib
+and the larger veins standing out almost naked.
+
+By looking well into the edges of the eaten leaves, it is easy to see
+whether the marauders have been recently at work. If they are dried up
+and discoloured, it is not of much use to search; but if still green and
+moist, you may feel almost sure that the hungry larvae are not far off.
+
+In this case you will carefully turn over the leaves to examine the
+under sides, and also the leaf stalks and branches or stems; but you
+must be prepared for all kinds of protective mimicry. Little green
+caterpillars will be seen lying on the midrib or veins, so straight and
+so still that they are scarcely perceptible. Others are snugly tucked in
+a depression of a leaf with the same result. Then we must also be
+prepared for the artful little tricks of the larvae of _Geometrae_ (p.
+268), by which they imitate stalks and twigs so closely that a sharp eye
+is necessary to discriminate between the two.
+
+While thus searching we may meet with the cast skin of a caterpillar.
+This gives us fresh hopes, and so we continue our careful examination.
+At last, on grasping a leaf in order to turn it over for inspection, we
+feel something hairy or something soft and smooth. But lo! it is gone.
+It is one of those numerous caterpillars that feign death and drop to
+the ground on the slightest sign of danger. We search below for it, but
+the density of the vegetation renders this hopeless, and we are just
+about to start off in search of a more productive locality when we espy
+a quantity of the excrement of larvae lying on a little bare patch of
+ground close by. This gives us a new idea. Here is another indication of
+the presence of the creatures we require, one that we can put into
+practice; and by-and-by we learn that in many cases this is really the
+surest sign of their whereabouts.
+
+We look at these little pellets of excrement, and gain at once some idea
+of the _size_ of the larvae that produce them. Then we observe whether
+they are fresh and moist, or dry and stale. If the latter, it is not of
+much use to examine the leaves above; but if otherwise, there is little
+doubt of our meeting with larvae, as the present position they occupy is
+so truly marked. The leaves just over them are carefully examined,
+either by turning them over as before described, or, if the height of
+the foliage admits of it, by placing our heads below and looking upward.
+
+If we find that the larvae are some of those that endeavour to escape by
+feigning death and allowing themselves to drop at the slightest
+disturbance, the net is always kept beneath the leaves we are touching
+in order to intercept them in their downward journey.
+
+Continuing the search, we meet with leaves that are rolled up and bound
+with silk threads, and others that are drawn together and similarly
+bound. These are carefully uncurled and pulled asunder with the result
+that active little larvae are exposed to view, or, it may be, pupae are
+discovered. In some cases flowers are drawn together in just the same
+way, and an examination reveals one or more of the species that prefer
+petals and other parts of flowers to the green leaves.
+
+Silken threads always arouse our suspicions. These may be seen lying on
+the surfaces of leaves, and passing from one leaf to another, or they
+may be hanging perpendicularly from the branches of trees above. In the
+latter case a larva may be frequently seen on the lower extremity of the
+fibre, swinging gently in the breeze, and, should we require it, we have
+only to place the open box below for its reception.
+
+Hawthorn and other trees are sometimes seen almost devoid of leaves,
+nearly every bit of green having been greedily devoured by a host of
+small larvae. In such cases we often meet with dense clusters of silk
+fibres that may easily be mistaken for spiders' nests. But when we look
+more closely into the structure we observe that we have discovered
+instead nests of gregarious larvae, such a large number being in each
+little community that the deplorable appearance of the tree is at once
+explained.
+
+A little farther on we meet with a sickly-looking plant in the midst of
+a number of flourishing individuals of the same species, and stop to
+make inquiries into the cause of this strange occurrence. Is it due to a
+poorness of the soil? No, this cannot be the case; for intermingled with
+its roots are those of its flourishing companions. We pluck a stunted
+and half-shrivelled leaf and examine it. At first we do not notice the
+cause of its peculiar condition; but, holding it up to the light, and
+looking _through_ it, we see a number of little galleries that have been
+eaten out of its internal soft substance, leaving the thin skin
+(_epidermis_) almost entirely intact. But nothing more is to be seen.
+Another leaf is examined in exactly the same way; and here we see the
+little destroyer, lying motionless in its burrow till a gentle pressure
+applied against it from outside causes it to wriggle along its narrow
+passage. This is the larva of one of the little leaf miners mentioned
+again on page 303.
+
+Reaching a little marshy spot we see a number of water-loving reeds,
+most of them beautifully green and in a flourishing condition, but here
+and there in their midst is a poor stunted specimen--another result of
+the ravages of the larvae of one or more moths. An examination of the
+blades reveals nothing; but on splitting open the stalk we discover some
+larvae that have already devoured a quantity of the internal pith, and
+thus endangered the life of the plant. On inspecting other similar reeds
+we are at first puzzled as to how the larvae could get inside the stems
+without damaging the outer portion; but at last we see in each one a
+little discoloured hole that was eaten out by the young caterpillar
+just after its escape from the egg. Once within the reed, it found a
+plentiful supply of food, and there grew at the expense of the plant
+without doing any further external damage save by causing a stunted
+growth.
+
+It may be that the stem eaters we have found are just about full grown.
+If so we examine a number of the stems with a hope that we may find one
+or two that are just about to change to the chrysalis state, or even a
+pupa already formed. By this means we may secure one of the perfect
+insects without the necessity of feeding larvae at home. Such a
+consideration becomes a most important one when it happens that the
+required food plant is one that cannot be easily obtained.
+
+Close by the reeds is another water-loving plant in the form of an old
+willow tree. This is always an attractive object to the entomologist, so
+it comes in for a share of our inspection. On its leaves we may find
+several species of the larvae of _Lepidoptera_, including those of some
+of our largest insects. But a strange feature catches our eyes as we
+happen to glance at the bark of the tree. Here we see a few holes of
+different sizes, about which are a number of little fragments of wood
+that remind us of 'sawdust;' and, examining the ground below, we see
+quite a little heap of this dust, looking just as if a carpenter had
+been at work on the spot.
+
+This is not the effect of a saw, however; it is a sure sign of the
+ravages of wood-eating larvae (p. 224), whose powerful jaws gain them
+admittance into the very hearts of trees, and the application of the
+nose to one of the larger holes leaves no doubt of the presence of the
+large and beautiful caterpillar of the Goat Moth (p. 224).
+
+If we require any of these wood-eaters, either for rearing or for
+preservation, we must be prepared for a little rather heavy work. A
+strong pocket knife is not sufficient, but with a good chisel the wood
+can be gradually cut away, and the galleries traced, till at last we
+come to the larvae snugly resting in their burrows.
+
+It often happens that the tree thus tenanted is half decayed, and
+consequently the work is rendered much easier. Also, while tearing away
+the wood, we often meet with a number of cocoons that have been
+constructed by the caterpillars for their winter quarters, or as a
+resting place while undergoing their transformations. These are composed
+of the wood dust bound together by strong silk fibres, and are often in
+such a good state of preservation that they form useful illustrations
+for the cabinet.
+
+As further aids to larvae searching we may mention that many
+species--chiefly of the _Noctuae_--hide under the surface of the ground
+or among dense and low herbage during the day, and come out to feed only
+by night; that many others feed on roots, and are therefore seldom seen
+above the surface of the soil; also that a good number burrow into
+fruits, in the interior of which they spend the whole of their larval
+stage. The best way to secure the latter is to examine the 'windfalls'
+that lie scattered on orchard lands, for it is a well-known fact that
+the fruits that are infested with larvae generally fall earlier than
+others--a result that must be attributed to the damaging work of the
+larvae themselves.
+
+All the larvae collected should be carefully boxed at once, a separate
+compartment being used for each species, and a few fragments of the food
+plant being introduced in each case. It is also a good plan to have each
+box previously lined with moss as a further addition to the comfort of
+the captives. Without such a precaution some of the more delicate
+species are liable to injury during their transmission from field to
+home.
+
+Hitherto we have obtained our larvae by _searching_ only, but there are
+times and occasions when our boxes may be far more rapidly filled by
+methods that are not such a tax on our time and patience. Suppose, for
+instance, that we reach a bush, the mutilated leaves of which seem to
+show that larvae are present on its branches. We spread our white cloth
+or open out the white-lined umbrella just under a selected branch, and
+then tap that branch very smartly with our stick.
+
+Down comes a host of living creatures! Spiders, larvae, beetles, aphides,
+earwigs, and what not, struggling and running about on our white fabric
+in all directions, and all mingled with bits of stick, leaves, and
+fragments of all kinds. We leave the cloth or the umbrella, as the case
+may be, quite still for a few seconds to allow all the living creatures
+to get a good foothold, and then, raising it into a vertical position,
+allow all the rubbish to drop off.
+
+We can now put the cloth down again, and select as many of the larvae as
+we require, giving our first attention to the nimble runners and loopers
+that are already near the edge and just on the point of making their
+escape. This productive method of larva hunting is known as 'beating,'
+and is particularly applicable to tall herbs and the lower branches of
+trees and shrubs.
+
+The same principle may be employed in the case of branches that are
+quite out of the reach of the stick, but the blows are here applied to
+the trunk, a mallet or some other rather heavy implement taking the
+place of the stick.
+
+Another splendid method of securing larvae where mere searching would be
+tedious and unproductive, lies in the use of the sweep net described on
+page 102. This implement comes into service in waste places that are
+covered with rank vegetation, in clover and hayfields, and in all spots
+covered with low herbs.
+
+Walking among the vegetation, the net is swept right and left before
+you, and the contents examined at frequent intervals. It is advisable to
+work the different species of herbs separately as far as possible,
+otherwise there may be some difficulty in the determination of the food
+plants of the mixed larvae that the net will contain. If, however, this
+plan is impracticable, you may save time by turning out all the
+'sweepings' into one large box, leaving the sorting to be done at home
+in leisure hours.
+
+
+_Collecting Pupae_
+
+We have seen that ova and larvae may be obtained in greater or less
+abundance at all times of the year, so variable are the seasons of the
+different butterflies and moths. The same remark applies equally well to
+pupae; but so many of the Lepidoptera spend the winter months in the
+chrysalis state that this period may be regarded as the harvest time of
+the pupa hunter.
+
+A large number of caterpillars undergo their change to the quiescent
+state during the months of August and September, and, of course, remain
+in this state until the warm days of the following spring or summer. And
+as insects even in the pupal stage have a number of enemies and dangers
+to contend with, it is advisable to start your search for them as soon
+as possible after they have changed.
+
+If you set your mind on searching for particular species, you should
+endeavour to ascertain the _usual_ time at which such species pupate;
+make any necessary allowances for the forwardness or backwardness of the
+season, and then allow a week or two for the change to be completed, for
+insects should never be disturbed at times when their metamorphoses are
+in progress.
+
+For general pupa hunting the best season is undoubtedly from the end of
+August to the end of October, but there is no reason why the work should
+not be carried on throughout the winter. If, however, you continue your
+work so late, you must not expect nearly as much success as time
+advances. You must remember that entomologists are not the only pupa
+hunters. Many hungry birds are always on the look-out for insects, and
+seem to enjoy them equally well in all their stages. Those that
+hybernate on or under the ground are liable to fall a prey to moles and
+beetles. In addition to these dangers, all pupae are subject to the
+effects of extreme cold, dampness, or floods.
+
+As regards the choice of a day, very little need be said. Any day that
+is sufficiently genial for yourself will do for your work, except that
+periods of hard frost render the ground too hard for digging--the most
+profitable part of the pupa hunter's task.
+
+The apparatus required is extremely simple: A satchel or large pockets
+full of small metal or chip boxes, a small garden trowel, and a strong
+chisel.
+
+If metal boxes are used they should be perforated; in fact, nothing is
+better than the ordinary larva boxes of the dealers. All the boxes, of
+whatever kind, should be lined with moss previous to starting work.
+
+The trowel and chisel do not pack well with a number of small boxes,
+therefore it is a good plan to fix them in a couple of leather sheaths
+attached to your belt. In this position they are far more handy for use,
+and the boxes are also in less danger of being crushed or damaged, as
+they probably would be if in contact with hard and heavy tools.
+
+A note book is also a valuable addition to your outfit, as it enables
+you to make memoranda concerning the trees and localities from which you
+obtain your pupae.
+
+The best localities for pupa hunting are clearings in woods, parks with
+numerous large timber trees, and meadows in which large isolated trees
+are scattered; and the best trees include willows, poplars, oaks,
+beeches, birches, elms, and hawthorns.
+
+The best thing you can do on arriving at the selected hunting ground is
+to make at once for isolated trees of large size, and work each one as
+follows:
+
+First examine well the crevices of the bark, for many caterpillars
+descend the tree to within a short distance of the ground, and then seek
+out a snug little crevice in which to spend the winter, often protecting
+themselves with silken cocoons, or constructing a neat little shelter of
+gnawed fragments of the wood cemented together.
+
+If there is any loose bark, very carefully force it out with your
+chisel, and examine both its inner surface and the wood from which it
+was removed. The wood thus exposed may reveal openings of the galleries
+of wood-eating larvae, in which case, unless the material is too hard to
+be broken up with the chisel, you may be able to trace out a few pupae.
+Where these exist, they are usually to be found very near the entrance,
+sometimes even protruding slightly from the opening, for the larvae
+generally place themselves in this position of easy escape when about to
+change.
+
+Next give your attention to the moss, if any, covering the lower portion
+of the trunk. This affords a very favourite shelter to many species.
+Tear it off very carefully, beginning at the top, and watch for loose
+pupae and cocoons as you do so. Then hold the clumps you have removed
+over a patch of bare ground or over a spread handkerchief, and pull it
+to pieces, in order that any pupae it contains may fall out; also examine
+the fragments carefully for others that may remain attached.
+
+This done, the surface of the ground must be examined. Remove all dead
+leaves, and watch for pupae that may be sheltered beneath them. If any
+loose stones lie on the ground, turn them over. Search well into the
+angles between the roots, and if there are any holes or hollows beneath
+them or in the trunk itself, pull out all loose matter within, and
+_feel_ gently above and around for cocoons.
+
+After all loose matter has been removed, there still remains the soil
+for examination. If this is very hard and clayey, it is probably useless
+to carry the search any farther; also if very wet you need not expect
+much; but if comparatively dry and friable there are more hopes of
+success.
+
+As a general rule the north and east sides of the trunk are drier than
+those which are exposed to the heavy rains brought by the south and
+south-west winds, and are consequently more favoured by larvae that are
+seeking a resting place for the winter.
+
+Most larvae seek shelter in the angles between the roots of the trees on
+which they fed, but a few species seem to prefer the edges rather than
+the corners; and in cases where no such angles are formed at the
+surface, you will do well to examine the earth and turf all round the
+trunk; but it is generally useless to extend the search more than a few
+inches from the tree.
+
+After having searched every available nook and corner as far as possible
+without digging, thrust the trowel obliquely into the soil a few inches
+from the tree, turn over the sod, and then examine the spot from which
+it was removed. Now give your attention to the sod itself. If loose and
+friable, break it up gently, keeping a sharp eye for falling pupae, and
+also for earthen cocoons that are easily mistaken for little lumps of
+soil.
+
+If the soil is held together by roots, it must be pulled to pieces, and
+the fragments shaken over a bare piece of ground where the fall of a
+pupa or cocoon could be easily seen; and if you have removed a grassy
+turf, it will be necessary to look between the bases of the blades as
+well as among the roots.
+
+In this way you may search round tree after tree, wherever the soil is
+of such a character as to allow of the admittance and shelter of larvae.
+But the variability of your success will be quite beyond your
+comprehension. Sometimes you will sight a grand old oak with the most
+favourable anticipations, and consider yourself quite certain of a good
+find when you discover, on a nearer approach, the liberal coating of
+moss that clothes its trunk and the dry sandy soil at its foot; and yet
+the most careful search ends in nothing but disappointment. At other
+times you try your luck at tree after tree without ever seeing a single
+pupa or even a cast-off case, and then, when just on the point of
+despairing, you search round another that is apparently much less
+promising, and, to your great surprise and delight, a dozen or two are
+turned out in a few minutes. Such an occurrence as this is not at all
+uncommon, and cannot be satisfactorily explained, but we must take
+things as they come and make the best of them, remembering that pupa
+searching is one of the best of all entomological operations wherewith
+to test one's perseverance and patience.
+
+It may be mentioned, in conclusion, that the pupae of _Lepidoptera_ are
+never to be found far below the surface of the soil. Generally they
+exist, if buried at all, only an inch or two down, and very rarely at a
+greater depth than four inches.
+
+In our next chapter we shall learn how to rear the perfect insects from
+the earlier stages we have been considering.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+_REARING LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+
+_Management of Ova_
+
+In the management of insects in all stages the strictest attention must
+always be paid to one general rule on which the success of the work
+almost entirely depends; and that is--keep every specimen as far as
+possible under the same conditions as those in which you find it in
+nature.
+
+Applying this principle to ova, we store them in airy and light places,
+protected from the direct rays of the sun, and avoid handling and rough
+treatment of any kind. It is also advisable in most cases to maintain a
+slight amount of dampness corresponding with that of the open air at the
+particular season of the year.
+
+They do not require much space, and it is certainly desirable not to
+give much, otherwise the newly hatched larvae, when their time arrives,
+will actively wander all round their premises in search of food, and
+give you no end of trouble in gathering them up.
+
+Chip boxes are, as a rule, very good and very convenient receptacles for
+ova. After placing the eggs in these, cover them over with very fine
+muslin, held in place by elastic bands; and label each as far as you can
+with the name of the species contained, and other particulars worth
+remembering. The boxes may then be put in front of a window facing
+north, or in any situation within or out of doors where rain and sun
+cannot reach them. A greenhouse is an admirable place in which to keep
+them, the natural dampness of the atmosphere being apparently a
+considerable assistance to the tiny larvae just as they are striving to
+escape from their shell.
+
+Whatever place is selected, it is absolutely necessary that the ova be
+carefully watched, so that each brood may be supplied with the required
+food plant within a few hours of quitting the shells.
+
+When ova are kept in a warm room, very great inconvenience and even loss
+is sometimes caused by the appearance of larvae before the necessary food
+plant shows its buds. Yet, on the other hand, it is sometimes a great
+gain to the entomologist to get certain broods off early in the season,
+providing the food is at hand; for in this way he can not only get some
+of his work over during a slack season, but also, if he desires it,
+secure an additional brood; that is, one brood more than the usual
+number. Thus, supposing a certain species he is rearing is naturally
+double-brooded, he can, by judicious management, secure three successive
+broods before the food plant casts its last leaves.
+
+This hastening of the natural events of insect life is known as
+_forcing_, and merely consists in subjecting the species concerned to a
+reasonable amount of artificial heat, such as that of a room in which a
+fire is always kept, or of a hothouse.
+
+It is interesting at all times to note the dates on which eggs are laid
+or collected, and the times at which the young larvae appear. In addition
+to this all changes that take place in the colours or forms of eggs
+should be carefully observed; for such changes will assist you in
+distinguishing between fertile and sterile ova, and also enable you to
+judge approximately as to the date of the appearance of future broods.
+
+
+_Rearing Larvae_
+
+The main point in connection with the rearing of larvae is certainly the
+selection and construction of the cages or their substitutes. For newly
+hatched and all very small caterpillars a small bottle with a wide mouth
+makes a very fair abode. Put a layer of sand or sifted soil in the
+bottom, fix in this a small twig of the food plant or lay a few leaves
+on the top, and then, after the larvae have been introduced, cover the
+top with a piece of muslin, held in place by an elastic band.
+
+The great drawback with this arrangement is the lack of any provision
+for keeping the food moist and fresh, thus rendering a change necessary
+at very frequent intervals; but this may be obviated by using damp sand
+as a foundation for the little twig of food plant. With this
+improvement, if you cover the top of the bottle with apiece of glass, a
+saucer, or any impermeable substance, you may keep the twig fresh for
+several days, generally until the disappearance of the last leaf calls
+for a fresh supply; but it is very doubtful whether the damp atmosphere
+resulting from this inclosure is not injurious to the larvae. It
+certainly does not seem to have much influence on some, but the
+unhealthy conditions that result must be detrimental to the inmates. It
+must also be remembered that many species require a _dry_ soil in which
+to burrow when about to change.
+
+When the time comes for the change of food, great care must be taken not
+to injure young and small larvae. In many cases they need never be
+touched, for if a fresh twig be placed beside the stale one, they will
+readily find their way to it; and to facilitate this, and also to afford
+a convenient foothold to those larvae that accidentally fall from the
+twig, the layer of sand at the bottom of the bottle should be covered
+with moss or cocoa-nut fibre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--A LARVA GLASS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--A LARVA GLASS.]
+
+If you find it necessary to move the larvae yourself from the stale food,
+never touch them with your fingers, but lift them gently by means of a
+small camel-hair brush. Larger larvae need never be moved at all. They
+will always search out fresh food for themselves, and the stale may be
+removed after they have quitted it.
+
+For rearing larger species ordinary bottles are hardly satisfactory, and
+we must either use large jars or construct cages of some kind.
+
+An ordinary bell jar such as is used for covering ferns or for aquaria
+makes a very useful 'larva glass.' Place a small bottle of water at the
+bottom, and then introduce sufficient dry clean sand or sifted soil to
+reach up to its neck. On the top of this place a layer of moss or
+cocoa-nut fibre. Next introduce the food plant, fixing it firmly in the
+bottle of water, and plugging up the space between the stem and the rim
+with cotton wool. This precaution is to prevent the larvae from falling
+into the water as they attempt to pass up or down the stem, and the wool
+also helps to keep the twig in a vertical position. The glass is now
+ready for the caterpillars, but it is advisable to keep a covering of
+muslin or gauze over the top in all cases even though the larvae
+contained are unable to creep up the surface of glass, for the great
+enemies of caterpillars--the ichneumon flies--are always on the alert,
+and will often take advantage of an open window to 'sting' the larva
+rearer's pets.
+
+Another form of larva glass can easily be made out of a large glass jar
+if you know how to cut off the bottom, or of a chemist's bell jar which
+is open both at top and bottom. In this case the bottle of water and the
+soil are arranged as before in a pan of unglazed earthenware, and then
+covered over with the glass. This is shown in fig. 58, and is an
+exceedingly convenient larva house, since the lifting of the glass
+enables you to get at the insects without any trouble.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--A LARVA CAGE.]
+
+Wood larva cages are very commonly used for the larger species after
+they have attained a fair size and require more food than can be stocked
+in bottles and glasses. These cages have glass fronts, either sliding or
+in the form of a hinged door, and sides of perforated zinc. They are
+kept in stock by all dealers in entomologists' requisites, but equally
+useful ones are easily constructed. If you select a box of suitable size
+at the grocer's, cut out large pieces from the lid and sides with a fret
+saw, and fix in the glass and zinc, you will have a cage that will
+answer all purposes.
+
+The internal arrangements consist of a shallow tray filled with soil, in
+which stands the bottle of water for the food, and a layer of moss
+sufficiently high to cover the bottle completely.
+
+A series of such boxes standing on end on a shelf, or hanging on a wall,
+will form a very satisfactory nursery for your pets, and will occupy but
+little space.
+
+We have already observed that some larvae burrow into soil when about to
+change, while others creep to a sheltered corner, or suspend themselves
+from the food plant itself. It will be seen that the larva cage just
+described supplies all these demands, and care must be taken not to
+disturb the occupants while they are undergoing their metamorphoses.
+Those that suspend themselves on the food plant should be allowed to
+remain where they have fixed themselves, and when it is necessary to
+remove the stale food in order to give a fresh supply to the later
+larvae, let it be fixed in an airy place where it can be watched till the
+perfect insects emerge. Those which suspend themselves on the sides or
+top of the cage, or spin cocoons in the corners, should never be
+disturbed unless you are greatly in want of the same cage for the
+accommodation of another brood; and even then it is possible that their
+presence will not in any way interfere with the new species. But if
+their removal becomes a necessity, let it be carried out as carefully as
+possible, and not until the change to the pupal stage is known to be
+complete.
+
+The species that burrow into the soil or bury themselves in the moss
+need never be disturbed till the rearing season is quite over, and then
+they may be transferred to a box specially kept for the accommodation of
+pupae.
+
+There is yet another method of rearing larvae to which we must refer--a
+method known as 'sleeving'--particularly useful when you happen to have
+the required food plants in your own garden. The ova or larvae are placed
+on the plant, the whole or part of which is then covered with a bag or
+'sleeve' of gauze. The larvae thus imprisoned have the full benefit of
+fresh air and light, and are also free from the attacks of ichneumon
+flies. They have a fair amount of liberty, and yet cannot get beyond
+your reach; also abundance of fresh food without further trouble on the
+part of the rearer.
+
+But even this arrangement is not perfection. It will not suit the night
+feeders that like to hide beneath the soil during the day, and it
+interferes somewhat with the burrowing tendencies of those which pupate
+underground. These little difficulties, however, can be overcome by
+placing the food plants in large pots or tubs of soil, and tying the
+mouth of the 'sleeve' round the outside of this utensil. If this cannot
+be done, those insects that pupate underground must be removed from the
+plant when their restless disposition shows that the changing time has
+arrived, and then be transferred to a box of soil where they can find
+the seclusion they seek.
+
+The larvae that hybernate throughout the winter are rather more
+troublesome, especially those which are inclined to take a ramble on
+certain mild days in search of food when none is at hand. Still there is
+no reason why even a beginner should not attempt the rearing of these.
+They will require food in the autumn until the cold weather sets in, and
+again early in spring as soon as the new leaves appear; but this is not
+of much consequence to those who reside in districts where the required
+food plants abound.
+
+Wood feeders also require some special treatment and precautions, and
+the successful rearing of some is a matter of no little difficulty. A
+wooden cage is, of course, quite out of the question with these, unless
+you wish to test the power of their jaws. They must be kept in large
+pots or jars, covered over with wire gauze or perforated zinc, and
+supplied with fresh stems or logs of wood, or with moist sawdust fresh
+from their favourite tree. A few of them--the 'Goat' (page 224), for
+example--will eat dead and rotting wood, and may be fed on old palings
+and other waste providing the right kind is selected.
+
+The troubles and disappointments of larva rearers are numerous and
+varied, and commence with the earliest moments of the young insects.
+Even the hatching period sometimes proves a trial, for it occasionally
+happens that the young larva has not sufficient strength to bite its way
+through the shell that surrounds it, and dies with nothing but the
+surface of its head exposed to view. This may be the result of keeping
+the ova in too dry a spot, the shell having become too hard and horny
+for the little creature's jaws.
+
+Then the moulting seasons are always periods of trial to the larvae, and
+often of loss to the rearer. Some of the hardier species may pass
+through all their moults without appearing to suffer anything more than
+a slight inconvenience at each, but in other cases the greater part of a
+brood may fall victims to these ailments of the growing stage.
+
+Apart from these sources of loss, however, larvae are subject to numerous
+diseases, infectious and otherwise, about which we know but little. A
+fever may rage in one of our cages; a fungoid growth may establish
+itself on the bodies of our pets, or we may see them cut down, one by
+one, through a fatal attack of diarrh[oe]a.
+
+In many such cases we are at a loss as to what to do. Blue pills and
+black draughts are not to be prescribed, and the modern practices of
+surgery and inoculation have not yet been applied to insect patients
+with very great success; but we must do our best to adopt hygienic
+principles, paying the greatest attention to proper means of ventilation
+and to a regular and wholesome dieting. In the case of diarrh[oe]a--a
+very common insect malady--the best we can do is to avoid the young and
+juicy leaves of the food plant, and substitute the older, and drier
+foliage.
+
+Ichneumon flies have already been mentioned as great enemies of larvae.
+These flies either deposit their eggs on the skins of caterpillars, or
+thrust their sharp _ovipositors_ into the creature's flesh and lay their
+eggs beneath the skin. When the young ichneumons are hatched, they
+immediately begin to feed on the fatty matter that is usually stored in
+comparative abundance under the skin of the caterpillar, and thus they
+grow at the expense of their host, within whose body they lie completely
+hidden from view.
+
+The poor caterpillar, though being eaten alive, often shows no external
+signs of the mischief wrought within, and, even though its substance is
+really decreased by the hungry internal parasites, yet the rapid growth
+of these robbers maintains the general plumpness of a healthy larva. But
+the ichneumons, having at last devoured the store of fat, and avoided
+the vital organs of the caterpillar, as if with a view to preserve their
+living home to the latest moment, now commence to attack the latter,
+speedily reducing the vitality of their host to the lowest ebb, and
+finally causing its death.
+
+This untimely end may come before the caterpillar is full grown, or the
+insect may change to the pupa before the ichneumons have done their
+worst, but it rarely occurs that the unfortunate creature has sufficient
+strength to carry it on to the final stage.
+
+A large number of the collected larvae will have been 'stung,' much to
+the disgust and disappointment of the rearer; and hence the advantage of
+rearing your specimens from ova wherever possible, providing you keep
+them so well under cover that the ichneumons cannot visit your broods.
+
+
+_The Management of Pupae_
+
+The disappointments connected with the rearing of _Lepidoptera_ are by
+no means at an end when all have passed successfully into the pupal
+condition, and the number of perfect insects obtained will often fall
+far short of the number of pupae in your boxes; but we must now see what
+can be done to minimise the death rate of the captives.
+
+One or more suitable boxes must be prepared for the reception of the
+pupae, and the following suggestion will answer all purposes:
+
+Get a wooden box, quite rough and unplaned inside, large enough to
+accommodate your pupae with ease, and not less than eight inches deep.
+Make several holes in the bottom, or else knock the bottom completely
+out, and nail in its place a sheet of perforated zinc. Also make a lid
+consisting of gauze attached to a light wood frame.
+
+Place a layer of clean gravel, about an inch deep, in the bottom, and
+over this a few inches of sifted soil or cocoa-nut fibre.
+
+Now take all the pupae that are 'earthed' in your cages, and arrange them
+on the prepared bed; also add to them the pupae you may have dug out
+during your various excursions. Cover all with a layer of the material
+selected for the bed, and then add a layer of moss.
+
+Next come the pupae that are suspended by silky fibres, or are inclosed
+in cocoons. These should be fixed with pins around the sides of the box,
+running the pins either through the tuft of silk at the 'tail,' or the
+outer layer of the cocoon, or through the portion of the dried food
+plant to which they are attached.
+
+Here your pupae will remain till they emerge, and the box may be kept in
+any airy place where it is not likely to be forgotten, for it is
+essential that the perfect insects should be removed as soon as possible
+after quitting their cases. It does not matter much whether the pupae be
+kept in or out of doors, providing they are sheltered from rain and very
+severe frosts; but of course, if the former, the imagines will emerge a
+little earlier, even if the room in which your specimens are stored has
+no fire.
+
+Even when protected in boxes such as that described the pupae are subject
+to enemies and dangers. The soil and moss employed may contain slugs,
+mites, or other creatures which prey on insects, and the amount of
+moisture present in these materials and in the atmosphere may prove too
+little for some species or too much for others.
+
+The remedy for the former evil is a simple one. Bake the soil or fibre
+well before fitting up the box, and boil and afterwards dry the moss.
+You may then be sure that all life previously contained is quite
+destroyed.
+
+But the degree of humidity is a point not so easily settled, and so
+variable are the experiences and opinions of different entomologists
+that it is difficult to advise a beginner on the subject. The fact that
+some strongly advise a perennial dampness, while others recommend no
+attempt at the application of water, would seem to show that there are
+probably important points to be urged on both sides.
+
+Nothing can be better than a very careful observation of pupae in their
+natural conditions. When engaged in pupa digging you will observe that
+the larger number are to be found on the east and north sides of trees
+where the soil is protected from the heaviest rains; on the other hand a
+good many are certainly found in very moist and sometimes even in wet
+situations.
+
+Particular notice should be taken of such experiences, making every
+allowance for the exceptions that prove the rule, and then let the
+natural conditions be maintained in your nurseries at home. To carry
+this out two pupa boxes should be kept, one for those species that seem
+to require dry situations, and the other for the species that apparently
+do best with moist surroundings.
+
+But when it is desired to maintain the pupae in a moist condition, great
+care must be taken not to allow any accumulation of stagnant water. The
+box we have described, with its bottom of perforated zinc, is well
+adapted for this purpose. Let it stand on a couple of strips of wood, so
+that any excess of moisture may readily drain through. The perforated
+bottom will also allow of a free circulation of air, thus securing the
+ventilation that is desirable in all boxes, whether wet or dry.
+
+If you have any insects that have pupated within moist stems, they
+should be kept in a moist condition till they emerge. The simplest way
+of doing this is to support the stems in a layer of wetted but
+well-drained silver sand.
+
+Forcing may be resorted to when it is required to obtain the imagines
+for early setting in order to get them in the cabinet before the busy
+season begins. The method is simple. Place the pupa box on a shelf in a
+room where a fire is kept every day. By this means you may get all your
+specimens out within a few weeks, even when you start the forcing at the
+beginning or middle of the winter. If, however, you require the imagines
+for breeding, you must be careful that the eggs are not laid long before
+the buds of the necessary food plants are due.
+
+When you are expecting the appearance of perfect insects, the pupa
+boxes should be examined every day. A morning visit to your pupae (for
+most insects emerge in the morning) may reward you with the sight of a
+newly emerged imago, clinging to the rough surface of the box, thus
+affording you an opportunity of observing the wonderful expansion of the
+wings. But the greeting is not always of such a pleasant character, for
+your disappointed eyes will sometimes be cast on a host of horrid
+ichneumons that have just quitted a shell from which you were expecting
+a prize of some specially valued species.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+_SETTING AND PRESERVING_
+
+
+_Setting and Preserving Butterflies and Moths_
+
+Up to the present we have been dealing only with living forms--learning
+how to catch and rear the Lepidoptera that fall to our lot; but now we
+have to become acquainted with the methods of preparing our dead
+specimens in such a way that they may form a useful collection for
+future study and reference. Our first attention shall be given to the
+apparatus necessary for this work.
+
+The most important requirement is the setting boards, of which several
+are necessary, the sizes varying according to the dimensions of the
+different insects to be 'set.' The _lengths_ of all the boards should be
+the same, not only for the convenience of packing when not in use, but
+also in order that they may, if required, be arranged neatly in the
+'drying house' to be presently described. The widths only will vary, and
+in this respect the boards must be adapted to the measurements of the
+insects from tip to tip when the wings are fully expanded. Thus, a set
+of a dozen boards, ten or twelve inches long, and from one to five
+inches wide, will do for a good start. Of course you may commence with a
+smaller number than twelve, but if you really mean to do the thing well,
+you will eventually require a good stock of boards.
+
+Here, again, it may be mentioned that all the necessary requisites may
+be purchased ready for use, a set of boards and a drying house complete
+costing from ten to twenty shillings according to size and quality; but
+as the reader, like myself, may prefer to construct his own, I will
+supply him with hints and suggestions sufficient for the work.
+
+Each board is constructed in this way. Cut out and plane up a piece of
+wood of the required length and breadth, and about one-eighth of an inch
+thick. Glue on the top of this a layer of cork about half an inch in
+thickness, leaving the whole under a moderate pressure until the glue is
+quite hard. The sheets of cork for this purpose may be bought at any
+naturalist's stores; but slices cut from good large bottle corks may be
+made to answer equally well if you don't mind the extra time expended in
+cutting and fixing.
+
+When the glue has well set, trim off the edges of the cork flush with
+the sides of the wood, and then cut out a groove down the whole length
+of the cork, of course in the middle, and of such a size that it will
+just contain the bodies of the insects for which it is intended.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--SECTION OF A SETTING BOARD.]
+
+The satisfactory cutting of this groove is not a very easy matter, but
+if its position is first carefully marked, a long rat-tail file may be
+made to plough it out neatly and regularly. As an alternative the
+following plan is good. First cover the wood with a layer of cork about
+a _quarter_ of an inch thick, and then glue on the top of this _two_
+narrower strips, about as thick as the bodies of the insects for which
+the board is intended, leaving a space of the required size between
+them, as shown in fig. 60. In this way you get a groove of square
+section, that is in some respects preferable to the round one cut out by
+means of the rat-tail file.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--SECTIONS OF SETTING BOARDS.]
+
+Now comes a question about which there is a difference in the tastes or
+fancies of entomologists. Shall the boards be perfectly flat on the top,
+or shall the sides slope from the groove, or shall the surface be
+rounded? A glance at the three sections of setting boards will show
+clearly what is meant. The rounded board is most commonly used, and the
+graceful curve thus given to a butterfly or moth set on such is
+certainly attractive; but it is not natural. The wings of these insects
+are rigid, and are never seen bent into such curves in a living
+specimen. For this reason I much prefer a perfectly plane surface on
+each side of the groove. Then, as to whether there shall be a slope or
+not, this is a matter of less importance. A very decided sloping of the
+wings is certainly not so convenient for future examination; nor does
+it, to my mind, look nearly so well as both sides in the same plane, or
+at a very gentle inclination. But perhaps this subject had better be
+left to the taste of the reader, remembering, however, that, whatever
+plan be adopted, all the boards should be alike in this respect, so that
+there may be a degree of uniformity in the cabinet.
+
+The surface of the cork must, in all cases, be nicely smoothed down with
+glass paper, and then covered with thin white paper, fixed to its
+surface with ordinary paste.
+
+When insects are on the boards, they should be placed in an airy spot,
+as free as possible from dust, while they are drying. Hence the
+advisability of some form of 'drying house.' This is simply a box,
+standing on end, and provided with a hinged door consisting of a sheet
+of perforated zinc in a wooden frame. The boards may slide in this on
+little slips of wood nailed or glued on to the sides, or the wooden
+bases of the boards may project beyond the cork at the ends, and slide
+into grooves in the side of the house.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--A BUTTERFLY ON THE SETTING BOARD.]
+
+Beyond these requirements nothing is wanted save a good stock of pins,
+thin card or ordinary writing paper, and a 'setting needle.' The
+last-named item is simply a needle mounted in a handle, and a good one
+may be made by thrusting the head of a darning needle into a piece of
+twig. The pins used for setting--that is, for fixing the pieces of paper
+or card to keep the parts in position--may be of the ordinary kind; but
+entomological pins are far preferable, even for this purpose; for, being
+much thinner, they do not damage and disfigure the setting boards so
+much.
+
+Now as to the setting. First see that the pin with which you are to fix
+your dead insect passes centrally through the thorax. Then fix it firmly
+on the setting board, its body lying neatly in the groove of the cork.
+Cut out some little pointed strips of card or paper, and, after bringing
+the wings into position with the setting needle, fix each one by a
+pinned strip. In spreading out the wings, care must be taken not to
+pierce them at all, but simply to push them into their place by pressing
+the needle at their bases, or by putting the needle beneath and
+_lifting_ them out.
+
+Instead of pointed pieces of card, uniform strips of paper may be used,
+as shown in fig. 63, each strip passing over both wings.
+
+After the four wings have been properly arranged, a few extra pins may
+be used to keep other parts in position. Thus, the antennae may be placed
+at equal angles, the proboscis may be extended, and a couple of pins may
+be used to support the abdomen if it is inclined to bend downward.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--ANOTHER METHOD OF SETTING BUTTERFLIES AND
+MOTHS.]
+
+As before mentioned, insects should be set soon after they are dead,
+while the parts are still soft and supple. But where this cannot be
+done, and the specimens have become stiff, brittle, and rigid, they must
+be 'relaxed' before any attempt is made at setting them out.
+
+This process of relaxing consists in placing the specimens in a very
+moist atmosphere for a few days. There are several simple ways of doing
+this, many of which will readily suggest themselves to the reader. Your
+collecting box, if a zinc one, may also be used as a relaxer. Pin your
+stiff insects in it, after well moistening the cork, and simply shut
+them up for a day or two. Any metal box will serve the same purpose
+providing you put into it a piece of sheet cork on which to fix the
+insects, and this cork may rest on a bed of moist sand.
+
+Another plan is to float the pinned specimens on corks in a shallow
+vessel of water, and cover them over with a bell glass.
+
+Insects that are being relaxed should be examined from time to time, and
+the degree of flexibility acquired tested by a gentle pressure of the
+setting needle or by blowing on them. If not sufficiently supple, give
+another day in the damp cell, but never allow them to be forgotten till
+they are covered with mildew.
+
+The time occupied in thoroughly drying butterflies and moths will vary
+considerably according to their sizes and the condition of the
+atmosphere. In hot and dry summer weather four or five days will prove
+quite sufficient for the _very_ small and thin-bodied species. From one
+to two weeks, however, may be looked upon as the average period; but the
+large and thick-bodied moths may require more than this.
+
+Perhaps the best test of their condition is the gentle pressing of the
+setting needle against the abdomen--the last part of the body to become
+dry and stiff. If the abdomen seems quite firm and rigid, you are pretty
+safe in removing the specimen from the board; but if it bends at all
+under a slight pressure of the needle let it remain for a day or two
+longer.
+
+If your cabinet is quite ready for the reception of new-comers, the
+insects may be put in their proper places immediately after their
+removal from the setting boards; but if not, they may be pinned
+temporarily in a 'store box' till the time comes when you have proper
+accommodation provided. The full consideration of these matters will be
+dealt with in another chapter.
+
+It is possible that the setting of some of your specimens will not
+exactly please you. If such is the case, put them in a relaxing box for
+a day or two, and then reset them more to your fancy.
+
+We have now to deal with a matter that applies more particularly to
+moths, especially the very large and thick-bodied species. The abdomens
+of these become more or less contracted and shrivelled on drying,
+sometimes to such an extent as to look most unsightly.
+
+There is a remedy for this, and the time and patience required in
+working it out will be well repaid by the superior results obtained.
+
+While the abdomen is still in a soft condition, make a slit throughout
+its length with a very sharp knife or a sharp-pointed pair of scissors.
+This slit should be made down the centre of the under surface, or, if
+the insect is to be placed in the cabinet with the under side exposed,
+down the middle line of the back. Then remove all the contents of the
+abdomen, scraping them out with a piece of hooked wire, or removing them
+with a fine pair of forceps, and leaving the skin as clean as possible
+both within and without. Now introduce a packing of cotton wool, just
+sufficient in quantity to maintain the natural form of the body as the
+specimen dries.
+
+There is another good method of stuffing moths that possesses a decided
+advantage over the one just described, since it leaves the specimen in
+such a perfect condition that it shows no appearance of having been
+stuffed when viewed from either side. This consists in snipping off the
+abdomen at the waist, clearing out the contents with a hooked wire,
+lightly stuffing it with cotton wool pushed in at the waist, and then
+setting it aside to dry, while the other part of the insect is
+undergoing the same process on the setting board. When both parts of the
+moth are thoroughly dry, the stuffed abdomen is easily fixed in its
+place with a little coaguline; and this, if neatly done, will not show
+the slightest sign of the treatment to which the insect has been
+submitted.
+
+Even after your insects are finally housed in the cabinet, they are
+subject to two other dangers, both of which are more destructive to
+moths than to butterflies. One is technically known as 'grease,' and the
+other is the invasion of certain museum pests that feed on the
+specimens, causing them to fall to pieces.
+
+Examine the moths that have been for a time in the cabinet, and some are
+sure to exhibit an oily or greasy appearance, the hairs of the abdomen,
+and perhaps also of the thorax, being clogged together just as if the
+specimen had been dipped in oil, the same miserable condition perhaps
+being shared also by parts of the wings.
+
+This is due to the gradual oozing out of the fatty matter that is always
+present to a greater or less extent in the bodies of the insects, and
+which must necessarily show itself more sparingly in specimens that have
+been carefully stuffed.
+
+The old saying, 'Prevention is better than cure,' applies well in the
+present case; but as there are times when a knowledge of the 'cure' is
+the only means of saving a valuable specimen from destruction, we will
+study both.
+
+To deal with the two in the order of the well-worn proverb, we will
+consider the prevention first. Always carefully clean out and stuff the
+abdomens of large-bodied insects; and as a rule, treat them with some
+substance that will either absorb or dissolve out all oily matter. I
+think the best plan is to remove the abdomen, clean it out if its size
+permits of such an operation, and then, after labelling it to prevent
+its future application to the wrong body, either let it remain in a
+bottle of magnesia for several weeks, or soak it in benzole or ether for
+a few hours or longer.
+
+If magnesia has been employed as an absorbent, you have simply to blow
+or lightly brush off the loose powder that clings to the body, and then
+fix it in its place with coaguline. A body dipped in ether or benzole
+will look as if completely spoilt at first, for the furry coat that
+clothes it will lie matted and almost entirely robbed of its beautiful
+colours, reminding one forcibly of the proverbial 'drowned rat.' But
+take no notice of this change. Let the body have at least a few hours in
+the liquid, extending the time to a day or two in the case of very large
+ones and those which experience has proved to be particularly liable to
+'grease;' and, immediately on withdrawing it, fix it with a pin in a
+good strong draught, such as you may obtain by opening a window about an
+inch, or, if a breezy day, in the open air.
+
+These liquids are so volatile (and for that reason should never be left
+exposed in an open vessel) that they rapidly evaporate, leaving the dry
+hair to be loosened by the breeze, thus bringing back the natural
+appearance almost perfectly.
+
+It is probable that many of the smaller insects that were not considered
+to require the stuffing or grease-removing operations will sooner or
+later exhibit a greasy tendency in the cabinet. At first the abdomen is
+affected, and the oily matter then gradually creeps over the rest of the
+body, finally spreading over the wings, and giving the insect a most
+deplorable aspect. But these are not irreparably lost, and the following
+cure will often bring them back to their former beauty.
+
+If the abdomen only shows signs of grease, cut it off and soak it in one
+of the above-named liquids for a day or so, replacing it as above after
+the drying operation. If, however, the oily matter has spread to the
+thorax and the bases of the wings, the whole specimen must be soaked,
+using a basin or jar of suitable size, covered with a plate of glass. A
+good draught during the drying operation will do much to prevent the
+hair from sticking in matted tufts close against the surface of the body
+and wings, and a gentle brushing with a very soft camel-hair brush will
+loosen and reset the fur.
+
+The other danger to which we have referred is the invasion of certain
+'mites' and other museum pests that pay periodical visits to our cabinet
+drawers and store boxes, often committing such havoc as to severely try
+the patience of an interested naturalist.
+
+The way to prevent such intrusions is to make the atmosphere of the
+compartments so obnoxious (to them) that they dare not enter; and,
+further, to so spice up your specimens that they are no longer safely
+edible to the invaders.
+
+The first object can be attained by always keeping camphor or
+naphthaline (albo-carbon) in each division. A lump of either substance
+may be secured by pins or a little perforated cell in the corner of each
+drawer or box, or the bottom of each may be dusted with finely powdered
+naphthaline; but as both these solids are volatile, care must be taken
+to renew the supply as occasion requires.
+
+Then, with regard to the second precaution, perhaps nothing is more
+effectual than corrosive sublimate. A little of this may be dissolved in
+a small bottle of alcohol (spirits of wine), labelled with the name and
+the word POISON, and kept ready for use. All the skins of stuffed
+specimens should be painted with this solution, and the stuffing itself
+may be moistened with it before insertion.
+
+There is yet another circumstance that renders a watchful care of your
+cabinet specimens necessary, if you happen to possess many that were
+captured 'at sugar.' Some of these will have so gorged themselves with
+syrup that they are literally full of it, and this will sometimes find
+its way to the outside, often dropping on the surface beneath. In such
+cases the sugar should be removed as completely as possible, and the
+bodies stuffed, before they are quite dry; but if the specimens have
+been in the cabinet so long that they are stiff and hard, the under
+sides of the abdomens may be completely cut out with a very sharp knife
+and thrown away, and then the sugar cleaned out from the upper shell as
+neatly as possible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+_PRESERVING OVA, LARVAE AND PUPAE_
+
+
+Many young entomologists give their attention almost solely to the
+perfect forms of insects, often collecting and studying a very large
+number of species without regard to their earlier stages and
+metamorphoses. This is decidedly a very great mistake. Although the
+lifeless form pinned in a cabinet may be a most beautiful object in
+itself, yet a study of this alone is uninteresting compared with that of
+the wonderful changes it has undergone since the time it was a very
+young larva.
+
+The different stages of the insects should be known as far as possible,
+and these, as well as the perfect forms, should be included in the
+collection for future study and reference. A good cabinet, according to
+my own opinion, is one that possesses, among other good features, a
+number of complete sets illustrative of the life history of at least the
+more typical forms; and as it is not a difficult matter to preserve the
+earlier stages, there is really no excuse for their omission from the
+collection.
+
+The empty shells of ova are in themselves sometimes interesting objects,
+especially when they illustrate some peculiar instinct on the part of
+the parent. Sterile eggs, also, often fall into the hands of breeders
+and rearers, and these, though in other respects unprofitable, are
+useful in the cabinet.
+
+If fertile eggs are to be prepared for a collection, they must be
+killed. This is easily done by thrusting into each one the point of a
+very fine needle, or by immersing them for a moment in boiling water, or
+by shutting them up in a bottle with camphor. In drying they often
+contract more or less, and frequently change their colour; still these
+are useful, providing notes have been taken of the characters thus lost.
+The larger eggs are capable of special treatment where the owner has the
+necessary time and patience, and where the highest results are desired.
+By means of a surgeon's injector of small size the contents of the eggs
+can be removed; and then, by the same instrument, a warm solution of
+gelatine, coloured in such a way as to restore the natural tint, may be
+forced into the empty shell. As the gelatine cools and hardens, it
+prevents any shrinking of the shell, and thus both form and colour are
+well preserved.
+
+For the preservation of larvae you will require one or two simple
+appliances.
+
+The first of these is a suitable glass blowpipe, one form of which is
+here illustrated. It consists of a glass tube, one end of which has been
+drawn out very fine; a piece of watch spring tied to it in such a manner
+that it will hold the skin of a larva at the small end, and a piece of
+india-rubber tubing at the other end, pressed by means of a brass spring
+clip.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--A BLOWPIPE FOR LARVAE.]
+
+A little drying oven is also very useful, but not absolutely necessary.
+If you decide to have one, any square box of sheet iron (not soldered
+tinned iron) may be readily converted into one. It must be provided with
+a hinged door in the front with a ventilator at the bottom, a hole for
+the escape of hot air at the top, and a tripod wire stand inside on
+which to rest the specimens while drying. The whole should be supported
+on a wire stand, so that heat may be applied below.
+
+Each larva to be preserved should be dealt with in this way. First kill
+it by means of any one of the killing bottles or boxes already
+described, or by immersion in spirit of wine. When quite dead, enlarge
+the anal orifice by thrusting a needle into it, and then lay it on a
+piece of blotting paper with its head toward you. Now take a round
+ruler, previously covered with blotting paper, and roll the larva gently
+from head to tail till all the contents of the skin have been expelled.
+Next fix the skin on the fine end of the blowpipe, by thrusting the
+point of the latter into the opening, and allowing the spring to press
+gently on its edge. Gently blow into the skin till it is inflated just
+to a _little below_ natural size, then either hold it near a fire or
+rest it in the drying oven till it is quite dry and rigid.
+
+If you have done your work neatly, the skin and blowpipe will both be
+quite air-tight when the clip is closed; and the air, finding no outlet,
+will still further inflate the skin when it expands on exposure to heat.
+This is the reason why you are directed to blow it out to something
+short of the natural dimensions. If you find that this expansion causes
+the skin to stretch beyond its normal size, a little of the air must be
+allowed to escape while it is yet soft and flexible.
+
+The front of the larva is generally the last portion to become dry, and
+when this is quite rigid the skin may be removed from the blowpipe. This
+is a matter that requires the greatest care; for the skin is so very
+thin and brittle that a little rough handling will break it to pieces.
+As a rule it may be easily pushed off the pipe by a slight pressure
+behind, or a gentle twisting motion will loosen its hold; but this
+latter method can hardly be applied to hairy larvae without breaking off
+the hairs, now rendered very brittle by the heat.
+
+If you find the slightest difficulty in detaching the skin of a valuable
+specimen, it is far better to damage the blowpipe than to risk spoiling
+the skin. Supposing your blowpipe is a glass one, you can easily break
+off the end of it after making a cut with a very small triangular file,
+and the portion thus removed may be left attached to the skin. Then,
+after softening the glass blowpipe in a gas flame or the flame of a
+spirit lamp, it can be drawn out thin again for future work. Those who
+can manipulate glass tubing in this way will find it far better to lay
+in a stock of suitable material, drawing it out when required, than to
+purchase blowpipes ready made at the naturalist's shop.
+
+Very fine hollow stems, such as those of the bamboo cane, may be used
+instead of glass; and these possess the advantage of being easily cut
+with a sharp knife when there is any difficulty in removing the skin.
+Again, whether glass or fine stems are used, a little grease of any kind
+placed previously on the end will allow the dried skin to be slid off
+with less difficulty.
+
+Preserved larvae should preferably be mounted on small twigs or
+artificial imitations of the leaves of the proper food plants. A little
+coaguline applied to the claspers will fix them very firmly on these
+twigs or leaves, which are then secured in the cabinet by means of one
+or two small pins.
+
+It is much to be regretted that the natural colours of many caterpillars
+cannot be preserved in the blown skins. Some are rendered much lighter
+in colour on account of the withdrawal of the contents, while others
+turn dark during the drying. In the smooth-skinned species the natural
+tints may be restored by painting or by staining with suitable aniline
+dyes, but these artificial imitations of the natural colours are always
+far less beautiful than the hues of the living larvae.
+
+Very few words need be said on the preservation of pupae. Many of them do
+not alter much in form and colour, and therefore they require no special
+preparation.
+
+If a pupa has to be killed for the purpose of adding to the value of the
+collection, simply plunge it into boiling water, and it is ready to be
+fixed in the cabinet as soon as it is quite dry.
+
+The empty pupa cases, too, from which the perfect insects have emerged,
+are often worth preserving, especially if the damage done by the imago
+on forcing its way out is repaired with the aid of a little coaguline.
+
+Let all larvae and pupae be preserved in their characteristic attitudes
+and positions as far as possible, so that each one tells some
+interesting feature of the life history of the living being it
+represents. Further, enrich your collection by numerous specimens of the
+various kinds of cocoons constructed by the larvae, pinning each one
+beside its proper species; and never refuse a place to any object that
+relates something of the life history of the creatures you are
+studying.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+_THE CABINET_--_ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS_
+
+
+The selection of a cabinet or other storehouse for the rapidly
+increasing specimens of insect forms is often a matter of no small
+difficulty to a youthful entomologist. Indeed, there are very many
+points of considerable importance to be considered before any final
+decision is made. Freedom from dust, the exclusion of pests, the
+convenience of the collector, the depth of his pocket, and the general
+appearance of the storehouse must be considered, and it is impossible,
+therefore, to describe a form that is equally suitable to all.
+
+If it is absolutely necessary that the cabinet (or its substitute) be of
+a very inexpensive character, and if, at the same time, the collector
+has not the mechanical skill necessary for its construction, then
+perhaps the best thing he can do is to procure a number of shallow
+(about an inch and a half deep) cardboard, glass-topped boxes, such as
+are to be obtained at drapers' shops. For the sake of uniformity and
+convenience in packing, have them all of one size. Glue in small slices
+of cork just where the insects are to be pinned, and see that each box
+is supplied with either camphor or naphthaline. All the boxes may be
+packed in a cupboard or in a case made specially to contain them; and a
+label on the front of each will enable you to select any one when
+required without disturbing the others.
+
+It may be mentioned here that glass is not necessary, though it is
+certainly convenient at times, especially when you are exhibiting your
+specimens to admiring non-entomological friends, who have almost always
+a most alarming way of bringing the tip of the first finger dangerously
+near as they are pointing out their favourite colours. 'Isn't _that_ one
+a beauty?' is a common remark, and therewith off snaps a wing of one of
+your choicest insects. When glass is used, however, see that the
+specimens are excluded from light, or the colours will soon lose their
+natural brilliancy.
+
+Anyone who has a set of carpenter's tools and the ability to use them
+well will be able to construct for himself either a set of store boxes
+or a cabinet of many drawers in which to keep his natural treasures. In
+this case a few considerations are necessary before deciding on the form
+which the storehouse is to take.
+
+A cabinet, if nicely made, forms a very sightly article of furniture;
+and, if space can be found for it, is the best and most convenient
+receptacle. One of about twelve to twenty drawers will be quite
+sufficient for a time; and the few following hints and suggestions may
+be useful.
+
+The wood used should be well seasoned, and free from resin. The drawers
+should fit well, and slide without the least danger of shaking. Each one
+should be lined with sheet cork, about one-eighth of an inch thick,
+glued to the bottom, nicely levelled with sand paper, and then covered
+with thin, pure white paper, laid on with thin paste. It is also
+advisable to cover each with glass, inclosed in a light wood frame that
+fits so closely as to prevent the intrusion of mites.
+
+The drawers may be arranged in a single vertical tier if the cabinet is
+to stand on the floor, or in two tiers if it is to be shorter for
+placing on the top of another piece of furniture; and glass doors,
+fastened by a lock and key, may be made to cover the front if such are
+desired as a matter of fancy, or as a precaution against the meddlesome
+habits of juvenile fingers.
+
+Store boxes are sometimes chosen in preference to cabinets because they
+are more portable, and because they can be arranged on shelves--an
+important consideration when floor space is not available.
+
+These boxes should be cork-lined and glazed like the cabinet drawers;
+and if they are made in two equal portions, lined with cork on both
+sides, and closing up like a book, they may be arranged on shelves like
+books, in which position they will collect but little dust.
+
+Both store boxes and cabinets are always kept in stock by the dealers,
+the former ranging from a few shillings each, and the latter from
+fifteen shillings to a guinea per drawer. Knowing this, you can decide
+for yourself between the two alternatives--making and purchasing.
+
+We have now to consider the manner in which our specimens should be
+arranged and labelled.
+
+The table forming Appendix I contains the names of _all_ the British
+butterflies and larger moths, and shows their division into _Sections_,
+_Tribes_, _Families_, and _Genera_. This table is the result of most
+careful study on the part of leading entomologists, and shows how, in
+their opinion, the insects can best be arranged to show their relation
+to one another; and you cannot do better than adopt the same order in
+your collection.
+
+ RHOPALOCERA
+ PAPILIONIDAE _Euchlo[:e]_ NYMPHALIDAE
+ _Papilio_ O O O _Argynnis_
+ O O O O O
+ O O O O O
+ O O O O O
+ Machaon Rapae Cardamines Edusa O
+ Selene
+ PIERIDAE O _Leucophasia_ O
+ _Aporia_ O O O O
+ O O O v. Helice O
+ O O Sinapis O
+ Crataegi Napi _Gonopteryx_ O
+ _Colias_ O Euphrosyne
+ _Pieris_ O O O
+ O O O O O
+ O Daplidice O O Latona
+ O O Rhamni
+ O Hyale
+ Brassicae
+
+Complete label lists can be purchased, printed on one side of the paper
+only. These, when cut up, supply you with neat labels for your
+specimens.
+
+If you intend to study the British _Lepidoptera_ as completely as
+possible, you may as well start at once with a sufficiently extensive
+cabinet, and arrange all the labels of your list before you introduce
+the insects. You will thus have a place provided ready for each specimen
+as you acquire it, and the introduction of species obtained later on
+will not compel you to be continually moving and rearranging the
+drawers.
+
+Probably the number of blank spaces will at first suggest an almost
+hopeless task, but a few years of careful searching and rearing will
+give you heart to continue your interesting work.
+
+Arrange all the insects in perpendicular rows. Put the names of each
+section, tribe, family, and genus _at the head_ of their respective
+divisions, and the names of the species below each insect or series of
+insects. The opposite plan, in which the circles represent the insects
+themselves, will make this clear.
+
+Three or four specimens of each species are generally sufficient, except
+where variations in colouring are to be exhibited. Wherever differences
+exist in the form or markings of the sexes, both should appear; and one
+specimen of each species should be pinned so as to exhibit the under
+side.
+
+Finally, each drawer or box should have a neat label _outside_ giving
+the name or names of the divisions of insects that are represented
+within. This will enable you to find anything you may require without
+the necessity of opening drawer after drawer or box after box.
+
+
+
+
+PART III
+
+BRITISH BUTTERFLIES
+
+
+We have now treated in detail of the changes through which butterflies
+and moths have to pass, and have studied the methods by which we may
+obtain and preserve the insects in their different stages. I shall now
+give such a brief description of individual species as will enable the
+reader to recognise them readily. We will begin with the butterflies.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+_THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES'_
+
+
+Family--PAPILIONIDAE
+
+_The Swallow-tail_ (_Papilio Machaon_)
+
+Our first family (_Papilionidae_) contains only one British species--the
+beautiful Swallow-tail (_Papilio Machaon_), distinguished at once from
+all other British butterflies by its superior size and the 'tails'
+projecting from the hind margin of the hind wings.
+
+This beautiful insect is figured on Plate I, where its bold black
+markings on a yellow ground are so conspicuous as to render a written
+description superfluous. Attention may be called, however, to the yellow
+scales that dot the dark bands and blotches, making them look as if they
+had been powdered; also to the blue clouds that relieve the black bands
+of the hind wings, and the round reddish orange spot at the anal angle
+of each of the same wings.
+
+It appears that this butterfly was once widely distributed throughout
+England, having been recorded as common in various counties, and has
+also been taken in Scotland and Ireland; but it is now almost
+exclusively confined to the fens of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire,
+and Norfolk. Occasionally we hear of the capture of single specimens
+quite outside these localities, sometimes even in most unlikely spots,
+where its food plant does not abound. But we know that _Machaon_ is a
+general favourite with entomologists, and that it is sent in the pupal
+state, by post, to all parts of the kingdom; so that the occasional
+capture of the insect far beyond the borders of its haunts is probably
+the outcome of an escape from prison, or of the tender-heartedness of
+some lover of nature who could not bear to see such a beautiful creature
+deprived of its short but joyous, sunny flight.
+
+You cannot hope to see this splendid butterfly on the wing unless you
+visit its haunts during its season--May to August; but the pupae may be
+purchased for a few pence each from most of the entomological dealers;
+and if you obtain a few of these and watch them closely, you may be
+fortunate enough to see the perfect insect emerge from its case, and
+witness the gradual expansion of its beautiful wings.
+
+The pupa (Plate VIII, fig. 7) itself is a most beautiful object. Its
+colour is a pale green, and it is fixed to its support by the tail, and
+further secured by a very strong silk band.
+
+The larva (Plate VIII, fig. 1), too, is exceedingly beautiful. Its
+ground colour is a lovely green, and twelve velvety black rings mark the
+divisions between the segments. Between these are also black bars, all
+spotted with bright orange except the one on the second segment.
+
+A remarkable feature of this larva is the possession of a forked,
+Y-shaped 'horn,' that is projected from the back, just behind the head,
+when the creature is alarmed. If it is gently pressed or irritated in
+any way, this horn is thrust out just as if it were an important weapon
+of defence. And perhaps it is, for it is the source of a powerful odour
+of fennel--one of the food plants of the caterpillar--that may possibly
+prove objectionable to some of its numerous enemies.
+
+The food plants of _Machaon_ are the milk parsley or hog's fennel
+(_Peucedanum palustre_), cow-parsnip (_Heracleum sphondylium_), and the
+wild angelica (_Angelica sylvestris_); but in confinement it will also
+partake of rue and carrot leaves.
+
+The caterpillar of this species may be found in the fens during the
+greater part of the summer. It turns to a chrysalis in the autumn, and
+remains in this state throughout the winter, attached to the stems of
+reeds in the vicinity of its food plants. The perfect insect is first
+seen in May, and is more or less abundant from this time to the month of
+August.
+
+
+Family--PIERIDAE
+
+This family, though known commonly as the 'Whites,' contains four
+British species that display beautiful tints of bright yellow or orange.
+
+In many respects the _Pieridae_ resemble the last species. Thus the
+perfect insects have six fully developed legs; the caterpillars are
+devoid of bristles or spines; and the chrysalides are attached by means
+of silky webs at the 'tails,' and strong cords of the same material
+round the middle.
+
+All the larvae are also cylindrical or wormlike in shape; and their skins
+are either quite smooth, or are covered with very short and fine hairs,
+that sometimes impart a soft, velvety appearance.
+
+The members of this family are remarkable for their partiality for
+certain of our cultivated plants and trees; and are, in some cases, so
+abundant and so voracious, that they are exceedingly destructive to
+certain crops.
+
+
+_The Black-veined White_ (_Aporia Crataegi_)
+
+This butterfly may now be regarded as one of our rarities. At one time
+it was rather abundant in certain localities in England, among which may
+be mentioned the neighbourhoods of Cardiff and Stroud, also parts of
+Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, Huntingdonshire, and the Isle of Thanet; but it
+is to be feared that this species is nearly or quite extinct in this
+country. It is well, however, not to give up the search for it, and if
+you happen to be in one of its favoured localities of former days, you
+might net all the doubtful 'Whites' of large size that arouse your
+suspicions, liberating them again if, on inspection, they do not answer
+to the description of the species 'wanted.' This course becomes
+absolutely necessary, since the Black-veined White is hardly to be
+distinguished from the Common Large White while on the wing.
+
+If you examine a number of British butterflies you will observe that in
+nearly all species the wings are bordered by a fringe of hair, more or
+less distinct. But the case is different with _Crataegi_. Here they are
+bordered by a black nervure, without any trace of fringe, thus giving an
+amount of rigidity to the edges (see Plate I, fig. 2).
+
+The wing rays, or nervures, are very distinct--a feature that gave rise
+to the popular name of the butterfly. In the male they are quite or
+nearly black, but those of the fore wings of the female are decidedly
+brown in colour. At the terminations of the wing rays there are
+triangular patches of dark scales, the bases of which unite on the outer
+margins of the wings.
+
+Another peculiar feature of this insect is the scanty distribution of
+scales on the wings. This is particularly so in the case of the female,
+whose wings are semi-transparent in consequence.
+
+The butterfly is on the wing during June and July, at which time its
+eggs are laid on the hawthorn (_Crataegus Oxyacantha_) or on fruit
+trees--apple, pear and plum.
+
+A vigorous search of these trees in the proper localities _may_ reveal
+to you a nest of the gregarious larvae, all resting under the cover of a
+common web of silk. These remain thus under their silken tent throughout
+the hottest hours of the day, and venture out to feed only during the
+early morning and in the evening.
+
+When the leaves begin to fall in the autumn, they construct a more
+substantial web to protect themselves from the dangers of the winter,
+and in this they hybernate till the buds burst in the following spring.
+They now venture out, at first during the mildest days only, and feed
+voraciously on the young leaves, returning to their homes to rest. Soon,
+however, they gradually lose their social tendencies, till at last, when
+about half or three-quarters fed, they become quite solitary in their
+habits.
+
+In May they are fully grown, and change to the chrysalis state on the
+twigs of their food trees.
+
+The larva is black above, with two reddish stripes. The sides and under
+surface are grey, the former being relieved by black spiracles.
+
+The pupa (page 45) is greenish or yellowish white, striped with bright
+yellow, and spotted with black.
+
+It is probable that the reader will never meet with this insect in any
+of its stages. But, though it may have left us, it is still very
+abundant on the Continent, where it does great damage to fruit trees;
+and the foreign pupae may be purchased of English dealers.
+
+
+_The Large White_ (_Pieris Brassicae_)
+
+We pass now from one of the rarest to one of the most abundant of
+British butterflies. Everybody has seen the 'Large White,' though we
+doubt whether everybody knows that this insect is not of the same
+species as the two other very common 'Whites.' The three--Large, Small,
+and Green-veined--are so much alike in general colour and markings, and
+so similar in their habits and in the selection of their food plants,
+that the non-entomological, not knowing that insects do not grow in
+their perfect state, may perhaps regard the larger and the smaller as
+older and younger members of the same species. But no--they are three
+distinct species, exhibiting to a careful observer many important marks
+by which each may be known from the other two.
+
+On Plate I (fig. 3) will be seen a picture of the female _Brassicae_, in
+which the following markings are depicted: On each fore wing--a blotch
+at the tip, a round spot near the centre, another round one nearer the
+inner margin, and a tapering spot on the inner margin with its point
+toward the base of the wing. On the hind wings there is only one spot,
+situated near the middle of the costal margin.
+
+The male may be readily distinguished by the absence of the black
+markings on the fore wings, with the exception of those at the tips. He
+is also a trifle smaller than his mate.
+
+This butterfly is double-brooded. The first brood appears in April and
+May, the second in July and August; and the former--the spring
+brood--which emerges from the chrysalides that have hybernated during
+the winter, have _grey_ rather than black tips to the front wings.
+
+The ova of _Brassicae_ may be found on the leaves of cabbages in every
+kitchen garden, also on the nasturtium, during May and July. They are
+pretty objects (see fig. 10), something like little bottles or
+sculptured vases standing on end, and are arranged either singly or in
+little groups.
+
+As soon as the young larvae are out--from ten to fifteen days after the
+eggs are deposited--having devoured their shells, they start feeding on
+the selfsame spot, and afterwards wander about, dealing out destruction
+as they go, till little remains of their food plant save the mere stumps
+and skeletons of the leaves.
+
+The ground colour of the caterpillar is bluish green. It has a narrow
+yellow stripe down the middle of the back, and two similar but wider
+stripes along the sides; and the surface of the body is rendered
+somewhat rough by a number of small black warty projections, from each
+of which arises a short hair.
+
+When fully grown, it creeps to some neighbouring wall or fence, up which
+it climbs till it reaches a sheltering ledge. Here it constructs its
+web and silken cord as already described (page 36), and then changes to
+a bluish-white chrysalis, dotted with black. The butterflies of the
+summer brood emerge shortly after, but the chrysalides of the next brood
+hybernate till the following spring.
+
+It is remarkable that we are so plagued with 'Whites' seeing that they
+have so many enemies. Many of the insect-feeding birds commit fearful
+havoc among their larvae, and often chase the perfect insects on the
+wing, but perhaps their greatest enemy is the ichneumon fly.
+
+Look under the ledges of a wall of any kitchen garden, and you will see
+little clusters of oval bodies of a bright yellow colour. Most gardeners
+know that these are in some way or other connected with the caterpillars
+that do so much damage to their vegetables. They are often considered to
+be eggs laid by the larvae, and are consequently killed out of pure
+revenge, or with a desire to save the crops from the future marauders.
+
+No greater mistake could be made. These yellow bodies are the silken
+cocoons of the caterpillar's own foes. They contain the pupae of the
+little flies whose larvae have lived within the body of an unfortunate
+grub, and, having flourished to perfection at the expense of their host,
+left its almost empty and nearly lifeless carcase to die and drop to the
+ground just at the time when it ought to be working out its final
+changes. Often you may see the dying grub beside the cluster of cocoons
+just constructed by its deadly enemies. Should you wish to test the
+extent of the destructive work of these busy flies, go into your garden
+and collect a number of larvae, and endeavour to rear them under cover.
+The probability is that only a small proportion will ever reach the
+final state, the others having been fatally 'stung' before you took
+them.
+
+
+_The Small White_ (_P. Rapae_)
+
+This butterfly closely resembles the last species except in point of
+size. The male, represented on Plate I (fig. 4), has a dark grey blotch
+at the tip of each fore wing, a round spot of the same colour beyond the
+centre of that wing, and another on the costal margin of the hind wing.
+The female may be distinguished by an additional spot near the anal
+angle of the fore wing.
+
+Although this and the two other common butterflies (_Brassicae_ and
+_Napi_) that frequent our kitchen gardens are usually spoken of as
+'Whites,' a glance at a few specimens will show that they are not really
+white at all, but exhibit delicate shades of cream and yellow, inclining
+sometimes to buff. The under surfaces are particularly noticeable in
+this respect, for here the hind wings and the tips of the fore wings
+display a very rich yellow.
+
+The species we are now considering is also very variable both in its
+ground colour and the markings of the wings. The former is in some cases
+a really brilliant yellow; and the latter are in some cases entirely
+wanting.
+
+_Rapae_ is double-brooded, the first brood appearing in April and May,
+and the other in July and August.
+
+During these months the eggs may be seen in plenty on its numerous food
+plants, which include the cabbages and horse-radish of our gardens, also
+water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_), rape (_Brassica Napus_), wild
+mustard (_B. Sinapis_), wild mignonette (_Reseda lutea_), and nasturtium
+(_Tropaeolum majus_).
+
+The eggs are conical in form--something like a sugar loaf, with ridges
+running from apex to base, and very delicate lines from ridge to ridge
+transversely.
+
+The young larvae often make their first meal of the shell, and then
+attack the food plant so voraciously that they are fully grown in about
+three or four weeks. In colour they are of a beautiful glaucous green,
+hardly distinguishable at times from the leaves on which they rest. A
+yellow stripe runs along the middle of the back, and lines of yellow
+spots adorn the sides; and the whole body is covered with very short
+hairs, each one arising from a minute warty projection.
+
+The pupae may be found during the same seasons and in the same situations
+as those of _Brassicae_. They are very variable in colour. Some are of a
+very pale grey or putty colour, some are decidedly brown, and others of
+a greenish tinge; and they are often spotted and striped with dark grey
+or black.
+
+
+_The Green-veined White_ (_P. Napi_)
+
+A non-observant beginner at entomological work may easily mistake this
+insect for the last species, for the ground colour and markings are very
+similar, even to the features by which the sexes are distinguished from
+each other; but an inspection of the under surface will give a ready
+means of identification, for here the wing rays are bordered with black
+scales which, by contrast with the rich yellow around them, often
+appear of a greenish hue. The butterfly receives its popular name from
+this circumstance.
+
+A careful observer, however, will readily find distinguishing marks on
+the upper side, for here also the chief 'veins' are more or less
+accompanied with black scales, especially the extremities of those of
+the fore wings, where little triangular blotches are often distinctly
+formed; and the dark veining of the under surface of the hind wings
+frequently shows through. The under side of this insect is shown on
+Plate I (fig. 5).
+
+This butterfly is not so abundant as the two preceding, but is widely
+distributed throughout England, and is in most parts decidedly
+plentiful.
+
+The first brood (for it also is double-brooded) appears during April and
+May, and the second in July and August.
+
+The eggs are very similar to those of _Rapae_, resembling ribbed and
+striated sugar loaves; and the larvae are of the same rich glaucous
+green, but may be identified by the black spiracles surrounded by yellow
+rings. In our gardens we may find both eggs and larvae on mignonette and
+horse-radish; the other food plants of this species include the
+water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_), winter cress (_Barbarea
+vulgaris_), rape (_Brassica Napus_), cuckoo-flower (_Cardamine
+pratensis_), and Jack-by-the-hedge (_Sisymbrium Alliaria_).
+
+The pupa is greenish, and marked with small black dots.
+
+
+_The Bath or Green-chequered White_ (_P. Daplidice_)
+
+There is no doubt that many butterflies migrate from one country to
+another across the seas; and as the Bath White is very common on the
+other side of the Channel, and has been taken very sparingly in England
+almost exclusively in the south-east, it is highly probable that the
+majority of those that have been captured here are specimens that have
+taken a voluntary trip across the water, or have been blown over during
+rough weather.
+
+This butterfly is one of our greatest rarities, and the capture of a
+specimen in England is an event that must necessarily be recorded in our
+entomological literature. It seems that _Daplidice_ has bred in England,
+for its caterpillars have been found at large on one or two occasions,
+so I will give a short description of the various stages of the insect,
+with a hope that some of my readers may be fortunate enough to meet with
+it.
+
+The female butterfly is shown on Plate I, fig. 6. From this it will be
+observed that each of the fore wings is tipped with a rather large
+smoky-black blotch, in which are four white spots. A double spot of the
+same colour also occupies a place near the centre of the wing, and
+another smaller and round one lies near the anal angle. The hind wings
+are clouded with grey, and bordered along the hind margin with distinct
+smoky-black spots.
+
+The male may be distinguished from the female by the absence of the spot
+near the anal angle of the fore wings, and of all the clouds and spots
+of the hind wings. Nevertheless the latter have a decidedly clouded
+appearance, but this is due to the markings of the under surface showing
+through them.
+
+The under side of both sexes is most beautifully marked--the fore wings
+resembling the upper sides, but the hind pair chequered with a beautiful
+soft green on a pale yellow ground.
+
+The eggs of this insect are deposited during April and May, and again in
+August or September--for it is, like the other 'Whites,'
+double-brooded--on two species of Wild Mignonette (_Reseda lutea_ and
+_R. luteola_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--THE BATH WHITE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The caterpillars, which are of a bluish colour, with two yellow stripes
+down the back, and two others along the sides, may be _looked_ for in
+June and September. Those of the first brood only have been taken in
+this country, while the others on the Continent change to the chrysalis
+in the autumn, and hybernate in this state throughout the winter.
+
+The chrysalis is of a brownish colour, and closely resembles that of the
+Small White in form.
+
+Those in search of this rare British insect should wander along the
+south-east coast, and net all the doubtful slow-flying small Whites
+(_Daplidice_ is rather slow and heavy on the wing), and their
+perseverance _may_ be rewarded with a prize that will ever be a reminder
+of a glorious catch and an eventful day. If you fail in this, and most
+probably you will, rather than remain a stranger to this beautiful and
+interesting insect, fill up the blank in your cabinet with a foreign
+specimen, which can be obtained at any time for a few pence, but be
+careful to label it 'not British,' in order that your brother
+collectors may not be deceived, or be led to make any unnecessary
+inquiries.
+
+
+_The Orange Tip_ (_Euchlo[:e] Cardamines_)
+
+No one could possibly mistake the male of this species for any other
+British butterfly, the popular name alone giving quite sufficient
+information for its identification, but the female Orange Tip is _not_
+tipped with orange, and its markings, both above and beneath, resemble
+those of _Daplidice_ so nearly that the same written description might
+apply almost equally well to both.
+
+On Plate I (fig. 7) is shown the upper side of the male, and just
+opposite it (fig. 8) the under surface of the same. The female is
+usually a little larger than her mate, and is marked similarly on both
+sides except that the bright orange blotch is entirely wanting. She may
+always be distinguished from _Daplidice_ by the smaller size of the
+white spots that break the dark blotch at the tip of the fore wing; also
+by the very small size of the dark spot in the centre of the same wing.
+The green chequerings of the under side of the hind wings are also more
+sharply defined, and the insect is generally of a lighter build.
+
+Like many other butterflies, the Orange Tip is subject to variations in
+colouring. Sometimes a pale but bright yellow takes the place of the
+white ground, and the orange blotch of the male is occasionally present
+on the upper or lower surface only.
+
+_Cardamines_ is a single-brooded insect, and is essentially a creature
+of the spring, at which time it may be found in abundance in lanes,
+meadows, and clearings in woods throughout the British Isles. Its flight
+is so light and airy that even the female may easily be distinguished
+from other Whites when on the wing, while the brilliant orange of the
+male, intensified by the bright rays of the spring sun, may be
+identified at some considerable distance.
+
+The food plants of _Cardamines_ include the cuckoo-flower (_Cardamine
+pratensis_) and the bitter cress (_C. impatiens_), after which the
+insect is named, also water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_), winter
+cress (_Barbarea vulgaris_), rock cress (_Arabis perfoliata_), hedge
+mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_), Jack-by-the-hedge (_S. Alliaria_),
+wild mustard (_Brassica Sinapis_), &c., and the eggs of the butterfly
+may be found on these during May and June.
+
+The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 2) is green, with a white stripe on
+each side, and its body is covered with short hair. In July it is fully
+grown, and ascends a stem of the food plant to prepare itself for its
+long winter sleep.
+
+The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 8) is a very peculiar object. Both ends
+are much elongated and sharply pointed; and the foremost extremity
+stands out at an angle with the stem to which it is attached.
+
+This butterfly should be looked for during April and May, but in mild
+seasons it may often be met with in March.
+
+
+_The Wood White_ (_Leucophasia Sinapis_)
+
+The distinguishing feature of this butterfly (see Plate II, fig. 1) is
+the extreme lightness and delicacy of its build. Its wings are narrow,
+and rounded at the tips; and the only mark to relieve the white ground
+of the upper side is a squarish blotch at the tip of the fore wing, and
+even this is either very indistinct or entirely absent in the female.
+The under surface is clouded with a pale greenish tint.
+
+This insect may be looked for in May and again in August, in paths and
+clearings in woods, where it moves along with a slow but steady flight,
+hardly ever seeming to rest for a moment. It is not by any means a
+common butterfly, but is very widely distributed, and sometimes appears
+in considerable numbers in certain favoured spots. Among the localities
+recorded may be mentioned Torquay, Exeter, Plymouth, South Dorset, New
+Forest, Reading, Darent Woods, Morecambe Bay, Haslemere, Windermere, &c.
+
+The caterpillar is of a beautiful green colour, and is covered with
+short whitish hairs. A darker green stripe runs down the middle of the
+back, and a bright yellow stripe along each side. Its food plants are
+the tufted vetch (_Vicia Cracca_), bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus
+corniculatus_ and _L. pilosus_), bitter vetch (_Lathyrus tuberosus_),
+and the everlasting pea (_L. sylvestris_).
+
+The chrysalis is a very beautiful object. Its colour is a delicate
+green, tinged with pink; and the wing-cases project in beautiful curves
+much beyond the general surface.
+
+
+_The Pale Clouded Yellow_ (_Colias Hyale_)
+
+The ground colour of this butterfly (Plate II, fig. 2) is very variable.
+It is usually a sulphury yellow, and on this account the insect is
+commonly known as the Clouded Brimstone; but sometimes the yellow is
+exceedingly pale--almost white--and tinged with green.
+
+A very large black blotch, broken by indefinite patches of the ground
+colour, fills up the tip of each fore wing, and extends to the anal
+angle, becoming narrower as it approaches this point. A black oval spot
+lies just above the middle of this wing.
+
+The hind wings are bordered with black, and a conspicuous spot of deep
+yellow lies very near the centre of each.
+
+The antennae are rather short, compared with those of the preceding
+members of this family, and are distinguished by their reddish-brown
+colour.
+
+The male and female of this species are similarly marked, but the ground
+colour of the latter is commonly paler.
+
+This is not by any means a very common butterfly with us, though it is
+very plentiful on the other side of the Channel; but it has a way of
+taking us by surprise in certain seasons, and then almost neglecting us
+for several years together.
+
+Its head quarters are certainly the coasts of Kent and Sussex, but it
+has been taken in considerable numbers as far west as Cornwall, and also
+to a less extent in some of the midland and northern counties. It is
+particularly fond of lucerne and clover fields, especially those that
+are situated close to the sea cliffs; and often it may be seen flying
+over the beach, sometimes even flitting over the breakers away from land
+till at last it disappears in the distance. This maritime tendency of
+_Hyale_ makes it probable that a large number of those that are seen on
+our south-east coasts have made a passage across the narrow end of the
+Channel.
+
+The eggs are laid in spring, by females that have hybernated throughout
+the winter, on various leguminous plants, including the lucerne
+(_Medicago sativa_), black medick (_M. lupulina_), purple and Dutch
+clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_), and the bird's-foot
+trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and on these plants you may search for
+the larva, though it can scarcely be said that you are likely to find
+it.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with black dots, and a yellowish stripe on
+each side. When fully grown it ascends a stem of its food plant and
+changes to a green chrysalis with yellow stripes.
+
+_Hyale_ is single-brooded in England, although two broods regularly
+appear on the Continent. In our country the perfect insects emerge
+during July and August. Many of these die before the approach of winter;
+but, as we have already observed, some hybernate and deposit their eggs
+in the following spring.
+
+
+_The Clouded Yellow_ (_Colias Edusa_)
+
+Not only are this and the last species similarly named, but a glance at
+the figures will show that they much resemble each other in appearance;
+and we shall also learn presently that in their habits and life history
+they have much in common.
+
+The male _Edusa_ is shown on Plate II (fig. 3), and when we compare it
+with its relative on the opposite side, we are at once struck with the
+superior richness of the brilliant orange or saffron of the ground
+colour. The black border of both fore and hind wings is also denser,
+wider, and more extensive. The whole of the yellow area of the hind
+wings is dusted more or less with black scales, with the exception of a
+round central spot of deep orange, corresponding with the orange spots
+on the hind wings of _Hyale_.
+
+The female, which is shown in the accompanying woodcut, is generally
+larger than the male, and is further distinguished by the very pale
+yellow spots that break the black border of both pairs of wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--THE CLOUDED YELLOW--FEMALE.]
+
+_Edusa_ further resembles _Hyale_ in the reddish colour of the antennae;
+and, in both the species, the red legs form a pleasing contrast with the
+yellow furry surface of the under side of the thorax.
+
+There is a variety of the female of this butterfly, in which the ground
+colour is a _very pale_ yellow, almost white. The hind wings are more
+thickly dusted with black scales than in the normal insect, and the
+orange spots of these wings show up much more conspicuously from the
+contrast with their surroundings.
+
+It is usual to apply distinct names to constant varieties of
+species--names that are to be added to the ordinary title. In this
+particular case the distinguishing name is _Helice_, so that we should
+speak of the variety of _Edusa_ above mentioned as:
+
+
+_Colias Edusa_, var. _Helice_
+
+Like _Hyale_, _Edusa_ is particularly capricious in its appearance. In
+certain summers it absolutely swarms in favourite localities, while
+during the intervals between such remarkable appearances--usually
+several years--it is positively scarce. The last favoured season was the
+summer of '92, during which (from the beginning of August to the end of
+the summer) dozens might easily have been caught in an hour or two; in
+fact, so plentiful were they in many places, that they were continuously
+in sight, often several at one time.
+
+Those in search of this insect should repair to the south coast,
+especially the south-east, and where lucerne and clover fields are in
+flower. It has very decided maritime tendencies, and may often be seen
+flying over the cliffs and beaches, and even skipping over the breakers;
+but, at the same time, it is more or less plentiful in many inland
+districts. It has been taken in many parts of Ireland and Scotland,
+particularly along the southern coasts of these countries; but its head
+quarters are undoubtedly the southern cliffs of England, from Cornwall
+to Kent, and also the hilly inland districts of the south-eastern
+counties.
+
+_Edusa_ catching is very lively sport, and is likely to prove sufficient
+for any lover of outdoor exercise under a scorching sun; for this
+butterfly is not only very powerful on the wing, but its flights are
+usually long, so that a good run is often absolutely necessary in order
+to capture it. On very hilly ground, such as _Edusa_ loves, chase is
+often hopeless, and then it is necessary to resort to stratagem. In such
+a case the best plan is to make a very cautious approach when the insect
+has been observed to settle, and then secure it with a sudden
+down-stroke of the net.
+
+The eggs are laid during May and June by a few females that have
+survived the winter.
+
+The caterpillar may be found in June and July on its food plants, the
+chief of which are the bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and
+the purple and Dutch clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_). Its
+colour is grass-green, and it is marked with a narrow whitish stripe on
+each side, which is broken by the yellow of the spiracles.
+
+The chrysalis is of a pale yellowish green, and is marked with yellow
+stripes and reddish-brown dots.
+
+
+_The Brimstone_ (_Gonopteryx Rhamni_)
+
+This, the last member of the present family, is remarkable for the
+graceful outline of its wings. The costal margins of the fore pair are
+most beautifully arched, and both pairs are sharply angled on the hind
+margins. This latter characteristic is quite unique among British
+butterflies, though we shall presently meet with instances of angular
+projections on hind wings only.
+
+The ground colour of the male (Plate II, fig. 4) is a rich sulphury
+yellow, with a greenish tinge. That of the female is a very pale
+greenish yellow. The only conspicuous markings are small saffron spots,
+one near the centre of each wing. The antennae are red, short, and
+beautifully curved; but, unlike the two preceding species, the legs are
+almost white.
+
+The eggs of this butterfly are laid in April on the two species of
+buckthorn (_Rhamnus catharticus_ and _R. Frangula_) by the females that
+have successfully weathered the winter. They are of a bright yellow
+colour, and are usually hatched in about a fortnight.
+
+The body of the caterpillar is green, and it is thickly covered with
+little black wart-like projections. A pale stripe also runs along each
+side. During May and June it may be found on its food plants, and toward
+the end of the latter month it attaches itself by a silken carpet and
+belt to the under side of one of the leaves.
+
+The chrysalis is of a very peculiar shape, the body being curved, and
+the wing cases standing out prominently beyond the general surface. Its
+colour is a bright apple green marked with yellow, and it is so
+transparent that certain of the structures can be seen through its skin.
+
+The perfect insect emerges in about three weeks after the change to the
+chrysalis; and may be looked for from July to the end of the summer.
+This period may be regarded as the best time in which to hunt for
+_Rhamni_, but it is to be noted that this butterfly makes its appearance
+during all months of the year, even though it is single-brooded.
+
+A large number seem to hybernate, and their winter sleep is so light
+that the welcome rays of the sun on a mild day, even during the bleak
+months of November to February, will often call them out from their
+hiding places. Then, as a rule, the hybernating butterflies do not live
+long after depositing their eggs for the future brood; but the Brimstone
+often lives on till its offspring have themselves attained the perfect
+state, so that it is possible to capture the insects of two different
+years both on the same day. In such a case it is generally easy to
+distinguish between the two, for the newly emerged specimens are
+beautifully bright and fresh in colour, while those of the previous year
+are more or less faded and worn, their wings being often
+semi-transparent through the loss of scales, and frequently disfigured
+by the stains of mildew.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+_THE FRITILLARIES, VANESSAS, AND THE PURPLE EMPEROR_
+
+
+Family--NYMPHALIDAE
+
+We now come to a rather large family, which contains some of our largest
+and most brilliant butterflies. Some of them display the most gaudy
+colours, and others exhibit patches of a beautiful metallic lustre.
+
+If you were to see all the members of this family side by side, they
+might strike you as being so varied in their appearance that you would
+wonder why they are all placed in one family group. But, were you to
+see, in addition to the perfect insects, all their larvae and
+chrysalides, the reason would be made clear at once, for these earlier
+stages are seen to resemble each other in certain points at the very
+first glance. The former are all provided with peculiar spines, and the
+latter are all more or less angular, and are all suspended to a silken
+carpet by means of hooks at the tip of the abdomen, and have no belt as
+we have observed in the case of the _Pieridae_.
+
+The perfect insects, too, although so varied in colouring, are alike in
+that they have only four walking legs, the first pair being so
+imperfectly developed as to be useless for this purpose.
+
+This family includes the Fritillaries and the Vanessas.
+
+
+_The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Selene_)
+
+The interesting group of butterflies known as the Fritillaries vary
+considerably in size, but are remarkably uniform in the ground colour of
+the wings, which, in all cases, is a rich golden or sienna brown; and
+this ground is chequered with darker colours in such a manner as to
+remind one of the petals of the wild flower known as the Snake's Head
+or Fritillary--hence the popular name of the group.
+
+The Small Pearl-bordered, our first example, is one of the lesser
+Fritillaries, and is shown in Plate II (fig. 5).
+
+The arrangement of the black markings on the upper surface will be
+readily made out from the coloured plate, but the pattern of the under
+side will require a little special notice, for it is here, as with the
+other Fritillaries, that we find the chief marks by which we identify
+the species. On this side (fig. 67) the fore wings are light orange
+brown, with a patch of darker brown near the tips, and spotted with a
+dull black. The hind wings have the light brown displaced by a very warm
+chestnut tint, some yellow, and bright silvery spots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--THE SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER
+SIDE.]
+
+Seven silvery spots of triangular form border the hind margin. A large
+one occupies the centre of the wing, and ten others are somewhat
+irregularly scattered over other parts of the wing--five between the
+central spot and the hind margin, and five between it and the costa.
+
+All the spots on these wings, whether yellow, chestnut, or silver, are
+bordered by a narrow black line.
+
+_Selene_ is not a very abundant butterfly, but is widely distributed in
+England, and is also found in parts of Scotland. Its favourite resorts
+are clearings in woods, especially those of Kent and other southern
+counties.
+
+It appears in May and June, in which latter month it deposits its eggs
+on the dog violet (_Viola canina_).
+
+The caterpillar is not fully grown at the end of the summer, and
+hybernates during the winter among the roots of its food plant. In the
+following spring it emerges again, and feeds till May, when it changes
+to the chrysalis on a stem. It is less than an inch long when fully
+grown, and is of a dark-brown colour. Six rows of hairy spines are
+arranged longitudinally on its body.
+
+The chrysalis is greyish brown, and has a number of very short
+projections corresponding with the spines of the caterpillar.
+
+
+_The Pearl-bordered Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Euphrosyne_)
+
+There is very little difference in the size of this and that of the last
+species, but _Euphrosyne_ (Plate II, fig. 6) is generally a trifle
+larger. The two butterflies are also very similar in appearance; indeed,
+they are so much alike on the upper side that it is impossible to decide
+on the name of either without an examination of the under surface.
+
+_Euphrosyne_ has a border of seven triangular silver spots on each hind
+wing, exactly corresponding with those of _Selene_. It has also the
+large central spot of silver. But, beside these, there is _only one_
+other, and that is situated in the basal angle. Thus there are only nine
+silvery or pearly spots on each hind wing of _Euphrosyne_, while there
+are seventeen on _Selene_. This will form a ready means of
+distinguishing between the two species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--THE PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The seasons and localities of this butterfly correspond very closely
+with those of the last species, but it is much more common, and may be
+found in abundance in nearly all our southern woods during May and June.
+
+The caterpillar, also, feeds on the same plant (dog violet) as _Selene_.
+It is black, with whitish lines along the sides; and is provided with a
+number of bristly spines.
+
+The chrysalis is of a grey-brown colour, with small dots of a paler tint
+on the wing cases; and its body has a number of short conical
+projections exactly corresponding with the spines of the caterpillar.
+
+
+_The Queen of Spain Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Latona_)
+
+We now pass from the commonest to the rarest and most prized of our wood
+butterflies--The Queen of Spain (Plate II, fig. 7). This royal personage
+is not easily mistaken for any of the meaner Fritillaries even when the
+upper surface only is examined, as the concave hind margins of the fore
+wings serve as an almost conclusive mark of distinction. The rich tawny
+brown of this side is boldly marked with black, and the long hairs and
+scales of the bases of the wings are tinged with green.
+
+The under side presents a most beautiful appearance. Here the ground
+colour is paler than that of the upper side. The fore wings are spotted
+with black, and have a few small patches of silver at the tips. Each
+hind wing has no fewer than twenty-four bright silvery spots. Seven of
+these, mostly of large size, adorn the hind margin, and above each of
+these is a small one in the middle of a little patch of dark brown. The
+arrangement of the others is not quite so easily described, but may be
+readily made out from our illustration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--THE QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This rare gem among British butterflies has been taken in many
+localities, but in very small numbers. Seeing that it is a common insect
+on the other side of the Channel, and that the British captures have
+been made chiefly in the Isle of Wight and on the south coast, I am
+inclined to believe that many of the highly valued genuine Britishers
+have no right to their title, but are visitors that have spent only a
+few days within our shores, having flown or been blown across the sea.
+
+It is not likely that many of my readers will ever meet with _Latona_
+during their rambles in our own country, and if they are anxious to have
+the species represented in their collections, they will probably have to
+purchase either a British or a foreign specimen, the former of which
+will command a very high price, while the latter may be obtained for
+three or four pence.
+
+The perfect insect may be looked for in August and September, during
+which time the eggs are laid on the leaves of violets and the heartsease
+(_Viola canina_, _V. odorata_, and _V. tricolor_).
+
+The caterpillar is brown, with numerous yellowish spines, and has three
+whitish or yellowish stripes--one down the middle of the back and one
+along each side. It hybernates during the winter, and is fully grown in
+the following June or July. I hope that my reader will be so fortunate
+as to secure either this or some other stage of this rare and beautiful
+insect. The chances are decidedly against him, but that is no reason
+why he should abstain from a vigorous search when he happens to be
+'doing' the southern counties.
+
+
+_The Dark-green Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Aglaia_)
+
+This butterfly is larger than _Latona_, as will be seen by reference to
+Plate II, fig. 8. Its colour is, as usual with the Fritillaries, a tawny
+brown with black markings. The female is usually larger than the male,
+and she is further distinguished by the ground colour being darker and
+the black markings larger.
+
+The under side of the fore wings is very similar in colour and markings
+to the upper, but there are silvery spots near the tips. The hind wings
+are beautifully tinted with olive green and brown, and studded with
+silver. The arrangement of the latter is not easily described, but is
+accurately represented in the accompanying woodcut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--THE DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The favourite resorts of this insect are wooded spots, and also heaths
+and downs clad with heather or ferns, where its food plant (the dog
+violet) lies scattered; but it seems to be less partial to woods than
+the other Fritillaries. It is very widely distributed throughout
+England, and is common in parts of Scotland and Ireland.
+
+The perfect insect is on the wing in July and early August.
+
+The caterpillar first appears toward the end of August, and commences
+its period of hybernation among the roots of its food plant before it
+has grown to any considerable size. It comes out again in the spring,
+and continues to feed till the beginning or middle of July, and then
+changes to the chrysalis state, after protecting itself by binding three
+or four leaves together.
+
+Its colour is a velvety black, with dark and glossy grey between the
+segments. There is a double yellow line along the back, and a thin line
+of orange yellow on each side below the spiracles. It has a number of
+black hairy spines, arranged in six longitudinal rows.
+
+The chrysalis is of a shiny black colour, with brownish abdomen; and the
+conical projections are black with yellow tips.
+
+
+_The High-brown Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Adippe_)
+
+The upper side of this butterfly is so much like that of _Aglaia_ that
+it would be difficult indeed to give a written description of one that
+did not almost equally well apply to the other; so we look to the under
+surface for the chief marks by which we can distinguish between them.
+
+On this side (Plate III, fig. 1) the fore wings are much the same as
+those of _Aglaia_. The hind wings, too, are very similarly coloured and
+marked, but here we have a distinguishing feature in a row of rust-red
+spots with silvery centres, just inside the silver border of the hind
+margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--THE HIGH-BROWN FRITILLARY.]
+
+This butterfly is common in open spaces of woods in many parts of
+England, more particularly in the south, and seems to be also fond of
+hilly heaths and moors.
+
+It is on the wing in July, and, towards the end of this month and in the
+beginning of August, the eggs are laid on the leaves of the dog violet
+(_Viola canina_) and heartsease (_V. tricolor_).
+
+The young caterpillar emerges about two weeks later, and feeds only for
+a short time before it seeks out its winter quarters among the dead
+leaves at the root of its food plant. The feeding is resumed in the
+spring, and continued till the month of June, when it is fully grown. At
+this time it is about an inch and a half long. Its head is black, and
+its body pinkish brown. A white line extends down the back, but is
+interrupted by several black marks. The spines, of which there are six
+rows, are white, with pinkish tips.
+
+
+_The Silver-washed Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Paphia_)
+
+This beautiful and noble butterfly is the largest of the Fritillaries,
+and the most powerful on the wing. During the latter part of June and
+throughout July it may be seen gracefully sweeping through the trees and
+undergrowth of woods, often settling down on a favourite flower for a
+short time. So strong is its flight that it is useless to attempt to
+pursue it for any distance. Sometimes it will sail along a wooded path,
+followed at short intervals by others of its species, and may be taken
+in the net as it passes. But perhaps the most successful method of
+netting _Paphia_ is to wait till it has settled, and then secure it by a
+quick upward or side stroke of the net. If then you miss your aim, off
+it will dart, sailing over the tree tops till, in a very short time, it
+is quite out of sight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--THE SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The upper side of this butterfly is shown in Plate III, fig. 2, where
+the general arrangement of the black spots on the rich orange-brown
+ground is carefully marked. There is a considerable difference between
+the male and female of this species. The figure on Plate III represents
+the male. The female does not possess the broad black lines that follow
+the course of the veins of the fore wings; the basal portions of all
+four wings are also tinged with a rich olive-brown colour, often with a
+decided tendency to green; and the black spots of all the wings are
+larger.
+
+The under side is particularly rich in its decorations. The front wings
+are of the usual orange brown, chequered with black. The hind wings are
+partly brown and partly orange, and exhibit beautiful greenish
+reflections. They have also two bars of silver, and a silvery spot in
+the basal angle, all with rather indefinite outlines.
+
+The female lays her eggs late in July on the food plants (_Viola canina_
+and _V. odorata_) or on the moss that surrounds them.
+
+About two weeks later the young caterpillar is out and feeding; and
+then, after a few more weeks, while it is yet very small, it hides among
+the dead leaves at the roots. Early in the spring it resumes its
+feeding, and is full grown at the end of May.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 3) is black, and there
+are two yellow lines along the back, separated by a black stripe, also
+one yellowish line on each side. Its body is adorned with reddish-brown
+spines, two of which, situated just behind the head, are longer than the
+others.
+
+The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 9) is greyish, marked with metallic
+spots, and has a number of angular projections representing the spines
+of the larva.
+
+_Paphia_ is to be met with in woods in all parts of England and Wales.
+It has also been observed in Ireland, but is rarely seen in Scotland.
+
+
+_The Greasy Fritillary_ (_Melitaea Aurinia_)
+
+Unlike the other Fritillaries, this species (Plate III, fig. 3) exhibits
+a variety of shades on the upper surface. A broad band of sienna brown
+stretches across each wing, near to and parallel with the hind margin.
+The other parts of the wings are marked with patches of sienna, orange,
+and yellow, separated by black lines and bands. The margins are all
+black, and inside the broader margin of the hind wing is a row of six
+very pale yellow spots. The broad sienna band of the hind wing is also
+divided by narrow black lines into seven parts, six of which have black
+centres.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--THE GREASY FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under surface of the fore wings has indefinite yellowish and tawny
+patches, which look as if they had been greased and smeared. The hind
+wings are marked with pale yellow and deep orange; a broad band of the
+latter, near the hind margin, is divided into segments, each of which
+has a yellow spot with black in the centre.
+
+This is a very local insect, although it is widely distributed
+throughout England and Wales. It also occurs sparingly in Scotland and
+Ireland. Its food plants are the honeysuckle (_Lonicera_
+_Periclymenum_), devil's-bit scabious (_Scabiosa succisa_), and the
+plantain (_Plantago_); and its chief resorts are damp meadows and marshy
+places, where these plants (more especially the scabious) abound.
+
+The butterfly appears about the end of April or in June.
+
+The caterpillars emerge from the eggs towards the end of the latter
+month, and always feed in groups under the cover of a silken web. Like
+the preceding species they hybernate during the winter, and commence
+feeding again in the spring. They are fully grown about the end of
+April.
+
+In colour the caterpillar is velvety black, dotted with white, and its
+body is covered with short bristly spines. When fully fed it seeks the
+shelter of a curled leaf or dense herbage, suspends itself by the hind
+claspers to a silken carpet, and then changes to a creamy white
+chrysalis with black dots.
+
+
+_The Glanville Fritillary_ (_Melitaea Cinxia_)
+
+The pattern of the upper side of this Fritillary (Plate III, fig. 4) is
+very similar to that of _Aurinia_, but the ground colour is a uniform
+tawny brown, and the fringes of the wings are of a very pale straw
+colour, barred with black.
+
+The under side of the fore wings is tawny brown, with straw-coloured
+tips bearing black markings. The hind wings have four alternate bands of
+brown and straw colour, and a patch of straw colour at the base. The
+marginal yellow band has six or seven black spots. The brown band next
+to it is divided into six segments with black borders, each with a black
+spot. The next yellow band has also a row of black spots. The inner
+fulvous band is very irregular; and inside this is the yellow base with
+six spots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--THE GLANVILLE FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This is another local insect--very local indeed, for it seems to have
+been found only in a few spots outside its head quarters, the Isle of
+Wight. Those in search of it should carefully scan the rough cliffy
+parts of the island, wherever the species of plantain (_Plantago
+Coronopus_ and _P. maritima_) are plentiful, these being the food plants
+of the larvae. It first appears on the wing in May, but may be found till
+the end of June.
+
+The caterpillars, which are black and spiny, with reddish head and legs,
+begin to feed in August, and as soon as the chilly weather sets in they
+hybernate in groups under the cover of a tent constructed by binding
+together leaves or blades of grass. In the spring they start out again,
+and feed till the end of April, at which time they change to dark
+brownish and smooth chrysalides.
+
+
+_The Heath Fritillary_ (_Melitaea Athalia_)
+
+Both the upper and under sides of this butterfly are shown on Plate III
+(figs. 5 and 6), and it will be observed from these that its general
+appearance is very similar to that of _Cinxia_.
+
+The upper surface is of the same tawny brown, barred and striped with
+black, and the fringes of the wings are pale yellow, interrupted by
+small patches of black.
+
+The under surface of the fore wings has the same ground colour with the
+exception of the tips, which are yellow; and the whole is marked with
+black, as in the illustration. The hind wings are pale yellow, with two
+broad bands of brown corresponding with those of _Cinxia_; but a series
+of black double arches along the hind margin and the _absence_ of rows
+of black spots serve to distinguish this species from the last.
+
+_Athalia_ is another local butterfly, but is sometimes found in
+abundance in the spots which it frequents. It is met with chiefly in the
+open spaces of woods along the south coast and for some distance inland.
+Devon, Cornwall, Sussex, and Kent seem to be the most favoured counties;
+and London entomologists would do well to search for it in Epping
+Forest.
+
+The butterfly deposits its eggs during June and July, on several
+different food plants, the chief of which are the greater and
+narrow-leaved plantains (_Plantago major_ and _P. lanceolata_), foxglove
+(_Digitalis purpurea_), two species of cow-wheat (_Melampyrum pratense_
+and _M. sylvaticum_), wood sage (_Teucrium Scorodonia_), and the
+germander speedwell (_Veronica Chamaedrys_), and the young caterpillars,
+after feeding for only a week or two, commence their period of
+hybernation. They resume their feeding in April, and change to the pupal
+state about the end of May.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is velvety black, finely dotted with
+white, and the spines are yellow or orange, tipped with white.
+
+The chrysalis is creamy white, banded and patched with orange and
+black, and is suspended by anal hooks from a silken, carpet which the
+caterpillar had spun on the leaf of the food plant.
+
+
+_The Comma_ (_Vanessa C-Album_)
+
+Leaving the Fritillaries, we now come to a genus (Vanessa) that includes
+seven most beautiful butterflies, some of which are so common as to be
+known to almost everybody.
+
+It will be observed that this genus belongs to the same family as the
+Fritillaries, and we may therefore expect to find that the two groups
+possess features in common. A slight examination of a few in their
+different stages will show that this is so. Thus, the perfect insects
+have only four walking legs, the caterpillars are all spiny, and the
+chrysalides are angular.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--THE COMMA--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+There is another feature concerning the chrysalides worthy of note. Like
+some of the pupae of the Fritillaries, they are adorned more or less with
+brilliant metallic spots, sometimes of a rich golden hue, and sometimes
+resembling burnished silver. Now the word 'chrysalis,' which, as we have
+already seen, is derived from a Greek word meaning 'gold,' was
+originally applied to the pupae of some of the Vanessas, on account of
+their metallic decorations, but it has since been extended to the pupae
+of all the Lepidoptera, and also to other orders of insects, even though
+the greater number of them display no tints of the precious metal.
+
+The first member for our consideration is the Comma Butterfly, of which
+an illustration is given in Plate III, fig. 7. No one could mistake this
+beautiful butterfly for any other British species, for its wings of rich
+orange brown, with black and dark-brown markings, are so irregularly
+scalloped on the hind margins that they present a somewhat ragged
+appearance. Its name is derived from the fact that a white mark
+something like the letter C, or, as some have it, like a comma, is
+distinctly painted on the dark brown of the under side.
+
+This butterfly generally emerges from the chrysalis late in the
+summer--August and September, but it is often seen earlier, and
+frequently as late as October. It is a great lover of sweets, and may be
+found settled on various flowers and fruits. Its chief food plants are
+the hop (_Humulus Lupulus_), red currant (_Ribes rubrum_), stinging
+nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and the Elm (_Ulmus campestris_).
+
+It is very abundant in certain districts where hops are grown, but seems
+to avoid those counties that border the sea. It is widely distributed in
+the midland counties, and extends to the north of England and into
+Scotland, but is very capricious in its appearance in many parts.
+
+The eggs are laid in May by females that have hybernated through the
+winter, and the caterpillars may be found feeding during July and
+August.
+
+The caterpillar is coloured grey and brown, with a black head, and a
+broad white stripe down the back of the hindermost segments. The body is
+armed with a number of spines, some of which are white, and others pale
+brown.
+
+The chrysalis is a very peculiar object, having two ear-like projections
+extending forwards from the sides of the head. It has a number of
+angular projections, and is of an umber-brown colour, finely netted with
+black lines, and having several spots of a brilliant metallic lustre.
+
+
+_The Large Tortoiseshell_ (_Vanessa Polychloros_)
+
+Our two tortoiseshells--large and small--are very similar in their
+colour and markings, and moreover are not always to be distinguished by
+their size, for specimens of the larger species are sometimes even
+inferior in this respect to the largest of the smaller species; so, to
+avoid all risks of mistaken identity, we must look for more reliable
+marks of distinction between them.
+
+The present species is figured on Plate III (fig. 8), where it will be
+seen that the ground colour of dark tawny brown is spotted and bordered
+with black. The border of the hind wings contains a row of
+crescent-shaped blue spots. The costal margin of the fore wings, between
+the black patches, is decidedly lighter than the general ground, and is
+yellow rather than brown. It will be noticed, too, that a black spot
+lies very near the anal angle of these wings.
+
+The under surface, though by no means brilliant, exhibits a rich
+blending of various shades of brown.
+
+This butterfly is not known to occur in either Scotland or Ireland, and
+is by no means common in England. Its chief localities are in the
+midland and eastern counties.
+
+The perfect insect generally appears about the middle of July, and after
+spending a month or six weeks on the wing, seeks out a sheltered spot in
+which to spend the winter. In the spring--April or May--it again takes
+to flight, and during the latter month the females are busily engaged in
+the deposition of their eggs.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the two species of elm (_Ulmus campestris_ and
+_U. montana_), willow (_Salix alba_), sallow (_S. Caprea_), osier (_S.
+viminalis_), aspen (_Populus tremula_), and certain fruit trees; and is
+full grown about midsummer. It is of a tawny grey colour, with a black
+stripe on each side, and is covered with very small wart-like
+projections, and the spines are branched.
+
+The chrysalis is of a dull pinkish colour, and may be found on tree
+trunks, palings, and walls, about the end of June, suspended from a
+silken carpet by means of its anal hooks.
+
+
+_The Small Tortoiseshell_ (_Vanessa Urticae_)
+
+_Urticae_ (Plate III, fig. 9) may be distinguished from _Polychloros_ by
+the _absence_ of the black spot in the anal angle of the fore wings of
+the latter. It has also a white spot near the tip of each fore
+wing-between the black border and the first black costal patch. The
+whole of the base of the hind wing is also black, and the ground colour
+is decidedly brighter.
+
+It is one of the commonest of all British butterflies, and is to be
+found more or less abundantly in nearly all parts of the British Isles.
+
+The hybernated perfect insects come out early in the spring, and lay
+their eggs in close irregular clusters on nettles (_Urtica dioica_ and
+_U. urens_). Shortly after the gregarious caterpillars may be found on
+these plants in dense masses. They change to the chrysalis state about
+the end of May, and from this time there is a continuous succession of
+butterflies till the end of the summer.
+
+The later specimens, which do not emerge till September or October,
+spend only a short time on the wing, and then hybernate till the spring,
+giving rise to the first brood of the following season.
+
+The caterpillar of this species is black above and greyish beneath. It
+is thickly covered with yellow dots, which are so close together on the
+back as to form two yellowish stripes, separated only by a fine black
+line. There are also two yellowish stripes along each side; and the
+body, as with the rest of this genus, is spiny, the spines in this case
+being black or very dark green.
+
+The chrysalis is brownish, and spotted with burnished gold in variable
+quantity--sometimes so plentifully as to cover the greater part of the
+surface.
+
+
+_The Peacock_ (_Vanessa Io_)
+
+This is another of our commonest and most beautiful butterflies. Its
+general appearance is such that it cannot possibly be mistaken for any
+other. The upper side (Plate IV, fig. 1) is rendered conspicuous by the
+beautiful eye-like marks at the costal angles of all four wings; and the
+under surface is very richly decorated with a fine arrangement of black
+and dark-brown patches and streaks.
+
+Io is very abundant in all parts of England, and is well known in many
+parts of Scotland and Ireland, but seems to be rare in the extreme north
+of both of these countries.
+
+Its food plant is the stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and on this the
+eggs are laid in April by females that have hybernated during the
+winter.
+
+The caterpillar is full grown at the end of June or beginning of July.
+It is black, with numerous minute white wart-like projections. Its
+spines also are black, and its claspers brown.
+
+The chrysalis may be found suspended by the tail on some object in the
+neighbourhood of the food plant, or sometimes on the food plant itself.
+It is of a greenish colour, with yellowish patches, but turns darker as
+the time approaches for the emerging of the perfect insect.
+
+This event takes place in August, and the butterfly, after a brief
+period on the wing, seeks out a sheltered spot for its winter nap.
+
+
+_The Camberwell Beauty_ (_Vanessa Antiopa_)
+
+The reader will be fortunate if he succeeds in netting a specimen of
+this highly prized British butterfly. It derives its popular name from
+the fact that a few were taken in Camberwell about a hundred and fifty
+years ago; and since that time it has been seen and taken in variable
+numbers in several parts of England. So widely distributed, indeed, are
+its localities, and so few, comparatively, its appearances, that it
+would be useless to attempt to give any hints as to where it may be
+looked for. It is, however, a very common butterfly in many continental
+countries, and foreign specimens may be obtained from any dealer in
+entomological wares for a few pence each.
+
+This rare British gem is illustrated in fig. 2 of Plate IV. Here it will
+be seen that nearly the whole of the surface is covered with a rich
+velvety purple brown, bordered with a black band containing blue spots;
+and outside this is a border of white, finely dotted and streaked with
+black. The continental specimens may be easily distinguished from the
+genuine Britishers by a darker border with a decidedly yellow tinge.
+
+The eggs of this species are generally laid on the young leaves of the
+willow (_Salix alba_), in the spring, by females that have hybernated,
+but sometimes the nettle (_Urtica dioica_) and the birch (_Betula alba_)
+are selected for the food of the larvae.
+
+The caterpillar is black and spiny, and has a row of seven rather large
+reddish-brown spots on the back, commencing at the fifth segment.
+
+The chrysalis, like those of the other members of this family, is
+angular and suspended by the 'tail.' The perfect insect appears in
+August, and may be seen from that month till October.
+
+
+_The Red Admiral_ (_Vanessa Atalanta_)
+
+There seems to be a tendency with many to under-estimate the beauty of
+certain natural objects because they happen to be so very common, and
+this is particularly the case with some of our most familiar
+butterflies. The beautiful Red Admiral (Plate IV, fig. 3) may possibly
+suffer in this respect; for, not only is it one of the commonest of our
+butterflies, but it fearlessly hovers among the flowers of our gardens,
+often venturing into the very heart of thickly populated towns.
+
+The bright scarlet bands and white blotches of this gorgeous insect
+stand out boldly on the rich velvety black ground of the wings, and the
+additional touches of blue in the anal angles of the hind wings add to
+the effect. The under side of the fore wings is somewhat similar to the
+upper surface, but is relieved by brown and blue; and this side of the
+hind wings presents most beautiful and indescribable blendings of
+various shades of brown, grey, and pink. The female may be
+distinguished by the presence of a small white spot on the scarlet band
+of the fore wing.
+
+The eggs are deposited singly on the nettle (_Urtica dioica_) in spring
+by females that have hybernated through the winter.
+
+The caterpillar always feeds under the cover of a tent made by drawing
+leaves together. It is spiny, and its colour is usually a greenish or
+yellowish grey, spotted with black, and striped along the sides with
+white or yellow. When fully grown it bites the stem of the nettle nearly
+through a few inches from the top, so that the upper part of the plant
+bends over the withers. It then constructs a commodious tent by binding
+the leaves of this drooping portion together, and suspends itself from
+the roof of this strange home to undergo its metamorphoses.
+
+The change to the chrysalis state takes place in July or August, and the
+perfect insect may be seen during August, September, and October in
+almost every part of the British Isles.
+
+
+_The Painted Lady_ (_Vanessa Cardui_)
+
+Although the time of appearance of this butterfly generally corresponds
+with that of the last species, yet it is exceedingly variable, so much
+so that it is impossible to give any fixed period as its season. It is,
+moreover, very capricious with regard to its localities and its numbers.
+Sometimes it will turn up unexpectedly in positive abundance in certain
+localities where previously it had been a mere straggler; and then, for
+some unaccountable reason, become comparatively scarce for several
+successive seasons.
+
+The upper surface of this beauty (Plate IV, fig. 4) is adorned with pale
+red, orange, and black, and with five white spots near the tip of each
+fore wing. The under side of the fore wings is marked something like the
+upper, but much of the black is replaced by shades of brown. The hind
+wings are beautifully variegated beneath with greys and browns, and have
+a row of eye-like spots near the hind margin.
+
+The eggs of this butterfly are laid singly on various species of
+thistles, particularly the common field thistle (_Cnicus arvensis_),
+generally in the month of June.
+
+The caterpillar, which is black above and red beneath, with yellowish
+stripes along the back and sides, feeds under the cover of a silken web
+which it constructs among the leaves. It is full grown in July or
+August, when it suspends itself after the manner of the other Vanessas
+previous to undergoing its changes.
+
+The chrysalis is angular, coloured with brown and grey, and adorned with
+brilliant gold spots.
+
+The perfect insect may be seen at large throughout late summer and the
+autumn, and the eggs are laid by females that survive the winter.
+
+
+_The White Admiral_ (_Limenitis Sibylla_)
+
+The White Admiral (Plate IV, fig. 5) is neither so pretty nor so common
+as its red namesake, but it is nevertheless a fine insect, although the
+chief beauty is reserved for the under surface. Above, the ground colour
+is a very dark rusty brown, relieved by bands and spots of white. The
+under surface is beautifully marked with silvery blue, bright orange
+brown, and white, the latter being arranged just like the corresponding
+colour on the upper side.
+
+It will be observed that this butterfly does not belong to the _Vanessa_
+genus; so, while we may look for _family_ resemblances, we shall observe
+a few features in which it differs from the preceding species.
+
+It is not by any means abundant, being unknown in Scotland and Ireland,
+and confined in England almost exclusively to the oak woods of the
+south, where its food plant--the honeysuckle (_Lonicera
+Periclymenum_)--abounds. Here it may be seen during July, gracefully
+sailing among the trees and across the open spaces.
+
+The caterpillar is very different from those of the Vanessas. Its colour
+is dark green, with a narrow white stripe along each side. There are
+very conspicuous branched spines on the third and two following
+segments, also on the eleventh and twelfth; and smaller spines on most
+of the others. All the spines are of a brownish colour, with pink tips.
+While it is yet very small it prepares its winter quarters by bending
+round the remains of a leaf on which it has been feeding, securing the
+edges by silken threads, and then binding it to the stem of the plant.
+Soon after, the petiole becomes detached from the stem, and the little
+caterpillar then rests suspended in its snug swinging cradle, where it
+remains perfectly secure till the following April, when the warm sun
+calls it out to feed on the opening leaves. It continues at this till
+about the beginning of June, and then changes to a beautiful angular and
+eared chrysalis, of a bright green colour, marked with brown, and having
+brilliant silvery spots and streaks.
+
+
+Family--APATURIDAE
+
+_The Purple Emperor_ (_Apatura Iris_)
+
+This grand insect is the only British member of its family, and richly
+deserves its popular title. The male, which is figured on Plate V (fig.
+1), exhibits a most gorgeous imperial purple, which is reflected at
+certain angles only from the upper surface of his large and powerful
+wings. His flight is lofty and vigorous, and among the topmost branches
+of majestic oaks, where he defies the efforts of would-be capturers.
+Unlike our other butterflies, he is also a very quarrelsome creature,
+and will not hesitate to fiercely attack a brother Emperor who dares
+approach the branch he has selected for his throne.
+
+Many attempts have been made to capture this prized creature by means of
+a large net mounted on the end of a pole twenty or thirty feet in
+length, but the wielding of such a cumbersome implement against so
+powerful an insect is no mean task, and but few fall a prey to such a
+snare. But it so happens that this imperial personage has a very
+depraved appetite, the indulgence in which has often brought him to
+ruin. Instead of searching out the sweets so bounteously supplied by the
+blossoms that are so attractive to other lepidopterous insects, he
+delights in sipping the waters of the filthiest puddles, and imbibing
+the odoriferous moisture of dung and the decomposing carcases of
+animals. So deeply seated is this depravity of taste that the Emperor
+may be netted with ease while indulging in his sumptuous feast, and is
+even to be taken at times with the fingers.
+
+The knowledge of this peculiarity of the imperial palate has led
+entomologists to abandon the awkward net, and to bait the woods with
+viands that alone can entice his highness from his lofty seat; and many
+a splendid specimen has been easily captured while enjoying the
+luxurious juice of a dead cat, stoat, or rabbit, or of a seething mass
+of pig's dung.
+
+The female is larger than her mate, and does not display the beautiful
+purple reflections that adorn the male. She is very different, too, in
+her habits, for she sits nearly all day on high branches of trees,
+giving her attention to the graver duties of an imperial mother, and is
+consequently but seldom seem. She lays her eggs in July on the sallow
+(_Salix Caprea_) or the poplar (_Populus_), and in less than a fortnight
+the young caterpillars are hatched. They feed on till the leaves are
+falling, and then fix themselves by their claspers to a silken carpet
+which they construct on a twig. Here they remain, exposed to all the
+wintry blasts and frosts, till the new leaves are out in the spring,
+when they again commence feeding, and continue to do so till they are
+full grown--in May or June.
+
+The under side of this species is shown in fig. 76, in which will also
+be observed the eye-like spots of the fore wings which have given rise
+to its specific name (_Iris_).
+
+The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 5) is a very peculiar creature. Its
+body is green, with seven oblique yellowish stripes on each side, and it
+has a pair of horns attached to its head.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--THE PURPLE EMPEROR--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 10) may be found in June, suspended to
+the under side of a leaf. It is of an apple-green colour, and still
+exhibits the oblique stripes which we observed in the caterpillar.
+
+This insect is not to be found in either Scotland or Ireland, but is
+more or less abundant in many of the oak woods of the midland and
+southern counties of England. Among the numerous favoured localities, we
+may mention Colchester, Forest of Dean, Northamptonshire, Ipswich,
+Huntingdonshire, Buckinghamshire, Epping, Lyndhurst, and the Isle of
+Wight.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+_THE BROWNS AND HEATHS_
+
+
+Family--SATYRIDAE
+
+This family contains eleven British species, often spoken of
+collectively as the 'Browns,' since in most of them the prevailing tints
+are various shades of brown. They are decidedly dingy in comparison with
+the beautiful butterflies we have been previously observing; but to this
+statement we must allow one marked exception, for the family includes
+the beautiful Marbled White, which stands out prominently among its
+fellows for brilliancy and boldness of colour.
+
+The caterpillars of the 'Satyrs' have no spines, but their bodies are
+covered with very minute hair-bearing warts that give them a soft
+velvety appearance. The hinder extremity tapers off considerably, and
+terminates in two points.
+
+The chrysalides are not angular like those of the preceding species, and
+though generally suspended by the tail, are sometimes found quite free
+among leaves and grasses on the ground.
+
+The perfect insects are rather feeble fliers, and generally take so
+little notice of intruders that they are easily caught in the hand.
+Their wings are devoid of angles, and they have only four perfectly
+developed legs.
+
+
+_The Marbled White_ (_Melanargia Galatea_)
+
+Our first member of this family is the exception to which we have
+already alluded as a relief to the general dinginess of the 'Browns.'
+Its colours above are cream and black, arranged as shown in Plate V,
+fig. 2. The under side (fig. 77) is marked with white, black, and
+greenish grey, with a row of eye-like spots parallel with the hind
+margin of the hind wings.
+
+This butterfly is not known in Scotland or Ireland, nor is it to be
+found in several of the northern counties of England. Its chief haunts
+are the waste cliffy grounds of the southern and some of the midland
+counties of England, where it is usually restricted to certain small
+districts. In some places it is really a common insect, and among these
+may be mentioned Brighton, Horsham, Dover, Folkestone, Margate,
+Gravesend, New Forest, parts of Gloucestershire, Cambridgeshire, and
+Devonshire, also in the Isle of Wight and South Wales.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--THE MARBLED WHITE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The perfect insect is out in July, during which month the eggs are
+deposited on various grasses, or indiscriminately on leaves and stems in
+grassy spots.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on grasses; and, being still small at the end of
+the autumn, hybernates during the winter among the stems of grass. It
+feeds again in April, and is fully grown by the end of May. Its colour
+is a dull green or brownish, with a darker stripe down the back, and
+lighter stripes along the sides. Its spiracles are black.
+
+The chrysalis is pale brown, marked with lines of a slightly darker
+shade. It may be found among grass stems, without any attachment, during
+the month of June.
+
+
+_The Small Ringlet_ (_Erebia Epiphron_)
+
+On account of the very limited range of this butterfly, only those who
+have the opportunity of visiting its haunts can have any practical
+acquaintance with its natural history. It is almost exclusively confined
+to the lake district in England, to a few mountainous localities in
+Scotland, and to one or two similar localities in Ireland. Its strong
+partiality for elevated situations has earned for it the popular name of
+Mountain Ringlet.
+
+The colour of the upper surface (Plate V, fig. 3) is a dark brown, with
+a broad band of rusty brown, parallel with the hind margin of each wing,
+and broken by the wing rays. Each division of these bands has often a
+black central spot, but frequently these are entirely absent. The
+colouring of the under side is very similar but less defined, and the
+rusty spots of the hind wings are very small.
+
+The butterfly is out in June and July. The caterpillars, which are
+green, with white stripes along the sides, feed on various grasses. They
+hybernate during the winter, and change to the chrysalis state in the
+following May or June.
+
+
+_The Northern Brown_ (_Erebia AEthiops_)
+
+The colour of this species (Plate V, fig. 4) is a rich dark brown, with
+rust-coloured and black spotted bands arranged something like those of
+the last. The markings, however, are very variable. There are usually
+four black spots on the band of the fore wings, but the first two of
+these are always united, and centred with white. The third is often very
+small or entirely wanting.
+
+The under side of the fore wings is marked something like the upper, but
+the hind wings on this side are grey, with two broad bands of a darker
+colour.
+
+As its popular name implies, this butterfly is a northerner. It is
+common in Scotland, where it flies in elevated spots. In England it is
+confined to the mountainous districts of the north.
+
+The perfect insect is at large in July and August, during which time the
+eggs are deposited on various grasses or on low-growing herbage in
+grassy spots.
+
+The caterpillar is of a brown colour, and has a narrow black stripe down
+the middle of the back, and two other stripes, lighter than the ground
+colour, one on each side. At about the end of June it turns to a
+chrysalis of a brownish colour.
+
+The food plants of this species include a number of common grasses.
+
+
+_The Speckled Wood or Wood Argus_ (_Pararge Egeria_)
+
+Most of our butterflies delight in the hot sun, and are to be seen on
+the wing only when it is shining brightly. This fact is particularly
+noticeable on a bright day with occasional heavy clouds. While the sun's
+rays are pouring uninterruptedly on the landscape, numbers of these
+light-lovers are to be observed flitting about; but when the dense
+shadow of a passing cloud creeps over the ground they rapidly disappear
+from view, having settled down to rest on leaves and stems. Then, as
+soon as the shadow passes away, the air is again enlivened with their
+sports and flittings.
+
+The Wood Argus is a marked exception to this rule. It delights in the
+cool shade of the narrow paths of woods, where it slowly flies up and
+down the lonely footpath, taking but little heed of strangers that
+intrude on its haunts, and seldom venturing into the full blaze of the
+sun unless pursued. Even on dull days it continues its solitary flight,
+and may even be seen on the wing while a soft rain is bathing the
+dripping foliage.
+
+The upper surface of this pretty butterfly is shown on Plate V, fig. 5,
+and the under side in the accompanying woodcut. Both sides are prettily
+marked with various shades of brown and buff, and adorned with
+white-centred dark eye-spots which have earned for it the name of Argus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--THE WOOD ARGUS--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+It first appears on the wing in April, and may be seen from this month
+continuously to the end of August.
+
+The food plants probably consist of many species of grasses, the
+cock's-foot (_Dactylis glomerata_) and couch grass (_Agropyron repens_)
+being among the number, and the eggs are laid on or in the neighbourhood
+of these during the summer months.
+
+The caterpillar of this species is of a dull greenish or brownish
+colour, and it has two whitish stripes (sometimes three) down the middle
+of the back, and similar stripes along each side. It hybernates during
+the winter, and is full grown in March, when it changes to a dull green
+or brownish chrysalis, which is streaked with black, and has a few white
+dots on the back.
+
+It has been stated that the butterfly is on the wing from April to
+August, and, according to some authorities, there are no less than three
+broods during this time, following each other in rapid succession. It is
+common throughout England and Ireland, and is known in parts of
+Scotland.
+
+
+_The Wall Butterfly_ (_Pararge Megaera_)
+
+Belonging to the same genus is another very familiar butterfly--the
+Wall--which receives its popular title from its peculiar habit of
+frequently resting on walls and stony banks. It is one of the first, if
+not _the_ first, to take to the wing in the morning, and is generally
+the last to seek its hiding place in the evening. I have seen it
+actively flying about during August, as early as 7.30 in the morning,
+and found it still flitting from one spot to another along the western
+side of a wall as late as 8 in the evening, as if in search of a
+convenient shelter for the fast approaching night.
+
+This pretty 'Brown' must be familiar to the reader, and the coloured
+drawing on Plate V (fig. 6) will at once serve for purposes of
+identification without the necessity of a wordy description. It may be
+mentioned, however, that the male (the sex figured) is smaller than the
+female, and is further distinguished by a broad dark oblique band
+passing across each fore wing.
+
+The Wall is a double-brooded butterfly, the first brood appearing in
+May, and the second in August. The caterpillars which produce the latter
+may be found on the cock's foot (_Dactylis glomerata_) and other grasses
+in June, while those of the former are hybernators; and the chrysalides
+of the two broods may be found in April and July respectively.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is green, with a slightly darker stripe
+down the middle of the back, a pale stripe along each side, and another
+similar stripe about midway between these two.
+
+The chrysalis is green with the exception of the more prominent parts of
+its surface, which are almost white.
+
+This species is very common in almost every locality in Britain.
+
+
+_The Grayling_ (_Satyrus Semele_)
+
+The Grayling is the largest of our 'Browns,' and, although a powerful
+flier, it seldom takes long flights. The female, which is shown in fig.
+7, Plate V, is really a beautiful creature, the light markings of which
+stand out in bold contrast with the deep brown ground colour; but the
+male is comparatively dingy, there being much less contrast between the
+ground and the markings. He is also smaller than his mate.
+
+The under side of both sexes is similar (fig. 79), the pattern of the
+fore wings being much like that of the other side, but considerably
+lighter, and the hind wings are beautifully marbled with various greys
+and browns.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--THE GRAYLING--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This species is not nearly so common as the two preceding, but it is
+very widely distributed, and is exceedingly abundant in some parts. On
+some of the heathery cliffs and downs of the south and south-west coasts
+it is so plentiful that the butterflies are started into the air at
+almost every step, for it seldom flies except when disturbed. It is a
+common insect in Ireland, and also in parts of Scotland.
+
+The caterpillar is a hybernator, and may be found feeding on grasses in
+the autumn and the spring. It changes to the chrysalis in June, and the
+perfect insect is on the wing from June to the beginning of September.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is pinkish drab above, and greenish drab
+beneath. A dark brown stripe, edged with a lighter colour, passes down
+the middle of the back, and a dark line on each side. It changes to a
+dark reddish-brown chrysalis on the surface of the ground, or, according
+to some observers, a little beneath the surface.
+
+
+_The Meadow Brown_ (_Epinephele Janira_)
+
+Although this very common butterfly is usually considered to be the
+dingiest of its family, yet it must be admitted that the colour of a
+freshly emerged specimen is really very rich.
+
+The male is of a dark brown colour, with an indistinct patch of a
+lighter tawny brown near the outer margin of the fore wings, and a
+white-centred black eye-spot near the costal angle of the same wings.
+The female (Plate V, fig. 8) is of a lighter colour, the eye-spot on her
+fore wings is larger and far more conspicuous, and an irregular patch of
+light orange brown occupies a large area of each of the same wings. She
+is, moreover, larger than her mate, and in every way a more attractive
+insect.
+
+The Meadow Brown abounds everywhere, from June to September, and may be
+seen on grass land and waste grounds where other butterflies are seldom
+found.
+
+The caterpillar is green, and is rendered slightly rough by a number of
+minute warts. There is also a white stripe on each side. It feeds on
+various grasses in the autumn, hybernates during the winter, and is full
+grown in May.
+
+The chrysalis is apple green, spotted with a lighter green, and has
+several black markings.
+
+
+_The Large Heath_ (_Epinephele Tithonus_)
+
+This butterfly is sometimes called the 'Small Meadow Brown,' and is
+certainly much like the last species, both in colouring and habits.
+
+The fore wings of the male (Plate V, fig. 9) are light orange brown,
+bordered with dark brown, and having a broad patch of the same across
+the middle; and near the costal angle is a round black spot with two
+white dots. The hind wings are dark brown with a patch of light orange
+brown near the centre, and a small eye-spot near the anal angle. The
+female is exactly similar, except that she does not possess the broad
+bar on the fore wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--THE LARGE HEATH--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under side is shown in fig. 80, and is coloured with various shades
+of brown.
+
+This is a very common butterfly, and may be seen during July in most
+English counties, also in the south of Scotland, and in a few localities
+in the south of Ireland. It frequents meadows, heaths, downs, and lanes,
+like _Janira_, but is not nearly so abundant as that species.
+
+The young caterpillar is hatched in August, and is still very small when
+it seeks its winter shelter among the stems of grasses. It resumes
+feeding in the following May, and is full grown towards the end of June.
+Its colour is very variable--pale green, olive green, or dull brown,
+with five longitudinal stripes at about equal distances from each other.
+These consist of a dark one down the middle of the back, a pale line
+along each side, and another pale line midway between these.
+
+The chrysalis may be found at the end of June, attached by the tail to
+blades of grass. It is of a very light colour, almost white, but adorned
+with numerous black lines and patches.
+
+
+_The Ringlet_ (_Epinephele Hyperanthus_)
+
+This is another rather plainly dressed insect, though somewhat prettily
+adorned on the under side. The upper surface is of a very deep sepia
+brown, almost black, with a few indistinct black eye-like spots near the
+margins. The under side (Plate V, fig. 10) is of a lighter umber brown,
+with corresponding eye-spots generally very conspicuous. These spots are
+black, with white centres, and generally surrounded by light rings. They
+are subject, however, to considerable variation. Those on the upper
+surface are sometimes quite absent in the male, but are nearly always
+readily perceptible in the female. On the under side, too, they are
+occasionally quite absent, while in other varieties they are minute
+white-centred dots, without any surrounding light ring. Our coloured
+drawing represents the most usual form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--THE RINGLET--UPPER SIDE.]
+
+The favourite haunts of the Ringlet are the borders of woods, and the
+sheltered sides of flowery hedgerows. It is not so widely distributed as
+some of the common 'Browns,' but is usually very abundant where it
+occurs, sometimes appearing in such numbers that several may be taken
+with a single stroke of the net. It does not seem to be a frequenter of
+Scotland, and is known in Ireland only in the south. Its head quarters
+are the southern and south-midland counties of England.
+
+The eggs are laid in July on various grasses, on which the young
+caterpillars feed from about the middle of August till the cold weather
+sets in. They hybernate at the roots of the grasses till the beginning
+of the following May, and change to the chrysalis state about the middle
+of June, suspending themselves to grass blades by means of their anal
+hooks.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is dull green or brown, and is marked with
+five longitudinal stripes much like those of the Large Heath.
+
+The chrysalis is pale brown, spotted and striped with a darker shade of
+the same colour.
+
+
+_The Marsh Ringlet_ (_Caenonympha Typhon_)
+
+The upper surface of this butterfly is shown in the first figure of
+Plate VI, and the under side in the accompanying woodcut; but it must be
+remembered that the species is a very variable one, so much so that it
+is almost impossible to give anything like a short and, at the same
+time, a satisfactory description. The female may usually be
+distinguished by a pale patch across the middle of the fore wings; and
+the eye spots of the same wings, always more or less indistinct when
+present, are sometimes entirely wanting. The markings of the under side
+are even more variable, the transverse bars and the eye spots being
+often particularly conspicuous, and at other times hardly discernible.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--THE MARSH RINGLET--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This is generally spoken of as a northerner, its chief localities being
+in the mountainous parts of Scotland and the elevated districts of the
+north of England, but in Ireland it extends to the southern ranges. Its
+haunts are elevated moors and marshy heaths, where its food plant--the
+beak-rush (_Rhyncospora alba_)--abounds, and it is on the wing from the
+end of June to August or September.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with five longitudinal stripes--one dark one,
+bordered with yellow, down the middle of the back, and two pale yellow
+ones on each side. It is a hybernator, and is full grown about the end
+of May, when it suspends itself by the hindmost claspers to a silken
+carpet, and changes to a green chrysalis with pale brown wing cases.
+
+
+_The Small Heath_ (_Caenonympha Pamphilus_)
+
+The last member of the family _Satyridae_ is the well-known Small Heath,
+that may be seen almost all over the British Isles on heaths, meadows
+and moors, from May to September.
+
+The upper surface of this butterfly (Plate VI, fig. 2) is a tawny
+yellow, with a dark brown border, and a spot of the same dark tint near
+the tip of each fore wing. The under side is much like that of the last
+species, but there are no eye spots on the hind wings.
+
+The eggs of the first brood are laid during May and June on the various
+grasses on which the caterpillar feeds.
+
+The caterpillars that emerge from these are fully grown in July or early
+August, and go through their changes during the latter month; but the
+later ones hybernate during the winter, and are not full fed till the
+following May.
+
+The colour of the larva is pale apple green, with a wide darker stripe
+down the back, two others along the sides, and two more between the
+latter and the dorsal stripe. All these five stripes are bordered with a
+whitish colour.
+
+The chrysalis is bright apple green, dotted with white, and the wing
+cases are striped with a purple-brown line edged with white.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+_THE HAIRSTREAKS, COPPERS AND BLUES_
+
+
+Family--LYCAENIDAE
+
+This is a large family, including as it does no less than nineteen of
+the British species. These are all of small size, and are characterised
+by their short and jerky flights. They seldom rise much above the
+ground, and are consequently very easily caught.
+
+The caterpillars of this family have all short and rather thick bodies,
+shaped very much like that of the wood louse--flattened beneath and very
+convex above.
+
+The chrysalides are generally attached by the 'tail,' and further
+secured by a silken cord round the body, as we have already observed in
+the case of the _Pieridae_.
+
+The perfect insects differ from the preceding species in that all six
+legs are perfectly developed and adapted for walking.
+
+There are only three genera in this large family:
+
+ 1. _Thecla_--The Hairstreaks, with 'tailed' wings.
+ 2. _Polyommatus_--The 'Coppers.'
+ 3. _Lycaena_--The 'Blues,' with wings either blue or brown.
+
+
+_The Brown Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Betulae_)
+
+The five Hairstreaks which constitute the genus _Thecla_ are all pretty
+insects, characterised by hair-like streaks on the under surface.
+
+_Betulae_ is the largest of these. Its upper surface is of a deep brown
+colour, with orange-brown marks at the anal angles of the hind wings,
+and, in the female, a large patch of orange on the fore wings. The under
+side (Plate VI, fig. 3) is orange brown, much lighter in the male than
+in the female. On the fore wings are two white lines, the inner one of
+which is indistinct; and on the hind wings are two others, the outer one
+being longer and more distinct than the inner.
+
+This butterfly is by no means an abundant insect, though it is widely
+distributed, and in some places plentiful. Its chief haunts are woods,
+and we may mention among its favoured localities Epping Forest, Monk's
+Wood in Cambridgeshire, the wooded parts of South Devon and Dorset, New
+Forest, Colchester, and Peterborough.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--THE BROWN HAIRSTREAK--MALE.]
+
+The perfect insect is on the wing from July to October, and the eggs are
+deposited in the autumn on the twigs of its food plant--the blackthorn
+(_Prunus spinosa_). These do not hatch till the following spring. Toward
+the end of June the caterpillar is fully fed.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is light green, with two white stripes
+down the back, and two others along the sides. There are also two small
+oblique whitish lines on each side of each segment.
+
+The chrysalis is smooth, and of a pale brown colour.
+
+
+_The Black Hairstreak, or White-letter Hairstreak_ (_Thecla W-album_)
+
+The first of the above two popular names has been applied to this
+species on account of the very deep brown colour of the upper side,
+which colour is often a near approach to black. The second is due to the
+W-shaped bend of the white streak of the hind wings. The ground colour
+of the under side (Plate VI, fig. 4) is greyish brown, with a bright
+orange band, spotted with black near the hind margin of the hind wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK.]
+
+_W-album_ is a somewhat rare insect, but is occasionally seen in plenty
+in a few localities, Cambridgeshire, Berkshire, Epping, Colchester and
+Suffolk being among its chief resorts. It is out on the wing in July,
+and should be looked for in wooded country where the common elm (_Ulmus
+campestris_) and the wych elm (_U. montana_), its food plants, exist.
+
+The eggs are laid on the twigs of these trees late in the summer, and
+the young caterpillars do not appear till the following spring. The
+chrysalis may be found attached to an elm twig or leaf about the end of
+June.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green. The ridges along the back are tinged with
+yellow, and there are two fine oblique white lines on each side of each
+segment.
+
+
+_The Dark Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Pruni_)
+
+The upper side of this butterfly is very much like that of _W-album_,
+but it may be distinguished by the presence of a few orange spots near
+the anal angle of the hind wings. The colouring of the under side (Plate
+VI, fig. 5) is also very similar, except that the white lines of the
+wings are thinner and less distinct than in the last species, and do not
+exhibit the W-shaped bend. The orange band of this surface is bordered
+on each side with a row of black spots, each of which is touched with a
+bluish white or a metallic blue.
+
+This insect is not by any means common, but has been seen in
+considerable numbers in certain localities. It is not found in either
+Scotland or Ireland, and its chief haunts in England seem to be in
+Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire. It frequents
+wooded country, and flies during June and July.
+
+The eggs are laid late in the summer on the twigs of the blackthorn
+(_Prunus spinosa_), and are not hatched till the following spring.
+
+The caterpillar, which is pale green, with rows of yellow spots, may be
+found in May.
+
+
+_The Purple Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Quercus_)
+
+This pretty butterfly, by far the commonest of the Hairstreaks, though
+comparatively very small, reminds one forcibly of the noble Purple
+Emperor. Its haunts are the same oak woods, and its upper surface,
+though only a dull dark brown in certain lights, exhibits the same
+imperial purple reflections when viewed at certain angles. The purple of
+the male extends over the whole of the wings, but that of the female is
+confined to a V-shaped patch at the base of the fore wings. In the
+latter case, however, the purple is much richer than in the male sex.
+
+The under side (Plate VI, fig. 6) is coloured with a delicate grey
+ground, adorned with a white streak on each wing, and a couple of orange
+spots near the anal angle of the hind wings.
+
+This species is very widely distributed, being common in oak woods in
+most parts of England, and also in many parts of Scotland and Ireland.
+It flies around the branches of the trees, and often disappoints the
+collector by keeping far beyond the reach of his net.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--THE PURPLE HAIRSTREAK--MALE.]
+
+Those in search of this pretty insect should ramble in oak woods,
+preferably in the south of England, during July and August. The eggs may
+be found glued to the twigs throughout the winter, and the larvae may be
+beaten from the branches of the oak in June.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is brownish or pinkish green, with a row
+of V-shaped marks down the back.
+
+The chrysalis is of a brown colour, short and thick, and may be found
+either attached to oak leaves, or under the surface of the earth at the
+foot of the tree on which the caterpillar fed.
+
+
+_The Green Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Rubi_)
+
+Next to _Quercus_, this is the most plentiful of the genus. It frequents
+woods and heaths in nearly every county in England, and is also found in
+parts of Scotland and Ireland. It is peculiar among British butterflies
+as being the only one that exhibits a bright green colour. It also
+differs from the other Hairstreaks in two important particulars, for the
+hind wings, though angled at the hind margin, are not 'tailed,' and the
+characteristic hairstreak which gives the popular name to the genus is
+here represented only by a series of white dots across the wings, or, in
+some cases, by one or two dots on the hind wings only.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--THE GREEN HAIRSTREAK.]
+
+The upper side is dark brown, displaying metallic reflections when
+viewed in a strong light. The under side is represented in fig. 7 of
+Plate VI.
+
+The chief food plants of this species are the bramble (_Rubus
+fruticosus_), the birch (_Betula alba_), and the broom (_Cytisus
+scoparius_).
+
+The perfect insect flies in May and June, and the eggs are deposited
+during the latter month on the above plants. The caterpillars are full
+fed in July, and change to the chrysalis state towards the end of the
+summer.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is pale green, with a yellow stripe and
+several white oblique lines along the sides, also a yellowish stripe
+down the back.
+
+The chrysalis is short and thick, and of a dark brown colour.
+
+
+_The Large Copper_ (_Polyommatus Dispar_)
+
+Our next genus contains only two British species. The first of
+these--the Large Copper--was once a common insect at Whittlesea in
+Cambridgeshire, and in some of the fens of Huntingdonshire, but is now
+feared to be quite extinct, as none have been seen for many years. The
+last capture was made in 1847 in Huntingdonshire. However, it _may_ turn
+up again; and even if it does not, it would be a pity to allow the
+memory of so fine an insect to die out; so we find room to figure it
+(Plate VI, fig. 8), and append a few remarks.
+
+There is a very great difference between the male and the female. The
+former is of a brilliant copper hue, and all the wings have a black
+margin and a black streak near the middle. The female is larger; and the
+coppery colour is much redder. The black border of the fore wings is
+wider, and there are also several large black spots on these wings. The
+hind wings are almost entirely covered with black, with the exception of
+a broad coppery band near the hind margin.
+
+The food plant of the caterpillar appears to have been the water dock
+(_Rumex Hydrolapathum_), on which the eggs were laid late in the summer.
+It is probable that the caterpillar was a hybernator, seeking its winter
+shelter while still very young; and it was full fed in June.
+
+Its colour was green, with a darker stripe of the same colour on the
+back; and the chrysalis was attached by anal hooks and a cord round the
+body.
+
+
+_The Small Copper_ (_Polyommatus Phlaeas_)
+
+The only other British member of the genus _Polyommatus_--the Small
+Copper--is one of the commonest of our butterflies. It may be found in
+nearly all parts of the British Isles from April to September, more
+particularly in April, June, _and_ August, for it is apparently triple
+brooded.
+
+This brilliant and lively little insect is shown on Plate VI (fig. 9),
+and, being so very familiar, needs no description.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on different species of dock--the broad-leaved
+dock (_Rumex obtusifolius_), the fiddle dock (_R. pulcher_), the sorrel
+(_R. acetosa_), and the sheep sorrel (_R. acetosella_); also on the
+ragwort (_Senecio Jacobaea_). It is full fed about three weeks after
+hatching, and then changes to a small and stout chrysalis, of a pale
+brown colour, on the leaf of its food plant.
+
+The caterpillar itself is green, with a reddish line on the back and on
+each side; and it glides over the surface of the leaves something after
+the manner of a slug, without exhibiting any very apparent motion of its
+short legs and claspers.
+
+
+_The Tailed Blue_ (_Lycaena Baetica_)
+
+We now come to a genus containing no less than ten species of beautiful
+little butterflies, known commonly as the 'Blues;' but one of them
+exhibits no trace of the colour so characteristic of the group, although
+it resembles the others in structure and habits.
+
+Our first example is the Tailed Blue, known also as the Pea-pod Argus.
+The upper side of this insect (Plate VI, fig. 10) is of a dull smoke
+colour, exhibiting purple-blue reflections, which are, in the female,
+confined to distinct blotches on the bases of the wings, but in the male
+are less noticeable, and extend over the whole surface. The hind margin
+of the hind wings has a row of spots, more or less distinct, and much
+more prominent in the female than in the male. The under side is
+beautifully marked with bands of fawn and grey, and with two spots of
+brilliant metallic green in the anal angle of the hind wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--THE TAILED BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This butterfly abounds in the countries of South Europe, where the
+caterpillar feeds on the pods of certain leguminous plants; but only a
+few stragglers have been taken in England, so that its reputation as a
+true Britisher is very uncertain. It is highly probable that the two or
+three specimens caught on our south coast were blown over from the
+Continent, and that the insect has never bred on this side of the
+Channel.
+
+
+_The Silver-studded Blue_ (_Lycaena AEgon_)
+
+The upper surface of the male (Plate VI, fig. 11) of this species is
+purple blue, with a black border on the hind margins of all wings. The
+female (fig. 12 of the same plate) is of a very dark smoky-brown colour,
+often with a bluish tinge, and has generally a row of orange spots near
+the hind margin of the hind wings.
+
+The under side of both sexes is similar, and is illustrated in the
+accompanying woodcut. The ground colour is bluish grey, and is marked
+with a number of black spots surrounded by light rings. Along the hind
+margin of the hind wings is a row of orange spots, each bordered with
+black on the inner side, and with a silvery blue on the outer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88. THE SILVER-STUDDED BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This insect appears in July, and is common in many dry, sandy, or chalky
+spots in various parts of England, and also in a few localities in
+Scotland and Ireland. It has been reported as abundant at Darlington and
+in certain localities in Lancashire, but its head quarters are
+undoubtedly the chalk downs and dry gravelly banks of the southern
+counties.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_), and
+is full grown towards the end of June. Its colour is yellow or grey,
+with a brown dorsal stripe, a white line on each side, and pale oblique
+lines near the former. About the end of June it changes to a dull green
+chrysalis, with projecting wing cases.
+
+
+_The Brown Argus_ (_Lycaena Astrarche_)
+
+Neither male nor female of this species exhibits any trace of blue. The
+upper surface, shown in fig. 13 of Plate VI, is coloured with a warm
+brown, and all four wings have a row of orange spots near the hind
+margin. The fore wings have also a central black spot. The under
+surface, drawn on the same plate (fig. 14), is bluish grey, with a
+border of orange spots on each hind margin as on the other side. There
+are also numerous black spots in light rings, the arrangement of which
+will be seen in the figure.
+
+Some species of butterflies and moths are so variable in their colouring
+and markings that varieties have often been mistaken for distinct
+species; and, in other cases, distinct species are sometimes so similar
+in character that they are looked upon as identical.
+
+A butterfly that closely resembles the normal Brown Argus in many
+points, and named _Artaxerxes_, has often been described as a distinct
+species, but is now, I believe, recognised by most entomologists as a
+constant variety of the present species.
+
+It differs from the normal type in having a _white_ instead of a _black_
+spot in the centre of the fore wings, and the border of orange spots is
+often very indistinct. On the under side, too, instead of black spots in
+white rings, it has white spots, with little or no trace of a black
+centre.
+
+The ordinary Brown Argus is a southerner, and is particularly abundant
+on the chalk downs of the south coast and the Isle of Wight, but
+_Artaxerxes_ is to be found only in Scotland and the north of England;
+and it is interesting to note that, between these northern and southern
+districts, intermediate varieties are to be met with.
+
+Again, _Astrarche_ is a double-brooded butterfly, appearing on the wing
+in May and August; while _Artaxerxes_ is single brooded, flying at
+midsummer. This fact has lent support to the opinion that the two are
+distinct species; but it must be remembered that several insects that
+are single brooded in one country are double brooded in a warmer
+climate.
+
+The caterpillar of _Astrarche_ feeds on the hemlock stork's-bill
+(_Erodium cicutarium_). It is of a pale yellow colour, with a brownish
+line on the back; and is full fed in April and July.
+
+
+_The Common Blue_ (_Lycaena Icarus_)
+
+Although this pretty little butterfly is so common that it is almost
+sure to be known to all who take any interest in insect life, yet it is
+important to observe it carefully, since it is an easy matter to
+confound it with other species of the same genus.
+
+The upper surfaces of the two sexes are very different, that of the male
+(Plate VI, fig. 15) being a beautiful lilac blue; and that of the
+female (Plate VI, fig. 16) a dark brown, powdered with blue at the bases
+of the wings, and having _generally_ a border of orange spots, more or
+less defined, on the hind margins of all wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--THE COMMON BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under side, shown in the accompanying woodcut, is ashy brown; warm
+in the female, but paler in the male. The hind wings, and sometimes all
+four, are bordered with orange spots; and this species may be
+distinguished from _Astrarche_ by the presence of two black spots, in
+white rings, near the base of the fore wings.
+
+There will be no need to name localities for this insect, as it is
+abundant everywhere, frequenting meadows, heaths, and all waste places.
+It is double brooded, and is on the wing continuously from May to
+September, the first brood enduring from May to July, and the second
+from July to the end of the warm weather.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with a dorsal line of a darker tint, and a row
+of white spots on each side. It feeds on clover (_Trifolium pratense_
+and _T. repens_), bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_), bird's-foot
+trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and the rest-harrow (_Ononis spinosa_).
+
+The chrysalis is short and rounded, of a dull green colour, tinged with
+brown on the under surface.
+
+
+_The Clifden Blue_ (_Lycaena Bellargus_)
+
+Our coloured representations of this beautiful blue (Plate VI, figs. 17
+and 18) show that here also there is a great difference between the male
+and female. The former is a most lovely and brilliant sky blue, bordered
+by a fine black line; and the latter is a dull dark brown, with a more
+or less distinct border of orange spots, and the bases of the wings are
+powdered with scales of a tint corresponding with those of the male. In
+both sexes the fringe is very distinctly barred with dark brown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--THE CLIFDEN BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under side (fig. 90) is similar in both sexes--greyish brown, with
+a border of reddish spots, and a number of black spots in white rings,
+the arrangement of which is here represented.
+
+The butterfly frequents chalky downs, chiefly in the south of England,
+and seems to be unknown in Scotland and Ireland. The Isle of Wight, and
+the chalky downs and banks of Sussex, Surrey, and Kent, are its
+favourite localities; and even in these it is generally very local,
+sometimes swarming on a grassy bank of no great extent, when the
+surrounding neighbourhood, though apparently equally suitable to its
+requirements, does not harbour a single specimen. It is on the wing in
+May and June, and again in August.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with two rows of yellow streaks on the back,
+and a yellow stripe on each side. It feeds on the Dutch clover
+(_Trifolium repens_), horse-shoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_), and
+various other leguminous plants.
+
+
+_The Chalk-Hill Blue_ (_Lycaena Corydon_)
+
+The male of this species (Plate VII, fig. 1) is readily to be
+distinguished from all other members of the genus by its pale glossy
+blue, but the female (fig. 2 of Plate VII) so closely resembles that of
+_Bellargus_ that it is often a somewhat difficult matter to discriminate
+between them. The following, however, are a few points worthy of
+observation: The upper side of the female _Corydon_ has the bases of the
+wings more or less sprinkled with the pale silky blue that characterises
+the male; and the black bars of the fringe are _usually_ broader in
+_Corydon_ than in _Bellargus_. The black-centred spots of the under side
+are also usually more conspicuous in the former species than in the
+latter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--THE CHALK HILL BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The difficulty of identification is increased by the fact that both
+these butterflies frequent similar localities, and are often on the wing
+at the same time; but although _Corydon_ is certainly a frequenter of
+chalky districts, yet it is often found plentifully in districts far
+removed from the chalk, notably at Arnside in Lancashire, and in Epping
+Forest.
+
+The butterfly is out in June and July. The caterpillar is green, with
+two rows of short yellow streaks on the back, and a yellow stripe on
+each side. It feeds on the purple and Dutch clovers (_Trifolium
+pratense_ and _T. repens_), bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_),
+horse-shoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_), and lady's fingers (_Anthyllis
+vulneraria_).
+
+
+_The Holly Blue_ (_Lycaena Argiolus_)
+
+While all the other Blues delight to sport on low flowery banks in the
+full blaze of the summer's sun, the Holly Blue prefers to flit among the
+branches of trees, often many feet from the ground. The larva feeds on
+the flowers of the holly (_Ilex Aquifolium_) in the spring, and on those
+of the ivy (_Hedera Helix_) late in the summer; also on the alder
+buckthorn (_Rhamnus Frangula_); and it is in localities where these grow
+that we may find this lovely Blue sporting among the branches, or
+resting on a leaf with its wings folded together, thus making itself
+conspicuous among the dark foliage by exposing the pale silvery blue of
+its under surface.
+
+The upper sides of both the male and female are shown on Plate VII
+(figs. 3 and 4 respectively), where the beautiful lilac blue will be
+seen to have a border of black, wider in the latter than in the former.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--THE HOLLY BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under surface is spotted with black, as shown in fig. 92, and has no
+border of orange spots.
+
+This is a double-brooded butterfly, appearing first in April and May,
+and then again in August. It is not at all uncommon in the south of
+England, and extends northward as far as the Lake District, but is not
+found in Scotland. It is generally distributed throughout Ireland.
+
+The caterpillar may be looked for in June and October. It is light
+green, with a line of dark green down the back.
+
+
+_The Mazarine Blue_ (_Lycaena Semiargus_)
+
+The male (Plate VII, fig. 5) is deep purple blue, with a narrow
+dark-brown border, and the female (fig. 6 of the same plate) dark brown.
+The under side of both sexes is light greyish-brown or drab, with a row
+of black spots in white rings parallel with the hind margin of each
+wing, and no reddish or orange spots.
+
+This pretty butterfly seems to have been plentiful in several localities
+some years since, but has not been seen for a long time; and it is
+probable that its reckless slaughter by those who catch all the pretty
+butterflies they can secure either for ornament or for gain has caused
+its name to be permanently removed from our list of natives.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--THE MAZARINE BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+It was formerly abundant in Dorset, Hereford, Glamorganshire, and near
+Shirley, and was on the wing in June and July, but it disappeared from
+our view before a full account of its life history had been prepared.
+
+
+_The Small Blue_ (_Lycaena Minima_)
+
+We now come to the smallest of all British butterflies--a little insect
+that measures less than one inch from tip to tip when its wings are
+expanded. Its upper surface is of a dull and dark-brown colour, the
+bases of the wings being dusted with blue in the case of the male. The
+under side is pale drab, tinged with greenish blue at the bases of the
+wings, and marked with black spots in light rings as shown in the
+accompanying figure. The upper side is represented in fig. 7 of Plate
+VII.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--THE SMALL BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This butterfly is on the wing in May and June, and during the latter
+month the eggs are deposited on the flowers of the lady's fingers
+(_Anthyllis vulneraria_).
+
+The caterpillars are hatched in about a week, and commence feeding on
+the calyx of the buds, and soon burrow into them till they are quite
+concealed.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is brownish, with a darker stripe on the
+back, and a row of oblique brown streaks on each side.
+
+This species is widely distributed in England, and is plentiful in most
+chalky and limestone districts. It is also found in parts of Scotland
+and Ireland.
+
+
+_The Large Blue_ (_Lycaena Arion_)
+
+The last of our Blues is the largest of the genus, and is, with the
+exception of _Semiargus_, the rarest. It is a very local insect,
+appearing in small numbers, during June and July, in parts of South
+Devon, Gloucestershire, Northamptonshire, and a few other counties.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--THE LARGE BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The colour of the upper side is a dark and rich blue, with a broad dark
+border on the hind margins, and a group of black spots near the centre
+of the fore wings. The under side (fig. 95) is of a pearly grey, without
+any red spots, but having a double border of black spots, and also an
+irregular row of black spots in white rings across the middle of each
+wing.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_), on which plant the
+eggs are laid singly, generally on the flower heads.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+_THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS_
+
+
+Family--ERYCINIDAE
+
+_The Duke of Burgundy_ (_Nemeobius Lucina_)
+
+The family _Erycinidae_ has only one British representative, commonly
+known as the Duke of Burgundy Fritillary, but although this butterfly
+certainly resembles the Fritillaries in general appearance (see figs. 9
+and 10 of Plate VII), its habits and life history present many points of
+difference from these.
+
+The upper side is chequered with black and tawny brown, the fringe is
+white and barred with dark brown, and a row of tawny spots with black
+centres border the hind margins. The under side has two rows of white
+spots, one near the base, and the other across the centre of each wing.
+
+The male has only four legs adapted for walking, but the female has six.
+
+The butterfly is out in May and June, and frequents the paths and open
+spaces of woods, chiefly in the south of England, but it has been taken
+in some of the northern counties.
+
+The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 6) is not spiny like those of the true
+Fritillaries, but more closely resembles those of the Blues, being
+somewhat of the form of a woodlouse. It is reddish brown, with tufts of
+hair, black spiracles, and a dark line down the back. It feeds on the
+primrose (_Primula acaulis_) and the cowslip (_P. veris_), and may be
+found during June, July and August.
+
+When fully grown, the caterpillar secures itself to a leaf or stem by
+means of its anal claspers and a silken cord round its body, and changes
+to a short, thick, hairy and light-coloured chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig.
+11), which is marked with several black spots. In this state it spends
+the winter, and emerges early in the following summer.
+
+
+Family--HESPERIIDAE--THE SKIPPERS
+
+This family contains eight small species, none of which are remarkable
+for brilliancy of color. They are, nevertheless, very interesting
+creatures, for they exhibit peculiarities of structure and habit that
+render them singular among the butterflies, and seem to show a sort of
+cousin relationship with the moths. They have thick bodies that remind
+us somewhat of the _Noctuae_. Their heads are broad, so that the antennae,
+which are slightly hooked at the tips, are rather wide apart at the
+bases. When at rest, they neither press their wings together over their
+back like the other butterflies, nor do they set them horizontally after
+the manner of the moths, but seem to lay claim to an intermediate
+position in the scale of Lepidopterous insects by holding them in a half
+elevated position. Their flight, too, is not graceful like that of most
+other butterflies, nor even so steady as that of the little flitting
+blues, but brisk and erratic, and resembling the fitful motions of moths
+disturbed from their slumberings at unwonted hours. Thus they have
+earned their popular title of skippers from their habit of skipping
+rather than flying from flower to flower. All the three pairs of legs of
+these butterflies are fully developed for walking.
+
+The caterpillars have rather large heads, and their bodies taper from
+the middle toward both extremities. Like the larvae of many moths, they
+hide themselves in leaves which they have rolled and secured with silken
+threads; and when about to change to the chrysalis state, they also spin
+silken cocoons for their further protection.
+
+
+_The Grizzled Skipper_ (_Syrichthus Malvae_)
+
+The ground color of this species is a very dark brown, relieved by a
+number of square white spots arranged as shown in fig. 11 of Plate VII.
+The fringe is wide, and barred with the same two colours, arranged
+alternately. The pattern of the under side is similar, but the dark
+brown of the upper surface is replaced by a lighter olive tint.
+
+The butterfly may be looked for in May in the open spaces of woods,
+particularly in damp places. It is common all over England, and is found
+also in the south of Scotland.
+
+The caterpillar is either green or brownish, with a darker dorsal stripe
+of the same color, and two white lines on each side. It feeds on the
+raspberry (_Rubus idaeus_), the bramble (_R. fruticosus_), and the
+strawberry-leaved cinquefoil (_Potentilla Fragariastrum_), and is full
+fed about the end of June.
+
+The chrysalis is greyish, spotted with black. It is rather elongated,
+and without angles, but has a short and sharp projection extending
+backwards from the 'tail.'
+
+
+_The Dingy Skipper_ (_Nisoniades Tages_)
+
+Colour--a dingy brown, indistinctly barred and spotted with a darker
+tint, and having a row of small white spots just inside the fringe of
+the hind margins. Under side--a paler brown, with rows of small white
+spots.
+
+This butterfly is common in all parts of England, and is found in a few
+localities in Scotland and Ireland. It frequents dry banks, and is
+particularly partial to the chalky districts of the south-eastern
+counties. It is on the wing in May, and a second brood appears in lesser
+numbers in August.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, with two yellow stripes on each side, and
+a row of black spots above each stripe. It feeds on the bird's-foot
+trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and may be found in June, and again in
+September.
+
+The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 12) is shaped something like that of the
+last species, and is coloured green on the front segments, and a rose
+red on the abdomen.
+
+The perfect insect is represented in fig. 12 of Plate VII.
+
+
+_The Small Skipper_ (_Hesperia Thaumas_)
+
+In briefly describing the various British butterflies no mention has
+been made, except in a few cases, of the shape of the wings, this matter
+having been left to the reader's own observations of our illustrations.
+We will, however, call attention to the somewhat square-cut form of the
+wings of _Thaumas_ and the following species.
+
+The above-named butterfly (Plate VII, fig. 13) is a lively-looking
+little insect, its wings being of a bright tawny orange colour, bordered
+with black, beyond which is a light fringe. The male, which is the sex
+figured, is distinguished from the female by an oblique black streak
+across the middle of the front wings. The under side is orange, with a
+decidedly greenish tinge.
+
+The butterfly is out in July, and is very abundant and widely
+distributed. It lays its eggs on various grasses, particularly the
+meadow soft-grass (_Holcus lanatus_).
+
+The caterpillar hybernates through the winter, and is full fed in the
+following June, when it changes to a green chrysalis after spinning a
+light silken cocoon among the blades of grass. The colour of the
+caterpillar is green, with six longitudinal white stripes--two on the
+back, and two on each side.
+
+
+_The New Small Skipper_ (_Hesperia Lineola_)
+
+A few years since (1888) a butterfly was taken in one of our
+south-eastern counties that closely resembled the well-known _Thaumas_
+(or _Linea_), but which turned out to be a species not previously known
+in Britain. When, however, the distinguishing features of the new
+butterfly were made known, several entomologists discovered that they
+had already secured the new prize, but that, being ignorant of its
+characteristics, they had placed it in their series over the label
+_Thaumas_.
+
+Since the above date, this new insect (Plate VII, fig. 18), which is
+named _Lineola_, has been taken in considerable numbers at Leigh,
+Harwich, Southend, and near Shoeburyness in Suffolk, as well as in the
+Fens of Huntingdonshire; and it is highly probable that it may turn up
+in various other localities where it has not yet been observed.
+
+It appears on the wing about the first week of July, a little later than
+_Thaumas_, but the two kindred species are often found flying together.
+
+The chief points by which we distinguish _Lineola_ from the last species
+are these: The general appearance of the wings is a bit dingier than in
+_Thaumas_; the inner portion of the hind wings is of a bright tawny
+colour in _Thaumas_ but not in _Lineola_; the tips of the antennae are
+yellow beneath in _Thaumas_, but black in _Lineola_; and the black
+streak across the fore wings of the latter species is short and
+generally broken.
+
+The eggs of _Lineola_ are laid at the end of July or beginning of August
+on various grasses, chiefly the various species of _Triticum_, but do
+not hatch till the following April.
+
+The larva is full fed about the end of June or beginning of July, and
+then changes to a long yellowish-green chrysalis, from which the perfect
+insect emerges in two or three weeks.
+
+
+_The Lulworth Skipper_ (_Hesperia Actaeon_)
+
+Although this species is somewhat similar to the two preceding, it may
+be readily distinguished by the heavy clouding of dull greenish brown
+that almost covers the wings. The male, which is shown in fig. 14 of
+Plate VII, has a black streak across the fore wings, and the female
+possesses a semicircular row of tawny spots near the tip of the same
+wings, and also a tawny streak near the centre.
+
+This is a very local species, having been found only in a few
+localities. At Lulworth Cove and 'Burning Cliff' in Dorset it has been
+met with in profusion. In Devon it frequents the rough ground near the
+cliffs at Sidmouth and Torquay; and it has also been reported as
+appearing at Stratford-on-Avon, Shenstone near Lichfield, and the
+neighbourhoods of Swanage and Tyneham.
+
+One can scarcely hope to see this insect at large without making a
+special trip to one of its favourite haunts, in which case a day should
+be chosen toward the end of July or early in August.
+
+
+_The Large Skipper_ (_Hesperia Sylvanus_)
+
+During May, June, and August this butterfly may be seen on grassy banks
+in nearly every part of England, as well as in certain localities of
+Scotland and Ireland.
+
+The wings are all of a bright orange-brown colour, with a narrow black
+border, inside which is a broad shading of brown. The latter colour
+usually completely covers the hind wings with the exception of about
+half a dozen squarish spots; and the same colour, together with the dark
+brown wing rays, breaks up the light ground of the fore wings, often
+forming several squarish and triangular patches, most distinct near the
+tips. The male (Plate VII, fig. 15) may be readily distinguished from
+the female by the presence of a thick dark brown streak across the fore
+wings.
+
+The under side of both sexes is pale tawny brown, with a greenish tinge;
+and has several rather indistinct yellowish spots.
+
+The larva is of a dull green colour, with a dark line on the back. Its
+upper surface is dotted with black, and there are white spots on the
+under side of the tenth and eleventh segments. It feeds on several kinds
+of grasses, some of its favourites being the meadow soft grass (_Holcus
+lanatus_), the cock's-foot (_Dactylis glomerata_), and couch grass
+(_Agropyron repens_).
+
+
+_The Silver-spotted Skipper_ (_Hesperia Comma_)
+
+This species is very similar on the upper side to the last, except that
+the squarish spots of both fore and hind wings are much paler and much
+more distinct; and here, too, the male (Plate VII, fig. 16) is to be
+distinguished from the female by a black streak crossing the front wings
+obliquely. The under surface has a greenish tinge, more particularly on
+the hind wings; and this side is conspicuously marked with a number of
+_white_ square spots with sharp outlines, arranged as shown in fig. 96.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--THE SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+Although common in some localities, this butterfly is not widely
+distributed. It is confined to some of the southern and midland counties
+of England, and is particularly partial to the chalk districts of the
+south-east. On the chalk downs of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex it is
+moderately common. It is on the wing during July and August.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on certain leguminous plants, among which are the
+bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_) and the bird's-foot trefoil
+(_Lotus corniculatus_).
+
+
+_The Chequered Skipper_ (_Carterocephalus Palaemon_)
+
+This is another local insect, more so even than the last, but it
+sometimes appears in profusion in certain limited districts. Kettering,
+Oundle in Northamptonshire, and Monk's Wood in Huntingdonshire are
+places where it has been taken freely. It appears in June.
+
+The wings are chequered with very dark brown and orange. The fore wings
+are bordered with small rounded yellow spots, and beside these there are
+about nine very conspicuous yellow spots on the fore wing and three on
+the hind wing. The arrangement of these markings may be seen in fig. 17
+of Plate VII.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the greater plantain (_Plantago major_).
+
+
+
+
+PART IV
+
+COMMON BRITISH MOTHS
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+_SPHINGES_
+
+
+We have already observed the chief features by which we are able to
+distinguish between butterflies and moths (page 56), so we shall devote
+the present division to a description of the characteristics and life
+histories of some of the latter insects.
+
+The number of British butterflies is so limited that space could be
+found for a brief description of every species, but with moths the case
+is very different. There are about two thousand known British species of
+this division of the Lepidoptera, and every year adds some newly
+discovered insects to this long list; we shall therefore have to content
+ourselves with making a selection of these for individual mention.
+
+In doing this I shall endeavour to provide the young entomologist with a
+fairly representative list--one that will enable him to become more or
+less intimately acquainted with all the principal divisions of the
+_Heterocera_; and his attention will be drawn especially to many which
+may be described as 'common' or 'generally distributed,' so that during
+his first few seasons at collecting he may be enabled to identify and
+study a fair proportion of his captures. Occasionally, however, one of
+the rarer species will be described in order to illustrate some striking
+characteristic.
+
+We shall commence with the tribe of _Sphinges_ or _Hawk Moths_.
+
+This group consists of three families--the _Sphingidae_, including the
+largest of the 'Hawks,' and the 'Bee Hawks,' the _Sesiidae_ or
+'Clearwings,' and the _Zygaenidae_, including the 'Foresters' and the
+'Burnets'--numbering in all about forty species.
+
+
+Family--SPHINGIDAE
+
+This family is named from a fancied resemblance of the larvae to the
+celebrated Egyptian sphinx. The perfect insects have very thick bodies,
+generally tapering toward the tail, and their wings are rather narrow in
+proportion to the length, but are exceedingly powerful, and the flight
+is, with one or two exceptions, very rapid. The antennae terminate in a
+small and thin hook.
+
+Most of these insects fly at dusk, but a few delight in the brightness
+and heat of the midday sun. In either case the velocity of their flight
+is generally so great that it is a difficult matter to follow them with
+the eye, and a still more difficult matter to secure the insects in the
+net; consequently, the best way to study them is to search out the larvae
+on their food plants, and rear them till they attain their perfect form.
+
+The larvae of the _Sphingidae_ are large and smooth, and most of them have
+a horn projecting from the top of the last segment but one. They all
+undergo their metamorphoses under the surface of the ground.
+
+
+_The Death's-Head Hawk_ (_Acherontia Atropos_)
+
+Our first example of the Sphinges is the beautiful Death's-Head Hawk
+Moth--an insect that often attains a breadth of five inches from tip to
+tip when the wings are fully expanded. Its popular title has been
+applied on account of the peculiar markings of the thorax, which are
+said to resemble a human skull; and this feature has certainly some
+connection with the superstitious beliefs of ignorant country folk
+concerning this moth. But this characteristic is probably not the only
+one that has caused the creature to be regarded with superstitious
+alarm. Both its superior dimensions and nocturnal habits serve to
+intensify the unfounded fear; but, what is particularly striking and
+unique about it is its power of uttering a squeaking sound, which it
+does when disturbed. Even the earlier stages of the insect possess this
+strange power. The caterpillar makes a peculiar snapping noise when
+irritated, and the chrysalis has been observed to squeak shortly before
+the emergence of the perfect form.
+
+The fore wings of this moth are of a very rich dark brown, beautifully
+mottled with lighter tawny shades, and with a small but conspicuous
+yellow dot near the centre. The hind wings are yellow, with a black band
+and margin; and the body is yellow, with six broad black bands, and six
+large blue spots down the middle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--THE DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK MOTH.]
+
+The moth is rather widely distributed, and even common in some parts,
+but is not nearly so often met with as the larva. It is on the wing
+during August and September.
+
+It is probable that the reader will never have an opportunity of
+capturing the perfect form of this remarkable species, but he may with a
+little perseverance obtain some caterpillars and rear them. These larvae
+feed on the potato, the deadly nightshade (_Atropa Belladonna_), and the
+woody nightshade (_Solanum Dulcamara_); and they are well known to
+potato growers in some parts of the country.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is generally pale yellow, with numerous
+small black dots, and seven oblique violet stripes on each side. The
+horn is yellowish and rough, and is bent downward, but recurved again at
+the tip.
+
+It feeds during the night, and remains hidden throughout the daytime. In
+August it is fully grown, and then retires into the ground to undergo
+its transformations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--THE LARVA OF ATROPOS.]
+
+
+_The Privet Hawk_ (_Sphinx Ligustri_)
+
+This is another fine moth, measuring nearly four and a half inches from
+tip to tip. It is represented in the centre of Plate IX in its natural
+colours, so that it need not be described.
+
+The perfect insect flies in June and July, and, although common, is not
+frequently seen at large. The larvae, however, are to be met with in
+abundance in privet hedges. Even in the centres of large towns we may
+see them resting on the topmost twigs of a privet hedge, their beautiful
+green tint closely resembling that of the surrounding leaves. After a
+little experience they may be readily discerned by a careful observer,
+but there are certain signs by which their presence may be proved before
+they have been actually seen. Sometimes a number of the twigs are
+completely stripped of their leaves, even the midribs and the leaf
+stalks being almost or entirely devoured; and beneath the bushes are
+the large black masses of excrement that tell of the marauders above.
+When found, these larvae should always be removed on a piece of the twig
+to which they are attached, for they hold on so firmly by their claspers
+that it is sometimes almost impossible to remove them from their hold
+without injury.
+
+These caterpillars may easily be distinguished from those of the other
+'hawks' by the seven oblique stripes which adorn the sides. These are
+each composed of two colours, white and lilac, and form a pretty
+contrast with the bright green of the rest of the body. The horn is
+smooth and curved, and is black with the exception of part of the under
+side, which is yellow.
+
+They are fully grown in August, and from the end of this month till the
+following June the chrysalides may be dug out from under privet and
+lilac bushes, both of which are attacked by the larva.
+
+
+_The Spurge Hawk_ (_Deilephila Euphorbiae_)
+
+This is a very rare British species; in fact, it has never been seen in
+this country in its perfect state, but the larva has been found
+plentifully at Appledore and Braunton Burrows, in North Devon, feeding
+on the sea spurge (_Euphorbia Paralias_).
+
+The perfect insect is shown on Plate IX (fig. 2).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--THE CATERPILLAR OF EUPHORBIAE.]
+
+The caterpillar is black, with a large number of small yellowish white
+dots, and two rows of spots of the same colour on each side. There is
+also a red line on each side, and another down the middle of the back.
+The horn is rough and red with a black tip. It feeds during August and
+September.
+
+
+_The Small Elephant Hawk_ (_Chaerocampa Porcellus_)
+
+This pretty insect is one of the smallest of our hawk moths. It is
+widely distributed, being met with in many parts of England and in the
+south of Scotland. It flies in June.
+
+The fore wings are of a dull yellow colour, with rosy-red hind margins,
+and a broad border of the same tint on the costal margin. The hind wings
+have also a rosy-red hind margin, and are smoky black along the costae,
+and yellow in the anal angle. The body is coloured with bright rose-red,
+tinged with olive on the foremost and hindmost segments.
+
+The popular name of this and the following species has been applied
+because of the power which the caterpillar has of extending and
+retracting its front segments, a peculiarity which has given the idea of
+a semblance to the elephant's proboscis. The colour of the caterpillar
+is light-brown or green, mottled with dark-brown, dark-green, or black.
+It has a conspicuous eye-like spot on each side of the fifth and sixth
+segments, and has no horn.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.--THE SMALL ELEPHANT HAWK MOTH.]
+
+This larva may be found in July and August, feeding on species of
+bedstraw (_Galium verum_, _G. Mollugo_, and _G. palustre_), willow herb
+(_Epilobium hirsutum_), or the purple loosestrife (_Lythrum Salicaria_).
+
+
+_The Large Elephant_ (_Chaerocampa Elpenor_)
+
+This species (Plate IX, fig. 3) is very similar to the last in form and
+markings; but is, as its name implies, larger.
+
+The caterpillar, too, is very like that of the last species, but may be
+distinguished from it by the possession of a short black horn, tipped
+with white, on the 'tail.' Its colour is green or brown, mottled and
+spotted with black. The eye-like spots on its fifth and sixth segments
+are black, and each contains a brown spot surrounded by a white line.
+
+Its chief food plants are the hairy willow herb (_Epilobium hirsutum_),
+three species of bedstraw (_Galium verum_, _G. Mollugo_ and _G.
+palustre_), the purple loosestrife (_Lythrum Salicaria_), and the
+enchanter's nightshade (_Circaea lutetiana_). It will also feed on the
+vine and the apple in confinement.
+
+
+_The Eyed Hawk_ (_Smerinthus Ocellatus_)
+
+Our next genus (_Smerinthus_) contains three well-known moths, all of
+which have the hind margin of the fore wings angulated or indented.
+
+The first is the Eyed Hawk, represented in fig. 4 of Plate IX and named
+after the beautiful and conspicuous eye-like spot near the anal angle of
+each hind wing.
+
+The caterpillar has a rough green skin, sprinkled with white dots, and
+marked with seven oblique white lines on each side, each of which is
+bordered with dark green above. The spiracles are pinkish, surrounded by
+violet rings; and the horn is blue.
+
+The moth flies during May, June, and July; and the caterpillar may be
+found in plenty during August, feeding on the apple, willow (_Salix
+alba_), sallow (_S. cinerea_ and _S. Caprea_), poplar (_Populus alba_
+and _P. nigra_), aspen (_P. tremula_), and the blackthorn (_Prunus
+spinosa_).
+
+As with many other _Sphinges_, the larvae are much more commonly seen
+than the perfect insects; but the latter may often be met with resting
+on tree trunks and fences in the neighbourhood of their food plants.
+
+
+_The Poplar Hawk_ (_Smerinthus Populi_)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.--THE POPLAR HAWK.]
+
+This moth is very common and very widely distributed, and may be easily
+found in any of its stages. The perfect insect flies during May, June,
+and July; and being rather heavy on the wing, it is easily taken with a
+net as it hovers round the branches of its favourite trees or among the
+flowers of gardens at dusk. The larva may be beaten from the boughs of
+poplars and sallows during August and September, and during the latter
+month may often be seen creeping down and around the trunks of these
+trees, searching for a suitable spot in which to undergo its changes.
+The pupa may be dug out of the soil at the foot of the same trees
+during the autumn, winter, and spring months.
+
+The fore wings are ashy grey or greyish brown, marbled with darker
+tints, with a conspicuous white spot near the centre. The hind wings are
+similarly coloured except at the base, where there is a large patch of
+brick-red.
+
+The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour dotted with yellow,
+with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. The spiracles are white,
+edged with red; and the horn is yellow on the upper, and reddish on the
+under side. Its chief food plants are the poplar, the Lombardy poplar
+(_Populus pyramidalis_), aspen (P_. tremula_), and sallow (_Salix
+Caprea_ and _S. cinerea_).
+
+
+_The Lime Hawk_ (_Smerinthus Tiliae_)
+
+This beautiful moth (fig. 5, Plate IX) is easily identified by its rich
+olive green and brown wings, the fore pair of which have very
+conspicuous patches of deep olive, sometimes uniting to form a
+continuous central bar. It flies in May and June.
+
+The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour, dotted with yellow,
+with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. Thus it is very like the
+larva of _Populi_, but may be distinguished from that species by the
+orange spiracles, and by the horn, which is rough, blue above, and
+yellow beneath. Behind the horn, too, there is a flat purple or violet
+scale with an edging of orange.
+
+The food plants of this species are the lime (_Tilia vulgaris_), elm
+(_Ulmus campestris_), and the hazel (_Corylus Avellana_), from which the
+larvae may be beaten in August and September, and from under these the
+pupae may be dug out during the winter months.
+
+
+_The Humming-Bird Hawk_ (_Macroglossa Stellatarum_)
+
+The genus to which this insect belongs contains three interesting
+British species. Their antennae are thickened toward the end, but
+terminate in a small curved bristle. Their wings are rather short and
+broad; their bodies are very thick, terminating in a broad tuft of hair;
+and the perfect insects fly during the daytime, delighting in the
+hottest sunshine. The larvae feed principally on low-growing plants, and
+undergo their metamorphoses on the ground among the foliage.
+
+On Plate IX (fig. 6) one of these pretty moths is shown. It is the
+Humming-bird Hawk, so called on account of its exceedingly rapid
+humming-bird-like flight, accompanied by a soft humming sound.
+
+This insect is very common; and, being very partial to the attractions
+offered by many of our favourite garden flowers, it ought to be well
+known to all observers of nature.
+
+Take your stand near a bed of petunias or verbenas, or close to a
+honeysuckle in bloom, on any hot summer's day, and you are almost sure
+to be rewarded by a peep at the wonderful flight and interesting ways of
+this moth. It makes its appearance so suddenly that you first view it as
+an apparently motionless insect, suspended in the air, and thrusting its
+long proboscis into the tube of an attractive flower. Its wings vibrate
+so rapidly that they are quite invisible, and give rise to the soft hum
+already mentioned. Then it darts from one flower to another, making a
+similar brief stay before each while it sucks the grateful sweets. Raise
+your hand as if to strike, and suddenly it vanishes you know not where.
+But it is as bold as it is wary, and will often return to the selfsame
+flower as if to defy your power. A sharp sweep of your net in a
+horizontal direction, or a sudden downward stroke, _may_ secure it; but
+if you miss it, as you probably will, it will disappear like a phantom,
+and give you no opportunity of making a second attempt.
+
+This moth is on the wing throughout the hottest months of the year--May
+to September, and will often greet you as you roam over flowery banks in
+search of butterflies.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the lady's bedstraw (_Galium verum_), hedge
+bedstraw (_G. Mollugo_), and the goose grass (_G. Aparine_), and may be
+searched for in August and September. It is rough, green or brownish,
+and dotted with white. Along each side are two light lines. The horn is
+thin and short, rough, and points upwards.
+
+
+_The Broad-bordered Bee Hawk_ (_Macroglossa Fuciformis_)
+
+The two other moths of this genus are called Bee Hawks from their
+resemblance to the humble bee. They are very much alike, but may be
+distinguished by a difference in the width of the dark border of the
+wings; and are named Broad-bordered and Narrow-bordered respectively.
+
+The former is illustrated in the woodcut appended. The fore wings are
+transparent like those of bees, with a dark central spot and a broad
+reddish-brown hind margin. The base and costa are black and tinged with
+green. The hind wings are similarly coloured, but have no central spot.
+The body is olive-brown, with a broad reddish belt, and behind are tufts
+of hair, which are spread out when the insect flies, just after the
+manner of the tail feathers of a bird. The moth flies in May.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--THE BROAD-BORDERED BEE HAWK.]
+
+The larva resembles that of _Stellatarum_, but exhibits a violet tint
+above the legs. Its horn, too, is curved, and of a reddish or brownish
+colour. It feeds on the honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_), ragged
+robin (_Lychnis Flos-cuculi_), evening campion (_L. vespertina_), red
+campion (_L. diurna_), lady's bedstraw (_Galium verum_), and the field
+scabious (_Scabiosa arvensis_), during the month of July.
+
+
+Family SESIIDAE--THE CLEARWINGS
+
+This family contains fourteen very pretty British insects that differ
+very much from other moths in many important and interesting
+particulars.
+
+Their antennae, like those of the _Sphingidae_, are thickest beyond the
+middle, and those of the males are slightly _ciliated_ or hairy. Their
+bodies are slender, and terminate behind in tufts of hair. The hind
+wings in all cases are transparent, margined and veined with black or
+brown; and the fore wings also, in most cases, have transparent bases.
+
+These moths delight in the hottest sunshine, and may be seen gracefully
+hovering over the flowers in our gardens, looking more like gnats, bees,
+and wasps, than moths.
+
+The larvae of these insects are all wood-eaters, and spend their time
+within the stems of shrubs and trees, eating out galleries in the
+material that forms both their food and their home. Within these they
+also undergo their changes, and do not expose themselves to the free air
+and light till they reach their perfect stage.
+
+
+_The Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar_ (_Trochilium Apiformis_)
+
+We can find space for a mention of only two of the clearwings, the first
+of which is an insect that closely resembles the dreaded hornet, and
+whose larva feeds in the stems of poplars--features which will account
+for the above name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--THE HORNET CLEARWING OF THE POPLAR.]
+
+The head of this species is yellow, its thorax brown with a large yellow
+patch on each side, its abdomen yellow with two brown belts, and its
+legs reddish orange. The front wings are transparent, with brown costae,
+and all the wings are margined with brown.
+
+The caterpillar, when full fed, makes a cocoon with silk and the chips
+of wood that it has bitten off; and in this undergoes its metamorphoses.
+It is fully grown in April, and the moth flies from the end of May to
+the end of July.
+
+There is another 'Hornet Clearwing,' the larva of which feeds on the
+stems of osiers. It may be distinguished from the species just described
+by a yellow 'collar' between the head and thorax, both of which are
+blackish.
+
+
+_The Currant Clearwing_ (_Sesia Tipuliformis_)
+
+This is by far the commonest of all the Clearwings, and only too well
+known to those who grow currants. Examine the shoots of _Ribes rubrum_
+(red currant) and _R. nigrum_ (black currant), especially those that
+present a withered or half-withered appearance, and you will almost
+certainly meet with signs of the presence of this intruder. Little
+wriggling larvae occupy the pithless stems throughout the winter and
+spring. These are full grown in April, and in June the pretty little
+moth emerges through a hole in the side of a shoot, leaving the empty
+pupa case within its former home.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.--THE CURRANT CLEARWING.]
+
+The fore wings of this moth have black margins, and a black transverse
+bar beyond the middle. The body is black, with three pale yellow belts,
+and black tufts of hair at the tip.
+
+
+Family--ZYGAENIDAE
+
+The remaining family of the _Sphinges_--the _Zygaenidae_--includes seven
+British species, three of which are known popularly as the Foresters and
+the others as the Burnets.
+
+Their antennae are thickest beyond the middle, but do not terminate in a
+hook. Their wings are narrow and completely covered with scales.
+
+These moths are very sluggish creatures, spending the greater part of
+their time at rest on the stems of low-growing plants. When they do fly,
+their flight is short and heavy, and their pretty wings glisten in the
+sunshine (for they are lovers of the sun), giving them the appearance of
+bees rather than of moths. On account of this natural sluggishness, they
+are exceedingly local, for they never move far from the spots where
+their food plants abound, and where they had previously spent the
+earlier stages of their existence. Thus we often come across a very
+limited piece of ground actually alive with them, and outside which not
+a single specimen is to be seen.
+
+The larvae, too, are sluggish creatures, with soft and plump cylindrical
+bodies and no horns. I will briefly describe three members of this
+family.
+
+
+_The Forester_ (_Ino Statices_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are semi-transparent, and of a beautiful
+glossy green. The hind wings also are semi-transparent, but of a dull
+smoky tint. The thorax and abdomen are both of a brilliant metallic
+green colour. The tips of the antennae are blunt, and the male may be
+distinguished from his mate by these organs being slightly fringed or
+ciliated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--THE FORESTER.]
+
+The caterpillar is dingy grey or greenish, with a row of black spots
+down the back, and a whitish stripe on each side. It feeds on the common
+sorrel (_Rumex acetosa_) and the sheep sorrel (_R. acetosella_), and
+when fully grown it spins a cocoon on the stem of its food plant, and
+there changes to a chrysalis.
+
+The larva may be found during May and early June. The chrysalis state
+lasts only a few days, and the moth is on the wing during June and
+July.
+
+
+_The Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet_ (_Zygaena Trifolii_)
+
+On Plate IX (fig. 7) will be found a coloured representation of this
+Burnet. The two crimson spots in the base of the fore wing are very
+close together, and often touch. The same remark also applies to the two
+spots on the middle of the wing. A glance at the list of British Moths
+(Appendix I) will show that we have also a _Narrow_-bordered
+Five-spotted Burnet. This insect is very similar to the species now
+under consideration, but may be identified by the narrower purplish
+margin on the hind wings, and also by the shape of the antennae, which
+are not thickened so much near the end as they are in _Trifolii_.
+
+The larva of the present species is yellowish or greenish, with a row of
+black spots on the back and a row on each side. It feeds on the
+bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), hop trefoil (_Trifolium
+procumbens_), and the horse-shoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_) in May.
+Late in May or in early June the chrysalis may be found in a silken
+cocoon attached to a stem or leaf; and the perfect insect flies during
+June and July.
+
+
+_The Six-spotted Burnet_ (_Zygaena Filipendulae_)
+
+So common is this moth, and so conspicuous when it flies in the blazing
+sun, that it must be familiar to almost everybody. On a bright midsummer
+day hundreds may often be started from their grassy beds from one little
+patch of ground.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.--THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.--THE LARVA OF FILIPENDULAE.]
+
+The colouring of the wings is much the same as in the last species, but
+there are two crimson spots instead of one near the tips of the fore
+pair.
+
+The larvae may be seen in vast numbers during May and June, feeding on
+clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_), and the bird's-foot
+trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_); and in the latter month thousands of the
+chrysalides, inclosed in shuttle-shaped cocoons on grass stems, may be
+seen on downs and sunny banks in almost every part of the country.
+
+The caterpillar, which is yellow, may be known by the two rows of black
+spots that adorn each segment of the body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+_BOMBYCES_
+
+
+This tribe is an important one, inasmuch as it contains those few moths
+whose silk is of present or anticipated commercial value. Many of the
+British members, even, make silken cocoons of moderate compactness, but
+none of them yield a quantity and quality of silk to justify any attempt
+to utilise it in the arts.
+
+There are more than a hundred British species in this group, and these
+represent no less than seventeen families, which exhibit a great variety
+in their general appearance and habits.
+
+
+Family--NYCTEOLIDAE
+
+_The Green Silver-lined_ (_Hylophila prasinana_)
+
+This family, under the name of _Chloephoridae_, is included by some
+authors among the _Tortrices_ (page 298), which they somewhat resemble
+in habits. It contains only four species, of which we will take one
+example--the Green Silver-lined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.--THE GREEN SILVER-LINED.]
+
+The fore wings of this insect are pale green, with three oblique silvery
+white lines, the middle one of which is far more distinct than the other
+two. The hind wings are silvery white in the female, and yellow in the
+male. It flies in May, and is common in the wooded districts of the
+south-eastern counties.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, dotted and striped with yellow, and has a
+reddish transverse band on the second segment. It feeds on oak (_Quercus
+Robur_), birch (_Betula alba_), hazel (_Corylus_ _Avellana_), beech
+(_Fagus sylvatica_), and alder (_Alnus glutinosa_), from which trees it
+may be beaten in July and August.
+
+
+Family--NOLIDAE
+
+_The Short-cloaked Moth_ (_Nola cucullatella_)
+
+We select this common moth as a representative of the small family
+_Nolidae_, which contains only five British species. These are all small
+insects. They are nocturnal in their habits, and may be found at rest on
+the trunks of trees during the daytime. The caterpillars are hairy, and
+undergo their metamorphoses within silken cocoons.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.--THE SHORT-CLOAKED MOTH.]
+
+The fore wings of _Cucullatella_ are pearly grey, with a dark patch at
+the base, a triangular spot on the middle of the costal margin, and wavy
+lines beyond this, parallel with the hind margin. The hind wings are
+grey, and devoid of any markings.
+
+The caterpillar is of a brownish colour, with a line of lighter patches
+down the back, and it is covered with little tufts of hair. It feeds on
+the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_),
+and also on plum trees in our gardens during the month of May. The moth
+is on the wing during June and July.
+
+
+Family--LITHOSIIDAE
+
+_The Muslin Moth_ (_Nudaria mundana_)
+
+The family _Lithosiidae_ contains several small moths, distinguished from
+the other _Bombyces_ by the narrowness of their fore wings. When the
+insects are at rest, all the wings are wrapped closely round the body.
+They fly at dusk on summer evenings, but may be obtained during the
+daytime by beating the boughs of trees. If an open net be held under the
+boughs during this operation, the moths will generally feign death and
+allow themselves to fall into it when they are disturbed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.--THE MUSLIN MOTH.]
+
+Most of the larvae of this family feed on the lichens that cover walls
+and the bark of trees, and they conceal themselves so artfully among
+this peculiar vegetation that it is no easy matter to search them out;
+probably many still remain unknown to entomologists.
+
+Our first example--the Muslin Moth--has light brownish-grey and semi
+transparent wings, the front pair of which have darker markings arranged
+as shown in the illustration. It is a common moth, and may be met with
+in July and August.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on lichens in June. It is of a dull grey colour,
+with a yellow stripe down the back, and has numerous little tufts of
+light hair.
+
+
+_The Common Footman_ (_Lithosia lurideola_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are of a leaden grey, with a bright
+yellow costal stripe which dwindles to a point just before it reaches
+the tip. The hind wings are very pale yellow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.--THE COMMON FOOTMAN.]
+
+The larva is black, with a reddish line on each side just above the
+feet. It may be found during May and June among the lichens of oaks,
+blackthorns, and firs, especially in the woods of the south of England.
+
+The perfect insect flies during July and August.
+
+
+Family--EUCHELIIDAE
+
+_The Cinnabar_ (_Euchelia Jacobaeae_)
+
+The family _Eucheliidae_ contains only four British species, two of which
+must receive a share of our attention. The first of these is the
+Cinnabar Moth, which is common in all localities where its food
+plants--the groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_) and the ragwort (_S.
+Jacobaea_)--abound.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.--THE LARVA OF JACOBAEAE.]
+
+Its colours are so striking that a glance at its representation (fig. 1
+of Plate X) will render a written description quite unnecessary.
+
+The caterpillar is a very familiar and conspicuous object. Its colour is
+bright orange, broken by several broad black rings; and its body is
+thinly covered with hair. When fully grown (July or August) it descends
+to the ground, and there changes to a smooth and shining reddish-brown
+chrysalis.
+
+The moth appears in June or early in July.
+
+
+_The Scarlet Tiger_ (_Callimorpha Dominula_)
+
+This is certainly one of the most beautiful of all our moths. Its fore
+wings are dark olive green, with a lovely metallic lustre, and boldly
+marked with large white and yellow spots. These spots are arranged
+generally like those in the illustration, but are subject to great
+variation. The hind wings are crimson, with large black patches, chiefly
+distributed near the hind margin. The thorax is black, with two white
+streaks; and the abdomen crimson, with a black line down the back.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.--THE SCARLET TIGER.]
+
+This moth is a common one. It may be taken in June and July. I have seen
+it flying somewhat freely while the sun was still shining brightly.
+
+The caterpillar is very dark lead colour, nearly black; and is covered
+with little wart-like projections, from each of which protrudes a short
+black hair. There is a broad yellow broken line down the back, and two
+others on the sides. It feeds on the hound's-tongue (_Cynoglossum
+officinale_) and many other low-growing plants, hybernates through the
+winter, and is fully grown in May. Like the other members of this
+family, it spins a light silken cocoon, in which the hairs from its body
+are interwoven.
+
+
+Family--CHELONIIDAE
+
+_The Wood Tiger_ (_Nemeophila Plantaginis_)
+
+The _Cheloniidae_ are popularly known as the Tigers--a title suggested by
+the tiger-like colouring of some of the prominent species. They differ
+from the Scarlet Tiger and the other members of the _Eucheliidae_ in that
+the males have ciliated or fringed antennae. The larvae, too, are more
+densely covered with hair.
+
+The Wood Tiger (fig. 2, Plate X) is a beautiful insect, somewhat
+variable in its markings, but so conspicuously coloured that our
+illustration cannot fail to lead to its identification. It may be found
+commonly among the undergrowth of our southern woods during May and
+June.
+
+The caterpillar is dark brown or brownish black, covered with little
+hair-bearing warts. The hairs are long and black on the foremost and
+hind segments, but shorter and of a brown colour on the middle of the
+body. It issues from the egg in September, feeds for a week or two on
+the leaves of violets (_Viola canina_ and _V. odorata_), heartsease (_V.
+tricolor_), plantain (_Plantago_), or groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_),
+and then hybernates till the following March. It is fully grown in May,
+and then spins a light cocoon, with which its hairs are interwoven,
+among the leaves of its food plant.
+
+
+_The Tiger_ (_Arctia caia_)
+
+This splendid moth is exceedingly variable in its colour and markings,
+but its usual appearance corresponds closely with that of the
+illustration on Plate X (fig. 3). In some specimens the cream colour
+almost entirely covers the fore wings, while in others all four of the
+wings are completely covered with shades of brown. This insect is
+probably known to all my readers, for it is abundant everywhere.
+
+The larva is as well known as the perfect insect. It is a kind of
+universal feeder, partaking readily of almost every low-growing plant,
+with perhaps a special partiality for dead nettles (_Lamium album_ and
+_L. purpureum_). It feeds also on the lime tree (_Tilia vulgaris_), and
+is commonly met with on apple trees and on the various plants of our
+flower beds. The young caterpillar makes its appearance in the autumn,
+and hybernates after feeding for two or three weeks only. It is full
+grown in June, when it spins a silken cocoon, and changes to a shiny
+black chrysalis.
+
+The ground colour of the larva is black, but it is covered all over with
+long hairs, those down the middle of the back being grey, and the others
+brown. This familiar larva is known popularly as the Woolly Bear.
+
+
+_The Cream-spot Tiger_ (_Arctia villica_)
+
+There is yet another Tiger--the Cream-spot--too beautiful and too common
+to be excluded from our list. It is represented on Plate X (fig. 4);
+and, like the others of its genus, is so boldly marked that mistaken
+identity is impossible.
+
+It is a very sluggish moth, more often seen at rest than on the wing,
+and will suffer itself to be roughly handled without making any attempt
+to escape.
+
+The caterpillar may be observed on sunny banks, generally feeding on
+chickweed (_Stellaria media_) but sometimes on various other low-growing
+weeds, including the dock and the dandelion. Its colour is black, with
+red head and legs, and its body is covered with long brown hairs. It
+commences to feed in the autumn, hybernates throughout the winter, and
+is full grown in May, towards the end of which month it changes to a
+black chrysalis within a light silken web.
+
+The perfect insect appears in June.
+
+
+_The Buff Ermine_ (_Spilosoma lubricipeda_)
+
+The _Cheloniidae_ also include three moths that are popularly known as
+the Ermines, two of which--the Buff and the White--are exceedingly
+common, and are among the constant visitors to our gardens during June
+and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114.--THE BUFF ERMINE.]
+
+The Buff Ermine has all four wings of a buff or ochreous tint, and
+spotted with black as here represented.
+
+The caterpillar is whitish, with a white line down the middle of the
+back, and its body is covered with long light brown hairs. It feeds on
+the dock (_Rumex_) and many other low-growing plants during August and
+September, and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, lying within a
+loose cocoon on the surface of the ground.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115.--THE WHITE ERMINE.]
+
+
+_The White Ermine_ (_Spilosoma Menthastri_)
+
+In this species the wings are of a pale cream colour, and the dots of
+the fore wings are more uniformly distributed than in the last. Its
+habits and life history closely correspond with those of _Lubricipeda_,
+and its larva may be found feeding on the same plants.
+
+This latter may be distinguished from the caterpillar of the last
+species by the dark brown or black colour of the body, and the presence
+of an orange line down the back. It is covered with long brown hairs.
+
+
+Family--HEPIALIDAE
+
+The five species which compose this family are known as the Swifts, a
+title which they have earned by their rather rapid flight. Their wings
+are narrow, and the antennae very short.
+
+In the larval state they are long, naked and unsightly grubs, that live
+under the surface of the ground and feed on the roots of plants. The
+chrysalides are armed with short spines projecting from the segments.
+
+
+_The Ghost Swift_ (_Hepialus Humuli_)
+
+One of the commonest of these moths is the Ghost Swift, which may be
+seen in hundreds on waste places in the south of England during the
+month of June. The wings of the male are white, with a silky gloss, and
+a very narrow brown margin. The fore wings of the female are yellow,
+marked with irregular reddish lines. The hind wings are of a dull smoke
+colour.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116.--THE GHOST SWIFT--FEMALE.]
+
+The larva is pale yellow, with a brown head, and a brown horny plate on
+the front of the second segment. It feeds throughout the winter on the
+roots of numerous plants, including the dock, dandelion, burdock, white
+dead nettle, black horehound, and the hop.
+
+
+_The Common Swift_ (_Hepialus lupulinus_)
+
+The fore wings of the male of this species are brown, with a bent
+whitish streak, sometimes broken, passing from the base to the middle of
+the inner margin, and then to the apex. The hind wings are smoke
+coloured, with a light brownish fringe. The female is much less
+distinctly marked, and presents a rather dingy appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.--THE COMMON SWIFT.]
+
+The larva is dingy white, with brown horny plates on the second, third
+and fourth segments. It feeds on the roots of dead nettles (_Lamium
+album_ and _L. purpureum_), black horehound (_Ballota nigra_), and
+various other herbaceous plants, throughout the winter months, and is
+full grown in April.
+
+This insect is abundant everywhere in waste places, and may be seen on
+the wing in May and June.
+
+
+Family--COSSIDAE
+
+The members of this family have longer antennae than the _Hepialidae_, and
+the females are provided with extended ovipositors which enable them to
+place their eggs in the deep crevices of the bark of trees.
+
+The larvae are naked or only very slightly hairy, and have a plate on the
+second segment. They feed on the wood of trees or the interior of the
+stems of reeds. The pupae have spiny projections on each segment.
+
+
+_The Goat Moth_ (_Cossus ligniperda_)
+
+There are only three British species of this family, the largest of
+which is the Goat Moth, so called on account of the characteristic odour
+of the larva, an odour said to resemble that emitted by the goat.
+
+The fore wings of this fine moth are pale brown, clouded with white, and
+marked by numerous wavy transverse lines. The hind wings are somewhat
+similar, but of a duller tint, and the markings are less distinct. Its
+average breadth from tip to tip is over three inches, and it sometimes
+reaches nearly four inches.
+
+The larva is a most interesting creature. It is dark reddish brown on
+the back, and flesh colour beneath; and its head is intensely black. It
+feeds on the solid wood of the willow, poplar, oak, elm, and other
+trees. The infected trees are often so riddled with the burrows of these
+larvae that they are completely destroyed, and the presence of the
+intruders is frequently indicated by a heap of small chips of wood lying
+on the ground near the roots. The odour of the larvae, too, is so
+powerful, that there is generally no difficulty in ascertaining their
+whereabouts by it alone.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118.--THE GOAT MOTH.]
+
+It is not always in living trees, however, that we find these creatures,
+for they often feed on rotting wood, such as the remains of old palings
+and posts, that lie on the ground in damp places.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.--THE LARVA OF LIGNIPERDA (LESS THAN HALF FULL
+SIZE).]
+
+When fully grown they construct a strong cocoon of chips of wood, bound
+together by silk, and within this they change to the chrysalis.
+
+The moth emerges in June or July, and is commonly found resting on the
+bark of willows and poplars during the daytime.
+
+
+_The Leopard Moth_ (_Zeuzera pyrina_)
+
+The wings of this species are white and semi-transparent, and marked
+with numerous bluish-black spots in such a way as to remind one of the
+skin of the leopard. Its body is very long, and the antennae of the male
+are doubly fringed for about half their length from the base.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120.--THE LEOPARD MOTH.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the wood of various trees--elm, apple, pear,
+ash, alder, poplar, horse chestnut, birch, lilac, and several others. It
+is yellowish, with black shiny spots, and a black plate on the second
+segment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121.--THE LARVA OF PYRINA (ONLY PARTLY GROWN).]
+
+The moth appears in July, and is widely distributed. It is attracted by
+bright lights, but the best way to obtain it is to search the trunks and
+branches of trees that are known to harbour the larvae early in the
+morning, and so obtain newly emerged specimens.
+
+
+Family--LIPARIDAE
+
+Passing over the two small species which are the only British
+representatives of the family _Cochliopodidae_, we come to the
+interesting _Liparidae_, the remarkable feature of which is that most of
+the caterpillars are adorned with brush-like tufts of hair, and even the
+chrysalides are hairy.
+
+The perfect insects are not brilliantly coloured, but generally display
+very pale tints; and the antennae of the males are pectinated or
+feathered.
+
+
+_The Brown Tail_ (_Porthesia chrysorrh[oe]a_)
+
+The family contains two moths--the Brown Tail and the Yellow Tail--that
+are very similar in appearance and habits. Both have white wings, and
+their bodies also are white with the exception of the tuft of coloured
+hair at the tip of the abdomen, which gives the names to the species.
+Their larvae may both be found feeding on the same trees (whitethorn),
+and both change to a brown hairy chrysalis within a loose cocoon among
+the leaves.
+
+The larva of _Chrysorrh[oe]a_ is black, with four rows of little
+wart-like projections on each side, from which proceed little tufts of
+hairs. These hairs are reddish with the exception of one row on each
+side, which is white. The tenth and eleventh segments have each a
+scarlet tubercle, and there are also other small spots of the same
+colour on some of the front segments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 122.--THE BROWN TAIL.]
+
+The larva feeds on the blackthorn in addition to the tree mentioned
+above, and is full grown in June. The moth flies in August.
+
+
+_The Gipsy_ (_Ocneria dispar_)
+
+The fore wings of the male are smoky brown, with darker markings,
+including a V-shaped black mark near the centre. The hind wings are
+brown, darker near the margin. The female is dingy yellowish white, with
+darker markings arranged as in the male. The male is much inferior in
+size, and its antennae are very strongly pectinated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 123.--THE GIPSY--MALE.]
+
+The larva is brownish black, finely dotted with yellowish grey. There is
+a grey stripe down the middle of the back, and six tubercles on each
+segment give rise to tufts of long hair. It feeds on the whitethorn
+(_Crataegus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and various
+fruit trees.
+
+The caterpillar is full grown in June, and the moth appears in August.
+
+
+_The Black Arches_ (_Psilura Monacha_)
+
+The fore wings of the Black Arches are white, marked with zigzag black
+lines as shown in our illustration. The hind wings are smoky grey. The
+hinder segments of the abdomen are banded with black and rose-pink. The
+male is much smaller than the female, and has the antennae strongly
+pectinated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 124.--THE BLACK ARCHES--MALE.]
+
+The caterpillar is hairy, and of a greyish-white colour. A brown stripe
+runs down the back. On the top of the second segment are two blue
+tubercles; and there is also a tubercle, of a reddish colour, on each of
+the ninth, tenth, and eleventh segments. It feeds on the oak, birch,
+fir, and the apple; and is full grown in June or July.
+
+The moth flies during July and August.
+
+
+_The Vapourer Moth_ (_Orgyia antiqua_)
+
+During the hottest summer months, and particularly in August and
+September, a rather small brown moth may be seen almost everywhere,
+flying rapidly and in a very erratic manner in the bright rays of the
+midday sun. This is the common Vapourer Moth, which may be known at once
+by its bright chestnut colour, with darker transverse markings, and a
+white crescent-shaped spot in the anal angle of the fore wings. It seems
+somewhat partial to civilised life, for it frequents the streets of our
+metropolis, even in the very densely populated parts; and the larva is
+one of the commonest of the insect forms infesting our gardens and
+squares.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 125.--THE VAPOURER MOTH--MALE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 126.--THE FEMALE VAPOURER.]
+
+The caterpillar is variously coloured; but the prevailing tints are dark
+brown, grey, and pink. On the second segment are two long tufts of hair
+directed forward, and on the twelfth segment a similar tuft directed
+backward. On each of the segments five to eight inclusive is a
+brush-like tuft of yellowish hairs. It feeds on almost every tree
+usually to be found in parks and gardens.
+
+When fully grown it spins a web on the bark of a tree, or on a wall or
+fence, and changes to a hairy chrysalis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 127.--LARVA OF THE VAPOURER MOTH.]
+
+The female of this species is wingless, and never moves away from the
+cocoon out of which she has crawled, but lays her eggs on the outside of
+the silken web, and there remains to die.
+
+The clusters of eggs may be found in abundance throughout the winter
+months.
+
+
+Family--BOMBYCIDAE
+
+This family contains eleven thick-bodied moths, mostly of large size, in
+which the predominating colours are greys and browns. Their hind wings
+are generally paler than the front pair, and less distinctly marked; and
+the antennae of the males are pectinated.
+
+The caterpillars are very hairy, but the hairs are uniformly
+distributed, and not arranged in tufts as in the larvae of the last
+family.
+
+The chrysalides are inclosed in silken cocoons, but are not hairy.
+
+We shall briefly examine three of the members of this family.
+
+
+_The Oak Eggar_ (_Bombyx Quercus_)
+
+The male of this species is shown on Plate X (fig. 5). The female is
+much larger, and of a pale tawny colour.
+
+The ground colour of the caterpillar is black; but it is so closely
+covered with short yellowish brown hairs that the black is scarcely
+visible, excepting when the creature rolls itself up into a ring, which
+it does when alarmed. The spiracles are white, and there is a series of
+white spots down the middle of the back and along each side. It feeds on
+whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_), heather (_Calluna_, _Erica_), poplar
+(_Populus nigra_), and various other plants and trees.
+
+As a rule the larva hybernates through the winter, is full grown in the
+following May, and the moth appears in July; but in Scotland the
+caterpillar does not spin its cocoon till September, hybernates in the
+chrysalis state, and emerges in the following June. The same is true of
+the Cornish Eggars; but along the coast of South Devon both varieties
+are to be met with.
+
+The male Eggar seems to enjoy the bright sunshine, for I have seen large
+numbers flying over the rugged cliffs of the south-west throughout all
+hours of the day.
+
+
+_The Drinker_ (_Odonestis potatoria_)
+
+The popular name of this species is applied on account of a peculiar
+feature of the larva, which sucks up the dewdrop that lies on its food
+plant.
+
+The colour of the male is tawny and brown, with a reddish tinge; that of
+the female is yellow. The front wing has an oblique dark bar passing
+from the apex to the middle of the inner margin; also two white
+spots--one in the middle of the wing, and the other between it and the
+costal margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 128.--THE DRINKER--MALE.]
+
+The caterpillar is dark bluish grey above, and has a line of orange
+spots on each side. Along the spiracles are oblique orange streaks, and
+a series of tufts of white hair. It feeds on the annual meadow-grass
+(_Poa annua_), and several other grasses. It is a hybernator, commencing
+its caterpillar state in the autumn, and reaching its full dimensions
+about the end of the following May.
+
+The moth flies during July and August.
+
+
+_The Lappet_ (_Lasiocampa quercifolia_)
+
+Our last example of the _Bombycidae_ is the Lappet (Plate X, fig. 6), a
+large moth, the female often measuring considerably over three inches
+from tip to tip. The wings are of a rich reddish brown, and exhibit a
+beautiful purplish bloom in a newly emerged insect. Scalloped black
+lines pass transversely across each wing, and a small black dot lies
+near the centre of the fore wings.
+
+The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is usually grey or
+reddish brown. A deep purple band lies between the second and third
+segments, and another between the third and fourth. On the twelfth there
+is a small hump, and a pale stripe, more or less distinct, runs along
+each side. It feeds on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), buckthorn
+(_Rhamnus catharticus_), and the white willow (_Salix alba_).
+
+The moth is not uncommon, and is on the wing in June.
+
+
+Family--ENDROMIDAE
+
+_The Kentish Glory_ (_Endromis versicolor_)
+
+The beautiful Kentish Glory is the only British representative of its
+family. The male is shown in Plate X (fig. 7); the female is larger and
+similarly marked, but its colours are not so bright.
+
+This moth is not common, but may be seen occasionally in the birch woods
+of the southern counties. The males fly rapidly in the bright sunshine,
+but the females must be searched for on the bark and branches of the
+trees.
+
+The eggs are laid in April on the twigs of the birch (_Betula alba_),
+and the young caterpillar emerges early in May. It is gregarious at
+first, but loses its social tendencies as it gets older. When full
+grown, it is of a pale green colour, with white spiracles, a dark green
+line down the back, and an oblique white stripe on each side of each
+segment. The sides are dotted with black and brown, and there is a
+conspicuous hump on the top of the twelfth segment.
+
+When fully grown it spins a cocoon among the dead leaves beneath the
+tree, and in this it spends the winter months in the chrysalis state.
+
+
+Family--SATURNIIDAE
+
+_The Emperor Moth_ (_Saturnia pavonia_)
+
+Here is another family with but one British member; but in this, as in
+the last case, the only representative is a really beautiful insect. The
+male _Pavonia_ is shown on Plate X (fig. 8), and will need no written
+description as an aid to its identification. The female is larger, and
+similarly marked, but the ground colour of the wings is pale grey.
+
+This moth is abundant almost everywhere, and may be looked for in the
+neighbourhood of heaths and woods early in the month of May.
+
+The larva feeds on a large number of plants and trees, among which may
+be mentioned the willow (_Salix alba_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_),
+elder (_Sambucus nigra_), whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_), bramble
+(_Rubus fruticosus_), heaths (_Erica tetralix_ and _E. cinerea_), and
+the meadow-sweet (_Spiraea ulmaria_). Its colour is a lovely green; and
+each segment has several pink tubercles, each surrounded by a black
+ring, and giving rise to a tuft of short black hairs. The spiracles are
+orange.
+
+In the autumn it spins a pear-shaped cocoon of silk, open at the small
+end (fig. 28).
+
+It may here be mentioned in passing that, in the case of some of the
+larger moths of the few preceding families, the young entomologist is
+likely to meet with larvae more frequently than the perfect insect. These
+moths, however, are mostly very hardy and easily reared; and a beginner
+cannot do better than endeavour to obtain either ova or larvae, in order
+that he may be able to watch the different species through their various
+stages.
+
+
+Family--DREPANULIDAE
+
+We now reach a family containing six small moths that differ in many
+important particulars from those we have just been considering. They are
+of such slender build that a beginner may easily mistake them for
+Geometers. Their wings, though small, are broad, and well proportioned
+to their bodies. In five cases out of the six the front wings are more
+or less hooked at the tips, and on this account the moths in question
+are called the Hook Tips.
+
+The larvae are not hairy, but they all have little fleshy projections on
+their backs. Their bodies also taper to a point behind, and the last
+pair of claspers are wanting, so that they have only fourteen walking
+appendages. When at rest they usually fix themselves by their claspers
+only, their pointed 'tails' being directed slightly upward, and all the
+front segments being also elevated. When about to change, they descend
+to the ground, and spin their cocoons among dead leaves.
+
+Two only of this family can receive an individual notice.
+
+
+_The Oak Hook Tip_ (_Drepana binaria_)
+
+This can hardly be described as a very common moth, but it is fairly
+plentiful in the woods of the southern counties of England.
+
+Its wings are yellowish brown, marked with two lighter transverse lines.
+There are two black spots between the lines of the fore wings. The
+antennae of the male are pectinated; those of the female simple. The
+latter sex is further distinguished by the paler colour of the hind
+wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 129.--THE OAK HOOK TIP.]
+
+The larva is brown, with a broad stripe, edged with yellow, down the
+back. There are two projections on the back of the fourth segment. It
+feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_) and birch (_Betula alba_).
+
+This moth is double-brooded, and may be seen on the wing in June and
+August. The larva may be beaten from the above-mentioned trees in June
+and July, and again in September.
+
+
+_The Chinese Character_ (_Cilix glaucata_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are white, with a broad dark blotch from
+the inner margin to near the costa. The central portion of this blotch
+is marked with silvery spots which are said to resemble Chinese
+characters. The hind margin is shaded with a dark grey border, inside
+which is a row of dark spots. The hind wings are clouded with grey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 130.--THE CHINESE CHARACTER.]
+
+This moth is widely distributed, and seems to be common throughout
+England. It is double brooded, the first brood appearing in May and
+June, and the second in August.
+
+The caterpillar, which is brown, with two prominent tubercles on each of
+the third and fourth segments, feeds on the whitethorn (_Crataegus
+oxyacantha_), and the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_).
+
+
+Family--DICRANURIDAE
+
+The five British species that represent this family are such interesting
+insects that we should like to have given a detailed description of all
+of them, but our limited space will allow of no more than an outline of
+the general characteristics of the group and a selection of two for
+individual mention.
+
+They are thick-bodied moths, and the prevailing colours are white and
+shades of grey. The antennae are pectinated in the males, and, with the
+exception of the Lobster Moth (_Fagi_), in the females also.
+
+The larvae, like those of the last family, have no anal claspers, and
+stand, when at rest, with both ends of the body raised. They have two
+'tails' projecting from the last segment. The largest of them (the
+Puss), and three smaller species (Kittens) that closely resemble it in
+habits, all construct hard cocoons to be presently described; but the
+larva of the Lobster Moth spins a light cocoon among the leaves of
+trees.
+
+They all spend the winter in the chrysalis state.
+
+
+_The Poplar Kitten_ (_Dicranura bifida_)
+
+Our illustration shows the arrangement of the white and grey on the
+wings of this moth, but the other Kittens (_Bicuspis_ and _Furcula_) so
+closely resemble it that it is necessary to point out a mark of
+distinction. It will be observed that the fore wings are crossed by a
+broad grey band, edged with black. This band, in the present species, is
+almost of the same width throughout, its interior margin being almost
+straight, and the exterior one slightly concave. In _Furcula_, the outer
+margin of the band is generally sharply bent inward just below the
+costa. In _Bicuspis_ the grey band varies considerably in shape, but
+both this and the dark blotch near the tip of the wing are more sharply
+defined than in the other two species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 131.--THE POPLAR KITTEN.]
+
+The caterpillar is green, dotted with brown, and has a brown stripe on
+the back. This stripe is broken on the third segment, and widens out on
+the eighth and thirteenth segments. It feeds on the Poplar (_Populus
+nigra_) and Aspen (_P. tremula_).
+
+When full grown it descends to the trunk of the tree, and constructs a
+very hard cocoon of a glutinous substance from its own body mingled with
+little pieces of the bark that it removes for the purpose. Thus made,
+the cocoon so closely resembles the surrounding bark that detection is
+very difficult. I have frequently found these cocoons on the inner
+surface of loose bark.
+
+This moth is widely distributed, and may be searched for in June and
+July. The larva feeds during August and September.
+
+
+_The Puss_ (_Dicranura vinula_)
+
+No written description is necessary in this case, the illustration
+easily serving for identification. This beautiful moth flies in May and
+June, and is common everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 132.--THE PUSS MOTH.]
+
+The caterpillar is a very interesting creature. It is green, with a hump
+on the fourth segment, and a patch of brown from the fourth segment to
+the tail. This patch is very wide on the eighth segment, but tapers to a
+point on the thirteenth. The two horns are rather long and rough, and
+from each of them a very slender pink filament is protruded when the
+caterpillar is irritated.
+
+It constructs a cocoon very similar to that of _Bifida_, though of
+course larger, on the bark of the tree on which it fed, generally three
+or four feet from the ground. It feeds on sallows, willows, and poplars,
+and may be found during July and August.
+
+
+Family--NOTODONTIDAE
+
+_The Coxcomb Prominent_ (_Lophopteryx camelina_)
+
+The family _Notodontidae_ contains several moths of somewhat varied
+appearance, but foremost among them are the 'Prominents,' distinguished
+by a conspicuous projection on the inner margin of the fore wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 133.--THE COXCOMB PROMINENT.]
+
+Our example of this group is the Coxcomb Prominent.
+
+Its fore wings are brown, with darker markings arranged as shown in the
+illustration; and the hind margins are scalloped. The hind wings are
+much paler, with a dark brown patch in the anal angle.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with a yellowish line on each side. The
+spiracles are black, and there are two small humps on the twelfth
+segment. It feeds during August, September, and October, on various
+trees, including the oak, birch, poplar, hazel, and alder.
+
+The moth flies from June to August, and is moderately common and widely
+distributed.
+
+
+Family--PYGAERIDAE
+
+_The Buff Tip_ (_Phalera bucephala_)
+
+The first of our two examples of this small family is the common and
+destructive Buff Tip. The perfect insect is represented on Plate X, fig.
+9, and is too well known to require a lengthy description. During June
+and July it may be seen resting on the bark of trees almost everywhere,
+with its wings folded closely round its body, and its antennae tucked
+under the wings, looking just like a piece of stick, or a projection of
+the bark on which it sits.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 134.--THE LARVA OF BUCEPHALA.]
+
+The caterpillars appear towards the end of June, and may be seen in
+dense clusters on lime and other trees, sometimes twenty or thirty
+huddled together on a single leaf. As they grow larger they retain their
+gregarious tendencies, and often completely strip the leaves from large
+branches. They are of a dull yellow colour, hairy, and have seven broken
+black lines, one along the middle of the back, and three on each side.
+The head and legs are black.
+
+When full grown, they descend to the root of the tree, burrow into the
+soil, and there remain in the chrysalis state till the following June.
+The chief food plants of this species are the lime (_Tilia vulgaris_),
+elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and hazel (_Corylus Avellana_).
+
+
+_The Chocolate Tip_ (_Pygaera curtula_)
+
+This species is not nearly so common as the last, but is to be met with
+more or less in most of the English counties in the month of May.
+
+Its fore wings are light greyish brown, crossed with four transverse
+paler streaks, and tipped with a patch of chocolate brown. The hind
+wings are pale yellowish grey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 135.--THE CHOCOLATE TIP.]
+
+The young caterpillars feed in companies between leaves which they have
+spun together, but when nearly full grown they cease to be gregarious.
+They are also very different in appearance at different ages. When fully
+fed, the larva is of a reddish-grey colour, spotted with black, with a
+double row of orange-coloured warts on each side. There is also a little
+black hump on each of the fifth and twelfth segments.
+
+The food plants of this species are sallows (_Salix caprea_ and _S.
+cinerea_), poplar (_Populus nigra_), and aspen (_P. tremula_).
+
+
+Family--CYMATOPHORIDAE
+
+This, the last family of the _Bombyces_, contains seven species of
+moderate size, the larvae of which are either quite smooth or have small
+warty prominences. The seven species are grouped into three genera, from
+two of which we shall select a representative.
+
+
+_The Peach Blossom_ (_Thyatira Batis_)
+
+The popular name of this pretty little moth is given on account of the
+resemblance of the pink patches of its olive-brown fore wings to the
+petals of the peach flower. It is a moderately common moth, widely
+distributed in England and Ireland, and flies during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 136.--THE PEACH BLOSSOM.]
+
+The caterpillar is marbled with reddish grey and brown, and has a hump
+on the third segment, and a smaller prominence on each of the segments
+six to ten inclusive. It feeds on the bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_)
+during August and September, and spends the winter in the chrysalis
+state, inclosed in a loose cocoon among the dead leaves at the root of
+its food plant.
+
+
+_The Yellow-horned_ (_Asphalia flavicornis_)
+
+This is one of the earliest of our moths, appearing on the wing in
+March, when it may be attracted by means of sugar placed on the bark of
+the birch (_Betula alba_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 137.--THE YELLOW-HORNED.]
+
+The wings are grey, with a decidedly greenish tinge, crossed by three
+dark lines near the base, and two others, which are zigzag, just outside
+the centre. Between these two sets of lines is a conspicuous round pale
+spot. The hind wings are greyish brown, darker along the hind margin.
+
+The larva, which feeds on the above-named tree, is pale greenish, with
+both white and black dots. It rolls itself up in a leaf, and seldom
+ventures out of the retreat thus formed. It is fully fed in July or
+August.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+_THE NOCTUAE_
+
+
+We have already noticed that several of our moths fly by day; that some
+come out of their hiding places at dusk, and settle down again to rest
+before the deepest shadows of night fall; and that others prefer the
+darkest hours of the night. The tribe of moths we are next to consider
+includes the greater number (about three hundred) of our truly nocturnal
+species, hence the name that heads this chapter.
+
+They are generally of a somewhat dingy appearance, the prevailing
+colours being dull shades of grey, drab, and brown. So closely, in fact,
+do certain of them resemble each other, that the greatest care has to be
+exercised in the identification of species--a task that is rendered
+still more difficult by the variations that we observe in the tints and
+markings of certain species.
+
+These moths have generally rather stout bodies. Their fore wings are
+somewhat narrow, and, when the insects are at rest, these are brought
+close to the body, and the hind pair are folded up beneath them.
+
+
+Family--BRYOPHILIDAE
+
+_The Marbled Beauty_ (_Bryophila Perla_)
+
+Our first family--the _Bryophilidae_--contains only four British species.
+These are small and slender-bodied moths, whose larvae feed in early
+morning on the lichens that cover stones and old walls, and conceal
+themselves by day in holes and chinks and under stones.
+
+The Marbled Beauty is the only moth of this family that may be
+described as common with us. It is abundant in nearly every English
+county, as well as in parts of Scotland and Ireland.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 138.--THE MARBLED BEAUTY.]
+
+Its wings are very pale grey, marked with a darker bluish grey, as shown
+in the engraving. These markings are variable, but the bases of the fore
+wings have always a dark blotch, followed by a patch of pale grey or
+white, extending the whole width of the wing. The moth may be found from
+the beginning of July to the middle of September.
+
+The larva feeds from February to April. It is black above, with a broad
+orange-bordered stripe down the back; and its body is covered with small
+warts, each of which bears a single hair.
+
+
+Family--BOMBYCOIDAE
+
+In this family there are sixteen British moths, several of which are
+exceedingly common. They are much larger than the _Bryophilidae_, and of
+a much stouter build. The larvae are covered with little hair-bearing
+warts, and are, indeed, often so hairy that they may be mistaken for the
+caterpillars of the _Bombyces_.
+
+
+_The Grey Dagger_ (_Acronycta Psi_)
+
+This is the commonest of all the _Bombycoidae_. It may be found at rest
+on tree trunks and palings during the daytime throughout the summer. Its
+fore wings are pale grey, with four conspicuous black marks, one of
+which--that in the anal angle--resembles the Greek letter _psi_ ([psi])
+placed sideways.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 139.--THE GREY DAGGER.]
+
+The larva is black or very dark grey, with a pale yellow line down the
+back, and a black hump on each of the fifth and twelfth segments, that
+on the fifth being much larger than the other. It feeds in the autumn on
+lime (_Tilia vulgaris_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), whitethorn
+(_Crataegus oxyacantha_), fruit trees, and various other trees, shrubs,
+and herbs.
+
+The moth called the Dark Dagger (_Tridens_) is hardly to be
+distinguished from _Psi_. It is not really any darker, and its markings
+are almost exactly similar; but the larva is very different.
+
+
+_The Poplar Grey_ (_Acronycta megacephala_)
+
+This is also a very common moth, to be found in all the southern and
+midland counties, wherever poplars abound, during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 140.--THE POPLAR GREY.]
+
+Its fore wings are grey, marbled with a very dark grey. A little inside
+the middle of these wings, near the costa, is a round spot with a dark
+centre. This spot is represented in a large number of the _Noctuae_, and
+is known as the _orbicular_. It will be observed that in the present
+species it is very distinct.
+
+The caterpillar is dark grey, with a line of black dots down the back;
+and it has a number of little warts, bearing hairs. On the back of the
+eleventh segment is a rather large pale spot. It feeds during August on
+various species of poplar, and changes to a chrysalis in a crevice of
+the bark.
+
+
+_The Figure of Eight_ (_Diloba caeruleocephala_)
+
+The fore wings are brownish grey. Near the middle of the wing, but
+nearer the costa than the inner margin, are two whitish spots that
+resemble the figure 8. The hind wings are dull brownish grey, with
+darker wing rays, and a dark spot near the centre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 141.--THE FIGURE OF EIGHT.]
+
+This moth is common in all parts, and flies during September.
+
+The caterpillar emerges from the egg in spring, and is fully grown in
+May or June. It is of a very pale colour--yellowish or greenish--with a
+broad and broken yellow stripe down the back, and a bluish or greenish
+stripe on each side. Its head is blue (hence the specific name) with two
+black spots. It feeds on the hawthorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_) and
+various fruit trees; and on the twigs of these (especially the hawthorn)
+the little clusters of eggs may be seen during the winter.
+
+
+Family--LEUCANIIDAE
+
+In this family we have a number of rather small moths, with, generally,
+no markings on their wings, save, perhaps, a few dots or streaks.
+
+Their larvae feed principally on grasses and reeds, and change to the
+chrysalis state either in a cocoon among the food plants, or under the
+surface of the ground.
+
+Several of these insects are very common, and most of them abound in
+fens and marshes.
+
+
+_The Brown-line Bright-eye_ (_Leucania conigera_)
+
+The fore wings are yellowish brown. The 'brown line' is a transverse
+line parallel with the hind margin, and distant from it about one-fourth
+the length of the wing. Another dark brown line, describing a sharp
+bend, passes across the wing near the base. The 'bright eye' is a light
+spot just outside the centre of the wing, nearer the costa than the
+inner margin. This is another of those marks that occur very constantly
+in the wings of the _Noctuae_. It lies beyond the _orbicular_ spot, and
+is usually somewhat kidney-shaped, and is consequently named the
+_reniform_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 142.--THE BROWN-LINE BRIGHT-EYE.]
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish or greyish, with a pale dorsal line edged
+with black. On each side of this is a broad black line, below which is a
+yellow line edged with black, then a whitish stripe, next a yellow line
+edged with black on the upper side, and lastly a broad brownish line,
+just above the spiracles, edged with black on both sides. It feeds on
+couch grass (_Agropyron repens_) and various other grasses, and is fully
+grown in May.
+
+The moth flies in July and August, and is common throughout the United
+Kingdom.
+
+
+_The Smoky Wainscot_ (_Leucania impura_)
+
+This same genus includes a number of moths, very similar in general
+appearance, and popularly known as the 'Wainscots.' Of these we shall
+take two examples.
+
+The first is the Smoky Wainscot, so called from the dark smoky tint of
+the hind wings. Its fore wings are wainscot brown, with lighter rays;
+and they each have three black dots arranged in the form of a triangle,
+one in the centre, and the other two between this and the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 143.--THE SMOKY WAINSCOT.]
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish, with a fine white line down the back. The
+spiracles are red, and inclosed in black rings. It feeds on sedges
+(_Carex_) from March to May.
+
+The moth is on the wing from June to August.
+
+
+_The Common Wainscot_ (_Leucania pallens_)
+
+This moth is very much like the last. The fore wings exhibit the same
+three dots, but it may be distinguished by the pale colour of the hind
+wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 144.--THE COMMON WAINSCOT.]
+
+The larva feeds on various grasses in March and April. It is of a
+pinkish grey colour, with two rows of black dots on each side of the
+dorsal line. There are also three stripes along the side, two of which
+are brownish and the other grey.
+
+The moth is common everywhere from June to August.
+
+
+_The Bullrush_ (_Nonagria arundinis_)
+
+Our last example of this family is the Bullrush, a moth that is common
+in all parts where its food plant abounds.
+
+It is much larger than the two preceding species. The fore wings are
+yellowish brown, with three parallel transverse lines of black spots.
+The hind wings are whitish, tinged with brown near the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 145.--THE BULLRUSH.]
+
+The caterpillar is of a dull pinkish colour, with a shining brownish
+plate on the second segment. The spiracles are black. It feeds inside
+the stems of the reed-mace (_Typha latifolia_), and changes to a
+chrysalis within the gallery it has excavated, after making a hole
+through which it can escape when it attains the perfect form.
+
+The caterpillar may be found in May and June, the chrysalis in August,
+and the moth in September.
+
+
+Family--APAMEIDAE
+
+This large family contains no less than forty-four British species, many
+of which are exceedingly common; and of the others only about half a
+dozen can be regarded as rare.
+
+Most of them are of medium size, and with one or two exceptions are
+dressed in rather dingy garbs; but, although the ground colours are
+dull, the various markings of the wings are sharply defined. They may be
+searched for on palings and the bark of trees by day, at which time they
+repose with their wings sloping like the sides of the roof of a house.
+Some are easily attracted by lights, and others partake freely of the
+entomologist's 'sugar.'
+
+The larvae have small retractile heads, and feed on low-growing plants,
+keeping themselves well concealed on the lower leaves close to the
+ground.
+
+
+_The Frosted Orange_ (_Gortyna Ochracea_)
+
+We commence with one of the brightest members of the family, the Frosted
+Orange. Its fore wings are dark yellow or ochreous, with distinct brown
+markings, the chief of which are two broad transverse bands. The
+orbicular spot is pale yellow and very distinct. The hind wings are
+dingy yellow. This moth flies from July to September, and is easily
+attracted by a light at night. It is common everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 146.--THE FROSTED ORANGE.]
+
+The larva is yellow, dotted with black, with a brownish plate on the
+second segment. It feeds inside the stems of a number of plants,
+including the marsh thistle (_Cnicus palustris_), musk thistle (_Carduus
+nutans_), burdock (_Arctium minus_), mullein (_Verbascum thapsus_),
+foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), and elder (_Sambucus nigra_). When
+about to change to the chrysalis it eats _nearly_ to the surface of the
+stem, leaving only a very thin and transparent layer of the epidermis to
+cover the hole through which it is to escape when it becomes a moth.
+
+The caterpillars are to be found in June, and the chrysalides in July.
+
+
+_The Flame_ (_Axylia putris_)
+
+This also is a pretty insect, but much smaller than _Ochracea_. It is
+common in most parts, and may be seen flying in weedy and waste grounds
+at dusk during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 147.--THE FLAME.]
+
+The fore wings are pale pinkish brown, with dark brown along the costa,
+and two patches of the same colour on the hind margin. There is also a
+double line of small brown dots parallel with the hind margin.
+
+The larva is brown, with one yellow and two white dots on each segment.
+There is also a triangular dark patch on each of the fifth and sixth
+segments. It feeds during August on the stinging nettle (_Urtica
+dioica_), and various other low herbs.
+
+
+_The Light Arches_ (_Xylophasia lithoxylea_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are very light ochreous, with a light
+brown patch on the middle of the costa, and patches of the same colour
+along the hind margin; also a row of small black dots parallel with the
+same margin. The hind wings are pale ochreous: they are brownish along
+the hind margin, and have a light fringe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 148.--THE LIGHT ARCHES.]
+
+The moth is very common in waste places, and flies in June and July.
+
+The caterpillar is of a dirty white colour, dotted with black, and has a
+black head. It feeds on the roots of grasses in May.
+
+
+_The Flounced Rustic_ (_Luperina testacea_)
+
+The fore wings are greyish brown, with darker umber-brown markings.
+These latter are variable, but the most conspicuous is a series of dark
+crescent-shaped spots almost parallel with the hind margin, and
+immediately outside these is a series of paler crescents.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 149.--THE FLOUNCED RUSTIC.]
+
+The caterpillar is dull flesh-colour, with a brown head, and a brownish
+plate on the second segment. It feeds on the stems of grasses.
+
+The moth is common throughout the British Isles, and flies in August and
+September.
+
+
+_The Cabbage Moth_ (_Mamestra Brassicae_)
+
+Whatever be your methods of moth collecting, you are sure to meet with
+_Brassicae_ in abundance. They swarm round the insect hunter's sugar in
+such numbers as to become a positive nuisance. They are also attracted
+by light. During the day they may be seen at rest on palings. The
+caterpillar is even better known, and with reason, for it is fearfully
+destructive to our vegetables and even our flower beds. It burrows into
+the hearts of cabbages, filling the galleries it makes with its
+excrement, often leaving no very visible outward signs of its presence
+within. But its ravages are by no means confined to cabbages. It eats
+with more or less relish almost every vegetable and flowering plant of
+our gardens, and is equally partial to the various herbs of the field.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 150.--THE CABBAGE MOTH.]
+
+The fore wings of the moth are dingy brownish grey, marbled in a very
+confused manner by darker markings. The _reniform_ spot is very
+distinct, the orbicular less so. A light zigzag line runs parallel with
+the hind margin. It flies in June and July.
+
+The larva feeds later in the season, and changes to the chrysalis
+beneath the soil in the autumn. It is of a dark grey colour, with a
+darker line on the back, and a lighter one along the spiracles, which
+are white.
+
+
+_The Dot_ (_Mamestra Persicariae_)
+
+The conspicuous white reniform spot on the very dark marbled fore wings
+is always sufficient for the identification of this species.
+
+This moth is out in June and July; and during the latter month lays its
+eggs on the elder (_Sambucus nigra_), and the various low plants that
+supply the larva with food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 151.--THE DOT.]
+
+The larva is greenish or greyish, sometimes with a reddish tinge, with a
+light line down the back. The twelfth segment is humped, and there are
+dark V-shaped marks on the back of segments five to twelve inclusive. It
+is full grown in September, and burrows into the ground to undergo its
+change to the chrysalis, in which state it remains throughout the
+winter.
+
+
+_The Rustic Shoulder-knot_ (_Apamea basilinea_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are pale ochreous grey, with light brown
+markings; and there is a short dark streak in the middle of the base,
+from which feature the specific name (_Basilinea_) is derived. The hind
+wings are of a similar colour, but shading into a dark smoke colour at
+the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 152.--THE RUSTIC SHOULDER KNOT.]
+
+The caterpillars feed at first on the grains of wheat, on the ears of
+which the moth deposits the eggs in June. At harvest time they remain
+hidden among the husks, and are often threshed out in large numbers by
+the blows of the flail. The cold weather soon overtakes them, and they
+then spin a cocoon in which to pass the winter. On the approach of
+spring they come out again, and feed by night on various low plants,
+hiding themselves among the roots by day. In March they are full grown,
+and change to brown chrysalides beneath the surface of the ground.
+
+The moth flies in June, and is one of the commonest and most destructive
+of our _Noctuae_.
+
+
+_The Marbled Minor_ (_Miana strigilis_)
+
+The next three genera (_Miana_, _Phothedes_, and _Celaena_) include seven
+small moths known as the 'Minors.' The commonest of them is the Marbled
+Minor, which is to be found in abundance everywhere during June and
+July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 153.--THE MARBLED MINOR.]
+
+This species is very variable, but the fore wings are usually dark
+brown, marbled with a lighter colour--white or grey. There is generally
+an irregular white or pale grey band crossing the wings parallel with
+the hind margin, and two white marks on the inner margin, halfway
+between this band and the base. There is also a deep black blotch across
+the middle of the wing.
+
+The caterpillar is greyish or greenish with paler lines and black
+spiracles. It feeds on grasses in March and April, and changes to a
+chrysalis under the ground in May.
+
+
+Family--CARADRINIDAE
+
+There are only ten British species in this family, two of which are
+rare; and most of the others are particularly dingy. The transverse
+lines so often seen on the fore wings of Noctuae are generally well
+marked. The larvae have short stiff bristles, and feed on low plants;
+they undergo their changes in an earthen cocoon under the ground.
+
+
+_The Mottled Rustic_ (_Caradrina Morpheus_)
+
+We select as our type of this family the Mottled Rustic--a common moth
+that may be procured from June to August. Its fore wings are brownish
+grey, with darker lines and spots; the hind wings are almost white, but
+darker at the tip.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 154.--THE MOTTLED RUSTIC.]
+
+The caterpillar is brownish grey, with a row of triangular spots on each
+side of the back. It is very sluggish, spending the greater part of its
+existence among the roots of low plants. It feeds throughout the winter,
+except during severe weather, and is full grown in April. The food
+plants include teasels (_Dipsacus pilosus_ and _D. sylvestris_), hedge
+bedstraw (_Galium Mollugo_), orpine (_Sedum Telephium_), sallows
+(_Salix_), and various other plants.
+
+The chrysalis may be dug out in May.
+
+
+Family--NOCTUIDAE
+
+A glance at our list of British _Noctuae_ (Appendix I) will show that
+this family contains nearly fifty species and only three genera. It
+includes several very common moths that frequent our gardens and are to
+be met with during almost every summer evening ramble.
+
+Most of the species are very dingy, but the half-dozen that comprise the
+genus _Triphaena_ are characterised by the bright colouring of the hind
+wings. The fore wings are narrow and more or less glossy, and overlap to
+a greater or less extent when the insects are at rest; and the hind
+wings are folded and completely hidden beneath them.
+
+The larvae are rather thick and smooth, and generally of very dingy
+colours. They feed on low plants, often confining their ravages to the
+roots, and generally lie well concealed close to the ground or under the
+surface.
+
+The pupae are brown, smooth, and shining, and are usually inclosed in
+earthen cocoons.
+
+We shall briefly notice a few members of each of the three genera.
+
+
+_The Turnip Moth_ (_Agrotis Segetum_)
+
+This is another of those destructive insects that attack vegetable and
+flower gardens, often doing so much damage to our crops as to become
+quite a nuisance to cultivators.
+
+The moth is decidedly dingy. Its fore wings are brown, clouded with a
+darker tint. The hind wings are almost white, sometimes with a brown
+hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 155.--THE TURNIP MOTH.]
+
+In June it lays its eggs on the stems of young plants, generally very
+close to the ground. As soon as the young caterpillars emerge they
+commence feeding on the lower parts of the stems, or burrowing deeply
+into the larger succulent roots. When the larvae have completed their
+work of destruction in this way, they change to brown chrysalides in the
+ground. Some undergo this change in October, and shortly after give rise
+to a second brood of moths; but most of them remain in the caterpillar
+state throughout the winter, and, contrary to the general rule with
+hybernating larvae, continue to feed almost throughout the winter months,
+and change to the chrysalis in the following May.
+
+The caterpillar grows to a large size. It is of a greyish or greenish
+colour, with a paler line on the back, a light brown line on each side
+of this, black spots between these lines, and black spiracles.
+
+
+_The Heart and Dart_ (_Agrotis Exclamationis_)
+
+The destructive work of _Segetum_ is assisted by similar operations of
+the Heart and Dart, the larva of which feeds voraciously on the roots of
+several of our cultivated vegetables, though the present species does
+not entirely confine its ravages to the farmer's crops, but attacks the
+roots of many low-growing herbs.
+
+The fore wings of the moth are light brown, generally with a reddish
+tinge. The darker markings include a large and very distinct reniform
+spot, a less distinct orbicular, and a conspicuous longitudinal blackish
+streak near the base of the wing known as the _claviform_. Beyond the
+reniform a curved and zigzag dark line crosses the wing. The hind wings
+of the male are very pale, those of the female darker, with a whitish
+fringe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 156.--THE HEART AND DART.]
+
+The moth flies from June to August, and is common everywhere. The
+caterpillar feeds in the autumn, and reaches its full size in October;
+but it is said to feed at intervals throughout the winter. Its colour is
+dingy brown or grey, with paler lines on the sides. The spiracles are
+black, and there are black dots on the sides.
+
+
+_The Garden Dart_ (_Agrotis nigricans_)
+
+This is another dingy moth, whose general appearance is so unattractive
+that the tyro might be inclined to neglect it. But it must not be
+omitted from our selection on that score, for our main object here is to
+give the beginner an acquaintance with those species that are most
+likely to be captured in the earlier part of his career, and this moth
+is certainly one of those that may be described as 'abundant
+everywhere.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 157.--THE GARDEN DART.]
+
+Its fore wings are dull dark brown, often tinged with red, and clouded
+with black. The reniform spot is pale, the orbicular spot less distinct,
+and between the two there is generally a rhomboidal dark spot. There is
+also a short dark streak near the base of the wing, and a black spot
+before the orbicular. The hind wings are pale, but smoky towards the
+hind margin.
+
+The caterpillar is brown and shining, with a fine pale line on the back,
+and a double white stripe below the spiracles. It is also dotted with
+black. It is exceedingly destructive, feeding on clovers (_Trifolium
+pratense_ and _T. repens_) and various low plants in May and June.
+
+The moth flies from June to August.
+
+
+_The Flame Shoulder_ (_Noctua plecta_)
+
+As our example of the next genus we take the Flame Shoulder, a rather
+small moth, easily identified by the broad yellowish-white streak along
+the costa of the reddish-brown fore wings. The orbicular and reniform
+spots are margined with white, and a thin white streak runs from the
+base of the wing to the former. The hind wings are white. This moth
+flies in July, and is common throughout Great Britain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 158.--THE FLAME SHOULDER.]
+
+The caterpillar is reddish brown, with a slender line of white dots on
+the back, and a similar line on each side. The body is smooth and
+velvety, and is netted and dotted all over with dark brown. It feeds on
+the lady's bedstraw (_Galium verum_), sweet woodruff (_Asperula
+odorata_), and many other low plants; and is full fed early in July.
+
+
+_The Lesser Broad Border_ (_Triphaena ianthina_)
+
+We now come to the third and last genus (_Triphaena_) of this extensive
+family, a genus which includes six interesting moths, with bright orange
+or yellow hind wings. Of these we shall take three examples.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 159.--THE LESSER BROAD BORDER.]
+
+The first of them--the Lesser Broad Border--has fore wings of a rich
+reddish or violet brown, with paler markings. The hind wings are bright
+orange, with a broad marginal band of black.
+
+It is a common moth, particularly in the south-western counties, and
+flies during July and August.
+
+The caterpillar is of a dingy yellowish or greenish grey, with a light
+line down the back, and two black spots on each side of segments nine to
+twelve inclusive. It feeds throughout the winter by night on dead
+nettles (_Lamium purpureum_ and _L. album_), primrose (_Primula
+acaulis_), whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus
+spinosa_), and various low plants; and may sometimes be seen in flower
+gardens. It is full grown in April.
+
+
+_The Lesser Yellow Underwing_ (_Triphaena Comes_)
+
+This insect is very similar to the last, but is larger. The fore wings
+are also of a greyish or ochreous brown, and the black margin of the
+hind wings is proportionately narrower.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 160.--THE LESSER YELLOW UNDERWING.]
+
+It is more abundant than _Ianthina_; in fact it is to be found
+everywhere in plenty during the month of July.
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish brown. On the back of each of the eleventh
+and twelfth segments are two conspicuous dark marks. The spiracles are
+white, and below them is a pale brown stripe. It feeds on the foxglove
+(_Digitalis purpurea_), chickweed (_Stellaria media_), thrift (_Armeria
+maritima_), and other low plants in the autumn, hybernates during the
+winter, and attacks sallows (_Salix Caprea_ and _S. cinerea_) and
+whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_) as soon as the buds appear in the
+spring. It is full grown in April, and then changes to a chrysalis on
+the surface of the earth.
+
+
+_The Large Yellow Underwing_ (_Triphaena Pronuba_)
+
+This is by far the commonest moth of the genus, and may be found
+everywhere, in town and country, from June to August. It is represented
+on Plate XI (fig. 1), but its fore wings are very variable, sometimes a
+cold dingy grey, but often of an exceedingly rich and warm brown. On the
+costal margin, not far from the tip, there is always a small black spot,
+which will serve to distinguish it from _Comes_.
+
+The caterpillar (fig. 21) feeds throughout the winter on the roots of
+almost every plant in our gardens; and, during the warmer weather of the
+autumn and spring, on stems and leaves. It is full grown early in the
+summer, and then changes to a chrysalis in the ground. Its colour is
+dirty yellowish or greenish grey, with a row of dark spots on each
+side.
+
+
+Family--AMPHIPYRIDAE
+
+_The Gothic_ (_Mania typica_)
+
+The above family contains only four British species, two of which we
+shall briefly consider.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 161.--THE GOTHIC.]
+
+The first of these is the Gothic--a very common moth that may be seen
+everywhere about midsummer. Its fore wings are brown with darker
+marblings, and there are numerous lighter markings which may be easily
+made out by reference to the accompanying woodcut.
+
+The caterpillar is smooth and velvety, of a dull brown or greenish
+colour, with darker dorsal and side stripes. The latter are crossed
+obliquely by a series of whitish lines. It feeds on fruit and other
+trees in clusters when very young in early autumn, and afterwards
+descends and feeds on low plants. It hybernates in the winter, and feeds
+again on low plants in the spring. When full grown it burrows into the
+soil to undergo its changes.
+
+
+_The Old Lady_ (_Mania Maura_)
+
+This fine moth is so very different from the last in appearance that the
+reason for placing the two in the same genus is not apparent till the
+earlier stages and life history have been studied. All its wings are
+very deep brown; the front pair has a darker band containing the
+orbicular and reniform spots, and the hind pair a lighter band across
+the middle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 162.--THE OLD LADY.]
+
+It is a common moth, often to be found at rest by day in outhouses and
+sheds. It flies in July and August.
+
+The caterpillar is dark purple or umber brown, with darker and lighter
+markings. It feeds in the autumn on fruit trees, and hybernates during
+the winter. In the spring it feeds again on low plants, and changes to a
+chrysalis in May under the ground.
+
+
+Family--ORTHOSIIDAE
+
+This is a large family of over thirty species, most of them of rather
+small size, which make their appearance, with two exceptions, either in
+early spring or in late autumn, often attracted in the former season by
+the sallow blossom, and in the latter by ivy bloom.
+
+Several of them are very common insects, that are almost sure to be
+taken by a young collector during his first season.
+
+The fore wings of these moths are more or less pointed at the tip, and
+the usual lines and spots are generally distinct. The males may be
+distinguished from the females by their antennae, which are always more
+or less ciliated.
+
+The caterpillars are smooth and velvety, and feed by night; and the pupae
+are inclosed in cocoons constructed of earth and silk.
+
+
+_The Common Quaker_ (_Taeniocampa stabilis_)
+
+Several of the species of the family are known popularly as Quakers, the
+commonest of which--_Stabilis_--is abundant in all parts.
+
+Its fore wings are grey, with generally either an ochreous or reddish
+tinge. The orbicular and reniform spots are outlined with a paler
+colour, and there is a pale transverse line parallel with the hind
+margin, outside which is a row of indistinct black spots. The hind wings
+are greyish brown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 163.--THE COMMON QUAKER.]
+
+The caterpillar is green and velvety, with a yellowish line on the back
+and on each side; and a yellow band crosses the back of the twelfth
+segment transversely. It feeds during June and July on oak (_Quercus
+Robur_) and elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and changes to a chrysalis in
+August on the surface of the ground. In this state it remains throughout
+the winter, and the moth emerges in March or April.
+
+
+_The Chestnut_ (_Cerastis Vaccinii_)
+
+Unfortunately our space will not allow us to notice the whole of even
+the very common moths, so, passing over a few with great reluctance, we
+come to the familiar Chestnut, which may be seen at large in October and
+November, and sometimes even in December, and again appears, after a
+rather short period of hybernation, in February and March.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 164.--THE CHESTNUT.]
+
+The fore wings are reddish brown, with darker wavy lines. The orbicular
+and reniform spots have pale outlines, and the lower half of the latter
+is very dark grey. The hind wings are smoky grey, with generally a pale
+band beyond the middle.
+
+The caterpillar is dark brown, with very indistinct lighter lines. The
+spiracles are black, and inclosed in a yellowish grey stripe. It feeds
+during June and July on the elm (_Ulmus campestris_), oak (_Quercus
+Robur_), and sallow (_Salix caprea_), and various low plants.
+
+
+_The Pink-barred Sallow_ (_Xanthia Flavago_)
+
+This moth is not nearly so common as the preceding species, but has been
+taken more or less in all parts of England.
+
+Its fore wings are orange yellow, with purplish markings arranged as
+represented in fig. 165. The hind wings are yellowish white.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 165.--THE PINK-BARRED SALLOW.]
+
+The caterpillar is brown, with a lateral stripe formed by numerous red,
+yellow and white dots. It feeds on sallow (_Salix caprea_) and various
+low plants.
+
+It is full grown in June, and the moth appears in September.
+
+
+Family--COSMIIDAE
+
+_The Dun-bar_ (_Calymnia trapezina_)
+
+Our example of this family is the Dun-bar, common everywhere during July
+and August.
+
+Its fore wings are greyish ochreous, with a darker band across the
+middle. On each side of this band is a white line margined with dark
+grey, and there is a row of black spots along the hind margin. The hind
+wings are smoky brown, becoming paler towards the base.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 166.--THE DUN-BAR.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), hornbeam (_Carpinus
+Betulus_), and birch (_Betula alba_), and may be found in abundance
+during May and June. It is green, with dark spots, and white lines on
+the back and sides. Although it partakes of the leaves of the
+above-named trees, yet its chief food seems to be other caterpillars,
+for it devours these with a savage greediness that is simply
+astonishing. It will chase an unfortunate caterpillar, seize it by the
+neck with a fatal grip, and rapidly devour it. Its chief prey seems to
+be the larva of the Winter Moth (_Brumata_).
+
+
+Family--HADENIDAE
+
+Nearly fifty British _Noctuae_ are included in the family _Hadenidae_.
+They are of variable dimensions, and differ much in the brightness of
+their colours, some being very dingy, and others gaily tinted. Their
+antennae are rather long; and when at rest the wings slope from the back
+like the sides of a roof.
+
+The larvae are smooth, and not very thick; and there is sometimes a hump
+on the twelfth segment. The pupae are brown and shiny, and are inclosed
+in earthen cocoons beneath the surface of the soil.
+
+
+_The Broad-barred White_ (_Hecatera serena_)
+
+Although not gaily coloured, this is a pretty little moth, there being a
+bright contrast between the white ground and the grey markings of the
+wings. It is common in the south of England, and seems to be plentiful
+in and around London.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 167.--THE BROAD-BARRED WHITE.]
+
+The caterpillar is of a dingy greenish colour, with a yellowish stripe
+on each side of the back; and there are two distinct dots on the back of
+each segment. It feeds during July and August on sow-thistles (_Sonchus
+oleraceus_ and _S. arvensis_), sleepwort (_Lactuca virosa_), and
+hawkweeds (_Hieracia_).
+
+The moth flies in June and July.
+
+
+_The Marvel-du-jour_ (_Agriopis Aprilina_)
+
+The Marvel-du-jour is decidedly a beautiful moth--quite an exception
+among the _Noctuae_ in this respect, and it is withal both common and
+widely distributed. We need not describe it, since it is represented on
+Plate XI (fig. 2), and can hardly be mistaken for any other species.
+
+The caterpillar is dull green, often tinged with red. The dorsal line is
+broad and dark, and interrupted by a series of very light lozenge-shaped
+spots. It feeds on the oak in May and June, and is full grown in the
+latter month. It then burrows into the earth at the foot of the tree,
+and there constructs a fragile earthen cocoon previous to changing to a
+chrysalis.
+
+From July to September the chrysalides may be obtained in plenty by
+breaking up the sods at the roots of oaks, and the perfect insect may be
+found toward the end of September and throughout October.
+
+
+_The Small Angle Shades_ (_Euplexia lucipara_)
+
+This pretty little moth is represented in fig. 3 of Plate XI. It is very
+common throughout the country, and may be seen in June and July.
+
+The caterpillar is thickest on the twelfth segment, and gradually tapers
+from this towards the head. Its colour is pale green, with a white
+stripe just below the spiracles, which are black. On each side of the
+back are a number of oblique lines, which meet in the middle line, thus
+forming a series of V-shaped marks pointing towards the tail. It feeds
+on the common bracken fern (_Pteris aquilina_), foxglove (_Digitalis
+purpurea_), and the male fern (_Lastraea Filix-mas_), in August and
+September.
+
+
+_The Angle Shades_ (_Phlogophora Meticulosa_)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 168.--THE ANGLE SHADES.]
+
+This moth is so common and so widely distributed that it is almost sure
+to be taken by the young collector during his first season. Its wings
+are scalloped on the hind margin, and their colour light ochreous, often
+tinged with pink or olive green, and marked with dark brown as shown in
+the illustration. It is double brooded, the first brood appearing in May
+and June, and the second in September and October.
+
+The caterpillar is green or olive brown, and thickly covered with white
+spots. It feeds on groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_) and many other low
+plants, the first brood throughout the winter from November to April,
+and the second in July and August.
+
+
+_The Grey Arches_ (_Aplecta nebulosa_)
+
+The fore wings of this moth vary from greyish white to a rather dark
+smoky tint. The markings are of a darker colour, and are also subject to
+considerable variation. The orbicular and reniform spots are large, and
+paler than the ground colour; and several zigzag or scalloped lines,
+more or less distinct, cross the wings transversely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 169.--THE GREY ARCHES.]
+
+The larva is brown, with a lighter line down the back. On each of the
+segments five to eleven is a dark lozenge-shaped spot, bisected by the
+dorsal line; and on the second segment is a shining plate and a
+triangular mark. It feeds on the dock (_Rumex_), and various other low
+plants during the autumn; and, after its hybernation, on the leaves of
+the sallow (_Salix Caprea_), birch (_Betula alba_), and whitethorn
+(_Crataegus oxyacantha_). It is full grown in May, when it burrows into
+the ground to undergo its metamorphoses.
+
+The moth flies during June and July, and is common in nearly every part
+of Great Britain. Large numbers may be obtained by searching fences and
+tree trunks about midsummer.
+
+
+_The Shears_ (_Hadena dentina_)
+
+The Shears is another very common moth of the same family. The ground
+colour of the fore wings is very variable, but is generally a lighter or
+darker shade of grey. Sometimes, however, it has a very decided brownish
+tinge. Across the centre of the wing is a darker band, wider on the
+costal side, containing the orbicular and reniform spots, as well as a
+light patch beneath them, and bordered on each side by a pale zigzag
+line. There is another similar line near to and parallel with the hind
+margin. The hind wings are smoky grey or smoky brown, darker towards the
+hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 170.--THE SHEARS.]
+
+The caterpillar is greyish, and has a series of triangular black spots
+along each side of the back. It feeds on the roots of the dandelion
+(_Taraxacum officinale_), and changes to a peculiar spiny chrysalis.
+
+The perfect insect appears to be abundant everywhere, and is on the wing
+in June and July.
+
+
+_The Bright-line Brown-eye_ (_Hadena oleracea_)
+
+Every collector is sure to meet with this insect during his first
+season. The moth is abundant everywhere in June, the caterpillar may be
+found feeding in almost every waste and weedy spot in August and
+September, and the chrysalis is certain to be turned over by the pupa
+digger.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 171.--THE BRIGHT-LINE BROWN-EYE.]
+
+The fore wings of the perfect insect are reddish brown. The orbicular
+spot is usually very indistinct, being of almost exactly the same tint
+as the ground colour, and surrounded by a very fine whitish line. The
+reniform is generally more conspicuous, a portion of it being of a light
+ochreous colour. Near the hind margin, and parallel with it, is a white
+line, bent sharply into the form of a W, just on the anal side of the
+middle.
+
+The hind wings are greyish brown in the base, and dark smoke colour
+towards the margin.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green or brown, dotted with both black and
+white, and adorned with a bright yellow line just below the spiracles.
+It feeds on the nettle (_Urtica dioica_), dock (_Rumex_), and many other
+low plants; and, according to some observers, on the elm (_Ulmus
+campestris_).
+
+
+Family--XYLINIDAE
+
+The next family--_Xylinidae_--contains twenty British species, several of
+which are local, but two or three are abundant and widely distributed.
+
+The transverse lines that so often cross the wings of the _Noctuae_ are
+nearly or entirely absent in this family, and longitudinal lines take
+their place. When the insects are at rest the wings are folded rather
+closely, the outer pair being arranged like a roof with a very gentle
+slope. The bodies of the perfect insects are very stout, particularly in
+the thorax, and thus present a rather powerful appearance.
+
+The larvae are smooth, and generally brightly coloured, and feed
+principally on low plants. The chrysalides are generally inclosed in
+cocoons on or beneath the ground, and are often provided with spines or
+bristles on the under side.
+
+We shall select two members of this family.
+
+
+_The Early Grey_ (_Xylocampa Areola_)
+
+One of the first of the _Noctuae_ to greet us in the spring is the Early
+Grey, which may be found resting on fences in April, and, if the season
+is mild, in March.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 172.--THE EARLY GREY.]
+
+Its fore wings are light grey, often tinged with rose pink, and marked
+with dark grey. The orbicular and reniform spots are very distinct, and
+surrounded by a pale line; they are both united at their lower edges.
+Along the hind margin is a series of dark spots. The hind wings are pale
+yellowish grey, with a darker central spot, a central transverse darker
+line, and a darker line along the hind margin.
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish grey. The dorsal line is lighter, and
+passes through a brownish spot on the eighth segment. It feeds on the
+honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_) in July and August, being full
+grown towards the end of the latter month.
+
+
+_The Shark_ (_Cucullia umbratica_)
+
+The Shark is a very common moth, to be found everywhere on palings in
+June, but the colour of its wings so closely resembles that of oak and
+other light-wood fences that detection is not so easy as with most other
+moths.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 173.--THE SHARK.]
+
+The fore wings are grey, and marked with longitudinal dark lines, the
+principal of which is a line from the middle of the base to about the
+centre of the wing. The wing rays are also darker than the ground
+colour. The hind wings are greyish white or brownish grey.
+
+The caterpillar is very dark brown, with orange spots on the back and
+along the spiracles. It feeds on sow-thistles (_Sonchus oleraceus_, _S.
+palustris_, and _S. arvensis_) and sleepwort (_Lactuca virosa_) at night
+from July to September, and hides during the daytime among the leaves
+that lie close against the ground. When disturbed it does not roll into
+a ring or feign death like many others of its kind, but wriggles about
+most vigorously as if to repel its foe.
+
+
+Family--GONOPTERIDAE
+
+_The Herald Moth_ (_Gonoptera Libatrix_)
+
+The above-mentioned family is so called on account of the angular
+margins of the wings, especially the fore pair. It contains only one
+British species, the Herald (Plate XII, fig. 1), a moth that is common
+everywhere in August and September. It hybernates in the perfect state,
+and the hybernated specimens may be seen in the spring time, from March
+up to the end of May or the beginning of June.
+
+Its fore wings are reddish grey, thickly spotted and streaked with
+brown. Transverse whitish lines divide the base into three parts of
+nearly equal widths. The basal and central divisions are tinged with
+orange; and there is a small white spot in the base close to the thorax,
+also another near the centre of the wing. The hind wings are brownish
+grey.
+
+The caterpillar is green and velvety, with a whitish stripe on the side,
+and yellow spiracles. It feeds on willow (_Salix alba_) and sallow
+(_Salix caprea_); and when full grown, about the end of June, it spins a
+white silken cocoon between leaves of its tree, and changes to a very
+dark chrysalis.
+
+
+Family--PLUSIIDAE
+
+The most peculiar feature of the moths of this family is the tufts of
+hair that stand up perpendicularly on the top of the thorax. The abdomen
+also is crested, and the fore wings of several species have smooth
+patches that display a brilliant metallic lustre.
+
+Most of the larvae may be described as semi-loopers, for their claspers
+number only three pairs, and when they walk their backs are considerably
+humped, somewhat after the fashion of the _Geometrae_. Some of them
+further imitate the _Geometrae_ in their position of rest, holding on by
+their claspers only, with body straightened out at an angle with the
+leaf or twig on which they support themselves.
+
+Unlike the majority of the _Noctuae_, they do not descend to the ground
+when about to change, but spin a silken cocoon among the food plants.
+
+
+_The Burnished Brass_ (_Plusia Chrysitis_)
+
+One of the commonest of the _Plusiidae_ is the Burnished Brass, so called
+on account of the large patches of bright golden green on the fore
+wings. The hind margin of these wings is very gracefully curved, and
+bordered with brown. A brown blotch fills the base of the wing, and the
+remaining area is of a beautiful metallic greenish yellow, broken by two
+large brown blotches, one on the costal and the other on the inner
+margin, which closely approach each other and sometimes meet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 174.--THE BURNISHED BRASS.]
+
+This moth is very common everywhere, and is one of the frequent visitors
+to our flower gardens from June to August.
+
+The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers from this
+point. Its colour is pale green. It has no longitudinal stripes on the
+back, but each segment is adorned with four or six oblique white marks.
+Just above the spiracles is a white stripe. It feeds on the dead nettle
+(_Lamium album_), stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and burdock
+(_Arctium minus_), and is full grown in June.
+
+
+_The Silver_ Y (_Plusia Gamma_)
+
+Our second example of this family is the Silver Y, which may be found in
+abundance everywhere from June to October. Its fore wings are of a shiny
+grey colour, beautifully marbled with a rich dark brown; and just below
+the orbicular spot is a brilliant silvery spot, in form something like
+the Greek letter [gamma] placed obliquely. The base of the hind wings is
+grey; along the margin is a broad and dark smoky brown band, and the
+fringe is very light grey, barred with the dark tint of the band. This
+moth is commonly driven out of its hiding places among low plants as we
+walk in waste places, and when thus disturbed it takes a short and rapid
+flight, generally disappearing so suddenly among the herbage that it is
+difficult to locate it correctly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 175.--THE SILVER Y.]
+
+The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers gradually
+from this point towards the head. Its body is green, with several thin
+longitudinal white stripes, and a thin yellow stripe along the
+spiracles. It may be found from June to October, feeding on many kinds
+of low plants.
+
+
+Family--EUCLIDIIDAE
+
+_The Mother Shipton_ (_Euclidia Mi_)
+
+Passing over a few small and less important families, we come to the
+_Euclidiidae_, which contains only two British moths. One of these is the
+Mother Shipton, a very common insect that flies in June.
+
+The fore wings of this species are very dark brown with whitish
+markings. The latter include a peculiarly tortuous line, the character
+of which will be made out more easily from our illustration (Plate XI,
+fig. 4) than from a written description. The hind wings are also very
+dark brown, and rather prettily spotted with an ochreous tint.
+
+The caterpillar is pale grey, with four white stripes, and has only
+three pairs of claspers. It feeds in May on clovers (_Trifolium
+pratense_ and _T. repens_) and other plants.
+
+
+Family--CATOCALIDAE
+
+This family contains only four British species, but these few are very
+striking moths. They are of large size; and, unlike the _Noctuae_
+generally, the chief adornment is reserved for the under wings. When at
+rest, the outer or fore wings completely hide the other pair, and then
+their general appearance is dull, though if closely examined it will be
+observed that these outer wings are really beautifully marbled with
+shades of grey.
+
+The caterpillars of this family are very peculiar creatures. Their
+bodies are convex above and flattened beneath; and if disturbed as they
+rest on the bark of a tree, instead of leaving their hold and rolling
+into a ring like so many other larvae of _Noctuae_, they apply themselves
+the closer, and hold on as if to defy our attempts to remove them.
+Another peculiarity of these larvae is the possession of fleshy
+projections along the sides, just above the legs. They feed on the
+leaves of trees, and when about to rest they descend to the trunk, and
+there remain protected by their imitative colouring, detection being
+rendered even more difficult by the close application of their flattened
+under surface to the bark. Before changing to the chrysalis state, they
+spin a light cocoon among the leaves or on the bark.
+
+
+_The Clifden Nonpareil_ (_Catocala Fraxini_)
+
+This is the largest of the family, and, indeed, of all British _Noctuae_.
+The fore wings and thorax are light grey, dotted and marbled with darker
+grey (see fig. 5, Plate XI); and the thorax and abdomen are banded with
+black and greyish blue.
+
+The young entomologist can hardly expect to meet with this fine insect,
+for it is very rare, and it is only occasionally that a specimen is seen
+in Britain; but its characteristics are so striking that we have
+endeavoured to find it a place here. Reputed British specimens of
+_Fraxini_ command the price of a few pounds each, but specimens from the
+other side of the Channel may be obtained for a few pence. With such
+rarities we should advise a young entomologist to purchase the foreign
+specimen rather than adopt the two other alternatives--give an
+exorbitant price for a supposed Britisher, or else remain a stranger to
+the gem, but all foreign specimens should be labelled according to their
+nationalities.
+
+
+_The Red Underwing_ (_Catocala Nupta_)
+
+The other three members of the family are very similar in appearance,
+the fore wings of all being marbled with shades of grey, relieved by
+touches of black and brown; and the hind wings, red or crimson, give the
+popular names to the species.
+
+The Red Underwing flies in August and September, and is common in the
+southern counties of England, as well as in some of the midland
+counties; it may be often seen flying by day around willows.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 176.--THE RED UNDERWING.]
+
+The caterpillar is similar in form to that of _Fraxini_, and when at
+rest by day on the bark of its tree it is very difficult to detect, so
+closely does it apply itself to the surface, and so perfectly does it
+imitate the colour of its surroundings. It feeds on the crack willow
+(_Salix fragilis_), sallow (_S. alba_), poplar (_Populus_), and plum
+(_Prunus_), and is full grown in June.
+
+
+_The Dark Crimson Underwing_ (_Catocala Sponsa_)
+
+This beautiful insect is represented on Plate XI (fig. 6). It will be
+observed that the black band crossing the centre of the hind wing is
+rather broad and sharply bent--an important feature, since it is the
+most serviceable distinguishing mark between this species and the Light
+Crimson Underwing (_C. Promissa_).
+
+The caterpillar is similar in form and habits to those of _Fraxini_ and
+_Nupta_, and feeds on the oak. It is full fed about the beginning of
+June, when it changes to a chrysalis between leaves which it has spun
+together with silk.
+
+The moth flies in July and August, and is common only in certain oak
+woods of the southern counties. It is particularly abundant in the New
+Forest, where scores may be taken in a single night by judicious
+sugaring.
+
+There yet remain a few small families of the _Noctuae_, but we must leave
+them in order that we may give a proportionate share of our space to the
+other great division of the larger moths--the _Geometrae_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+_GEOMETRAE_
+
+
+We have already referred (page 28) to caterpillars that walk by a
+series of strides, alternately looping and extending their long and
+slender bodies. It is this peculiar characteristic of the larvae of
+the present division that suggested the name _Geometrae_--a term that
+signifies 'earth-measurers,' for they appear to measure the ground
+over which they travel in terms of their own length. We have also
+dealt with the peculiarities of structure in the case of these
+caterpillars--peculiarities which adapt them to this mode of
+progression; and we have now to make a selection from the various
+families of this important division for a more detailed description.
+
+The _Geometrae_ include nearly three hundred species and sixteen
+families. The moths have slender bodies and full wings, and generally
+rest with the latter outspread. A few, however, repose with wings erect
+like the butterflies, and a small number conceal their hind wings after
+the manner of the _Noctuae_.
+
+
+Family--UROPTERYGIDAE
+
+_The Swallow Tail_ (_Uropteryx sambucaria_)
+
+Our first family--_Uropterygidae_--has only one British representative,
+and that is the well-known Swallow Tail, so common in gardens and among
+hedgerows in the south of England. This species is shown on Plate XII
+(fig. 2), and the insect is so readily identified by the conspicuous
+'tails' on the hind wings that no written description will be necessary.
+
+The caterpillar is a most peculiar and interesting creature. Its colour
+is very variable, being either brown, olive, ochreous, or reddish; and
+it is notched or humped in such a manner that it exactly resembles a
+twig. This strange imitation is rendered still more remarkable by the
+attitude assumed by the caterpillar when at rest. It fixes itself to a
+twig by means of its two pairs of claspers, with its body standing out
+at an angle in a perfectly straight posture; but its head is always
+supported by means of a very slender and almost invisible silk fibre. It
+feeds on a number of plants and trees, including elder (_Sambucus
+nigra_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), whitethorn (_Crataegus
+oxyacantha_), bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_), honeysuckle (_Lonicera
+Periclymenum_), and forget-me-not (_Myosotis arvensis_). It may be found
+feeding in the autumn, or hybernating in the crevices of the bark of
+trees in winter. In April or May it comes out again; and in June, in
+which month it is full grown, it binds together some fragments of
+leaves, and forms them into a little swinging hammock in which it
+changes to a brown chrysalis spotted with black.
+
+Just at this time it seems to be particularly sensitive. In the
+caterpillar state it will strongly resent any kind of disturbance, and
+will give a blow to an intruder by suddenly swaying its body right and
+left; and while in its hammock a gentle irritation, such as a puff of
+wind from the mouth, will set it wriggling in a furious manner.
+
+
+Family--ENNOMIDAE
+
+This family contains about twenty species, several of which rank among
+the commonest as well as the most beautiful of the _Geometrae_. Their
+wings are more or less angulated; and the antennae are generally
+pectinated in the males.
+
+The larvae are generally humped and twig-like; and, as in the last
+species, the semblance is increased by the position they assume when at
+rest. The number of limbs varies from ten to fourteen, but where the
+claspers exceed two pairs, the additional two or four, as the case may
+be, are seldom used in walking.
+
+
+_The Brimstone Moth_ (_Rumia luteolata_)
+
+As soon as the warm evenings of May set in, this lively and bright
+little moth may be seen flitting about among our hedges at sunset; and
+it continues with us throughout the whole of the summer, but is
+particularly plentiful during the month of June.
+
+The moth itself need not be described, since it is shown on Plate XII
+(fig. 3); but the caterpillar (fig. 25) must receive a passing notice.
+It varies considerably in colour, being either green, brown, or marbled
+with a mixture of shades of both these colours. It has a hump on the
+back of the seventh segment, and two more on the ninth, and possesses
+four pairs of claspers. It feeds on whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_),
+blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and the apple (_Pyrus Malus_), and may be
+found on these trees throughout the summer.
+
+Some believe that there are three successive broods of this insect each
+year, but it is doubtful whether this is invariably the rule, since both
+the moth and its larva are to be found without intermission throughout
+the season.
+
+
+_The Light Emerald_ (_Metrocampa margaritaria_)
+
+All the wings of this moth are very pale green, and crossed with a white
+band which is bordered with a darker green on the inner side. The fore
+wings have an additional transverse line just halfway between the former
+and the base, but this one is not so distinct. It flies in July, and is
+very widely distributed, and in some parts is very abundant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 177.--THE LIGHT EMERALD.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds in September, and again in May, after hybernation,
+on several of our forest trees, including the oak (_Quercus Robur_), elm
+(_Ulmus campestris_), birch (_Betula alba_), and beech (_Fagus
+sylvatica_). It is of a dingy olive colour, with a dark dorsal line, on
+each side of which is a row of white spots; and it has three pairs of
+claspers.
+
+
+_The Scalloped Oak_ (_Crocallis elinguaria_)
+
+This species is common and widely distributed, and may be seen flying at
+dusk towards the end of July and throughout August. It is represented in
+fig. 4 of Plate XII. The antennae of the male are strongly pectinated;
+those of the female are simple.
+
+The caterpillar may be found in the autumn, and again in spring, feeding
+on the honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_), whitethorn (_Crataegus
+oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), beech (_Fagus sylvatica_),
+and various fruit trees. It is full grown in June, when it turns to a
+chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves or moss on or near the ground.
+It is of a greyish-brown or greyish-purple colour, and looks very like a
+piece of twig.
+
+
+_The August Thorn_ (_Eugonia quercinaria_)
+
+Our last example of this family is the August Thorn, represented in the
+accompanying woodcut. The fore wings are ochreous yellow, crossed by two
+nearly parallel lines of dark brown. In order to distinguish between
+this and one or two similar species it must be observed that both these
+lines are angulated near the costa, the inner one very sharply so; and
+between the two is a distinct brown spot near the costal margin. The
+hind wings are paler, and are crossed by an indistinct darker line. The
+antennae of the male are strongly fringed; those of the female are
+simple.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 178.--THE AUGUST THORN.]
+
+The moth is very common in August and September, and is readily
+attracted by lights in the evening.
+
+The larva is grey, marbled with reddish brown. It has three small humps
+on each of the sixth and seventh segments, two on the twelfth, and one
+larger one on the ninth. It feeds on the oak and various other trees
+during the month of June.
+
+
+Family--AMPHIDASYDAE
+
+The seven British species of the family _Amphidasydae_ are generally to
+be distinguished by their rather stout abdomens, and the long shaggy
+hair that covers their thoraces. The antennae of the males are
+pectinated, and those of the females simple; and in three cases the
+latter sex is wingless.
+
+The caterpillars have long and slender twig-like bodies, and are never
+provided with more than two pairs of claspers. The chrysalides terminate
+behind in a sharp spine, and are always to be found buried in the soil.
+
+
+_The Brindled Beauty_ (_Biston hirtaria_)
+
+Early in April, and sometimes in March, this moth may be seen in
+abundance, resting on the lime trees in and around our towns. In fact,
+so strongly marked is its partiality to the haunts of man in the
+neighbourhood of our great metropolis that it has received the name of
+the Cockney. The male is represented in fig. 5 of Plate XII, and the
+female may be distinguished from it by her simple antennae and larger
+body.
+
+The caterpillar is coloured with alternate bands of dark purple brown
+and reddish brown. There is a yellow band on the front of the second
+segment, a row of yellow spots on each side, and two little bright
+yellow warts on the back of each segment. It feeds by night on lime
+(_Tilia vulgaris_), elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and various fruit trees,
+and often appears in such numbers that the foliage is almost completely
+devoured. During the daytime it may be seen resting on the bark, almost
+invariably fixed longitudinally on the trunk, where it looks like a
+natural ridge of the bark which it so closely resembles in colour. It
+may be found in June and July, and in August it changes to a chrysalis
+at the foot of its tree, just below the surface of the soil.
+
+
+_The Peppered Moth_ (_Amphidasys betularia_)
+
+Although this common species displays no bright tints, yet it is
+prettily marked, its whitish wings being peppered and blotched all over
+with black or very dark brown. It flies in May and June, later than any
+other species of the family, and may generally be found on fences and
+tree trunks during the day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 179.--THE PEPPERED MOTH.]
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is very variable--drab, grey, green, or
+brown; but it may be known by the deep notch in the middle of the head,
+and the arrangement of its 'humps.' These latter are only small reddish
+or whitish projections, of which there is one on each side of the fifth,
+sixth, seventh, eighth, tenth, and eleventh segments; also two on the
+back of the ninth and twelfth. It feeds in August and September on a
+large number of trees, including, in fact, nearly all our commonest
+forest and fruit trees. In September it enters the soil to undergo its
+change to the chrysalis.
+
+
+Family--BOARMIIDAE
+
+In the next family--_Boarmiidae_--there are about twenty British members,
+most of which are very pretty moths. They differ generally from the last
+family in that their bodies are more slender, and although some of them
+bear a resemblance to species of the family _Ennomidae_, their wings are
+not angulated. In several cases the fore and hind wings are both
+similarly marked, a feature very uncommon with moths.
+
+The caterpillars of this family usually have humps on the sixth and
+twelfth segments only, and have two pairs of claspers. The pupae are to
+be found either on the ground, among leaves or moss, or beneath the
+soil.
+
+
+_The Waved Umber_ (_Hemerophila abruptaria_)
+
+The most gaily coloured member of this family is the Waved Umber, shown
+in fig. 6 of Plate XII. Like many other _Geometrae_, it rests on fences
+and tree trunks by day with wings expanded so that all four are
+displayed. It is on the wing in May and early June, and again in August,
+and often frequents our gardens at dusk.
+
+The caterpillar is very dark brown, with a white collar on the front of
+the second segment. It feeds in June and July on privet (_Ligustrum
+vulgare_) and the cultivated rose trees of flower gardens, and probably
+also on the dog rose (_Rosa canina_). When full grown it spins a silken
+cocoon in a fork of one of the twigs, and there undergoes its
+metamorphoses.
+
+
+_The Willow Beauty_ (_Boarmia gemmaria_)
+
+Our second example of the _Boarmiidae_ is the Willow Beauty, the male of
+which species is here illustrated. Its wings are brownish grey, marked
+with dark brown lines and streaks. The female is generally larger than
+the male, and has simple antennae. The moth is abundant throughout
+England, and may be seen generally resting on fences and trees in June
+and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 180.--THE WILLOW BEAUTY.]
+
+The ground colour of the caterpillar is much the same as that of the
+moth, and is marked with a similar darker tint. It has a yellowish line
+along the spiracles, and is much like a piece of brownish twig. It feeds
+on the oak (_Quercus Robur_), Birch (_Betula alba_), ivy (_Hedera
+Helix_), and other trees, and may be found in September and October.
+
+
+Family--GEOMETRIDAE
+
+The next family contains eight moths, mostly of small size, all of which
+have green wings, and are popularly known as the 'Emeralds.' In most
+cases the male may be distinguished by its pectinated antennae.
+
+There is no general characteristic by which we may know all the larvae,
+but some have the head deeply notched.
+
+
+_The Large Emerald_ (_Geometra papilionaria_)
+
+This species is the largest of the family, and measures over two inches
+when its wings are expanded. The colour is dull green, with whitish
+bands and spots, the arrangement of which may be seen in our engraving.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 181.--THE LARGE EMERALD.]
+
+The moth is out in July, and is common in most parts of England.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on birch (_Betula alba_), beech (_Fagus
+sylvatica_) and hazel (_Corylus avellana_) in the autumn, and hybernates
+while still young. In the spring it feeds again, and is full grown in
+June, when it changes to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves.
+
+
+_The Common Emerald_ (_Hemithea strigata_)
+
+One of the commonest of the Emeralds is _Strigata_, which may be found
+in June and July in all parts of England, as well as in some localities
+in Scotland and Ireland. Its wings are of a dull green colour, the front
+pair being slightly scalloped on the hind margin, and crossed by
+indistinct pale lines; and the hind pair are both scalloped and angled
+and crossed in the middle by a transverse pale line. The fringe is
+white, dotted with dull reddish brown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 182.--THE COMMON EMERALD.]
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish green, except the second, third, and fourth
+segments which are brownish. It feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_) and
+whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_), and may be found in June.
+
+
+Family--EPHYRIDAE
+
+_The Maiden's Blush_ (_Zonosoma punctaria_)
+
+The family _Ephyridae_ contains only six British species, chiefly
+remarkable for the fact that their pupae generally resemble those of
+butterflies.
+
+We choose for our example the pretty little Maiden's Blush, so called on
+account of the soft reddish patch on the middle of each fore wing. It is
+represented in fig. 7 of Plate XII. It is moderately common, occurring
+more or less in all parts of England, as well as certain localities in
+the sister countries. It is a double-brooded moth, and may be caught in
+May and August.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), from which it may be
+obtained by beating both in June and September. It is either green or
+tawny yellow, marked with yellow oblique lines on the sides.
+
+
+Family--ACIDALIIDAE
+
+The moths of this family, over thirty in number, are mostly of small
+size, and have slender bodies. As a rule the wings are not in the least
+angulated or scalloped, but in a few species the hind pair are slightly
+angled on the hind margin; and both fore and hind wings are similarly
+marked. The antennae are simple in the females, and generally only
+slightly ciliated in the males.
+
+The caterpillars are long and slender, without projections, and feed
+principally on low plants. The pupae are to be found in loose cocoons
+among the leaves of the food plants or under the soil.
+
+We shall briefly notice three members of this rather extensive family.
+
+
+_The Lace Border_ (_Acidalia ornata_)
+
+The wings of this moth are silvery white, marked along the hind margin
+with a beautiful lace-like border. This border consists of delicate
+black and dark grey lines, and includes, in the fore wing, two light
+brown blotches, one near the middle and the other in the anal angle. It
+is abundant in England, particularly in chalky districts, but does not
+seem to extend into Scotland. It may be seen on the wing from June to
+August.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 183.--THE LACE BORDER.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_) and marjoram
+(_Origanum vulgare_).
+
+
+_The Riband Wave_ (_A. aversata_)
+
+All the wings of this species are of a pale yellowish or ochreous grey.
+The fore wings are crossed by three transverse dark lines, and the hind
+wings by two. The space between the two outer lines of the fore wing and
+that between the lines of the hind wing are usually filled in with a
+greyish brown, thus forming the 'riband' from which the popular name of
+the insect is derived; and when this is the case the lines which border
+the riband are scarcely distinguishable. Just inside the second line of
+the fore wings, near the costa, is a small but conspicuous brown spot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 184.--THE RIBAND WAVE.]
+
+The moth flies in June and July, and is common in all parts.
+
+The caterpillar is dark brown except segments ten to thirteen, which are
+grey. The line along the spiracles is whitish, and the surface of the
+body is roughened by a number of minute warts. It feeds on various low
+plants, including the meadow sweet (_Spiraea ulmaria_), water avens
+(_Geum rivale_), common avens (_G. urbanum_), and knot-grass (_Polygonum
+aviculare_), during April and May.
+
+
+_The Blood-vein_ (_Timandra amataria_)
+
+Our last example of the _Acidaliidae_ is the Blood-vein, which is common
+in most parts of England in June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 185.--THE BLOOD-VEIN.]
+
+Its fore wings are pale grey, dusted with darker grey, and crossed by an
+oblique red streak which runs from the tip of the fore wing to near the
+inner margin of the hind wing. A slender dark and wavy line lies outside
+this one, parallel with it in the hind wing, but meeting it near the tip
+of the fore wing.
+
+The caterpillar is grey, with three white longitudinal stripes. It feeds
+in the autumn on dock (_Rumex_), sorrel (_R. acetosa_), and knot-grass
+(_Polygonum aviculare_).
+
+
+Family--CABERIDAE
+
+Six species, all of rather small size, constitute the British portion of
+the above family. Their wings are mostly white or pale grey, with light
+markings, and without angles. The moths are to be caught with the net
+at dusk, or they may be seen on fences and tree trunks during the day,
+with their wings fully extended and applied closely to the surface on
+which they rest.
+
+The larvae, which have no humps, feed on trees, and change to the
+chrysalis state in light silken cocoons.
+
+
+_The Common Wave_ (_Cabera exanthemata_)
+
+The first of our two examples of this small family is the Common Wave,
+the wings of which are pale grey, almost white, dusted all over with
+small dark dots. The fore wings are crossed by three parallel and
+equidistant darker transverse lines, and the hind pair by two. The male
+may be distinguished by its ciliated antennae.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 186.--THE COMMON WAVE.]
+
+The caterpillar is yellow or greenish yellow, with hinder segments
+slightly swollen. It feeds during the latter part of the summer on
+sallows (_Salix caprea_ and _S. cinerea_) and alder (_Alnus glutinosa_),
+and changes to a chrysalis in a light cocoon among fallen leaves. In
+this state it spends the winter, the perfect insect emerging in May or
+June.
+
+This species is very abundant in most parts.
+
+
+_The Clouded Silver_ (_Bapta temerata_)
+
+The other example is the Clouded Silver, the wings of which are white,
+and clouded along the hind margin with smoky grey. On the hind margin of
+the fore wings, close to the fringe, is a row of black crescent-shaped
+spots; and on the inner side of the cloudings is a waved transverse
+band. In the centre of the same wings there is a very distinct dark
+spot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 187.--THE CLOUDED SILVER.]
+
+This moth is not so common as the last, but is widely distributed. It
+flies in May and June.
+
+The caterpillar is bright green on the upper side, and has a row of
+orange spots, bordered with brown, down the middle of the back. It feeds
+in the autumn on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_) and the wild cherry
+(_P. Avium_), and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, inclosed in
+a light silken cocoon.
+
+
+Family--MACARIIDAE
+
+_The_ V _Moth_ (_Halia Vauaria_)
+
+The family _Macariidae_ contains only five British species, four of which
+have the tip of the fore wings extended more or less into an angle, and
+the hind wings are also angled to a greater or less extent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 188.--THE V MOTH.]
+
+Our only example is the V Moth, so called from the conspicuous V-shaped
+blackish mark on the middle of the costa of the fore wings. The ground
+colour of all the wings is grey, with a delicate violet tinge. There are
+other dark markings in addition to the one mentioned above, and the
+arrangement of these may be seen in the woodcut.
+
+This species is very common in all parts, and flies at about midsummer.
+
+The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally green, and
+is marked with longitudinal wavy lines. On each side is a series of
+yellow blotches, forming a broken lateral stripe, and the body is
+covered with minute black bristle-bearing warts. It feeds in May on
+gooseberry and currant bushes, and changes to a chrysalis in a web
+between the leaves.
+
+
+Family--FIDONIIDAE
+
+We now come to a family of moths peculiar for their habit of flying more
+or less by day. As is often the case with day-flying moths, these are
+mostly prettily marked, and are consequently often mistaken by the
+uninitiated for butterflies. Most of them are to be found on heaths,
+downs, and open fields; but one--the Bordered White--is met with only in
+fir woods.
+
+The wings are not angulated, and the antennae of the males are
+pectinated.
+
+The larvae are generally to be distinguished by a couple of little horns
+on one or more of the hindermost segments, and in most cases they pupate
+beneath the surface of the soil.
+
+
+_The Common Heath_ (_Ematurga atomaria_)
+
+Of this family we shall select two examples, the first of which is the
+Common Heath, often so abundant on heaths and downs that they are
+disturbed at almost every footstep.
+
+The ground colour of the wings of the male is a dull yellowish grey, and
+that of the female greyish white. In both cases the wings are crossed by
+irregular dark brown bands. The fringe is barred alternately with white
+and dark brown, and the whole of the ground tint between the
+above-mentioned bands is thickly dotted with dark brown. The female is
+generally smaller than the male.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 189.--THE COMMON HEATH.]
+
+The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally reddish
+brown, ochreous brown, or greenish, with a light line along the
+spiracles, and a series of lozenge-shaped spots on the back. It feeds on
+trefoils (_Lotus corniculatus_ and _L. pilosus_) and various other
+plants that grow on heaths.
+
+
+_The Bordered White_ (_Bupalus piniaria_)
+
+The male of this species is boldly marked with yellowish white and dark
+brown, the arrangement of the two colours being shown in fig. 190. The
+female is very different in general appearance. Her wings are of an
+almost uniform orange or yellowish-brown tint. The fore wings are darker
+near the tip, and there is generally a darker transverse band across the
+centre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 190.--THE BORDERED WHITE--MALE.]
+
+The male may often be seen flying in the sunshine among the branches of
+fir trees during May and June, but his mate is rather less active, and
+is generally to be secured by beating the branches.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, with whitish stripes and yellow
+spiracles. It feeds during August and September on the leaves of the
+Scotch fir (_Pinus sylvestris_).
+
+
+Family--ZERENIDAE
+
+_The Currant Moth_ (_Abraxas grossulariata_)
+
+The family _Zerenidae_ contains only four British moths, and of these we
+select the Currant Moth or Magpie. This insect is exceedingly common
+everywhere, and on account of its general brightness of appearance, and
+also of its diurnal habits, it is often taken for a butterfly. The
+ground colour of the wings is creamy white, with a yellow transverse
+band, and a yellow blotch at the base; and the whole surface is more or
+less blotched with black.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 191.--THE CURRANT MOTH.]
+
+From the end of June to August this moth may be seen in abundance in our
+gardens, wherever currant bushes exist, flying about both during the
+sunshine and at dusk, with rather a heavy movement.
+
+The caterpillar is white, with a yellow line along the spiracles, and
+numerous black dots. There are, in addition to the dots, two large black
+blotches on the back of each segment. It feeds during May on currant and
+gooseberry bushes, also on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_). About the
+end of May it spins a light silken cocoon, and changes to a short dumpy
+chrysalis of a glossy black colour with bright yellow bands (fig. 34).
+
+
+Family--HYBERNIIDAE
+
+Passing over the family _Ligiidae_, which contains only one British moth,
+the Horse-chestnut, we come to the small but interesting family,
+_Hyberniidae_.
+
+Of this we have six species, five of which favour us during the bleakest
+months of the year. Two of them visit us in October and November, and
+even remain with us up to Christmas. The others follow closely on them,
+and may be seen from January to March.
+
+The males have slender bodies, and their wings are full and without
+angles; but the females are either perfectly or nearly wingless. In
+three cases there is hardly a trace of wings in this sex, so that they
+look more like spiders than moths.
+
+The caterpillars are long and slender and without humps, and all feed on
+the leaves of trees. They change to the chrysalis state under the
+ground.
+
+
+_The Spring Usher_ (_Hybernia leucophaearia_)
+
+Early in February, and often even in January, this moth may be seen in
+abundance in almost every oak wood, sitting on the bark of the trees,
+or occasionally taking a short flight in the sunshine. In colour it is
+very variable. The wings have always a whitish ground marbled and dotted
+with dark brown, but in some the fore wings are almost entirely dark
+brown with the exception of a transverse central bar. The female has
+only the slightest rudiments of wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 192.--THE SPRING USHER.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the young buds and leaves of the oak (_Quercus
+Robur_) and sycamore (_Acer Pseudoplatanus_), concealing itself among
+the small leaves which it has spun together. It is full grown in June,
+when it changes to a chrysalis on the surface of the ground, and remains
+here throughout the summer and part of the following winter.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is very variable, but is usually pale
+green with white markings.
+
+
+_The Mottled Umber_ (_Hybernia defoliaria_)
+
+This very pretty moth is represented in fig. 8 of Plate XII. It is very
+common in most parts, and visits us at the fall of the leaf, generally
+appearing in October, and remaining on the wing till November. Our
+illustration gives the usual appearance of the male, but in some
+specimens the four wings are all of one uniform reddish-brown colour,
+evenly dotted all over with a darker tint. The female is quite wingless.
+
+The caterpillar is exceedingly pretty. Its head is large and brown. The
+back is brown, bordered with a fine black line. Below this is a broad
+and bright yellow line, with a red spot on each segment. The spiracles
+are white. It feeds during spring on oak (_Quercus Robur_), whitethorn
+(_Crataegus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and other trees.
+When disturbed it always allows itself to fall for a foot or two, and
+then remains swinging at the end of a silken fibre till danger is over,
+or hunger recalls it to its food. It changes to a chrysalis on the
+ground about the middle of June.
+
+
+_The March Moth_ (_Anisopteryx aescularia_)
+
+This is another common moth, and should be looked for during March and
+April on the barks of trees in oak and other woods. The fore wings are
+of a dingy brown colour, paler near the base, and crossed by a pale wavy
+line. The hind wings are lighter, with a central dark spot. But this
+description applies to the male only, for the female is wingless, and
+may be known by the tuft of hair that tips the abdomen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 193.--THE MARCH MOTH.]
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, clouded with a darker tint, and has a
+white line on each side of the back. It feeds in May on the three trees
+named for the last species, also on lime (_Tilia vulgaris_) and elm
+(_Ulmus campestris_).
+
+
+Family--LARENTIIDAE
+
+This is by far the most extensive family of the _Geometrae_, containing
+as it does considerably over a hundred species, or well nigh a half of
+the whole group.
+
+The wings of the various species are smooth and more or less glossy, and
+the front pair are generally crossed by several wavy lines. Many of the
+moths, and particularly those known popularly as the Pugs, are very
+small. Representatives of the family are to be met with almost
+throughout the year--from early spring to the middle of the winter.
+
+Most of the caterpillars are rather long and slender, and without humps;
+and green is the prevailing colour. They feed either on trees or low
+plants, often protecting themselves in folded leaves; and some of the
+smaller species show a decided preference for flowers and seeds.
+
+We shall select about a dozen of the commonest members for individual
+description.
+
+
+_The November Moth_ (_Oporabia dilutata_)
+
+Our first example is the November moth--a rather dingy and very variable
+species that may be found almost everywhere in October and November. The
+ground colour of the fore wings is dingy grey, crossed by several darker
+lines, subject to considerable variations. The hind wings are paler,
+with two slender darker lines parallel with the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 194.--THE NOVEMBER MOTH.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on many trees, the principal of which are the oak,
+whitethorn and blackthorn. Like the perfect insect, it is very variable
+in colour, but is generally of a bright green, with reddish or purplish
+spots on the back and sides. The spiracles are yellow or orange, and
+below them is a white stripe. It is full fed in June.
+
+
+_The Twin-spot Carpet_ (_Larentia didymata_)
+
+The Twin-spot Carpet is common throughout Great Britain, and the
+beginner is likely to meet with it in June and July during his first
+season. Our illustration represents the male, the fore wings of which
+are greyish brown, crossed by several dark lines, and with a double dark
+and conspicuous spot near the middle of the hind margin. The female is
+much lighter, and the markings are also lighter and less distinct.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 195.--THE TWIN-SPOT CARPET.]
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, with a narrow whitish line along the
+spiracles. It feeds in April and May on the leaves of the wood anemone
+(_Anemone nemorosa_), chervil (_Chaerophyllum temulum_), and other
+plants.
+
+
+_The Grass Rivulet_ (_Emmelesia albulata_)
+
+We represent the genus _Emmelesia_ by the Grass Rivulet--a pretty little
+moth that flies in June, and which is widely distributed though not
+abundant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 196.--THE GRASS RIVULET.]
+
+Its fore wings are pale grey, crossed by several white lines, the
+arrangement of which may be seen in our engraving. The hind wings are of
+the same ground colour, but have no markings except a white wavy line
+near the hind margin.
+
+The caterpillar feeds during July and August on the seeds of the yellow
+rattle (_Rhinanthus Crista-galli_), protecting itself from its enemies
+by spinning together the petals of the flowers; and when full grown it
+changes to a chrysalis under the same cover.
+
+
+_The Netted Pug_ (_Eupithecia venosata_)
+
+We now come to the enormous genus _Eupithecia_, containing about fifty
+small species, most of which are known as 'Pugs.' Many of these are
+only imperfectly known, there being yet much to learn about their
+earlier stages.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 197.--THE NETTED PUG.]
+
+The Netted Pug flies in May and June, and is to be found in most parts
+of Great Britain. Its fore wings are brownish grey, crossed by two
+zigzag light bands, both of which are bordered with black, and divided
+throughout by a fine dark line. There are also other dark lines, both
+transverse and longitudinal, arranged as here represented.
+
+The caterpillar feeds during July inside the seed capsules of campions
+(_Silene Cucubalis_, _S. maritima_, _S. acaulis_, and _Lychnis diurna_)
+and catchfly (_Silene gallica_ and _S. nutans_).
+
+
+_The Narrow-winged Pug_ (_Eupithecia nanata_)
+
+Early in May, and frequently in April, this pretty little moth may be
+seen flying about at dusk among the heather on our moors. It is one of
+the first Pugs of the season, and is widely distributed, and very common
+in some localities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 198.--THE NARROW-WINGED PUG.]
+
+Its wings are dark grey, and marked with several transverse wavy light
+lines. The fringe is dark grey, spotted with white.
+
+The caterpillar feeds during August and September on the ling (_Calluna
+vulgaris_) and heath (_Erica cinerea_ and _E. Tetralix_).
+
+
+_The Brindled Pug_ (_Eupithecia abbreviata_)
+
+Our last example of the Pugs is the Brindled Pug, another early species,
+appearing on the wing in March and April. It is common in most parts,
+and may generally be easily obtained by searching fences and tree
+trunks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 199.--THE BRINDLED PUG.]
+
+Its fore wings are very long in proportion. The colour is yellowish
+brown, crossed by darker lines. The fore wings have a very broad band of
+the ground colour, broken by two short lines, and crossed by a slender
+angulated stripe.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the oak in June.
+
+
+_The Small Seraphim_ (_Lobophora sexalisata_)
+
+This moth is very much like the Pugs in general appearance, and is quite
+as small and even smaller than some of them; but it and the other
+members of its genus differ from the Pugs in that they cover their hind
+wings when at rest.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 200.--THE SMALL SERAPHIM.]
+
+The fore wings are yellowish or pale brownish grey with four paler
+transverse lines, the two median ones of which are divided throughout by
+a darker fine wavy line. The hind wings are grey, paler at the base, and
+crossed centrally by a double darker line. This species flies in May and
+June, and though apparently widely distributed, can hardly be described
+as common.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the white willow (_Salix alba_) and sallow (_S.
+caprea_) in August and September; and the chrysalis may be found in a
+silken cocoon among the fallen leaves throughout the winter.
+
+
+_The Blue-bordered Carpet_ (_Melanthia bicolorata_)
+
+This same family (_Larentiidae_) is remarkable for its large number of
+pretty moths, popularly known as the 'Carpets,' many of which are
+exceedingly common in our woods and gardens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 201.--THE BLUE-BORDERED CARPET.]
+
+Our first example of these is the Blue-bordered, which is pretty well
+represented in several counties of Great Britain and Ireland. Its white
+fore wings are boldly marked with a blotch of greyish brown at the base,
+and another extending from the middle of the costal margin more than
+halfway across. The hind margin is marked with two bluish grey bars,
+separated by a white line. The hind wings are white, with a very small
+dark spot, and a bluish grey margin something like that of the fore
+wings.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with longitudinal stripes of a darker and
+lighter shade. It feeds in June on the alder (_Alnus glutinosa_) and
+blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_); and when full grown it changes to a brown
+chrysalis within a light silken web.
+
+The moth flies in July and August.
+
+
+_The Beautiful Carpet_ (_Melanthia albicillata_)
+
+The Beautiful Carpet belongs to the same genus as _Bicolorata_. Its
+wings are of a rich creamy white, clouded with grey along the hind
+margin. The basal blotches of the fore wings are large, of a dark brown
+colour, and marbled with a light tint. Near the tips of these wings is
+another conspicuous blotch of the same colour, from which a delicate
+wavy dark line runs to the inner margin. A small dark spot also lies
+near the middle of the costal margin of each of the four wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 202.--THE BEAUTIFUL CARPET.]
+
+The caterpillar is green, with a white line along the spiracles, and a
+triangular reddish spot on the back of segments four to ten inclusive.
+It feeds on the bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_), raspberry (_R. Idaeus_),
+and wild strawberry (_Fragaria vesca_). It may be found in June and
+July.
+
+The moth flies in June.
+
+
+_The Common Carpet_ (_Melanippe sociata_)
+
+The genus _Melanippe_ contains twelve species, some of which are
+extremely common. One of these moths--the Common Carpet--is represented
+in fig. 203. Its wings are all of a smoky-brown colour, crossed by
+numerous white lines, the arrangement of which may be gathered from our
+illustration better than from a written description. It is a
+double-brooded insect, appearing first in May, and then again about the
+end of July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 203.--THE COMMON CARPET.]
+
+The caterpillar is mottled with shades of brown and grey. On the back
+are five or six greyish-white lozenge-shaped marks, and there are a few
+white dots on the back of each segment. It feeds on the hedge bedstraw
+(_Galium Mollugo_), and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis in a
+light cocoon on the ground.
+
+
+_The Silver Ground Carpet_ (_Melanippe montanata_)
+
+In this species the ground colour is silvery white. The bases of the
+fore wings are blotched with pale brown, and a dark brownish-grey bar,
+containing a black spot, crosses the middle. The hind margins of the
+fore wings are faintly marked with pale brown, and lines of the same
+tint, more or less distinct, cross the hind wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 204.--THE SILVER GROUND CARPET.]
+
+This moth is very common in all parts of the country, and may be seen on
+the wing throughout the summer.
+
+The caterpillar is light brown, with several longitudinal lines of
+different colours. On the back of each of the segments seven, eight, and
+nine is a distinct black V-shaped mark, terminating behind with a bright
+red spot. It feeds on the primrose (_Primula acaulis_) in the autumn,
+hybernates through the winter, and is full grown about the beginning of
+April.
+
+
+_The Garden Carpet_ (_Melanippe fluctuata_)
+
+Our third and last member of this genus is the Garden Carpet--a moth
+that must be pretty well known to almost everybody, since it is the
+commonest of all the _Geometrae_ that frequent our gardens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 205.--THE GARDEN CARPET.]
+
+The fore wings are pale grey or brownish, with a patch of dark greyish
+brown at the base, another larger one on the middle of the costa, and a
+third near the tip. The wing is usually clouded between the middle
+blotch and the inner margin, and numerous fine wavy lines, more or less
+distinct, cross the wing.
+
+This moth may be seen throughout the summer, from May to September, but
+is most abundant in June and July.
+
+The caterpillar is extremely variable in colour, being either green,
+brown, or grey, or some intermediate tint; and is marbled and dotted
+with dark brown on the back. It feeds on the nasturtium (_Tropaeolum
+majus_), rape (_Brassica Napus_), and various other cruciferous plants;
+and may be found from April to August.
+
+
+_The Yellow Shell_ (_Camptogramma bilineata_)
+
+Passing over two smaller genera, we come to the beautiful little Yellow
+Shell. This moth is so abundant in most parts that we arouse it at
+almost every stroke while beating low bushes.
+
+All its wings are yellow, and crossed by numerous delicate white and
+brown lines. The most conspicuous feature is the two white lines, with
+dark brown edging, crossing the fore wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 206.--THE YELLOW SHELL.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds by night, and is therefore seldom seen except by
+those who make special nocturnal searches with the aid of a lantern or
+sweep net. It devours various grasses, and hides itself among the roots
+or under stones during the daytime. It is full grown in April or May.
+The colour is dull pale green, with a dark green dorsal line, and two
+white stripes on each side.
+
+
+_The Small Ph[oe]nix_ (_Cidaria silaceata_)
+
+Again passing over a few small and less important genera, we select the
+small Ph[oe]nix as the last example of this very extensive family.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 207.--THE SMALL PH[OE]NIX.]
+
+The fore wings of this species are dark brown, paler toward the hind
+margin. Most of the wing rays are generally of a pale yellowish colour,
+and a variable and complicated system of whitish lines crosses the wings
+near the base, and another near the hind margin. Among the latter there
+is always a series of dark triangular spots, with apices pointing
+towards the hind margin.
+
+This moth is moderately common throughout the British Isles, and is
+double brooded, appearing in May and August.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with a row of brown spots along the middle of
+the back. When full grown it changes to a chrysalis in a light web.
+
+
+Family--EUBOLIIDAE
+
+This is the last family of the _Geometrae_ we shall notice, and contains
+ten species. Most of these are rather pretty moths, and all have the
+tips of the fore wings more or less pointed. As a rule, too, there is a
+dark streak running from the very tip of the wing for a short distance
+obliquely inward.
+
+They are generally very light sleepers, and are easily beaten from their
+hiding places during the day.
+
+The larvae are not humped, and may be found feeding on low plants.
+
+We shall briefly examine two species.
+
+
+_The Small Mallow_ (_Eubolia limitata_)
+
+This moth is pretty abundant in waste places from June to August, and is
+easily obtained by lightly beating the foliage of small bushes and low
+plants.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 208.--THE SMALL MALLOW.]
+
+Its fore wings are pale brown crossed by a broad central bar, the edges
+of which are darker. The hind wings are of a paler brown, and are
+crossed by two or three fine wavy lines.
+
+Although the perfect insect is so common, the caterpillar seems to be
+seldom met with. It is a grass feeder, and may be looked for in May and
+June.
+
+
+_The Treble Bar_ (_Anaitis plagiata_)
+
+Our last example of the _Geometrae_ is the Treble Bar, a very pretty
+moth, which is illustrated in fig. 9 of Plate XII. It may be readily
+identified by the aid of this coloured picture, and therefore need not
+be described in words. It is pretty generally distributed throughout the
+British Isles, and is in some parts a very abundant species,
+particularly so in the neighbourhood of London.
+
+The caterpillar is brown, with paler spaces between the segments. The
+dorsal line is black and interrupted, and a yellow line runs along each
+side. It feeds on the leaves and flowers of the perforated St. John's
+wort (_Hypericum perforatum_).
+
+This insect is double brooded, the moth appearing in May and August, and
+remaining with us throughout the month following in each case.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+_THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+
+The butterflies, and all the moths contained in the groups of the last
+four chapters, are commonly spoken of as constituting the
+_Macro-lepidoptera_; but in addition to these there are many hundreds of
+small British moths that represent what is known as the
+_Micro-lepidoptera_.
+
+It is not usual for young entomologists to have much to do with the
+'Micros' until they have had a little practical experience with the
+larger species; in fact, a good number of them never seem to extend
+their knowledge beyond the limits of the 'Macros' except that they may
+make an occasional capture of a Micro that happens to fly across their
+path.
+
+Now, since it would be practically impossible to deal fairly, even in
+outline, with both these divisions of the _Lepidoptera_ in a work of the
+present dimensions, I have devoted most space to the larger species so
+as to meet the probable requirements of the majority of my readers. But
+in order that the beginner may also have the means of introducing
+himself intelligently to a study of the 'Micros,' I shall set apart this
+chapter for a simple account of the broad principles of their
+classification, illustrated by means of a few types, so that the
+collector may at least know _something_ of the insects he captures, even
+though he may not be able at once to fix on their names.
+
+The young entomologist, thus provided with the broad features that
+enable him to roughly classify the specimens which reach his cabinet,
+may, as his store increases, pay an occasional visit to a public museum
+or the private collection of an entomological friend, and so obtain the
+names and other details he may require.
+
+The _Micro-lepidoptera_ are divided into five main groups--_Pyralides_,
+_Pterophori_, _Crambi_, _Tortrices_, and _Tineae_, each of which is
+divided into families and genera, as we have seen in the case of the
+'Macros.'
+
+
+_Pyralides_
+
+The _Pyralides_ may be easily distinguished by the proportionately long
+fore wings, long legs, and elongated abdomen. Some of them have wings of
+a pearly lustre, and are accordingly known popularly as the 'Pearls.'
+Some species fly in bright sunshine, others appear on the wing before
+sunset, and fly till dusk; others, again, are purely nocturnal in their
+habits. All, however, are apparently light sleepers, and may be easily
+beaten out of their resting places and netted by day. Some of these
+moths are common everywhere, but the majority of them are very local,
+though they may be extremely abundant where they occur.
+
+The larvae have a glossy and bristly appearance, and are generally
+gregarious in their habits.
+
+This group contains about eighty species, arranged in five families as
+follows:
+
+ 1. _Pyralididae_, including about forty species.
+ 2. _Botydae_, about thirty species.
+ 3. _Steniiadae_, containing only five species.
+ 4. _Hydrocampidae_, four species.
+ 5. _Acentropodidae_, containing only one.
+
+
+_The Tabby_ (_Aglossa pinguinalis_)
+
+The first of these families contains the Tabby or Grease Moth, commonly
+met with both in the larval and perfect states in barns and stables.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 209.--THE TABBY OR GREASE MOTH.]
+
+Its fore wings are brownish grey, crossed with zigzag darker lines, and
+having a black spot near the centre of the costal margin. The term
+'Tabby' has been applied on account of the fancied resemblance of the
+transverse markings to the fur of a tabby cat, and the other popular
+name was given under the belief that the caterpillar feeds on fatty
+matter, but it is extremely doubtful whether this supposition is
+correct.
+
+The caterpillar probably feeds exclusively on the vegetable
+accumulations that lie in the undisturbed corners and crevices of
+outhouses and stables, and lives concealed in silken tubes, strengthened
+outside by fragments of hay, chaff &c. that have been spun together. It
+feeds from September to April, except during very severe weather, and
+when full grown it leaves its tube, and changes to a chrysalis in a
+light silken cocoon in some secluded corner.
+
+The moth emerges in July.
+
+
+_The Meal Moth_ (_Pyralis farinalis_)
+
+The same family contains the common Meal Moth, so called because in the
+larval state it feeds on meal and allied substances.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 210.--THE MEAL MOTH.]
+
+The fore wings are yellowish grey, with reddish basal patches, a broad
+reddish band along the hind margin, and two whitish indented transverse
+lines. The hind wings are grey, and are crossed by two lines similar to
+and continuous with those of the front pair.
+
+This moth is to be found in abundance throughout the summer months in
+places where corn, meal, and grain are stored in large quantities,
+sitting on walls and rafters during the daytime, and taking to flight in
+the evening.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on corn, meal, grain, bran, &c., and lives
+concealed in a silken tube covered outside with particles of its food
+substance. It is not fully grown till nearly two years old, and then
+changes to a chrysalis in a white silken cocoon.
+
+
+_The Small Magpie_ (_Eurrhypara urticata_)
+
+The family _Botydae_ contains the moths that are popularly known as the
+'Pearls' on account of the pearly lustre of the wings. One of its
+species--the Small Magpie--is shown in the accompanying illustration.
+Its fore wings are pearly white, with blackish hind margin, a yellow
+streak at the base, and blackish markings, the arrangement of which may
+be seen in the figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 211.--THE SMALL MAGPIE.]
+
+It is a very common moth, flying at dusk during June and July in waste
+places where the stinging nettle grows.
+
+The caterpillar is whitish, with a dark dorsal line. It feeds on the
+stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), always remaining concealed between
+leaves which it has spun together with silken threads.
+
+
+_The Mother-of-Pearl_ (_Botys ruralis_)
+
+This is another very common species of the family _Botydae_, abundant
+almost everywhere, and to be found on the wing from June to August.
+
+Its wings are whitish, and exhibit a very decided pearly lustre, and all
+the markings are of a dull dark grey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 212.--THE MOTHER-OF-PEARL.]
+
+The caterpillar is glossy, and has a semi-transparent appearance. It is
+greenish white above, with a darker line down the back; and the sides
+are of a brighter green. It feeds on the stinging nettle (_Urtica
+dioica_) during May.
+
+
+_The Garden Pebble_ (_Pionea forficalis_)
+
+The same family contains also the Garden Pebble, which is one of the
+commonest frequenters of gardens, both in town and country.
+
+The fore wings are pale yellowish grey with brown markings. The latter
+include a fine line from the tip to the middle of the inner margin, and
+another paler one inside and parallel with this, having a dark spot near
+its centre. The hind wings are lighter, and have a pale and interrupted
+line parallel with the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 213.--THE GARDEN PEBBLE.]
+
+The caterpillar is pale greenish, with a dark line along the back and on
+each side. It feeds on the cabbage and other cruciferous plants.
+
+The moth flies from May to the end of the summer, and the caterpillar
+may be found about midsummer, and again in the autumn.
+
+
+_The Beautiful China Mark_ (_Hydrocampa stagnata_)
+
+Our last example of the _Pyralides_--the Beautiful China Mark--belongs
+to the family _Hydrocampidae_. This small family is remarkable for the
+fact that its four species spend their larval state in the water,
+feeding on the under surfaces of the leaves of water lilies and other
+aquatic plants. These curious larvae live either in cases which they
+construct for their protection, something after the fashion of the larvae
+of caddis flies, or quite free in the water, and then they are supplied
+with special breathing organs that enable them to absorb the oxygen held
+in solution in the water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 214.--THE BEAUTIFUL CHINA MARK.]
+
+The moth we have selected for illustration is a very common species, and
+may be seen flying in great numbers in the neighbourhood of ponds during
+June and July.
+
+
+_The Pterophori_
+
+The members of this remarkable group are easily distinguishable from all
+other moths by the feathery appearance of their wings, a feature that
+has gained for them the popular name of _Plume Moths_. Their fore wings
+are more or less divided or cleft, and their hind wings are generally
+divided into three distinct feathery plumes.
+
+The larvae are hairy, and when full fed they suspend themselves by their
+anal claspers, and change to the chrysalis state without any kind of
+covering. They are generally to be found in spring and early summer, but
+some of them feed in the autumn.
+
+The chrysalides are often hairy, though some of them are perfectly
+smooth.
+
+Plume moths are to be met with more or less throughout the year. Many of
+the earlier species appear on the wing in spring and early summer; but
+the late feeders emerge in the autumn, and hybernate through the winter,
+often taking to the wing on the mild days of our coldest months.
+
+The _Pterophori_ include only about forty British species, all of which,
+with two exceptions, belong to the family _Pterophoridae_. The two
+exceptions represent as many families--one the _Chrysocorididae_, and the
+other the _Alucitidae_.
+
+
+_Platyptilia gonodactyla_
+
+This is one of the commonest of the _Pterophoridae_, generally appearing
+in our gardens and in waste places towards the end of May, and
+continuing with us for some time. It starts from its retreat at or
+before sunset, and remains on the wing after dark.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 215.--GONODACTYLA.]
+
+Its fore wings are ochreous grey, with a narrow brown costal margin, and
+a triangular brown patch on the costa. Beyond this patch the wing is
+cleft. The hind wings consist of three distinct brownish plumes, the
+third of which has a small tuft of black scales projecting from the
+middle of the inner margin.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the flower stalks of the coltsfoot during March
+and April.
+
+
+_Leioptilus osteodactylus_
+
+This is another species of the same family. It is not uncommon, but is
+more local than the last.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 216.--OSTEODACTYLUS.]
+
+Its fore wings are pale yellow, with a small brown dot at the
+commencement of the dividing fissure, and a brown blotch on the costal
+margin nearer the tip. The hind wings are divided into three distinct
+plumes like those of _Gonodactyla_.
+
+This is a later species, appearing on the wing in July.
+
+
+_Aciptilia pentadactyla_
+
+The fore wings of this species are white, frequently with a few greyish
+scales, and are deeply divided into two feathery plumes. The hind wings
+are pure white, and consist of three plumes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 217.--PENTADACTYLA.]
+
+This pretty insect is common and widely distributed, and flies during
+June and July.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the convolvulus in May.
+
+
+_Alucita hexadactyla_
+
+Our last example of the _Pterophori_ is the Twelve-plume Moth, the only
+British representative of the family _Alucitidae_.
+
+This little insect is of a yellowish colour, with two dark bands across
+the fore wings; and both fore and hind wings are divided into six
+distinct feathers. It is a common moth, and frequents sheltered spots,
+flying at dusk. It appears in August, remains on the wing till October,
+and then hybernates till the following April. During the winter it is
+commonly met with in outhouses and even in dwelling houses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 218.--HEXADACTYLA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds during June and July on the flower buds of the
+honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_). It is not hairy, like most of the
+larvae of the last family; and, unlike these, it changes to a chrysalis
+in a silken cocoon.
+
+
+_Crambi_
+
+The third group of the 'Micros' is the _Crambi_, and contains about
+eighty species, arranged in four families.
+
+Some of them are common moths with which all must be more or less
+familiar, as they are roused from the grasses on which they repose at
+almost every footstep as we walk through meadows in the summer. When at
+rest, they present a very peculiar appearance. Their wings are wrapped
+closely round their bodies in such a manner that they are hardly
+distinguishable from the stems on which they repose.
+
+The larvae have sixteen limbs, and are very variable in their habits.
+Some feed among moss or dry stems in silken tubes, some on the stems of
+reeds, and others inhabit the hives of bees and feed on the wax of the
+honeycomb.
+
+The four families are:
+
+1. _Chilidae_--five species.
+
+2. _Crambidae_--about thirty species.
+
+3. _Phycidae_--over forty species.
+
+4. _Galleridae_--five species.
+
+
+_Chilo Phragmitellus_
+
+This species is one of those moths known as the 'Veneers,' and is
+popularly termed the Wainscot Veneer. It is one of the largest of the
+family _Chilidae_.
+
+Its fore wings are long, narrow, and pointed at the tip. They are of a
+pale ochreous brown colour, with a row of small black dots along the
+hind margin.
+
+The caterpillar is pale grey, with brown stripes; and the head and
+second segment are yellowish brown. It feeds on the common reed
+(_Phragmites_) in the autumn, and hybernates till the following spring,
+when it resumes its feeding.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 219.--PHRAGMITELLUS--ENLARGED ONE-HALF.]
+
+This insect is rather local, but may be searched for in all marshy
+places where reeds abound.
+
+
+_Crambus hamellus_
+
+The family _Crambidae_ is represented by the above-named species, which
+has the popular title of Pearl-streak Veneer. It is not a common moth,
+but is to be obtained in some localities by beating low herbage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 220.--HAMELLUS--SLIGHTLY ENLARGED.]
+
+Its fore wings are ochreous and glossy, with a silvery streak from the
+base, running almost parallel with the costal margin. The hind margin is
+yellow, bordered inside by a wavy brown line. The hind wings are pale
+greyish brown with a yellowish margin.
+
+
+_Crambus tristellus_
+
+The same family contains the species _Tristellus_, which, unlike the
+preceding insect, is abundant everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 221.--TRISTELLUS.]
+
+Its fore wings are generally yellowish brown, but exceedingly variable.
+A pale streak runs from the base to just beyond the middle of the wing,
+and is then forked. Near the hind margin is a very indistinct brown wavy
+line. The hind wings are dull smoke colour with a light fringe. As with
+the other moths of the family, its labial palpi are very long.
+
+The moth flies from July to September.
+
+
+_Crambus hortuellus_
+
+This is also an abundant species, to be met with everywhere during June
+and July.
+
+Its fore wings are dull ochreous brown. The wing rays are whitish near
+the inner margin, and a brown line with a silvery edging crosses near
+the hind margin. The hind wings are dull smoky brown, with a shining
+surface, and the fringe is light.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 222.--HORTUELLUS.]
+
+The larva is pale grey with dark grey spots, and may be found among moss
+in April and May.
+
+
+_Galleria mellonella_
+
+Our last example of the _Crambi_ is a moth that the young entomologist
+is not likely to meet with unless he happens to be in the neighbourhood
+of one of its haunts, but its habits are so peculiar that we are tempted
+to introduce it on that account.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 223.--MELLONELLA.]
+
+It belongs to the family _Galleridae_, the larvae of which feed on the wax
+combs in the hives of bees and in the nests of wild bees. They are
+protected from the stings of the inmates by silken tubes which they
+construct, and by the hardened covering of their heads and front
+segments--the only parts that remain exposed while they are feeding.
+
+The fore wings of the moth are reddish-grey or brownish, sometimes with
+a greenish tinge, and yellowish along the inner margin. The hind wings
+are greyish brown.
+
+It flies in July and August, and the caterpillar feeds in May and June.
+
+
+_The Tortrices_
+
+This is a large group of moths, deriving their name from the peculiar
+habit of a number of the larvae of twisting or rolling up leaves for
+their protection. This habit, however, is not common to all, for some
+feed on stems and flowers, and others devour seeds and fruits.
+
+The perfect insects may easily be known by the shape of the wings. The
+fore pair are gracefully curved on the costal margin in such a way that,
+when the insect is at rest with its wings closed, its outline is much
+the shape of a bell.
+
+The identification of the various species of this extensive group is no
+easy task, for many of them are so variable in their colouring that
+insects of the same species are often very different from each other.
+So puzzling indeed is this tendency to run into varieties that many
+insects, once considered to belong to separate species, have been
+reduced to one; and this has been the case in a number of instances.
+
+There are so many of these little moths that we cannot even give a
+representative of each family, but the following outline will serve to
+show the extensiveness of the group.
+
+ Family 1. _Tortricidae_, about sixty species.
+ " 2. _Penthinidae_, " twenty "
+ " 3. _Spilonotidae_, " twelve "
+ " 4. _Sericoridae_, " twenty-seven species.
+ " 5. _Sciaphilidae_, " twenty-four "
+ " 6. _Grapholithidae_, about one hundred and fifty species.
+ " 7. _Pyraloididae_, four species.
+ " 8. _Conchylidae_, about fifty species.
+ " 9. _Apheliidae_, three species.
+
+We shall now briefly examine a few of the commonest insects of the
+group.
+
+
+_Tortrix xylosteana_
+
+This pretty moth is common in most parts, and may often be met with in
+abundance in wooded localities during July. It belongs to the family
+_Tortricidae_.
+
+Its fore wings are ochreous brown. A very dark oblique streak, edged
+with yellow, runs from the inner margin of the base. A reddish patch in
+the centre of the wing, also edged with yellow, is narrow on the costa,
+and expands as it approaches the inner margin. Beyond this are another
+dark patch on the costa and two reddish-brown blotches on the hind
+margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 224.--XYLOSTEANA WITH WINGS CLOSED.]
+
+The larva is greenish brown, marked with white spots which have black
+centres; and it feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), honeysuckle (_Lonicera
+Periclymenum_), and other plants, in the month of May.
+
+
+_Tortrix viridana_
+
+In June and July this pretty but destructive little insect may be seen
+flying in abundance in almost every oak wood. Its fore wings are one
+uniform pale green with the exception of a streak of yellow along the
+costal margin; and, when at rest, scores may exist on a single twig
+without being seen unless closely examined. The hind wings are of a pale
+smoky tint, and rather glossy.
+
+The larva is green, with black spots, and feeds in May and June on the
+oak and other trees, often almost completely devouring the foliage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 225.--VIRIDANA.]
+
+
+_Peronea cristana_
+
+This moth is not so generally abundant, but is very common in many of
+the woods of the south. It is remarkable for the large number of
+varieties that have been observed, many of which have been regarded as
+distinct species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 226.--CRISTANA--ENLARGED.]
+
+Its fore wings are of some shade of brown or grey, with a light streak
+of variable colour along the inner margin, and a tuft of raised white
+scales in the middle of the wing.
+
+It flies during August and September.
+
+
+_Ptycholoma lecheana_
+
+Our last example of the family _Tortricidae_ is _Lecheana_, a moth that
+is common in most parts in June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 227.--LECHEANA.]
+
+Its fore wings are brown, lighter towards the base. There are no very
+distinct markings, but there is generally a darker patch in the middle
+of the wing, edged with a silvery streak on each side.
+
+The larva feeds on several trees, including oaks and elms, in the month
+of May.
+
+
+_Penthina pruniana_
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 228.--PRUNIANA.]
+
+The next family--_Penthinidae_--contains the common species _Pruniana_,
+which may be readily known by its boldly marked wings. The basal portion
+of the fore wings, to the extent of nearly two-thirds of the whole, is
+very dark brown. The remaining third is almost white, and clouded with
+grey. The hind wings are smoky brown with a paler fringe.
+
+The caterpillar of this species feeds on the blackthorn (_Prunus
+spinosa_) in May, and the moth flies in June and July.
+
+
+_Antithesia salicella_
+
+This moth is not nearly so common as the last species, but is fairly
+plentiful in some localities in the south of England. It belongs to the
+same family as _Pruniana_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 229.--SALICELLA.]
+
+The fore wings are whitish at the base and along the inner margin, but
+the light tint is dotted and clouded with shades of brown. The remainder
+of the wings is marbled with dark brown of different depths, relieved
+near the hind margin with a little blue. The hind wings, as is usual
+with the _Tortrices_, are dull smoky brown.
+
+The caterpillar is reddish brown with black spots, and feeds during May
+in rolled leaves of willows.
+
+The moth flies in August and September.
+
+
+_Sciaphila octomaculana_
+
+Our single example of the family _Sciaphilidae_ is the species
+_Octomaculana_, which, though not very abundant, is widely distributed,
+and moderately common in parts.
+
+Its fore wings are white, dusted with grey, and each is marked with four
+dark grey patches which have given rise to its specific name--a word
+which signifies 'eight-spotted.' The hind wings are grey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 230.--OCTOMACULANA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on thistles and other plants, and the moth flies
+from August to October.
+
+
+_Ephippiphora cirsiana_
+
+This insect represents the family _Grapholithidae_. It is a common moth,
+and is widely distributed.
+
+Its fore wings are greyish brown, with a large white patch on the middle
+of the inner margin; and beyond this white, in the anal angle, is a
+pale grey patch containing three or four black dots. The tips of the
+wings are reddish brown.
+
+The moth flies in June and July; and the larva, which feeds on thistles,
+may be found in the stems from October to the following May.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 231.--CIRSIANA--ENLARGED.]
+
+
+_Carpocapsa pomonella_
+
+The same extensive family contains a few moths that are very destructive
+to our fruits, the larvae burrowing into and living entirely within their
+substance. One of these--_Pomonella_--is popularly known as the Codlin,
+as its larva is so often found in the interior of small apples of the
+same name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 232.--POMONELLA.]
+
+The fore wings of this insect are grey, with a number of dark transverse
+lines. The spot in the anal angle is edged with a coppery tint, and
+inclosed by a curved black line.
+
+This moth is common in all parts, flying during June and July; and the
+larva may be looked for in apples and pears in August and September.
+
+
+_Xanthosetia zoegana_
+
+Our last example of the _Tortrices_ is _Zoegana_, which belongs to the
+family _Conchylidae_. Its fore wings are yellow, with a reddish streak
+along the costa near the base, and a small reddish spot opposite this
+near the inner margin. The tip of the wings is dark reddish brown, in
+the middle of which is a large yellow spot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 233.--ZOEGANA--ENLARGED.]
+
+This moth is widely distributed, and in some parts common. It flies from
+May to August, and the larva feeds on the small scabious (_Scabiosa
+columbaria_).
+
+
+_The Tineae_
+
+We have noticed that the _Tortrices_ form a very extensive group of
+moths, but they are far outnumbered by the _Tineae_, for of these there
+are over seven hundred known British species.
+
+Of course, among so many species we are sure to find considerable
+variety in form and structure; but notwithstanding this, the _Tineae_
+form a well-marked division, and the beginner will find but little
+difficulty in distinguishing between these and the other Micros.
+
+The wings are long and narrow, and are remarkable for the length of the
+fringe, particularly that of the hind wings. The bodies, too, are long
+and slender.
+
+The larvae are exceedingly variable. Some have the usual number of
+sixteen limbs, and others have as many as eighteen. Again, the larvae of
+several genera have only fourteen legs, and some are absolutely legless.
+
+With regard to their food and habits, they are equally variable, for
+while some feed exposed, others are always protected in rolled leaves.
+Some construct for themselves portable tubes, so that they always remain
+under cover, and are at the same time perfectly free to ramble in search
+for food. Some, also, are leaf miners; and the group includes the
+so-called 'Clothes Moths,' whose larvae devour our garments, furs, and
+the upholstering of our furniture.
+
+We shall now briefly notice a few species, in order that we may become
+better acquainted with the general characters of the group.
+
+
+_Diurnea fagella_
+
+This moth represents the small family _Epigraphiidae_, containing only
+six species, all of which appear in the winter or early spring.
+
+The present species is very common in most parts, and may be seen at
+rest on the barks of trees in March and April.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 234.--FAGELLA.]
+
+The fore wings are usually pale grey or yellowish grey, and dotted with
+brown; but there is a great variety both in the depth of the ground
+colour and the distinctness of the markings. Our illustration gives the
+usual appearance of the insect.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on various trees in September and October, always
+protected between leaves that it has spun together.
+
+
+_Adela cuprella_
+
+The family _Adelidae_ contains ten species, all remarkable for the great
+length of their antennae. The one selected for illustration is a
+beautiful little moth with bright bronzy green fore wings, tinged with a
+rich glossy violet. The hind wings are brown with a glossy surface.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 235.--CUPRELLA.]
+
+This moth does not seem to be widely distributed, but is fairly
+plentiful where it occurs. Wimbledon Common and Epping Forest are good
+localities for it. It is on the wing in April and May.
+
+
+_Hyponomeuta Padellus_
+
+The family _Hyponomeutidae_ contains about twenty insects, some of which
+are very common and exceedingly destructive to our trees. In May and
+June hawthorn and fruit trees may be seen swarming with the gregarious
+larvae of some of them, and almost entirely stripped of their leaves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 236.--PADELLUS.]
+
+The species here figured has grey or white fore wings with three rows of
+black dots. The hind wings are darker grey without dots.
+
+The larva feeds on hawthorn, apple, and other trees. The perfect insect
+flies in July and August.
+
+
+_Depressaria nervosa_
+
+The next family--_Gelechiidae_--is represented by the species Nervosa,
+which is common in many localities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 237.--NERVOSA--TWICE NATURAL SIZE.]
+
+Its fore wings are reddish brown, and are marked by a number of short
+longitudinal streaks of a darker colour. The hind wings are light grey.
+
+The caterpillar is black, marked with black spots in white rings, and
+having yellow side stripes. It feeds on the flowers of the hemlock
+water dropwort (_[OE]nanthe crocata_) during June and July.
+
+The moth flies in August and September.
+
+
+_Harpella Geoffrella_
+
+The same extensive family contains the moth Geoffrella, represented in
+the accompanying cut. This is an exceedingly pretty insect. The basal
+portion of its fore wings is yellow, with two longitudinal dark streaks,
+the outer one of which is bent towards the inner margin near the middle
+of the wing. The remaining portion of the wings is brown, with two
+yellowish triangular spots, one on the costal and one on the inner
+margin. On the middle of the costa is a short dark streak.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 238.--GEOFFRELLA.]
+
+This moth appears in May and June, and is rather local, but very
+abundant in some parts.
+
+
+_Coleophora ibipennella_
+
+The family _Coleophoridae_ contains about seventy small moths,
+characterised by their very narrow and pointed wings, with long fringes,
+and also, generally, by a little tuft of hair on the first joint of the
+antennae.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 239.--IBIPENNELLA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The larvae live in little cases which they construct, and feed on various
+leaves and seeds. They spend the winter within their cases, and change
+to the chrysalis state in spring or early summer.
+
+One of these moths--_Ibipennella_--is shown in fig. 239. Its fore wings
+are white, with a satiny gloss, and brownish towards the tips. The
+'nervures' are generally of a yellowish tinge. The hind wings are dark
+grey.
+
+The larva feeds on the birch (_Betula alba_), and may be seen walking on
+the surface of the leaves, carrying, or rather dragging after it, the
+pistol-shaped case in which it lives, nothing protruding save its head
+and front legs. It is full fed in May, and the moth flies in July.
+
+
+_Tischeria complanella_
+
+This species represents the rather extensive family _Elachistidae_, the
+members of which have narrow and pointed wings. Many of them are adorned
+with beautiful metallic tints, but are generally so small that a lens is
+necessary to show up the splendour of their clothing. Most of the larvae
+are leaf miners, and are easily reared. All that is necessary is to
+pluck a few twigs, the leaves of which, when held up to the light,
+reveal the tiny larvae in their burrows, and place them in a vessel of
+water. They do not feed long, and it is probable that most of the larvae
+so treated will be ready to change before the leaves have become dry.
+The present species has bright yellow fore wings, with pale grey
+cloudings at the hind margins. It is very abundant in many parts, and
+flies during the month of June.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 240.--COMPLANELLA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The larva is one of the numerous leaf miners, and is of a yellowish
+colour. It feeds in oak leaves during the autumn, and its presence is
+indicated by light blotches on the foliage.
+
+
+_Nepticula aurella_
+
+The family _Nepticulidae_--the last of the _Tineae_--contains a number of
+little moths, including the smallest of the _Lepidoptera_. Many of them
+are exceedingly beautiful, being decorated with various tints of a
+splendid metallic lustre, but their beauty is revealed only by the use
+of a magnifying lens, and they are so small that very great care and
+patience is required to set them properly.
+
+They may be recognised by their short and thick antennae, rather large
+head, broad fore wings, and narrow pointed hind wings.
+
+The larvae have no true legs, but have nine pairs of very imperfectly
+developed claspers. They are leaf miners, and are sometimes so abundant
+that several may be found in a single leaf.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 241.--AURELLA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The species we have selected has fore wings of a rich golden brown, with
+deep violet tips, and a broad bar of pale golden yellow beyond the
+middle. It may be found throughout the spring and summer. The larva
+excavates long irregular burrows in the leaves of the bramble.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES
+
+
+APPENDIX I
+
+I have previously called the reader's attention to our classified list
+of butterflies and moths, and have hinted at one or two of the objects
+for which it is inserted. It contains the scientific and popular names
+of all the British Butterflies, _Sphinges_, _Bombyces_, _Noctuae_, and
+_Geometrae_, arranged in their various families and genera; and in cases
+where two specific names are commonly applied to the same insect, both
+are given.
+
+Its chief uses to the young entomologist are to show the relation which
+the insects bear one to another, and to supply a guide for the proper
+arrangement of the specimens in his cabinet.
+
+The order adopted is that of South's 'Synonymic List of British
+Lepidoptera,' and it has already been mentioned that similar lists,
+printed on one side of the paper only, may be obtained from dealers in
+naturalists' appliances. These, cut up as required, supply very neat
+labels for cabinets or store boxes.
+
+
+_COMPLETE CLASSIFIED LIST OF BRITISH MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+=RHOPALOCERA (BUTTERFLIES).=
+
+ PAPILIONIDAE.
+ =Papilio.=
+ _Machaon_--Swallow Tail
+
+ PIERIDAE.
+ =Aporia.=
+ _Crataegi_--Black-veined White
+ =Pieris.=
+ _Brassicae_--Large White
+ _Rapae_--Small White
+ _Napi_--Green-veined White
+ _Daplidice_--Bath White
+ =Euchlo[:e].=
+ _Cardamines_--Orange Tip
+ =Leucophasia.=
+ _Sinapis_--Wood White
+ =Colias.=
+ _Hyale_--Pale Clouded Yellow
+ _Edusa_--Clouded Yellow
+ =Gonopteryx.=
+ _Rhamni_--Brimstone
+
+ NYMPHALIDAE.
+ =Argynnis.=
+ _Selene_--Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary
+ _Euphrosyne_--Pearl-bordered Fritillary
+ _Latona_--Queen of Spain
+ _Aglaia_--Dark Green Fritillary
+ _Adippe_--High Brown Fritillary
+ _Paphia_--Silver-washed Fritillary
+ =Melitaea.=
+ _Aurinia_ (_Artemis_)--Greasy Fritillary
+ _Cinxia_--Glanville Fritillary
+ _Athalia_--Heath Fritillary
+ =Vanessa.=
+ _C-Album_--Comma
+ _Polychloros_--Large Tortoiseshell
+ _Urticae_--Small Tortoiseshell
+ _Io_--Peacock
+ _Antiopa_--Camberwell Beauty
+ _Atalanta_--Red Admiral
+ _Cardui_--Painted Lady
+ =Limenitis.=
+ _Sibylla_--White Admiral
+
+ APATURIDAE.
+ =Apatura.=
+ _Iris_--Purple Emperor
+
+ SATYRIDAE.
+ =Melanargia.=
+ _Galatea_--Marbled White
+ =Erebia.=
+ _Epiphron_ (_Cassiope_)--Small Ringlet
+ _AEthiops_ (_Blandina_)--Northern Brown (Scotch Argus)
+ =Pararge.=
+ _Egeria_--Speckled Wood
+ _Megaera_--Wall
+ =Satyrus.=
+ _Semele_--Grayling
+ =Epinephele.=
+ _Ianira_--Meadow Brown
+ _Tithonus_--Large Heath (Small Meadow Brown)
+ _Hyperanthes_--Ringlet
+ =Caenonympha.=
+ _Typhon_ (_Davus_)--Marsh Ringlet
+ _Pamphilus_--Small Heath
+
+ LYCAENIDAE.
+ =Thecla.=
+ _Betulae_--Brown Hairstreak
+ _W-Album_--White-letter Hairstreak
+ _Pruni_--Dark Hairstreak
+ _Quercus_--Purple Hairstreak
+ _Rubi_--Green Hairstreak
+ =Polyommatus.=
+ _Dispar_--Large Copper
+ _Phl[oe]as_--Small Copper
+ =Lycaena.=
+ _Baetica_--Tailed Blue
+ _AEgon_--Silver-studded Blue
+ _Astrarche_ (_Agestis_)--Brown Argus
+ _Icarus_ (_Alexis_)--Common Blue
+ _Bellargus_ (_Adonis_)--Clifden Blue
+ _Corydon_--Chalk-hill Blue
+ _Argiolus_--Azure or Holly Blue
+ _Semiargus_ (_Acis_)--Mazarine Blue
+ _Minima_ (_Alsus_)--Small Blue
+ _Arion_--Large Blue
+
+ ERYCINIDAE.
+ =Nemeobius.=
+ _Lucina_--Duke of Burgundy
+
+ HESPERIIDAE.
+ =Syrichthus.=
+ _Malvae_ (_Alveolus_)--Grizzled Skipper
+ =Nisoniades.=
+ _Tages_--Dingy Skipper
+ =Hesperia.=
+ _Thaumas_ (_Linea_)--Small Skipper
+ _Lineola_--New Small Skipper
+ _Actaeon_--Lulworth Skipper
+ _Sylvanus_--Large Skipper
+ _Comma_--Silver-spotted Skipper
+ =Carterocephalus.=
+ _Palaemon_ (_Paniscus_)--Chequered Skipper
+
+
+HETEROCERA (MOTHS).
+
+=SPHINGES.=
+
+ SPHINGIDAE.
+ =Acherontia.=
+ _Atropos_--Death's Head Hawk Moth
+ =Sphinx.=
+ _Convolvuli_--Convolvulus Hawk
+ _Ligustri_--Privet Hawk
+ _Pinastri_--Pine Hawk
+ =Deilephila.=
+ _Euphorbiae_--Spurge Hawk
+ _Galii_--Bedstraw Hawk
+ _Livornica_--Striped Hawk
+ =Chaerocampa.=
+ _Celerio_--Silver-striped Hawk
+ _Porcellus_--Small Elephant
+ _Elpenor_--Large Elephant
+ =Smerinthus.=
+ _Ocellatus_--Eyed Hawk
+ _Populi_--Poplar Hawk
+ _Tiliae_--Lime Hawk
+ =Macroglossa.=
+ _Stellatarum_--Humming-bird Hawk
+ _Fuciformis_--Broad-bordered Bee Hawk
+ _Bombyliformis_--Narrow-bordered Bee Hawk
+
+ SESIIDAE.
+ =Trochilium.=
+ _Apiformis_--Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar
+ _Crabroniformis_ (_Bembeciformis_)--Hornet Clearwing of Osier
+ =Sciopteron.=
+ _Tabaniformis_ (_Vespiforme_)--Dusky Clearwing
+ =Sesia.=
+ _Scoliiformis_--Welsh Clearwing
+ _Sphegiformis_--White-barred Clearwing
+ _Andreniformis_--Orange-tailed Clearwing
+ _Tipuliformis_--Currant Clearwing
+ _Asiliformis_ (_Cynipiformis_)--Yellow-legged Clearwing
+ _Myopiformis_--Red-belted Clearwing
+ _Culiciformis_--Large Red-belted Clearwing
+ _Formiciformis_--Red-tipped Clearwing
+ _Ichneumoniformis_--Six-belted Clearwing
+ _Musciformis_ (_Philanthiformis_)--Thrift Clearwing
+ _Chrysidiformis_--Fiery Clearwing
+
+ ZYGAENIDAE.
+ =Ino.=
+ _Globulariae_--Scarce Forester
+ _Statices_--Forester
+ _Geryon_--Cistus Forester
+ =Zygaena.=
+ _Pilosellae_ (_Minos_)--Transparent Burnet
+ _Exulans_--Scotch Burnet
+ _Meliloti_--New Forest Burnet
+ _Trifolii_--Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet
+ _Lonicerae_--Narrow-bordered Five-spotted Burnet
+ _Filipendulae_--Six-spotted Burnet
+
+=BOMBYCES.=
+
+ NYCTEOLIDAE.
+ =Sarothripus.=
+ _Undulanus_--Tortrix Moth
+ =Earias.=
+ _Chlorana_--Cream-bordered Green
+ =Hylophila.=
+ _Prasinana_--Green Silver-lined
+ _Bicolorana_ (_Quercana_)--Large Green Silver-lined
+
+ NOLIDAE.
+ =Nola.=
+ _Cucullatella_--Short-cloaked
+ _Strigula_--Small Black Arches
+ _Confusalis_ (_Cristulalis_)--Least Black Arches
+ _Albulalis_--Kent Arches
+ _Centonalis_--Scarce Black Arches
+
+ LITHOSIIDAE.
+ =Nudaria.=
+ _Senex_--Round-winged Muslin
+ _Mundana_--Muslin Moth
+ =Setina.=
+ _Irrorella_--Dew Moth
+ =Calligenia.=
+ _Miniata_--Rosy Footman (Red Arches)
+ =Lithosia.=
+ _Mesomella_--Four-dotted Footman
+ _Muscerda_--Dotted Footman
+ _Sororcula_ (_Aureola_)--Orange Footman
+ _Lutarella_ (_Pygmaeola_)--Pigmy Footman
+ _Griseola_ (_Stramineola_)--Pale Footman
+ _Deplana_ (_Helveola_)--Buff Footman
+ _Lurideola_ (_Complanula_)--Common Footman
+ _Complana_--Scarce Footman
+ _Sericea_ (_Molybdeola_)--Leaden Footman
+ _Caniola_--Hoary Footman
+ =Gnophria.=
+ _Quadra_--Four-spotted Footman
+ _Rubricollis_--Red-necked Footman
+ =Emydia.=
+ _Cribrum_--Speckled Footman
+
+ EUCHELIIDAE.
+ =Deiopeia.=
+ _Pulchella_--Crimson Speckled
+ =Euchelia.=
+ _Jacobaeae_--Cinnabar
+ =Callimorpha.=
+ _Dominula_--Scarlet Tiger
+ _Hera_--Jersey Tiger
+
+ CHELONIIDAE.
+ =Nemeophila.=
+ _Russula_--Clouded Buff
+ _Plantaginis_--Wood Tiger
+ =Arctia.=
+ _Caia_--Tiger
+ _Villica_--Cream-spot Tiger
+ =Spilosoma.=
+ _Fuliginosa_--Ruby Tiger
+ _Mendica_--Muslin
+ _Lubricipeda_--Buff Ermine
+ _Menthastri_--White Ermine
+ _Urticae_--Water Ermine
+
+ HEPIALIDAE.
+ =Hepialus.=
+ _Humuli_--Ghost Swift
+ _Sylvanus_--Wood Swift
+ _Velleda_--Northern Swift
+ _Lupulinus_--Common Swift
+ _Hectus_--Gold Swift
+
+ COSSIDAE.
+ =Cossus.=
+ _Ligniperda_--Goat
+ =Zeuzera.=
+ _Pyrina_ (_AEsculi_)--Leopard
+ =Macrogaster.=
+ _Castaneae_ (_Arundinis_)--Reed Moth
+
+ COCHLIOPODIDAE.
+ =Heterogenea.=
+ _Limacodes_ (_Testudo_)--Festoon Moth
+ _Asella_ (_Asellus_)--Triangle Moth
+
+ LIPARIDAE.
+ =Porthesia= (=Liparis=).
+ _Chrysorrh[oe]a_--Brown Tail
+ _Similis_ (_Auriflua_)--Yellow Tail (Gold Tail)
+ =Leucoma.=
+ _Salicis_--Satin Moth
+ =Laelia.=
+ _C[oe]nosa_--Reed Tussock
+ =Ocneria.=
+ _Dispar_--Gipsy
+ =Psilura.=
+ _Monacha_--Black Arches
+ =Dasychira.=
+ _Fascelina_--Dark Tussock
+ _Pudibunda_--Pale Tussock
+ =Orgyia.=
+ _Gonostigma_--Scarce Vapourer
+ _Antiqua_--Vapourer
+
+ BOMBYCIDAE.
+ =Trichiura.=
+ _Crataegi_--Pale Oak Eggar
+ =P[oe]cilocampa.=
+ _Populi_--December Moth
+ =Eriogaster.=
+ _Lanestris_--Small Eggar
+ =Bombyx.=
+ _Neustria_--Lackey
+ _Castrensis_--Ground Lackey
+ _Rubi_--Fox
+ _Quercus_--Oak Eggar
+ _Trifolii_--Grass Eggar
+ =Odonestis.=
+ _Potatoria_--Drinker
+ =Lasiocampa.=
+ _Quercifolia_--Lappet
+ _Ilicifolia_--Small Lappet
+
+ ENDROMIDAE.
+ =Endromis.=
+ _Versicolor_--Kentish Glory
+
+ SATURNIIDAE.
+ =Saturnia.=
+ _Pavonia_ (_Carpini_)--Emperor
+
+ DREPANULIDAE.
+ =Drepana.=
+ _Lacertinaria_ (_Lacertula_)--Scalloped Hook Tip
+ _Harpagula_ (_Sicula_)--Scarce Hook Tip
+ _Falcataria_ (_Falcula_)--Pebble Hook Tip
+ _Binaria_ (_Hamula_)--Oak Hook Tip
+ _Cultraria_ (_Unguicula_)--Barred Hook Tip
+ =Cilix.=
+ _Glaucata_ (_Spinula_)--Chinese Character
+
+ DICRANURIDAE.
+ =Dicranura.=
+ _Bicuspis_--Alder Kitten
+ _Furcula_--Sallow Kitten
+ _Bifida_--Poplar Kitten
+ _Vinula_--Puss
+ =Stauropus.=
+ _Fagi_--Lobster
+
+ NOTODONTIDAE.
+ =Glyphisia.=
+ _Crenata_--Dusky Marbled Brown
+ =Ptilophora.=
+ _Plumigera_--Plumed Prominent
+ =Pterostoma.=
+ _Palpina_--Pale Prominent
+ =Lophopteryx.=
+ _Camelina_--Coxcomb Prominent
+ _Cuculla_ (_Cucullina_)--Maple Prominent
+ _Carmelita_--Scarce Prominent
+ =Notodonta.=
+ _Bicolor_--White Prominent
+ _Dictaea_--Swallow Prominent
+ _Dictaeoides_--Lesser Swallow Prominent
+ _Dromedarius_--Iron Prominent
+ _Trilophus_--Three-humped Prominent
+ _Ziczac_--Pebble Prominent
+ _Trepida_--Great Prominent
+ _Trimacula_ (_Dodonea_)--Marbled Brown
+ _Chaonia_--Lunar Marbled Brown
+
+ PYGAERIDAE.
+ =Phalera.=
+ _Bucephala_--Buff Tip
+ =Pygaera= (=Clostera=).
+ _Curtula_--Chocolate Tip
+ _Anachoreta_--Scarce Chocolate Tip
+ _Pigra_ (_Reclusa_)--Small Chocolate Tip
+
+ CYMATOPHORIDAE.
+ =Thyatira.=
+ _Derasa_--Buff Arches
+ _Batis_--Peach Blossom
+ =Cymatophora.=
+ _Octogesima_ (_Ocularis_)--Figure of Eighty
+ _Or_--Poplar Lutestring
+ _Duplaris_--Lesser Satin
+ _Fluctuosa_--Satin Carpet
+ =Asphalia.=
+ _Diluta_--Lesser Lutestring
+ _Flavicornis_--Yellow-horned
+ _Ridens_--Frosted Green
+
+=NOCTUAE.=
+
+ BRYOPHILIDAE.
+ =Bryophila.=
+ _Algae_--Tree Lichen Beauty
+ _Muralis_ (_Glandifera_)--Marbled (Mottled) Green
+ _Par_--Scarce Marbled Green
+ _Perla_--Marbled Beauty
+
+ BOMBYCOIDAE.
+ =Moma= (=Diphthera=).
+ _Orion_--Scarce Marvel-du-jour
+ =Demas.=
+ _Coryli_--Nut-tree Tussock
+ =Acronycta.=
+ _Tridens_--Dark Dagger
+ _Psi_--Grey Dagger
+ _Leporina_--Miller
+ _Aceris_--Sycamore
+ _Megacephala_--Poplar Grey
+ _Strigosa_--Grisette
+ _Alni_--Alder
+ _Ligustri_--Coronet
+ _Rumicis_--Knot-grass
+ _Auricoma_--Scarce Dagger
+ _Menyanthidis_--Light Knot-grass
+ _Euphorbiae_ (_Myricae_)--Sweet Gale
+ =Diloba.=
+ _Caeruleocephala_--Figure of Eight
+ =Arsilonche.=
+ _Albovenosa_ (_Venosa_)--Powdered Wainscot
+
+ LEUCANIIDAE.
+ =Synia.=
+ _Musculosa_--Brighton Wainscot
+ =Leucania.=
+ _Conigera_--Brown-line Bright-eye
+ _Vitellina_--Delicate
+ _Turca_--Double Line
+ _Lithargyria_--Clay
+ _Albipuncta_--White-point
+ _Extranea_--American Wainscot
+ _Obsoleta_--Obscure Wainscot
+ _Putrescens_--Devonshire Wainscot
+ _Littoralis_--Shore Wainscot
+ _Impudens_ (_Pudorina_)--Striped Wainscot
+ _Comma_--Shoulder-striped Wainscot
+ _Straminea_--Southern Wainscot
+ _Impura_--Smoky Wainscot
+ _Pallens_--Common Wainscot
+ =Calamia.=
+ _Phragmitidis_--Fen Wainscot
+ =Meliana.=
+ _Flammea_--Flame Wainscot
+ =Senta.=
+ _Maritima_--Silky Wainscot
+ =C[oe]nobia.=
+ _Rufa_--Small Rufous
+ =Tapinostola.=
+ _Fulva_--Small Wainscot
+ _Hellmanni_--Mere Wainscot
+ _Extrema_ (_Concolor_)--Concolorous Wainscot
+ _Bondii_--Bond's Wainscot
+ _Elymi_--Lyme Wainscot
+ =Nonagria.=
+ _Cannae_--Reed Wainscot
+ _Sparganii_--Iris Wainscot
+ _Arundinis_ (_Typhae_)--Bullrush
+ _Geminipuncta_--Twin-spotted Wainscot
+ _Neurica_--Nerved Wainscot
+ _Brevilinea_--Fenn's Nonagria
+ _Lutosa_--Large Wainscot
+
+ APAMEIDAE.
+ =Gortyna.=
+ _Ochracea_ (_Flavago_)--Frosted Orange
+ =Hydr[oe]cia.=
+ _Nictitans_--Golden Ear
+ _Petasitis_--Butter-bur
+ _Micacea_--Rosy Rustic
+ =Axylia.=
+ Putris--Flame
+ =Xylophasia.=
+ _Rurea_--Clouded-border Brindle
+ _Lithoxylea_--Light Arches
+ _Sublustris_--Reddish Light Arches
+ _Monoglypha_ (_Polyodon_)--Dark Arches
+ _Hepatica_--Clouded Brindle
+ _Scolopacina_--Slender Clouded Brindle
+ =Dipterygia.=
+ _Scabriuscula_ (_Pinastri_)--Bird's Wing
+ =Cloantha.=
+ _Polyodon_ (_Perspicillaris_)--Purple Cloud
+ =Aporophyla.=
+ _Australis_--Feathered Brindle
+ =Laphygma.=
+ _Exigua_--Small Mottled Willow
+ =Neuria.=
+ _Reticulata_ (_Saponariae_)--Bordered Gothic
+ =Neuronia.=
+ _Popularis_--Feathered Gothic
+ =Heliophobus.=
+ _Hispidus_--Beautiful Gothic
+ =Charaeas.=
+ _Graminis_--Antler
+ =Pachetra.=
+ _Leucophaea_--Feathered Ear
+ =Cerigo.=
+ _Matura_ (_Cytherea_)--Straw Underwing
+ =Luperina.=
+ _Testacea_--Flounced Rustic
+ _Dumerili_--Dumeril's Luperina
+ _Cespitis_--Hedge Rustic
+ =Mamestra.=
+ _Abjecta_--Crescent Striped
+ _Sordida_ (_Anceps_)--Large Nutmeg
+ _Albicolon_--White Colon
+ _Furva_--Confused
+ _Brassicae_--Cabbage
+ _Persicariae_--Dot
+ =Apamea.=
+ _Basilinea_--Rustic Shoulder Knot
+ _Connexa_--Union Rustic
+ _Gemina_--Dusky Brocade
+ _Unanimis_--Small Clouded Brindle
+ _Ophiogramma_--Double Lobed
+ _Leucostigma_ (_Fibrosa_)--Crescent
+ _Didyma_ (_Oculea_)--Common Rustic
+ =Miana.=
+ _Strigilis_--Marbled Minor
+ _Fasciuncula_--Middle-barred Minor
+ _Literosa_--Rosy Minor
+ _Bicoloria_ (_Furuncula_)--Cloaked Minor
+ _Arcuosa_--Dotted Buff
+ =Phothedes.=
+ _Captiuncula_--Least Minor
+ =Celaena.=
+ _Haworthii_--Haworth's Minor
+
+ CARADRINIDAE
+ =Grammesia.=
+ _Trigrammica_ (_Trilinea_)--Treble Lines
+ =Stilbia.=
+ _Anomala_--Anomalous
+ =Caradrina.=
+ _Morpheus_--Mottled Rustic
+ _Alsines_--Uncertain
+ _Taraxaci_ (_Blanda_)--Rustic
+ _Ambigua_--Ambiguous
+ _Quadripunctata_ (_Cubicularis_)--Pale Mottled Willow
+ =Acosmetia.=
+ _Caliginosa_--Reddish Buff
+ =Hydrilla.=
+ _Palustris_--Marsh Moth
+ =Rusina.=
+ _Tenebrosa_--Brown Rustic
+
+ NOCTUIDAE.
+ =Agrotis.=
+ _Vestigialis_ (_Valligera_)--Archer's Dart
+ _Puta_--Shuttle-shaped Dart
+ _Suffusa_--Dark Sword Grass
+ _Saucia_--Pearly Underwing
+ _Segetum_--Common Dart (Turnip Moth)
+ _Lunigera_--Crescent Dart
+ _Exclamationis_--Heart and Dart
+ _Corticea_--Heart and Club
+ _Cinerea_--Light Feathered Rustic
+ _Ripae_--Sand Dart
+ _Cursoria_--Coast Dart
+ _Nigricans_--Garden Dart
+ _Tritici_--White-line Dart
+ _Aquilina_--Streaked Dart
+ _Obelisca_--Square-spot Dart
+ _Agathina_--Heath Rustic
+ _Strigula_ (_Porphyrea_)--True Lover's Knot
+ _Praecox_--Portland
+ _Obscura_ (_Ravida_)--Stout Dart
+ _Simulans_ (_Pyrophila_)--Dotted Rustic
+ _Lucernea_--Northern Rustic
+ _Ashworthii_--Ashworth's Rustic
+ =Noctua.=
+ _Glareosa_--Autumn Rustic
+ _Depuncta_--Plain Clay
+ _Augur_--Double Dot
+ _Plecta_--Flame Shoulder
+ _Flammatra_--Black Collar
+ _C-Nigrum_--Setaceous Hebrew Character
+ _Ditrapezium_--Triple-spotted Clay
+ _Triangulum_--Double-spotted Square-spot
+ _Stigmatica_ (_Rhomboidea_)--Square-spotted Clay
+ _Brunnea_--Purple Clay
+ _Festiva_ (_Conflua_)--Ingrailed Clay
+ _Dahlii_--Barred Chestnut
+ _Subrosea_--Rosy Marsh
+ _Rubi_--Small Square-spot
+ _Umbrosa_--Six-striped Rustic
+ _Baia_--Dotted Clay
+ _Sobrina_--Cousin German
+ _Castanea_ (_Neglecta_)--Grey Rustic
+ _Xanthographa_--Square-spot Rustic
+ =Triphaena.=
+ _Ianthina_--Lesser Broad Border
+ _Fimbria_--Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing
+ _Interjecta_--Least Yellow Underwing
+ _Orbona_ (_Subsequa_)--Lunar Yellow Underwing
+ _Comes_ (_Orbona_)--Lesser Yellow Underwing
+ _Pronuba_--Large Yellow Underwing
+
+ AMPHIPYRIDAE.
+ =Amphipyra.=
+ _Pyramidea_--Copper Underwing
+ _Tragopogonis_--Mouse
+ =Mania.=
+ _Typica_--Gothic
+ _Maura_--Old Lady
+
+ ORTHOSIIDAE.
+ =Panolis.=
+ _Piniperda_--Pine Beauty
+ =Pachnobia.=
+ _Leucographa_--White-marked
+ _Rubricosa_--Red Chestnut
+ _Hyperborea_ (_Carnica_)--Mountain Rustic
+ =Taeniocampa.=
+ _Gothica_--Hebrew Character
+ _Incerta_ (_Instabilis_)--Clouded Drab
+ _Opima_--Northern Drab
+ _Populeti_--Lead-coloured Drab
+ _Stabilis_--Common Quaker
+ _Gracilis_--Powdered Quaker
+ _Miniosa_--Blossom Underwing
+ _Munda_--Twin-spotted Quaker
+ _Pulverulenta_ (_Cruda_)--Small Quaker
+ =Orthosia.=
+ _Suspecta_--Suspected
+ _Upsilon_--Dismal
+ _Lota_--Red-lined Quaker
+ _Macilenta_--Yellow-lined Quaker
+ =Anchocelis.=
+ _Rufina_--Flounced Chestnut
+ _Pistacina_--Beaded Chestnut
+ _Lunosa_--Lunar Underwing
+ _Litura_--Brown-spot Pinion
+ =Cerastis= (=Glaea=).
+ _Vaccinii_--Chestnut
+ _Spadicea_--Dark Chestnut
+ _Erythrocephala_--Red-headed
+ =Scopelosoma.=
+ _Satellitia_--Satellite
+ =Dasycampa.=
+ _Rubiginea_--Dotted Chestnut
+ =Oporina.=
+ _Croceago_--Orange Upperwing
+ =Xanthia.=
+ _Citrago_--Orange Sallow
+ _Fulvago_ (_Cerago_)--Sallow
+ _Flavago_ (_Silago_)--Pink-barred Sallow
+ _Aurago_--Barred Sallow
+ _Gilvago_--Dusky Lemon Sallow
+ _Circellaris_ (_Ferruginea_)--Brick
+ =Cirrh[oe]dia.=
+ _Xerampelina_--Centre-barred Sallow
+
+ COSMIIDAE.
+ =Tethea.=
+ _Subtusa_--Olive
+ _Retusa_--Double Kidney
+ =Cosmia= (=Euperia=).
+ _Paleacea_ (_Fulvago_)--Angle-striped Sallow
+ =Dicycla.=
+ _Oo_--Heart Moth
+ =Calymnia.=
+ _Trapezina_--Dun-bar
+ _Pyralina_--Lunar-spotted Pinion
+ _Diffinis_--White-spotted Pinion
+ _Affinis_--Lesser-spotted Pinion
+
+ HADENIDAE.
+ =Eremobia.=
+ _Ochroleuca_--Dusky Sallow
+ =Dianth[oe]cia.=
+ _Luteago_ (_Barretti_)--Barrett's Marbled Coronet
+ _Caesia_--Grey Marbled Coronet
+ _Nana_ (_Conspersa_)--Marbled Coronet
+ _Albimacula_--White Spot
+ _Compta_--The Shears
+ _Capsincola_--Lychnis
+ _Cucubali_--Campion
+ _Carpophaga_--Tawny Shears
+ _Capsophila_--Pod-lover
+ _Irregularis_ (_Echii_)--Viper's Bugloss
+ =Hecatera.=
+ _Chrysozona_ (_Dysodea_)--Small Ranunculus
+ _Serena_--Broad-barred White
+ =Polia.=
+ _Chi_--Grey Chi
+ _Flavicincta_--Large Ranunculus
+ _Xanthomista_ (_Nigrocincta_)--Black-banded
+ =Dasypolia.=
+ _Templi_--Brindled Ochre
+ =Epunda.=
+ _Lichenea_--Feathered Ranunculus
+ _Lutulenta_--Deep-brown Dart
+ _Nigra_--Black Rustic
+ =Cleoceris.=
+ _Viminalis_--Minor Shoulder-knot
+ =Valeria.=
+ _Oleagina_--Green-brindled Dot
+ =Miselia.=
+ _Oxyacanthae_--Green-brindled Crescent
+ _Bimaculosa_--Crescent
+ =Agriopis.=
+ _Aprilina_--Marvel-du-jour
+ =Euplexia.=
+ _Lucipara_--Small Angle-shades
+ =Phlogophora.=
+ _Meticulosa_--Angle-shades
+ =Trigonophora.=
+ _Flammea_ (_Empyrea_)--Flame Brocade
+ =Aplecta.=
+ _Prasina_ (_Herbida_)--Green Arches
+ _Occulta_--Great Brocade
+ _Nebulosa_--Grey Arches
+ _Tincta_--Silvery Arches
+ _Advena_--Pale Shining Brown
+ =Crymodes.=
+ _Exulis_ (_Assimilis_)--Northern Arches
+ =Hadena.=
+ _Porphyrea_ (_Satura_)--Beautiful Brocade
+ _Adusta_--Dark Brocade
+ _Protea_--Brindled Green
+ _Glauca_--Glaucous Shears
+ _Dentina_--Grey Shears
+ _Trifolii_ (_Chenopodii_)--Nutmeg
+ _Atriplicis_--Orache
+ _Dissimilis_ (_Suasa_)--Dog's Tooth
+ _Oleracea_--Bright-line Brown-eye
+ _Pisi_--Broom
+ _Thalassina_--Pale-shouldered Brocade
+ _Contigua_--Beautiful Brocade
+ _Genistae_--Light Brocade
+ _Rectilinea_--Saxon
+
+ XYLINIDAE.
+ =Xylocampa.=
+ _Areola_ (_Lithoriza_)--Early Grey
+ =Xylomiges.=
+ _Conspicillaris_--Silver Cloud
+ =Calocampa.=
+ _Vetusta_--Red Sword Grass
+ _Exoleta_--Sword Grass
+ _Solidaginis_--Golden-rod Brindled
+ =Xylina.=
+ _Ornithopus_ (_Rhizolitha_)--Grey Shoulder Knot
+ _Semibrunnea_--Tawny Pinion
+ _Socia_ (_Petrificata_)--Pale Pinion
+ _Furcifera_ (_Conformis_)--Conformist
+ _Lambda_--Nonconformist
+ =Asteroscopus.=
+ _Nubeculosa_--Rannoch Sprawler
+ _Sphinx_ (_Cassinea_)--Sprawler
+ =Cucullia.=
+ _Verbasci_--Mullein Shark
+ _Scrophulariae_--Betony Shark
+ _Lychnitis_--Lychnis Shark
+ _Asteris_--Starwort Shark
+ _Gnaphalii_--Cudweed Shark
+ _Absinthii_--Wormwood Shark
+ _Chamomillae_--Chamomile Shark
+ _Umbratica_--Shark
+
+ GONOPTERIDAE.
+ =Gonoptera.=
+ _Libatrix_--Herald
+
+ PLUSIIDAE.
+ =Habrostola.=
+ _Tripartita_ (_Urticae_)--Light Spectacle
+ _Triplasia_--Dark Spectacle
+ =Plusia.=
+ _Chryson_ (_Orichalcea_)--Scarce Burnished Brass
+ _Chrysitis_--Burnished Brass
+ _Bractea_--Gold Spangled
+ _Festucae_--Gold Spot
+ _Iota_--Plain Golden Y
+ _Pulchrina_--Beautiful Golden Y
+ _Gamma_--Silver Y
+ _Interrogationis_--Scarce Silver Y
+
+ HELIOTHIDAE.
+ =Anarta.=
+ _Melanopa_--Broad-bordered White Underwing
+ _Cordigera_--Small Dark Yellow Underwing
+ _Myrtilli_--Beautiful Yellow Underwing
+ =Heliaca= (=Heliodes=).
+ _Tenebrata_ (_Arbuti_)--Small Yellow Underwing
+ =Heliothis.=
+ _Dipsacea_--Marbled Clover
+ _Scutosa_--Rare Marbled Clover
+ _Peltigera_--Bordered Straw
+ _Armigera_--Scarce Bordered Straw
+ =Chariclea.=
+ _Umbra_ (_Marginata_)--Bordered Sallow
+
+ ACONTIIDAE.
+ =Agrophila.=
+ _Trabealis_ (_Sulphuralis_)--Spotted Sulphur
+ =Acontia.=
+ _Luctuosa_--Four-spotted
+
+ ERASTRIIDAE.
+ =Erastria.=
+ _Fasciana_ (_Fuscula_)--Marbled White Spot
+ _Venustula_--Rosy Marbled
+ =Bankia.=
+ _Argentula_--Silver-barred
+ =Hydrelia.=
+ _Uncula_ (_Unca_)--Silver Hook
+
+ ANTHOPHILIDAE.
+ =Thalpochares= (=Micra=).
+ _Ostrina_--Purple Marbled
+ _Parva_--Small Marbled
+ _Paula_--Scarce Marbled
+
+ POAPHILIDAE.
+ =Phytometra.=
+ _Viridaria_ (_AEnea_)--Small Purple-barred
+
+ EUCLIDIIDAE.
+ =Euclidia.=
+ _Mi_--Mother Shipton
+ _Glyphica_--Burnet Noctua
+
+ OPHIUSIDAE.
+ =Ophiodes.=
+ _Lunaris_--Lunar Double Stripe
+
+ CATEPHIIDAE.
+ =Catephia.=
+ _Alchymista_--Alchymist
+
+ CATOCALIDAE.
+ =Catocala.=
+ _Fraxini_--Clifden Nonpareil
+ _Nupta_--Red Underwing
+ _Promissa_--Light Crimson Underwing
+ _Sponsa_--Dark Crimson Underwing
+
+ AVENTIIDAE.
+ =Aventia.=
+ _Flexula_--Scallop Barred
+
+ TOXOCAMPIDAE.
+ =Toxocampa.=
+ _Pastinum_--Black Neck
+ _Craccae_--New Black Neck
+
+ BOLETOBIIDAE.
+ =Boletobia.=
+ _Fuliginaria_--Waved Black
+
+ HERMINIIDAE.
+ =Rivula.=
+ _Sericealis_--Straw Dot
+ =Zanclognatha.=
+ _Grisealis_--Lesser Fan-foot
+ _Tarsipennalis_--Fan-foot
+ _Emortualis_--Olive Crescent
+ =Herminia.=
+ _Cribralis_--Dotted Fan-foot
+ _Derivalis_--Clay Fan-foot
+ =Pechypogon.=
+ _Barbalis_--Common Fan-foot
+
+ HYPENIDAE.
+ =Madopa.=
+ _Salicalis_--Lesser Belle
+ =Bomolocha.=
+ _Fontis_ (_Crassalis_)--Beautiful Snout
+ =Hypena.=
+ _Rostralis_--Lesser Snout
+ _Proboscidalis_--Snout
+ =Hypenodes.=
+ _Albistrigalis_--White-streak
+ _Costaestrigalis_--Ribbed-streak
+ =Tholomiges= (=Schrankia=).
+ _Turfosalis_--Tiny Snout
+
+ BREPHIDES.
+ =Brephos.=
+ _Parthenias_--Orange Underwing
+ _Notha_--Light Orange Underwing
+
+=GEOMETRAE.=
+
+ UROPTERYGIDAE.
+ =Uropteryx.=
+ _Sambucaria_ (_Sambucata_)--Swallow Tail
+
+ ENNOMIDAE.
+ =Epione.=
+ _Parallelaria_ (_Vespertaria_)--Dark-bordered Beauty
+ _Apiciaria_--Bordered Beauty
+ _Advenaria_--Little Thorn
+ =Rumia.=
+ _Luteolata_ (_Crataegata_)--Brimstone
+ =Venilia.=
+ _Macularia_--Speckled Yellow
+ =Angerona.=
+ _Prunaria_--Orange Moth
+ =Metrocampa.=
+ _Margaritaria_--Light Emerald
+ =Ellopia.=
+ _Prosapiaria_ (_Fasciaria_)--Barred Red
+ =Eurymene.=
+ _Dolobraria_--Scorched Wing
+ =Pericallia.=
+ _Syringaria_--Lilac Beauty
+ =Selenia.=
+ _Bilunaria_ (_Illunaria_)--Early Thorn
+ _Lunaria_--Lunar Thorn
+ _Tetralunaria_ (_Illustraria_)--Purple Thorn
+ =Odontopera.=
+ _Bidentata_--Scalloped Hazel
+ =Crocallis.=
+ _Elinguaria_--Scalloped Oak
+ =Eugonia.=
+ _Autumnaria_ (_Alniaria_)--Large Thorn
+ _Alniaria_ (_Tiliaria_)--Canary-shouldered Thorn
+ _Fuscantaria_--Dusky Thorn
+ _Erosaria_--September Thorn
+ _Quercinaria_ (_Angularia_)--August Thorn
+ =Himera.=
+ _Pennaria_--Feathered Thorn
+
+ AMPHIDASYDAE.
+ =Phigalia.=
+ _Pedaria_ (_Pilosaria_)--Pale Brindled Beauty
+ =Nyssia.=
+ _Zonaria_--Belted Beauty
+ _Hispidaria_--Small Brindled Beauty
+ _Lapponaria_--Rare Brindled Beauty
+ =Biston.=
+ _Hirtaria_--Brindled Beauty
+ =Amphidasys.=
+ _Strataria_ (_Prodromaria_)--Oak Beauty
+ _Betularia_--Peppered Moth
+
+ BOARMIIDAE.
+ =Hemerophila.=
+ _Abruptaria_--Waved Umber
+ =Cleora.=
+ _Angularia_ (_Viduaria_)--Speckled Beauty
+ _Glabraria_--Dotted Carpet
+ _Lichenaria_--Brussels Lace
+ =Boarmia.=
+ _Repandata_--Mottled Beauty
+ _Gemmaria_ (_Rhomboidaria_)--Willow Beauty
+ _Abietaria_--Satin Carpet
+ _Cinctaria_--Ringed Carpet
+ _Roboraria_--Great Oak Beauty
+ _Consortaria_--Pale Oak Beauty
+ =Tephrosia.=
+ _Consonaria_--Square Spot
+ _Crepuscularia_--Small Engrailed
+ _Biundularia_--Engrailed
+ _Luridata_ (_Extersaria_)--Brindled White-spot
+ _Punctularia_--Grey Birch
+ =Gnophos.=
+ _Obscuraria_--Annulet
+ =Dasydia.=
+ _Obfuscaria_--Scotch Annulet
+ =Psodos.=
+ _Coracina_ (_Trepidaria_)--Black Mountain Moth
+
+ GEOMETRIDAE.
+ =Pseudoterpna.=
+ _Pruinata_ (_Cytisaria_)--Grass Emerald
+ =Geometra.=
+ _Papilionaria_--Large Emerald
+ _Vernaria_--Small Emerald
+ =Phorodesma.=
+ _Pustulata_ (_Bajularia_)--Blotched Emerald
+ _Smaragdaria_--Essex Emerald
+ =Nemoria.=
+ _Viridata_--Small Grass Emerald
+ =Iodis.=
+ _Lactearia_--Little Emerald
+ =Hemithea.=
+ _Strigata_ (_Thymiaria_)--Common Emerald
+
+ EPHYRIDAE.
+ =Zonosoma.=
+ _Porata_--False Mocha
+ _Punctaria_--Maiden's Blush
+ _Linearia_ (_Trilinearia_)--Clay Triple-lines
+ _Annulata_ (_Omicronaria_)--Mocha
+ _Orbicularia_--Dingy Mocha
+ _Pendularia_--Birch Mocha
+
+ ACIDALIIDAE.
+ =Hyria.=
+ _Muricata_ (_Auroraria_)--Golden-bordered Purple
+ =Asthena.=
+ _Luteata_--Small Yellow Wave
+ _Candidata_--Small White Wave
+ _Sylvata_--Waved Carpet
+ _Blomeri_ (_Pulchraria_)--Blomer's Rivulet
+ =Eupisteria.=
+ _Obliterata_ (_Heparata_)--Dingy Shell
+ =Venusia.=
+ _Cambrica_ (_Cambricaria_)--Welsh Wave
+ =Acidalia.=
+ _Perochraria_--Ochraceous Wave
+ _Ochrata_--Bright Wave
+ _Rubiginata_ (_Rubricata_)--Tawny Wave
+ _Dimidiata_ (_Scutulata_)--Single-dotted Wave
+ _Bisetata_--Small Fan-footed Wave
+ _Trigeminata_--Treble Brown-spot
+ _Contiguaria_--Greening's Wave
+ _Rusticata_--Least Carpet
+ _Holosericata_--Silky Wave
+ _Dilutaria_ (_Interjectaria_)--Dark Cream Wave
+ _Virgularia_ (_Incanaria_)--Small Dusty Wave
+ _Circellata_--Circellate
+ _Ornata_--Lace Border
+ _Marginepunctata_ (_Promutata_)--Mullein Wave
+ _Straminata_--Dotted-bordered Cream Wave
+ _Subsericeata_--Satin Wave
+ _Immutata_--Lesser Cream Wave
+ _Strigaria_--Streaked Wave
+ _Remutaria_--Cream Wave
+ _Fumata_--Smoky Wave
+ _Strigilaria_ (_Prataria_)--Sub-angled Wave
+ _Imitaria_--Small Blood-vein
+ _Emutaria_--Rosy Wave
+ _Aversata_--Riband Wave
+ _Inornata_--Plain Wave
+ _Degeneraria_--Portland Riband Wave
+ _Emarginata_--Small Scallop
+ =Timandra.=
+ _Amataria_--Blood-vein
+
+ CABERIDAE.
+ =Cabera.=
+ _Pusaria_--Common White Wave
+ _Rotundaria_--Round-winged Wave
+ _Exanthemata_--Common Wave
+ =Bapta.=
+ _Temerata_--Clouded Silver
+ _Bimaculata_ (_Taminata_)--White-pinion Spotted
+ =Aleucis.=
+ _Pictaria_--Sloe Carpet
+
+ MACARIIDAE.
+ =Macaria.=
+ _Alternata_--Sharp-angled Peacock
+ _Notata_--Peacock
+ _Liturata_--Tawny-barred Angle
+ =Halia.=
+ _Vauaria_ (_Wavaria_)--V Moth
+ _Brunneata_ (_Pinetaria_)--Rannoch Geometer
+
+ FIDONIIDAE.
+ =Strenia.=
+ _Clathrata_--Latticed Heath
+ =Panagra.=
+ _Petraria_--Brown Silver-line
+ =Numeria.=
+ _Pulveraria_--Barred Umber
+ =Scodiona.=
+ _Belgiaria_--Grey Scalloped Bar
+ =Selidosema.=
+ _Ericetaria_ (_Plumaria_)--Bordered Grey
+ =Fidonia.=
+ _Carbonaria_--Netted Mountain
+ _Limbaria_ (_Conspicuata_)--Frosted Yellow
+ =Ematurga.=
+ _Atomaria_--Common Heath
+ =Bupalus.=
+ _Piniaria_--Bordered White
+ =Minoa.=
+ _Murinata_ (_Euphorbiata_)--Drab Geometer
+ =Scoria.=
+ _Lineata_ (_Dealbata_)--Black-veined
+ =Aplasta.=
+ _Ononaria_--Rest-harrow
+ =Sterrha.=
+ _Sacraria_--Vestal
+ =Lythria.=
+ _Purpuraria_--Purple-barred Yellow
+ =Aspilates.=
+ _Strigillaria_--Grass Wave
+ _Ochrearia_ (_Citraria_)--Yellow Belle
+ _Gilvaria_--Straw Belle
+
+ ZERENIDAE.
+ =Abraxas.=
+ _Grossulariata_--Currant Moth (Magpie)
+ _Sylvata_ (_Ulmata_)--Clouded Magpie
+ =Ligdia.=
+ _Adustata_--Scorched Carpet
+ =Lomaspilis.=
+ _Marginata_--Clouded Border
+
+ LIGIIDAE.
+ =Pachycnemia.=
+ _Hippocastanaria_--Horse Chestnut
+
+ HYBERNIIDAE.
+ =Hybernia.=
+ _Rupicapraria_--Early Moth
+ _Leucophaearia_--Spring Usher
+ _Aurantiaria_--Scarce Umber
+ _Marginaria_ (_Progemmaria_)--Dotted Border
+ _Defoliaria_--Mottled Umber
+ =Anisopteryx.=
+ _AEscularia_--March Moth
+
+ LARENTIIDAE.
+ =Cheimatobia.=
+ _Brumata_--Winter Moth
+ _Boreata_--Northern Winter
+ Moth
+ =Oporabia.=
+ _Dilutata_--November Moth
+ _Filigrammaria_--Autumnal Moth
+ _Autumnaria_
+ =Larentia.=
+ _Didymata_--Twin-spot Carpet
+ _Multistrigaria_--Mottled Grey
+ _Caesiata_--Grey Mountain Carpet
+ _Flavicinctata_ (_Ruficinctata_)--Yellow-ringed Carpet
+ _Salicata_--Striped Twin-spot Carpet
+ _Olivata_--Beech-green Carpet
+ _Viridaria_ (_Pectinitaria_)--Green Carpet
+ =Emmelesia.=
+ _Affinitata_--Rivulet
+ _Alchemillata_--Small Rivulet
+ _Albulata_--Grass Rivulet
+ _Decolorata_--Sandy Carpet
+ _Taeniata_--Barred Carpet
+ _Unifasciata_--Haworth's Carpet
+ _Minorata_ (_Ericetata_)--Heath Rivulet
+ _Adaequata_ (_Blandiata_)--Pretty Pinion
+ =Eupithecia.=
+ _Venosata_--Netted Pug
+ _Consignata_--Pinion-spotted Pug
+ _Linariata_--Toadflax Pug
+ _Pulchellata_--Foxglove Pug
+ _Oblongata_ (_Centaureata_)--Lime-speck
+ _Succenturiata_--Bordered Lime-speck
+ _Subfulvata_--Tawny-speckled Pug
+ _Scabiosata_ (_Subumbrata_)--Shaded Pug
+ _Pernotata_--Guen['e]e's Pug
+ _Plumbeolata_--Lead-coloured Pug
+ _Isogrammaria_--Haworth's Pug
+ _Pygmaeata_--Marsh Pug
+ _Helveticaria_--Edinburgh Pug
+ _Egenaria_--Pauper Pug
+ _Satyrata_--Satyr Pug
+ _Castigata_--Grey Pug
+ _Jasioneata_--Jasione Pug
+ _Trisignaria_--Triple-spotted Pug
+ _Virgaureata_--Golden-rod Pug
+ _Fraxinata_--Ash-tree Pug
+ _Extensaria_--Scarce Pug
+ _Pimpinellata_--Pimpinel Pug
+ _Valerianata_--Valerian Pug
+ _Pusillata_--Dwarf Pug
+ _Irriguata_--Marbled Pug
+ _Campanulata_--Campanula Pug
+ _Innotata_--Long-winged Pug
+ _Indigata_--Ochreous Pug
+ _Constrictata_--Wild Thyme Pug
+ _Nanata_--Narrow-winged Pug
+ _Subnotata_--Plain Pug
+ _Vulgata_--Common Pug
+ _Albipunctata_--White-spotted Pug
+ _Expallidata_--Bleached Pug
+ _Absinthiata_--Wormwood Pug
+ _Minutata_--Ling Pug
+ _Assimilata_--Currant Pug
+ _Tenuiata_--Slender Pug
+ _Subciliata_--Maple Pug
+ _Lariciata_--Larch Pug
+ _Abbreviata_--Brindled Pug
+ _Dodoneata_--Oak-tree Pug
+ _Exiguata_--Mottled Pug
+ _Ultimaria_--Tamarisk Pug
+ _Sobrinata_--Juniper Pug
+ _Togata_--Cloaked Pug
+ _Pumilata_--Double-striped Pug
+ _Coronata_--V Pug
+ _Rectangulata_--Green Pug
+ _Debiliata_--Bilberry Pug
+ =Collix.=
+ _Sparsata_--Dentated Pug
+ =Lobophora.=
+ _Sexalisata_ (_Sexalata_)--Small Seraphim
+ _Halterata_ (_Hexapterata_)--Seraphim
+ _Viretata_--Yellow-barred Brindle
+ _Carpinata_ (_Lobulata_)--Early Tooth-striped
+ _Polycommata_--Barred Tooth-striped
+ =Thera.=
+ _Juniperata_--Juniper Carpet
+ _Simulata_--Chestnut-coloured Carpet
+ _Variata_ (_Obeliscata_)--Shaded Broad-bar
+ _Firmata_--Pine Carpet
+ =Hypsipetes.=
+ _Ruberata_--Ruddy High-flier
+ _Trifasciata_ (_Impluviata_)--May High-flier
+ _Sordidata_ (_Elutata_)--July High-flier
+ =Melanthia.=
+ _Bicolorata_ (_Rubiginata_)--Blue-bordered Carpet
+ _Ocellata_--Purple Bar
+ _Albicillata_--Beautiful Carpet
+ =Melanippe.=
+ _Hastata_--Argent and Sable
+ _Tristata_--Small Argent and Sable
+ _Procellata_--Chalk Carpet
+ _Unangulata_--Sharp-angled Carpet
+ _Rivata_--Wood Carpet
+ _Sociata_ (_Subtristata_)--Common Carpet
+ _Montanata_--Silver-ground Carpet
+ _Galiata_--Galium Carpet
+ _Fluctuata_--Garden Carpet
+ =Anticlea.=
+ _Cucullata_ (_Sinuata_)--Royal Mantle
+ _Rubidata_--Flame
+ _Badiata_--Shoulder Stripe
+ _Nigrofasciaria_ (_Derivata_)--Streamer
+ _Berberata_--Barberry Carpet
+ =Coremia.=
+ _Munitata_--Red Carpet
+ _Designata_ (_Propugnata_)--Flame Carpet
+ _Ferrugata_--Red Twin-spot Carpet
+ _Unidentaria_--Dark-barred Twin-spot Carpet
+ _Quadrifasciaria_--Large Twin-spot Carpet
+ =Camptogramma.=
+ _Bilineata_--Yellow Shell
+ _Fluviata_--Gem
+ =Phibalapteryx.=
+ _Tersata_--Fern
+ _Lapidata_--Slender-striped Rufous
+ _Vittata_ (_Lignata_)--Oblique Carpet
+ _Polygrammata_ (_Conjunctaria_)--Many-lined
+ _Vitalbata_--Small Waved Umber
+ =Triphosa.=
+ _Dubitata_--Tissue
+ =Eucosmia.=
+ _Certata_--Scarce Tissue
+ _Undulata_--Scalloped Shell
+ =Scotosia.=
+ _Vetulata_--Brown Scallop
+ _Rhamnata_--Dark Umber
+ =Cidaria.=
+ _Siterata_ (_Psittacata_)--Red-green Carpet
+ _Miata_--Autumn Green Carpet
+ _Picata_--Short-cloak Carpet
+ _Corylata_--Broken-barred Carpet
+ _Sagittata_--Marsh Carpet
+ _Truncata_ (_Russata_)--Common Marbled Carpet
+ _Immanata_--Dark Marbled Carpet
+ _Suffumata_--Water Carpet
+ _Reticulata_--Netted Carpet
+ _Silaceata_--Small Ph[oe]nix
+ _Prunata_ (_Ribesiaria_)--Ph[oe]nix
+ _Testata_--Chevron
+ _Populata_--Northern Spinach
+ _Fulvata_--Barred Yellow
+ _Dotata_ (_Pyraliata_)--Barred Straw
+ _Associata_ (_Dotata_)--Spinach
+ =Pelurga.=
+ _Comitata_--Dark Spinach
+
+ EUBOLIIDAE.
+ =Eubolia.=
+ _Cervinata_ (_Cervinaria_)--Mallow
+ _Limitata_ (_Mensuraria_)--Small Mallow
+ _Plumbaria_ (_Palumbaria_)--Belle
+ _Bipunctaria_--Chalk Carpet
+ =Mesotype.=
+ _Virgata_ (_Lineolata_)--Oblique-striped
+ =Carsia.=
+ _Paludata_ (_Imbutata_)--Manchester Treble Bar
+ =Anaitis.=
+ _Plagiata_--Treble Bar
+ =Lithostege.=
+ _Griseata_--Pale Grey Carpet
+ =Chesias.=
+ _Spartiata_--Streak
+ _Rufata_ (_Obliquaria_)--Broom Tip
+
+ SIONIDAE.
+ =Tanagra.=
+ _Atrata_ (_Chaerophyllata_)--Chimney Sweep
+
+
+APPENDIX II
+
+_THE LEPIDOPTERIST'S CALENDAR_
+
+The success of the country rambles of an expert lepidopterist depends
+greatly on his knowledge of the times at which the various butterflies
+and moths generally appear, and of the localities which they are known
+to frequent. The experiences he has gained in the past enable him to
+calculate on the probabilities of the future, and he chooses both time
+and locality according to his requirements.
+
+As he makes his way to the hunting ground he counts over the chances of
+meeting with a certain insect that is wanted to fill a long-standing
+blank in his cabinet; and we hear him discussing the probabilities as to
+whether this species is yet 'out,' or whether the larvae of that species
+are feeding.
+
+How different it is with the young and unguided entomologist! He rambles
+promiscuously here and there, having only the faintest idea as to what
+he is likely to see, and perhaps meeting with only four or five species
+when an experienced collector, without covering a larger area of ground,
+would take scores in the same time.
+
+In order to afford some little help to the beginner, I have thought it
+advisable to introduce a calendar of operations to guide him in his
+work. The space at our command would not allow this to be carried out in
+detail, but the general instructions will undoubtedly assist most of my
+readers until the practical experience gained by a few years' work has
+enabled them to run on their own legs.
+
+Of course, in making reference to the monthly lists of insects on the
+wing, allowance must be made for the forwardness or backwardness of the
+seasons. Thus, an insect entered in the April list _may_ appear in March
+in an exceptionally warm season, but may not emerge till the early part
+of May if the spring has been unusually severe.
+
+It will be observed that in cases where all the species of a certain
+genus or family appear on the wing in the same month, the name of that
+genus or family is entered on the list instead of the names of the
+individual species; but the latter can easily be obtained by reference
+to Appendix I.
+
+
+JANUARY
+
+There is not much field work to be done during this month. If the
+weather is very severe, hardly an insect will be found on the wing; but
+a mild January will sometimes entice the Brimstone Butterfly (_Rhamni_)
+and some of the hybernating Vanessas from their winter quarters.
+
+Hybernating moths may also be met with, on the wing if the weather
+is mild, or sleeping in their sheltered nooks during the frosts.
+These include several _Noctuae_--_Auricoma_, _Lithargyria_,
+_Suffusa_, _Vaccinii_, _Spadicea_, _Erythrocephala_, _Satellitia_,
+_Rubiginea_, _Croceago_, _Vetusta_, _Exoleta_, _Ornithopus_,
+_Furcifera_, _Semibrunnea_, _Socia_, and _Libatrix_; and also a few
+_Geometrae_--_Zonaria_, _Fluviata_, _Dubitata_, _Siterata_, and _Miata_.
+
+In addition to these hybernating insects, the collector may examine tree
+trunks and fences for the Early Moth (_Rupicapraria_), and late
+specimens of the Winter Moth (_Brumata_); and towards the end of the
+month he may expect to meet with fresh specimens of the Pale Brindled
+Beauty (_Pedaria_) and the Spring Usher (_Leucophaearia_). A few of the
+_Tineae_ may also be seen.
+
+The net need not be used at all during the colder months of the year, as
+the moths are easily taken in pill boxes from the trunks and fences on
+which they rest.
+
+Pupa digging may be carried on throughout the month if the weather is
+sufficiently mild, but it is of no use attempting this during a frost.
+Hybernating larvae may also be searched out of their winter quarters if
+the collector does not mind giving them the attention they require; but,
+as a rule, it is better to wait till they themselves start out to feed
+in the spring, at which time all their food plants are showing leaf.
+
+
+FEBRUARY
+
+Our remarks under 'January' concerning pupa digging and other work apply
+equally well to this month. The same hybernating butterflies and moths
+may be looked for; and, in addition to _Pedaria_, _Leucophaearia_, and
+_Rupicapraria_, which now appear more plentifully, the following species
+will probably be seen:
+
+ Small Eggar (_Lanestris_)
+ Small Brindled Beauty (_Hispidaria_)
+ Oak Beauty (_Strataria_)
+ Dotted Border (_Marginaria_)
+ March Moth (_AEscularia_)
+
+About half a dozen species of the _Tineae_ will also have made their
+appearance before the end of the month.
+
+
+MARCH
+
+Many of the hybernating larvae will come out during March if the weather
+is mild, and commence to feed; and the young caterpillars will begin to
+appear from the eggs of the early moths already named. This is
+consequently a good time to commence the search for larvae if you intend
+to go in for rearing. During the daytime some may be beaten from the
+boughs of trees and shrubs; and those which feed on low plants, being
+generally nocturnal in their habits, should be searched for in the
+evening, after dark, with the aid of a lantern.
+
+The hybernating butterflies are now flying more freely than before, and,
+if the weather is bright and warm for the time of year, a few freshly
+emerged species may be seen. These may possibly include:
+
+ Large White (_Brassicae_)
+ Small White (_Rapae_)
+ Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+ Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+
+As regards moths, several fresh species may be expected to appear, while
+those named as appearing in February are still to be found. The
+new-comers may include:
+
+ =Bombyces.=
+ Kentish Glory (_Versicolor_)
+ Yellow-horned (_Flavicornis_)
+
+ =Noctuae.=
+ Pine Beauty (_Piniperda_)
+ White-marked Rustic (_Leucographa_)
+ Red Chestnut (_Rubricosa_)
+ All species of the genus _Taeniocampa_
+ Early Grey (_Areola_)
+ Green-brindled Dot (_Oleagina_)
+ Orange Underwing (_Parthenias_)
+ Light Orange Underwing (_Notha_)
+
+ =Geometrae.=
+ Early Thorn (_Bilunaria_)
+ Engrailed (_Biundularia_)
+ Mottled Grey (_Multistrigaria_)
+
+Sugaring may be commenced towards the end of March, and sallow blossom
+may be searched in the evening, but it is probable that only a few
+species will be taken by these means.
+
+A few more species of the _Tineae_ appear in March, and four or five of
+the _Tortrices_ are out before the end of the month.
+
+
+APRIL
+
+This is really a busy month with the entomologist, and it will be
+necessary to put all apparatus and appliances into perfect order early.
+The cyanide bottle should be freshly charged, nets examined and repaired
+if necessary, and all setting boards, breeding cages &c. put in perfect
+trim for the new season's work.
+
+Larvae are now feeding freely, and a few hours spent in beating,
+sweeping, and searching will enable you to stock your cages liberally.
+
+Sugaring may be continued throughout the month, and the sallow blossom
+may be searched as long as it proves attractive. Moths may also be
+attracted by light at night.
+
+The following butterflies are generally out during April, in addition to
+the hybernated species already named:
+
+ Large White (_Brassicae_)
+ Small White (_Rapae_)
+ Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+ Orange Tip (_Cardamines_)
+ Wood White (_Sinapis_)
+ Pearl-bordered Fritillary (_Euphrosyne_)
+ Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+ Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_)
+ Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+ Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+ Grizzled Skipper (_Malvae_)
+ Dingy Skipper (_Tages_)
+
+The following is a list of the principal moths for April:
+
+ =Bombyces.=
+ Small Lappet (_Ilicifolia_)
+ Kentish Glory (_Versicolor_)
+ Yellow Horned (_Flavicornis_)
+ Frosted Green (_Ridens_)
+
+ =Noctuae.=
+ Pine Beauty (_Piniperda_)
+ White-marked Rustic (_Leucographa_)
+ Red Chestnut (_Rubricosa_)
+ All species of the genus _Taeniocampa_
+ Early Grey (_Areola_)
+ Mullein Shark (_Verbasci_)
+ Orange Underwing (_Parthenias_)
+ Light Orange Underwing (_Notha_)
+
+ =Geometrae.=
+ Brimstone (_Luteolata_)
+ Early Thorn (_Bilunaria_)
+ Belted Beauty (_Zonaria_)
+ Brindled Beauty (_Hirtaria_)
+ Waved Umber (_Abruptaria_)
+ Small Engrailed (_Crepuscularia_)
+ Engrailed (_Biundularia_)
+ Sloe Carpet (_Pictaria_)
+ Netted Mountain (_Carbonaria_)
+ Mottled Grey (_Multistrigaria_)
+ Satyr Pug (_Satyrata_)
+ Marbled Pug (_Irriguata_)
+ Campanula Pug (_Campanulata_)
+ Brindled Pug (_Abbreviata_)
+ Oak-tree Pug (_Dodoneata_)
+ Double-striped Pug (_Pumilata_)
+ Early Tooth-striped (_Carpinata_)
+ Shoulder Stripe (_Badiata_)
+ Many-lined (_Polygrammata_)
+ Tissue (_Dubitata_)
+
+In addition to the above, a few species of the _Tortrices_, several of
+the _Tineae_, and one or two of the Plume Moths (_Pterophori_) are out
+during April.
+
+
+MAY
+
+Little or nothing will be obtained by digging during May, yet a number
+of pupae may be found among grass and leaves under trees, and also
+attached to the leaves and stems of low plants. These pupae include those
+of several of the butterflies, among which may be mentioned _Machaon_,
+_Selene_, _Euphrosyne_, _Aurinia_, _Megaera_, _Ianira_, _Rubi_,
+_Astrarche_, _Icarus_, _Bellargus_, _Corydon_, _Lucina_, and _Sylvanus_.
+
+Larvae may now be taken in abundance by beating the boughs of oaks and
+other trees, and also by examining low plants.
+
+The hybernating butterflies are still on the wing, and the following are
+also out:
+
+ Swallow Tail (_Machaon_)
+ Large White (_Brassicae_)
+ Small White (_Rapae_)
+ Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+ Bath White (_Daplidice_)
+ Orange Tip (_Cardamines_)
+ Wood White (_Sinapis_)
+ Small Pearl-bordered (_Selene_)
+ Pearl-bordered (_Euphrosyne_)
+ Greasy Fritillary (_Aurinia_)
+ Glanville Fritillary (_Cinxia_)
+ Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+ Wall (_Megaera_)
+ Marsh Ringlet (_Typhon_)
+ Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+ Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_)
+ Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+ Brown Argus (_Astrarche_)
+ Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+ Clifden Blue (_Bellargus_)
+ Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+ Mazarine Blue (_Semiargus_)
+ Grizzled Skipper (_Malvae_)
+ Chequered Skipper (_Palaemon_)
+
+There is a great increase in the number of moths this month, and much
+good work may be done by means of light traps and by the examination of
+fences. Many moths are driven from their resting places early in the
+morning by the direct rays of the rising sun, and then seek out a spot
+where they are better sheltered, and where they are consequently less
+easily found. Hence the advantage of searching fences early in the
+morning.
+
+The May list includes:
+
+ =Sphinges.=
+ Small Elephant (_Porcellus_)
+ All species of the genera _Smerinthus_ and _Macroglossa_
+ Some of the Clearwings (_Apiformis_, _Sphegiformis_, and
+ _Culiciformis_)
+ Cream-bordered Green (_Chlorana_)
+ Green Silver-lined (_Prasinana_)
+
+ =Bombyces.=
+ Wood Tiger (_Plantaginis_)
+ Muslin Moth (_Mendica_)
+ Common Swift (_Lupulinus_)
+ Pale Tussock (_Pudibunda_)
+ Small Lappet (_Ilicifolia_)
+ Emperor (_Pavonia_)
+ All species of family _Drepanulidae_
+ Alder Kitten (_Bicuspis_)
+ Puss (_Vinula_)
+ Several of the 'Prominents' (_Cuculla_, _Carmelita_, _Dictaea_,
+ _Dictaeoides_, _Trilophus_, _Ziczac_, _Trepida_, _Chaonia_,
+ _Trimacula_)
+ Chocolate Tip (_Curtula_)
+ Small Chocolate Tip (_Pigra_)
+
+ =Noctuae.=
+ Knot Grass (_Rumicis_)
+ Sweet Gale (_Myricae_)
+ White Colon (_Albicolon_)
+ Cabbage (_Brassicae_)
+ Treble Lines (_Trigrammica_)
+ Marsh Moth (_Palustris_)
+ Light Brocade (_Genistae_)
+ Mullein Shark (_Verbasci_)
+ Betony Shark (_Scrophulariae_)
+ Starwort Shark (_Asteris_)
+ Camomile Shark (_Chamomillae_)
+ Small Dark Yellow Underwing (_Cordigera_)
+ Small Yellow Underwing (_Tenebrata_)
+ Bordered Sallow (_Umbra_)
+ Lunar Double Stripe (_Lunaris_)
+
+ =Geometrae.=
+ Brimstone (_Luteolata_)
+ Speckled Yellow (_Macularia_)
+ Purple Thorn (_Tetralunaria_)
+ Scalloped Hazel (_Bidentata_)
+ Brindled Beauty (_Hirtaria_)
+ Peppered (_Betularia_)
+ Waved Umber (_Abruptaria_)
+ Ringed Carpet (_Cinctaria_)
+ Square Spot (_Consonaria_)
+ Small Engrailed (_Crepuscularia_)
+ Engrailed (_Biundularia_)
+ Grey Birch (_Punctularia_)
+ Small Grass Emerald (_Viridata_)
+ All species of family _Ephyridae_
+ Cream Wave (_Remutaria_)
+ White Wave (_Pusaria_)
+ Round-winged Wave (_Rotundaria_)
+ Common Wave (_Exanthemata_)
+ Clouded Silver (_Temerata_)
+ White-pinion Spotted (_Bimaculata_)
+ Latticed Heath (_Clathrata_)
+ Brown Silver-line (_Petraria_)
+ Barred Umber (_Pulveraria_)
+ Netted Mountain (_Carbonaria_)
+ Common Heath (_Atomaria_)
+ Bordered White (_Piniaria_)
+ Rest Harrow (_Ononaria_)
+ Yellow Belle (_Ochrearia_)
+ Clouded Border (_Marginata_)
+ Horse Chestnut (_Hippocastanaria_)
+ Pretty Pinion (_Adaequata_)
+ Pugs (_Venosata_, _Consignata_, _Pulchellata_, _Plumbeolata_,
+ _Satyrata_, _Castigata_, _Pusillata_, _Irriguata_, _Indigata_,
+ _Nanata_, _Vulgata_, _Assimilata_, _Exiguata_, _Coronata_)
+ Yellow-barred Brindle (_Viretata_)
+ Ruddy High-flier (_Ruberata_)
+ May High-flier (_Trifasciata_)
+ Common Carpet (_Sociata_)
+ Silver-ground Carpet (_Montanata_)
+ Streamer (_Nigrofasciaria_)
+ Barberry Carpet (_Berberata_)
+ Flame Carpet (_Designata_)
+ Twin-spot Carpets (_Ferrugata_ and _Unidentaria_)
+ Scarce Tissue (_Certata_)
+ Water Carpet (_Suffumata_)
+ Small Ph[oe]nix (_Silaceata_)
+ Oblique-striped (_Virgata_)
+ Broom Tip (_Rufata_)
+
+A number of the Micros are also out this month. About twenty species of
+the _Pyralides_, one or two of the _Pterophori_, a few _Crambi_, about
+fifty of the _Tortrices_, and no less than two hundred of the _Tineae_.
+The collector will do well to search fences and tree trunks for these
+moths, whenever he has the opportunity; and also to use the net freely
+in wooded country, waste places, and along hedgerows, _before_ and at
+dusk.
+
+
+JUNE
+
+There is a marked increase in winged insect life during this month. The
+early butterflies are disappearing, or perhaps have quite left us; but
+new species are taking their place. The _Sphinges_ now reach their
+maximum, as do also the _Bombyces_; and the other groups are almost if
+not quite up to their highest total. The _Noctuae_ and _Geometrae_ each
+amount to over a hundred species. No less than a hundred and fifty
+British _Tortrices_ are on the wing; the _Tineae_ make a near approach to
+three hundred, and the _Pyralides_ of the month are not far short of
+numbering a hundred species. It will thus be seen that the net and pill
+boxes, as well as the setting boards, are in constant demand.
+
+Dull days may be well occupied in beating for moths, and in the
+examination of fences and the bark of trees; and on bright days, as soon
+as the butterflies have settled down to rest, the same work may be
+carried on till dusk.
+
+Micros and _Geometrae_ are out early in the evening, when they should be
+taken with the net. Later on the _Noctuae_ may be seen playing round
+their favourite flowers.
+
+Sugar and light traps are likely to do good service during June, and
+decoy females of the _Bombyces_ group may be called to your aid.
+
+Larvae are also abundant during June, and those of most of the
+butterflies may be taken by carefully searching their food plants.
+
+The following is the list of imagines for the month:
+
+ =Butterflies.=
+ Swallow Tail (_Machaon_)
+ Black-veined White (_Crataegi_)
+ Large White (_Brassicae_)
+ Small White (_Rapae_)
+ Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+ Small Pearl-bordered (_Selene_)
+ Pearl-bordered (_Euphrosyne_)
+ Silver-washed Fritillary (_Paphia_)
+ Greasy Fritillary (_Aurinia_)
+ Glanville Fritillary (_Cinxia_)
+ Heath Fritillary (_Athalia_)
+ Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticae_)
+ White Admiral (_Sibylla_)
+ Small Ringlet (_Epiphron_)
+ Meadow Brown (_Ianira_)
+ Ringlet (_Hyperanthus_)
+ Marsh Ringlet (_Typhon_)
+ Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+ Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_)
+ Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+ Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+ Small Blue (_Minima_)
+ Duke of Burgundy (_Lucina_)
+ Grizzled Skipper (_Malvae_)
+ Dingy Skipper (_Tages_)
+ Large Skipper (_Sylvanus_)
+ Chequered Skipper (_Palaemon_)
+
+ =Sphinges.=
+ Privet Hawk (_Ligustri_)
+ Spurge Hawk (_Euphorbiae_)
+ Small Elephant (_Porcellus_)
+ Large Elephant (_Elpenor_)
+ Eyed Hawk (_Ocellatus_)
+ Poplar Hawk (_Populi_)
+ Lime Hawk (_Tiliae_)
+ Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_)
+ All the Clearwings (Sesiidae)
+ The Burnets (Fam. _Zygaenidae_)
+
+ =Bombyces.=
+ Family _Nolidae_
+ Dew Moth (_Irrorella_)
+ Cinnabar (_Jacobaeae_)
+ Scarlet Tiger (_Dominula_)
+ Family _Cheloniidae_
+ Family _Hepialidae_
+ Family _Cossidae_
+ Family _Cochliopodidae_
+ Dark Tussock (_Fascelina_)
+ Pale Tussock (_Pudibunda_)
+ Scarce Vapourer (_Gonostigma_)
+ Fox (_Rubi_)
+ Lappet (_Quercifolia_)
+ Family _Drepanulidae_
+ Family _Dicranuridae_
+ Pale Prominent (_Palpina_)
+ Coxcomb Prominent (_Camelina_)
+ Swallow Prominent (_Dictaea_)
+ Lesser Swallow Prominent (_Dictaeoides_)
+ Iron Prominent (_Dromedarius_)
+ Pebble Prominent (_Ziczac_)
+ Great Prominent (_Trepida_)
+ Marbled Brown (_Trimacula_)
+ Buff Tip (_Bucephala_)
+ Peach Blossom (_Batis_)
+ Genus _Cymatophora_
+
+ =Noctuae.=
+ Scarce Marvel-du-jour (_Orion_)
+ Genus _Acronycta_
+ Powdered Wainscot (_Albovenosa_)
+ Most of the species of genus _Leucania_
+ Flame Wainscot (_Flammea_)
+ Silky Wainscot (_Maritima_)
+ Small Rufous (_Rufa_)
+ Mere Wainscot (_Hellmanni_)
+ Concolorous (_Extrema_)
+ Flame (_Putris_)
+ Genus _Xylophasia_
+ Bird's Wing (_Scabriuscula_)
+ Small Mottled Willow (_Exigua_)
+ Bordered Gothic (_Reticulata_)
+ Feathered Ear (_Leucophaea_)
+ Large Nutmeg (_Sordida_)
+ White Colon (_Albicolon_)
+ Cabbage (_Brassicae_)
+ Dot (_Persicariae_)
+ Rustic Shoulder Knot (_Basilinea_)
+ Union Rustic (_Connexa_)
+ Dusky Brocade (_Gemina_)
+ Double Lobed (_Ophiogramma_)
+ Genus _Miana_
+ Treble Lines (_Trigrammica_)
+ Mottled Rustic (_Morpheus_)
+ Rustic (_Taraxaci_)
+ Pale Mottled Willow (_Quadripunctata_)
+ Reddish Buff (_Caliginosa_)
+ Marsh Moth (_Palustris_)
+ Brown Rustic (_Tenebrosa_)
+ Turnip (_Segetum_)
+ Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_)
+ Light-feathered Rustic (_Cinerea_)
+ Sand Dart (_Ripae_)
+ Garden Dart (_Nigricans_)
+ Lover's Knot (_Strigula_)
+ Double Dot (_Augur_)
+ Flame Shoulder (_Plecta_)
+ Double-spotted Square-spot (_Triangulum_)
+ Ingrailed Clay (_Festiva_)
+ Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing (_Fimbria_)
+ Large Yellow Underwing (_Pronuba_)
+ Gothic (_Typica_)
+ Heart Moth (_Oo_)
+ Genus _Dianth[oe]cia_
+ Broad-barred White (_Serena_)
+ Small Angle Shades (_Lucipara_)
+ Angle Shades (_Meticulosa_)
+ Green Arches (_Prasina_)
+ Grey Arches (_Nebulosa_)
+ Silvery Arches (_Tincta_)
+ Pale Shining Brown (_Advena_)
+ Northern Arches (_Exulis_)
+ Genus Hadena (nearly all)
+ Lychnis Shark (_Lychnitis_)
+ Starwort Shark (_Asteris_)
+ Cudweed Shark (_Gnaphalii_)
+ Camomile Shark (_Chamomillae_)
+ Shark (_Umbratica_)
+ Genus _Habrostola_
+ Burnished Brass (_Chrysitis_)
+ Plain Golden Y (_Iota_)
+ Beautiful Golden Y (_Pulchrina_)
+ Silver Y (_Gamma_)
+ Scarce Silver Y (_Interrogationis_)
+ Genus _Anarta_
+ Small Yellow Underwing (_Tenebrata_)
+ Bordered Straw (_Peltigera_)
+ Bordered Sallow (_Umbra_)
+ Spotted Sulphur (_Trabealis_)
+ Four-spotted (_Luctuosa_)
+ Family _Erastriidae_
+ Purple Marbled (_Ostrina_)
+ Small Marbled (_Parva_)
+ Small Purple-barred (_Viridaria_)
+ Mother Shipton (_Mi_)
+ Burnet Noctua (_Glyphica_)
+ Black Neck (_Pastinum_)
+ Family _Herminiidae_
+ Family _Hypenidae_
+
+ =Geometrae.=
+ Little Thorn (_Advenaria_)
+ Brimstone (_Luteolata_)
+ Speckled Yellow (_Macularia_)
+ Orange (_Prunaria_)
+ Barred Red (_Prosapiaria_)
+ Scorched Wing (_Dolobraria_)
+ Lunar Thorn (_Lunaria_)
+ Peppered (_Betularia_)
+ Speckled Beauty (_Angularia_)
+ Genus _Boarmia_
+ Square Spot (_Consonaria_)
+ Brindled White-spot (_Luridata_)
+ Grey Birch (_Punctularia_)
+ Blotched Emerald (_Pustulata_)
+ Small Grass Emerald (_Viridata_)
+ Common Emerald (_Strigata_)
+ Nearly all the family _Acidaliidae_
+ Genus _Bapta_
+ Peacock (_Notata_)
+ Rannoch Geometer (_Brunneata_)
+ Brown Silver-line (_Petraria_)
+ Barred Umber (_Pulveraria_)
+ Grey Scalloped Bar (_Belgiaria_)
+ Frosted Yellow (_Limbaria_)
+ Bordered White (_Piniaria_)
+ Drab Geometer (_Murinata_)
+ Black-veined (_Lineata_)
+ Grass Wave (_Strigillaria_)
+ Clouded Magpie (_Sylvata_)
+ Scorched Carpet (_Adustata_)
+ Clouded Border (_Marginata_)
+ Twin-spot Carpet (_Didymata_)
+ Grey Mountain Carpet (_Caesiata_)
+ Striped Twin-spot Carpet (_Salicata_)
+ Green Carpet (_Viridaria_)
+ Genus _Emmelesia_
+ Most of the Pugs (_Eupithecia_)
+ Small Seraphim (_Sexalisata_)
+ Seraphim (_Halterata_)
+ Yellow-barred Brindle (_Viretata_)
+ Shaded Broad-bar (_Variata_)
+ Ruddy High-flier (_Ruberata_)
+ Purple Bar (_Ocellata_)
+ Beautiful Carpet (_Albicillata_)
+ Genus _Melanippe_
+ Royal Mantle (_Cucullata_)
+ Flame (_Rubidata_)
+ Genus _Coremia_
+ Yellow Shell (_Bilineata_)
+ Fern (_Tersata_)
+ Oblique Carpet (_Vittata_)
+ Small Waved Umber (_Vitalbata_)
+ Scalloped Shell (_Undulata_)
+ Brown Scallop (_Vetulata_)
+ Short-cloak Carpet (_Picata_)
+ Broken-barred Carpet (_Corylata_)
+ Common Marbled Carpet (_Truncata_)
+ Small Ph[oe]nix (_Silaceata_)
+ Small Mallow (_Limitata_)
+ Belle (_Plumbaria_)
+ Oblique-striped (_Virgata_)
+ Treble Bar (_Plagiata_)
+ Pale Grey Carpet (_Griseata_)
+ Chimney Sweep (_Atrata_)
+
+
+JULY
+
+The number of species on the wing in July is even greater than in June.
+Butterflies are very numerous, some being second broods of
+double-brooded species, and others late single-brooded insects.
+
+_Sphinges_ are beginning to fall off, and so are the _Bombyces_, but the
+_Noctuae_ and _Geometrae_ are slightly on the increase.
+
+As regards the Micros, a good number of fresh species may be expected,
+all the groups exhibiting a marked increase in the total number on the
+wing with the exception of the _Tineae_.
+
+Sugaring is likely to pay well this month, and many moths may be
+attracted by light. Tree trunks and fences should be well examined.
+
+Pupae may certainly be taken, but unless the collector is particularly
+desirous of obtaining the pupae of insects known to be now passing
+through that stage, he will probably do better by looking after
+imagines.
+
+Larvae, however, may well receive a little attention, providing the
+setting of butterflies and moths leave a little leisure for other
+employments. Beating by day, and searching by both day and night, even
+if carried on only occasionally, will probably supply you with as many
+species as you can accommodate in your glasses and cages.
+
+The butterflies of the month are:
+
+ Swallow Tail (_Machaon_)
+ Black-veined White (_Crataegi_)
+ Large White (_Brassicae_)
+ Small White (_Rapae_)
+ Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+ Wood White (_Sinapis_)
+ Brimstone (_Rhamni_)
+ Dark Green Fritillary (_Aglaia_)
+ High Brown Fritillary (_Adippe_)
+ Silver-washed Fritillary (_Paphia_)
+ Heath Fritillary (_Athalia_)
+ Comma (_C-Album_)
+ Large Tortoiseshell (_Polychloros_)
+ Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticae_)
+ Peacock (_Io_)
+ Painted Lady (_Cardui_)
+ White Admiral (_Sibylla_)
+ Purple Emperor (_Iris_)
+ Marbled White (_Galatea_)
+ Northern Brown (_AEthiops_)
+ Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+ Grayling (_Semele_)
+ Meadow Brown (_Ianira_)
+ Large Heath (_Tithonus_)
+ Ringlet (_Hyperanthes_)
+ Marsh Ringlet (_Typhon_)
+ Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+ Brown Hairstreak (_Betulae_)
+ White-letter Hairstreak (_W-Album_)
+ Dark Hairstreak (_Pruni_)
+ Purple Hairstreak (_Quercus_)
+ Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_)
+ Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+ Silver-studded Blue (_AEgon_)
+ Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+ Chalk-hill Blue (_Corydon_)
+ Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+ Mazarine Blue (_Semiargus_)
+ Small Blue (_Minima_)
+ Large Blue (_Arion_)
+ Small Skipper (_Thaumas_)
+ New Small Skipper (_Lineola_)
+
+The moths of July include the following species:
+
+ =Sphinges.=
+ Privet Hawk (_Ligustri_)
+ Bedstraw Hawk (_Galii_)
+ Eyed Hawk (_Ocellatus_)
+ Poplar Hawk (_Populi_)
+ Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_)
+ Hornet Clearwing of Poplar (_Apiformis_)
+ Hornet Clearwing of Osier (_Crabroniformis_)
+ Welsh Clearwing (_Scoliiformis_)
+ Red-belted Clearwing (_Myopiformis_)
+ Red-tipped Clearwing (_Formiciformis_)
+ Six-belted Clearwing (_Ichneumoniformis_)
+ Genus _Ino_
+ Burnets (_Trifolii_, _Lonicerae_ and _Filipendulae_)
+
+ =Bombyces.=
+ Tortrix (_Undulanus_)
+ Large Green Silver-lined (_Bicolorana_)
+ Short-cloaked (_Cucullatella_)
+ Most of the family _Lithosiidae_
+ Tiger (_Caia_)
+ Ruby Tiger (_Fuliginosa_)
+ Buff Ermine (_Lubricipeda_)
+ White Ermine (_Menthastri_)
+ Wood Swift (_Sylvanus_)
+ Northern Swift (_Velleda_)
+ Goat Moth (_Ligniperda_)
+ Leopard (_Pyrina_)
+ Brown Tail (_Chrysorrh[oe]a_)
+ Yellow Tail (_Similis_)
+ Satin (_Salicis_)
+ Reed Tussock (_C[oe]nosa_)
+ Black Arches (_Monacha_)
+ Vapourer (_Antiqua_)
+ Lackey (_Neustria_)
+ Ground Lackey (_Castrensis_)
+ Oak Eggar (_Quercus_)
+ Drinker (_Potatoria_)
+ Sallow Kitten (_Furcula_)
+ Poplar Kitten (_Bifida_)
+ Lobster (_Fagi_)
+ Pale Prominent (_Palpina_)
+ Coxcomb Prominent (_Camelina_)
+ Buff Tip (_Bucephala_)
+ Buff Arches (_Derasa_)
+ Peach Blossom (_Batis_)
+ Figure of Eighty (_Octogesima_)
+ Poplar Lutestring (_Or_)
+ Lesser Satin (_Duplaris_)
+
+ =Noctuae.=
+ Marbled Green (_Muralis_)
+ Marbled Beauty (_Perla_)
+ Grey Dagger (_Psi_)
+ Miller (_Leporina_)
+ Poplar Grey (_Megacephala_)
+ Grisette (_Strigosa_)
+ Coronet (_Ligustri_)
+ Knot Grass (_Rumicis_)
+ Scarce Dagger (_Auricoma_)
+ Light Knot Grass (_Menyanthidis_)
+ Brown Line Bright Eye (_Conigera_)
+ Double Line (_Turca_)
+ Clay (_Lithargyria_)
+ Wainscots (_Littoralis_, _Impudens_, _Comma_, _Impura_, _Pallens_,
+ _Phragmitidis_, _Maritima_, _Rufa_, _Bondii_, _Neurica_)
+ Ear Moth (_Nictitans_)
+ Flame (_Putris_)
+ Genus _Xylophasia_
+ Antler (_Graminis_)
+ Straw Underwing (_Matura_)
+ Most of Genus _Mamestra_
+ Genus _Miana_
+ Haworth's Minor (_Haworthii_)
+ Treble Lines (_Trigrammica_)
+ Genus _Caradrina_
+ Brown Rustic (_Tenebrosa_)
+ Archer's Dart (_Vestigialis_)
+ Pearly Underwing (_Saucia_)
+ Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_)
+ Heart and Club (_Corticea_)
+ Sand Dart (_Ripae_)
+ Coast Dart (_Cursoria_)
+ Garden Dart (_Nigricans_)
+ Streaked Dart (_Aquilina_)
+ True Lover's Knot (_Strigula_)
+ Stout Dart (_Obscura_)
+ Dotted Rustic (_Simulans_)
+ Northern Rustic (_Lucernea_)
+ Ashworth's Rustic (_Ashworthii_)
+ Most of Genus _Noctua_
+ Genus _Triphaena_
+ Copper Underwing (_Pyramidea_)
+ Mouse (_Tragopogonis_)
+ Old Lady (_Maura_)
+ Suspected (_Suspecta_)
+ Dismal (_Upsilon_)
+ Olive (_Subtusa_)
+ Genus _Calymnia_
+ Dusky Sallow (_Ochroleuca_)
+ Marbled Coronet (_Nana_)
+ Genus _Hecatera_
+ Minor Shoulder Knot (_Viminalis_)
+ Small Angle Shades (_Lucipara_)
+ Genus _Aplecta_
+ Dark Brocade (_Adusta_)
+ Shears (_Dentina_)
+ Nutmeg (_Trifolii_)
+ Pale-shouldered Brocade (_Thalassina_)
+ Silver Cloud (_Conspicillaris_)
+ Lychnis Shark (_Lychnitis_)
+ Wormwood Shark (_Absinthii_)
+ Family _Plusiidae_
+ Beautiful Yellow Underwing (_Myrtilli_)
+ Marbled Clover (_Dipsacea_)
+ Four-spotted (_Luctuosa_)
+ Rosy Marbled (_Venustula_)
+ Marbled White-spot (_Fasciana_)
+ Small Purple-barred (_Viridaria_)
+ Red Underwing (_Nupta_)
+ Light Crimson Underwing (_Promissa_)
+ Dark Crimson Underwing(_Sponsa_)
+ New Black-neck (_Craccae_)
+ Family _Herminiidae_
+ Family _Hypenidae_
+
+ =Geometrae.=
+ Swallow-tail (_Sambucaria_)
+ Dark-bordered Beauty (_Parallelaria_)
+ Bordered Beauty (_Apiciaria_)
+ Orange (_Prunaria_)
+ Light Emerald (_Margaritaria_)
+ Barred Red (_Prosapiaria_)
+ Lilac Beauty (_Syringaria_)
+ Early Thorn (_Bilunaria_)
+ Scalloped Oak (_Elinguaria_)
+ Genus _Cleora_
+ Genus _Boarmia_
+ Annulet (_Obscuraria_)
+ Scotch Annulet (_Obfuscaria_)
+ Black Mountain Moth (_Coracina_)
+ Family _Geometridae_
+ Golden-bordered Purple (_Muricata_)
+ Waved Carpet (_Sylvata_)
+ Dingy Shell (_Obliterata_)
+ Welsh Wave (_Cambrica_)
+ Most of the _Acidaliae_
+ Blood Vein (_Amataria_)
+ Family _Macariidae_
+ Latticed Heath (_Clathrata_)
+ Bordered Grey (_Ericetaria_)
+ Common Heath (_Atomaria_)
+ Rest Harrow (_Ononaria_)
+ Vestal (_Sacraria_)
+ Grass Wave (_Strigillaria_)
+ Family _Zerenidae_
+ Twin-spot Carpet (_Didymata_)
+ Grey Mountain Carpet (_Caesiata_)
+ Yellow-ringed Carpet (_Flavicinctata_)
+ Beech-green Carpet (_Olivata_)
+ Green Carpet (_Viridaria_)
+ Genus _Emmelesia_
+ Pugs (_Linariata_, _Oblongata_, _Succenturiata_, _Pernotata_,
+ _Isogrammaria_, _Virgaureata_, _Innotata_, _Subnotata_,
+ _Absinthiata_, _Tenuiata_, _Subciliata_, _Rectangulata_)
+ Chestnut-coloured Carpet (_Simulata_)
+ Shaded Broad Bar (_Variata_)
+ Pine Carpet (_Firmata_)
+ July High-flier (_Sordidata_)
+ Genus _Melanthia_
+ Genus _Melanippe_
+ Flame (_Rubidata_)
+ Red Carpet (_Munitata_)
+ Large Twin-spot Carpet (_Quadrifasciaria_)
+ Yellow Shell (_Bilineata_)
+ Fern (_Tersata_)
+ Oblique Carpet (_Vittata_)
+ Many-lined (_Polygrammata_)
+ Dark Umber (_Rhamnata_)
+ Short-cloak Carpet (_Picata_)
+ Marsh Carpet (_Sagittata_)
+ Common Marbled Carpet (_Truncata_)
+ Dark Marbled Carpet (_Immanata_)
+ Netted Carpet (_Reticulata_)
+ Ph[oe]nix (_Prunata_)
+ Chevron (_Testata_)
+ Northern Spinach (_Populata_)
+ Barred Yellow (_Fulvata_)
+ Barred Straw (_Dotata_)
+ Spinach (_Associata_)
+ Dark Spinach (_Comitata_)
+ Small Mallow (_Limitata_)
+ Belle (_Plumbaria_)
+ Chalk Carpet (_Bipunctaria_)
+ Oblique-striped (_Virgata_)
+ Manchester Treble Bar (_Paludata_)
+ Treble Bar (_Plagiata_)
+ Pale Grey Carpet (_Griseata_)
+ Chimney Sweep (Atrata)
+
+
+AUGUST
+
+Although there is a very appreciable falling off in the number of
+species on the wing during August, yet there remains plenty of work for
+the lepidopterist.
+
+Many of the butterflies of July continue to fly during the whole or part
+of this month, and several fresh species commence their flight. August,
+too, may be looked upon as _the_ month for second broods, and an
+opportunity now arises for searching for some of the species that were
+missed at the time of their early appearance in May. Clover and lucerne
+fields should be well worked.
+
+A few _Sphinges_ and a number of the _Bombyces_ are still on the wing.
+The _Noctuae_ are on the decrease, but there are yet nearly a hundred
+species (including the rarer ones) at large.
+
+These last may be taken at sugar in considerable numbers, and it is
+interesting to note that two of the Vanessas (_Atalanta_ and _Cardui_)
+may be caught sipping on your baited trees during the daytime.
+
+_Geometrae_ and Micros fall off very considerably this month, but these,
+as well as moths of the other groups, may be taken from tree trunks and
+palings. Light traps may also be used with much success during August.
+
+Fallen fruits should be examined for the larvae that feed within them;
+and late in the month ripe fruit will supply food to the lovers of
+sweets.
+
+Ivy blossom should be well worked at night; and clover and lucerne
+fields form admirable hunting grounds for moths at night, especially
+just after rain.
+
+Larvae are to be obtained in abundance by beating and searching, the
+latter process being conducted by night as well as by day.
+
+The following is the list of imagines for August:
+
+ =Butterflies.=
+ Swallow Tail (_Machaon_)
+ Large White (_Brassicae_)
+ Small White (_Rapae_)
+ Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+ Bath White (_Daplidice_)
+ Wood White (_Sinapis_)
+ Pale Clouded Yellow (_Hyale_)
+ Clouded Yellow (_Edusa_)
+ Brimstone (_Rhamni_)
+ Queen of Spain (_Latona_)
+ Dark Green Fritillary (_Aglaia_)
+ High Brown Fritillary (_Adippe_)
+ Silver-washed Fritillary (_Paphia_)
+ Genus _Vanessa_
+ White Admiral (_Sibylla_)
+ Purple Emperor (_Iris_)
+ Marbled White (_Galatea_)
+ Northern Brown (_AEthiops_)
+ Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+ Wall (_Megaera_)
+ Grayling (_Semele_)
+ Meadow Brown (_Ianira_)
+ Large Heath (_Tithonus_)
+ Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+ Brown Hairstreak (_Betulae_)
+ Purple Hairstreak (_Quercus_)
+ Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+ Tailed Blue (_Baetica_)
+ Silver-studded Blue (_AEgon_)
+ Brown Argus (_Astrarche_)
+ Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+ Clifden Blue (_Bellargus_)
+ Chalk-hill Blue (_Corydon_)
+ Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+ Mazarine Blue (_Semiargus_)
+ Dingy Skipper (_Tages_)
+ New Small Skipper (_Lineola_)
+ Lulworth Skipper (_Actaeon_)
+ Large Skipper (_Sylvanus_)
+ Silver-spotted Skipper (_Comma_)
+
+ =Sphinges.=
+ Death's-head Hawk (_Atropos_)
+ Convolvulus Hawk (_Convolvuli_)
+ Bedstraw Hawk (_Galii_)
+ Striped Hawk (_Livornica_)
+ Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_)
+ Red-tipped Clearwing (_Formiciformis_)
+ Six-belted Clearwing (_Ichneumoniformis_)
+
+ =Bombyces.=
+ Round-winged Muslin (_Senex_)
+ Muslin (_Mundana_)
+ Footmen (_Muscerda_, _Lutarella_, _Griseola_)
+ Wood Swift (_Sylvanus_)
+ Brown Tail (_Chrysorrh[oe]a_)
+ Yellow Tail (_Similis_)
+ Satin (_Salicis_)
+ Gipsy (_Dispar_)
+ Black Arches (_Monacha_)
+ Vapourer (_Antiqua_)
+ Lackey (_Neustria_)
+ Ground Lackey (_Castrensis_)
+ Oak Eggar (_Quercus_)
+ Grass Eggar (_Trifolii_)
+ Drinker (_Potatoria_)
+ Hook Tips (_Lacertinaria_, _Falcataria_, _Binaria_, _Cultraria_)
+ Chinese Character (_Glaucata_)
+ Sallow Kitten (_Furcula_)
+ Poplar Kitten (_Bifida_)
+ Prominents (_Camelina_, _Trilophus_, _Ziczac_)
+ Lesser Lutestring (_Diluta_)
+
+ =Noctuae.=
+ Marbled Green (_Muralis_)
+ Marbled Beauty (_Perla_)
+ Grey Dagger (_Psi_)
+ Scarce Dagger (_Auricoma_)
+ Wainscots (_Musculosa_, _Albipuncta_, _Impura_, _Pallens_,
+ _Fulva_, _Cannae_, _Arundinis_, _Geminipuncta_, _Neurica_,
+ _Lutosa_)
+ Frosted Orange (_Ochracea_)
+ Genus _Hydr[oe]cia_
+ Slender Clouded Brindle (_Scolopacina_)
+ Feathered Brindle (_Australis_)
+ Feathered Gothic (_Popularis_)
+ Antler (_Graminis_)
+ Straw Underwing (_Matura_)
+ Genus _Luperina_
+ Confused (_Furva_)
+ Small Clouded Brindle (_Unanimis_)
+ Crescent (_Leucostigma_)
+ Common Rustic (_Didyma_)
+ Anomalous (_Anomala_)
+ Mottled Rustic (_Morpheus_)
+ Pale Mottled Willow (_Quadripunctata_)
+ Archer's Dart (_Vestigialis_)
+ Shuttle-shaped Dart (_Puta_)
+ Pearly Underwing (_Saucia_)
+ Crescent Dart (_Lunigera_)
+ Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_)
+ Coast Dart (_Cursoria_)
+ Garden Dart (_Nigricans_)
+ White-line Dart (_Tritici_)
+ Streaked Dart (_Aquilina_)
+ Square-spot Dart (_Obelisca_)
+ Heath Rustic (_Agathina_)
+ Portland (_Praecox_)
+ Stout Dart (_Obscura_)
+ Dotted Rustic (_Simulans_)
+ Plain Clay (_Depuncta_)
+ Setaceous Hebrew Character (_C-Nigrum_)
+ Barred Chestnut (_Dahlii_)
+ Small Square-spot (_Rubi_)
+ Six-striped Rustic (_Umbrosa_)
+ Grey Rustic (_Castanea_)
+ Square-spot Rustic (_Xanthographa_)
+ Genus _Triphaena_
+ Mouse (_Tragopogonis_)
+ Old Lady (_Maura_)
+ Mountain Rustic (_Hyperborea_)
+ Suspected (_Suspecta_)
+ Olive (_Subtusa_)
+ Double Kidney (_Retusa_)
+ Angle-striped Sallow (_Paleacea_)
+ Genus _Calymnia_
+ Dusky Sallow (_Ochroleuca_)
+ Grey Chi (_Chi_)
+ Large Ranunculus (_Flavicincta_)
+ Feathered Ranunculus (_Lichenea_)
+ Crescent (_Bimaculosa_)
+ Great Brocade (_Occulta_)
+ Beautiful Brocade (_Porphyrea_)
+ Golden-rod Brindled (_Solidaginis_)
+ Herald (_Libatrix_)
+ Scarce Burnished Brass (_Chryson_)
+ Burnished Brass (_Chrysitis_)
+ Gold Spot (_Festucae_)
+ Scarce Bordered Straw (_Armigera_)
+ Four-spotted (_Luctuosa_)
+ Clifden Nonpareil (_Fraxini_)
+ Red Underwing (_Nupta_)
+ Dark Crimson Underwing (_Sponsa_)
+
+ =Geometrae.=
+ Dark-bordered Beauty (_Parallelaria_)
+ Bordered Beauty (_Apiciaria_)
+ Purple Thorn (_Tetralunaria_)
+ Scalloped Oak (_Elinguaria_)
+ Canary-shouldered Thorn (_Alniaria_)
+ Dusky Thorn (_Fuscantaria_)
+ September Thorn (_Erosaria_)
+ August Thorn (_Quercinaria_)
+ Dotted Carpet (_Glabraria_)
+ Annulet (_Obscuraria_)
+ Scotch Annulet (_Obfuscaria_)
+ Family _Ephyridae_
+ Small Dusty Wave (_Virgularia_)
+ Mullein Wave (_Marginepunctata_)
+ Small Blood Vein (_Imitaria_)
+ Common White Wave (_Pusaria_)
+ Vestal (_Sacraria_)
+ Yellow Belle (_Ochrearia_)
+ Straw Belle (_Gilvaria_)
+ Currant (_Grossulariata_)
+ _Autumnaria_
+ Haworth's Carpet (_Unifasciata_)
+ Bordered Lime Speck (_Succenturiata_)
+ Pugs (_Virgaureata_, _Campanulata_, _Indigata_, _Constrictata_,
+ _Expallidata_, _Sobrinata_, _Variata_)
+ July High Flier (_Sordidata_)
+ Carpets (_Bicolorata_, _Montanata_, _Fluctuata_, _Berberata_)
+ Yellow Shell (_Bilineata_)
+ Gem (_Fluviata_)
+ Oblique Carpet (_Vittata_)
+ Many-lined (_Polygrammata_)
+ Tissue (_Dubitata_)
+ Common Marbled Carpet (_Truncata_)
+ Ph[oe]nix (_Prunata_)
+ Chevron (_Testata_)
+ Northern Spinach (_Populata_)
+ Barred Yellow (_Fulvata_)
+ Barred Straw (_Dotata_)
+ Small Mallow (_Limitata_)
+ Chalk Carpet (_Bipunctaria_)
+ Treble Bar (_Plagiata_)
+ Broom Tip (_Rufata_)
+
+
+SEPTEMBER
+
+The number of species on the wing is now considerably lower, yet there
+is a good deal to be done both with butterflies and moths.
+
+Many of the former are worn and ragged, but good fresh specimens of some
+species may be taken. Clover and lucerne fields and the flowery borders
+of corn fields remain very attractive.
+
+Tree trunks and palings should be searched as before. Sugar still
+attracts numbers of the _Noctuae_; and ivy blossom should be examined at
+night whenever an opportunity offers itself.
+
+September is a good month for larva hunting. Most of the species that
+pupate in the autumn are now full fed, and will undergo the change to
+the chrysalis state shortly after they have been housed, thus giving but
+little trouble to the entomologist. The day feeders may be beaten or
+swept from their food plants, but, of course, the nocturnal species are
+best discovered by searching at night.
+
+Some have already 'gone down' for the winter, and, consequently, pupa
+hunting may be started. However, as there is yet much to be done with
+imagines and larvae, it may, perhaps, be better to leave the pupae alone
+till about the end of the month, especially as many of the larvae have
+not yet had time to complete their transformation.
+
+The list of imagines for September includes:
+
+ =Butterflies.=
+ Clouded Yellow (_Edusa_)
+ Brimstone (_Rhamni_)
+ Queen of Spain (_Latona_)
+ Comma (_C-Album_)
+ Large Tortoiseshell (_Polychloros_)
+ Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticae_)
+ Peacock (_Io_)
+ Camberwell Beauty (_Antiopa_)
+ Red Admiral (_Atalanta_)
+ Painted Lady (_Cardui_)
+ Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+ Wall (_Megaera_)
+ Grayling (_Semele_)
+ Large Heath (_Tithonus_)
+ Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+ Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+ Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+ Clifden Blue (_Bellargus_)
+ Chalk-hill Blue (_Corydon_)
+ Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+
+ =Sphinges.=
+ Death's-head Hawk (_Atropos_)
+ Convolvulus Hawk (_Convolvuli_)
+ Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_)
+
+ =Bombyces.=
+ Tortrix (_Undulanus_)
+ Crimson Speckled (_Pulchella_)
+ Vapourer (_Antiqua_)
+ Pale Oak Eggar (_Crataegi_)
+ Lesser Lutestring (_Diluta_)
+
+ =Noctuae.=
+ Figure of Eight (_Caeruleocephala_)
+ Small Wainscot (_Fulva_)
+ Bullrush (_Arundinis_)
+ Large Wainscot (_Lutosa_)
+ Frosted Orange (_Ochracea_)
+ Rosy Rustic (_Micacea_)
+ Feathered Brindle (_Australis_)
+ Beautiful Gothic (_Hispidus_)
+ Antler (_Graminis_)
+ Flounced Rustic (_Testacea_)
+ Hedge Rustic (_Cespitis_)
+ Haworth's Minor (_Haworthii_)
+ Anomalous (_Anomala_)
+ Shuttle-shaped Dart (_Puta_)
+ Dark Sword Grass (_Suffusa_)
+ Pearly Underwing (_Saucia_)
+ Turnip (_Segetum_)
+ Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_)
+ Autumn Rustic (_Glareosa_)
+ Mouse (_Tragopogonis_)
+ Red-lined Quaker (_Lota_)
+ Yellow-lined Quaker (_Macilenta_)
+ Genus _Anchocelis_
+ Genus _Xanthia_
+ Centre-barred Sallow (_Xerampelina_)
+ Double Kidney (_Retusa_)
+ Genus _Polia_
+ Black Rustic (_Nigra_)
+ Green-brindled Crescent (_Oxyacanthae_)
+ Marvel-du-jour (_Aprilina_)
+ Angle Shades (_Meticulosa_)
+ Flame Brocade (_Flammea_)
+ Brindled Green (_Protea_)
+ Genus _Calocampa_
+ Genus _Xylina_
+ Herald (_Libatrix_)
+ Gold Spot (_Festucae_)
+ Silver Y (_Gamma_)
+ Scarce Bordered Straw (_Armigera_)
+ Clifden Nonpareil (_Fraxini_)
+ Buttoned Snout (_Rostralis_)
+
+ =Geometrae.=
+ Bordered Beauty (_Apiciaria_)
+ Brimstone (_Luteolata_)
+ Genus _Eugonia_
+ November (_Dilutata_)
+ Autumnal (_Filigrammaria_)
+ Juniper Pug (_Sobrinata_)
+ Shaded Broad Bar (_Variata_)
+ Slender-striped Rufous (_Lapidata_)
+ Tissue (_Dubitata_)
+ Carpets (_Siderata_, _Miata_, _Immanata_)
+ Chevron (_Testata_)
+ Mallow (_Cervinata_)
+ Streak (_Spartiata_)
+
+
+OCTOBER
+
+As there is very little winged life this month, and the larvae have
+nearly all sought out their winter quarters, special attention may be
+given to pupae. The earlier this work is started after the insects have
+completed their change the better. If left late, many pupae will have
+been destroyed by floods, moles, &c., and a prolonged series of frosty
+days may render digging unproductive if not impossible. Again, it must
+be remembered that some larvae are not yet down, and by digging at the
+roots of the trees on which they are feeding, you are preparing an
+acceptable bed for the late species, for the pupae of which you may call
+again in about a month.
+
+Larvae may be obtained by beating and searching as before, but this work
+should be done as early in the month as possible, since but few are
+feeding after the first week or so.
+
+Butterfly catching is now practically over, only a few of the late
+species and the hybernators being on the wing, and these only on mild
+days.
+
+_Noctuae_ are still attracted by sugar and ivy blossom, and a few may be
+found at rest. _Geometrae_ and Micros may be taken from palings and tree
+trunks by day, or caught flying at dusk.
+
+The imagines of October may include the following butterflies:
+
+ Brimstone (_Rhamni_)
+ Pale Clouded Yellow (_Hyale_)
+ Clouded Yellow (_Edusa_)
+ Comma (_C-Album_)
+ Large Tortoiseshell (_Polychloros_)
+ Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticae_)
+ Peacock (_Io_)
+ Camberwell Beauty (_Antiopa_)
+ Red Admiral (_Atalanta_)
+ Painted Lady (_Cardui_)
+ Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+
+And a few late 'Blues.'
+
+The principal moths of the month are:
+
+ =Sphinges.=
+ Death's-head Hawk (_Atropos_)
+
+ =Bombyces.=
+ Plumed Prominent (_Plumigera_)
+
+ =Noctuae.=
+ Large Wainscot (_Lutosa_)
+ Red-lined Quaker (_Lota_)
+ Yellow-lined Quaker (_Macilenta_)
+ Beaded Chestnut (_Pistacina_)
+ Brown-spot Pinion (_Litura_)
+ Chestnut (_Vaccinii_)
+ Dark Chestnut (_Spadicea_)
+ Red-headed Chestnut (_Erythrocephala_)
+ Satellite (_Satellitia_)
+ Dotted Chestnut (_Rubiginea_)
+ Orange Upperwing (_Croceago_)
+ Brick (_Circellaris_)
+ Brindled Ochre (_Templi_)
+ Green Brindled Crescent (_Oxyacanthae_)
+ Marvel-du-jour (_Aprilina_)
+ Angle Shades (_Meticulosa_)
+ Flame Brocade (_Flammea_)
+ Red Sword-grass (_Vetusta_)
+ Sword-grass (_Exolita_)
+ Genus _Xylina_
+ Sprawler (_Sphinx_)
+ Silver Y (_Gamma_)
+
+ =Geometrae.=
+ Feathered Thorn (_Pennaria_)
+ Vestal (_Sacraria_)
+ Scarce Umber (_Aurantiaria_)
+ Mottled Umber (_Defoliaria_)
+ Winter (_Brumata_)
+ Northern Winter (_Boreata_)
+ November (_Dilutata_)
+ Juniper Carpet (_Juniperata_)
+ Gem (_Fluviata_)
+ Carpets (_Siderata_, _Miata_)
+ Mallow (_Cervinata_)
+ Streak (_Spartiata_)
+
+
+NOVEMBER
+
+No butterflies are to be seen this month with the exception of the
+hybernating species, and even these will not venture on the wing unless
+the weather is mild and bright for the season.
+
+Most of the moths met with are also hybernators, but a few species are
+to be found only at this season, and these should be looked for on
+fences and tree trunks. A few _Noctuae_ may be taken at sugar, and the
+_Geometrae_ attracted by lights.
+
+The only larvae now existing are hybernators, and many of these may be
+met with during your pupa-digging operations; but they are best left
+alone till the spring, as a rule.
+
+The chief work of the entomologist in November is certainly pupa
+hunting, and this may be carried on in real earnest whenever the weather
+is favourable, following the instructions given in Chapter VII.
+
+It will be remembered, also, that many of the _Lepidoptera_ pass the
+winter in the egg state, and search may be made for ova when time
+permits.
+
+The November list, besides some of the hybernating species previously
+mentioned, include:
+
+ =Bombyces.=
+ December (_Populi_)
+
+ =Noctuae.=
+ Genus _Cerastis_
+ Satellite (_Satellitia_)
+ Dotted Chestnut (_Rubiginea_)
+ Orange Upperwing (_Croceago_)
+ Brindled Ochre (_Exempli_)
+
+ =Geometrae.=
+ Feathered Thorn (_Pennaria_)
+ Scarce Umber (_Aurantiaria_)
+ Mottled Umber (_Defoliaria_)
+ Winter (_Brumata_)
+ Northern Winter (_Boreata_)
+
+
+DECEMBER
+
+Outdoor work is now at a minimum. The weather is too severe, as a rule,
+to allow pupa digging to be carried on with either success or comfort,
+but favourable opportunities should be seized for this employment as
+well as for ova collecting.
+
+Now and again we may meet with _P. Populi_ at rest by day, or fluttering
+round a light at night. _Brumata_ and _Defoliaria_ may also be seen, and
+the Early Moth (_Rupicapraria_) may appear on the wing before the new
+year; but nothing is likely to be met with beyond these save the
+hybernators, already named in other lists, and some of the _Tineae_.
+
+It is a good plan to utilise your spare time during the dreary months of
+winter by attending to your cabinet. Rearrange your specimens where
+necessary, and see that all are properly labelled; remove all greasy
+specimens, and deal with them as recommended on page 127; also renew the
+supply of camphor or naphthaline in your drawers and store boxes. Time
+may also be found for the construction of apparatus that is likely to be
+required next season, and for repairing any that has been damaged during
+the work of the last.
+
+
+
+
+COLOURED PLATES
+
+
+PLATE I (_Frontispiece_)
+
+ 1. SWALLOW-TAIL (_Papilio Machaon_).
+ 2. BLACK-VEINED WHITE (_Aporia Crataegi_).
+ 3. LARGE WHITE (_Pieris Brassicae_). Female.
+ 4. SMALL WHITE (_Pieris Rapae_). Male.
+ 5. GREEN-VEINED WHITE (_Pieris Napi_). Under side.
+ 6. BATH WHITE (_Pieris Daplidice_). Female.
+ 7. ORANGE TIP (_Euchlo[:e] Cardamines_). Male.
+ 8. ORANGE TIP (_Euchlo[:e] Cardamines_). Male. Under side.
+
+PLATE II
+
+ 1. WOOD WHITE (_Leucophasia Sinapis_).
+ 2. PALE CLOUDED YELLOW (_Colias Hyale_).
+ 3. CLOUDED YELLOW (_Colias Edusa_). Male.
+ 4. BRIMSTONE (_Gonopteryx Rhamni_). Male.
+ 5. SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Selene_).
+ 6. PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Euphrosyne_).
+ 7. QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Latona_).
+ 8. DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Aglaia_).
+
+PLATE III
+
+ 1. HIGH BROWN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Adippe_). Under side.
+ 2. SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_).
+ 3. GREASY FRITILLARY (_Melitaea Aurinia_).
+ 4. GLANVILLE FRITILLARY (_Melitaea Cinxia_).
+ 5. HEATH FRITILLARY (_Melitaea Athalia_).
+ 6. HEATH FRITILLARY (_Melitaea Athalia_). Under side.
+ 7. COMMA (_Vanessa C-Album_).
+ 8. LARGE TORTOISESHELL (_Vanessa Polychloros_).
+ 9. SMALL TORTOISESHELL (_Vanessa Urticae_).
+
+
+PLATE IV
+
+ 1. PEACOCK (_Vanessa Io_).
+ 2. CAMBERWELL BEAUTY (_Vanessa Antiopa_).
+ 3. RED ADMIRAL (_Vanessa Atalanta_).
+ 4. PAINTED LADY (_Vanessa Cardui_).
+ 5. WHITE ADMIRAL (_Limenitis Sibylla_).
+
+PLATE V
+
+ 1. PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_). Male.
+ 2. MARBLED WHITE (_Melanargia Galatea_).
+ 3. SMALL RINGLET (_Erebia Epiphron_).
+ 4. NORTHERN BROWN (_Erebia AEthiops_).
+ 5. WOOD ARGUS (_Pararge Egeria_).
+ 6. WALL BUTTERFLY (_Pararge Megaera_).
+ 7. GRAYLING (_Satyrus Semele_). Female.
+ 8. MEADOW BROWN (_Epinephele Ianira_). Female.
+ 9. LARGE HEATH (_Epinephele Tithonus_). Male.
+ 10. RINGLET (_Epinephele Hyperanthus_).
+
+PLATE VI
+
+ 1. MARSH RINGLET (_Caenonympha Typhon_).
+ 2. SMALL HEATH (_Caenonympha Pamphilus_).
+ 3. BROWN HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla Betulae_). Under side.
+ 4. WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla W-album_). Under side.
+ 5. DARK HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla Pruni_). Under side.
+ 6. PURPLE HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla Quercus_). Under side.
+ 7. GREEN HAIRSTREAK(_Thecla Rubi_). Under side.
+ 8. LARGE COPPER (_Polyommatus Dispar_). Male.
+ 9. SMALL COPPER (_Polyommatus Phlaeas_).
+ 10. TAILED BLUE (_Lycaena Baetica_).
+ 11. SILVER-STUDDED BLUE (_Lycaena AEgon_). Male.
+ 12. SILVER-STUDDED BLUE (_Lycaena AEgon_). Female.
+ 13. BROWN ARGUS (_Lycaena Astrarche_).
+ 14. BROWN ARGUS (_Lycaena Astrarche_). Under side.
+ 15. COMMON BLUE (_Lycaena Icarus_). Male.
+ 16. COMMON BLUE (_Lycaena Icarus_). Female.
+ 17. CLIFDEN BLUE (_Lycaena Bellargus_). Male.
+ 18. CLIFDEN BLUE (_Lycaena Bellargus_). Female.
+
+PLATE VII
+
+ 1. CHALK-HILL BLUE (_Lycaena Corydon_). Male.
+ 2. CHALK-HILL BLUE (_Lycaena Corydon_). Female.
+ 3. HOLLY BLUE (_Lycaena Argiolus_). Male.
+ 4. HOLLY BLUE (_Lycaena Argiolus_). Female.
+ 5. MAZARINE BLUE (_Lycaena Semiargus_). Male.
+ 6. MAZARINE BLUE (_Lycaena Semiargus_). Female.
+ 7. SMALL BLUE (_Lycaena Minima_).
+ 8. LARGE BLUE (_Lycaena Arion_).
+ 9. DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_).
+ 10. DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_). Under side.
+ 11. GRIZZLED SKIPPER (_Syrichthus Malvae_).
+ 12. DINGY SKIPPER (_Nisoniades Tages_).
+ 13. SMALL SKIPPER (_Hesperia Thaumas_).
+ 14. LULWORTH SKIPPER (_Hesperia Actaeon_). Male.
+ 15. LARGE SKIPPER (_Hesperia Sylvanus_). Male.
+ 16. SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER (_Hesperia Comma_).
+ 17. CHEQUERED SKIPPER (_Carterocephalus Palaemon_).
+ 18. NEW SMALL SKIPPER (_Hesperia Lineola_).
+
+PLATE VIII
+
+ 1. LARVA OF SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY (_Papilio Machaon_).
+ 2. LARVA OF ORANGE TIP (_Euchlo[:e] Cardamines_).
+ 3. LARVA OF SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_).
+ 4. LARVA OF PEACOCK BUTTERFLY (_Vanessa Io_).
+ 5. LARVA OF PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_).
+ 6. LARVA OF DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_).
+ 7. PUPA OF SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY (_Papilio Machaon_).
+ 8. PUPA OF ORANGE TIP (_Euchlo[:e] Cardamines_).
+ 9. PUPA OF SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_).
+ 10. PUPA OF PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_).
+ 11. PUPA OF DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_).
+ 12. PUPA OF DINGY SKIPPER (_Nisoniades Tages_).
+
+PLATE IX
+
+ 1. PRIVET HAWK MOTH (_Sphinx Ligustri_).
+ 2. SPURGE HAWK (_Deilephila Euphorbiae_).
+ 3. LARGE ELEPHANT HAWK (_Ch[oe]rocampa Elpenor_).
+ 4. EYED HAWK (_Smerinthus Ocellatus_).
+ 5. LIME HAWK (_Smerinthus Tiliae_).
+ 6. HUMMING-BIRD HAWK (_Macroglossa Stellatarum_).
+ 7. BROAD-BORDERED FIVE-SPOTTED BURNET (_Zygaena Trifolii_).
+
+PLATE X
+
+ 1. CINNABAR MOTH (_Euchelia Jacobaeae_).
+ 2. WOOD TIGER (_Nemeophila Plantaginis_).
+ 3. TIGER (_Arctia Caia_).
+ 4. CREAM-SPOT TIGER (_Arctia Villica_).
+ 5. OAK EGGAR (_Bombyx Quercus_). Male.
+ 6. LAPPET (_Lasiocampa Quercifolia_).
+ 7. KENTISH GLORY (_Endromis Versicolor_). Male.
+ 8. EMPEROR MOTH (_Saturnia Pavonia_). Male.
+ 9. BUFF TIP (_Phalera Bucephala_).
+
+PLATE XI
+
+ 1. LARGE YELLOW UNDERWING (_Triphaena Pronuba_).
+ 2. MARVEL-DU-JOUR (_Agriopis Aprilina_).
+ 3. SMALL ANGLE SHADES (_Euplexia Lucipara_).
+ 4. MOTHER SHIPTON (_Euclidia Mi_).
+ 5. CLIFDEN NONPAREIL (_Catocala Fraxini_).
+ 6. DARK CRIMSON UNDERWING (_Catocala Sponsa_).
+
+PLATE XII
+
+ 1. HERALD (_Gonoptera Libatrix_).
+ 2. SWALLOW-TAIL MOTH (_Uropteryx Sambucaria_).
+ 3. BRIMSTONE MOTH (_Rumia Luteolata_).
+ 4. SCALLOPED OAK (_Crocallis Elinguaria_).
+ 5. BRINDLED BEAUTY (_Biston Hirtaria_).
+ 6. WAVED UMBER (_Hemerophila Abruptaria_).
+ 7. MAIDEN'S BLUSH (_Zonosoma Punctaria_).
+ 8. MOTTLED UMBER (_Hybernia Defoliaria_).
+ 9. TREBLE BAR (_Anaitis Plagiata_).
+
+[Illustration: Plate II.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate III.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate IV.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate V.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VI.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VII.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VIII.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate IX.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate X.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XI.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XII.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ Abbreviata, 284
+
+ Abraxas, 279
+
+ Abruptaria, 273
+
+ Acherontia, 204
+
+ Acidalia, 275
+
+ Acidaliidae, 275
+
+ Aciptilia, 295
+
+ Acronycta, 240
+
+ Actaeon, 199
+
+ Adela, 304
+
+ Adippe, 159
+
+ Admiral, Red, 168
+
+ Admiral, White, 170
+
+ AEgon, 189
+
+ AEscularia, 281
+
+ AEthiops, 175
+
+ Aglaia, 158
+
+ Aglossa, 291
+
+ Agriopis, 258
+
+ Agrotis, 250
+
+ Albulata, 283
+
+ Alucita, 295
+
+ Amataria, 276
+
+ Amphidasydae, 271
+
+ Amphidasys, 272
+
+ Amphipyridae, 254
+
+ Anaitis, 289
+
+ Angle Shades, 258
+
+ Anisopteryx, 281
+
+ Antennae, 5
+
+ Antiopa, 167
+
+ Antiqua, 228
+
+ Antithesia, 301
+
+ Apamea, 247
+
+ Apameidae, 244
+
+ Apatura, 171
+
+ Apiformis, 213
+
+ Aplecta, 259
+
+ Aporia, 141
+
+ Aprilina, 258
+
+ Arctia, 221
+
+ Areola, 261
+
+ Argiolus, 193
+
+ Argus, Brown, 189
+
+ Argus, Wood, 175
+
+ Argynnis, 154
+
+ Arion, 194
+
+ Arrangement of specimens, 136
+
+ Arundinis, 243
+
+ Asphalia, 238
+
+ Astrarche, 189
+
+ Atalanta, 168
+
+ Athalia, 163
+
+ Atomaria, 278
+
+ Atropos, 204
+
+ August Thorn, 271
+
+ Aurella, 306
+
+ Aurinia, 161
+
+ Aversata, 276
+
+ Axylia, 245
+
+
+ Baetica, 188
+
+ Bapta, 277
+
+ Basilinea, 247
+
+ Bath White, 146
+
+ Batis, 237
+
+ Beating for moths, 83
+
+ Beautiful Carpet, 286
+
+ Beautiful China Mark, 293
+
+ Bellargus, 191
+
+ Betulae, 183
+
+ Betularia, 272
+
+ Bicolorata, 285
+
+ Bifida, 234
+
+ Bilineata, 287
+
+ Binaria, 232
+
+ Biston, 271
+
+ Black Arches, 227
+
+ Black Hairstreak, 184
+
+ Black-veined White, 141
+
+ Blood Vein, 276
+
+ Blue-bordered Carpet, 285
+
+ Blue Chalk Hill, 192
+
+ ---- Clifden, 191
+
+ ---- Common, 190
+
+ ---- Holly, 193
+
+ ---- Large, 194
+
+ ---- Mazarine, 193
+
+ ---- Silver-studded, 189
+
+ ---- Small, 194
+
+ ---- Tailed, 188
+
+ Boarmia, 273
+
+ Boarmiidae, 272
+
+ Bombyces, 217
+
+ Bombycidae, 229
+
+ Bombycoidae, 240
+
+ Bombyx, 229
+
+ Bordered White, 279
+
+ Botys, 293
+
+ Brassicae (_Pieris_), 142
+
+ Brassicae (_Mamestra_), 246
+
+ Bright-line Brown-eye, 260
+
+ Brimstone Butterfly, 152
+
+ Brimstone Moth, 269
+
+ Brindled Beauty, 271
+
+ Brindled Pug, 284
+
+ Broad-barred White, 257
+
+ ---- bordered Bee Hawk, 211
+
+ ---- ---- Five spotted Burnet, 215
+
+ Brown Argus, 189
+
+ ---- Hairstreak, 183
+
+ ---- line Bright-eye, 242
+
+ ---- Meadow, 178
+
+ ---- Northern, 175
+
+ ---- Tail, 226
+
+ Bryophila, 239
+
+ Bryophilidae, 239
+
+ Bucephala, 236
+
+ Buff Ermine, 222
+
+ ---- Tip, 236
+
+ Bullrush, 243
+
+ Bupalus, 279
+
+ Burnets, 215
+
+ Burnished Brass, 263
+
+ Butterflies--British, 139
+
+ ---- antennae of, 5
+
+ ---- body, 3
+
+ ---- catching, 64
+
+ ---- eye, 3
+
+ ---- legs, 8, 10
+
+ ---- proboscis, 6
+
+ ---- wings, 2, 8
+
+
+ Cabbage Moth, 246
+
+ Cabera, 277
+
+ Caberidae, 276
+
+ Cabinets, 134
+
+ Caia, 221
+
+ Callimorpha, 220
+
+ C-Album, 164
+
+ Calymnia, 256
+
+ Camberwell Beauty, 167
+
+ Camelina, 235
+
+ Camptogramma, 287
+
+ Caradrina, 249
+
+ Caradrinidae, 248
+
+ Cardamines, 148
+
+ Cardui, 169
+
+ Carpocapsa, 302
+
+ Carterocephalus, 201
+
+ Catching Butterflies, 64
+
+ ---- moths, 82, 85
+
+ Caterpillar state, 22
+
+ Catocala, 265
+
+ Catocalidae, 265
+
+ Cerastis, 256
+
+ Chalk-hill Blue, 192
+
+ Cheloniidae, 220
+
+ Chequered Skipper, 201
+
+ Chestnut, 256
+
+ Chilo, 296
+
+ Chinese Character, 233
+
+ Chloroform bottle, 72
+
+ Chocolate Tip, 237
+
+ Ch[oe]rocampa, 207
+
+ Chrysalis state, 44
+
+ Chrysitis, 263
+
+ Chrysorrh[oe]a, 226
+
+ Cidaria, 288
+
+ Cilix, 233
+
+ Cinnabar, 219
+
+ Cinxia, 162
+
+ Cirsiana, 301
+
+ Classification of Lepidoptera, 55
+
+ Clearwings, 212
+
+ Clifden Blue, 191
+
+ Clifden Nonpareil, 265
+
+ Clouded Silver, 277
+
+ Clouded Yellow, 151
+
+ C[oe]nonympha, 181
+
+ Coleophora, 305
+
+ Colias, 149
+
+ Collecting box, 73
+
+ Collecting larvae, 101
+
+ ---- ova, 99
+
+ ---- pupae, 108
+
+ Comes, 253
+
+ Comma, 164, 200
+
+ Common Blue, 190
+
+ ---- Carpet, 286
+
+ Common Emerald, 274
+
+ ---- Footman, 219
+
+ ---- Heath, 278
+
+ ---- Quaker, 255
+
+ ---- Swift, 223
+
+ ---- Wainscot, 243
+
+ ---- Wave, 277
+
+ Complanella, 306
+
+ Conigera, 242
+
+ Copper--Large, 187
+
+ ---- Small, 188
+
+ Corydon, 192
+
+ Cosmiidae, 256
+
+ Cossidae, 224
+
+ Cossus, 224
+
+ Coxcomb Prominent, 235
+
+ Crambi, 296
+
+ Crambus, 297
+
+ Crataegi, 141
+
+ Cream-spot Tiger, 221
+
+ Cristana, 300
+
+ Crocallis, 270
+
+ Cucullatella, 218
+
+ Cucullia, 261
+
+ Cuprella, 304
+
+ Currant Clearwing, 213
+
+ Currant Moth, 279
+
+ Curtula, 237
+
+ Cyanide bottle, 68
+
+ Cymatophoridae, 237
+
+
+ Daplidice, 146
+
+ Dark Crimson Underwing, 266
+
+ Dark Dagger, 241
+
+ Dark Green Fritillary, 158
+
+ Dark Hairstreak, 185
+
+ Death's-head Hawk, 204
+
+ Decoys, 96
+
+ Defoliaria, 281
+
+ Deilephila, 207
+
+ Dentina, 259
+
+ Depressaria, 304
+
+ Dicranura, 234
+
+ Dicranuridae, 233
+
+ Didymata, 283
+
+ Diloba, 241
+
+ Dilutata, 282
+
+ Dingy Skipper, 198
+
+ Dispar, 187, 227
+
+ Diurnea, 303
+
+ Dominula, 220
+
+ Dot, 247
+
+ Drepana, 232
+
+ Drepanulidae, 232
+
+ Drinker, 230
+
+ Duke of Burgundy, 196
+
+ Dun-bar, 256
+
+
+ Early Grey, 261
+
+ Edusa, 151
+
+ Egeria, 175
+
+ Eggs, 16
+
+ Elephant Hawk, 207
+
+ Elinguaria, 270
+
+ Elpenor, 208
+
+ Ematurga, 278
+
+ Emmelesia, 283
+
+ Emperor Moth, 231
+
+ Emperor, Purple, 171
+
+ Endromidae, 231
+
+ Endromis, 231
+
+ Ennomidae, 269
+
+ Entomological pins, 76
+
+ Ephippiphora, 301
+
+ Ephyridae, 275
+
+ Epinephele, 178
+
+ Epiphron, 174
+
+ Erebia, 174
+
+ Erycinidae, 196
+
+ Eubolia, 289
+
+ Euboliidae, 288
+
+ Euchelia, 219
+
+ Eucheliidae, 219
+
+ Euchlo[:e], 148
+
+ Euclidia, 264
+
+ Euclidiidae, 264
+
+ Eugonia, 271
+
+ Euphorbiae, 207
+
+ Euphrosyne, 156
+
+ Eupithecia, 283
+
+ Euplexia, 258
+
+ Eurrhypara, 292
+
+ Exanthemata, 277
+
+ Exclamationis, 250
+
+ Eyed Hawk, 208
+
+
+ Fagella, 303
+
+ Farinalis, 292
+
+ Fidoniidae, 278
+
+ Figure of Eight, 241
+
+ Filipendulae, 215
+
+ Flame, 245
+
+ Flame Shoulder, 252
+
+ Flavago, 256
+
+ Flavicornis, 238
+
+ Flounced Rustic, 246
+
+ Fluctuata, 287
+
+ Forester, 214
+
+ Forficalis, 293
+
+ Fraxini, 265
+
+ Fritillaries, 154
+
+ Fritillary, Dark Green, 158
+
+ ---- Glanville, 162
+
+ ---- Greasy, 161
+
+ ---- Heath, 163
+
+ ---- High Brown, 159
+
+ ---- Pearl-bordered, 156
+
+ ---- Queen of Spain, 156
+
+ ---- Silver-washed, 159
+
+ ---- Small Pearl-bordered, 154
+
+ Galatea, 173
+
+ Galleria, 298
+
+ Gamma, 264
+
+ Garden Carpet, 287
+
+ Garden Dart, 251
+
+ Garden Pebble, 293
+
+ Gemmaria, 273
+
+ Geoffrella, 305
+
+ Geometra, 274
+
+ Geometrae, 268
+
+ Geometridae, 274
+
+ Ghost Swift, 223
+
+ Gipsy, 227
+
+ Glaucata, 233
+
+ Goat Moth, 224
+
+ Gonodactyla, 294
+
+ Gonoptera, 264
+
+ Gonopteridae, 262
+
+ Gonopteryx, 152
+
+ Gortyna, 244
+
+ Gothic, 254
+
+ Grass Rivulet, 283
+
+ Grayling, 177
+
+ Grease, 127
+
+ Greasy Fritillary, 161
+
+ Green Hairstreak, 186
+
+ Green-chequered White, 146
+
+ Green Silver-lined, 217
+
+ Grizzled Skipper, 197
+
+ Grey Arches, 259
+
+ Grey Dagger, 240
+
+ Grossulariata, 279
+
+
+ Hadena, 259
+
+ Hadenidae, 257
+
+ Hairstreak, Black, 184
+
+ ---- Brown, 183
+
+ ---- Dark, 185
+
+ ---- Green, 186
+
+ ---- Purple, 185
+
+ ---- White-letter, 184
+
+ Halia, 278
+
+ Hamellus, 297
+
+ Harpella, 305
+
+ Hawk Moths, 204
+
+ Heart and Dart, 250
+
+ Heath, Large, 179
+
+ ---- Moth, 278
+
+ Heath, Small, 181
+
+ ---- Fritillary, 163
+
+ Hecatera, 257
+
+ Helice, 151
+
+ Hemerophila, 273
+
+ Hemithea, 274
+
+ Hepialidae, 223
+
+ Hepialus, 223
+
+ Herald Moth, 262
+
+ Hesperia, 198
+
+ Hesperiidae, 197
+
+ Hexadactyla, 295
+
+ High Brown Fritillary, 159
+
+ Hirtaria, 271
+
+ Holly Blue, 193
+
+ Hornet Clearwing of Osier, 213
+
+ Hornet Clearwing of Poplar, 213
+
+ Hortuellus, 297
+
+ Humming-bird Hawk, 210
+
+ Humuli, 223
+
+ Hyale, 149
+
+ Hybernia, 280
+
+ Hyberniidae, 280
+
+ Hydrocampa, 293
+
+ Hylophila, 217
+
+ Hyperanthus, 180
+
+ Hyponomeuta, 304
+
+
+ Ianira, 178
+
+ Ianthina, 252
+
+ Ibipennella, 305
+
+ Icarus, 190
+
+ Ichneumon flies, 25
+
+ Impura, 243
+
+ Ino, 214
+
+ Io, 167
+
+ Iris, 171
+
+
+ Jacobaeae, 219
+
+
+ Kentish Glory, 231
+
+ Killing bottle, 68
+
+ Killing box, 70
+
+
+ Labial palpi, 6
+
+ Lace Border, 275
+
+ Lappet, 230
+
+ Larentia, 283
+
+ Larentiidae, 282
+
+ Large Blue, 194
+
+ Large Copper, 187
+
+ Large Elephant, 208
+
+ Large Emerald, 274
+
+ Large Heath, 179
+
+ Large Skipper, 200
+
+ Large Tortoiseshell, 165
+
+ Large White, 142
+
+ Large Yellow Underwing, 253
+
+ Larvae, 22
+
+ Larvae Beating, 107
+
+ Larvae, blowpipe for, 131
+
+ Larva boxes, 101
+
+ Larva cage, 115
+
+ Larvae collecting, 101
+
+ Larvae, glass for, 114
+
+ Larvae rearing, 113
+
+ Lasiocampa, 230
+
+ Latona, 156
+
+ Laurel box, 70
+
+ Leaf Miners, 33, 303
+
+ Leaf Rollers, 33, 303
+
+ Lecheana, 300
+
+ Legs of Lepidoptera, 8, 10
+
+ Leioptilus, 295
+
+ Leopard Moth, 225
+
+ Lepidoptera--antennae, 5
+
+ ---- body, 3
+
+ ---- classification of, 55
+
+ ---- eggs of, 16
+
+ ---- general characteristics, 1
+
+ ---- legs of, 8, 10
+
+ ---- metamorphoses, 14
+
+ ---- proboscis, 6
+
+ ---- wings, 2, 8
+
+ Lesser Broad Border, 252
+
+ Lesser Yellow Underwing, 253
+
+ Leucania, 242
+
+ Leucaniidae, 242
+
+ Leucophasia, 149
+
+ Leucophaearia, 280
+
+ Libatrix, 262
+
+ Light Arches, 245
+
+ Light Emerald, 270
+
+ Light Traps, 87
+
+ Ligniperda, 224
+
+ Ligustri, 206
+
+ Lime Hawk, 210
+
+ Limenitis, 170
+
+ Limitata, 289
+
+ Lineola, 199
+
+ Liparidae, 226
+
+ Lithosia, 218
+
+ Lithosiidae, 219
+
+ Lithoxylea, 245
+
+ Lobophora, 285
+
+ Lobster Moth, 28
+
+ Lophopteryx, 235
+
+ Lubricipeda, 222
+
+ Lucina, 196
+
+ Lucipara, 258
+
+ Lulworth Skipper, 199
+
+ Luperina, 246
+
+ Lupulinus, 223
+
+ Luteolata, 269
+
+ Lycaena, 183, 188
+
+ Lycaenidae, 183
+
+
+ Macariidae, 278
+
+ Machaon, 139
+
+ Macroglossa, 210
+
+ Maiden's Blush, 275
+
+ Malvae, 197
+
+ Mamestra, 246
+
+ Mania, 254
+
+ Marbled Beauty, 239
+
+ Marbled Minor, 248
+
+ Margaritaria, 270
+
+ Marsh Moth, 281
+
+ Marsh Ringlet, 181
+
+ Marvel-du-jour, 258
+
+ Maura, 254
+
+ Mazarine Blue, 193
+
+ Meadow Brown, 178
+
+ Meal Moth, 292
+
+ Megacephala, 241
+
+ Megaera, 177
+
+ Melanargia, 173
+
+ Melanthia, 285
+
+ Melitaea, 161
+
+ Mellonella, 298
+
+ Menthastri, 222
+
+ Meticulosa, 258
+
+ Metrocampa, 270
+
+ Mi, 264
+
+ Miana, 248
+
+ Micro-lepidoptera, 290
+
+ Minima, 194
+
+ Monacha, 227
+
+ Montanata, 286
+
+ Morpheus, 249
+
+ Mother-of-pearl, 293
+
+ Mother Shipton, 264
+
+ Moths, 203
+
+ ---- antennae of, 5
+
+ ---- catching, 82
+
+ ---- traps, 87
+
+ Mottled Rustic, 249
+
+ Mottled Umber, 281
+
+ Mundana, 218
+
+ Muslin Moth, 218
+
+
+ Nanata, 284
+
+ Napi, 145
+
+ Narrow-winged Pug, 284
+
+ Nebulosa, 259
+
+ Nemeobius, 196
+
+ Nemeophila, 220
+
+ Nepticula, 306
+
+ Nervosa, 304
+
+ Nets, 65, 87, 91
+
+ Netted Pug, 283
+
+ New Small Skipper, 199
+
+ Nigricans, 251
+
+ Nisoniades, 198
+
+ Noctua, 252
+
+ Noctuae, 239
+
+ Noctuidae, 249
+
+ Nola, 218
+
+ Nolidae, 218
+
+ Nonagria, 243
+
+ Northern Brown, 175
+
+ Notodontidae, 235
+
+ November Moth, 282
+
+ Nudaria, 218
+
+ Nupta, 266
+
+ Nycteolidae, 217
+
+ Nymphalidae, 154
+
+
+ Oak Eggar, 229
+
+ Oak Hook Tip, 232
+
+ Ocellatus, 208
+
+ Ochracea, 244
+
+ Ocneria, 227
+
+ Octomaculana, 301
+
+ Odonestis, 230
+
+ Old Lady, 254
+
+ Oleracea, 260
+
+ Oporabia, 282
+
+ Orange Tip, 148
+
+ Orgyia, 228
+
+ Ornata, 275
+
+ Orthosiidae, 255
+
+ Osteodactylus, 295
+
+ Ova collecting, 99
+
+ Ova preserving, 130
+
+
+ Padellus, 304
+
+ Painted Lady, 169
+
+ Palaemon, 201
+
+ Pale Clouded Yellow, 149
+
+ Pallens, 243
+
+ Palpi, 6
+
+ Pamphilus, 181
+
+ Paphia, 159
+
+ Papilio, 139
+
+ Papilionaria, 274
+
+ Papilionidae, 139
+
+ Pararge, 175
+
+ Pavonia, 231
+
+ Peach Blossom, 237
+
+ Peacock, 167
+
+ Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 156
+
+ Pentadactyla, 295
+
+ Penthina, 300
+
+ Peppered Moth, 272
+
+ Perla, 239
+
+ Peronea, 300
+
+ Persicariae, 247
+
+ Phalera, 236
+
+ Phlaeas, 188
+
+ Phlogophora, 258
+
+ Phragmitellus, 296
+
+ Pieridae, 141
+
+ Pinguinalis, 291
+
+ Piniaria, 279
+
+ Pink-barred Sallow, 256
+
+ Pins, 76
+
+ Pionea, 293
+
+ Plagiata, 289
+
+ Plantaginis, 220
+
+ Platyptilia, 294
+
+ Plecta, 252
+
+ Plusia, 263
+
+ Plusiidae, 263
+
+ Polychloros, 165
+
+ Polyommatus, 187
+
+ Poplar Grey, 241
+
+ Poplar Hawk, 209
+
+ Poplar Kitten, 234
+
+ Populi, 209
+
+ Porcellus, 207
+
+ Porthesia, 226
+
+ Potatoria, 230
+
+ Prasinana, 217
+
+ Preserving larvae, 131
+
+ ---- ova, 130
+
+ ---- pupae, 133
+
+ Privet Hawk, 206
+
+ Proboscis, 6
+
+ Pronuba, 253
+
+ Pruni, 185
+
+ Pruniana, 300
+
+ Psi, 240
+
+ Psilura, 227
+
+ Pterophori, 294
+
+ Ptycholoma, 300
+
+ Punctaria, 275
+
+ Pupa state, 44
+
+ Pupae collecting, 108
+
+ ---- digging, 111
+
+ ---- management of, 118
+
+ ---- preserving, 133
+
+ Purple Emperor, 171
+
+ Purple Hairstreak, 185
+
+ Puss Moth, 235
+
+ Putris, 245
+
+ Pygaera, 237
+
+ Pygaeridae, 236
+
+ Pyralides, 291
+
+ Pyralis, 292
+
+ Pyrina, 225
+
+
+ Queen of Spain, 156
+
+ Quercifolia, 230
+
+ Quercinaria, 271
+
+ Quercus (_Bombyx_), 229
+
+ Quercus (_Thecla_), 185
+
+
+ Rapae, 144
+
+ Rearing larvae, 113
+
+ Red Admiral, 168
+
+ Red Underwing, 266
+
+ Relaxing, 125
+
+ Rhamni, 152
+
+ Riband Wave, 276
+
+ Ringlet, 180
+
+ ---- Marsh, 181
+
+ ---- Small, 174
+
+ Rubi, 186
+
+ Rumia, 269
+
+ Ruralis, 293
+
+ Rustic Shoulder-knot, 247
+
+
+ Salicella, 301
+
+ Sambucaria, 268
+
+ Saturnia, 231
+
+ Saturniidae, 231
+
+ Satyridae, 173
+
+ Satyrus, 177
+
+ Scalloped Oak, 270
+
+ Scarlet Tiger, 220
+
+ Sciaphila, 301
+
+ Segetum, 250
+
+ Selene, 154
+
+ Semele, 177
+
+ Semiargus, 193
+
+ Serena, 257
+
+ Sesia, 213
+
+ Sesiidae, 212
+
+ Setting boards, 122
+
+ Shark, 261
+
+ Shears, 259
+
+ Short-cloaked, 218
+
+ Sibylla, 170
+
+ Silaceata, 288
+
+ Silver-ground Carpet, 286
+
+ Silver-spotted Skipper, 200
+
+ Silver-studded Blue, 189
+
+ Silver-washed Fritillary, 159
+
+ Silver Y, 264
+
+ Sinapis, 149
+
+ Six-spot Burnet, 215
+
+ Skippers, 196
+
+ Skipper, Chequered, 201
+
+ ---- Dingy, 198
+
+ ---- Grizzled, 197
+
+ ---- Lulworth, 199
+
+ ---- New Small, 199
+
+ ---- Silver-spotted, 200
+
+ ---- Small, 198
+
+ Sleeving, 116
+
+ Small Angle Shades, 258
+
+ ---- Blue, 194
+
+ ---- Copper, 188
+
+ ---- Elephant, 207
+
+ ---- Heath, 181
+
+ ---- Magpie, 292
+
+ ---- Mallow, 289
+
+ ---- Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 154
+
+ ---- Ph[oe]nix, 288
+
+ ---- Ringlet, 174
+
+ ---- Seraphim, 285
+
+ ---- Skipper, 198
+
+ ---- Tortoiseshell, 166
+
+ ---- White, 144
+
+ Smerinthus, 208
+
+ Smoky Wainscot, 243
+
+ Sociata, 286
+
+ Speckled Wood, 175
+
+ Sphinges, 203
+
+ Sphingidae, 204
+
+ Sphinx, 206
+
+ Spilosoma, 222
+
+ Sponsa, 266
+
+ Spring Usher, 280
+
+ Spurge Hawk, 207
+
+ Stabilis, 255
+
+ Stagnata, 293
+
+ Statices, 214
+
+ Stellatarum, 210
+
+ Store boxes, 135
+
+ Strigata, 274
+
+ Strigilis, 248
+
+ Stuffing insects, 126
+
+ Sugaring, 92
+
+ Sugaring net, 94
+
+ Sugar traps, 96
+
+ Swallow-tail Butterfly, 139
+
+ Swallow-tail Moth, 268
+
+ Swifts, 223
+
+ Sylvanus, 200
+
+ Syrichthus, 197
+
+
+ Tabby, 291
+
+ Taeniocampa, 255
+
+ Tages, 198
+
+ Tailed Blue, 188
+
+ Temerata, 277
+
+ Testacea, 246
+
+ Thaumas, 198
+
+ Thecla, 183
+
+ Thyatira, 237
+
+ Tiger, Common, 221
+
+ ---- Cream-spot, 221
+
+ ---- Scarlet, 220
+
+ ---- Wood, 220
+
+ Tiliae, 210
+
+ Timandra, 276
+
+ Tineae, 303
+
+ Tipuliformis, 213
+
+ Tithonus, 179
+
+ Tortoiseshell, Large, 165
+
+ Tortoiseshell, Small, 166
+
+ Tortrices, 298
+
+ Treble Bar, 289
+
+ Trifolii, 215
+
+ Triphaena, 252
+
+ Tristellus, 297
+
+ Trochilium, 213
+
+ Turnip Moth, 250
+
+ Twin-spot Carpet, 283
+
+ Typhon, 181
+
+ Typica, 254
+
+
+ Umbratica, 261
+
+ Uropterygidae, 268
+
+ Uropteryx, 268
+
+ Urticae, 166
+
+ Urticata, 292
+
+
+ Vaccinii, 256
+
+ Vanessa, 164
+
+ Vapourer Moth, 228
+
+ Vauaria, 278
+
+ Venosata, 283
+
+ Versicolor, 231
+
+ Villica, 221
+
+ Vinula, 235
+
+ Viridana, 299
+
+ V moth, 278
+
+
+ W album, 184
+
+ Wainscots, 243
+
+ Wall Butterfly, 177
+
+ Waved Umber, 273
+
+ White Admiral, 170
+
+ ---- Bath, 146
+
+ ---- Black-veined, 141
+
+ ---- Ermine, 222
+
+ ---- Green-chequered, 146
+
+ ---- Green-veined, 145
+
+ ---- Large, 142
+
+ White-letter Hairstreak, 184
+
+ ---- Marbled, 173
+
+ ---- Small, 144
+
+ ---- Wood, 149
+
+ Willow Beauty, 273
+
+ Wings, 2, 8
+
+ Wood Argus, 175
+
+ Wood Tiger, 220
+
+ Wood White, 149
+
+
+ Xanthia, 256
+
+ Xanthosetia, 302
+
+ Xylinidae, 261
+
+ Xylocampa, 261
+
+ Xylophasia, 245
+
+ Xylosteana, 299
+
+
+ Yellow-horned, 238
+
+ Yellow Shell, 287
+
+
+ Zerenidae, 279
+
+ Zeuzera, 225
+
+ Zoegana, 302
+
+ Zonosoma, 275
+
+ Zygaena, 215
+
+ Zygaenidae, 214
+
+
+ PRINTED BY
+ SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
+ LONDON
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Transcriber's Notes
+
+Some minor changes have been made to obvious format and punctuation
+inconsistencies. Other inconsistent usages have been retained except
+where obvious typographical errors have been corrected as follows:
+
+Page 97 'dicover' changed to 'discover' (... not being able to discover
+the 'entrance out,' ...)
+
+Page 188 'Polyommatas' changed to 'Polyommatus' (_The Small Copper_
+(_Polyommatas Phlaeas_))
+
+Page 219 'Jacobaea' changed to 'Jacobaeae' (FIG. 112.--THE LARVA OF
+JACOBAEAE.)
+
+Page 263 'rested' changed to 'crested' (The abdomen also is crested)
+
+Page 334 'Rannock' changed to 'Rannoch' (Rannoch Geometer (_Brunneata_))
+
+Page 354 'Ibipenella' change to 'Ibipennella' (Ibipennella, 305)
+
+Page 354 missing page reference added (Ichneumon flies, 25)
+
+Page 355 'Leucophearia' changed to 'Leucophaearia' (Leucophaearia, 280)
+
+Page 356 'Octomacularia' changed to 'Octomaculana' (Octomaculana, 301)
+
+Page 358 'Tryphaena' changed to 'Triphaena' and moved to its alphabetical
+position in the index (Triphaena, 252)
+
+Page 358 'Umbricata' changed to 'Umbratica' (Umbratica, 261)
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS***
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