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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Butterflies and Moths, by William S. Furneaux
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Butterflies and Moths
+       (British)
+
+
+Author: William S. Furneaux
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 25, 2010  [eBook #34131]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Simon Gardner, Chris Curnow, and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made
+available by Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 34131-h.htm or 34131-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34131/34131-h/34131-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34131/34131-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/butterfliesmoths00furn
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      In this Plain Text version of the book only symbols from the
+      ASCII and Latin-1 extension character sets have been used.
+
+      Text in italic typeface is enclosed by underscores (_italics)_.
+
+      Text in small capital typeface is displayed as ALL UPPER CASE.
+
+      Text in bold typeface is enclosed by equal symbols (=bold=).
+
+      [OE] and [oe] represent upper and lower case oe ligatures.
+
+      [psi] and [gamma] represent the respective Greek letters of
+      that name.
+
+      Instances of distinctive font symbols (T, V, W, Y) which occur
+      in the names and descriptions of several species etc. are shown
+      in upper case.
+
+      Note that numerous taxonomic names have changed since 1894.
+      The formatting of Latin names also differs from current
+      conventions; _e.g._, in this book species names are typically,
+      but not invariably, capitalised. No attempt has been made to
+      update this.
+
+      Some minor changes have been made to obvious format and
+      punctuation inconsistencies, but other inconsistent usages have
+      been retained. Where obvious typographical errors have been
+      corrected, these are listed at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+
+BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS
+
+(British)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+OUT-DOOR WORLD LIBRARY.
+
+    THE OUT-DOOR WORLD; or, Young Collector's Handbook. By W. FURNEAUX,
+    F.R.G.S. With 18 Plates, 16 of which are coloured, and 549
+    Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._
+
+    BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (BRITISH). By W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S. With 12
+    coloured Plates and 241 Illustrations in the Text. 10_s._ 6_d._ net.
+
+_To be followed by_
+
+    BRITISH BIRDS. By W. H. HUDSON, F.Z.S. With a Chapter on Structure
+    and Classification by FRANK E. BEDDARD, F.R.S.
+
+    LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. By W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S.
+
+  BRITISH MAMMALS AND REPTILES.
+  AND OTHER VOLUMES.
+
+  London: LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO.
+  New York: 15 East 16th Street.
+
+[Illustration: Plate I
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS
+
+(British)
+
+by
+
+W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S.
+
+Author of 'The Out-Door World, Or Young Collector's Handbook'
+
+[Illustration]
+
+With Twelve Coloured Plates and Numerous Illustrations in the Text
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+London
+Longmans, Green, and Co.
+And New York. 15 East 16th Street
+1894
+
+All rights reserved
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The favourable reception with which the 'Out-door World' has been
+greeted has encouraged the publishers to issue a series of volumes
+dealing in fuller detail with the various branches of Natural History
+treated of in that work. Necessarily each subject was only briefly
+touched upon, but the study is of so enticing a character that 'appetite
+grows by feeding,' and the students of the 'Out-door World,' having
+tasted the sweetness of companionship with Nature, will not rest
+satisfied with the help afforded by that handbook. Each one will want to
+go deeper into that particular department which most appeals to his own
+inclinations.
+
+The present volume is written expressly for those who desire to extend
+their knowledge of the British Lepidoptera, or, to use the more popular
+names, 'Butterflies and Moths.'
+
+The general characteristics of this interesting order of insects are
+described somewhat fully, but, of course, it would be impossible to give
+an individual account of all the British Lepidoptera in a work of this
+size, so a selection has been made such as will satisfy the requirements
+of the great majority of those who intend to take up this particular
+branch of entomology. The number of British Butterflies, however, is
+so limited that a place has been found for a figure and a description of
+every species; and, of the larger moths, many of the common and typical
+kinds have been included. An introduction to the study of the
+Micro-lepidoptera has also been added.
+
+No trouble has been spared to render this work thoroughly practical. In
+addition to the verbal descriptions of so many species, twelve coloured
+plates and a large number of woodcuts have been specially prepared to
+help the student in his work. It is believed that the extreme care with
+which these have been produced will render them of the greatest
+assistance to the collector in the recognition of his specimens.
+
+But he has not only to recognise his specimens--he must first catch
+them; and here full directions have been given to insure success in this
+part of his work, as well as in the management, preservation, and
+arrangement of his captures.
+
+The Author hopes that this volume may be the means of adding many happy
+hours--hours of the purest enjoyment--to the lives of those whom he has
+succeeded in luring into the fields and lanes and woods of the Out-door
+World.
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  PART I
+
+  _STRUCTURE AND LIFE HISTORY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+  CHAP.                                                        PAGE
+
+      I.  GENERAL CHARACTERS                                      1
+
+     II.  THE EGG                                                16
+
+    III.  THE LARVA                                              22
+
+     IV.  THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS                                  40
+
+      V.  CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA                      55
+
+
+  PART II
+
+  _WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD_
+
+     VI.  CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS                         63
+
+    VII.  COLLECTING OVA, LARVÆ, AND PUPÆ                        98
+
+   VIII.  REARING LEPIDOPTERA                                   112
+
+     IX.  SETTING AND PRESERVING                                122
+
+      X.  PRESERVING OVA, LARVÆ AND PUPÆ                        130
+
+     XI.  THE CABINET--ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS                 134
+
+
+  PART III
+
+  _BRITISH BUTTERFLIES_
+
+    XII.  THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES'                     139
+
+   XIII.  THE FRITILLARIES, VANESSAS, AND THE PURPLE EMPEROR    154
+
+    XIV.  THE BROWNS AND HEATHS                                 173
+
+     XV.  THE HAIRSTREAKS, COPPERS AND BLUES                    183
+
+    XVI.  THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS                 196
+
+
+  PART IV
+
+  _COMMON BRITISH MOTHS_
+
+   XVII. SPHINGES                                               203
+
+  XVIII.  BOMBYCES                                              217
+
+    XIX.  THE NOCTUÆ                                            239
+
+     XX.  GEOMETRÆ                                              268
+
+    XXI.  THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA                                 290
+
+
+  APPENDICES
+
+      I. COMPLETE CLASSIFIED LIST OF BRITISH MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA  309
+
+     II. THE LEPIDOPTERIST'S CALENDAR                           326
+
+  REFERENCES TO COLOURED PLATES                                 347
+
+  INDEX                                                         351
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  _COLOURED PLATES_
+
+  1-7. BRITISH BUTTERFLIES                           _Frontispiece_
+    8. LARVÆ AND PUPÆ OF BRITISH BUTTERFLIES }
+    9. SPHINGES                              }
+   10. BOMBYCES                              }             _At end_
+   11. NOCTUÆ                                }
+   12. NOCTUA AND GEOMETRÆ                   }
+
+  _Full references accompany the Plates._
+
+  _ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT_
+
+  FIG.                                                         PAGE
+
+    1. SCALES FROM THE WINGS OF BUTTERFLIES                       1
+    2. PORTION OF THE WING OF A BUTTERFLY FROM WHICH SOME OF THE
+         SCALES HAVE BEEN REMOVED                                 2
+    3. BODY OF A BUTTERFLY--UNDER SIDE                            3
+    4. SECTION OF THE EYE OF AN INSECT                            4
+    5. ANTENNÆ OF BUTTERFLIES                                     5
+    6. ANTENNÆ OF MOTHS                                           5
+    7. SECTION OF THE PROBOSCIS OF A BUTTERFLY                    7
+    8. DIAGRAM OF THE WINGS OF A BUTTERFLY                        9
+    9. THE UNDEVELOPED FORE LEG OF A BUTTERFLY                   10
+   10. THE FOUR STAGES OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY
+         (_Pieris Brassicæ_)                                     14
+   11. EGG OF THE MEADOW BROWN BUTTERFLY                         20
+   12. EGG OF THE SPECKLED WOOD BUTTERFLY                        20
+   13. EGG OF THE VAPOURER MOTH                                  20
+   14. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE CLOUDED YELLOW BUTTERFLY           22
+   15. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY BUTTERFLY    23
+   16. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE PURPLE EMPEROR BUTTERFLY           24
+   17. AN ICHNEUMON FLY (_Cryptus Migrator_)                     25
+   18. ANOTHER ICHNEUMON FLY (_Pimpla Instigator_)               25
+   19. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE ANGLE SHADES MOTH (_Meticulosa_)   26
+   20. WALKING LEG OF A CATERPILLAR                              28
+   21. LARVA OF THE YELLOW UNDERWING MOTH (_Pronuba_)            28
+   22. LARVA OF THE CRIMSON SPECKLED MOTH (_Pulchella_)          28
+   23. LARVA OF THE LOBSTER MOTH (_Fagi_)                        28
+   24. CATERPILLAR OF THE IRON PROMINENT MOTH (_Dromedarius_)    29
+   25. LARVA OF THE BRIMSTONE MOTH (_Luteolata_)                 29
+   26. THE CLASPERS OF A CATERPILLAR                             30
+   27. THE HOMES OF LEAF MINERS AND LEAF ROLLERS                 33
+   28. THE COCOON OF THE EMPEROR MOTH                            40
+   29. THE COCOON OF THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET (_Filipendulæ_)      40
+   30. THE PUPA OF THE PRIVET HAWK (_Ligustri_)                  44
+   31. THE CHRYSALIS OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Brassicæ_)   44
+   32. THE PUPA OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY (_Aglaia_)          45
+   33. THE PUPA OF THE BLACK-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Cratægi_)  45
+   34. THE PUPA OF THE CURRANT MOTH                              45
+   35. PUPA OF THE PALE TUSSOCK MOTH (_Pudibunda_)               45
+   36. A BUTTERFLY, JUST AFTER EMERGING                          50
+   37. A BUTTERFLY AT REST (LARGE COPPER)                        57
+   38. A MOTH AT REST (GOTHIC)                                   57
+   39. A WIRE FRAME FOR A BUTTERFLY NET                          65
+   40. STICK FOR THE NET                                         65
+   41. THE METAL Y                                               66
+   42. PATTERN FOR THE NET                                       67
+   43. THE CYANIDE BOTTLE                                        68
+   44. SECTION OF THE LAUREL BOX                                 70
+   45. THE CHLOROFORM BOTTLE                                     72
+   46. }
+   47. } FITTINGS FOR THE COLLECTING BOX                         75
+   48. }
+   49. }
+   50. FRAME OF NET FOR COLLECTING INSECTS ON LAMPS AND WINDOWS  87
+   51. A TRAP FOR CATCHING MOTHS                                 88
+   52. METAL JOINT FOR LANTERN AND NET                           91
+   53. NET AND LANTERN FOR TAKING MOTHS FROM HIGH BLOSSOMS       91
+   54. FRAME FOR THE SUGARING NET                                94
+   55. CAGE FOR DECOY FEMALES                                    96
+   56. A SUGAR TRAP                                              96
+   57. A LARVA GLASS                                            114
+   58. A LARVA GLASS                                            114
+   59. A LARVA CAGE                                             115
+   60. SECTION OF A SETTING BOARD                               123
+   61. SECTIONS OF SETTING BOARDS                               123
+   62. A BUTTERFLY ON THE SETTING BOARD                         124
+   63. ANOTHER METHOD OF SETTING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS          126
+   64. A BLOWPIPE FOR LARVÆ                                     131
+   65. THE BATH WHITE--UNDER SIDE                               147
+   66. THE CLOUDED YELLOW--FEMALE                               151
+   67. THE SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE          155
+   68. THE PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE                156
+   69. THE QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE                157
+   70. THE DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE                    158
+   71. THE HIGH-BROWN FRITILLARY                                159
+   72. THE SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE                 160
+   73. THE GREASY FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE                        161
+   74. The GLANVILLE FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE                     162
+   75. THE COMMA--UNDER SIDE                                    164
+   76. THE PURPLE EMPEROR--UNDER SIDE                           172
+   77. THE MARBLED WHITE--UNDER SIDE                            174
+   78. THE WOOD ARGUS--UNDER SIDE                               176
+   79. THE GRAYLING--UNDER SIDE                                 178
+   80. THE LARGE HEATH--UNDER SIDE                              179
+   81. THE RINGLET--UPPER SIDE                                  180
+   82. THE MARSH RINGLET--UNDER SIDE                            181
+   83. THE BROWN HAIRSTREAK--MALE                               184
+   84. THE WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK                              184
+   85. THE PURPLE HAIRSTREAK--MALE                              186
+   86. THE GREEN HAIRSTREAK                                     186
+   87. THE TAILED BLUE--UNDER SIDE                              188
+   88. THE SILVER-STUDDED BLUE--UNDER SIDE                      189
+   89. THE COMMON BLUE--UNDER SIDE                              191
+   90. THE CLIFDEN BLUE--UNDER SIDE                             191
+   91. THE CHALK-HILL BLUE--UNDER SIDE                          192
+   92. THE HOLLY BLUE--UNDER SIDE                               193
+   93. THE MAZARINE BLUE--UNDER SIDE                            194
+   94. THE SMALL BLUE--UNDER SIDE                               194
+   95. THE LARGE BLUE--UNDER SIDE                               195
+   96. THE SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER--UNDER SIDE                   201
+   97. THE DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK MOTH                               205
+   98. THE LARVA OF ATROPOS                                     206
+   99. THE CATERPILLAR OF EUPHORBIÆ                             207
+  100. THE SMALL ELEPHANT HAWK MOTH                             208
+  101. THE POPLAR HAWK                                          209
+  102. THE BROAD-BORDERED BEE HAWK                              212
+  103. THE HORNET CLEARWING OF THE POPLAR                       213
+  104. THE CURRANT CLEARWING                                    213
+  105. THE FORESTER                                             214
+  106. THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET                                   215
+  107. THE LARVA OF FILIPENDULÆ                                 215
+  108. THE GREEN SILVER-LINED                                   217
+  109. THE SHORT-CLOAKED MOTH                                   218
+  110. THE MUSLIN MOTH                                          218
+  111. THE COMMON FOOTMAN                                       219
+  112. THE LARVA OF JACOBÆÆ                                     219
+  113. THE SCARLET TIGER                                        220
+  114. THE BUFF ERMINE                                          222
+  115. THE WHITE ERMINE                                         222
+  116. THE GHOST SWIFT--FEMALE                                  223
+  117. THE COMMON SWIFT                                         224
+  118. THE GOAT MOTH                                            225
+  119. THE LARVA OF LIGNIPERDA (LESS THAN HALF FULL SIZE)       225
+  120. THE LEOPARD MOTH                                         226
+  121. THE LARVA OF PYRINA (ONLY PARTLY GROWN)                  226
+  122. THE BROWN TAIL                                           227
+  123. THE GIPSY--MALE                                          227
+  124. THE BLACK ARCHES--MALE                                   228
+  125. THE VAPOURER MOTH--MALE                                  228
+  126. THE FEMALE VAPOURER                                      228
+  127. LARVA OF THE VAPOURER MOTH                               229
+  128. THE DRINKER--MALE                                        230
+  129. THE OAK HOOK TIP                                         233
+  130. THE CHINESE CHARACTER                                    233
+  131. THE POPLAR KITTEN                                        234
+  132. THE PUSS MOTH                                            235
+  133. THE COXCOMB PROMINENT                                    235
+  134. THE LARVA OF BUCEPHALA                                   236
+  135. THE CHOCOLATE TIP                                        237
+  136. THE PEACH BLOSSOM                                        237
+  137. THE YELLOW HORNED                                        238
+  138. THE MARBLED BEAUTY                                       240
+  139. THE GREY DAGGER                                          240
+  140. THE POPLAR GREY                                          241
+  141. THE FIGURE OF EIGHT                                      241
+  142. THE BROWN-LINE BRIGHT-EYE                                242
+  143. THE SMOKY WAINSCOT                                       243
+  144. THE COMMON WAINSCOT                                      243
+  145. THE BULLRUSH                                             244
+  146. THE FROSTED ORANGE                                       245
+  147. THE FLAME                                                245
+  148. THE LIGHT ARCHES                                         246
+  149. THE FLOUNCED RUSTIC                                      246
+  150. THE CABBAGE MOTH                                         247
+  151. THE DOT                                                  247
+  152. THE RUSTIC SHOULDER-KNOT                                 248
+  153. THE MARBLED MINOR                                        248
+  154. THE MOTTLED RUSTIC                                       249
+  155. THE TURNIP MOTH                                          250
+  156. THE HEART AND DART                                       251
+  157. THE GARDEN DART                                          251
+  158. THE FLAME SHOULDER                                       252
+  159. THE LESSER BROAD BORDER                                  252
+  160. THE LESSER YELLOW UNDERWING                              253
+  161. THE GOTHIC                                               254
+  162. THE OLD LADY                                             254
+  163. THE COMMON QUAKER                                        255
+  164. THE CHESTNUT                                             256
+  165. THE PINK-BARRED SALLOW                                   256
+  166. THE DUN-BAR                                              257
+  167. THE BROAD-BARRED WHITE                                   257
+  168. THE ANGLE SHADES                                         258
+  169. THE GREY ARCHES                                          259
+  170. THE SHEARS                                               260
+  171. THE BRIGHT-LINE BROWN-EYE                                260
+  172. THE EARLY GREY                                           261
+  173. THE SHARK                                                262
+  174. THE BURNISHED BRASS                                      263
+  175. THE SILVER Y                                             264
+  176. THE RED UNDERWING                                        266
+  177. THE LIGHT EMERALD                                        270
+  178. THE AUGUST THORN                                         271
+  179. THE PEPPERED MOTH                                        272
+  180. THE WILLOW BEAUTY                                        273
+  181. THE LARGE EMERALD                                        274
+  182. THE COMMON EMERALD                                       274
+  183. THE LACE BORDER                                          275
+  184. THE RIBAND WAVE                                          276
+  185. THE BLOOD-VEIN                                           276
+  186. THE COMMON WAVE                                          277
+  187. THE CLOUDED SILVER                                       277
+  188. THE V MOTH                                               278
+  189. THE COMMON HEATH                                         279
+  190. THE BORDERED WHITE--MALE                                 279
+  191. THE CURRANT MOTH                                         280
+  192. THE SPRING USHER                                         281
+  193. THE MARCH MOTH                                           282
+  194. THE NOVEMBER MOTH                                        282
+  195. THE TWIN-SPOT CARPET                                     283
+  196. THE GRASS RIVULET                                        283
+  197. THE NETTED PUG                                           284
+  198. THE NARROW-WINGED PUG                                    284
+  199. THE BRINDLED PUG                                         284
+  200. THE SMALL SERAPHIM                                       285
+  201. THE BLUE-BORDERED CARPET                                 285
+  202. THE BEAUTIFUL CARPET                                     286
+  203. THE COMMON CARPET                                        286
+  204. THE SILVER GROUND CARPET                                 287
+  205. THE GARDEN CARPET                                        287
+  206. THE YELLOW SHELL                                         288
+  207. THE SMALL PH[OE]NIX                                      288
+  208. THE SMALL MALLOW                                         289
+  209. THE TABBY OR GREASE MOTH                                 291
+  210. THE MEAL MOTH                                            292
+  211. THE SMALL MAGPIE                                         292
+  212. THE MOTHER-OF-PEARL                                      293
+  213. THE GARDEN PEBBLE                                        293
+  214. THE BEAUTIFUL CHINA MARK                                 294
+  215. GONODACTYLA                                              295
+  216. OSTEODACTYLUS                                            295
+  217. PENTADACTYLA                                             295
+  218. HEXADACTYLA--ENLARGED                                    296
+  219. PHRAGMITELLUS--ENLARGED ONE-HALF                         297
+  220. HAMELLUS--SLIGHTLY ENLARGED                              297
+  221. TRISTELLUS                                               297
+  222. HORTUELLUS                                               298
+  223. MELLONELLA                                               298
+  224. XYLOSTEANA WITH WINGS CLOSED                             299
+  225. VIRIDANA                                                 300
+  226. CRISTANA--ENLARGED                                       300
+  227. LECHEANA                                                 300
+  228. PRUNIANA                                                 300
+  229. SALICELLA                                                301
+  230. OCTOMACULANA--ENLARGED                                   301
+  231. CIRSIANA--ENLARGED                                       302
+  232. POMONELLA                                                302
+  233. ZOEGANA--ENLARGED                                        302
+  234. FAGELLA                                                  303
+  235. CUPRELLA                                                 304
+  236. PADELLUS                                                 304
+  237. NERVOSA--TWICE NATURAL SIZE                              304
+  238. GEOFFRELLA                                               305
+  239. IBIPENNELLA--ENLARGED                                    305
+  240. COMPLANELLA--ENLARGED                                    306
+  241. AURELLA--ENLARGED                                        307
+
+
+
+
+PART I
+
+STRUCTURE AND LIFE-HISTORY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_GENERAL CHARACTERS_
+
+
+The word _Lepidoptera_, which you see at the head of this page, is the
+name of the order of insects to which this volume is to be devoted. It
+is formed from two Greek words, one (_lepis_) signifying a _scale_, and
+the other (_pteron_) denoting a _wing_; and was applied by the great
+naturalist Linnæus to the scaly-winged insects popularly known as
+Butterflies and Moths.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SCALES FROM THE WINGS OF BUTTERFLIES.]
+
+Every one of my readers has undoubtedly handled some of the interesting
+creatures of this group--having been led to do so either by the extreme
+beauty of their clothing, or, perhaps, from a murderous intent in order
+to protect his own garments from the ravages of a supposed marauder. A
+light mealy powder will probably have been observed afterwards on the
+fingers that have touched the victim's wings.
+
+This powder, although it sometimes presents a beautiful glossy surface
+when spread over the skin, does not exhibit any definite form or
+structure without a more minute examination. Yet these are the scales
+that led the immortal naturalist to invent the somewhat long but useful
+term _Lepidoptera_.
+
+The very next time the opportunity offers itself, dust off a little of
+the mealy powder with a small and very soft brush on to a strip of white
+paper or a slip of glass, and examine it with a powerful lens or the low
+power of a compound microscope. What a sight you will then behold! Each
+little particle of dust is a beautifully formed scale, stamped with a
+number of minute rounded projections, and often displaying the most
+gorgeous colours. A great variety of designs and tints are often
+exhibited by the 'dust' from a single wing. Take, for instance, for your
+inspection, scales from the wing of one of our commonest insects, the
+Small Tortoiseshell Butterfly (Plate III), and you will be surprised at
+the pleasing contrasts. But when your curiosity leads you to deal with
+others in the same manner, the varied display of forms and colours is
+simply amazing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PORTION OF THE WING OF A BUTTERFLY FROM WHICH
+SOME OF THE SCALES HAVE BEEN REMOVED.]
+
+In order that we may learn still more of the structure of the wings of
+the _Lepidoptera_, we will examine a portion of one from which some of
+the scales have been removed, again bringing the lens or the microscope
+into our service. We now see that the scales are arranged in rows with
+great regularity on a thin and transparent membrane, which is supported
+by a system of branching rays. And the membrane itself, in parts which
+have been laid bare, is marked with regular rows of dots--the points at
+which the scales were originally attached by means of short hollow rods.
+
+The framework that supports the thin membrane we have spoken of as
+consisting of a system of _rays_, but to these the terms _veins_,
+_nerves_, _nervures_, or _nervules_ are more commonly applied by various
+naturalists. We cannot do better, however, than adhere to the name
+originally used, for the structures in question do not perform the
+functions of veins, though at first they contain blood, nor are they
+themselves parts of the nervous systems of the insects to which they
+belong.
+
+The result of our examination of the wings of butterflies and moths has
+been to justify the application of the term _Lepidoptera_; but we must
+now study other equally important and interesting features of the
+structure of these insects. First, let us note the general form of the
+body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--BODY OF A BUTTERFLY--UNDER SIDE.
+
+1-7, segments of the abdomen; 8, anal extremity; _a_, antennæ; _b_,
+tarsus; _c_, tibia; _d_, femur; _e_, palpi; _f_, head; _g_, thorax.]
+
+A cursory glance at this portion of the creature's anatomy will show
+that it consists of three distinct and well-defined parts. In front
+there is the head, the size of which is somewhat small in proportion.
+Two very large eyes make up the greater portion of its bulk. It is
+remarkable, too, that butterflies possess eyes proportionately much
+larger than those of moths. Now, since butterflies always fly by day,
+and moths are, generally speaking, nocturnal insects, we might be led to
+suppose that the reverse of this arrangement would have suited the
+creatures better; for a small eye, we should think, would be able to
+collect sufficient light in the daytime to form a bright image, and a
+larger light-receiving area would be necessary during the darker hours
+for the same purpose. But it is evident that the sense of vision must
+depend on other conditions besides the size of the eye; and as these
+conditions are not understood in relation to the eyes of insects, any
+attempt at an explanation would be quite useless.
+
+The eye of a butterfly or moth is worthy of a closer examination, for it
+is a most beautiful and marvellous structure. The outer globular
+transparent membrane--the _cornea_--is divided into a large number of
+minute polygonal _facets_, each one of which admits light into a small
+conical compartment surrounded by a coloured membrane, and supplied with
+a fibre of the nerve of vision (the _optic_ nerve). Hence the eye is
+often spoken of as _compound_.
+
+If you look closely into the eyes of various butterflies and moths you
+will generally see a ground colour of grey, blue, brown, or black; but
+when viewed at certain angles in a strong light the most gorgeous hues
+of metallic brilliancy--gold, copper, and bronze--are to be observed.
+All such colours are due to the reflection of light from the colouring
+matter that lies between the numerous conical compartments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--SECTION OF THE EYE OF AN INSECT.]
+
+A glance at the section of a compound eye will show you that all the
+little cones radiate from a common centre. And, as each little
+compartment is surrounded by opaque colouring matter, it is clear that
+perpendicular rays only are capable of penetrating to its base and
+exciting the nerve fibre that lies there. Thus each little division of a
+compound eye forms its own image of the object that happens to be
+exactly opposite its facet. But how many facets do we find in a single
+eye? Sometimes only a few hundreds, but sometimes as many as seventeen
+or eighteen thousand! We must not, however, conclude that the nature of
+the vision of butterflies and moths is necessarily very different from
+our own. We have two eyes, but the images formed by them are both
+blended, so that we do not see double. We can understand, therefore,
+that the thousands of images formed in a single eye may be blended
+together so as to form one continuous picture. Still there remains this
+difference: while in our own case the two images formed by the two eyes
+are practically the same, in the case of insects every one of the little
+conical tubes of a compound eye forms an image of an object that cannot
+possibly be formed by any one of the others. Thus, if the lepidopterous
+insect sees a continuous picture of its surroundings, such a picture is
+produced by the overlapping and blending, at their edges, of hundreds or
+thousands of distinct parts.
+
+There is yet another interesting difference between the vision of these
+insects and that of ourselves. As already stated, our two eyes are both
+turned toward the same point at the same time. But look at the
+butterfly's eyes. Here are no movable eyeballs, and the two eyes, placed
+as they are at the _sides_ of the head, are always turned in _opposite_
+directions. The corneæ, too, are very convex; and consequently the range
+of vision is vastly wider than ours. A boy is often easily surprised by
+a playmate who approaches him stealthily from behind, but did you ever
+try the same game with a butterfly? I have, many a time. After getting
+cautiously so near to a butterfly at rest as to be able to distinguish
+between its head and its hinder extremity, I have quietly circled round
+it so as to approach it from behind, being at the time under the
+impression that it wouldn't see me under those circumstances. But not
+the slightest advantage did I derive from this stratagem, for the
+position and construction of its eyes enabled it to see almost all ways
+at once.
+
+In addition to the two compound eyes, the _Lepidoptera_, or at least
+most of them, are provided with two small simple eyes; but these are
+generally so hidden among the closely set hair that covers the head,
+that it is doubtful whether they are of much service as organs of
+vision.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ANTENNÆ OF BUTTERFLIES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ANTENNÆ OF MOTHS.]
+
+The antennæ proceed from two points close to the upper borders of the
+eyes. They are jointed organs, and are of very different forms in the
+various species of _Lepidoptera_. They are generally long, slender, and
+clubbed at the extremity in butterflies, but exhibit several minor
+points of difference which we shall have to note later on. In moths the
+antennæ are sometimes long, slender, and pointed. Some are thick, and
+more or less prismatic in form; while others are slightly or deeply
+pectinated or comb-like. The antennæ of butterflies are always
+straight, or only slightly curved; and, although the insects can sway
+them bodily, they have no power to bend them, or to stow them away in
+any place of shelter. Moths, on the other hand, when at rest, are almost
+invariably found to have their antennæ snugly tucked under the wings,
+and brought so closely against the side of the head for this purpose
+that even the uncovered portion is often difficult to find.
+
+There are two other prominent appendages belonging to the heads of the
+_Lepidoptera_. These are the _labial palpi_ or feelers of the lips. They
+are generally easily seen, projecting forward on the under side of the
+head, sometimes so long and conspicuous as to give one the idea of a
+snout or long nose. The palpi are jointed--usually in three parts--are
+covered with scales, and often furnished with hairs or bristles.
+
+If you watch a moth or butterfly when it is feeding on the sweet juices
+of a flower, or on some kind of artificial sweet with which you have
+provided it, you will observe its long trunk or _proboscis_, by which
+food is sucked up. This instrument is so long and slender that it seems
+almost impossible that it can be a tube through which a liquid freely
+passes. But a careful examination will show that this is the case. It is
+composed of two separate pieces--two half tubes, which, when closely
+applied to each other, form a very thin and flexible pipe, perfectly
+air-tight and adapted for suction. Sometimes you can see a butterfly or
+moth manipulating with its proboscis as if it required readjustment in
+some way or other. It has split the tube throughout its length, so that
+it now looks like two exceedingly fine hairs. Then, after a short time,
+the two halves are put together again, and immediately, as if by magic,
+become a single tube in which no kind of seam is to be observed without
+a powerful magnifier.
+
+In order to observe the nature of such a wonderful arrangement we must
+have recourse to the aid of a good microscope. Thus assisted, we can see
+at once how the junction of the two sides of the proboscis is brought
+about so quickly and so perfectly. The inner edges of each half are very
+regularly fringed with lines of closely set hairs--so regular, in fact,
+are they, that they give one the idea of long yet minute beautifully
+formed combs. When the two parts are brought together, the hairs of two
+opposite edges interlock, those on one side exactly filling the spaces
+between those of the other.
+
+The microscope also reveals another interesting fact, viz. that the
+proboscis is not a single tube, but, although so remarkably thin, is
+really a set of three distinct pipes, one lying on each side of the
+central one. It is said that the central tube only is used for sucking
+up the liquid food, and there seems to be some doubt as to the uses of
+the other two. Some naturalists are of opinion that the latter are air
+tubes, and are connected with the respiration of the insect; while
+others say that through these the insects eject a thin watery fluid with
+which to dissolve or dilute those sweetmeats that are not sufficiently
+liquid to be readily sucked up. But possibly both these opinions are
+correct, the proboscis serving all three of the purposes here named. The
+only observation of my own bearing on the subject is this. While a moth
+was feeding on a drop of syrup in a strong light, a powerful lens
+revealed drops, of liquid, mingled with bubbles of air, passing
+alternately _up and down_ the two lateral tubes of the proboscis. At the
+same time the upward current of syrup in the central tube was by no
+means steady and continuous.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--SECTION OF THE PROBOSCIS OF A BUTTERFLY.]
+
+When this organ is not in use, it is beautifully coiled into a close
+spiral which lies between the labial palpi. The length varies
+considerably in different insects, and consequently the number of turns
+in the spiral must differ also. Sometimes there are less than two turns,
+while some of the longer ones form spirals of from six to ten turns.
+
+In concluding our brief account of the head of lepidopterous insects it
+is, I suppose, hardly necessary to add that there is no kind of chewing
+apparatus to be described; all the members of this order, at least in
+the perfect state, deriving the whole of the little nourishment they
+require entirely by suction through the proboscis or 'trunk.'
+
+The second division of the body is the _thorax_. This is much larger
+than the head, and consists of three ring-like segments, joined one
+behind the other so intimately that the lines of junction are hardly
+visible, even after the thick clothing of fine hair has been brushed
+off. Behind the thorax is the abdomen, which is composed of several
+segments, the junctions between the rings often being most distinct.
+
+From the sides of the thorax proceed the two pairs of wings, the general
+structure of which we have already to a certain extent examined. But
+when we are a little farther advanced in our insect studies, we shall
+have to become acquainted with detailed descriptions given as aids to
+the identification of species. Now, such descriptions cannot be
+satisfactory, either to the one who gives or to him who receives, unless
+expressed in such definite terms as render a misunderstanding
+impossible. A botanist cannot give an accurate and concise description
+of a flower without the use of certain names and expressions which have
+gradually become an almost necessary part of his vocabulary; neither can
+an entomologist give a really useful, and, at the same time, a
+_succinct_ description of an insect unless he is acquainted with the
+names of its parts. Therefore, seeing that we distinguish the various
+species of butterflies and moths _mainly_ by the arrangement and colour
+of the markings of their wings, it is really necessary that we should
+know the names of the different parts of these organs. For this reason I
+have inserted drawings of a fore and of a hind wing of a butterfly,
+together with the names of the various parts of the wings, and also the
+names of the principal rays or _nervures_. Yet I would not advise any
+young entomologist to attempt to commit to memory all the names given.
+Rather use the diagram for reference when occasion requires, more
+particularly when you have an insect in your possession that you desire
+to study. In ordinary descriptions of butterflies and moths the names of
+the _nervures_ are not so generally used as those of the _parts_ of the
+wing. Consequently it is exceedingly useful to know what is meant by the
+terms _base_, _costal margin_, _apex_, _hind margin_, _anal angle_,
+_inner margin_, _discoidal cell_ &c. as applied to the wing.
+
+The two pairs of wings are attached to the second and third segments of
+the thorax; but of the _three_ pairs of legs, which we have next to
+consider, one pair arises from each of the three segments. The
+arrangement of these limbs is well shown in the sketch on page 3, as are
+also the names of the different parts of the limb, the latter being
+given for reference by the reader when the need arises.
+
+All insects, in their perfect state, we are told, have three pairs of
+legs; but if you examine the under surface of certain butterflies, such
+as the Marbled White, or any of the Vanessas, Browns, or Heaths, it is
+quite likely that you will raise objection to such a statement; for in
+these you may possibly see only four legs. But this is the result of a
+too cursory observation. Look a little more closely at your specimen,
+and you will see a pair of smaller legs folded up under the fore part of
+the thorax. By means of a blunt needle you can straighten out these
+limbs, and then the difference in length to be observed between them and
+the other four is very striking indeed. They are also thinner than the
+middle and hind legs; and, unlike these, are not provided with claws.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--DIAGRAM OF THE WINGS OF A BUTTERFLY.
+
+I. _Fore wing._--1-5, subcostal nervules; 6, 7, discoidal nervules;
+8-10, median nervules; 11, submedian nervure; 12, internal nervure;
+13-15, disco-cellular nervules; 16, interno-median nervule; 17, median
+nervure; 18, subcostal nervure; _a_, costal nervure; _b_, costa or
+anterior margin; _c_, apex or anterior angle; _d_, posterior or hind
+margin; _e_, posterior or anal angle; _f_, interior or inner margin;
+_g_, base; _h_, discoidal cell.
+
+II. _Hind wing._--1, 2, subcostal nervules; 3, discoidal nervule; 4-6,
+median nervules; 7, submedian nervure; 8, precostal nervure; 9,
+subcostal nervure; 10, median nervure; 11, 12, disco-cellular nervules;
+_a_, costal nervure; _b_, costa or anterior margin; _c_, apex or
+anterior angle; _d_, hind margin; _e_, tail or caudal appendage; _f_,
+anal angle; _g_, abdominal or inner margin; _h_, base.]
+
+These imperfectly developed legs are, of course, quite useless as far as
+walking is concerned; indeed, it is extremely doubtful as to whether
+they are of any service whatever to the owner. On one occasion,
+however, while watching a Peacock Butterfly apparently engaged in
+cleaning its divided proboscis, I observed that this organ was
+frequently passed under the thorax, and that the front pair of legs were
+pressed against it on each side, while it was being drawn outward
+between them. It is probable, therefore, that these limbs constitute a
+pair of brushes by means of which the fine grooves of the divided trunk
+are cleared of any solid or sticky matter that may lodge therein. It is
+certain that moths, and those butterflies that possess six _equal_ legs,
+use the front pair for this same purpose. The former, also, employ them
+for brushing their antennæ, which seem to be, by the way, particularly
+sensitive to different kinds of irritation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--THE UNDEVELOPED FORE LEG OF A BUTTERFLY.]
+
+It is a well-known fact that tobacco smoke has a powerful influence on
+certain small insects; and even though it can hardly be regarded as a
+perfect all-round insecticide, it is certainly more or less
+objectionable to the larger and hardier species. A short time since,
+while watching a number of newly emerged moths of the _Sphinx_ group,
+and at the same time enjoying the solace afforded by the luxurious weed,
+a puff of the smoke was accidentally allowed to play into the box in
+which my pets were for the time imprisoned. Immediately they rubbed
+their front legs vigorously over the antennæ, as if to remove the
+obnoxious irritant that had thus intruded on their presence. Similar
+observations have led many naturalists to suppose that the antennæ are
+the seat of various senses, such as those of touch, hearing, and smell.
+Seeing that insects do not, as far as we know, possess special organs
+for all the five senses which we enjoy (and it is interesting to note
+here that some insects certainly experience other sensations which are
+quite beyond our ken), we can quite understand the common tendency to
+locate the seats of certain of the senses in such easily affected parts
+as the antennæ. But little, I believe, has been definitely proved save
+that the antennæ are sensitive to touch and to irritants generally.
+
+While speaking of the senses of insects, I cannot refrain from
+mentioning a most remarkable example of a peculiar sensitiveness that
+has been observed in certain moths of the family _Bombyces_ (page
+217)--notably the Oak Eggar, the Emperor, and the Kentish Glory. Take a
+newly emerged female of either of these species, shut her up in a small
+box, conceal the box in your pocket, and then walk about in some
+country spot known to you as being one of the haunts of that species of
+moth. Then, if any of the males of the same species happen to be in the
+neighbourhood, they will settle or hover about close to the female
+which, although still concealed and quite out of their reach, has
+attracted them to the spot.
+
+What a marvellously acute sense this must be, that thus enables the
+insects to scent out, as it were, their mates at considerable distances,
+even when doubly surrounded by a wooden box and the material of a coat
+pocket! You would naturally expect that entomologists have turned this
+wonderful power to account. Many a box has been filled with the
+beautiful Kentish Glories of the male kind, who had been led into the
+snare by the attractions of a virgin Glory that they were never to
+behold. Many an Emperor has also been decoyed from his throne to the
+place of his execution, beguiled by the imaginary charms of an Empress
+on whom he was never to cast one passing glance. And these and other
+similar captures have been made in places where, without the employment
+of the innocent enchantress, perhaps not a single male could have been
+found, even after the most diligent search.
+
+Speaking of this surprising sense, I am again tempted to revert to the
+antennæ; for it is a remarkable fact that the males of those species of
+moths which exhibit the power of thus searching out their mates, are
+just those that are also remarkable for their very broad and deeply
+pectinated antennæ--a fact that has led to the supposition that the
+power in question is located in the antennæ, and is also proportional to
+the amount of surface displayed by these organs.
+
+Up to the present time we have been considering the butterfly and moth
+in their perfect forms, but everybody knows that the former is not
+_always_ a butterfly, nor is the latter always a moth; but that they
+both pass through certain preparatory stages before they attain their
+final winged state.
+
+We shall now notice briefly what these earlier stages are, leaving the
+detailed descriptions of each for the following chapters.
+
+The life of the perfect butterfly or moth is of very short duration,
+often only a few days, nearly the whole of its existence having been
+spent in preparing itself for the brief term to be enjoyed
+
+                      ... in fields of light,
+  And where the flowers of Paradise unfold.
+
+It may be interesting to consider of what use the metamorphoses of
+insects are, and to what extent these metamorphoses render them fit for
+the work they have to do.
+
+It is certain that the chief work of insects, taken as a whole, is to
+remove from the earth the excess of animal and vegetable matter. If they
+are to do this work effectually, it is clear that they must be very
+voracious feeders, and also be capable of multiplying their species
+prodigiously. Now each of these powers requires the special development
+of a certain set of organs, and an abnormal development of one set must
+necessarily be produced at the expense of the other. Hence we find
+insects existing in two distinct stages, with or without an intermediate
+quiescent state, during the first of which the digestive apparatus is
+enormously developed, while the reproductive organs occupy but very
+little space; then, during the other stage, the digestive apparatus is
+of the simplest possible description, and the organs of reproduction are
+in a perfect state of development.
+
+Allowing, then, that the chief work of the insect is the removal of
+surplus organic matter, we can see that a large share of its life should
+be spent in the larval or grub stage, and that the perfect state _need_
+not occupy any more time than is necessary for the fertilisation of the
+eggs that almost completely fill the body of the female at the time of
+her emergence from the chrysalis shell.
+
+Many insects undergo their metamorphoses by slow degrees, but the
+_Lepidoptera_, after existing for some considerable period without any
+important visible change in structure, pass by a rapid transition into
+the next state. Thus, a caterpillar, that has not altered in general
+form for several weeks, changes into a chrysalis within the course of a
+few days; and again, after a period of quiescence that may extend
+throughout the whole of the colder months, becomes a perfect butterfly
+or moth within twenty minutes of the moment of its emergence.
+
+But this suddenness is more apparent than real, as may easily be proved
+by internal examinations of the insect at various stages of growth;
+showing that we are led astray by the rapidity of _external_
+changes--the mere _moultings_ or castings of the skin--while the gradual
+transformations proceeding within are not so readily observed.
+
+We have already said that the life of the perfect butterfly or moth is
+short. A few days after emergence from the chrysalis case, the female
+deposits her eggs on the leaves or stems of the plant that is to sustain
+the larvæ. Her work is now accomplished, and the few days more allowed
+her are spent in frolicking among the flowers, and sucking the sweet
+juices they provide. But males and females alike--bedecked with the most
+gorgeous colours and overflowing with sportive mirth when first they
+take to the wing--soon show the symptoms of a fast approaching end.
+Their colours begin to fade, and the beauty-making scales of the wings
+gradually disappear through friction against the petals of hundreds of
+flowers visited and the merry dances with scores and scores of playful
+companions. At last, one bright afternoon, while the sun is still high
+in the heavens, a butterfly, more weary than usual, with heavy and
+laborious flight, seeks a place of rest for the approaching night. Here,
+on a waving stalk, it is soon lulled to sleep by a gentle breeze.
+
+Next morning, a few hours before noon, the blazing sun calls it out for
+its usual frolics. But its body now seems too heavy to be supported by
+the feeble and ragged wings, and, after one or two weak attempts at
+play, incited by the approach of a younger and merrier companion, it
+settles down in its final resting place. On the following morning a dead
+butterfly is seen, still clinging by its claws to a swinging stem, from
+which it is eventually thrown during a storm.
+
+The tale of the perfect moth is very similar to the above, except that
+it is generally summoned to activity by the approach of darkness.
+
+We see, then, that butterflies and moths exhibit none of that quality
+which we term parental affection. Their duty ends with the deposition of
+the eggs, and the parents are dead before the young larvæ have
+penetrated the shell that surrounds them.
+
+Yet it is wonderful to see how unmistakably the females generally lay
+their eggs on the very plants that provide the necessary food for their
+progeny, as if they were not only conscious of and careful concerning
+the exact requirements of their offspring, but also possessed such a
+knowledge of botanical science as enabled them to discriminate between
+the plant required and all others.
+
+Has the perfect insect any selfish motive in this apparently careful
+selection of a plant on which to lay its eggs? Does the female herself
+derive any benefit from the particular plant chosen for this purpose? In
+most cases, certainly not. For it often happens that the blossom of this
+plant is not by any means one of those that supply the sweets which
+insects love, and still more frequently does it occur that the eggs are
+deposited either before the flowers have appeared or after they have
+faded.
+
+Neither can we easily impute to the insect an acquired knowledge of the
+nature and wants of her offspring, or an acquaintance with botany
+sufficient to enable her to distinguish plant forms. Our only solution
+of the problem (which is really no solution at all) is to attribute the
+whole thing to that inexplicable quality which we are pleased to term
+_natural instinct_. It is to be observed, however, that it is not _all_
+butterflies and moths that display this unerring power. Some few seem to
+deposit their eggs indiscriminately on all kinds of herbage. But, I
+believe, the larvæ of these species are generally grass feeders, and
+would seldom have to travel far from any spot without meeting with an
+acceptable morsel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--THE FOUR STAGES OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY
+(_Pieris Brassicæ_). _a_, larva; _b_, pupa; _c_, imago; _d_, egg.]
+
+But we must now pass on to a brief consideration of the other stages of
+the insect's existence. After a time, varying from a few days to several
+months, the young caterpillars or larvæ make their appearance. They soon
+commence feeding in right earnest. Their period of existence in this
+state varies from a few weeks to several months, and even, in some
+cases, to years. During this time their growth is generally very rapid,
+and they undergo a series of _moults_ or changes of skin, of which we
+shall have more to say in a future chapter. Then, when fully grown, they
+prepare for an apparently quiescent form, which we speak of as the
+_pupa_ or chrysalis, and in which they again spend a very variable
+period, extending over a few days, weeks, or months. Now, inclosed in a
+protective case, each pupa is undergoing a remarkable change. Some of
+its old organs are disappearing, and others are developing; and, after
+all the parts of the future insect have been developed as far as its
+narrow shell will permit, it bursts forth into the world as a perfect
+insect or _imago_.
+
+Its wings at first are small, shapeless, and crumpled in a most
+unsightly fashion; but it is not long before they assume their full
+size, beautiful form, and gorgeous colouring. Then, in about another
+hour or two, the wings, at first soft and flaccid, have become
+sufficiently dry and stiff to bear their owner rapidly through the air.
+
+We have thus observed some of the more striking features in the
+structure of the butterfly and moth in its most perfect state; and
+alluded in a very brief manner to the various stages through which these
+creatures must necessarily pass before finally reaching this stage. But
+now we must study these earlier stages more closely, and watch the
+insects during the marvellous transitions they are destined to undergo.
+This we shall do in the following chapters.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_THE EGG_
+
+
+I suppose you are all acquainted with the general structure of the hen's
+egg, having dissected several, in your own way, many a time.
+
+Its outer covering, which you speak of as the 'shell,' you have observed
+is hard and brittle. It is composed of a _calcareous_ or limy substance,
+known chemically as _carbonate of lime_. If you put some pieces of it
+into an egg cup, and throw over them a little vinegar or any other
+liquid acid, you will see them gradually dissolve away, and small
+bubbles of carbonic acid gas will rise into the air. Then again, if you
+take a long and narrow strip of the shell, and hold one end of it in a
+gas or lamp flame, after a short time that end will become softer, and
+will glow brightly in the flame, for it is converted into lime--the same
+substance that is used by the builders for making their mortar--and the
+bright glow is really a miniature _lime light_, such as is always
+produced when a piece of lime is made intensely hot.
+
+Just inside this shell you have seen a thin membrane or skin that is
+easily peeled off the substance of the egg itself. Next to this comes
+the 'white' of the egg, which is really colourless while liquid, but
+turns white and more or less solid in the cooking. Last of all, in the
+centre of this, you have noticed the oval yellow mass that is termed the
+'yoke' or 'yolk,' and which contains the embryo of the future chick.
+
+Now if you imagine this egg to be reduced in size till two or three
+dozen of them would be required to form a single line about one inch
+long, the outer calcareous shell to be entirely removed, the skin or
+membrane to be converted into a firmer substance of a horny nature, and,
+finally, the yolk to be absent and the whole internal space to be filled
+with the 'white,' you will then have some idea of the nature of the egg
+of a butterfly or moth.
+
+To put the matter more briefly, then, we will say that the eggs of these
+insects are simply little liquid masses, usually of a colourless
+substance, surrounded by a horny and flexible covering.
+
+Such a description may certainly give you some idea of the nature of the
+eggs of insects, but no amount of book reading will serve the purpose so
+well or be so pleasant as the examination of the eggs themselves. During
+the summer months very little difficulty will be experienced in finding
+some eggs in your own garden. Turn over some leaves and examine their
+under surfaces, choosing especially those plants which show, by their
+partially eaten leaves, that they are favourites with the insect world.
+Or you may amuse yourself by catching a number of butterflies--common
+'Whites' are as good for the purpose as any--and temporarily confine
+them in a wooden or cardboard box, containing a number of leaves from
+various plants, and covered with gauze. In this way you are sure to
+obtain a few females that have not yet laid all their eggs; and if you
+watch your prisoners you will soon see them carefully depositing the
+eggs on the under surfaces of leaves, bending their abdomens round the
+edges if there is not sufficient room to get themselves completely
+under. And then, when you are satisfied with the number of eggs thus
+obtained for your examination, you can have the pleasure of seeing all
+your liberated captives flying joyfully in the free air.
+
+In giving these simple instructions I have assumed that the reader has
+not yet learnt any of the characters by which female butterflies are to
+be distinguished from their lords and masters; but I hope that he will
+know soon, at least with regard to a good many species, from which
+individuals he may most reasonably expect to obtain eggs, and so be able
+to avoid the imprisonment, even though only temporary, of insects which
+cannot satisfy his wants.
+
+Again, it is not necessary, after all, that butterflies should be
+captured for the purpose of obtaining eggs. Watch them as they hover
+about among your flowers. Some, you will observe, are intent on nothing
+but idle frolicking; and you may conclude at once that _these_ have no
+immediate duty to perform. Others are flying without hesitation from
+flower to flower, gorging themselves with the sweets of life: these are
+not the objects of your search. But you will descry certain others,
+flying round about the beds and borders with a steadier and more
+matronly air, taking little or no notice of their more frivolous
+companions, and paying not the slightest heed to the bright
+nectar-producing cups of the numerous flowers. These are seriously
+engaged with family affairs only. Watch one of them carefully, and as
+soon as she has settled herself on a leaf, walk steadily towards her
+till you are near enough to observe her movements. She will not move
+unless you approach too closely, for, like busy folk generally, she has
+no time to worry about petty annoyances. You will now actually witness
+the deposition of the eggs exactly as carried on in the perfect freedom
+of nature; and the eggs themselves may be taken either for examination
+or for the rearing of the caterpillars.
+
+Some species of _Lepidoptera_ lay some hundreds of eggs, and it is
+seldom that the number laid by one female is much below a hundred.
+
+As already stated, the under surfaces of leaves are generally chosen for
+the deposit of eggs, but a few of the insects we are considering always
+select the upper surface for this purpose. Thus the Puss Moth (page
+235), and two or three others resembling it, though much smaller, known
+as the Kittens (page 234), invariably lay them on the upper surface. And
+this is the more surprising since the eggs of these moths are brown or
+black, and consequently so conspicuous on the green leaves as to be in
+danger of being sighted by the numerous enemies of insects.
+
+The Hairstreak Butterflies (page 183) afford another exception to the
+general rule, for their eggs are deposited on the _bark_ of the trees
+and shrubs (birch, sloe, elm, oak, and bramble) on which their larvæ
+feed.
+
+At the moment each egg is laid it is covered with a liquid sticky
+substance, so that it is immediately glued to the leaf or stem as soon
+as it is deposited. The sticky substance soon dries, causing the egg to
+be so firmly fastened in its place that it is often impossible to force
+it off without destroying it completely.
+
+Some of the _Lepidoptera_ deposit their eggs singly, or in small
+irregular clusters; but by far the larger number set them very regularly
+side by side, in so compact a mass that it would be impossible to place
+them on a smaller area without piling one on top of another. This is not
+accomplished with the aid of the sight, for the insect performing her
+task with such precision often has her head on one side of a leaf or
+stem while arranging her eggs on the other. If you take the trouble to
+watch her, you will see that she carefully _feels_ out a place for each
+egg by means of the tip of her abdomen immediately before laying it.
+
+The eggs are laid by moths and butterflies at various seasons of the
+year. In some cases they are deposited early in the spring, even before
+the buds of the food plants have burst; and the young larvæ, hatched a
+few weeks later, commence to feed on the young and tender leaves. Then,
+throughout the late spring, the whole of the summer and autumn, and even
+till the winter frosts set in, the eggs of various species are being
+laid.
+
+Those deposited during the warm weather are often hatched in a few days,
+but those laid toward the autumn remain unchanged until the following
+spring.
+
+In this latter case the frosts of the most severe winter are not capable
+of destroying the vitality of the eggs. In many instances the perfect
+insect or the larva would be killed by the temperature of an average
+winter day, but the vitality of the eggs is such that they have been
+subjected to a temperature, artificially produced, of fifty degrees
+below the freezing point, and even after this the young larvæ walked out
+of their cradles at their appointed time just as if nothing unusual had
+occurred.
+
+Experiments have also been performed on the eggs with a view of
+determining how far their vitality is influenced by high temperatures.
+We know that the scorching midsummer sun has no destructive influence on
+them, but these experiments prove that they are not influenced by a
+temperature only twenty degrees below the boiling point--actually a
+considerably higher temperature than is _necessary_ to properly cook a
+hen's egg.
+
+Let us now examine a number of eggs of different species, that we may
+note some of the many variations in form and colour.
+
+With regard to colour, we have already observed that the eggs of a few
+species are black; but more commonly they are much lighter--pearly
+white, green, yellow, and grey being of frequent occurrence.
+
+The great variety of form, however, will provide a vast amount of
+enjoyment to anyone who possesses a good magnifying lens or a small
+compound microscope. Some are globular, others oval; while many others
+represent cups, basins, and domes. Then we have miniature vases, flasks,
+bottles with short necks, and numerous figures that must remind a
+juvenile admirer of the sweet cakes and ornamental jellies that have so
+often gladdened his longing eyes.
+
+Again, the beautifully sculptured surfaces of a large number are even
+more striking than their general shapes. Some are regularly ribbed from
+top to bottom with parallel or radiating ridges, and at the same time
+marked with delicate transverse lines. Others are beautifully pitted or
+honeycombed, some ornamented with the most faithful representation of
+fine wicker-work, while a few are provided with a cap, more or less
+ornamental, that is raised by the young larva when about to see the
+world for the first time. A few of these beautiful forms are here
+illustrated and named, and another has already appeared on page 14, but
+an enthusiastic young naturalist may easily secure a variety of others
+for his own examination.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--EGG OF THE MEADOW BROWN BUTTERFLY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--EGG OF THE SPECKLED WOOD BUTTERFLY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--EGG OF THE VAPOURER MOTH.]
+
+It may be surmised from the accompanying illustrations that the form of
+the egg is always the same for any one species. This is really the case,
+and consequently an experienced entomologist can often decide on the
+name of the butterfly or moth that deposited a cluster of eggs he
+happens to find in his rambles and searchings; but in such decisions he
+is always greatly assisted by a knowledge of the food plants of the
+various insects, and sometimes also by the manner in which the eggs are
+arranged.
+
+We have seen that the period during which the _Lepidoptera_ remain in
+the egg stage is very variable, and depends largely on the season in
+which they were laid; but it is often possible to tell when to expect
+the young larvæ by certain changes which take place in the appearance of
+the egg. As the horny covering of the egg is transparent, the gradual
+development of the caterpillar from the clear fluid can be watched to a
+certain extent; but if you have a microscope, and would like to witness
+this development to perfection, proceed as follows.
+
+Arrange that some butterflies and moths shall lay their eggs on strips
+of glass of convenient dimensions for microscopic work--three inches
+long by one wide is the usual size for this kind of work. This is easily
+accomplished by placing a proper selection of female insects in a rather
+small box temporarily lined with such 'slips.' When a few eggs have thus
+been secured, all you have to do is to examine them at intervals with
+your microscope, always using the reflector so as to direct a strong
+light _through_ the eggs from below.
+
+But even without such an arrangement some interesting changes are to be
+observed. As a rule, the colour of the egg turns darker as the time for
+the arrival of the infant larva approaches, and you will often be able
+to see a little brown or black head moving slightly within the 'shell.'
+You may know then that the hatching is close at hand, and the movements
+of the tiny creature are well worth careful watching. Soon a small hole
+appears in the side of the case, and a little green or dark cap begins
+to show itself. Then, with a magnifier of some kind, you may see a pair
+of tiny jaws, working horizontally, and not with an up-and-down motion
+like our own, gradually gnawing away at the cradle, till at last the
+little creature is perfectly free to ramble in search of food.
+
+Strange to say, the young larva does not waste a particle of the horny
+substance that must necessarily be removed in securing its liberty, but
+devours it with an apparent relish. Indeed, it appreciates the flavour
+of this viand so highly that it often disposes of the whole of its
+little home, with the exception of the small circular patch by which it
+was cemented to the plant. When the whole brood have thus dispensed with
+their empty cradles, there remains on the stem or leaf a glittering
+patch of little pearly plates.
+
+After the performance of this feat the young caterpillar starts off in
+life on its own account with as much briskness and confidence as if it
+had previously spent a term in the world under the same conditions; but
+we must reserve an account of its doings and sufferings for our next
+chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+_THE LARVA_
+
+
+In almost every case the young caterpillar, on quitting the 'shell' of
+the egg, finds itself standing on and surrounded by its natural food,
+and immediately commences to do justice to the abundant supply. It will
+either nibble away at the surface of the leaf, removing the soft
+cellular substance, so that the leaf exhibits a number of
+semi-transparent patches when held up to the light, or it will make
+straight for the edge, and, closing its horizontal jaws on either side,
+bite the leaf completely through, and thus remove a small piece each
+time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE CLOUDED YELLOW
+BUTTERFLY.]
+
+Several naturalists have amused themselves by performing experiments and
+making calculations on the efficiency of the masticating and digesting
+powers of the caterpillar. The illustrious Réaumur, for example, proved
+that some of the cabbage eaters disposed of more than twice their own
+weight of food in twenty-four hours, during which time their weight
+increased one-tenth. Let us see what this would be equivalent to in
+human beings: A man weighing eleven stone would devour over three
+hundred pounds of food in a day, and at the end of that day weigh about
+fifteen pounds more than he did at the beginning!
+
+So the young caterpillar eats, and rests, and grows, till, while still
+young, its body has become too large for the already tightened skin. It
+evidently feels very uncomfortable. Its appetite fails, and it remains
+for a time perfectly quiet in one spot, having previously spun a little
+carpet of silk to form a firm foothold during its temporary
+indisposition. Its colours have also become dingy, and anyone, not
+understanding the character of its growth, might easily be led to
+suppose that the poor creature was displaying the earlier symptoms of a
+serious and perhaps fatal illness.
+
+But soon an encouraging symptom is observed. The caterpillar begins to
+get restless. Its front segments are turned alternately right and left,
+and are also made to swell out much beyond their normal size. Then in a
+very short time--often less than a minute from the first appearances of
+restlessness--the skin, which has become somewhat dry and brittle,
+splits along the back over the second, third and fourth segments,
+revealing a new and bright coat beneath. The caterpillar continues its
+struggles and, in addition to the previous movements, causes the
+swelling to move backward along the body. This, acting like a wedge,
+causes the rent in the old coat to extend in that direction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY
+BUTTERFLY.]
+
+The caterpillar now draws its head backward, and, with a few convulsive
+struggles, pulls the front segments out of their old skin, and passes
+its head out of the rent in the back. With its foremost segments thus
+rendered perfectly free, it walks straight out of the old garment, which
+is left still fixed by the legs to the silken carpet.
+
+The larva, although now fresh and smart in its appearance, is exhausted
+by these struggles and its prolonged fast. The new skin, moreover, is
+very soft and tender, even to the cases of the head and legs, which are
+normally very hard. But a short period of rest suffices to dry its skin
+and sharpen its appetite, and then it eats more vigorously than ever.
+
+We will now leave the caterpillar for a moment while we look at its
+cast-off clothes. They are still clinging to a stem so firmly that they
+can scarcely be removed without injury. The hard shell that covered the
+head and jaws is perfect in form, and so are the claws and cases of the
+legs. All the hairs or spines that happened to adorn the previous owner
+still retain their positions; and the whole skin, although always more
+or less shrivelled, is sometimes so slightly altered in form that it
+might be mistaken for a living caterpillar if not closely examined.
+
+But this is not all. For, according to the accounts of some
+authoritative observers, the lining of the digestive organs, which is
+really a continuation of the outer skin, is cast off (or rather cast
+_out_) at the same time, as are also the linings of the larger breathing
+tubes which are presently to be described.
+
+We have seen that some caterpillars, on quitting their egg cases (which
+may really be regarded as the first moult), make their first meal of the
+old covering. So also some of them, in their future moultings, exhibit
+an apparently useless economy (seeing that they are surrounded by an
+abundance of their natural vegetable diet) by devouring their old coats!
+In the face of this fact we can hardly describe them as strict
+vegetarians.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE PURPLE EMPEROR
+BUTTERFLY.]
+
+Having thus passed through its first hardship, the caterpillar has by no
+means seen the end of the troubles and dangers that beset it; for,
+during its existence in the larval state, it has to go through a series
+of three, four, five, or even six moults, all of which are periods of
+considerable inconvenience, and perhaps even pain, and frequently prove
+fatal. And it is by no means an uncommon thing to meet with the lifeless
+body of an unfortunate individual who, as shown by its shabby appearance
+and the silken carpet under its feet, has evidently fallen a victim to
+the dangerous process of ridding itself of an old garment.
+
+But this is only one of the many dangers to which caterpillars are
+exposed. Throughout every hour of the day the sharp and hungry eyes of
+the numerous insect-eating birds are searching the leaves for such
+delicacies to satisfy the wants of themselves and their broods. The
+lively little lizards, too, during the sunny hours are busily engaged in
+searching them out among the foliage of heaths and banks.
+
+Very formidable enemies also exist in the form of Ichneumon and other
+species of flies, which pierce the skins of caterpillars with their
+sharp _ovipositors_, and lay their eggs within the bodies of the
+unfortunate victims. As soon as the young larvæ are hatched from these
+eggs, they commence feeding on the fatty substance stored beneath the
+caterpillar's skin. They carefully avoid, at first, attacking the vital
+organs of their host's body, and in this way secure for themselves a
+more lasting supply of fresh food. When the fatty substance is nearly
+all gone, they eat their way into the more important structures, of
+course steadily growing all the time; and so, even though the body of
+the caterpillar is rapidly diminishing, the total bulk shows often no
+very appreciable decrease in size. When the larvæ of the flies are fully
+fed, they either change to the pupa within the carcase of their host, or
+eat their way out of its body and construct for themselves a cocoon in
+which to undergo the transformation.
+
+As for the caterpillar itself, it sometimes dies before the time for its
+metamorphosis has arrived; but it often changes to the chrysalis before
+its fate is sealed. In this latter case, a number of flies, having
+undergone their final transformation within the chrysalis shell (there
+being but little else than shell remaining of the victim's body), break
+forth from the remains of the carcase somewhere about the time at which
+the butterfly or moth should have appeared.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--AN ICHNEUMON FLY (_Cryptus Migrator_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--ANOTHER ICHNEUMON FLY (_Pimpla Instigator_).]
+
+Caterpillars have also their nocturnal enemies and devourers, among
+which may be mentioned frogs, toads, newts, and insect-eating mammals.
+
+We must now learn something of the structure of caterpillars; and then
+become acquainted with their habits, and the change to the chrysalis or
+pupa.
+
+Take a caterpillar from your garden, preferably a full-grown one of a
+rather large species, that is not very densely covered with hair, and
+examine it carefully as we note the main points in its structure. The
+first point that strikes our notice is the division of its body into
+segments or rings, separated from each other by a more or less distinct
+line or slight constriction of the body.
+
+There are thirteen of these segments, reckoning, as is usual, the head
+as the first.
+
+The head is usually very hard, and often of a much darker colour than
+the rest of the body. It is also frequently divided into two lobes by a
+couple of oblique lines, between which the parts of the mouth are
+situated. The two powerful horizontal jaws, to which we have already
+referred, are very hard and sharp, and curved like a sickle, and
+therefore splendidly adapted for biting from the edges of leaves. The
+head is also provided with a pair of antennæ, usually very short and
+inconspicuous and protected by a horny covering.
+
+Unlike the perfect insect, the caterpillar has no large compound eyes,
+but twelve very small simple eyes, situated on the cheeks, very near the
+mouth--six on each side.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE ANGLE SHADES MOTH
+(_Meticulosa_).]
+
+If you examine them with a magnifier, you see that each one is provided
+with a small and very convex lens--a lens of very _short focus_, such as
+would be used for the examination of small objects held very near to the
+eye. From this arrangement we should be inclined to conclude that the
+caterpillar can see only those objects that are close to its mouth; and
+this idea is strengthened if you place one in a box containing a number
+of leaves, one of which is that of its own food plant. It will wander
+about the box, apparently looking at every part of every leaf it passes,
+after the manner of a very short-sighted individual, and never taking a
+general look round. A butterfly or a moth can see a flower in the
+distance, for it flies unhesitatingly from one to another in the
+straightest and shortest path, but if you place a caterpillar in the
+centre of a ring composed of a leaf of its food plant and nine others
+from other plants, the chances are (nine to one) that it will _not_ walk
+towards what it would like to have.
+
+Again, the eyes are situated on the _lower_ part of the cheek, directed
+slightly downward, and are therefore adapted for seeing what is just
+under its jaws as it walks along. Had we no knowledge whatever of the
+caterpillar's twelve little eyes, we should probably have thought that
+it sought out its food by some sense other than that of vision.
+
+Another important and interesting feature of the head is the
+silk-spinning apparatus, situated under cover of the lower lip. This
+consists of two tubular glands, corresponding to our own salivary
+glands, the special purpose of which is to secrete a viscid fluid that
+solidifies on exposure to air. The opening by which the fluid escapes is
+so situated that the caterpillar can easily apply it to the surface of
+any object over which it is walking, and then, by drawing or turning
+away its head, cause a silken fibre to be produced.
+
+Some caterpillars make use of this spinning apparatus only on a few
+special occasions, but others, more especially some of the smaller
+species, seem to have it always in use, so that if at any time you
+suddenly start them into the air by giving a smart tap to the plant or
+twig on which they rest, they invariably fall slowly on the end of a
+growing web, the spinning of which they stop as soon as they consider
+they have fallen far enough. Sometimes, as you are walking through a
+wood, you will see hundreds, nay, thousands of little caterpillars thus
+suspended, swinging gently in the breeze. Not long since, after only a
+few minutes' walk among the trees of Epping Forest, I found I was
+decorated with several dozens of these swingers with which I had come
+into collision--in this case consisting chiefly of the larvæ of the
+Green Tortrix Moth (_Tortrix viridana_).
+
+Now let us examine the caterpillar's limbs. Attached to each of the
+second, third, and fourth segments is a pair of true walking legs,
+corresponding with those of the perfect insect. These are covered with a
+hard and shining substance, and are also each provided with a hook. The
+fifth and sixth segments have no limbs at all, nor have the eleventh and
+twelfth, but some or all of the others (seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth,
+and thirteenth) are furnished with a pair of claspers which we shall
+presently describe.
+
+First, as regards the number of claspers, it will be seen from what has
+just been said that this is not always the same. Some caterpillars
+possess five pairs, thus making up the total number of walking
+appendages to sixteen. In fact, we must regard this as the _usual_
+number. But there are at least a few hundred exceptions to the rule.
+Many of the _Bombyces_ (page 217), for example, have only four pairs of
+claspers; and in others of the same group the fifth pair is present, but
+only partially developed, and quite useless for walking.
+
+Look at the peculiar caterpillar of the Lobster Moth (fig. 23)--a
+creature that differs from most other caterpillars not only in its
+claspers, but in many other respects too. Observe its long and slender
+legs, its humped middle segments, and its upturned hindermost segment,
+of enormous size and mounted with a pair of clubbed 'horns.' This last
+segment you will observe, has no claspers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--WALKING LEG OF A CATERPILLAR.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21--LARVA OF THE YELLOW UNDERWING MOTH (_Pronuba_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--LARVA OF THE CRIMSON SPECKLED MOTH
+(_Pulchella_).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--LARVA OF THE LOBSTER MOTH (_Fagi_).]
+
+Another allied caterpillar is that of the Iron Prominent Moth (fig. 24).
+This one also has humped segments, and the claspers of the thirteenth
+segment are imperfectly developed.
+
+A large number of other exceptions to the general rule are to be found
+in the caterpillars of the Geometer Moths (page 268), one of which is
+here represented. These have generally only two pairs of claspers, one
+pair on each of the tenth and last segments, so that there is a distance
+equal to the combined length of six segments between the hindermost true
+leg and the first pair of claspers. But even among the Geometers there
+are variations to be observed in the number of claspers, and some of
+these will be pointed out in our brief descriptions of the commoner
+species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--CATERPILLAR OF THE IRON PROMINENT MOTH
+(_Dromedarius_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--LARVA OF THE BRIMSTONE MOTH (_Luteolata_).]
+
+These limbs which we have been calling claspers are known by several
+other names. Thus they are termed 'pro-legs,' 'temporary legs,' 'false
+legs,' and 'abdominal legs;' but if you watch a caterpillar as it walks
+up a stalk or along the edge of a leaf, you will certainly agree that
+the term 'clasper' is everything that could be desired. But why not call
+them legs, seeing that they are used in walking? The reason is that they
+differ in many respects from the three foremost pairs of limbs as
+regards structure, persistency, and function. The true legs, as we have
+called them, continue to exist, though concealed, in the chrysalis
+state, and again appear, far more perfectly developed, in the butterfly
+or moth, but the claspers are no more to be seen after the caterpillar
+has passed into the quiescent stage. We have noticed, too, that the true
+legs are pointed and clawed, also that they are protected by a hard and
+horny covering; but examine a large caterpillar, holding it between the
+fingers and thumb with its under side uppermost, and you will soon see
+that the claspers are not at all hard, but soft and fleshy; not pointed,
+but often terminating in a broad flat circular surface. You will also
+observe, as the creature struggles to escape from your grasp, and tries
+to get a hold on something with its claspers, that these limbs, if we
+may so call them, are retractile, and are sometimes completely drawn
+into the body. Finally, examine the broad end of a clasper with a
+magnifier, and you will see it surrounded by a circle of little hooks,
+turning in all directions. You will no longer wonder how it is that a
+caterpillar can hold so tenaciously to a piece of twig that it is often
+almost impossible to remove it without injury.
+
+Now put your caterpillar down, so that you may observe its gait. If it
+happens to be one with the full complement of sixteen limbs, you see
+that at each stride it makes but little progress. The segments contract
+and relax alternately and in succession, thus sending a series of
+wave-like motions along the body, and urging onward the front segments
+while the claspers keep the hinder portion firmly fixed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--THE CLASPERS OF A CATERPILLAR.]
+
+But if your caterpillar is one of the Geometers, with only two, or
+perhaps three, pairs of claspers, the mode of procedure is very
+different. The creature stretches its body out at full length, often
+raising its head high in the air, and swinging its long body right and
+left with a most furious motion, as if to hastily scan the
+neighbourhood. Then, having satisfied itself as to the _direction_ of
+its proposed course (which, by the way, is often changed considerably at
+almost every stride), it holds on by the true legs and pulls its hinder
+quarters forward till the body forms almost a closed loop, with the
+fourth segment nearly touching the ninth. The claspers now become the
+holdfasts. The little hooks with which they are provided are firmly
+fixed to the surface on which it is walking; and the body being again
+straightened out to its utmost length, the same man[oe]uvre is repeated.
+So, you see, the insect progresses by strides equal in length to about
+six segments of the body, and these the longest segments generally; and
+the rate at which the strides succeed each other, especially in some of
+the smaller species, is really astonishing.
+
+We have seen the caterpillar in the act of taking its walk, and now we
+will give it a twig of its food plant so that we may see it feed. It
+walks up the twig without hesitation--for caterpillars (excepting those
+which feed on roots) always seem to move upward when in search of
+food--and soon finds itself on a leaf. Over this it walks till it
+reaches the edge; and, grasping the edge firmly between the claspers, so
+as to give perfectly free play to its legs and head, it stretches its
+body at full length, and takes a series of bites as it brings its head
+backward in a curve. When the head has thus been brought close to its
+fore legs, the body is again extended, and the same ground is gone over
+again.
+
+If the caterpillar is a fairly large and hardy one, it will bite through
+the smaller veins, and perhaps even the larger ones; but the smaller
+species often change their position on reaching a moderately thick vein,
+and so devour little else than the soft cellular substance of the leaf.
+In any case, it is astonishing to see how rapidly the leaf disappears
+under the influence of the powerful jaws and marvellous digestive
+apparatus of the hungry grub.
+
+Those who take a delight in watching the _movements_ of caterpillars are
+sure to be interested in observing them when at rest; for at such times
+the various attitudes assumed are as pleasing and instructive as are
+their active moments. And these attitudes are all the more interesting
+on account of the mimicry by which the creatures often baffle their
+numerous enemies. We may profitably spend a little time in studying a
+few cases in point.
+
+Many species, when at rest, fix themselves by means of their claspers to
+a small twig or leaf stalk, or on the midrib of the leaf itself. Here
+they remain perfectly still, with their bodies perfectly straight or
+with head slightly raised. I need hardly say that these generally fix
+themselves on the _under_ side of the leaves and stalks, thus securing
+themselves against the attacks of the feathered foes above. But some
+birds are equal to the caterpillars in this matter; and it is really
+amusing to see them hopping about beneath the leaves in our gardens,
+every now and again slyly turning one eye upward, and smartly plucking
+an unwary grub from its resting place.
+
+The precautions of the caterpillar, however, do not end merely with the
+selection of an under surface. You will find that the bright green
+species invariably settle on a leaf or a _green_ stalk, while the darkly
+coloured insects often choose a twig covered with a brownish bark. Some
+even make for the _trunk_ of the tree on which they feed, and here
+remain quite still in a vertical position, so that they look just like a
+ridge in the bark, the colour of which is faithfully imitated by their
+skin. Further, many of the caterpillars that resort to this stratagem
+have bodies that are notched or knotted and spotted in such a manner
+that the resemblance to their surroundings is so perfect as to defy any
+but the most experienced eye. And even this is not all, for a number of
+these mimics of the insect world never venture to feed by day, but take
+in their quantum of provisions during the dark hours, and practise their
+deceptions throughout the day.
+
+Most of the Geometer caterpillars, of which we have already spoken, are
+well trained in the art of deception. You are out on a caterpillar hunt,
+and engaged in carefully turning over the twigs of the hazel or some
+other shrub, so that you may the more readily examine the under surfaces
+of the leaves. At last you lay hold of a small broken twig for this very
+purpose. To your astonishment it is very soft, and readily bends between
+your fingers. You look more closely at this peculiar piece of stick, and
+find, to your surprise, that you have grasped a looper caterpillar that
+was standing out at an angle just like a broken twig, supported by its
+two pairs of claspers, and coloured and knotted exactly like the little
+branch on which it rested.
+
+At other times you meet with little green caterpillars of the same
+group, supporting themselves in exactly the same manner on a small twig,
+and looking just like a leaf stalk from which the blade had fallen or
+been devoured.
+
+What a wonderful power is exhibited in the grasp of the claspers and the
+tension of the muscles, enabling the caterpillar to fix itself and
+retain its position for so long a time! Imagine an acrobat fixing
+himself by his hands on an upright pole, throwing out his body at an
+angle, and without any further support retaining his position motionless
+for several hours!
+
+Other experiences of the larva hunter are equally interesting and,
+perhaps, even more tantalising. He is engaged in very cautiously turning
+over the leaves of a certain food plant from which he hopes to obtain
+the larva of a much-coveted species. Then, just as his eye catches a
+glimpse of the very object of his search, down falls the caterpillar,
+rolled up into a little ball, among the herbage below. This latter is
+diligently and patiently examined. But no, the anticipated prize is
+nowhere to be seen. It is probably a green one, and this adds to the
+difficulty of the patient entomologist. Then, as he carefully separates
+the low herbs, hoping to find the spot where the larva had fallen, the
+insect, rolled up into a compact little ball, only sinks deeper and
+deeper into the maze.
+
+Many caterpillars avoid capture in this manner, while others seek to
+avoid detection by remaining perfectly motionless, even when roughly
+handled. They allow themselves to drop from their resting place on the
+slightest sign of danger, and, when the alarm is over and all is quiet
+again, they ascend the food plant and resume their position.
+
+Some caterpillars not only rest, but even feed under cover, quite secure
+from most, if not all, of their enemies. Several of them feed on roots,
+and many a farmer can relate sad experiences of the havoc committed by
+these caterpillars on his turnips and other crops. Then there are those
+which feed on flowers and buds, completely burying themselves in the
+dense mass of food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--THE HOMES OF LEAF MINERS AND LEAF ROLLERS.]
+
+We must conclude this brief account of resting and hiding places and
+attitudes of caterpillars by a few observations on the leaf miners and
+leaf rollers.
+
+The former are very small caterpillars--the larvæ of certain small
+moths--that eat burrows into leaves without doing any considerable
+injury to the outer _epidermis_, and thus prepare a safe resting place
+within the substance of their food.
+
+The latter, also mostly of small size, make themselves secure by curling
+a leaf or a portion of a leaf into a cylinder, and holding it in
+position by means of a number of silken threads.
+
+If you examine a leaf thus curled you will soon be convinced that a
+considerable number of the extremely delicate threads must be necessary
+to hold it in position; but, if you would like to know how a very small
+and feeble caterpillar can manage to roll up a comparatively large and
+rigid leaf, you must watch the little creature at its work.
+
+You need have but little difficulty in finding a willing worker, for
+such caterpillars are extremely numerous. Take a few out of their
+self-made homes, place them on a sprig of the food plant, and you will
+soon have the pleasure of seeing one start its extraordinary work.
+
+At first it spins a number of threads stretching from the edge of a leaf
+to about the middle of the surface. These threads are not tight by any
+means, and the leaf is, as yet, unchanged in position. But now the
+little mechanic exhibits a tact that almost seems to prove a knowledge
+of the principles of its art. Each thread in turn is pulled _at right
+angles_ at its middle, and then fastened by means of the creature's
+spinneret. Each time this is done the edge of the leaf is bent round _a
+little_; and when at last the cylinder is completed, a number of other
+threads are stretched across from the scroll to the flat part of the
+leaf to secure it firmly in its place.
+
+Many caterpillars are solitary in their habits: that is, they are always
+found singly, whether walking, resting, or feeding. But a large number
+of species are gregarious, living in dense clusters either throughout
+their larval state or, perhaps, only while young. In many such cases it
+is difficult or even impossible to find any reason for this gregarious
+tendency--to discover any advantage that the insects may derive from the
+habit. Many species, however, are true co-operators in the defence of
+their communities. The caterpillars of such live in clusters, sometimes
+several scores in each, and all help in the spinning of a complicated
+mass of silk fibres, which, with the leaves and twigs they join
+together, form a safe home in which they can rest, feed, or change to
+the chrysalis state. In early summer hundreds of such caterpillar
+'nests' are to be seen in many of our hawthorn and other hedgerows.
+
+Before closing our general account of the caterpillar we must have a
+word to say about the breathing apparatus, more especially as in our
+future descriptions we shall frequently have to mention the colours and
+markings which surround the openings in its body through which the air
+supply is admitted.
+
+If you examine the sides of the segments of a caterpillar, using a lens
+if the insect is a small one, you will observe some little round holes,
+often inclosed in a ring or a patch of some prominent colour. These are
+the _spiracles_ or openings of a series of air tubes called _tracheæ_.
+These latter divide and subdivide within the body of the caterpillar,
+the branches of one often uniting with those of another, thus forming a
+really complicated arrangement of air pipes by which the supply of
+oxygen is distributed.
+
+A microscopic examination of a portion of one of the tracheæ will show
+that its walls are supported by an elastic spiral of a firm substance.
+This arrangement serves to keep the air passages open, and secures for
+the caterpillar a free supply of air at times when a contraction of the
+segments would otherwise cause the tubes to collapse.
+
+There are nine spiracles on each side of the caterpillar's body, and
+never more than one in the side of the same segment. The head, which we
+have been regarding as the first segment, has no spiracles. The second
+segment has a pair--one on each side. There are none in the third and
+fourth; but all the segments, from the fifth to the twelfth inclusive,
+have each a pair; the last (thirteenth) segment has none.
+
+We have already observed the general arrangement of the caterpillar's
+limbs; but perhaps it may be interesting and even convenient to the
+reader to give here a little table that will show at a glance the
+disposition of both limbs and spiracles.
+
+  First segment--head        Two short antennæ, two jaws,
+                               and twelve eyes.
+  Second      "              Legs and spiracles.
+  Third       "              Legs only.
+  Fourth      "              Legs only.
+  Fifth       "              Spiracles only.
+  Sixth       "              Spiracles only.
+  Seventh     "              Spiracles, and sometimes
+                               claspers.
+  Eighth      "              Spiracles, and sometimes
+                               claspers.
+  Ninth       "              Spiracles, and sometimes
+                               claspers.
+  Tenth       "              Spiracles, and generally
+                               claspers.
+  Eleventh    "              Spiracles only.
+  Twelfth     "              Spiracles only.
+  Thirteenth  "              Claspers only, and these
+                               occasionally absent.
+
+We must now watch the caterpillar through its later days, to see how it
+prepares for passing into the pupal stage, and to witness the various
+interesting changes that take place at this period.
+
+When fully grown, it ceases to eat, and begins to wander about in search
+of a convenient spot for the coming event. Its colours fade, and the
+body becomes appreciably smaller, especially in length, as it ejects the
+whole contents of its digestive apparatus. According to some accounts,
+it even evacuates the lining of the intestines with their contents.
+
+A great variety of situations are chosen by the different species at
+this time. Some will fix themselves on their own food plant, and there
+remain till they finally emerge in the perfect state, suspending
+themselves from a silken carpet, hiding themselves in a rolled leaf, or
+constructing a cocoon of some kind. A large number walk down the food
+plants, and undergo their changes in moss that happens to lie at the
+foot; or construct a cocoon on the surface of the ground, utilising for
+the purpose any decayed leaves, fragments of vegetable matter, or pieces
+of earth or small stones. Many seek a further protection than this, and
+burrow into the soil, where they either lie in a little oval cell that
+they prepare, or in a cocoon constructed by spinning together some
+particles of earth. Again, there are those caterpillars, chiefly of
+butterflies that frequent our gardens, which find their way to the
+nearest wall or fence, and there secure themselves in a sheltered nook.
+We will watch a few of these varied methods of procedure, taking as our
+first instance the caterpillar of the common Large White or Cabbage
+Butterfly.
+
+When fully fed, this larva seeks out a sheltered spot, generally
+selecting the under surface of some object, or of the ledge of a wall or
+fence. Sometimes it will not even leave its food plant, though it
+generally walks some considerable distance before a suitable shelter is
+found. Having satisfied itself as to the site of the temporary abode, it
+sets to work at spinning a silken carpet. At first the threads spread
+over a rather wide area, and seem to be laid in a somewhat irregular and
+aimless manner; but after a little time its labours are concentrated on
+one small spot, where it spins several layers of silk fibres.
+
+This done, it fixes the little hooks of the claspers firmly in its
+carpet bed, and then proceeds with a highly interesting movement. It is
+not satisfied with only the one mode of suspension. In fact, this alone
+would hardly be safe, for when it casts its skin, as it is shortly about
+to do, its claspers will all disappear; and although it afterwards
+secures itself by the 'tail,' it would be dangling in such a manner as
+to swing with every breeze--a very unsatisfactory state of affairs,
+especially with those that pupate late in the summer and remain in the
+pupal state throughout the winter storms.
+
+Its next procedure, then, is to make a strong silk band round the middle
+of its body, so as to keep it close to the surface against which it
+rests. But how is this to be done? It bends its head round till the
+spinning organ can be applied to a point close beside the middle of its
+body. Here it fixes one end of a thread; and then, gradually twisting
+its body, brings its head round to the other side, still keeping it
+close to the same segment, and fastens the other end of the thread
+exactly opposite the point at which it started.
+
+The head is now brought back to its former position, thus adding another
+thread to the band; and the process is repeated several times, till at
+last the caterpillar is satisfied with the thickness and strength of the
+cord formed.
+
+Now it straightens out its body as if to rest from its labours; but the
+work is not yet complete. Soon it exhibits much restlessness. Its
+foremost segments are seen to shorten, and consequently become thicker.
+Then the skin splits, and the last moult of the caterpillar commences.
+The movements that follow are exactly similar to those we have already
+described in connection with one of the earlier moults: the alternate
+and successive contractions of all the segments gradually force back the
+old coat, and this is finally thrown entirely off by a somewhat vigorous
+wriggling of the 'tail.'
+
+Then, for a moment, the creature is supported only by its silken cord.
+But this lasts _only_ for a moment. For, as soon as it is quite free
+from the old garment, it applies its tail to the densest part of the
+carpet it had prepared at the start, and secures its hinder extremity by
+means of little hooks.
+
+But what a change has now come over the creature! It is no longer a
+caterpillar. Its head is no longer distinct, although we can readily
+make out the positions of the eyes. Its mouth and jaws have quite
+disappeared, and the legs and claspers are apparently gone. The three
+segments that bore the legs are no longer distinctly separable, though
+in reality they still exist. The head and thorax are peculiarly shaped;
+and, instead of being cylindrical, are angled and ridged; but, beneath
+the soft greenish skin--the new garment--we can discern the outline of
+a pair of small wings, and see a proboscis and a pair of long antennæ.
+Also the six long legs of the future butterfly can be traced with care.
+
+The abdomen is conical in form, coming to a sharp point at the end, and
+its segments are quite distinct.
+
+No stranger to the metamorphoses of insects would connect the present
+form with that of a caterpillar; they are so very unlike. And yet the
+time occupied in the whole change, from the spinning of the carpet, does
+not occupy more than about thirty or thirty-five hours.
+
+The apparent suddenness of this change is really surprising, but in
+reality the transformation is not nearly so sudden as it appears.
+Dissection of a caterpillar a few days before the final moult is due
+will show that the changes are already going on. In fact, a simple
+removal of the skin will prove that the organs of the future butterfly
+are developing. Still, in proportion to the short time occupied, the
+change is extremely great; and it may reasonably be inquired, Why so
+great a change within so short a space of time?--why is not the change
+continued steadily and equally through the larval existence? The reason
+has already been hinted at. Caterpillars are living eating machines,
+whose office is to remove excess of vegetable matter. Consequently they
+must have their jaws and bulky digestive apparatus in full development
+to the end. If these organs were to _gradually_ disappear as the
+caterpillar reaches its non-eating stages, it would simply be starved to
+death. So the change from the larval to the pupal state, which we may
+regard as the final moult of the caterpillar, is a far greater change
+than any of the preceding ones, and occupies a proportionately longer
+time, although it is principally confined to the last few days of the
+caterpillar life.
+
+A number of caterpillars, and especially those of the butterflies,
+suspend themselves when about to change; and the peculiarities of the
+modes adopted must be left for our descriptions of species in a future
+chapter; but we will find room here for one more interesting example,
+taking this time the larva of one of the commonest of the Vanessas (page
+166)--the Small Tortoiseshell Butterfly.
+
+The caterpillars of this insect are gregarious when young; and if ever
+you meet with one, you are almost sure to be able to obtain a hundred or
+so without much searching. But as they grow older they feed singly, yet
+generally without straying very far from their birthplace.
+
+When full grown they sometimes stray to a neighbouring plant or fence to
+undergo the change to a chrysalis, but more commonly they are perfectly
+satisfied with the protection afforded by the leaves of their food
+plant. We will now watch one of these as we did the larva of the Large
+White Butterfly.
+
+Of course the under side of the leaf is chosen. Here a silken carpet is
+spun as before described; but the caterpillar, instead of clinging with
+_all_ its claspers, suspends itself in a vertical position by its
+hindermost pair only.
+
+Here it hangs, head downwards, awaiting the coming events. The splitting
+and casting of the skin goes on just as in the case of the Large White,
+but there is this puzzle to be solved: how can the insect shuffle itself
+out of its old coat without falling to the ground, leaving the cast-off
+garments still hanging by the hooks of the claspers? This really seems a
+matter of impossibility, since the little hooks which alone suspend the
+insect are thrown off with the skin of the claspers.
+
+The thing is managed in this way. As the skin slowly splits through the
+wrigglings of the apparently uncomfortable occupant, it is gradually
+pushed backward--that is, upward--till it is in a shrivelled condition,
+and the body of the insect is nearly free. But the chrysalis thus
+brought to light is provided with little hooks on the end of its 'tail'
+by which it can attach itself to the irregularities of the crumpled
+coat. Its conical abdomen is also very flexible, and it can, by bending
+this, seize hold of a ridge in the skin, holding it between the
+segments. Thus, although practically quite free from the old garb, it
+never falls to the ground.
+
+There is now, however, another point to be attended to. The newly formed
+chrysalis desires to be entirely independent of its cast-off skin, and
+to suspend itself directly from the silky carpet it has prepared. To
+this end it works steadily for a time, alternately bending its supple
+abdomen from side to side, gripping the folds of the skin between the
+segments, pulling its body a little higher at each movement, and
+securing itself at each step by the little hooks at its extremity.
+
+So it climbs, and at last it reaches the network of silk fibres, and
+thrusts the tip of its abdomen among them till some of the hooks have
+taken hold. Not satisfied with this, it turns its body round and round
+to get the little hooks so entangled between the silk fibres that a fall
+is impossible, and in so doing it frequently pushes the old skin out of
+its place so that it falls to the ground.
+
+Although the caterpillars of this species do not show any great
+gregarious tendency when nearly full fed, yet it is not an uncommon
+thing to find several hanging from the under surface of one leaf, all
+being attached to the one common carpet at which all had worked. And
+when bred in confinement, a number will often spin in company in a
+corner of their cage. I have thus obtained a cluster of thirty-seven
+pupæ, all hanging by the 'tails' to the same mass of silk, which was so
+small that they formed quite a compact mass of beings with their tails
+close together.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--THE COCOON OF THE EMPEROR MOTH.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--THE COCOON OF THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET
+(_Filipendulæ_).]
+
+We have seen that the Large White Butterfly makes itself secure by a
+silk band round its middle, while the 'Tortoiseshell' is fixed only by
+its tail. But the extra provision for the safety of the former is not so
+necessary in the case of the latter, as it never spends more than two or
+three weeks in the pupal state. Here it is the perfect insect that
+braves the winter, and not the chrysalis.
+
+There is a great variety in the means taken by the caterpillars of moths
+to protect themselves during their metamorphoses, but we shall have
+space for only a few illustrations.
+
+A clever cocoon is spun by the larva of the Emperor Moth (_Pavonia_). It
+is pear-shaped, and composed of a brownish silk; and is so constructed
+that the newly emerged moth can easily walk out of the small end without
+breaking a fibre, while the entry of an insect enemy from without is
+impossible.
+
+This is managed as follows. A number of rather stiff threads are made to
+project from the small end of the cocoon, and these converge as they
+pass outward so that the ends are all near together. The other portions
+of the cocoon are of compact silk, and any insect intruder that ventures
+to enter by what we may almost term the _open_ end is met by a number of
+spikes, as it were, that play on it at every attempt. Many of these
+wonderful cocoons may be found during the winter months attached to the
+food plants of this insect.
+
+Of the silken cocoons spun by various caterpillars some are so thin and
+light that the chrysalis can easily be seen through them, and others are
+so densely woven as to be quite opaque. A great difference is also to be
+observed in the adhesive power of the silk fibres. In some cases little
+threads of silk can be pulled off the cocoon; but some of them, that of
+the Oak Eggar (page 229) for example, look as if they had been
+constructed of paper rather than of silk, because, at the time of
+spinning, the moist silk fibres stuck so closely together.
+
+An extreme case of this character is to be met with in the cocoon of the
+Puss Moth (page 235); for here the fluid from the spinneret of the
+caterpillar does not harden at once on exposure to air, and so the
+threads become thoroughly united together, thus forming a solid gluey
+cocoon.
+
+When the Puss caterpillar is about to change, it descends the tree
+(poplar, willow, or sallow) till it is within a few feet of the ground.
+Then it commences gnawing away at the bark, at the same time cementing
+all the pieces together with the gluey substance from its spinning
+glands. In this way it surrounds itself with a very hard cocoon, which
+so closely resembles the surrounding bark in colour that detection is
+difficult indeed.
+
+But how will the caterpillar proceed if it is removed from its native
+tree and has no bark to gnaw? That you can easily answer for yourself,
+or rather Puss will answer it for you. Go and search among the poplars,
+willows and sallows in the month of July. You may possibly come across a
+caterpillar that is just in the act of creeping down the bark in search
+of a resting place; but if not you may be successful in obtaining a few
+either by examining the twigs, or you may start them from their hiding
+places by smartly tapping the smaller branches with a strong stick.
+
+Having secured one or more larvæ, take them home, and they will give
+some rather novel performances. If they are not fully grown, you must
+supply them with fresh leaves every day till they refuse to eat; and
+then is the time for your experiments. Shut one in a little wooden box,
+and you will have the pleasure of watching it construct a cocoon of
+chips of wood that it has bitten out with its powerful jaws, all joined
+together into a hard shell by means of transparent glue. Shut another
+Puss in a glass vessel--a tumbler, for instance--either by placing it
+under the inverted vessel, or by covering over the top. Perhaps it will
+not be superfluous to mention that, should you place it under an
+inverted vessel, this vessel should not stand on a polished table, for,
+whatever be the material, unless _extremely_ hard, it is sure to be
+utilised in the manufacture of the cocoon.
+
+Let us suppose, then, that the caterpillar is under an inverted tumbler
+that stands on a plate or saucer. Now it is for _you_ to decide what
+material shall be used in the construction of the new home. Give Puss
+some fine strips of brightly coloured ribbon, and it will construct a
+very gaudy house by gluing them together. Or, provide it with sawdust,
+pieces of rag, glass beads, sand, paper, anything in fact; and the
+material will be 'made up' into a cocoon more or less ornamental
+according to the nature of the supply.
+
+But what if you give it _nothing_ with which to work, and so inclose it
+that nothing its jaws can pierce is within its reach? For instance, shut
+it in with tumbler and saucer as before, inverting the former on the
+latter, and give it no material whatever. What will it do now? We will
+watch and see.
+
+At first it is very restless, and walks round and round the edge of the
+tumbler, evidently a little dissatisfied with the prospects. Then, after
+a little while, the events of nature transpiring in their fixed order
+regardless of trivial mishaps, the glutinous fluid begins to flow from
+the creature's spinning glands, and it moves about in a somewhat aimless
+fashion, applying the transparent adhesive matter both to tumbler and
+saucer.
+
+It seems now to become a little more reconciled to its unnatural
+surroundings; and, making the best of bad matters, keeps its body in one
+place, and starts the construction of a ridge or barrier all round
+itself. By the continued application of the creature's spinneret this
+barrier is made gradually thicker and higher, till at last the
+overhanging sides meet and the caterpillar is inclosed in its
+self-constructed prison. But the walls of this prison are so transparent
+that every movement can be watched; and, after the insect has spent a
+few days in completing the cocoon, we can see it cast off its old skin,
+and appear in the new garb of a fine greenish chrysalis.
+
+Its soft green skin soon hardens and turns to a rich dark brown colour,
+and it settles down for a long rest lasting till the following May or
+June.
+
+When the whole operation of building is completed, lift up the tumbler,
+and up will come the saucer too. The two are firmly glued together by
+the substance secreted; and the power of this as a cementing material
+will be well illustrated if you endeavour by mere pulling force to
+separate the two articles.
+
+The Puss is not the only caterpillar that works up a foreign material
+with the contents of the spinning organs. There are several others, in
+fact, that use for this purpose fragments of wood or other parts of the
+food plants; and a still larger number bind together leaves, fresh or
+dead, or particles of earth or other matter. Several such cocoons will
+be described in our accounts of individual species in another chapter.
+We shall now devote a little space to a few general remarks on the
+chrysalides and the final metamorphosis of butterflies and moths.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+_THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS_
+
+
+As soon as the last moult of the caterpillar is over, the chrysalis that
+had already been developing under the cover of the old skin is exposed
+to full view; and although the perfect insect is not to be liberated for
+some time to come, yet some of its parts are apparently fully formed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--THE PUPA OF THE PRIVET HAWK (_Ligustri_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--THE CHRYSALIS OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY
+(_Brassicæ_).]
+
+The newly exposed skin of the chrysalis is very soft and moist, but as
+it hardens it forms a membranous or horny covering that protects and
+holds firmly in place the trunk and the various limbs and appendages
+that are distinctly to be traced on the under surface.
+
+If, however, you examine a chrysalis directly after the moult is over,
+you will often find that the wings, antennæ, proboscis, and legs of the
+future butterfly can be easily separated from the trunk of the body on
+which they lie by means of a blunt needle, and can be spread out so as
+to be quite free from that surface.
+
+In form the chrysalides of butterflies and moths are as variable as the
+caterpillars. Many of the former are sharply angular like that of the
+'Small Tortoiseshell' already mentioned; but some of the
+butterflies--the Skippers (page 197)--have smooth and tapering
+chrysalides, and so have most of the moths.
+
+In colour they are equally variable. Some are beautifully tinted with
+delicate shades of green, some spotted on a light ground, some striped
+with bands more or less gaudy and distinct, but the prevailing tint,
+especially among the moths, is a reddish brown, often so deep that it is
+almost a black.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--THE PUPA OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY
+(_Aglaia_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--THE PUPA OF THE BLACK-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY
+(_Cratægi_).]
+
+As a rule there is no marked resemblance between the different stages of
+the same insect. Thus, a brilliantly coloured caterpillar may change to
+a dull and unattractive chrysalis, from which may emerge a butterfly or
+moth that partakes of the colours of neither. But in a few cases there
+_are_ colours or other features that remain persistent throughout the
+three stages, or show themselves prominently in two.
+
+An interesting example in point is that of the Magpie or Currant Moth
+(page 279). The caterpillar of this moth is cream-coloured, with orange
+stripes along the sides, and very bold black markings down the back. The
+chrysalis, which is at first entirely yellow, afterwards turns black
+with the exception of some yellow transverse bands. Then, the moth
+exhibits the same colours as these two earlier stages, with the same
+degree of boldness; for its pale cream-coloured wings, tinted with
+patches of yellow, are marked with numerous deep black spots. Thus, in
+this case, we find the same general character of the colouring
+throughout the insect's existence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--THE PUPA OF THE CURRANT MOTH.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--PUPA OF THE PALE TUSSOCK MOTH (_Pudibunda_).]
+
+Another interesting example, though not so striking as the last, is to
+be found in the case of a group of moths known as the _Liparidæ_. The
+caterpillars of these are remarkable for their very hairy bodies, often
+ornamented by several bold brush-like tufts. The chrysalides are also
+hairy; and several of the moths themselves are not only thickly clad
+with shaggy hair, but a bold tuft often tips the abdomen.
+
+We must not leave these few remarks on the characters of chrysalides
+without a mention of the brilliant spots of burnished gold that decorate
+the pupæ of certain butterflies. This is the feature that led to the
+invention of the term _chrysalis_, which is derived from the Greek word
+_chrysos_, meaning _gold_. For the same reason the term _aurelia_ has
+been applied to the pupæ of _Lepidoptera_, this being derived from
+_aurum_--the Latin name for gold.
+
+Strictly, then, these two terms apply only to the pupæ of a certain
+number of the butterflies; but the former is now generally used to
+designate the pupæ of all the _Lepidoptera_, and is even extended to the
+corresponding stages of insects of other orders.
+
+If you examine one of these gold-speckled chrysalides, the brilliant
+metallic lustre seems to belong to the outer surface, just as if certain
+spots had been tipped with real gold; but after the butterfly has
+quitted its case the beautiful golden spots are gone. This proves that
+the metallic appearance is not due to reflection from the outer surface
+of the chrysalis, but to a reflection from some structure beneath it.
+This latter is a very thin membrane which lies just under the outer
+transparent covering of the chrysalis.
+
+The period during which the _Lepidoptera_ remain in the chrysalis state
+varies very considerably in different species, and also depends more or
+less on the temperature. As a rule, when a caterpillar pupates before
+the end of the summer, it remains dormant in the pupal condition for
+only a few weeks; but, if late in the summer or in the autumn, it
+remains in this condition throughout the winter, and emerges in the
+following spring or early summer.
+
+Both these conditions are illustrated in the life history of the Large
+White or Cabbage Butterfly--an insect with which we have already become
+acquainted. We get two distinct broods of this butterfly every year, the
+first appearing in May and the second in August. The eggs of the first
+brood hatch in about a fortnight, and the larvæ are full grown about
+four weeks later. These then change to chrysalides, from which the
+perfect insects (the second brood) emerge in a few weeks--the period
+varying slightly with the temperature of the season. From the eggs of
+this second brood we get another invading army of cabbage eaters that
+change to pupæ late in the summer. These remain dormant till the
+following April, and may be found in numbers throughout the winter,
+attached to the walls and fences of kitchen and market gardens.
+
+If, then, the pupæ of the same species are so influenced by the
+temperatures of the seasons, can we limit or prolong the period of
+quiescence by subjecting them to high or low temperatures artificially
+produced? Most certainly we can; and every practical entomologist knows
+how to obtain the perfect butterflies and moths of certain species long
+before their appointed times, or, if he desires it, to compel them to
+remain in their dormant stage long after the natural period has
+terminated.
+
+Sometimes an enthusiastic insect hunter obtains a large number of what
+we may term 'winter pupæ,' by collecting and breeding various species.
+He also anticipates a number of successful captures of perfect insects
+during the following summer. Thus, from two distinct sources, he obtains
+a goodly assortment of butterflies and moths, the setting, preserving,
+and arranging of which entails an immense amount of home work.
+
+Under such circumstances he will sometimes endeavour to cause some of
+his pupæ to emerge before their accustomed time, so that he may get some
+of his insects 'on the boards' before his field work is in full swing,
+and so avoid a rush, or prevent the loss of insects that will be spoiled
+before he has time to take them in hand.
+
+This process of hurrying up his pupæ he calls 'forcing,' and simply
+consists in keeping them for a time in a warm room or hothouse where the
+high temperature is pretty constant.
+
+On the other hand, the entomologist may desire to try the effect of a
+continued _low_ temperature on his pupæ. This he can do by placing his
+pupæ in an ice house. Such experiments have often been performed, and
+the results are very interesting. In some cases the emergence of the
+perfect insect has been delayed for many months, and even years; and
+then, after an exposure to a normal temperature lasting only a week or
+two, the winged insect has made its appearance just as if nothing
+unusual had happened.
+
+Such are the effects of _extreme_ temperatures on the duration of the
+chrysalis state; and we naturally infer, from such results, that the
+pupa under natural conditions is influenced, though in a lesser degree,
+by the variations experienced with the seasons, especially in such a
+fickle climate as our own.
+
+The insect hunter has always to bear this in mind, and particularly so
+when he sets out on a search for certain desired species. Suppose, for
+example, he has set his mind on the capture of a certain butterfly that
+_usually_ appears in the _first_ week in May. Before finally naming the
+day, he has to consider what the weather has been during the last few
+weeks, and if he finds that this has been much warmer than the average
+for the corresponding periods in the past, he selects a day in _April_,
+earlier or later according to the difference between the present season
+and the average.
+
+If he does not pay due attention to such considerations, he will
+sometimes find that all the insects netted are shabby and much worn,
+even though, under average conditions, he would be catching newly
+emerged and brilliant specimens. This, then, will explain how it is that
+we so often see in entomologists' periodicals startling accounts of
+'early captures,' and of the appearance of certain insects late in the
+season that _ought_ not to have emerged till the following summer.
+
+I will give just one illustration of these variations. The beautiful
+Orange Tip Butterfly (Plate I, fig. 7) generally appears about the
+middle of May in the southern counties. Farther north it is of course a
+little later. In the north of England it has been taken in June; and in
+Scotland as late as July. On the other hand, I have taken it in
+Gloucestershire as early as March, on a rather bleak day with a cold
+east wind; and, withal, in a field on the slope of the Cotswolds fully
+exposed to the unfavourable breeze; but it was evident that, in this
+case, the butterfly had been enticed from its winter quarters by the
+milder weather of the few previous weeks.
+
+It may be as well, in passing, to observe that it is not only the pupa
+that is influenced by temperature. The hatching of eggs may be forced by
+high temperatures, or be retarded by exposure to cold; and in nature the
+period of incubation varies with the seasons. The larvæ, too, grow
+faster or more slowly, or pupate earlier or later from similar causes.
+And so no very definite date or period can be assigned to any one stage
+of any insect.
+
+Now let us return to one of the chrysalides that we have already watched
+through the earlier stages of its existence, and follow it in its future
+development.
+
+It is now, as we say, in its quiescent or dormant condition, but we must
+not suppose that it is always in a profound sleep, nor can we say that
+it is insensible to its surroundings. Touch it gently or surprise it
+with a puff of air from your mouth, and it will begin to wag its pointed
+tail, sometimes with such vigour as to send the body rolling round and
+round in its box. Lay it on a bed of cocoa-nut fibre or finely sifted
+soil and let it remain _quite undisturbed_ for a few hours or days, and
+you will probably find that, by occasional movements of its body, it has
+made a slight depression in its bed, and lies partly submerged. I have
+known some chrysalides to completely bury themselves in this way during
+the course of a day or two, and others to partly expose themselves after
+having been lightly covered. Others again, I have observed, will move
+smartly if a strong light is suddenly turned on them. Many, too,
+certainly appear to have a strong objection to exposure to the direct
+rays of a hot sun; for, when thus exposed, they will struggle
+persistently, as if to work their bodies into some shady corner. I would
+not advise a young entomologist to try this experiment, however, if he
+values the pupæ he possesses, for direct sunlight is undoubtedly very
+harmful to many species, and perhaps it is to all.
+
+Some chrysalides are not nearly so active as has just been represented;
+in fact, there are many which seem to show no signs of life during the
+greater part of the time spent in that state. But in all, whether
+apparently active or not, certain important internal changes are at
+work. We have already noticed that, even in the last days of the
+_larval_ existence, some of the organs of the future imago are to be
+traced. But these are as yet imperfectly developed. We have also
+observed that a continuation of these changes, gradually carried on,
+would be impossible in a voracious feeder; so the insect, now fully
+grown, and no longer requiring a supply of food, settles down in perfect
+quiet, submitting itself quite passively to any further changes that
+nature may demand.
+
+It has already suffered the loss of its claspers. Its wonderful jaws
+that did so much damage (for good or evil as the case may be) to the
+vegetable world are now gone, and the bulky digestive apparatus has
+rapidly dwindled to useless dimensions. These and other changes, already
+in progress, have to be perfected while the creature is in a restful and
+helpless condition, though they may often be retarded or even suspended
+during cold weather when progress would certainly bring it to an
+untimely end.
+
+But now the grandest of all these transformation scenes is nigh at hand.
+The protective skin is already loosening from the almost perfect imago,
+and consequently feels softer and far more yielding than it did when in
+close contact with the body: the swaddled butterfly or moth (for such
+the pupa is) is slowly preparing to throw off its imprisoning garb. The
+wings and large compound eyes are assuming their final colours, which
+now begin to show themselves through the more or less transparent skin,
+and the long legs, the perfectly formed antennæ, and the slender
+proboscis, all of which are folded closely under the creature's thorax,
+now begin to move within their loosened sheaths.
+
+Now let us watch it closely, for one of the most wonderful sights ever
+witnessed by a naturalist is about to be presented to our view. We think
+we can observe slight movements; and, it may be, we can actually see the
+struggling insect endeavouring to set itself free. The legs and
+proboscis are moving within the loosened skin; and lo! as we watch these
+motions, the prison wall bursts with a slight snapping noise (at least,
+such is the case with some of the larger species), and in a moment out
+pop a few long legs which immediately struggle for a foothold. The
+proboscis also appears, alternately lengthening itself out and coiling
+into a spiral, as if impatient to reach the sweet nectar from the bottom
+of some fragrant flower cup.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36--A BUTTERFLY, JUST AFTER EMERGING.]
+
+All this takes place in less time than one requires to describe it; and,
+before many seconds have passed, the struggling insect has quite
+completed its last moult, and is bidding good-bye to the rent garment
+that has done it good service for so long a time.
+
+But how dreadfully disappointing! Did we not say only a few minutes
+since, that a beautiful butterfly or moth was about to emerge? How,
+then, is this? Here is an odd-looking creature, such as we have never
+seen before! True, it has the right kind of body, though even that is so
+soft and heavy that it is fairly dragged along as the insect walks. Its
+antennæ, too, seem to be just the right thing--that is, just what we
+were expecting to see. But oh! the wings! Are we looking at a
+deformity?--a failure on the part of Nature to produce what she ought?
+
+We will not judge hastily, but continue to watch it a little longer. It
+seems very restless at first, and, with the fluttering apologies for
+wings, drags its heavy body along till it reaches some surface up which
+it can climb. If nothing of the kind is close at hand you may place a
+_rough_ upright stick in its path, and it will immediately begin to
+ascend. Its motto is now 'Excelsior!' and its ambition to rise may be so
+great that, on reaching the very top of the stick provided for it, it
+struggles for a still higher position in life till, failing to get a
+foothold in the air itself, it falls to the ground and has to retrace
+its steps.
+
+I once thought I would like to test the perseverance of a large moth in
+performing its first upward journey; and as it was one from a chrysalis
+to be found in nature at the foot of a tree that attains some
+considerable height, I was, of course, prepared to exercise a little
+patience myself.
+
+As soon as the moth had emerged, I placed it at the bottom of a window
+curtain that hung from about eight feet high to the floor. In less than
+half a minute it had reached the top, and was struggling hard to get
+still higher. I took it down, and again placed it at the bottom. Up it
+went as fast as before; and this was repeated nine times with exactly
+the same result. For the tenth time I placed the persevering creature at
+the bottom of the curtain; and, after it had walked about halfway up, it
+_suddenly_ stopped, apparently quite satisfied with having travelled a
+distance of over seventy feet in an upward direction. Its six legs were
+immediately arranged symmetrically in a business-like manner, and there
+it settled quite still, as if it had some definite object in stopping
+just exactly in that spot.
+
+But we must now return to our own insect, which has by this time settled
+itself in a similar manner on the stick we provided for it. The peculiar
+organs which represent the wings, though so very small, show distinctly,
+in miniature, the colour and pattern of the fully developed wings of the
+species. An interesting change is just now commencing. These wings are
+apparently growing larger, but the development is very unequal, so that
+they become curled and crumpled till they are even more unsightly than
+before. All seems to be going amiss. But this lasts only for a short
+time. The fluid from the body steadily rushes into the _nervures_,
+causing the wings to expand, and in a few minutes the beautiful pinions
+are stretched to the full extent, assume their normal shape, and expose
+the full glory of their brilliant colours.
+
+It may be interesting if I give an example showing the exact time taken
+for the full development of the wings of a certain insect. So I will
+here quote an entry from my note book; and, by the way, let me strongly
+advise all my young readers who follow up this subject to habitually
+enter in a book kept specially for the purpose all facts which strike
+them as they pursue their study of nature. The note to which I refer
+runs as follows:
+
+'Early on the evening of the 22nd [April] I selected a few chrysalides
+of Populi [the Poplar Hawk Moth, page 209] which, from the looseness of
+their cases, were thought to be just on the point of emerging. At 8.46
+one of them showed signs of restlessness; and, after a few vigorous
+movements, during which it rolled itself over on the glass [I had placed
+the pupæ on a piece of plate glass so that slight movements might be
+more easily detected], the front of its case was suddenly thrust off
+with considerable force; and in _less than four seconds_ the imago was
+quite free and crawling on the table. After trying hard to reach a
+higher point than was provided for about four minutes, it rested to
+expand its wings--now about seven-sixteenths of an inch long, or
+one-third the total length of the body. At 9 o'clock the wings reached
+half the length of the body, and were much curled. At 9.12 they were
+fully expanded and straightened out.'
+
+From this extract we see that the whole period from the bursting of the
+case to the full expansion of the wings was only twenty-six minutes; and
+it will be well to remind the reader that the process occupies even a
+much shorter time than this with many species, both of butterflies and
+moths. It will be observed, also, that the _evening_ was chosen as the
+time for the observation. There was a reason for this. The Poplar Hawk
+Moth, as is the case with many others, almost invariably emerges from
+the chrysalis in the evening--usually after dark. But it may be
+mentioned in passing that a far larger number of the _Lepidoptera_ as
+invariably emerge in the morning.
+
+Again we will return to our newly emerged insect, for there are still
+one or two interesting points to observe. The wings have fully expanded,
+it is true, but how very limp they are! Take the creature on the tip of
+your finger and hold it so that its body is in a horizontal position.
+Immediately the wings bend downward with their own weight, so soft and
+flexible are they. The body, too, is still very soft, and apparently
+much too heavy for flight. Then, if you place it on a flat surface, it
+will immediately try to find some perpendicular or overhanging surface
+from which it can suspend itself by means of its legs, so that the
+pendant and straightened wings are in the best possible position for
+drying. As the insect walks away in search of such a resting place, the
+body still drags as it did before, and the wings bend over, either both
+on one side or one on each side of the body.
+
+It is some time before the wings are sufficiently dry and rigid for
+flight, but the period varies greatly with different species. Some of
+the small butterflies and moths take to flight long before an hour has
+passed, but in many cases several hours elapse before the creature
+starts from its first resting place. Butterflies that emerge in the
+morning spend their first day actively on the wing; but the nocturnal
+moths that emerge early in the day do not fly till evening twilight.
+When, however, the time arrives, the insect flutters its wings as if to
+test their power before committing itself to the air; and frequently,
+after only a few seconds spent in this preparatory exercise, off it
+darts with astonishing rapidity. But others seem far more cautious. They
+vibrate their wings, sometimes with such rapidity that they are lost in
+a kind of mist, and with such power that their bodies would be carried
+suddenly into the air were they not firmly anchored by three pairs of
+hooked claws. Then, continuing the rapid vibration, they move slowly
+along, always holding on firmly by one or more legs, as if to still
+further satisfy themselves concerning the efficiency of their wings.
+Then they venture on a few short trial trips from one neighbouring
+object to another, and at last gain sufficient confidence for a long
+voyage.
+
+How strange must be the feelings of a winged insect during its first
+flight! After a long period during which it was a helpless, crawling
+grub, and this followed by a term of imprisonment during which it was
+almost or quite shut off from the world, it now suddenly acquires such
+great powers of locomotion that it is often a match for ourselves.
+
+But, alas! this life is short. A few days spent in sporting with those
+it meets and in sucking the sweet juices of many flowers; then a day or
+two during which the female deposits its eggs; again a few days employed
+in pleasures that become less and less attractive, till, at last, the
+creature becomes weary of life and settles down to die.
+
+We have now traced the complete life history of the _Lepidoptera_ from
+the egg to the perfect insect, avoiding descriptions that apply only to
+certain species as far as possible, excepting where such are useful as
+illustrations.
+
+Only one thing more remains to be done before we start in real earnest
+with our practical work. We shall shortly be giving hints on the modes
+of capture, the 'setting' and the preservation of butterflies and moths.
+And in so doing we shall often have to observe important points in which
+our dealings with these two great divisions of the order will differ
+very materially. Hence we must not consider ourselves ready to proceed
+with the practical portion of the entomologist's labours till we are
+perfectly satisfied that we know the main features that enable us to
+distinguish between the butterflies and the moths, and also know just a
+little concerning the subdivisions on each side.
+
+This, then, shall form the subject of the next short chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+_CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+
+The _Lepidoptera_ are divided into two very unequal groups, to which we
+have so frequently alluded as 'Butterflies' and 'Moths.' And, although
+these two terms are popularly applied in a fairly accurate manner, yet,
+strange to say, very few persons indeed have any definite knowledge of
+the differences that entomologists recognise between the two groups.
+
+Every entomologist has his circle of sympathetic and, perhaps, even
+admiring friends. Consequently, many a little package is sent round to
+his abode 'with great care,' accompanied by a note or a message
+concerning the fine 'butterfly I have just caught, and thought you would
+like to add to your collection.'
+
+The 'butterflies' that so frequently reach us through these channels
+nearly always turn out to be _brightly coloured_ moths, and this
+naturally gives one the idea that the popular notion as to the
+classification of the _Lepidoptera_ is based on colour or brilliancy of
+design, the term 'butterfly' being applied to the gayer species, and
+'moth' to the more dingy members of the race.
+
+There is really some shadow of a reason in this method of nomenclature,
+for butterflies _are usually_ more brightly clad than moths; but the
+scientific classification, at least as far as the main divisions and
+subdivisions are concerned, has nothing whatever to do with colour or
+design; and we must at once acquaint ourselves with the fact that there
+_are_ very dingy butterflies, and most beautiful and highly coloured
+moths.
+
+How shall we account for the fact that the specimens so kindly sent us
+by our friends are generally moths? Is it because moths are more
+numerous and more frequently seen? They are certainly more numerous;
+for, while our butterflies do not number seventy species, the other
+division contains about two thousand. Yet, in spite of this fact, moths
+are not generally observed as much as butterflies, for the former are
+nearly all night-fliers, and the latter _always_ fly by day and rest by
+night.
+
+Still our question remains unanswered. The reason is this. The captives
+sent us are seldom caught on the wing. Most of our grown-up friends,
+even though they admire our own pluck and general carelessness
+concerning the remarks of the spectators of our entomological antics,
+would not themselves like to be seen, hat in hand, chasing a butterfly;
+and the night-flying moths are, of course, less frequently observed. But
+they often, in the course of their daily employments, meet with a large
+moth fast asleep in some corner of a dwelling house, workshop, or
+outhouse. Such moths are easily caught while in the midst of their
+slumbers, and, as they often make no attempt to fly by day, are as
+easily transferred to a box suitable for transmission by messenger or by
+post.
+
+In the above few remarks we have alluded to some features by which the
+two great groups of the _Lepidoptera_ may be distinguished; but we have
+already referred (page 5) to a far more important one in our description
+of the various forms of antennæ. All butterflies--at least all _British_
+butterflies--have knobbed or clubbed antennæ, while the corresponding
+organs of all our moths terminate in a sharp point.
+
+This distinction obtains in all British _Lepidoptera_, and is so far
+regarded as the most important basis of classification that naturalists
+have derived from it the two Greek terms that are synonymous with our
+two popular names--butterflies and moths. The scientific name for the
+former group is _Rhopalocera_--a term derived from two Greek words, one
+signifying a horn, and the other a club, and thus meaning 'club-horned.'
+The corresponding name for moths is _Heterocera_, derived from the same
+source, and meaning 'variously horned.'
+
+But, although we find embodied in these two long and formidable names an
+unerring mark of distinction between British butterflies and moths, we
+must not neglect other less important facts which, though less
+distinctive, are not without interest.
+
+Observe a butterfly at rest. Its wings are turned vertically over its
+back, and brought so closely together that they often touch. In this
+position the 'upper' surfaces of the 'upper' wings are completely hidden
+from view, and the 'under' surfaces are exposed on the two sides,
+except that those of the 'upper' pair are partly hidden by the other
+pair.
+
+Now look at a moth under the same circumstances, and you will generally
+find the wings lying over its body, which is almost or completely hidden
+beneath them. As a rule the upper pair together form a triangular
+figure, and entirely cover the second pair; but in some cases a portion
+of each of the under wings extends beyond the margin of those above
+them, and in others the upper pair extend so far forward that nearly the
+whole of the under wings is exposed behind them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--A BUTTERFLY AT REST (LARGE COPPER).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--A MOTH AT REST (GOTHIC).]
+
+Again, the wings of butterflies are so rigid that they can never be
+folded; but you will observe that the under wings of moths are generally
+very thin, soft, and pliant, and are neatly pleated lengthwise when not
+in use.
+
+Another feature deserving notice is a slight difference to be often
+observed in the form of the body. The butterfly, which generally has a
+slender body, has a distinct constriction or waist between the thorax
+and abdomen. This is not so apparent with moths, and especially with the
+thick-bodied species.
+
+The _Rhopalocera_ or Butterflies are divided into _Families_, each of
+which contains insects that possess certain features in common by which
+they may all be distinguished from the members of any other family.
+
+The British species represent eight families. They are as follows:
+
+1. _Papilionidæ._--Containing only one British species--the beautiful
+Swallow-tail (Plate I, fig. 1).
+
+2. _Pieridæ._--Containing ten species. These are often known
+collectively as the 'Whites,' but include four butterflies that are
+distinguished by beautiful shades of yellow and orange.
+
+3. _Nymphalidæ._--This family contains seventeen insects, among them
+being several splendid species. It includes the Fritillaries and
+Vanessas.
+
+4. _Apaturidæ._--Of this we have only one representative--the Purple
+Emperor (Plate V, fig. 1).
+
+5. _Satyridæ._--Including the 'Browns' and 'Heaths,' and numbering
+eleven species.
+
+6. _Lycænidæ._--Including the Hairstreaks, 'Coppers,' and 'Blues,' in
+all seventeen species.
+
+7. _Erycinidæ._--Containing only the 'Duke of Burgundy.'
+
+8. _Hesperiidæ._--This family contains seven British butterflies
+commonly known as the 'Skippers.'
+
+Although all the members of the same family resemble each other in
+certain points of structure, or in their habits, yet we can often find
+among them a smaller group differing from all the others in one or two
+minor particulars. Such smaller groups are called _Genera_.
+
+To make this all quite clear we will take an example.
+
+The Brimstone Butterfly (Plate II, fig. 4) belongs to the second
+family--_Pieridæ_, _all_ the members of which are distinguished from
+those of the other families by the characteristics mentioned on page
+141.
+
+But our Brimstone Butterfly possesses another very prominent feature in
+which it differs from all the other British _Pieridæ_, and that is the
+conspicuous projecting angles of both fore and hind wings. Among the
+foreign species of the family we are considering there are several that
+possess these angles; but as there are no others among our own members,
+the 'Brimstone' is placed by itself in the list of British _Lepidoptera_
+as the only member of the genus _Gonopteryx_ or 'angle-winged'
+butterflies.
+
+Thus the full relationship of this butterfly to other insects may be
+shown in the following manner:
+
+  _The Brimstone Butterfly._
+
+  =ORDER.=--_Lepidoptera_
+  =Section.=--_Rhopalocera_
+  FAMILY.--_Pieridæ_
+  _Genus._--_Gonopteryx_
+  Species.--_Rhamni_
+
+Now, every butterfly has a Latin or Greek name in addition to that by
+which it is popularly known. I should have said _two_ Latin or Greek
+names. The first of these is always the _generic_ name, and the second
+is the one by which we denote the particular member or _species_ of that
+genus. Thus, the scientific name of the Brimstone Butterfly is
+_Gonopteryx Rhamni_.
+
+'But,' the reader may be inclined to ask, 'why should we not be
+satisfied with the one popular name only?' And, 'If we _must_ have a
+separate scientific name, could we not find suitable terms among our
+English words to build up such a name--one that might express the
+principal characteristics of the insect, and also serve all the purposes
+of classification?'
+
+Such questions sound very reasonable, and so they are. But the
+entomologist's answer is this. We ourselves may get on well without the
+help of the dead languages, but we have brother naturalists all over the
+world, speaking a great variety of different languages. We endeavour to
+help one another--to exchange notes and generally to assist one another
+in our labours; and this can be greatly facilitated if we all adopt the
+same system of nomenclature. The educated of most of the great nations
+generally know something of Latin and Greek, and consequently the
+adoption of these languages is generally acceptable to all.
+
+This sounds well, but for my own part I believe that if we are to make
+any branch of natural history a popular study, especially with the
+young, we must to a certain extent avoid anything that may prove
+distasteful. There is no doubt whatever that many a youngster has been
+turned away from the pursuit of the study of nature by the formidable
+array of almost unpronounceable names that stretch nearly halfway across
+a page; and those who desire to make such a study pleasant to beginners
+should be very cautious with the use of these necessary evils. One would
+think, on glancing over some of the scientific manuals that are written
+'especially for the young,' that the authors considered our own too mean
+a language for so exalted a purpose, for in such works we find all or
+nearly all the popular names by which the schoolboy knows certain
+creatures he has seen entirely omitted, and the description of a species
+appended to a long Latin term that conveys no idea whatever to the
+reader, who is studying the description of a well-known animal or plant
+and doesn't know it.
+
+Our plan will be to give the popular names throughout, except in the
+case of those few species that are not so well known as to have
+received one; but the scientific names will always be given as well for
+the benefit of those readers who would like to know them. And the short
+description of the method of classification just given will enable the
+more ambitious of my readers to thoroughly understand the table of
+British butterflies and moths toward the end of the book.
+
+This table includes _all_ the British species of butterflies and of the
+larger moths; and the arrangement is such as to show clearly the
+divisions into sections, families, &c. It will therefore be of great
+value for reference, and as a guide for the arrangement of the specimens
+in the cabinet.
+
+In the foregoing description of the method of classification butterflies
+only are mentioned; but the division and arrangement of moths is carried
+out in just the same manner except that the system is a little more
+complicated. The number of moths is so large in comparison, that we are
+able to select from them some very large groups the species of which
+possess features in common. These groups are termed _tribes_, and are
+again divided into families just like the butterflies. Thus the
+arrangement of moths includes _tribes_, _families_, _genera_ and
+_species_. We will take an example by way of illustration as we did
+before, and ask the reader to verify the same by comparison with our
+table:
+
+  _Example._--The 'Common Tiger' (Plate X, fig. 3).
+
+  =ORDER.=--_Lepidoptera_
+  =Section.=--_Heterocera_
+  TRIBE.--_Bombyces_
+  FAMILY.--_Cheloniidæ_
+  _Genus._--_Arctia_
+  Species.--_Caia_
+  Scientific Name.--_Arctia Caia._
+
+I have already said that the Latin and Greek names of butterflies and
+moths are not at all necessary to the young entomologist. It is quite
+possible to be well acquainted with the natural history of these
+creatures, and to derive all the pleasure and benefits that the study of
+them can afford without the knowledge of such names; but most
+entomologists go in for them, often to the entire exclusion of the
+popular English terms.
+
+There are those who consider themselves (or would have us consider them)
+expert entomologists because they have the power to vomit forth a long
+list of scientific names of butterflies and moths which (to them) have
+no meaning whatever; and it is astonishing that we meet with so many
+youngsters who can rattle away such terms, and, at the same time, are
+totally ignorant of the real nature of the creatures they name.
+
+If you wish to be a naturalist in the true sense of the term, study your
+_specimens_, and take but little pains to commit their hard names to
+memory; and you will then find that the latter will gradually become
+your own property without any special effort on your part. Your
+continued reference to illustrated works and museum collections will
+bring them to you almost unconsciously, and you will generally find your
+entomological vocabulary extending as rapidly as your cabinet becomes
+filled.
+
+Again, with regard to the _meanings_ of the scientific terms, don't
+trouble much about them. It unfortunately happens that in a very large
+number of cases these names are ill chosen, and do not in any way refer
+to the distinguishing characteristics of the species to which they are
+applied. You will observe, too, if you look at the table, that many
+insects have _two_ scientific names applied to the species, one being
+placed in brackets after the other. In such cases both these names are
+in common use, having both been applied by independent authorities, and
+the insertion of the two will prove an assistance at times.
+
+It is a common practice with entomologists, in their communications, to
+use only the second or _specific_ name of insects. Thus, they would
+speak of the Brimstone Butterfly as _Rhamni_, and not _Gonopteryx
+Rhamni_. When _writing_ a communication, however, they very commonly
+place in front of the specific name the initial letter of the first or
+_generic_ name. Thus the full title of the butterfly just mentioned
+would be abbreviated to _G. Rhamni_.
+
+Having said so much concerning the principles of classification and
+nomenclature, we will pass on to the practical portion of the
+entomologist's work.
+
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+_CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS_
+
+
+It is not at all surprising that entomology should prove such a
+fascinating study to the young, and more especially that portion which
+deals with the department we are now considering. Butterflies and moths
+are among the most beautiful and most interesting of living creatures.
+The study of their life history is enchanting, and the creatures
+themselves are of such a size as to be conveniently handled and
+preserved, and withal occupy so little space that anyone with only
+moderate accommodation may possess a fairly typical collection.
+
+Compare the work of the entomologist with that of one whose hobby is the
+study of mammals. The latter has to deal with large and cumbersome
+objects, a collection of which requires an enormous amount of space;
+and, unless he has the time and means to travel in foreign countries, he
+cannot get together a good typical collection of specimens representing
+his particular branch, for the few British mammals contain no
+representatives of several of the orders into which the class is
+divided.
+
+Entomology is undoubtedly, _par excellence_, _the_ study for youngsters.
+It is equally suited to the studious and to those of an adventurous turn
+of mind. It leads its follower into the bright sunshine and the flowery
+meadows; and with body and mind pleasantly occupied, the joy of living
+is deeply felt. The necessary apparatus can be made by anyone. No
+dangerous gun is required, and there are no precipitous rocks to scale.
+When the autumn flowers fade the year's work of the entomologist is not
+done, for the arranging of his cabinet and the demands of his living
+specimens keep him more or less actively engaged until the flowers of
+the following spring call both him and the insects he loves once more
+into the field. And so, season after season, and year after year, he
+finds himself engrossed in labours so fascinating that idleness--the
+curse of so many of our youths--is with him an impossibility.
+
+I assume that the readers of this book have a desire to take up the
+study of one branch of entomology--that of butterflies and moths--in
+real earnest; that they intend not only to _read_ about these
+interesting insects, but to _know_ them. And there is only one way in
+which one may really get to know living creatures; that is by searching
+them out in their haunts, observing their growth and habits, and by an
+occasional close examination in order to become acquainted with their
+structure.
+
+Hence I shall in this, the practical portion of the work, give such
+information as will assist the beginner in catching, preserving,
+rearing, breeding, and arranging the specimens that are to form his
+collection.
+
+
+_Catching Butterflies_
+
+There was a time when we would try to capture a butterfly at rest on a
+flower by a quick sweep of the hand, or, more commonly, by a sharp
+downward stroke of the cap. We were led to this action by a mere
+childish love of sport, or by a desire to possess an insect simply
+because it was pretty. When we succeeded in securing our prize, we
+handled it somewhat carelessly, often passing it from one hand to the
+other, or boxing it in our closed and perspiring fist till our fingers
+were dusted with the pretty microscopic scales of the creature's wings,
+and the wings themselves, stripped of all their beautiful clothing, were
+merely transparent and veined membranes. Having thus carelessly but
+unintentionally deprived the creature of its greatest beauty, we set it
+free, often in such a damaged or exhausted condition that the poor thing
+could scarcely fly.
+
+But our childish ideas and inclinations have vanished. Now we would
+rather watch the insect than catch it, for we find much pleasure and
+interest in its varied movements. And if for purposes of study we
+occasionally require to make one captive, we proceed in such a manner as
+to preserve its beauty unimpaired. The cap now gives place to a
+well-made and suitable net; and we are careful to provide ourselves with
+sufficient and proper accommodation for our captives.
+
+It is probable that many of my readers are as yet unacquainted with the
+nature of an entomologist's requirements for field work, so we shall
+describe them, confining ourselves at first to those that are required
+for a butterfly hunt.
+
+First and foremost comes the net. This essential portion of your
+equipment may be either purchased or constructed by yourself. Very
+little skill is required to enable you to do the former. Provided your
+pocket is well charged, you may start off at once to the dealer in
+naturalists' appliances, and treat yourself to a complete outfit. But
+even in this case a little advice may not be out of place. See that what
+you purchase is very _strongly_ made. You can get nicely finished nets
+constructed on the most convenient principles, made to fold and go in an
+ordinary coat pocket, but with _weak joints_. See that you have the most
+convenient form of net by all means, but do not go in for convenience
+and appearance at the expense of strength and durability. Nothing is
+more annoying than to find your net give way just when you are in the
+midst of a good day's sport.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--A WIRE FRAME FOR A BUTTERFLY NET.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.]
+
+The folding net is certainly very convenient, for you can conceal it in
+your pocket while you are walking through town or travelling in a
+railway carriage, and thus avoid that contemptuous gaze which certain of
+the public are prone to cast on a poor 'bug hunter.' And although such
+nets are generally purchased, yet they _may_ be constructed by anyone
+who has had experience in the working of metals. But other forms of
+nets, equally useful and even stronger, can be made by anybody; and I
+will give a few hints on two or three different ways of putting them
+together.
+
+A very simple and strong frame for a net may be made as follows: Get a
+piece of stout iron or brass wire about forty inches in length, and bend
+it into a circle with the two ends, turned out about two inches each, at
+right angles to the circumference as shown in the accompanying sketch.
+
+Now take a good tough stick, the length of an ordinary walking stick,
+and cut out two grooves opposite each other at the end, just large
+enough to take the straight ends of the wire. The end of the stick will
+now resemble fig. 40 in shape. Place the ends in their grooves, and bind
+them tightly to the stick by a good many turns of rather fine wire.
+
+A frame well made after this fashion is as strong as anything you could
+desire, but it has the disadvantage of being always fixed to the handle,
+thus preventing the use of the latter as a walking stick when you are
+not directly engaged in your entomological work.
+
+A much more convenient frame may be made by thrusting the ends of a
+piece of cane into the two narrow arms of a metal Y. You may purchase
+the Y at any of the naturalists' stores, or you can make one yourself if
+you know how to perform the operation of soldering. I have always made
+mine with odds and ends of brass tubing such as old gas pipes. One piece
+must be just the size to fix on the stick; and the other two must fit
+the cane tightly. The three pieces must be filed off at the proper
+angles, and the doubly bevelled end of the wider tube must then be
+flattened down to the width of the smaller ones before soldering. If you
+decide to buy one, give the preference to strong brass rather than the
+cheaper and more fragile ones made of tinned iron.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41. THE METAL Y.]
+
+The advantage of such an arrangement over the last frame is evident at
+once. The cane, with net attached, can be pulled out of the Y when not
+in use, and bent small enough to go in the pocket or a satchel; and the
+Y can also be separated from the stick, thus allowing the latter to be
+used as a walking stick.
+
+Some entomologists speak very favourably of what is known as the
+'umbrella net'--a large and light net that will shut up like an
+umbrella, and may even be made to look very much like this useful
+protector, but the possession of such an imitation is somewhat
+tantalising in a pelting shower. The ring of this net consists of two
+steel springs attached to a couple of brass hinges, one of which is
+fixed near one end of the handle, while the other slides up and down in
+the gamp fashion.
+
+One other form of net--'the clap net'--although still occasionally seen,
+has had its best days. Two sticks are provided to this one, so that the
+two sides of the net may be brought together on the insect; but as both
+hands are required to manage it, it is almost surprising that it ever
+had any advocates at all.
+
+When your frame is completed, sew round it a strip of strong calico, to
+which the net itself may be afterwards sewn, for the lighter material of
+the net is too delicate to stand the constant friction against the metal
+or cane frame.
+
+The material usually employed in making the 'bag' is called leno. It can
+be purchased at most of the drapers' shops, and three colours--white,
+yellow and green--are usually kept in stock. Measure the circumference
+of your net frame, and see that you get sufficient leno to make a good
+full net. Suppose, for instance, that the circle of your frame measures
+thirty-six inches round, then your leno should be at least forty inches
+in length. Fold this double, and then cut out two pieces of the shape
+shown in fig. 42, letting the depth of the net be nearly or quite equal
+to the width of the material. There is nothing to be done now but to
+stitch the bag together and sew it to the calico on the ring.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+At first you will find the leno rather stiff and harsh, but a damping
+and good rubbing between the hands will soften it down; or, if you
+prefer it, you may soften the material by a slight washing before
+cutting out the net. The latter is perhaps the better plan, for the
+washing will remove the objectionable 'dressing' that renders the
+material rather hard and stiff.
+
+Of the three colours mentioned above, green is the one most generally
+chosen, because it is more in harmony with the surroundings of a
+butterfly catcher; but many prefer the white leno to the green, as the
+insects are more easily seen in a net of this colour. Yellow is
+certainly not a desirable tint.
+
+As a rule it will be necessary to kill an insect as soon as it is
+captured. This is always the case with butterflies unless you require to
+keep them alive either to watch their movements or to obtain eggs. For
+this purpose you will require a killing bottle or box containing some
+volatile substance.
+
+The selection of this necessary piece of apparatus is a point deserving
+of much consideration, for so many different forms are in use by
+different entomologists, and so many advocates each declare that his own
+plan is far superior to that of any of the others, that the final
+decision is not to be worked out in a moment. The best thing for a
+beginner is to try as many as he can, and then, after some considerable
+experience of his own, he will be able to decide which apparatus suits
+himself best.
+
+I recommend this because it is impossible to say of any one plan that it
+is the best, for that which gives perfect satisfaction to one individual
+will often fail to give anything but annoyance in the hands of another.
+
+To enable my young readers to follow the advice I have just given, I
+will describe some of the commonly used killing arrangements and show
+how they should be used.
+
+I will take first the 'cyanide bottle.' This is a wide-mouthed bottle,
+containing a very poisonous substance called _cyanide of potassium_. It
+is fitted with a good sound cork. The 'cyanide' is a solid substance,
+and must be fixed in some way or other at the bottom of the bottle so
+that it cannot shake about and damage the butterflies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--THE CYANIDE BOTTLE.]
+
+A cyanide bottle can be purchased ready for use at the cost of a
+shilling or thereabouts; but if you are old enough to be trusted with
+deadly poisons, you may buy the 'cyanide' of a chemist who knows you
+well and is satisfied as to your intentions, and then prepare your own.
+Every entomologist should know how to do this, for the poison loses its
+power after some time, and it is not always convenient to leave your
+bottle in the hands of a chemist or a 'naturalist' to have it recharged.
+This will cost you more than it would to do it yourself, but that is
+nothing compared with the annoyance that may result when, the night
+before an anticipated butterfly hunt, you are calmly told that 'your
+bottle will be ready in a few days.' You can charge it yourself in a few
+minutes if you can manage to keep a small supply of 'cyanide' in stock,
+and it is ready for use very shortly after.
+
+Here is the _modus operandi_.--Purchase an ounce or two of the cyanide
+of potassium, and immediately put it into a stoppered or well-corked
+bottle. Label it at once, not only with the name, but also with the word
+POISON in very large and conspicuous letters. This dangerous chemical is
+often sold in sticks that look much like certain 'sugar sticks' I was
+acquainted with in my younger days; but whether this is or is not the
+case with your cyanide, see that the bottle is kept quite out of the
+reach of the inquisitive and sugar-loving juveniles of the house.
+
+The quantity above mentioned is more than you will require for the first
+'charge,' but you will soon experience the convenience of having a
+supply always at hand for recharging when your cyanide bottle fails to
+do its work expeditiously, or when an accident calls for the somewhat
+sudden appearance of a new one.
+
+Now procure a bottle for your work. Its mouth must be wide enough to
+take the largest insect you hope to catch, and the widest part of the
+bottle need not be much larger. Get a perfectly sound cork to fit it
+tightly; and, to insure the more perfect exclusion of air, paint over
+the top of the cork with melted paraffin wax.
+
+Dissolve a few drams of the cyanide in a little water, using a glass rod
+to stir up the mixture till the solid has all disappeared; and be
+careful that neither the solid nor the solution touches the skin if it
+should be in the slightest degree scratched or broken. Now sprinkle
+plaster of Paris into the solution, a little at a time, and stir all the
+while. As soon as the mixture begins to set, pour it into your bottle as
+cleanly as you can--that is, without touching the sides--and press it
+down with the flat end of a stick if it is not level. Now cork it, and
+put the bottle away in a cool place till required for use.
+
+This is, I think, the best way of charging the bottle; but there are two
+other common methods that may, perhaps, be regarded as a little more
+simple. One is this: put a few small lumps of the 'cyanide' into your
+bottle, and then cover them with a stiff mixture of plaster of Paris and
+water, and press down as before. The other plan is to cover the
+'cyanide' with a few thicknesses of blotting paper, cut just a little
+larger than the inside of the bottle. The first of these two methods is
+fairly satisfactory, but I have always found that the charge, when made
+in this way, has a tendency to become wet and pasty, in which condition
+it will spoil the wings of the insects. The other is very objectionable,
+especially for field work, for the blotting paper fails to keep its
+place while you are on the chase. If the plaster is used, the mixing
+must be done quickly and without hesitation, or the mixture will become
+solid before you can press it into your bottle.
+
+We will not enter now into the _pros_ and _cons_ of the cyanide bottle,
+but will consider the advantages and disadvantages of the various
+methods of killing the insects after we have noticed a few more.
+
+The 'laurel box' has had many devoted advocates, although it does not
+seem to be much in use now. It is a very good arrangement, however, but
+is a little more troublesome than the cyanide bottle, as it requires
+frequent replenishing.
+
+A very good laurel box may be prepared as follows. Get a small tin box
+of cylindrical form, measuring about five inches by two, and cut a
+circle of perforated zinc or wood just the size to fit it snugly as a
+false bottom without any danger of falling out of its place. Now gather
+some of the young leaves of the green laurel bush, and beat them almost
+to a pulp with a mallet or hammer. Place this in your tin box, and press
+down the perforated false bottom on it. The bruised laurel leaves give
+off a very powerful odour, which stupefies butterflies immediately.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--SECTION OF THE LAUREL BOX.
+
+_a_, space for insects; _b_, perforated partition; _c_, bruised laurel
+leaves.]
+
+Of course the reader may be able to think of various other ways in which
+the laurel box may be made. Any arrangement will do providing the vapour
+can come to the insects without allowing the leaves to touch their
+wings; and any ingenious youth could manufacture a more satisfactory
+article than the one I have mentioned. My desire is, as far as possible,
+to give instructions that may easily be carried out by anyone, even if
+he has not the slightest mechanical skill, leaving the clever youth,
+sometimes, the opportunity of displaying his own inventive power. But in
+this case I will give a few suggestions concerning other ways in which a
+laurel killer may be constructed. A firm and _fixed_ false bottom is a
+decided advantage. This is easily managed by fixing a circular piece of
+perforated zinc or 'tin' by means of a little solder; or even a wood
+partition may be used, fixed with a few brads, driven into it from the
+outside. With the fixed partition, however, you must have a lid at each
+end of the box. This is easily managed if you get two tins of the same
+size, knock out the bottom of one, and fit the lid of the other in its
+place.
+
+I have heard of laurel boxes without any partition save a piece of rag
+in which the bruised leaves are wrapped. The whole is _pressed_ into the
+box so firmly that it is not likely to be displaced while you are on the
+chase. I do not recommend this, for in addition to the chance of its
+slipping there is a danger of the sap of the leaves exuding through the
+rag and spoiling the insects' wings. But if the reader should prefer to
+try this on account of its simplicity, it will probably occur to him
+that a bottle may be used instead of a tin box.
+
+A well-made laurel box, with a fixed metal partition, is a piece of
+apparatus strongly to be recommended to all young entomologists who
+desire to test the relative value of the various poisons that are used
+by the different experts; for with it any one of these substances can be
+used. In the poison compartment you can place pieces of 'cyanide'
+wrapped in blotting paper, or any kind of porous substance moistened
+with liquid ammonia, chloroform, benzole, or any other volatile liquid
+insecticide. All the above-named substances are declared to be 'the
+best,' so they must all be worth the trial.
+
+'Cyanide' is valued on account of its lasting powers. A cyanide bottle
+well charged will retain its efficiency throughout a whole season. I
+always recharge two in the spring, one for active service in the field
+and the other as a reserve force; and these kept in a cool place do good
+execution throughout the year. If they should exhibit a slight failing,
+a few minutes' warming before a fire will improve them; but for field
+work it is better to recharge. At the same time see that the corks are
+in good condition.
+
+Next to the 'cyanide,' the bruised laurel takes the first rank for
+permanency; but you must not expect this to last many days. For a few
+days' continuous work one charge will suffice, but if the laurel box has
+not been in use for some time you must have a fresh supply.
+
+The liquid poisons, such as ammonia, chloroform, and benzole, are so
+volatile that they are very powerful for a short time, but so much
+vapour is lost each time the box is opened that it is absolutely
+necessary to carry a bottle of the one you use into the field with you.
+Also see that you have sufficient of the blotting paper or other
+absorbent to prevent the liquid from leaking through the perforations of
+the partition.
+
+If you choose ammonia--a substance that is not regarded as a poison, and
+is therefore easily obtained from any chemist--always get the strongest,
+and see that it is labelled 'Liq. Ammonia, S.G. .880' as a guarantee. A
+small bottle such as you can conveniently carry in the waistcoat pocket
+will contain sufficient for a day's work. Use only a few drops at a
+time, but renew frequently. Although the ammonia corrodes cork, yet a
+good cork is far preferable for the pocket to a glass stopper, for its
+elasticity prevents it from losing its hold, and the liquid from
+saturating your pocket and its surroundings; but a glass stopper is
+certainly better for the stock solution kept at home.
+
+Most of the above remarks apply equally well to benzole and to
+chloroform, but the latter is so powerful a poison that a very little is
+required for a day's work, and consequently a very small bottle is more
+convenient. The dealers in naturalist's appliances supply metal
+'chloroform bottles' with screw stoppers and a small nozzle that will
+allow the liquid to run out only in drops. This is a very good
+arrangement, since it enables you to avoid the 'drop too much' which is
+not only unnecessary and therefore wasteful, but saves you from
+experiencing the disappointment of an empty bottle before your work is
+half done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--THE CHLOROFORM BOTTLE.]
+
+Some entomologists recommend the solid carbonate of ammonium instead of
+liquid ammonia, but this is not so powerful. It must be remembered that
+we have the butterflies to consider, as well as our own convenience, in
+the selection of the poisons we use. It is the opinion of many
+well-known entomologists that 'insects cannot feel pain,' and that we
+are therefore at liberty to deal with them in any way we please. Still
+it is as well to save all possible suffering, and be satisfied with no
+killing box that is not practically instantaneous in its effects.
+
+Among other poisons used by entomologists I may mention sulphur fumes
+and tobacco smoke. The former may be obtained by burning a little
+sulphur or a sulphured lucifer match under the perforations of a killing
+box of the pattern described, and the latter--well, every smoker knows
+that. I should at once condemn the former method, at least for field
+work, as troublesome and inconvenient; and as to the other, I have tried
+the effect of a puff (and many puffs) of tobacco smoke on an imprisoned
+insect, but was so dissatisfied with the result that I am not likely to
+do so again.
+
+We have now considered a good many insecticides more or less suitable to
+our purpose, but there still remains the unsolved problem as to which is
+the best. Each one has its advantages. For _convenience_ nothing beats
+the cyanide bottle. It is very speedy in its action, and the use of a
+bottle is a little preferable to a metal box, for you can always satisfy
+yourself as to its efficiency without opening it. Cyanide, chloroform,
+benzole, and some others render the insects more or less brittle and
+stiff, so that it is not so easy to 'set' them for the cabinet. Perhaps,
+if you happen to have a supply of growing laurel close at hand, you
+cannot do better than stick to the laurel box. The time taken in
+bruising up a few leaves is inconsiderable, and the moisture given off
+from them will keep your insects moist and supple, or will even 'relax'
+them if they have become rigid. But try various plans for yourself, and
+you will be able to settle a question which all the entomologists in the
+world cannot answer for you--which method answers best in _your_ hands.
+
+The next item for our consideration is the 'collecting box.' This is
+merely a box in which the butterflies are pinned as soon as they are
+dead. Here, again, we shall note a few variations from which a selection
+can be made according to the means or the ingenuity of the reader. For a
+couple of shillings you can obtain a good zinc collecting box, lined
+with cork, of oval form (a most convenient shape for the pocket), and
+quite large enough for one day's captures; and half that modest sum will
+purchase a wooden box, also lined with cork, adapted to the same
+purpose.
+
+As with many other things, so with collecting boxes, the cheapest is
+often the dearest in the end. You may feel inclined to save a shilling
+by buying a wooden box, but you are sure to discard it after a little
+practical experience for a metal one. We shall speak a little later on
+concerning the advisability of 'setting' the butterflies as soon as
+possible after capture; but this is not always practicable, especially
+after a good day's catch. Now, if the insects are pinned in a wooden
+box, they soon become dry and rigid, and consequently cannot be 'set'
+till they have been put through the more or less tedious process of
+'relaxing.' If you use a wooden collecting box you will often find, on a
+hot and dry day, that all or nearly all your butterflies are rigid
+before you arrive home; but a metal box will keep them moist and supple,
+so that you can even put off the setting till the following day if you
+are unable to do it immediately after your return.
+
+Another point worth considering is the best economy of space. If your
+collecting box is only about one inch deep inside, you have room for
+only one layer of pinned insects; but a box only a little deeper may be
+lined with cork both at top and bottom, and thus be made to accommodate
+double the number. The zinc boxes sold by the dealers are generally
+lined with cork in this manner, and are, of course, deep enough for the
+double layer of specimens; but the wooden boxes are sometimes lined on
+the bottom only. After these few remarks you will at once see the
+economy of expending the extra shilling on the former.
+
+Although the prices of collecting boxes are low, yet there are many who
+would prefer making their own, and there is much to be said in favour of
+this. A great deal of pleasure is to be derived from the construction of
+your own apparatus, especially when that apparatus is afterwards to be
+used in the pursuit of a delightful hobby. During the whole of the time
+thus engaged, you are looking forward with the most pleasurable feelings
+to the glorious treat before you, and every joint you make seems to
+bring you nearer to the realisation of your joys. During the bleak
+winter months there is no better employment for an entomologist who has
+a little spare time than the preparation for the next outing. It is just
+one of those artful schemes by which he seeks to get as much pleasure
+out of life as it is capable of affording. How many there are who, for
+the lack of a pleasant and instructive hobby, find their leisure hours
+the most dismal of all, and who complain of the toil and wearisomeness
+of their lot! The mournful thought with them is, 'Is life worth living?'
+but who ever heard such an expression from the lips of an active
+entomologist?
+
+But I must have done with moralising and proceed to business. The
+question is--How shall we set to work about the construction of a
+collecting box? If it is to be a wooden one, select or make a box of
+such a size as to suit your pocket or satchel, and cover the bottom, and
+lid too if the depth allows of it, with sheet cork or slices of good
+wine corks, about one-eighth of an inch thick, fixed on with glue.
+
+The metal box is not quite so easy, but even here you may save yourself
+much work by keeping your eyes open. Very neat little collecting boxes
+can be made out of the flat metal boxes in which are sold certain
+favourite brands of tobacco. Some of these are just the right depth, and
+also of a very convenient size for the coat pocket. Beg one of these
+boxes from a smoking friend, and if the lid is not held by a hinge (a
+great advantage, by the way), you can easily solder on a brass one.
+
+All that remains now is the fixing of the cork. Buy a sheet of cork at a
+naturalist's shop, this being a commodity always in stock, and cut out
+two pieces just the size to cover the bottom and the lid.
+
+Gum and glue are not very satisfactory as fixing agents, for, as you
+will presently learn, there are times when it will be necessary to keep
+the box moist, and moisture softens both these substances. The cork must
+be fixed by means of little strips of metal. Here are two ways of doing
+this:
+
+First.--Cut a few little strips of sheet tin, each about two inches long
+and one-eighth wide. Double and bend them as shown in fig. 46, and
+solder them to the surfaces which the cork is to cover (fig. 47). As the
+cork is pushed in its place, these little slips are allowed to force
+themselves through slits in it made by means of a penknife, and then the
+ends are bent over as shown in fig. 48. Two or three such fasteners will
+be quite sufficient to hold down each sheet of cork.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+Second.--Put the sheets of cork in their places _first_, then make a few
+little slits through both metal and cork with the point of a penknife,
+and then bind the two together with a few ordinary paper fasteners. This
+arrangement is shown in section in fig. 49.
+
+Just one point more concerning the metal collecting box. You will often
+call moisture to your aid in keeping the butterflies flexible and soft.
+This will have but little action on zinc, but will sooner or later cause
+the 'tin' (really tinned iron) box to rust. Here, then, is a point in
+favour of zinc, but still a home-made 'tin' collector will last a long
+time if kept dry when not in use.
+
+As already hinted, there are times when it is desirable to take home
+certain butterflies alive, either for a study of their movements or for
+the purpose of securing eggs for breeding. To this end you must provide
+yourself either with a number of 'chip boxes' with a few small holes
+pricked in the cover, or with some metal boxes with perforations for the
+admission of air. If the latter, you will have no difficulty in
+securing a few 'tin' boxes of suitable size, but, as the surface of the
+metal is very smooth, you should always introduce a few leaves or
+something else that will provide a foothold for the inmates.
+
+The last item of the outfit is the pins. Ordinary draper's pins are
+quite out of the question. They are far too thick and clumsy for the
+collector's work. If you are not already acquainted with the
+'entomological pins,' you had better ask a dealer to give you a sample
+card. This will be very useful for reference until you become well
+acquainted with the various lengths, thicknesses, numbers and prices.
+The card will contain one of each kind, with price and number attached.
+
+If you fix a butterfly with the ordinary pin, you may find the latter
+partly covered over with verdigris after a time. This bright green
+substance is formed by the action of decomposing animal matter on the
+copper of the pin, and gives a very unsightly appearance to the
+specimen. To avoid this the entomological pins are either silvered,
+blackened or gilded. The silvered pins tarnish after a time, but the two
+other kinds keep their colour well, and are therefore better. The gilded
+ones are rather expensive and unnecessary, and perhaps the black ones
+are to be preferred to the silvered, although they are rather more
+costly.
+
+Most dealers will supply you with a box of mixed pins, each box
+containing about six different sizes. This is very convenient for those
+who work in a rather small way; but if you intend to make entomology a
+prolonged study you had better get an ounce or so of each of the more
+useful sizes.
+
+Butterflies vary much in size, and Nos. 3 to 8 are the most useful sizes
+of pins to fix them; No. 3 being for the largest, and 8 for the
+smallest.
+
+Supposing all the foregoing requisites to be quite ready, still you are
+really by no means prepared for all your work. The butterflies captured
+should be set as soon as possible after your return, and everything
+required for _this_ part of the work must be in perfect trim. Yet I
+think it will be more convenient just now to confine our attention to
+the subject of 'Catching Butterflies,' leaving all the indoor work to
+form the substance of another chapter. Our next point, then, shall be
+the consideration of seasons, times, and localities.
+
+The earliest of the butterflies make their appearance on the wing in
+April, or, if the weather is mild, towards the end of March; and from
+this time you can find employment up to the end of September or the
+beginning of October--a period of about seven months. But it must not be
+supposed that all parts of this long season are equally prolific, and
+will yield equally valuable catches. Remember the short term of a
+butterfly's life, and bear in mind that each one has its own regular
+season in which to spend the winged state; you will then see that anyone
+who wishes to 'work' as many species as possible must arrange his
+outings in accordance with the insects' own times.
+
+Some butterflies are double-brooded, and the two broods may not come
+forth at certain fixed times. Hence they seem to be on the wing almost
+without cessation for several months together, and therefore need not
+have a special day set apart for them. But others are more uniform in
+their date of appearance, and die off at about the same time. To catch
+such as these you must be careful to watch the weather, make allowance
+for any severities that may tend to cause a delay, or an unusually high
+temperature that may hasten their emergence, and then select a day in
+which you may expect to find them fresh and unworn. A week too early,
+and none are to be seen; a week too late, and nearly all you catch are
+worn and worthless.
+
+A glance at our Calendar (Appendix II) will give you a few illustrations
+in point. Thus you will observe that May is a month for the 'Whites,'
+early 'Blues' and certain of the Fritillaries; July for most of the
+Hairstreaks and Browns, and so on. Before you have been long collecting
+you will have captured the very common species, and then you will find
+that your butterfly hunts are very unproductive unless you make it a
+point to try for certain species at the proper times.
+
+Time, however, is not the only thing to take into account when preparing
+for a day with the butterflies. It is equally important that we should
+carefully select our locality in accordance with the known haunts of the
+various species. As long as you are simply working up the common kinds,
+you may wander almost at random in waste places, flowery meadows, corn
+fields, railway banks, &c.; but when you have secured a few specimens of
+each of these, you must search out the favoured resorts of the more
+local and the rarer species. For instance, wooded spots must be visited
+if you are to take certain of the Fritillaries, oak woods for the Purple
+Emperor and the Purple Hairstreak, fenny districts for the beautiful
+Swallow-tail, and so forth. In some cases the butterflies are closely
+restricted to certain isolated localities, to which you must travel if
+determined to obtain them.
+
+There yet remains another important matter to consider, and that is the
+kind of day you shall select for your outing. Butterflies are not only
+strictly day-fliers, but most of them venture out only on bright days.
+Always choose as hot a day as possible, with a very bright sun. If you
+are to be out for a full day's collecting, manage to be on the hunting
+ground at about ten o'clock in the morning. As a rule there are not many
+out before this time, and some do not appear to stir till an hour later:
+still there are a few 'early birds' among them, one of which--the Wall
+Butterfly--I have seen on the wing before eight.
+
+If your season, your day, and your locality are all well chosen, you may
+reckon on a good six hours' work. At about four the butterflies begin to
+lag, and then drop into their hiding places, one by one, till only a few
+of the late stragglers remain on the wing.
+
+So far I have furnished some general instructions that may be regarded
+as preparatory to the start; but I will now give a few hints as to the
+mode of procedure when the day for field work has come.
+
+First, see that you have secured _all_ your apparatus, and that it is in
+perfect condition. What is more annoying than to find, after you have
+travelled some miles to get to your hunting ground, that you have left
+your screw ferrule at home, or that the soldering of your metal Y is
+just giving way? If you are troubled with a short memory, it will be
+advisable to make out a list of every requisite for your field work, and
+keep this for reference on all field days.
+
+Here is a list of your equipment for a day with the butterflies. Net,
+ferrule or Y, stick, collecting box (the cork of which should be damped
+if the box is a metal one), a few 'chip boxes' for live insects, killing
+apparatus, a good supply of pins of several sizes, a piece of string,
+needle and cotton, and your penknife.
+
+You observe in this list one or two items not previously mentioned,
+since they hardly come under the category of apparatus, but a moment's
+thought will convince you of their usefulness, especially in the case of
+a breakdown. If your net catches in a thorn--a very common
+occurrence--and a big rent is made, the needle and cotton will save you
+a deal of agony, and perhaps loss of temper. If your stick breaks under
+your exertions, the knife or the string may prove a most valuable
+companion. Your pins may be stuck in the cork of your collecting box,
+certainly the most convenient spot for immediate use; but you may also
+have a reserve store in a small pocket cushion, or arranged neatly on a
+strip of flannel which can be rolled up in the waistcoat pocket.
+
+At last you are on the hunting ground, fully equipped but inexperienced,
+and at first find yourself just a little awkward in the use of your new
+gear. Your experience with the cap has been a very wide one, and you are
+possibly an expert at knocking down 'Whites' in the streets and in your
+neighbour's kitchen gardens. Now you have to wield the net, and coax
+your captives into your killing bottle; hence a slight feeling of
+incompetence at first.
+
+You soon get over this, however, and within five minutes you may be seen
+furiously slashing away at all the poor butterflies that come within
+range, common 'Whites' and dingy 'Browns' receiving as much attention at
+your hands as any rare gem that may happen to cross your path.
+
+How different are the movements of an experienced collector! He walks
+stealthily along the route he has chosen, apparently taking but little
+notice of the majority of butterflies that approach and pass him. He has
+already secured his 'series' of nearly all the species, and is carefully
+on the watch for the gems that are required to complete his cabinet. His
+actions are slow and deliberate rather than rash; and he trusts more to
+his eyes than his legs.
+
+The beginner may take to his field work quite to his own satisfaction,
+and may travel homeward with a feeling of great pride over his first
+day's catch; but yet there are a few points in which a little advice may
+not be quite out of place, particularly so with regard to the management
+of the net, and the killing and pinning of the insects.
+
+Most of the butterflies may be caught on the wing, and it is far better
+to net them in the air than to sweep them off the herbage and flowers.
+If these are rather low, you should strike the net smartly _upwards_
+from below them, but of course this movement is impossible with insects
+that happen to be almost above your reach. If a butterfly is busily
+engaged in searching out its sweet food, flying from flower to flower,
+don't think of giving chase, but follow it up stealthily, and you will
+sooner or later get an opportunity of striking at it while in the air.
+Sometimes, however, you will see a powerful flier making a straight dash
+across your field, taking no notice whatever of the fragrant blossoms,
+but evidently engaged on some important errand. If such happens to be a
+species you require, then you must run for it, but you will probably be
+satisfied with only a few chases of this kind, particularly if the sun
+is very hot, and the ground diversified with clumps of furze, heather,
+'molehills,' and ditches.
+
+There are times when your only plan of netting a butterfly is to sweep
+it from a flower or leaf on which it has settled. If the vegetation is
+very low, you have simply to bring the net down upon it, and then,
+holding up the apex of the net with the other hand so as to give it room
+to fly, you can inclose it by grasping the lower part of the net as soon
+as the butterfly has fluttered upward. If the herbage is tall it is
+advisable to strike either upward or sideways at the insect, starting it
+from the leaf or flower on which it rests; for if you bring _down_ the
+net you will have to inclose the whole or part of the plant on which the
+butterfly has settled--a procedure that often ends in a torn net, or in
+the insect becoming damaged through being rubbed against the plant.
+
+Whenever you capture a butterfly by a sweep of the net through the air,
+you immediately turn the ring into a horizontal position, so that the
+bag of the net closes itself as it falls over the edge. This gives you
+an opportunity of examining the insect before you introduce your killing
+bottle. This is a very necessary precaution, for you are generally
+unable to judge of the condition of a butterfly while on the wing, and
+in some cases you cannot even be certain of the species. If, then, you
+were to call the killing bottle into requisition for every capture you
+make, you would certainly find yourself taking the life of many an
+insect that is of no use whatever to you. Always examine your specimens
+at the moment they have been secured, at least as far as it is possible
+to do so, by looking through the gauze; and let your examination be as
+brief as possible, or some of the butterflies that were at first in
+splendid condition will render themselves useless to you during their
+struggles to get away.
+
+When satisfied that an insect is likely to be of value to you, keep it
+in the apex of the net by grasping the bag beneath it with the left
+hand, and then introduce the opened killing bottle with the other hand.
+As a rule you will experience not the slightest difficulty in coaxing it
+into its trap, and then you quickly cover the mouth of the killing
+bottle with the gauze, then apply your left hand, using it as a
+temporary stopper for a few seconds, and now, the insect having been
+quieted, replace the cork.
+
+A good killing bottle is almost instantaneous in its action, not only
+stupefying, but immediately killing the insects; and as soon as you are
+sure that each specimen is quite dead, you may pin it in your collecting
+box.
+
+You must be cautious, however, on the one hand, that you do not take it
+out too soon. If you do you may find that it recovers from the mere
+stupefying effect of the poison, even after it has been pinned, and when
+you open your collecting box for the next butterfly, you are horrified
+at the sight of the poor victim struggling to free itself.
+
+On the other hand, don't keep the insects in the killing bottle too
+long. If you do you will soon have a number, one lying on another, and
+all tumbled about together while you are on the chase. Of course, under
+such circumstances you are sure to damage them more or less.
+
+Many collectors, although they may always use a killing bottle for
+moths, never employ one for butterflies, but kill them by pinching the
+thorax. It is well to know how to do this, for it sometimes turns out to
+be a really quicker process than that we have just been considering;
+and, more than this, you can resort to it should you break or lose your
+bottle while in the field. It is done in this manner: Bring the two
+opposite sides of the net together, closing them on the insect so that
+it cannot flutter. If now the wings are brought together over the back,
+all is right, but if not, give it just a little room to flutter till you
+have the opportunity of closing the gauze upon it with the wings in the
+desired position. Now pinch the thorax smartly between the finger and
+the thumb, applying the pressure outside the net, but be careful not to
+squeeze the abdomen. In a moment you will find the insect quite dead,
+and not in the least damaged unless you performed the operation
+clumsily.
+
+Now as to pinning. Hold the dead butterfly between the finger and thumb
+of the left hand, and pass a pin of convenient size through the centre
+of the thorax above, and push it through so that the point appears
+centrally on the under surface. It is now ready for your collecting box.
+
+So you work on till the sun begins to get low, and the butterflies
+become fewer and fewer, till only a few stragglers of common species are
+to be seen. Still there are a few hours of daylight and perhaps even of
+bright sunshine before you, and if you are not weary with the work done,
+you may very profitably spend these hours in the collection and study of
+the habits of moths.
+
+
+_Catching Moths by Day_
+
+The reason for choosing the sunny hours for butterfly collecting is
+obvious, all these lovers of brightness being then actively on the wing;
+and although many may be driven out of their hiding places by beating
+the herbage with the handle of your net, or even be searched out as they
+rest on stalks and leaves during dull days or at morning and evening
+twilight, yet such methods are comparatively tedious and unproductive.
+
+Some moths also are lovers of sunshine, and while engaged in butterfly
+hunting you will often meet with a moth flying briskly from flower to
+flower and taking its fill of both sweetness and brightness. Again, as
+you wade among flowery herbs in quest of butterflies you will certainly
+disturb a number of moths, causing them to take a short flight in search
+of a safer spot. Thus you will almost invariably find a few moths among
+the contents of your collecting box even though you made no special
+effort to seek them out. But we shall now see how we may set to work to
+obtain a successful catch of moths at times when butterflies are not so
+much in demand, or during the less brilliant hours of the day, when
+butterflies are at rest.
+
+The apparatus required for this work need not differ in any important
+respect from that recommended for butterflies. The same net is used, any
+reliable killing bottle will do, and the pins and collecting box used
+for butterflies are equally serviceable. But your mode of procedure is
+very different.
+
+As you walk towards your proposed hunting ground you will do well to
+examine the trunks of trees, old walls, and wooden fences. In this way
+you will meet with moths fast asleep, which are consequently easily
+taken. All you have to do is to hold the open killing bottle obliquely
+just below the insect, and then push it gently downward with a small
+twig or stalk. As a rule the moth will drop direct into the bottle and
+make no attempt to fly away; but some are very light sleepers, ready to
+take flight at the slightest disturbance; and when dealing with these
+you must be careful to bring the mouth of the killing bottle so closely
+round them that there is no room for flight except into the bottle
+itself. It is well, however, not to take long at this kind of searching,
+but to reserve as much as possible of your time for what you consider to
+be a very favourable locality.
+
+Speaking generally, a good locality for butterflies is a favourable one
+also for moths, and you will do well to give special attention to
+well-grown hedges, especially those that surround clover fields; also
+overgrown banks, the borders of woods, open spaces in woods, the trunks
+of isolated trees, gravel pits, and old chalk quarries.
+
+Walk beside or among the undergrowth of woods, or among the tall herbage
+of waste places, tapping the branches and twigs with the handle of your
+net as you go. Then, if your locality is well selected, you will rouse
+moths to flight at almost every stroke. Some of these will shoot upward
+among the lofty branches and disappear quite beyond your reach; others
+will fly rather low and somewhat heavily, giving you favourable
+opportunities to try your skill with the net; others, again, will fly
+only a yard or so, and alight on a neighbouring leaf, often remaining so
+quiet that the killing bottle is easily made to inclose them.
+
+There are moths that show a decided preference for large trees. These
+may be seen hovering about high branches during the evening twilight,
+and sometimes even in sunshine. In many such cases the chance of a
+capture seems hopeless, but occasionally one will descend so low that a
+watchful collector is able to secure it by a sweep of the net.
+
+If at any time you are in a locality by day where you suspect the
+presence of certain species of moths at rest among the upper branches of
+trees, such branches should be beaten if possible to dislodge the
+insects they may shelter. A long stick will often serve this purpose
+well, and, failing this, a few stones thrown among the branches may
+prove effectual. In the case of small and rather slender trees, a kick
+against the trunk will set the whole in vibration sufficient to surprise
+all the lodgers; and the same effect may be produced with larger trees
+by giving each a good sound blow with a mallet or some other suitable
+implement.
+
+This or any other plan of 'beating' for moths is much more conveniently
+worked by two collectors together than by one alone; for one engaged in
+beating the herbage cannot be at the same time fully on the alert with
+the net. If two persons are together, one may take the lead, armed with
+the beating stick only, while the other, only very slightly in the rear,
+is always ready to strike.
+
+We have said that butterflies should always be killed in the field, but
+this plan is not so universally adopted with moths. Many collectors
+carry a large supply of pill boxes when going out for the latter and
+then take as many as they possibly can by boxing them direct in these.
+This method of 'pill-boxing' is very simple in the case of the lazy and
+soundly sleeping moths. It is only necessary to hold the open box below
+the insect, and then cause it to fall by pressing the lid down gently on
+it from above.
+
+Many of the moths so caught will remain quiet in the boxes and can be
+taken home alive without much fear of damage. All may then be killed at
+the same time by packing all the pill boxes in some vessel of sufficient
+accommodation, and shutting them in with a little chloroform, ammonia,
+benzole, or other suitable poison. The vapour will soon find its way
+through the pores of the pill boxes, but, in order to make its action
+speedy, each one should have a few perforations in the lid.
+
+Whatever advantages this method may give to the collector who works at
+night, when the process of pinning would be more or less tedious, there
+is no necessity for its adoption during the day. The large number of
+pill boxes required is certainly far more bulky than the single
+collecting box that would accommodate all the day's captures; and
+although most of the insects boxed alive may be none the worse for the
+shaking they get, and may not damage themselves by fluttering in their
+small prisons, yet there is often a little loss on this score.
+
+If you do adopt the pill-boxing method, be very careful that you do not
+mix the occupied boxes with the empties; and unless you fix on some
+definite plan for the prevention of such an occurrence, you will often
+find yourself releasing a prisoner from a box you have just opened to
+receive a new-comer.
+
+Suppose that you start with all your empties in your right pocket. Then
+each one, as soon as it is tenanted, might be placed in the _left_, with
+the name of the insect, or any particular concerning it you would wish
+to note, pencilled on the lid.
+
+When examining the trunks of trees you will be continually meeting with
+specimens of very small Moths--_Pyralides_, _Crambi_, _Tortrices_, and
+_Tineæ_--and at first may find some difficulty in boxing or bottling
+such small and delicate creatures. A grass stalk will enable you to tip
+some of them into your killing bottle, but some are so snugly packed in
+crevices of the bark that it is almost impossible to get them out
+without damage, even with a thin and slender stalk. But a sudden puff of
+wind from your mouth will often be sufficient to dislodge them and blow
+them into your net, and from this they are easily transferred to a box
+or bottle.
+
+These few hints will prove sufficient to start you on moth-hunting
+expeditions during the daytime, and will enable you to make good use of
+the dull days and cloudy hours when the butterflies are quiet; but we
+must now turn our attention to the night work of the entomologist, and
+see how we may attract and catch moths during their hours of work and
+play.
+
+
+_Searching for Moths at Night._
+
+It is a well-known fact that the night-flying moths are attracted by
+lights, a characteristic of these insects that it is difficult to
+explain. Their love of darkness is in many instances so decided that
+they absolutely refuse to take flight while the fading light of day
+still lingers on the horizon, and even display a great aversion to the
+rays of the moon; and yet these very same species will often rush madly
+into the fierce glare of a naked artificial light, or fly with an energy
+almost amounting to fury against the glass of a street lamp or lighted
+window.
+
+Puzzling as this peculiar tendency is, we can profitably turn it to our
+own account by making it a means of luring a number of moths into our
+presence.
+
+The simplest way of putting this mode of capture into effect is to post
+yourself at your open window, with net and cyanide bottle at hand, while
+the brightest light you can command casts its rays as far and as wide as
+possible into darkness outside. If you use an oil lamp for the purpose,
+let it stand just inside the window frame, or, if a jointed gas bracket
+happens to be situated beside the window, bend it round so that the rays
+may pass over a wide area outside.
+
+Two such lights are sometimes a very decided advantage--one quite
+outside the window to attract the moths from all possible points, and
+then another near the middle of the room to invite them inside. Whether
+you use either one or two lights, always see that it or they are so
+surrounded by a screen that the moths cannot by any possibility rush
+into the flame. There is nothing better for this purpose than a covering
+of light gauze, for this is not only a barrier for the prevention of the
+suicidal tendencies of the insects, but it also gives a good foothold to
+those who would like to rest and enjoy the luminous feast.
+
+You will soon begin to learn that moths, like ourselves, exhibit great
+differences in their ways of enjoying their festal moments. Some will
+satisfy themselves by flying _near_ the light in almost a straight
+course, hardly slackening their speed as they pass; or will, perhaps,
+make a hurried curve round the light and then pass on at once about
+other business. To catch these you must be always on the alert, with net
+in hand, ready to make a dash at the right moment. But many will make
+straight for the flame, and then, finding a barrier in the form of gauze
+or glass, will either flutter round and round as if dissatisfied with
+your attempt to save them from an untimely end, or else settle quietly
+on the screen to enjoy the brightness for a long period. The flutterers
+are usually easily covered by a glass or the open cyanide bottle, and as
+for those that settle down quietly, you can take them at your leisure.
+
+It will not do for a collector to depend solely on this method of
+obtaining moths, but at times when either his duties or the bad weather
+keeps him at home it affords him a means of capturing a few specimens
+that otherwise would have been missed. He may be even so busily engaged
+in other matters that he cannot afford the time to stand and watch with
+net in hand, but the insects that fly into his room and dance round the
+gas jet or inquisitively examine the white surface of the ceiling are
+easily netted or boxed without much loss of time.
+
+The chances of success at this kind of work will vary considerably with
+the aspect, the season, and the weather. If your window opens on a large
+flower or fruit garden, on a patch of wooded country with plenty of
+underwood, a piece of waste ground overgrown with rank vegetation, or a
+stretch of heath or moor, then you may expect a very large number of
+visitors; but if you are situated on a level and barren country, or in
+the dense atmosphere of a thickly populated district, you must not
+reckon on many intruders.
+
+As regards the season, this is more extended than that of the
+butterflies. A few species of moths may give you a call during the bleak
+nights of October and November, and also during the somewhat less dismal
+nights of February and March; but from April to September you may rely
+on a goodly number of captures. Of course you will not expect many of
+the 'rarities' and 'gems' to find you out; these are to be searched for
+in the open field in the manner to be presently described; but your
+lights will attract a large number of the commoner species of _Geometræ_
+and _Noctuæ_, the former _chiefly_ during the early summer, and the
+latter more or less throughout the season.
+
+A little experience will show you that the atmospheric conditions form a
+very important consideration. The dark and warm nights are the most
+productive. Very little luck is to be anticipated when the full moon is
+throwing down her silvery rays from a clear sky; nor will you see many
+while a cold east or north-east wind is blowing. Under these conditions
+many moths prefer to keep in the sheltered nooks where they slept away
+the sunny hours of the day. They love a warm and moist air such as calls
+forth the odours of the fragrant blossoms that provide their sweets, and
+show no dislike to a fine drizzling rain that you yourself would prefer
+to avoid. A pelting shower will generally keep them under cover, but
+they delight in the fresh and moist air that immediately succeeds the
+passing storm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--FRAME OF NET FOR COLLECTING INSECTS ON LAMPS
+AND WINDOWS.]
+
+If you reside on the outskirts of a town an occasional tour of
+inspection of street lamps may add a few specimens to your collection,
+and some entomologists attach so much importance to the value of these
+luminaries that they provide themselves with a special net for the
+removal of moths from the glass and rails (fig. 50). The straight side
+marked _a_ is applied to the panes of glass when flutterers or settlers
+are to be taken, and the bend on the opposite side is to secure those
+that rest on the rail. Such a frame is easily made by bending a piece of
+stout wire to the required shape, and then soldering it to a ferrule to
+receive a long stick. The net itself should not be deep.
+
+Many different forms of traps are now made for catching moths, and these
+are deservedly coming rapidly into favour. They are generally
+constructed on a 'catch-'em-alive-oh' principle, and have the advantage
+that, after having been set, they may be left alone all night without
+any watching, and give an ambitious collector the opportunity of taking
+insects in his garden and searching in the open field both at the same
+time.
+
+One of these traps may be constructed as follows at the cost of only a
+few pence over the price of a small paraffin lamp. Put together a square
+box, the sides about two feet and the front open, or procure a suitable
+one from your grocer. Place a paraffin lamp with a bright tin reflector
+at the back of this, and make a hole in the top just over the chimney to
+allow the heated air to pass out freely. Three sheets of glass are now
+to be placed as shown in the sketch (fig. 51), one upright piece
+completely shutting off the lamp, and two others placed obliquely with a
+space between them just large enough to allow admission. These must be
+exactly the width of the box, and should not be permanently fixed, but
+simply resting on small wooden supports nailed on to the sides. When
+required for use, it is only necessary to light up the lamp, strew some
+dead leaves on the bottom of the box, and put the sheets in their
+places. It will be seen at once that the angles at which they are placed
+will direct all light-seekers into the lower compartment, whence they
+are not at all likely to find their way out again; and after vain
+endeavours to reach the light they finally settle down on the sides of
+the box or seek shelter among the dead leaves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--A TRAP FOR CATCHING MOTHS.]
+
+Occasionally it happens that an entomologist is lucky enough to claim
+the friendship of a person who, from the nature of his calling, is
+peculiarly well qualified to render him great assistance. Thus a
+friendly lamplighter, expert and patient in the use of the cyanide
+bottle or pill box, is capable of giving valuable aid at times; and the
+keeper of a lighthouse has it in his power to capture many a gem that is
+seldom seen on the wing; but, although much may be done by means of
+these and other stationary lights, this kind of work does not compare
+favourably with the night rambles of a naturalist in the very haunts of
+the objects of his search.
+
+For such out-door work in search of moths a good lantern is essential.
+An ordinary 'bull's-eye' is almost useless, for, although it
+concentrates a good light on certain objects, the narrow range of its
+rays constitutes a strong objection to its use for entomological work.
+For this purpose it is necessary that the rays of light not only pass in
+front of you, but also shoot off right and left to warn you of the
+approach of a moth before it is too late to wield the net. This wide
+range may be obtained by means of three flat glass sides, or, better
+still, by a bent plate glass front.
+
+In addition to this you must go out provided with your net, killing
+bottle, and a number of pill boxes. Choose your night according to the
+hints already given, and if you are on the look-out for any particular
+species, be careful that the date of your outing is well timed, making
+any necessary allowances for the forwardness or backwardness of the
+season, for a moth that is generally due on a certain _average_ time of
+the year may appear some weeks sooner if the preceding weeks have been
+unusually warm, or its emergence may be delayed considerably by the
+prevalence of cold east winds or a late frost.
+
+Make up your mind as to the field of your operations before you start,
+and if possible choose a route that will carry you through a variety of
+situations, so that you may pass the favourite haunts of a number of
+different species. Clearings in woods with an abundant undergrowth,
+waste places with plenty of tall and rank vegetation, overgrown railway
+banks, clover fields, the flowery borders of corn fields, plantations in
+parks, heaths and moors, sheltered and overgrown hollows such as chalk
+pits and old disused quarries, reed and marsh land, all these are good
+localities, each one inhabited by its own peculiar species, and if your
+route runs through a fair variety of such places you may, other things
+being equally favourable, depend on a good catch.
+
+See that your time also is well chosen. Of course you cannot say exactly
+what the night will be till it actually comes, and, as you have to start
+off before it is dark, you must consider the probabilities of the future
+from the present condition of the air. Let it be a night when a bright
+moon is not due, and if it follow a warm and moist day with a south or
+south-west wind, or if drizzly, so much the better; but let your feet be
+shod with boots that will permit you to wade through moist herbage
+without danger, and take a waterproof if necessary.
+
+It is always advisable to be on your hunting ground before twilight sets
+in, as a number of moths venture out before the sun has disappeared; and
+then you can work on till midnight if you feel inclined, or even extend
+your labours till the early hours of the morning.
+
+Before dusk you will meet with many of the little _Tortrices_ (page 298)
+in sheltered spots, and a little later the _Geometræ_ and Hawks will be
+on the wing. Thus, before dark, you may make good use of your net,
+dealing with your captures just in the same way as recommended in the
+case of butterflies.
+
+After a time, however, the lantern will have to be brought to your
+assistance in making known the whereabouts of the later species,
+consisting chiefly of the _Noctuæ_, many of which do not make their
+appearance till it is quite dark. If now you carry your lantern in your
+left hand, your work will be rendered somewhat difficult and tedious,
+for, although one hand is sufficient to manage the net properly, you are
+compelled to rest your light on the ground every time you make a
+capture, as it is impossible to box your specimens unless both hands are
+quite free. This difficulty is easily overcome by suspending the lantern
+by means of a string or strap placed round your neck, allowing it to
+hang on your chest; and a further advantage is gained by having a second
+strap round your chest to prevent it from swaying about with every
+movement of your body. This arrangement gives you both hands perfectly
+free during the whole time, and also prevents the necessity of
+continually bringing yourself into a stooping or kneeling posture while
+you are examining or boxing the specimens you have netted.
+
+There are now two courses open to you. Either you can kill and pin the
+moths as you catch them, fixing each one securely in the collecting box,
+or you may simply shut each one in a separate pill box and leave the
+remainder of the work to be done at home. If the ordinary collecting box
+only is used, a little of your time is necessarily occupied in pinning
+and transferring, and if many insects are about such an occupation may
+appear to you to be a waste of valuable time. But this is not all. Often
+and often will you find that while thus engaged a splendid moth will
+come and flutter round your light; and, before you have time to drop
+your collecting box and pick up the net, the fine creature you would
+have prized has darted off again. This certainly seems to speak in
+favour of the pill-boxing method, but it must be remembered that a few
+of the moths will continue to flutter after they have been boxed, so
+that when you arrive home they are more or less damaged, a large number
+of the scales that once adorned the wings now lying on the sides and
+bottom of the boxes. Perhaps the best plan is to take both the
+collecting box and also a quantity of pill boxes, and a little
+experience will soon show you which is the better accommodation for
+certain kinds.
+
+Particular attention must be paid to flowers, some of which are very
+attractive to the _Noctuæ_ especially. Sallow blossom in spring and ivy
+bloom in autumn should be carefully and frequently watched, and at
+other times the blossoms of heather, ragwort, bramble, clover, and
+various other flowers must be searched.
+
+As you cast the rays of the lantern on the feasting moths some will
+prove themselves very wary, and dart away at your approach; but others
+will take but little notice of your advance, and will continue to suck
+the sweet nectar, their eyes glaring like living sparks.
+
+As a rule the _Noctuæ_ thus engaged are easily pill-boxed or caught
+direct in the cyanide bottle; but a few of the more restless species are
+to be made sure of only by a sweep of the net. Some will feign death as
+soon as disturbed, and allow themselves to drop among the foliage, where
+further search is generally fruitless.
+
+Another common difficulty arises from the inconvenient height of many of
+the attractive blossoms--often so great that it is impossible to reach
+them with the net, and very difficult to direct the rays of your lantern
+on them. This is particularly the case with sallow and ivy, the flowers
+of which are two rich sources of supply to the entomologist.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--NET AND LANTERN FOR TAKING MOTHS FROM HIGH
+BLOSSOMS.]
+
+Those who intend giving special attention to these blossoms should be
+provided with some form of apparatus that will enable them to extend
+their operations as high as possible. Perhaps the most effective
+arrangement is the well-known combination here figured. It consists of a
+long and stout stick, at the top of which is a tubular joint (fig. 52)
+that might be termed a T-piece were it not that the smaller part does
+not stand out at right angles to the other. In this is fixed, in a
+straight line with the stick, a short rod on which hangs a lantern--an
+ordinary bull's-eye answers well here; and in the smaller tube is
+another short rod carrying a shallow basin-shaped net, and of such a
+length that the net is just in advance of the lantern.
+
+At first sight this arrangement will strike you as being very
+unsatisfactory, there being no kind of trap to prevent the escape of the
+insects. But it must be remembered that moths are more or less addicted
+to habits of intemperance--that they will hold on to the supply of the
+sweet fluid they enjoy till they are ready to drop with intoxication.
+This being the case, some will fall into your net as soon as they are
+startled by the sudden and near approach of the glare of your lamp, and
+others are easily _made_ to fall therein by gently tapping the
+flower-bearing stems from below with the edge of the ring.
+
+Having become acquainted with this very sad propensity, which thus
+brings ruin to so many unfortunate moths, can we not yet further turn
+their evil doings to our own profit in our endeavours to become
+acquainted with their structure and history? Most certainly we can. All
+we have to do is to distribute in their haunts a bountiful supply of
+some artificial intoxicant such as they love, and then lie in wait for
+the victims that fall a prey to our snare. This process is known to
+entomologists as 'sugaring,' and is a splendid means of securing an
+abundance of species, often including some rare ones that are scarcely
+to be obtained by any other plan. Let us now inquire into the _modus
+operandi_ of this interesting operation.
+
+The first thing to do is to prepare the luring sweetmeat. Supply
+yourself with a quantity of strong, dark treacle, and also some dark
+brown sugar; always remembering, in the selection of these viands, that
+odour rather than purity is to be the guide. The best kinds of sugar are
+those very dark and moist brands imported in a raw state from the West
+Indies, nothing being better than that known as 'Jamaica Foots.'
+
+Mix about equal quantities of these with a little stale beer, and boil
+and stir till all the sugar is dissolved. The consistency of the mixture
+should be such that it will work well with a brush when used as a
+paint--not too thick, nor so thin that it is easily absorbed by the
+substance on which it is 'painted,' nor must it be in such a fluid
+condition that it easily runs.
+
+When satisfied on these points, transfer the mixture to a tin canister,
+see it properly covered, and set it aside as your 'stock' from which you
+can draw supplies as required. Now secure an ordinary painter's brush of
+convenient size, and a number of strips of linen or other rag, each one
+of which is fastened to a hook formed of bent wire. These items,
+together with the usual lantern, collecting box, pill boxes, and killing
+bottle, complete your outfit for the sugaring expedition.
+
+When the selected time for operations has arrived, take sufficient
+'sugar' for your night's work, mix it well with sufficient strong rum to
+give it a very decided odour, and start off at dusk with this and the
+other requisites just mentioned.
+
+The night chosen should be warm and calm, with a rather damp atmosphere,
+and no moon preferred. Let your locality be a well-wooded one;
+abounding, if possible, with giant oaks and other trees, and containing
+open spaces with plenty of underwood and rank herbage. Such localities
+are to be met with at their best in forest lands, and if you would do
+wonders at sugaring you cannot do better than arrange for spending your
+holidays in such a spot as the New Forest, taking with you sufficient
+'sugar' for several nights' work.
+
+Having reached a likely spot of no very great extent, you prepare for
+real work. Light up the lamp, and get out your sugaring tin and brush
+ready for action. Take your course along some definite track that you
+are sure to remember, painting vertical strips of sugar, about a foot
+long, on the trunks of trees or on palings, and hanging strips of rag
+that have just been steeped in the sugar on the branches of small trees
+and shrubs where you do not find good surfaces for the brush.
+
+After satisfying yourself concerning the amount of sugar distributed,
+retrace your steps, examining every patch of sugar as you go. It will
+not be long before signs of life appear. Earwigs, spiders, centipedes
+and slugs will soon search out the luscious feast, but unless the time
+and the locality are ill chosen, the lantern will soon reveal a goodly
+number of moths, with eyes glaring like little balls of fire, greedily
+devouring the bounteous repast. These will consist chiefly of _Noctuæ_,
+but _Sphinges_, _Geometræ_ and numerous small species also join the
+company.
+
+Some will exhibit a restless disposition, either darting off before you
+make a close approach, or keeping their wings in rapid vibration as if
+to be fully prepared for a hasty retreat when occasion demands. These
+must receive your attention first; and, having secured them, proceed to
+box as many as you require of the more lazy and gluttonous species.
+
+As a rule, moths thus engaged are easily pill-boxed, but the livelier
+ones will not submit to such treatment without attempting to escape. The
+best way to secure these is either to cover them with the opened cyanide
+bottle (or its substitute), and replace the cork as soon as a favourable
+opportunity occurs; or to perform the same feat with a glass-bottomed
+pill box.
+
+The advantage of the latter over the ordinary boxes will be seen at
+once. After the insect is covered, its movements can be watched, and so
+a favourable opportunity can be seized for snapping on the lid.
+
+As already stated, some moths feign death when in danger, allowing
+themselves to fall in places where they are often quite safe from
+capture. Others allow themselves to fall simply because they have so
+gorged themselves with the intoxicating sweet that they can no longer
+maintain their hold. Both these classes of sugar seekers may easily be
+secured by means of a net commonly known as the 'sugaring net.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--FRAME FOR THE SUGARING NET.]
+
+This implement is so simple in its construction that anyone can easily
+make his own. The frame may consist of two straight wires or canes fixed
+in a metal Y, and the other ends joined by a piece of strong string or
+catgut as shown in fig. 54. The net itself need not be deep. As soon as
+you reach a tree where moths are feeding on the sugar, press the string
+of the net against the bark just below them. The string at once assumes
+the form of the trunk so well that you may be sure of every insect that
+falls while you are boxing.
+
+For this work both hands must be free, and this is easily managed in
+spite of the number of appliances called into service. The lantern is
+slung round your neck and secured by a strap round the chest. The
+'sugaring net' has a very short stick, and just while you are engaged in
+boxing specimens, it may be gently held against the trunk by a slight
+pressure of the body. But such precautions as these are necessary only
+when the night worker is out alone. There are many circumstances,
+however, that render the work of two or more in company much more
+enjoyable than that of a single-handed entomologist. The labours are
+considerably expedited where a division enables each one of the night
+ramblers to take a particular portion of the work; and if there is such
+a person as a nervous entomologist, that individual should on no account
+go a sugaring in lonely spots on dark nights. Every rustling leaf gives
+such a one a start; all footsteps are those of approaching disturbers of
+the peace; and when at last the invisible landowner or his keeper,
+attracted by the mysterious movements of the lamp, greets him with his
+gruff 'What's your business here?' then for the moment he forgets his
+enchanting hobby and wishes he were safely at home.
+
+It is certainly advisable to take a friend, whether an entomologist or
+not, on such expeditions; and if you intend working on private grounds,
+always make previous arrangements with the property owner, that you may
+fear no foes and dread no surprises; for a sugarer is far more sure of
+success in his work if he keeps a cool head and has nothing to think
+about for the time being but his moths and his boxes.
+
+A few hours at this interesting employment pass away very rapidly, and
+when midnight arrives there is often no great desire to leave off,
+especially when it is known that some species of moths are not very busy
+till very late at night. Still it is not advisable to surfeit oneself
+with even the sweets of life. Perhaps it is better as a rule to work the
+early species only on one night, and reserve another for the later ones.
+The searchings are then always carried on with vigour throughout, and
+the labours that are thus never made laborious ever retain their
+attractiveness in the future.
+
+It has often been observed that, when sugaring has been carried on for a
+few successive nights in the same locality, the success is greater each
+night than on the one preceding it. Hence it is a common practice to
+work a chosen 'run' for two, three, or more nights in succession; and
+some collectors even go so far as to lay on the bait for a night or two
+previous to starting work. For the same reason it is often advisable to
+continue the use of a fairly productive beat rather than to wander in
+search of a new one.
+
+In the neighbourhood of large towns one may often meet with patches of
+sugared bark that mark the course and extent of a brother entomologist's
+beat, and such are valuable to an inexperienced amateur in that they
+give him some idea of the nature of the localities that are chosen by
+more expert collectors. But it must be remembered that each entomologist
+has a moral right to a run he has baited, and that it is considered
+ungentlemanly, if not unjust, to take insects from sugar laid by
+another. I have sometimes seen cards, bearing the names of the
+collectors and the date of working, tacked on to baited trees and
+fences, thus establishing their temporary exclusive rights to the use of
+their runs. Such precautions are not necessary in large tracts of forest
+land, where the choice of runs is practically unlimited.
+
+There are two other modes of capture available to the moth
+collector--the use of decoy females, and the employment of 'sugar
+traps'--and both these may be used on the sugaring run, or at other
+times either in the woods or in your own garden.
+
+The wonderful acuteness of the sense by which the males of certain
+species are enabled to seek out the females has already been alluded to,
+and the possession of a suitable decoy will often bring you a number of
+beautiful admirers without the least trouble, except that taken in
+securing the decoy and preparing her temporary abode. It is absolutely
+necessary that the female moth be one that has recently emerged, and
+consequently you had better secure her in one of her earlier stages,
+either by previous rearing or by collecting the pupæ.
+
+A little cage composed of a framework of wire covered with gauze must
+now be made. Perhaps the simplest pattern is that illustrated. Here the
+gauze is attached to two wire rings, only a few inches in diameter, and
+suspended by a string. Such a cage answers every purpose in the field,
+and has the advantage of folding into an exceedingly small space when
+not in use. It may be suspended in your garden or taken into the field
+whenever you have a suitable decoy at your disposal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--CAGE FOR DECOY FEMALES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--A SUGAR TRAP.]
+
+The sugar trap may be of much the same pattern as that in which a light
+is used, but if intended for field work it should be of a convenient
+size for portability. A lighter and far more convenient form may be
+constructed as follows:
+
+Procure a large cylindrical tin box, and cut a circular piece of
+perforated zinc just small enough to drop into it. Then make two wire
+rings, one a _little larger_ than the top of the tin, and the other only
+about an inch in diameter. Next make a conical net of leno, open at both
+ends, and of such a size that the two rings may form the frames of its
+two extremities. When the trap is required for use, cut a circular
+piece of flannel or other absorbent, steep it in sugar that has just
+been flavoured with rum, and place it in the bottom of the tin. Then
+place a few pebbles of equal size around the sides to support the zinc
+partition, drop in the partition, and then allow the net to hang on the
+rim as shown in the sketch.
+
+This arrangement will explain itself. The moths, attracted by the sweet
+perfume, flutter about in the net till at last they find their way
+through the small ring. Once in, they make further attempts to reach the
+sugar; and, at last, finding all efforts fruitless, and, like Paddy at
+the fair, not being able to discover the 'entrance out,' they finally
+settle down in a disappointed mood awaiting your pleasure.
+
+Perhaps another word of explanation is necessary here. Why not allow the
+poor creatures to reach the sugar that attracted them to the spot? The
+reason is this. They sometimes gorge themselves to such an extent that
+their bodies, dilated to the fullest capacity with syrup, are a bit
+troublesome when the insects are placed in the cabinet. It is therefore
+advisable to see that the zinc is so far above the sugar that the moths
+are unable to reach the latter by thrusting their extended proboscides
+through the perforations. A few dead leaves scattered on the zinc is
+also a useful addition, since it affords shelter to such of the insects
+as prefer it.
+
+This is a very useful trap to keep in one's garden throughout the
+season. It may not attract large numbers, but it has the advantage that
+it requires no watching. It is simply necessary to set it at dusk, and
+remove the captives in the morning or at your leisure.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+_COLLECTING OVA, LARVÆ, AND PUPÆ_
+
+
+We have already observed that insects should, as a rule, be set as soon
+as possible after their capture; and it would therefore seem that this
+is the proper place for instructions in this part of the work. But it so
+happens that butterflies and moths are to be obtained by means other
+than those already described, and we shall therefore consider these
+previous to the study of the various processes connected with the
+setting and preserving of our specimens.
+
+Were we to confine our attention to the capture of the perfect forms
+only, our knowledge of the _Lepidoptera_ would be scanty indeed, for we
+should then be ignorant of the earlier stages of the creatures' lives,
+and have no opportunity of witnessing the wonderful transformations
+through which they have to pass.
+
+Such an imperfect acquaintance with butterflies and moths will, I hope,
+not satisfy the readers of these pages; so it is intended, in the next
+two chapters, to give a little assistance to those who would like to
+know how to set to work at the collection of their eggs and larvæ, how
+to search for the pupæ, and how to rear the insects from the stage at
+which they are acquired till they finally emerge in the perfect form.
+
+These portions of an entomologist's work certainly take up a great deal
+of his time, and also require much patience and perseverance; but the
+advantages derived cannot be over-estimated, for in addition to the
+knowledge gained of the early stages of insect life, this kind of work
+will enable him to place in his cabinet a number of gems he would
+otherwise have not and probably know not. Occasionally a prize may be
+obtained in the form of a cluster of eggs (_ova_) of a rare species, in
+many instances the larvæ are to be obtained with comparative ease, while
+the perfect insects of the same species are not often seen or not easily
+captured, and many a rare pupa has been dug out of its hiding place
+during a season when the entomologist had but little other work to
+occupy his time.
+
+These and other similar subjects we shall now consider in turn.
+
+
+_Collecting Ova_
+
+The collection of ova may be carried on more or less throughout the
+year. A number of moths are out in February, and even in January if the
+weather is mild. These soon lay their eggs, which are hatched about the
+time that the buds of the food plant are breaking. From this time till
+late in the summer the ova of various species are being deposited, the
+average period from laying to hatching being from two to three weeks.
+Then, during the autumn, when the leaves of food plants are turning
+brown and crisp, ova are still being laid, but these remain unchanged
+till the new buds of the following spring are bursting.
+
+Of course if you intend searching for the ova of particular species you
+must previously ascertain the favourite haunts of those species, become
+acquainted with their food plants, and also with the season or seasons
+during which the eggs are laid. But the few following hints will suffice
+as general instructions for the search.
+
+In nearly all cases we must expect to find ova on the food plants of the
+respective species, but at times, especially with certain moths, we may
+come across them in the most unlikely spots. Thus, it sometimes happens
+that a moth settles on a street lamp, and lays her eggs on the framework
+round the glass, or even on the glass itself. The same thing may take
+place on the sash or glass of a brightly lighted window.
+
+Such occurrences, however, we must regard as accidental and
+comparatively rare, and therefore we confine our searchings for ova to
+the food plants of the species we require.
+
+As a rule the under sides of the leaves will yield the most, but we have
+already noticed (page 18) that some moths leave their eggs exposed on
+the upper surface. Again, some larvæ feed on flowers and seeds and
+fruit, and the eggs of such are deposited on these parts. Those insects
+which feed on the leaves of shrubs and trees often lay their eggs on
+trunks, branches and twigs. Sometimes these are laid singly, sometimes
+in dense clusters; and it is not unusual to find them arranged in rings
+or spirals with great regularity. When examining the trunks of trees for
+ova it is necessary to look well into the crevices of the bark, for some
+insects take particular care to lay them in deep sheltered chinks; but
+others take no such precautions, and deposit them on exposed ridges or
+plain surfaces where they are easily discovered.
+
+One difficulty of the ova collector lies in the fact that many insects
+lay on the upper branches of large trees. Of course a search for these
+is out of the question; but in places where the trees have been cut down
+a few years previously, and where a consequent undergrowth has
+developed, there are considerable chances of success with these species.
+Young saplings of trees often yield well, especially in places where
+tall trees of the same species are absent. It may be mentioned, too,
+that some moths (page 294) actually lay their eggs beneath the surface
+of water, depositing them on the under surfaces of floating pond weeds;
+and others (page 298) even enter the nests of wasps and bees for the
+same purpose. It is clear, then, from these few remarks, that the work
+of an ambitious collector of insects' eggs is by no means a monotonous
+task; for his employment takes him into the meadows and woods, leads him
+to the banks of ponds, and even compels him to tear down banks and
+hedges for the nests of _Hymenoptera_ at the risk of a sting or two.
+
+One of the most productive sources of eggs is undoubtedly the possession
+of captured females. When you are out netting butterflies you often see
+a female that is evidently engaged in her matronly duties. Instead of
+seeking food from the various flowers in her path, she pays attention
+only to the foliage, looking out a suitable leaf on which to deposit her
+eggs. Should you meet with an insect thus engaged which you would like
+to rear at home, or of which you would like to know the egg, secure it
+in a perforated pill box with a leaf of the proper plant; and it will
+often supply you with abundance of eggs for your purpose, in many cases
+depositing them in the box before you arrive home. The eggs of numerous
+species of moths are also to be easily obtained from captured females.
+
+Some insects do not seem inclined to deposit their eggs in captivity as
+freely as when at large, and in order to induce them to do so we must,
+as far as possible, put them in their natural conditions. Let them have
+plenty of room, and supply them with fresh twigs of their food plants,
+kept green by standing them in vessels of water. It is also advisable,
+supposing you are not well acquainted with the dispositions of the
+species you have, to keep a portion of the box well shaded from direct
+sunlight, and allow another part to be as bright as possible; for some
+species will not lay in a bright light, while others will not do so
+without it.
+
+Again, while some deposit their eggs within a few hours of quitting the
+pupa case, others do not lay for several days. With regard to the
+latter, it is frequently necessary to feed them while in captivity, by
+placing in the box a piece of rag or sponge that has been dipped in
+honey or syrup.
+
+Each batch of ova should be carefully examined with a view to knowing
+them by sight on a future occasion. A sketch should be made in your note
+book, showing every detail that you can make out with the aid of a good
+lens. Then observations concerning the season, colour of the eggs, the
+situation in which deposited, arrangement, and any other useful
+particulars, should be entered.
+
+In the next chapter some hints will be given concerning the management
+of ova and the rearing of the larvæ from the time of hatching.
+
+
+_Collecting Larvæ_
+
+This occupation is generally far more productive to the entomologist
+than searching for ova. The latter are very small, usually well
+concealed, and to be detected only by a careful scrutinising use of the
+eyes; but the superior size of the larvæ, the frequent bright colouring,
+and the fact that they are easily beaten from their hold, render the
+searchings of their hunters comparatively easy and fruitful.
+
+Before setting out on a larva-hunting expedition, there are a few
+requisites to prepare. These include not only the implements for your
+work in the field, but also the cages in which you intend to rear your
+little captives. The latter are described a little later on under the
+head 'Rearing Lepidoptera,' and the former we will now briefly
+summarise.
+
+The outfit must consist of a quantity of suitable boxes, a stout hooked
+stick, a strong net, and a white material to place under the herbage
+while you are 'beating.'
+
+'Larva boxes' are usually made of zinc, and have little sliding doors in
+the lids, so that the lids need not be removed while out of doors after
+the fragment of the required food plant has been inserted. Such boxes
+are not by any means essential. Small tin boxes will answer all purposes
+nearly as well, providing a number of small holes be made in them for
+the admission of air. Chip boxes are also fairly satisfactory, but these
+also should be perforated. The best way to do this is to push a red-hot
+iron wire through the chip, making about half a dozen small holes in
+each box. This method will give you clean holes of a uniform size
+without otherwise injuring the boxes.
+
+Metal boxes possess the advantage that they keep the food plants moist
+for a long time, while chip boxes allow them to dry rather rapidly. Yet
+there are some larvæ that do far better in the latter, since such a
+quantity of moisture exudes through their skins that they soon become
+uncomfortably wet if their apartment is not well ventilated. Under these
+circumstances perhaps it is better to take a supply of both, so that
+changes may be made as found necessary.
+
+One grave objection to chip boxes, however, is the weakness of the
+material. They are easily crushed by pressure, and a bottom or a top
+disc of wood often falls out; but this is easily overcome by gluing
+narrow strips of calico round the top and bottom edges. Chip boxes
+should always be treated in this way, and they will then last five or
+six times as long.
+
+Your supply of boxes should always include one large one of metal in
+which to bring home a supply of food for the larvæ. If you have a
+botanist's vasculum, by all means take it, for nothing can serve this
+purpose better. If not, any rather large square tin box will do, and
+this may be carried in your satchel, or a couple of hooks may be
+soldered to it so that a leather strap can be fixed for slinging it over
+your shoulder.
+
+The net required is that commonly known as the 'sweep net.' It must be
+very strong, for it has to submit to rather rough usage. The frame must
+be made of thick wire; and the bag, which need not be more than a foot
+deep, should be of strong calico or holland.
+
+Now with regard to the white material previously mentioned. This may be
+a square of calico, hemmed round the edges. Nothing is more convenient
+than this, as it occupies but little room in the pocket when not in use,
+if neatly folded. The material need not be thick, but the larger it is
+the better. Many prefer a white umbrella or an ordinary umbrella with a
+white lining, but as this is only a matter of taste and convenience you
+must decide for yourself as to which you will use.
+
+If your field of operations is only a little way from your head
+quarters, and quantity of luggage therefore not a serious consideration,
+you may provide yourself with a heavy mallet, loaded if necessary with a
+pound or two of lead. This will prove very useful in shaking larvæ from
+trees and large branches. Lastly, take a pencil and a note book or
+writing paper for your observations in the field.
+
+Now for the choice of the season. Larvæ are to be found all the year
+round. Early in the spring, as soon as the buds are bursting, some break
+out of the eggs recently laid by the moths that appear in February and
+March. Later on, during April and May, a host of both butterflies and
+moths are busy arranging for their broods. Then, throughout the whole of
+the summer, thousands of caterpillars of all sorts and sizes are to be
+met with everywhere. And finally, during the bleak winter months, you
+may amuse yourself by digging the hybernators out of their hiding places
+where they rest themselves till the spring sun again calls them out to
+refresh them with the young and tender leaves of a new year. Thus,
+unless you are merely intending to search out certain species you happen
+to require, there is not much difficulty in settling on the season.
+
+The day selected should be dry, for your work lies among the herbage of
+banks, meadows, and woods, and nothing is more unpleasant than wading
+through a wet and dense vegetation, or beating down on yourself a shower
+of large drops from the branches of trees and shrubs.
+
+Having reached the hunting ground, the first thing to do is to look out
+for _signs_ of the presence of larvæ rather than for the larvæ
+themselves. Healthy vegetation with sound leaves must be passed by as
+untenanted; but the presence of partly eaten foliage immediately arouses
+suspicion.
+
+A little experience will soon enable you to distinguish between the
+ravages of larvæ and of slugs, snails, wasps, &c. Some of the smaller
+larvæ certainly eat out clean holes like those cut by _Hymenopterous_
+insects, but as a rule they bite away at the edges, leaving the midrib
+and the larger veins standing out almost naked.
+
+By looking well into the edges of the eaten leaves, it is easy to see
+whether the marauders have been recently at work. If they are dried up
+and discoloured, it is not of much use to search; but if still green and
+moist, you may feel almost sure that the hungry larvæ are not far off.
+
+In this case you will carefully turn over the leaves to examine the
+under sides, and also the leaf stalks and branches or stems; but you
+must be prepared for all kinds of protective mimicry. Little green
+caterpillars will be seen lying on the midrib or veins, so straight and
+so still that they are scarcely perceptible. Others are snugly tucked in
+a depression of a leaf with the same result. Then we must also be
+prepared for the artful little tricks of the larvæ of _Geometræ_ (p.
+268), by which they imitate stalks and twigs so closely that a sharp eye
+is necessary to discriminate between the two.
+
+While thus searching we may meet with the cast skin of a caterpillar.
+This gives us fresh hopes, and so we continue our careful examination.
+At last, on grasping a leaf in order to turn it over for inspection, we
+feel something hairy or something soft and smooth. But lo! it is gone.
+It is one of those numerous caterpillars that feign death and drop to
+the ground on the slightest sign of danger. We search below for it, but
+the density of the vegetation renders this hopeless, and we are just
+about to start off in search of a more productive locality when we espy
+a quantity of the excrement of larvæ lying on a little bare patch of
+ground close by. This gives us a new idea. Here is another indication of
+the presence of the creatures we require, one that we can put into
+practice; and by-and-by we learn that in many cases this is really the
+surest sign of their whereabouts.
+
+We look at these little pellets of excrement, and gain at once some idea
+of the _size_ of the larvæ that produce them. Then we observe whether
+they are fresh and moist, or dry and stale. If the latter, it is not of
+much use to examine the leaves above; but if otherwise, there is little
+doubt of our meeting with larvæ, as the present position they occupy is
+so truly marked. The leaves just over them are carefully examined,
+either by turning them over as before described, or, if the height of
+the foliage admits of it, by placing our heads below and looking upward.
+
+If we find that the larvæ are some of those that endeavour to escape by
+feigning death and allowing themselves to drop at the slightest
+disturbance, the net is always kept beneath the leaves we are touching
+in order to intercept them in their downward journey.
+
+Continuing the search, we meet with leaves that are rolled up and bound
+with silk threads, and others that are drawn together and similarly
+bound. These are carefully uncurled and pulled asunder with the result
+that active little larvæ are exposed to view, or, it may be, pupæ are
+discovered. In some cases flowers are drawn together in just the same
+way, and an examination reveals one or more of the species that prefer
+petals and other parts of flowers to the green leaves.
+
+Silken threads always arouse our suspicions. These may be seen lying on
+the surfaces of leaves, and passing from one leaf to another, or they
+may be hanging perpendicularly from the branches of trees above. In the
+latter case a larva may be frequently seen on the lower extremity of the
+fibre, swinging gently in the breeze, and, should we require it, we have
+only to place the open box below for its reception.
+
+Hawthorn and other trees are sometimes seen almost devoid of leaves,
+nearly every bit of green having been greedily devoured by a host of
+small larvæ. In such cases we often meet with dense clusters of silk
+fibres that may easily be mistaken for spiders' nests. But when we look
+more closely into the structure we observe that we have discovered
+instead nests of gregarious larvæ, such a large number being in each
+little community that the deplorable appearance of the tree is at once
+explained.
+
+A little farther on we meet with a sickly-looking plant in the midst of
+a number of flourishing individuals of the same species, and stop to
+make inquiries into the cause of this strange occurrence. Is it due to a
+poorness of the soil? No, this cannot be the case; for intermingled with
+its roots are those of its flourishing companions. We pluck a stunted
+and half-shrivelled leaf and examine it. At first we do not notice the
+cause of its peculiar condition; but, holding it up to the light, and
+looking _through_ it, we see a number of little galleries that have been
+eaten out of its internal soft substance, leaving the thin skin
+(_epidermis_) almost entirely intact. But nothing more is to be seen.
+Another leaf is examined in exactly the same way; and here we see the
+little destroyer, lying motionless in its burrow till a gentle pressure
+applied against it from outside causes it to wriggle along its narrow
+passage. This is the larva of one of the little leaf miners mentioned
+again on page 303.
+
+Reaching a little marshy spot we see a number of water-loving reeds,
+most of them beautifully green and in a flourishing condition, but here
+and there in their midst is a poor stunted specimen--another result of
+the ravages of the larvæ of one or more moths. An examination of the
+blades reveals nothing; but on splitting open the stalk we discover some
+larvæ that have already devoured a quantity of the internal pith, and
+thus endangered the life of the plant. On inspecting other similar reeds
+we are at first puzzled as to how the larvæ could get inside the stems
+without damaging the outer portion; but at last we see in each one a
+little discoloured hole that was eaten out by the young caterpillar
+just after its escape from the egg. Once within the reed, it found a
+plentiful supply of food, and there grew at the expense of the plant
+without doing any further external damage save by causing a stunted
+growth.
+
+It may be that the stem eaters we have found are just about full grown.
+If so we examine a number of the stems with a hope that we may find one
+or two that are just about to change to the chrysalis state, or even a
+pupa already formed. By this means we may secure one of the perfect
+insects without the necessity of feeding larvæ at home. Such a
+consideration becomes a most important one when it happens that the
+required food plant is one that cannot be easily obtained.
+
+Close by the reeds is another water-loving plant in the form of an old
+willow tree. This is always an attractive object to the entomologist, so
+it comes in for a share of our inspection. On its leaves we may find
+several species of the larvæ of _Lepidoptera_, including those of some
+of our largest insects. But a strange feature catches our eyes as we
+happen to glance at the bark of the tree. Here we see a few holes of
+different sizes, about which are a number of little fragments of wood
+that remind us of 'sawdust;' and, examining the ground below, we see
+quite a little heap of this dust, looking just as if a carpenter had
+been at work on the spot.
+
+This is not the effect of a saw, however; it is a sure sign of the
+ravages of wood-eating larvæ (p. 224), whose powerful jaws gain them
+admittance into the very hearts of trees, and the application of the
+nose to one of the larger holes leaves no doubt of the presence of the
+large and beautiful caterpillar of the Goat Moth (p. 224).
+
+If we require any of these wood-eaters, either for rearing or for
+preservation, we must be prepared for a little rather heavy work. A
+strong pocket knife is not sufficient, but with a good chisel the wood
+can be gradually cut away, and the galleries traced, till at last we
+come to the larvæ snugly resting in their burrows.
+
+It often happens that the tree thus tenanted is half decayed, and
+consequently the work is rendered much easier. Also, while tearing away
+the wood, we often meet with a number of cocoons that have been
+constructed by the caterpillars for their winter quarters, or as a
+resting place while undergoing their transformations. These are composed
+of the wood dust bound together by strong silk fibres, and are often in
+such a good state of preservation that they form useful illustrations
+for the cabinet.
+
+As further aids to larvæ searching we may mention that many
+species--chiefly of the _Noctuæ_--hide under the surface of the ground
+or among dense and low herbage during the day, and come out to feed only
+by night; that many others feed on roots, and are therefore seldom seen
+above the surface of the soil; also that a good number burrow into
+fruits, in the interior of which they spend the whole of their larval
+stage. The best way to secure the latter is to examine the 'windfalls'
+that lie scattered on orchard lands, for it is a well-known fact that
+the fruits that are infested with larvæ generally fall earlier than
+others--a result that must be attributed to the damaging work of the
+larvæ themselves.
+
+All the larvæ collected should be carefully boxed at once, a separate
+compartment being used for each species, and a few fragments of the food
+plant being introduced in each case. It is also a good plan to have each
+box previously lined with moss as a further addition to the comfort of
+the captives. Without such a precaution some of the more delicate
+species are liable to injury during their transmission from field to
+home.
+
+Hitherto we have obtained our larvæ by _searching_ only, but there are
+times and occasions when our boxes may be far more rapidly filled by
+methods that are not such a tax on our time and patience. Suppose, for
+instance, that we reach a bush, the mutilated leaves of which seem to
+show that larvæ are present on its branches. We spread our white cloth
+or open out the white-lined umbrella just under a selected branch, and
+then tap that branch very smartly with our stick.
+
+Down comes a host of living creatures! Spiders, larvæ, beetles, aphides,
+earwigs, and what not, struggling and running about on our white fabric
+in all directions, and all mingled with bits of stick, leaves, and
+fragments of all kinds. We leave the cloth or the umbrella, as the case
+may be, quite still for a few seconds to allow all the living creatures
+to get a good foothold, and then, raising it into a vertical position,
+allow all the rubbish to drop off.
+
+We can now put the cloth down again, and select as many of the larvæ as
+we require, giving our first attention to the nimble runners and loopers
+that are already near the edge and just on the point of making their
+escape. This productive method of larva hunting is known as 'beating,'
+and is particularly applicable to tall herbs and the lower branches of
+trees and shrubs.
+
+The same principle may be employed in the case of branches that are
+quite out of the reach of the stick, but the blows are here applied to
+the trunk, a mallet or some other rather heavy implement taking the
+place of the stick.
+
+Another splendid method of securing larvæ where mere searching would be
+tedious and unproductive, lies in the use of the sweep net described on
+page 102. This implement comes into service in waste places that are
+covered with rank vegetation, in clover and hayfields, and in all spots
+covered with low herbs.
+
+Walking among the vegetation, the net is swept right and left before
+you, and the contents examined at frequent intervals. It is advisable to
+work the different species of herbs separately as far as possible,
+otherwise there may be some difficulty in the determination of the food
+plants of the mixed larvæ that the net will contain. If, however, this
+plan is impracticable, you may save time by turning out all the
+'sweepings' into one large box, leaving the sorting to be done at home
+in leisure hours.
+
+
+_Collecting Pupæ_
+
+We have seen that ova and larvæ may be obtained in greater or less
+abundance at all times of the year, so variable are the seasons of the
+different butterflies and moths. The same remark applies equally well to
+pupæ; but so many of the Lepidoptera spend the winter months in the
+chrysalis state that this period may be regarded as the harvest time of
+the pupa hunter.
+
+A large number of caterpillars undergo their change to the quiescent
+state during the months of August and September, and, of course, remain
+in this state until the warm days of the following spring or summer. And
+as insects even in the pupal stage have a number of enemies and dangers
+to contend with, it is advisable to start your search for them as soon
+as possible after they have changed.
+
+If you set your mind on searching for particular species, you should
+endeavour to ascertain the _usual_ time at which such species pupate;
+make any necessary allowances for the forwardness or backwardness of the
+season, and then allow a week or two for the change to be completed, for
+insects should never be disturbed at times when their metamorphoses are
+in progress.
+
+For general pupa hunting the best season is undoubtedly from the end of
+August to the end of October, but there is no reason why the work should
+not be carried on throughout the winter. If, however, you continue your
+work so late, you must not expect nearly as much success as time
+advances. You must remember that entomologists are not the only pupa
+hunters. Many hungry birds are always on the look-out for insects, and
+seem to enjoy them equally well in all their stages. Those that
+hybernate on or under the ground are liable to fall a prey to moles and
+beetles. In addition to these dangers, all pupæ are subject to the
+effects of extreme cold, dampness, or floods.
+
+As regards the choice of a day, very little need be said. Any day that
+is sufficiently genial for yourself will do for your work, except that
+periods of hard frost render the ground too hard for digging--the most
+profitable part of the pupa hunter's task.
+
+The apparatus required is extremely simple: A satchel or large pockets
+full of small metal or chip boxes, a small garden trowel, and a strong
+chisel.
+
+If metal boxes are used they should be perforated; in fact, nothing is
+better than the ordinary larva boxes of the dealers. All the boxes, of
+whatever kind, should be lined with moss previous to starting work.
+
+The trowel and chisel do not pack well with a number of small boxes,
+therefore it is a good plan to fix them in a couple of leather sheaths
+attached to your belt. In this position they are far more handy for use,
+and the boxes are also in less danger of being crushed or damaged, as
+they probably would be if in contact with hard and heavy tools.
+
+A note book is also a valuable addition to your outfit, as it enables
+you to make memoranda concerning the trees and localities from which you
+obtain your pupæ.
+
+The best localities for pupa hunting are clearings in woods, parks with
+numerous large timber trees, and meadows in which large isolated trees
+are scattered; and the best trees include willows, poplars, oaks,
+beeches, birches, elms, and hawthorns.
+
+The best thing you can do on arriving at the selected hunting ground is
+to make at once for isolated trees of large size, and work each one as
+follows:
+
+First examine well the crevices of the bark, for many caterpillars
+descend the tree to within a short distance of the ground, and then seek
+out a snug little crevice in which to spend the winter, often protecting
+themselves with silken cocoons, or constructing a neat little shelter of
+gnawed fragments of the wood cemented together.
+
+If there is any loose bark, very carefully force it out with your
+chisel, and examine both its inner surface and the wood from which it
+was removed. The wood thus exposed may reveal openings of the galleries
+of wood-eating larvæ, in which case, unless the material is too hard to
+be broken up with the chisel, you may be able to trace out a few pupæ.
+Where these exist, they are usually to be found very near the entrance,
+sometimes even protruding slightly from the opening, for the larvæ
+generally place themselves in this position of easy escape when about to
+change.
+
+Next give your attention to the moss, if any, covering the lower portion
+of the trunk. This affords a very favourite shelter to many species.
+Tear it off very carefully, beginning at the top, and watch for loose
+pupæ and cocoons as you do so. Then hold the clumps you have removed
+over a patch of bare ground or over a spread handkerchief, and pull it
+to pieces, in order that any pupæ it contains may fall out; also examine
+the fragments carefully for others that may remain attached.
+
+This done, the surface of the ground must be examined. Remove all dead
+leaves, and watch for pupæ that may be sheltered beneath them. If any
+loose stones lie on the ground, turn them over. Search well into the
+angles between the roots, and if there are any holes or hollows beneath
+them or in the trunk itself, pull out all loose matter within, and
+_feel_ gently above and around for cocoons.
+
+After all loose matter has been removed, there still remains the soil
+for examination. If this is very hard and clayey, it is probably useless
+to carry the search any farther; also if very wet you need not expect
+much; but if comparatively dry and friable there are more hopes of
+success.
+
+As a general rule the north and east sides of the trunk are drier than
+those which are exposed to the heavy rains brought by the south and
+south-west winds, and are consequently more favoured by larvæ that are
+seeking a resting place for the winter.
+
+Most larvæ seek shelter in the angles between the roots of the trees on
+which they fed, but a few species seem to prefer the edges rather than
+the corners; and in cases where no such angles are formed at the
+surface, you will do well to examine the earth and turf all round the
+trunk; but it is generally useless to extend the search more than a few
+inches from the tree.
+
+After having searched every available nook and corner as far as possible
+without digging, thrust the trowel obliquely into the soil a few inches
+from the tree, turn over the sod, and then examine the spot from which
+it was removed. Now give your attention to the sod itself. If loose and
+friable, break it up gently, keeping a sharp eye for falling pupæ, and
+also for earthen cocoons that are easily mistaken for little lumps of
+soil.
+
+If the soil is held together by roots, it must be pulled to pieces, and
+the fragments shaken over a bare piece of ground where the fall of a
+pupa or cocoon could be easily seen; and if you have removed a grassy
+turf, it will be necessary to look between the bases of the blades as
+well as among the roots.
+
+In this way you may search round tree after tree, wherever the soil is
+of such a character as to allow of the admittance and shelter of larvæ.
+But the variability of your success will be quite beyond your
+comprehension. Sometimes you will sight a grand old oak with the most
+favourable anticipations, and consider yourself quite certain of a good
+find when you discover, on a nearer approach, the liberal coating of
+moss that clothes its trunk and the dry sandy soil at its foot; and yet
+the most careful search ends in nothing but disappointment. At other
+times you try your luck at tree after tree without ever seeing a single
+pupa or even a cast-off case, and then, when just on the point of
+despairing, you search round another that is apparently much less
+promising, and, to your great surprise and delight, a dozen or two are
+turned out in a few minutes. Such an occurrence as this is not at all
+uncommon, and cannot be satisfactorily explained, but we must take
+things as they come and make the best of them, remembering that pupa
+searching is one of the best of all entomological operations wherewith
+to test one's perseverance and patience.
+
+It may be mentioned, in conclusion, that the pupæ of _Lepidoptera_ are
+never to be found far below the surface of the soil. Generally they
+exist, if buried at all, only an inch or two down, and very rarely at a
+greater depth than four inches.
+
+In our next chapter we shall learn how to rear the perfect insects from
+the earlier stages we have been considering.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+_REARING LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+
+_Management of Ova_
+
+In the management of insects in all stages the strictest attention must
+always be paid to one general rule on which the success of the work
+almost entirely depends; and that is--keep every specimen as far as
+possible under the same conditions as those in which you find it in
+nature.
+
+Applying this principle to ova, we store them in airy and light places,
+protected from the direct rays of the sun, and avoid handling and rough
+treatment of any kind. It is also advisable in most cases to maintain a
+slight amount of dampness corresponding with that of the open air at the
+particular season of the year.
+
+They do not require much space, and it is certainly desirable not to
+give much, otherwise the newly hatched larvæ, when their time arrives,
+will actively wander all round their premises in search of food, and
+give you no end of trouble in gathering them up.
+
+Chip boxes are, as a rule, very good and very convenient receptacles for
+ova. After placing the eggs in these, cover them over with very fine
+muslin, held in place by elastic bands; and label each as far as you can
+with the name of the species contained, and other particulars worth
+remembering. The boxes may then be put in front of a window facing
+north, or in any situation within or out of doors where rain and sun
+cannot reach them. A greenhouse is an admirable place in which to keep
+them, the natural dampness of the atmosphere being apparently a
+considerable assistance to the tiny larvæ just as they are striving to
+escape from their shell.
+
+Whatever place is selected, it is absolutely necessary that the ova be
+carefully watched, so that each brood may be supplied with the required
+food plant within a few hours of quitting the shells.
+
+When ova are kept in a warm room, very great inconvenience and even loss
+is sometimes caused by the appearance of larvæ before the necessary food
+plant shows its buds. Yet, on the other hand, it is sometimes a great
+gain to the entomologist to get certain broods off early in the season,
+providing the food is at hand; for in this way he can not only get some
+of his work over during a slack season, but also, if he desires it,
+secure an additional brood; that is, one brood more than the usual
+number. Thus, supposing a certain species he is rearing is naturally
+double-brooded, he can, by judicious management, secure three successive
+broods before the food plant casts its last leaves.
+
+This hastening of the natural events of insect life is known as
+_forcing_, and merely consists in subjecting the species concerned to a
+reasonable amount of artificial heat, such as that of a room in which a
+fire is always kept, or of a hothouse.
+
+It is interesting at all times to note the dates on which eggs are laid
+or collected, and the times at which the young larvæ appear. In addition
+to this all changes that take place in the colours or forms of eggs
+should be carefully observed; for such changes will assist you in
+distinguishing between fertile and sterile ova, and also enable you to
+judge approximately as to the date of the appearance of future broods.
+
+
+_Rearing Larvæ_
+
+The main point in connection with the rearing of larvæ is certainly the
+selection and construction of the cages or their substitutes. For newly
+hatched and all very small caterpillars a small bottle with a wide mouth
+makes a very fair abode. Put a layer of sand or sifted soil in the
+bottom, fix in this a small twig of the food plant or lay a few leaves
+on the top, and then, after the larvæ have been introduced, cover the
+top with a piece of muslin, held in place by an elastic band.
+
+The great drawback with this arrangement is the lack of any provision
+for keeping the food moist and fresh, thus rendering a change necessary
+at very frequent intervals; but this may be obviated by using damp sand
+as a foundation for the little twig of food plant. With this
+improvement, if you cover the top of the bottle with apiece of glass, a
+saucer, or any impermeable substance, you may keep the twig fresh for
+several days, generally until the disappearance of the last leaf calls
+for a fresh supply; but it is very doubtful whether the damp atmosphere
+resulting from this inclosure is not injurious to the larvæ. It
+certainly does not seem to have much influence on some, but the
+unhealthy conditions that result must be detrimental to the inmates. It
+must also be remembered that many species require a _dry_ soil in which
+to burrow when about to change.
+
+When the time comes for the change of food, great care must be taken not
+to injure young and small larvæ. In many cases they need never be
+touched, for if a fresh twig be placed beside the stale one, they will
+readily find their way to it; and to facilitate this, and also to afford
+a convenient foothold to those larvæ that accidentally fall from the
+twig, the layer of sand at the bottom of the bottle should be covered
+with moss or cocoa-nut fibre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--A LARVA GLASS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--A LARVA GLASS.]
+
+If you find it necessary to move the larvæ yourself from the stale food,
+never touch them with your fingers, but lift them gently by means of a
+small camel-hair brush. Larger larvæ need never be moved at all. They
+will always search out fresh food for themselves, and the stale may be
+removed after they have quitted it.
+
+For rearing larger species ordinary bottles are hardly satisfactory, and
+we must either use large jars or construct cages of some kind.
+
+An ordinary bell jar such as is used for covering ferns or for aquaria
+makes a very useful 'larva glass.' Place a small bottle of water at the
+bottom, and then introduce sufficient dry clean sand or sifted soil to
+reach up to its neck. On the top of this place a layer of moss or
+cocoa-nut fibre. Next introduce the food plant, fixing it firmly in the
+bottle of water, and plugging up the space between the stem and the rim
+with cotton wool. This precaution is to prevent the larvæ from falling
+into the water as they attempt to pass up or down the stem, and the wool
+also helps to keep the twig in a vertical position. The glass is now
+ready for the caterpillars, but it is advisable to keep a covering of
+muslin or gauze over the top in all cases even though the larvæ
+contained are unable to creep up the surface of glass, for the great
+enemies of caterpillars--the ichneumon flies--are always on the alert,
+and will often take advantage of an open window to 'sting' the larva
+rearer's pets.
+
+Another form of larva glass can easily be made out of a large glass jar
+if you know how to cut off the bottom, or of a chemist's bell jar which
+is open both at top and bottom. In this case the bottle of water and the
+soil are arranged as before in a pan of unglazed earthenware, and then
+covered over with the glass. This is shown in fig. 58, and is an
+exceedingly convenient larva house, since the lifting of the glass
+enables you to get at the insects without any trouble.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--A LARVA CAGE.]
+
+Wood larva cages are very commonly used for the larger species after
+they have attained a fair size and require more food than can be stocked
+in bottles and glasses. These cages have glass fronts, either sliding or
+in the form of a hinged door, and sides of perforated zinc. They are
+kept in stock by all dealers in entomologists' requisites, but equally
+useful ones are easily constructed. If you select a box of suitable size
+at the grocer's, cut out large pieces from the lid and sides with a fret
+saw, and fix in the glass and zinc, you will have a cage that will
+answer all purposes.
+
+The internal arrangements consist of a shallow tray filled with soil, in
+which stands the bottle of water for the food, and a layer of moss
+sufficiently high to cover the bottle completely.
+
+A series of such boxes standing on end on a shelf, or hanging on a wall,
+will form a very satisfactory nursery for your pets, and will occupy but
+little space.
+
+We have already observed that some larvæ burrow into soil when about to
+change, while others creep to a sheltered corner, or suspend themselves
+from the food plant itself. It will be seen that the larva cage just
+described supplies all these demands, and care must be taken not to
+disturb the occupants while they are undergoing their metamorphoses.
+Those that suspend themselves on the food plant should be allowed to
+remain where they have fixed themselves, and when it is necessary to
+remove the stale food in order to give a fresh supply to the later
+larvæ, let it be fixed in an airy place where it can be watched till the
+perfect insects emerge. Those which suspend themselves on the sides or
+top of the cage, or spin cocoons in the corners, should never be
+disturbed unless you are greatly in want of the same cage for the
+accommodation of another brood; and even then it is possible that their
+presence will not in any way interfere with the new species. But if
+their removal becomes a necessity, let it be carried out as carefully as
+possible, and not until the change to the pupal stage is known to be
+complete.
+
+The species that burrow into the soil or bury themselves in the moss
+need never be disturbed till the rearing season is quite over, and then
+they may be transferred to a box specially kept for the accommodation of
+pupæ.
+
+There is yet another method of rearing larvæ to which we must refer--a
+method known as 'sleeving'--particularly useful when you happen to have
+the required food plants in your own garden. The ova or larvæ are placed
+on the plant, the whole or part of which is then covered with a bag or
+'sleeve' of gauze. The larvæ thus imprisoned have the full benefit of
+fresh air and light, and are also free from the attacks of ichneumon
+flies. They have a fair amount of liberty, and yet cannot get beyond
+your reach; also abundance of fresh food without further trouble on the
+part of the rearer.
+
+But even this arrangement is not perfection. It will not suit the night
+feeders that like to hide beneath the soil during the day, and it
+interferes somewhat with the burrowing tendencies of those which pupate
+underground. These little difficulties, however, can be overcome by
+placing the food plants in large pots or tubs of soil, and tying the
+mouth of the 'sleeve' round the outside of this utensil. If this cannot
+be done, those insects that pupate underground must be removed from the
+plant when their restless disposition shows that the changing time has
+arrived, and then be transferred to a box of soil where they can find
+the seclusion they seek.
+
+The larvæ that hybernate throughout the winter are rather more
+troublesome, especially those which are inclined to take a ramble on
+certain mild days in search of food when none is at hand. Still there is
+no reason why even a beginner should not attempt the rearing of these.
+They will require food in the autumn until the cold weather sets in, and
+again early in spring as soon as the new leaves appear; but this is not
+of much consequence to those who reside in districts where the required
+food plants abound.
+
+Wood feeders also require some special treatment and precautions, and
+the successful rearing of some is a matter of no little difficulty. A
+wooden cage is, of course, quite out of the question with these, unless
+you wish to test the power of their jaws. They must be kept in large
+pots or jars, covered over with wire gauze or perforated zinc, and
+supplied with fresh stems or logs of wood, or with moist sawdust fresh
+from their favourite tree. A few of them--the 'Goat' (page 224), for
+example--will eat dead and rotting wood, and may be fed on old palings
+and other waste providing the right kind is selected.
+
+The troubles and disappointments of larva rearers are numerous and
+varied, and commence with the earliest moments of the young insects.
+Even the hatching period sometimes proves a trial, for it occasionally
+happens that the young larva has not sufficient strength to bite its way
+through the shell that surrounds it, and dies with nothing but the
+surface of its head exposed to view. This may be the result of keeping
+the ova in too dry a spot, the shell having become too hard and horny
+for the little creature's jaws.
+
+Then the moulting seasons are always periods of trial to the larvæ, and
+often of loss to the rearer. Some of the hardier species may pass
+through all their moults without appearing to suffer anything more than
+a slight inconvenience at each, but in other cases the greater part of a
+brood may fall victims to these ailments of the growing stage.
+
+Apart from these sources of loss, however, larvæ are subject to numerous
+diseases, infectious and otherwise, about which we know but little. A
+fever may rage in one of our cages; a fungoid growth may establish
+itself on the bodies of our pets, or we may see them cut down, one by
+one, through a fatal attack of diarrh[oe]a.
+
+In many such cases we are at a loss as to what to do. Blue pills and
+black draughts are not to be prescribed, and the modern practices of
+surgery and inoculation have not yet been applied to insect patients
+with very great success; but we must do our best to adopt hygienic
+principles, paying the greatest attention to proper means of ventilation
+and to a regular and wholesome dieting. In the case of diarrh[oe]a--a
+very common insect malady--the best we can do is to avoid the young and
+juicy leaves of the food plant, and substitute the older, and drier
+foliage.
+
+Ichneumon flies have already been mentioned as great enemies of larvæ.
+These flies either deposit their eggs on the skins of caterpillars, or
+thrust their sharp _ovipositors_ into the creature's flesh and lay their
+eggs beneath the skin. When the young ichneumons are hatched, they
+immediately begin to feed on the fatty matter that is usually stored in
+comparative abundance under the skin of the caterpillar, and thus they
+grow at the expense of their host, within whose body they lie completely
+hidden from view.
+
+The poor caterpillar, though being eaten alive, often shows no external
+signs of the mischief wrought within, and, even though its substance is
+really decreased by the hungry internal parasites, yet the rapid growth
+of these robbers maintains the general plumpness of a healthy larva. But
+the ichneumons, having at last devoured the store of fat, and avoided
+the vital organs of the caterpillar, as if with a view to preserve their
+living home to the latest moment, now commence to attack the latter,
+speedily reducing the vitality of their host to the lowest ebb, and
+finally causing its death.
+
+This untimely end may come before the caterpillar is full grown, or the
+insect may change to the pupa before the ichneumons have done their
+worst, but it rarely occurs that the unfortunate creature has sufficient
+strength to carry it on to the final stage.
+
+A large number of the collected larvæ will have been 'stung,' much to
+the disgust and disappointment of the rearer; and hence the advantage of
+rearing your specimens from ova wherever possible, providing you keep
+them so well under cover that the ichneumons cannot visit your broods.
+
+
+_The Management of Pupæ_
+
+The disappointments connected with the rearing of _Lepidoptera_ are by
+no means at an end when all have passed successfully into the pupal
+condition, and the number of perfect insects obtained will often fall
+far short of the number of pupæ in your boxes; but we must now see what
+can be done to minimise the death rate of the captives.
+
+One or more suitable boxes must be prepared for the reception of the
+pupæ, and the following suggestion will answer all purposes:
+
+Get a wooden box, quite rough and unplaned inside, large enough to
+accommodate your pupæ with ease, and not less than eight inches deep.
+Make several holes in the bottom, or else knock the bottom completely
+out, and nail in its place a sheet of perforated zinc. Also make a lid
+consisting of gauze attached to a light wood frame.
+
+Place a layer of clean gravel, about an inch deep, in the bottom, and
+over this a few inches of sifted soil or cocoa-nut fibre.
+
+Now take all the pupæ that are 'earthed' in your cages, and arrange them
+on the prepared bed; also add to them the pupæ you may have dug out
+during your various excursions. Cover all with a layer of the material
+selected for the bed, and then add a layer of moss.
+
+Next come the pupæ that are suspended by silky fibres, or are inclosed
+in cocoons. These should be fixed with pins around the sides of the box,
+running the pins either through the tuft of silk at the 'tail,' or the
+outer layer of the cocoon, or through the portion of the dried food
+plant to which they are attached.
+
+Here your pupæ will remain till they emerge, and the box may be kept in
+any airy place where it is not likely to be forgotten, for it is
+essential that the perfect insects should be removed as soon as possible
+after quitting their cases. It does not matter much whether the pupæ be
+kept in or out of doors, providing they are sheltered from rain and very
+severe frosts; but of course, if the former, the imagines will emerge a
+little earlier, even if the room in which your specimens are stored has
+no fire.
+
+Even when protected in boxes such as that described the pupæ are subject
+to enemies and dangers. The soil and moss employed may contain slugs,
+mites, or other creatures which prey on insects, and the amount of
+moisture present in these materials and in the atmosphere may prove too
+little for some species or too much for others.
+
+The remedy for the former evil is a simple one. Bake the soil or fibre
+well before fitting up the box, and boil and afterwards dry the moss.
+You may then be sure that all life previously contained is quite
+destroyed.
+
+But the degree of humidity is a point not so easily settled, and so
+variable are the experiences and opinions of different entomologists
+that it is difficult to advise a beginner on the subject. The fact that
+some strongly advise a perennial dampness, while others recommend no
+attempt at the application of water, would seem to show that there are
+probably important points to be urged on both sides.
+
+Nothing can be better than a very careful observation of pupæ in their
+natural conditions. When engaged in pupa digging you will observe that
+the larger number are to be found on the east and north sides of trees
+where the soil is protected from the heaviest rains; on the other hand a
+good many are certainly found in very moist and sometimes even in wet
+situations.
+
+Particular notice should be taken of such experiences, making every
+allowance for the exceptions that prove the rule, and then let the
+natural conditions be maintained in your nurseries at home. To carry
+this out two pupa boxes should be kept, one for those species that seem
+to require dry situations, and the other for the species that apparently
+do best with moist surroundings.
+
+But when it is desired to maintain the pupæ in a moist condition, great
+care must be taken not to allow any accumulation of stagnant water. The
+box we have described, with its bottom of perforated zinc, is well
+adapted for this purpose. Let it stand on a couple of strips of wood, so
+that any excess of moisture may readily drain through. The perforated
+bottom will also allow of a free circulation of air, thus securing the
+ventilation that is desirable in all boxes, whether wet or dry.
+
+If you have any insects that have pupated within moist stems, they
+should be kept in a moist condition till they emerge. The simplest way
+of doing this is to support the stems in a layer of wetted but
+well-drained silver sand.
+
+Forcing may be resorted to when it is required to obtain the imagines
+for early setting in order to get them in the cabinet before the busy
+season begins. The method is simple. Place the pupa box on a shelf in a
+room where a fire is kept every day. By this means you may get all your
+specimens out within a few weeks, even when you start the forcing at the
+beginning or middle of the winter. If, however, you require the imagines
+for breeding, you must be careful that the eggs are not laid long before
+the buds of the necessary food plants are due.
+
+When you are expecting the appearance of perfect insects, the pupa
+boxes should be examined every day. A morning visit to your pupæ (for
+most insects emerge in the morning) may reward you with the sight of a
+newly emerged imago, clinging to the rough surface of the box, thus
+affording you an opportunity of observing the wonderful expansion of the
+wings. But the greeting is not always of such a pleasant character, for
+your disappointed eyes will sometimes be cast on a host of horrid
+ichneumons that have just quitted a shell from which you were expecting
+a prize of some specially valued species.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+_SETTING AND PRESERVING_
+
+
+_Setting and Preserving Butterflies and Moths_
+
+Up to the present we have been dealing only with living forms--learning
+how to catch and rear the Lepidoptera that fall to our lot; but now we
+have to become acquainted with the methods of preparing our dead
+specimens in such a way that they may form a useful collection for
+future study and reference. Our first attention shall be given to the
+apparatus necessary for this work.
+
+The most important requirement is the setting boards, of which several
+are necessary, the sizes varying according to the dimensions of the
+different insects to be 'set.' The _lengths_ of all the boards should be
+the same, not only for the convenience of packing when not in use, but
+also in order that they may, if required, be arranged neatly in the
+'drying house' to be presently described. The widths only will vary, and
+in this respect the boards must be adapted to the measurements of the
+insects from tip to tip when the wings are fully expanded. Thus, a set
+of a dozen boards, ten or twelve inches long, and from one to five
+inches wide, will do for a good start. Of course you may commence with a
+smaller number than twelve, but if you really mean to do the thing well,
+you will eventually require a good stock of boards.
+
+Here, again, it may be mentioned that all the necessary requisites may
+be purchased ready for use, a set of boards and a drying house complete
+costing from ten to twenty shillings according to size and quality; but
+as the reader, like myself, may prefer to construct his own, I will
+supply him with hints and suggestions sufficient for the work.
+
+Each board is constructed in this way. Cut out and plane up a piece of
+wood of the required length and breadth, and about one-eighth of an inch
+thick. Glue on the top of this a layer of cork about half an inch in
+thickness, leaving the whole under a moderate pressure until the glue is
+quite hard. The sheets of cork for this purpose may be bought at any
+naturalist's stores; but slices cut from good large bottle corks may be
+made to answer equally well if you don't mind the extra time expended in
+cutting and fixing.
+
+When the glue has well set, trim off the edges of the cork flush with
+the sides of the wood, and then cut out a groove down the whole length
+of the cork, of course in the middle, and of such a size that it will
+just contain the bodies of the insects for which it is intended.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--SECTION OF A SETTING BOARD.]
+
+The satisfactory cutting of this groove is not a very easy matter, but
+if its position is first carefully marked, a long rat-tail file may be
+made to plough it out neatly and regularly. As an alternative the
+following plan is good. First cover the wood with a layer of cork about
+a _quarter_ of an inch thick, and then glue on the top of this _two_
+narrower strips, about as thick as the bodies of the insects for which
+the board is intended, leaving a space of the required size between
+them, as shown in fig. 60. In this way you get a groove of square
+section, that is in some respects preferable to the round one cut out by
+means of the rat-tail file.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--SECTIONS OF SETTING BOARDS.]
+
+Now comes a question about which there is a difference in the tastes or
+fancies of entomologists. Shall the boards be perfectly flat on the top,
+or shall the sides slope from the groove, or shall the surface be
+rounded? A glance at the three sections of setting boards will show
+clearly what is meant. The rounded board is most commonly used, and the
+graceful curve thus given to a butterfly or moth set on such is
+certainly attractive; but it is not natural. The wings of these insects
+are rigid, and are never seen bent into such curves in a living
+specimen. For this reason I much prefer a perfectly plane surface on
+each side of the groove. Then, as to whether there shall be a slope or
+not, this is a matter of less importance. A very decided sloping of the
+wings is certainly not so convenient for future examination; nor does
+it, to my mind, look nearly so well as both sides in the same plane, or
+at a very gentle inclination. But perhaps this subject had better be
+left to the taste of the reader, remembering, however, that, whatever
+plan be adopted, all the boards should be alike in this respect, so that
+there may be a degree of uniformity in the cabinet.
+
+The surface of the cork must, in all cases, be nicely smoothed down with
+glass paper, and then covered with thin white paper, fixed to its
+surface with ordinary paste.
+
+When insects are on the boards, they should be placed in an airy spot,
+as free as possible from dust, while they are drying. Hence the
+advisability of some form of 'drying house.' This is simply a box,
+standing on end, and provided with a hinged door consisting of a sheet
+of perforated zinc in a wooden frame. The boards may slide in this on
+little slips of wood nailed or glued on to the sides, or the wooden
+bases of the boards may project beyond the cork at the ends, and slide
+into grooves in the side of the house.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--A BUTTERFLY ON THE SETTING BOARD.]
+
+Beyond these requirements nothing is wanted save a good stock of pins,
+thin card or ordinary writing paper, and a 'setting needle.' The
+last-named item is simply a needle mounted in a handle, and a good one
+may be made by thrusting the head of a darning needle into a piece of
+twig. The pins used for setting--that is, for fixing the pieces of paper
+or card to keep the parts in position--may be of the ordinary kind; but
+entomological pins are far preferable, even for this purpose; for, being
+much thinner, they do not damage and disfigure the setting boards so
+much.
+
+Now as to the setting. First see that the pin with which you are to fix
+your dead insect passes centrally through the thorax. Then fix it firmly
+on the setting board, its body lying neatly in the groove of the cork.
+Cut out some little pointed strips of card or paper, and, after bringing
+the wings into position with the setting needle, fix each one by a
+pinned strip. In spreading out the wings, care must be taken not to
+pierce them at all, but simply to push them into their place by pressing
+the needle at their bases, or by putting the needle beneath and
+_lifting_ them out.
+
+Instead of pointed pieces of card, uniform strips of paper may be used,
+as shown in fig. 63, each strip passing over both wings.
+
+After the four wings have been properly arranged, a few extra pins may
+be used to keep other parts in position. Thus, the antennæ may be placed
+at equal angles, the proboscis may be extended, and a couple of pins may
+be used to support the abdomen if it is inclined to bend downward.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--ANOTHER METHOD OF SETTING BUTTERFLIES AND
+MOTHS.]
+
+As before mentioned, insects should be set soon after they are dead,
+while the parts are still soft and supple. But where this cannot be
+done, and the specimens have become stiff, brittle, and rigid, they must
+be 'relaxed' before any attempt is made at setting them out.
+
+This process of relaxing consists in placing the specimens in a very
+moist atmosphere for a few days. There are several simple ways of doing
+this, many of which will readily suggest themselves to the reader. Your
+collecting box, if a zinc one, may also be used as a relaxer. Pin your
+stiff insects in it, after well moistening the cork, and simply shut
+them up for a day or two. Any metal box will serve the same purpose
+providing you put into it a piece of sheet cork on which to fix the
+insects, and this cork may rest on a bed of moist sand.
+
+Another plan is to float the pinned specimens on corks in a shallow
+vessel of water, and cover them over with a bell glass.
+
+Insects that are being relaxed should be examined from time to time, and
+the degree of flexibility acquired tested by a gentle pressure of the
+setting needle or by blowing on them. If not sufficiently supple, give
+another day in the damp cell, but never allow them to be forgotten till
+they are covered with mildew.
+
+The time occupied in thoroughly drying butterflies and moths will vary
+considerably according to their sizes and the condition of the
+atmosphere. In hot and dry summer weather four or five days will prove
+quite sufficient for the _very_ small and thin-bodied species. From one
+to two weeks, however, may be looked upon as the average period; but the
+large and thick-bodied moths may require more than this.
+
+Perhaps the best test of their condition is the gentle pressing of the
+setting needle against the abdomen--the last part of the body to become
+dry and stiff. If the abdomen seems quite firm and rigid, you are pretty
+safe in removing the specimen from the board; but if it bends at all
+under a slight pressure of the needle let it remain for a day or two
+longer.
+
+If your cabinet is quite ready for the reception of new-comers, the
+insects may be put in their proper places immediately after their
+removal from the setting boards; but if not, they may be pinned
+temporarily in a 'store box' till the time comes when you have proper
+accommodation provided. The full consideration of these matters will be
+dealt with in another chapter.
+
+It is possible that the setting of some of your specimens will not
+exactly please you. If such is the case, put them in a relaxing box for
+a day or two, and then reset them more to your fancy.
+
+We have now to deal with a matter that applies more particularly to
+moths, especially the very large and thick-bodied species. The abdomens
+of these become more or less contracted and shrivelled on drying,
+sometimes to such an extent as to look most unsightly.
+
+There is a remedy for this, and the time and patience required in
+working it out will be well repaid by the superior results obtained.
+
+While the abdomen is still in a soft condition, make a slit throughout
+its length with a very sharp knife or a sharp-pointed pair of scissors.
+This slit should be made down the centre of the under surface, or, if
+the insect is to be placed in the cabinet with the under side exposed,
+down the middle line of the back. Then remove all the contents of the
+abdomen, scraping them out with a piece of hooked wire, or removing them
+with a fine pair of forceps, and leaving the skin as clean as possible
+both within and without. Now introduce a packing of cotton wool, just
+sufficient in quantity to maintain the natural form of the body as the
+specimen dries.
+
+There is another good method of stuffing moths that possesses a decided
+advantage over the one just described, since it leaves the specimen in
+such a perfect condition that it shows no appearance of having been
+stuffed when viewed from either side. This consists in snipping off the
+abdomen at the waist, clearing out the contents with a hooked wire,
+lightly stuffing it with cotton wool pushed in at the waist, and then
+setting it aside to dry, while the other part of the insect is
+undergoing the same process on the setting board. When both parts of the
+moth are thoroughly dry, the stuffed abdomen is easily fixed in its
+place with a little coaguline; and this, if neatly done, will not show
+the slightest sign of the treatment to which the insect has been
+submitted.
+
+Even after your insects are finally housed in the cabinet, they are
+subject to two other dangers, both of which are more destructive to
+moths than to butterflies. One is technically known as 'grease,' and the
+other is the invasion of certain museum pests that feed on the
+specimens, causing them to fall to pieces.
+
+Examine the moths that have been for a time in the cabinet, and some are
+sure to exhibit an oily or greasy appearance, the hairs of the abdomen,
+and perhaps also of the thorax, being clogged together just as if the
+specimen had been dipped in oil, the same miserable condition perhaps
+being shared also by parts of the wings.
+
+This is due to the gradual oozing out of the fatty matter that is always
+present to a greater or less extent in the bodies of the insects, and
+which must necessarily show itself more sparingly in specimens that have
+been carefully stuffed.
+
+The old saying, 'Prevention is better than cure,' applies well in the
+present case; but as there are times when a knowledge of the 'cure' is
+the only means of saving a valuable specimen from destruction, we will
+study both.
+
+To deal with the two in the order of the well-worn proverb, we will
+consider the prevention first. Always carefully clean out and stuff the
+abdomens of large-bodied insects; and as a rule, treat them with some
+substance that will either absorb or dissolve out all oily matter. I
+think the best plan is to remove the abdomen, clean it out if its size
+permits of such an operation, and then, after labelling it to prevent
+its future application to the wrong body, either let it remain in a
+bottle of magnesia for several weeks, or soak it in benzole or ether for
+a few hours or longer.
+
+If magnesia has been employed as an absorbent, you have simply to blow
+or lightly brush off the loose powder that clings to the body, and then
+fix it in its place with coaguline. A body dipped in ether or benzole
+will look as if completely spoilt at first, for the furry coat that
+clothes it will lie matted and almost entirely robbed of its beautiful
+colours, reminding one forcibly of the proverbial 'drowned rat.' But
+take no notice of this change. Let the body have at least a few hours in
+the liquid, extending the time to a day or two in the case of very large
+ones and those which experience has proved to be particularly liable to
+'grease;' and, immediately on withdrawing it, fix it with a pin in a
+good strong draught, such as you may obtain by opening a window about an
+inch, or, if a breezy day, in the open air.
+
+These liquids are so volatile (and for that reason should never be left
+exposed in an open vessel) that they rapidly evaporate, leaving the dry
+hair to be loosened by the breeze, thus bringing back the natural
+appearance almost perfectly.
+
+It is probable that many of the smaller insects that were not considered
+to require the stuffing or grease-removing operations will sooner or
+later exhibit a greasy tendency in the cabinet. At first the abdomen is
+affected, and the oily matter then gradually creeps over the rest of the
+body, finally spreading over the wings, and giving the insect a most
+deplorable aspect. But these are not irreparably lost, and the following
+cure will often bring them back to their former beauty.
+
+If the abdomen only shows signs of grease, cut it off and soak it in one
+of the above-named liquids for a day or so, replacing it as above after
+the drying operation. If, however, the oily matter has spread to the
+thorax and the bases of the wings, the whole specimen must be soaked,
+using a basin or jar of suitable size, covered with a plate of glass. A
+good draught during the drying operation will do much to prevent the
+hair from sticking in matted tufts close against the surface of the body
+and wings, and a gentle brushing with a very soft camel-hair brush will
+loosen and reset the fur.
+
+The other danger to which we have referred is the invasion of certain
+'mites' and other museum pests that pay periodical visits to our cabinet
+drawers and store boxes, often committing such havoc as to severely try
+the patience of an interested naturalist.
+
+The way to prevent such intrusions is to make the atmosphere of the
+compartments so obnoxious (to them) that they dare not enter; and,
+further, to so spice up your specimens that they are no longer safely
+edible to the invaders.
+
+The first object can be attained by always keeping camphor or
+naphthaline (albo-carbon) in each division. A lump of either substance
+may be secured by pins or a little perforated cell in the corner of each
+drawer or box, or the bottom of each may be dusted with finely powdered
+naphthaline; but as both these solids are volatile, care must be taken
+to renew the supply as occasion requires.
+
+Then, with regard to the second precaution, perhaps nothing is more
+effectual than corrosive sublimate. A little of this may be dissolved in
+a small bottle of alcohol (spirits of wine), labelled with the name and
+the word POISON, and kept ready for use. All the skins of stuffed
+specimens should be painted with this solution, and the stuffing itself
+may be moistened with it before insertion.
+
+There is yet another circumstance that renders a watchful care of your
+cabinet specimens necessary, if you happen to possess many that were
+captured 'at sugar.' Some of these will have so gorged themselves with
+syrup that they are literally full of it, and this will sometimes find
+its way to the outside, often dropping on the surface beneath. In such
+cases the sugar should be removed as completely as possible, and the
+bodies stuffed, before they are quite dry; but if the specimens have
+been in the cabinet so long that they are stiff and hard, the under
+sides of the abdomens may be completely cut out with a very sharp knife
+and thrown away, and then the sugar cleaned out from the upper shell as
+neatly as possible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+_PRESERVING OVA, LARVÆ AND PUPÆ_
+
+
+Many young entomologists give their attention almost solely to the
+perfect forms of insects, often collecting and studying a very large
+number of species without regard to their earlier stages and
+metamorphoses. This is decidedly a very great mistake. Although the
+lifeless form pinned in a cabinet may be a most beautiful object in
+itself, yet a study of this alone is uninteresting compared with that of
+the wonderful changes it has undergone since the time it was a very
+young larva.
+
+The different stages of the insects should be known as far as possible,
+and these, as well as the perfect forms, should be included in the
+collection for future study and reference. A good cabinet, according to
+my own opinion, is one that possesses, among other good features, a
+number of complete sets illustrative of the life history of at least the
+more typical forms; and as it is not a difficult matter to preserve the
+earlier stages, there is really no excuse for their omission from the
+collection.
+
+The empty shells of ova are in themselves sometimes interesting objects,
+especially when they illustrate some peculiar instinct on the part of
+the parent. Sterile eggs, also, often fall into the hands of breeders
+and rearers, and these, though in other respects unprofitable, are
+useful in the cabinet.
+
+If fertile eggs are to be prepared for a collection, they must be
+killed. This is easily done by thrusting into each one the point of a
+very fine needle, or by immersing them for a moment in boiling water, or
+by shutting them up in a bottle with camphor. In drying they often
+contract more or less, and frequently change their colour; still these
+are useful, providing notes have been taken of the characters thus lost.
+The larger eggs are capable of special treatment where the owner has the
+necessary time and patience, and where the highest results are desired.
+By means of a surgeon's injector of small size the contents of the eggs
+can be removed; and then, by the same instrument, a warm solution of
+gelatine, coloured in such a way as to restore the natural tint, may be
+forced into the empty shell. As the gelatine cools and hardens, it
+prevents any shrinking of the shell, and thus both form and colour are
+well preserved.
+
+For the preservation of larvæ you will require one or two simple
+appliances.
+
+The first of these is a suitable glass blowpipe, one form of which is
+here illustrated. It consists of a glass tube, one end of which has been
+drawn out very fine; a piece of watch spring tied to it in such a manner
+that it will hold the skin of a larva at the small end, and a piece of
+india-rubber tubing at the other end, pressed by means of a brass spring
+clip.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--A BLOWPIPE FOR LARVÆ.]
+
+A little drying oven is also very useful, but not absolutely necessary.
+If you decide to have one, any square box of sheet iron (not soldered
+tinned iron) may be readily converted into one. It must be provided with
+a hinged door in the front with a ventilator at the bottom, a hole for
+the escape of hot air at the top, and a tripod wire stand inside on
+which to rest the specimens while drying. The whole should be supported
+on a wire stand, so that heat may be applied below.
+
+Each larva to be preserved should be dealt with in this way. First kill
+it by means of any one of the killing bottles or boxes already
+described, or by immersion in spirit of wine. When quite dead, enlarge
+the anal orifice by thrusting a needle into it, and then lay it on a
+piece of blotting paper with its head toward you. Now take a round
+ruler, previously covered with blotting paper, and roll the larva gently
+from head to tail till all the contents of the skin have been expelled.
+Next fix the skin on the fine end of the blowpipe, by thrusting the
+point of the latter into the opening, and allowing the spring to press
+gently on its edge. Gently blow into the skin till it is inflated just
+to a _little below_ natural size, then either hold it near a fire or
+rest it in the drying oven till it is quite dry and rigid.
+
+If you have done your work neatly, the skin and blowpipe will both be
+quite air-tight when the clip is closed; and the air, finding no outlet,
+will still further inflate the skin when it expands on exposure to heat.
+This is the reason why you are directed to blow it out to something
+short of the natural dimensions. If you find that this expansion causes
+the skin to stretch beyond its normal size, a little of the air must be
+allowed to escape while it is yet soft and flexible.
+
+The front of the larva is generally the last portion to become dry, and
+when this is quite rigid the skin may be removed from the blowpipe. This
+is a matter that requires the greatest care; for the skin is so very
+thin and brittle that a little rough handling will break it to pieces.
+As a rule it may be easily pushed off the pipe by a slight pressure
+behind, or a gentle twisting motion will loosen its hold; but this
+latter method can hardly be applied to hairy larvæ without breaking off
+the hairs, now rendered very brittle by the heat.
+
+If you find the slightest difficulty in detaching the skin of a valuable
+specimen, it is far better to damage the blowpipe than to risk spoiling
+the skin. Supposing your blowpipe is a glass one, you can easily break
+off the end of it after making a cut with a very small triangular file,
+and the portion thus removed may be left attached to the skin. Then,
+after softening the glass blowpipe in a gas flame or the flame of a
+spirit lamp, it can be drawn out thin again for future work. Those who
+can manipulate glass tubing in this way will find it far better to lay
+in a stock of suitable material, drawing it out when required, than to
+purchase blowpipes ready made at the naturalist's shop.
+
+Very fine hollow stems, such as those of the bamboo cane, may be used
+instead of glass; and these possess the advantage of being easily cut
+with a sharp knife when there is any difficulty in removing the skin.
+Again, whether glass or fine stems are used, a little grease of any kind
+placed previously on the end will allow the dried skin to be slid off
+with less difficulty.
+
+Preserved larvæ should preferably be mounted on small twigs or
+artificial imitations of the leaves of the proper food plants. A little
+coaguline applied to the claspers will fix them very firmly on these
+twigs or leaves, which are then secured in the cabinet by means of one
+or two small pins.
+
+It is much to be regretted that the natural colours of many caterpillars
+cannot be preserved in the blown skins. Some are rendered much lighter
+in colour on account of the withdrawal of the contents, while others
+turn dark during the drying. In the smooth-skinned species the natural
+tints may be restored by painting or by staining with suitable aniline
+dyes, but these artificial imitations of the natural colours are always
+far less beautiful than the hues of the living larvæ.
+
+Very few words need be said on the preservation of pupæ. Many of them do
+not alter much in form and colour, and therefore they require no special
+preparation.
+
+If a pupa has to be killed for the purpose of adding to the value of the
+collection, simply plunge it into boiling water, and it is ready to be
+fixed in the cabinet as soon as it is quite dry.
+
+The empty pupa cases, too, from which the perfect insects have emerged,
+are often worth preserving, especially if the damage done by the imago
+on forcing its way out is repaired with the aid of a little coaguline.
+
+Let all larvæ and pupæ be preserved in their characteristic attitudes
+and positions as far as possible, so that each one tells some
+interesting feature of the life history of the living being it
+represents. Further, enrich your collection by numerous specimens of the
+various kinds of cocoons constructed by the larvæ, pinning each one
+beside its proper species; and never refuse a place to any object that
+relates something of the life history of the creatures you are
+studying.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+_THE CABINET_--_ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS_
+
+
+The selection of a cabinet or other storehouse for the rapidly
+increasing specimens of insect forms is often a matter of no small
+difficulty to a youthful entomologist. Indeed, there are very many
+points of considerable importance to be considered before any final
+decision is made. Freedom from dust, the exclusion of pests, the
+convenience of the collector, the depth of his pocket, and the general
+appearance of the storehouse must be considered, and it is impossible,
+therefore, to describe a form that is equally suitable to all.
+
+If it is absolutely necessary that the cabinet (or its substitute) be of
+a very inexpensive character, and if, at the same time, the collector
+has not the mechanical skill necessary for its construction, then
+perhaps the best thing he can do is to procure a number of shallow
+(about an inch and a half deep) cardboard, glass-topped boxes, such as
+are to be obtained at drapers' shops. For the sake of uniformity and
+convenience in packing, have them all of one size. Glue in small slices
+of cork just where the insects are to be pinned, and see that each box
+is supplied with either camphor or naphthaline. All the boxes may be
+packed in a cupboard or in a case made specially to contain them; and a
+label on the front of each will enable you to select any one when
+required without disturbing the others.
+
+It may be mentioned here that glass is not necessary, though it is
+certainly convenient at times, especially when you are exhibiting your
+specimens to admiring non-entomological friends, who have almost always
+a most alarming way of bringing the tip of the first finger dangerously
+near as they are pointing out their favourite colours. 'Isn't _that_ one
+a beauty?' is a common remark, and therewith off snaps a wing of one of
+your choicest insects. When glass is used, however, see that the
+specimens are excluded from light, or the colours will soon lose their
+natural brilliancy.
+
+Anyone who has a set of carpenter's tools and the ability to use them
+well will be able to construct for himself either a set of store boxes
+or a cabinet of many drawers in which to keep his natural treasures. In
+this case a few considerations are necessary before deciding on the form
+which the storehouse is to take.
+
+A cabinet, if nicely made, forms a very sightly article of furniture;
+and, if space can be found for it, is the best and most convenient
+receptacle. One of about twelve to twenty drawers will be quite
+sufficient for a time; and the few following hints and suggestions may
+be useful.
+
+The wood used should be well seasoned, and free from resin. The drawers
+should fit well, and slide without the least danger of shaking. Each one
+should be lined with sheet cork, about one-eighth of an inch thick,
+glued to the bottom, nicely levelled with sand paper, and then covered
+with thin, pure white paper, laid on with thin paste. It is also
+advisable to cover each with glass, inclosed in a light wood frame that
+fits so closely as to prevent the intrusion of mites.
+
+The drawers may be arranged in a single vertical tier if the cabinet is
+to stand on the floor, or in two tiers if it is to be shorter for
+placing on the top of another piece of furniture; and glass doors,
+fastened by a lock and key, may be made to cover the front if such are
+desired as a matter of fancy, or as a precaution against the meddlesome
+habits of juvenile fingers.
+
+Store boxes are sometimes chosen in preference to cabinets because they
+are more portable, and because they can be arranged on shelves--an
+important consideration when floor space is not available.
+
+These boxes should be cork-lined and glazed like the cabinet drawers;
+and if they are made in two equal portions, lined with cork on both
+sides, and closing up like a book, they may be arranged on shelves like
+books, in which position they will collect but little dust.
+
+Both store boxes and cabinets are always kept in stock by the dealers,
+the former ranging from a few shillings each, and the latter from
+fifteen shillings to a guinea per drawer. Knowing this, you can decide
+for yourself between the two alternatives--making and purchasing.
+
+We have now to consider the manner in which our specimens should be
+arranged and labelled.
+
+The table forming Appendix I contains the names of _all_ the British
+butterflies and larger moths, and shows their division into _Sections_,
+_Tribes_, _Families_, and _Genera_. This table is the result of most
+careful study on the part of leading entomologists, and shows how, in
+their opinion, the insects can best be arranged to show their relation
+to one another; and you cannot do better than adopt the same order in
+your collection.
+
+  RHOPALOCERA
+  PAPILIONIDÆ                    _Euchloë_                    NYMPHALIDÆ
+   _Papilio_         O              O              O          _Argynnis_
+      O              O              O              O              O
+      O              O              O              O              O
+      O              O              O              O              O
+   Machaon          Rapæ        Cardamines       Edusa            O
+                                                                Selene
+   PIERIDÆ           O         _Leucophasia_       O
+   _Aporia_          O              O              O              O
+      O              O              O           v. Helice         O
+      O              O           Sinapis                          O
+  Cratægi          Napi                        _Gonopteryx_       O
+                                 _Colias_          O           Euphrosyne
+   _Pieris_          O              O              O
+      O              O              O              O              O
+      O          Daplidice          O              O            Latona
+      O                             O            Rhamni
+      O                           Hyale
+  Brassicæ
+
+Complete label lists can be purchased, printed on one side of the paper
+only. These, when cut up, supply you with neat labels for your
+specimens.
+
+If you intend to study the British _Lepidoptera_ as completely as
+possible, you may as well start at once with a sufficiently extensive
+cabinet, and arrange all the labels of your list before you introduce
+the insects. You will thus have a place provided ready for each specimen
+as you acquire it, and the introduction of species obtained later on
+will not compel you to be continually moving and rearranging the
+drawers.
+
+Probably the number of blank spaces will at first suggest an almost
+hopeless task, but a few years of careful searching and rearing will
+give you heart to continue your interesting work.
+
+Arrange all the insects in perpendicular rows. Put the names of each
+section, tribe, family, and genus _at the head_ of their respective
+divisions, and the names of the species below each insect or series of
+insects. The opposite plan, in which the circles represent the insects
+themselves, will make this clear.
+
+Three or four specimens of each species are generally sufficient, except
+where variations in colouring are to be exhibited. Wherever differences
+exist in the form or markings of the sexes, both should appear; and one
+specimen of each species should be pinned so as to exhibit the under
+side.
+
+Finally, each drawer or box should have a neat label _outside_ giving
+the name or names of the divisions of insects that are represented
+within. This will enable you to find anything you may require without
+the necessity of opening drawer after drawer or box after box.
+
+
+
+
+PART III
+
+BRITISH BUTTERFLIES
+
+
+We have now treated in detail of the changes through which butterflies
+and moths have to pass, and have studied the methods by which we may
+obtain and preserve the insects in their different stages. I shall now
+give such a brief description of individual species as will enable the
+reader to recognise them readily. We will begin with the butterflies.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+_THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES'_
+
+
+Family--PAPILIONIDÆ
+
+_The Swallow-tail_ (_Papilio Machaon_)
+
+Our first family (_Papilionidæ_) contains only one British species--the
+beautiful Swallow-tail (_Papilio Machaon_), distinguished at once from
+all other British butterflies by its superior size and the 'tails'
+projecting from the hind margin of the hind wings.
+
+This beautiful insect is figured on Plate I, where its bold black
+markings on a yellow ground are so conspicuous as to render a written
+description superfluous. Attention may be called, however, to the yellow
+scales that dot the dark bands and blotches, making them look as if they
+had been powdered; also to the blue clouds that relieve the black bands
+of the hind wings, and the round reddish orange spot at the anal angle
+of each of the same wings.
+
+It appears that this butterfly was once widely distributed throughout
+England, having been recorded as common in various counties, and has
+also been taken in Scotland and Ireland; but it is now almost
+exclusively confined to the fens of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire,
+and Norfolk. Occasionally we hear of the capture of single specimens
+quite outside these localities, sometimes even in most unlikely spots,
+where its food plant does not abound. But we know that _Machaon_ is a
+general favourite with entomologists, and that it is sent in the pupal
+state, by post, to all parts of the kingdom; so that the occasional
+capture of the insect far beyond the borders of its haunts is probably
+the outcome of an escape from prison, or of the tender-heartedness of
+some lover of nature who could not bear to see such a beautiful creature
+deprived of its short but joyous, sunny flight.
+
+You cannot hope to see this splendid butterfly on the wing unless you
+visit its haunts during its season--May to August; but the pupæ may be
+purchased for a few pence each from most of the entomological dealers;
+and if you obtain a few of these and watch them closely, you may be
+fortunate enough to see the perfect insect emerge from its case, and
+witness the gradual expansion of its beautiful wings.
+
+The pupa (Plate VIII, fig. 7) itself is a most beautiful object. Its
+colour is a pale green, and it is fixed to its support by the tail, and
+further secured by a very strong silk band.
+
+The larva (Plate VIII, fig. 1), too, is exceedingly beautiful. Its
+ground colour is a lovely green, and twelve velvety black rings mark the
+divisions between the segments. Between these are also black bars, all
+spotted with bright orange except the one on the second segment.
+
+A remarkable feature of this larva is the possession of a forked,
+Y-shaped 'horn,' that is projected from the back, just behind the head,
+when the creature is alarmed. If it is gently pressed or irritated in
+any way, this horn is thrust out just as if it were an important weapon
+of defence. And perhaps it is, for it is the source of a powerful odour
+of fennel--one of the food plants of the caterpillar--that may possibly
+prove objectionable to some of its numerous enemies.
+
+The food plants of _Machaon_ are the milk parsley or hog's fennel
+(_Peucedanum palustre_), cow-parsnip (_Heracleum sphondylium_), and the
+wild angelica (_Angelica sylvestris_); but in confinement it will also
+partake of rue and carrot leaves.
+
+The caterpillar of this species may be found in the fens during the
+greater part of the summer. It turns to a chrysalis in the autumn, and
+remains in this state throughout the winter, attached to the stems of
+reeds in the vicinity of its food plants. The perfect insect is first
+seen in May, and is more or less abundant from this time to the month of
+August.
+
+
+Family--PIERIDÆ
+
+This family, though known commonly as the 'Whites,' contains four
+British species that display beautiful tints of bright yellow or orange.
+
+In many respects the _Pieridæ_ resemble the last species. Thus the
+perfect insects have six fully developed legs; the caterpillars are
+devoid of bristles or spines; and the chrysalides are attached by means
+of silky webs at the 'tails,' and strong cords of the same material
+round the middle.
+
+All the larvæ are also cylindrical or wormlike in shape; and their skins
+are either quite smooth, or are covered with very short and fine hairs,
+that sometimes impart a soft, velvety appearance.
+
+The members of this family are remarkable for their partiality for
+certain of our cultivated plants and trees; and are, in some cases, so
+abundant and so voracious, that they are exceedingly destructive to
+certain crops.
+
+
+_The Black-veined White_ (_Aporia Cratægi_)
+
+This butterfly may now be regarded as one of our rarities. At one time
+it was rather abundant in certain localities in England, among which may
+be mentioned the neighbourhoods of Cardiff and Stroud, also parts of
+Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, Huntingdonshire, and the Isle of Thanet; but it
+is to be feared that this species is nearly or quite extinct in this
+country. It is well, however, not to give up the search for it, and if
+you happen to be in one of its favoured localities of former days, you
+might net all the doubtful 'Whites' of large size that arouse your
+suspicions, liberating them again if, on inspection, they do not answer
+to the description of the species 'wanted.' This course becomes
+absolutely necessary, since the Black-veined White is hardly to be
+distinguished from the Common Large White while on the wing.
+
+If you examine a number of British butterflies you will observe that in
+nearly all species the wings are bordered by a fringe of hair, more or
+less distinct. But the case is different with _Cratægi_. Here they are
+bordered by a black nervure, without any trace of fringe, thus giving an
+amount of rigidity to the edges (see Plate I, fig. 2).
+
+The wing rays, or nervures, are very distinct--a feature that gave rise
+to the popular name of the butterfly. In the male they are quite or
+nearly black, but those of the fore wings of the female are decidedly
+brown in colour. At the terminations of the wing rays there are
+triangular patches of dark scales, the bases of which unite on the outer
+margins of the wings.
+
+Another peculiar feature of this insect is the scanty distribution of
+scales on the wings. This is particularly so in the case of the female,
+whose wings are semi-transparent in consequence.
+
+The butterfly is on the wing during June and July, at which time its
+eggs are laid on the hawthorn (_Cratægus Oxyacantha_) or on fruit
+trees--apple, pear and plum.
+
+A vigorous search of these trees in the proper localities _may_ reveal
+to you a nest of the gregarious larvæ, all resting under the cover of a
+common web of silk. These remain thus under their silken tent throughout
+the hottest hours of the day, and venture out to feed only during the
+early morning and in the evening.
+
+When the leaves begin to fall in the autumn, they construct a more
+substantial web to protect themselves from the dangers of the winter,
+and in this they hybernate till the buds burst in the following spring.
+They now venture out, at first during the mildest days only, and feed
+voraciously on the young leaves, returning to their homes to rest. Soon,
+however, they gradually lose their social tendencies, till at last, when
+about half or three-quarters fed, they become quite solitary in their
+habits.
+
+In May they are fully grown, and change to the chrysalis state on the
+twigs of their food trees.
+
+The larva is black above, with two reddish stripes. The sides and under
+surface are grey, the former being relieved by black spiracles.
+
+The pupa (page 45) is greenish or yellowish white, striped with bright
+yellow, and spotted with black.
+
+It is probable that the reader will never meet with this insect in any
+of its stages. But, though it may have left us, it is still very
+abundant on the Continent, where it does great damage to fruit trees;
+and the foreign pupæ may be purchased of English dealers.
+
+
+_The Large White_ (_Pieris Brassicæ_)
+
+We pass now from one of the rarest to one of the most abundant of
+British butterflies. Everybody has seen the 'Large White,' though we
+doubt whether everybody knows that this insect is not of the same
+species as the two other very common 'Whites.' The three--Large, Small,
+and Green-veined--are so much alike in general colour and markings, and
+so similar in their habits and in the selection of their food plants,
+that the non-entomological, not knowing that insects do not grow in
+their perfect state, may perhaps regard the larger and the smaller as
+older and younger members of the same species. But no--they are three
+distinct species, exhibiting to a careful observer many important marks
+by which each may be known from the other two.
+
+On Plate I (fig. 3) will be seen a picture of the female _Brassicæ_, in
+which the following markings are depicted: On each fore wing--a blotch
+at the tip, a round spot near the centre, another round one nearer the
+inner margin, and a tapering spot on the inner margin with its point
+toward the base of the wing. On the hind wings there is only one spot,
+situated near the middle of the costal margin.
+
+The male may be readily distinguished by the absence of the black
+markings on the fore wings, with the exception of those at the tips. He
+is also a trifle smaller than his mate.
+
+This butterfly is double-brooded. The first brood appears in April and
+May, the second in July and August; and the former--the spring
+brood--which emerges from the chrysalides that have hybernated during
+the winter, have _grey_ rather than black tips to the front wings.
+
+The ova of _Brassicæ_ may be found on the leaves of cabbages in every
+kitchen garden, also on the nasturtium, during May and July. They are
+pretty objects (see fig. 10), something like little bottles or
+sculptured vases standing on end, and are arranged either singly or in
+little groups.
+
+As soon as the young larvæ are out--from ten to fifteen days after the
+eggs are deposited--having devoured their shells, they start feeding on
+the selfsame spot, and afterwards wander about, dealing out destruction
+as they go, till little remains of their food plant save the mere stumps
+and skeletons of the leaves.
+
+The ground colour of the caterpillar is bluish green. It has a narrow
+yellow stripe down the middle of the back, and two similar but wider
+stripes along the sides; and the surface of the body is rendered
+somewhat rough by a number of small black warty projections, from each
+of which arises a short hair.
+
+When fully grown, it creeps to some neighbouring wall or fence, up which
+it climbs till it reaches a sheltering ledge. Here it constructs its
+web and silken cord as already described (page 36), and then changes to
+a bluish-white chrysalis, dotted with black. The butterflies of the
+summer brood emerge shortly after, but the chrysalides of the next brood
+hybernate till the following spring.
+
+It is remarkable that we are so plagued with 'Whites' seeing that they
+have so many enemies. Many of the insect-feeding birds commit fearful
+havoc among their larvæ, and often chase the perfect insects on the
+wing, but perhaps their greatest enemy is the ichneumon fly.
+
+Look under the ledges of a wall of any kitchen garden, and you will see
+little clusters of oval bodies of a bright yellow colour. Most gardeners
+know that these are in some way or other connected with the caterpillars
+that do so much damage to their vegetables. They are often considered to
+be eggs laid by the larvæ, and are consequently killed out of pure
+revenge, or with a desire to save the crops from the future marauders.
+
+No greater mistake could be made. These yellow bodies are the silken
+cocoons of the caterpillar's own foes. They contain the pupæ of the
+little flies whose larvæ have lived within the body of an unfortunate
+grub, and, having flourished to perfection at the expense of their host,
+left its almost empty and nearly lifeless carcase to die and drop to the
+ground just at the time when it ought to be working out its final
+changes. Often you may see the dying grub beside the cluster of cocoons
+just constructed by its deadly enemies. Should you wish to test the
+extent of the destructive work of these busy flies, go into your garden
+and collect a number of larvæ, and endeavour to rear them under cover.
+The probability is that only a small proportion will ever reach the
+final state, the others having been fatally 'stung' before you took
+them.
+
+
+_The Small White_ (_P. Rapæ_)
+
+This butterfly closely resembles the last species except in point of
+size. The male, represented on Plate I (fig. 4), has a dark grey blotch
+at the tip of each fore wing, a round spot of the same colour beyond the
+centre of that wing, and another on the costal margin of the hind wing.
+The female may be distinguished by an additional spot near the anal
+angle of the fore wing.
+
+Although this and the two other common butterflies (_Brassicæ_ and
+_Napi_) that frequent our kitchen gardens are usually spoken of as
+'Whites,' a glance at a few specimens will show that they are not really
+white at all, but exhibit delicate shades of cream and yellow, inclining
+sometimes to buff. The under surfaces are particularly noticeable in
+this respect, for here the hind wings and the tips of the fore wings
+display a very rich yellow.
+
+The species we are now considering is also very variable both in its
+ground colour and the markings of the wings. The former is in some cases
+a really brilliant yellow; and the latter are in some cases entirely
+wanting.
+
+_Rapæ_ is double-brooded, the first brood appearing in April and May,
+and the other in July and August.
+
+During these months the eggs may be seen in plenty on its numerous food
+plants, which include the cabbages and horse-radish of our gardens, also
+water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_), rape (_Brassica Napus_), wild
+mustard (_B. Sinapis_), wild mignonette (_Reseda lutea_), and nasturtium
+(_Tropæolum majus_).
+
+The eggs are conical in form--something like a sugar loaf, with ridges
+running from apex to base, and very delicate lines from ridge to ridge
+transversely.
+
+The young larvæ often make their first meal of the shell, and then
+attack the food plant so voraciously that they are fully grown in about
+three or four weeks. In colour they are of a beautiful glaucous green,
+hardly distinguishable at times from the leaves on which they rest. A
+yellow stripe runs along the middle of the back, and lines of yellow
+spots adorn the sides; and the whole body is covered with very short
+hairs, each one arising from a minute warty projection.
+
+The pupæ may be found during the same seasons and in the same situations
+as those of _Brassicæ_. They are very variable in colour. Some are of a
+very pale grey or putty colour, some are decidedly brown, and others of
+a greenish tinge; and they are often spotted and striped with dark grey
+or black.
+
+
+_The Green-veined White_ (_P. Napi_)
+
+A non-observant beginner at entomological work may easily mistake this
+insect for the last species, for the ground colour and markings are very
+similar, even to the features by which the sexes are distinguished from
+each other; but an inspection of the under surface will give a ready
+means of identification, for here the wing rays are bordered with black
+scales which, by contrast with the rich yellow around them, often
+appear of a greenish hue. The butterfly receives its popular name from
+this circumstance.
+
+A careful observer, however, will readily find distinguishing marks on
+the upper side, for here also the chief 'veins' are more or less
+accompanied with black scales, especially the extremities of those of
+the fore wings, where little triangular blotches are often distinctly
+formed; and the dark veining of the under surface of the hind wings
+frequently shows through. The under side of this insect is shown on
+Plate I (fig. 5).
+
+This butterfly is not so abundant as the two preceding, but is widely
+distributed throughout England, and is in most parts decidedly
+plentiful.
+
+The first brood (for it also is double-brooded) appears during April and
+May, and the second in July and August.
+
+The eggs are very similar to those of _Rapæ_, resembling ribbed and
+striated sugar loaves; and the larvæ are of the same rich glaucous
+green, but may be identified by the black spiracles surrounded by yellow
+rings. In our gardens we may find both eggs and larvæ on mignonette and
+horse-radish; the other food plants of this species include the
+water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_), winter cress (_Barbarea
+vulgaris_), rape (_Brassica Napus_), cuckoo-flower (_Cardamine
+pratensis_), and Jack-by-the-hedge (_Sisymbrium Alliaria_).
+
+The pupa is greenish, and marked with small black dots.
+
+
+_The Bath or Green-chequered White_ (_P. Daplidice_)
+
+There is no doubt that many butterflies migrate from one country to
+another across the seas; and as the Bath White is very common on the
+other side of the Channel, and has been taken very sparingly in England
+almost exclusively in the south-east, it is highly probable that the
+majority of those that have been captured here are specimens that have
+taken a voluntary trip across the water, or have been blown over during
+rough weather.
+
+This butterfly is one of our greatest rarities, and the capture of a
+specimen in England is an event that must necessarily be recorded in our
+entomological literature. It seems that _Daplidice_ has bred in England,
+for its caterpillars have been found at large on one or two occasions,
+so I will give a short description of the various stages of the insect,
+with a hope that some of my readers may be fortunate enough to meet with
+it.
+
+The female butterfly is shown on Plate I, fig. 6. From this it will be
+observed that each of the fore wings is tipped with a rather large
+smoky-black blotch, in which are four white spots. A double spot of the
+same colour also occupies a place near the centre of the wing, and
+another smaller and round one lies near the anal angle. The hind wings
+are clouded with grey, and bordered along the hind margin with distinct
+smoky-black spots.
+
+The male may be distinguished from the female by the absence of the spot
+near the anal angle of the fore wings, and of all the clouds and spots
+of the hind wings. Nevertheless the latter have a decidedly clouded
+appearance, but this is due to the markings of the under surface showing
+through them.
+
+The under side of both sexes is most beautifully marked--the fore wings
+resembling the upper sides, but the hind pair chequered with a beautiful
+soft green on a pale yellow ground.
+
+The eggs of this insect are deposited during April and May, and again in
+August or September--for it is, like the other 'Whites,'
+double-brooded--on two species of Wild Mignonette (_Reseda lutea_ and
+_R. luteola_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--THE BATH WHITE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The caterpillars, which are of a bluish colour, with two yellow stripes
+down the back, and two others along the sides, may be _looked_ for in
+June and September. Those of the first brood only have been taken in
+this country, while the others on the Continent change to the chrysalis
+in the autumn, and hybernate in this state throughout the winter.
+
+The chrysalis is of a brownish colour, and closely resembles that of the
+Small White in form.
+
+Those in search of this rare British insect should wander along the
+south-east coast, and net all the doubtful slow-flying small Whites
+(_Daplidice_ is rather slow and heavy on the wing), and their
+perseverance _may_ be rewarded with a prize that will ever be a reminder
+of a glorious catch and an eventful day. If you fail in this, and most
+probably you will, rather than remain a stranger to this beautiful and
+interesting insect, fill up the blank in your cabinet with a foreign
+specimen, which can be obtained at any time for a few pence, but be
+careful to label it 'not British,' in order that your brother
+collectors may not be deceived, or be led to make any unnecessary
+inquiries.
+
+
+_The Orange Tip_ (_Euchloë Cardamines_)
+
+No one could possibly mistake the male of this species for any other
+British butterfly, the popular name alone giving quite sufficient
+information for its identification, but the female Orange Tip is _not_
+tipped with orange, and its markings, both above and beneath, resemble
+those of _Daplidice_ so nearly that the same written description might
+apply almost equally well to both.
+
+On Plate I (fig. 7) is shown the upper side of the male, and just
+opposite it (fig. 8) the under surface of the same. The female is
+usually a little larger than her mate, and is marked similarly on both
+sides except that the bright orange blotch is entirely wanting. She may
+always be distinguished from _Daplidice_ by the smaller size of the
+white spots that break the dark blotch at the tip of the fore wing; also
+by the very small size of the dark spot in the centre of the same wing.
+The green chequerings of the under side of the hind wings are also more
+sharply defined, and the insect is generally of a lighter build.
+
+Like many other butterflies, the Orange Tip is subject to variations in
+colouring. Sometimes a pale but bright yellow takes the place of the
+white ground, and the orange blotch of the male is occasionally present
+on the upper or lower surface only.
+
+_Cardamines_ is a single-brooded insect, and is essentially a creature
+of the spring, at which time it may be found in abundance in lanes,
+meadows, and clearings in woods throughout the British Isles. Its flight
+is so light and airy that even the female may easily be distinguished
+from other Whites when on the wing, while the brilliant orange of the
+male, intensified by the bright rays of the spring sun, may be
+identified at some considerable distance.
+
+The food plants of _Cardamines_ include the cuckoo-flower (_Cardamine
+pratensis_) and the bitter cress (_C. impatiens_), after which the
+insect is named, also water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_), winter
+cress (_Barbarea vulgaris_), rock cress (_Arabis perfoliata_), hedge
+mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_), Jack-by-the-hedge (_S. Alliaria_),
+wild mustard (_Brassica Sinapis_), &c., and the eggs of the butterfly
+may be found on these during May and June.
+
+The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 2) is green, with a white stripe on
+each side, and its body is covered with short hair. In July it is fully
+grown, and ascends a stem of the food plant to prepare itself for its
+long winter sleep.
+
+The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 8) is a very peculiar object. Both ends
+are much elongated and sharply pointed; and the foremost extremity
+stands out at an angle with the stem to which it is attached.
+
+This butterfly should be looked for during April and May, but in mild
+seasons it may often be met with in March.
+
+
+_The Wood White_ (_Leucophasia Sinapis_)
+
+The distinguishing feature of this butterfly (see Plate II, fig. 1) is
+the extreme lightness and delicacy of its build. Its wings are narrow,
+and rounded at the tips; and the only mark to relieve the white ground
+of the upper side is a squarish blotch at the tip of the fore wing, and
+even this is either very indistinct or entirely absent in the female.
+The under surface is clouded with a pale greenish tint.
+
+This insect may be looked for in May and again in August, in paths and
+clearings in woods, where it moves along with a slow but steady flight,
+hardly ever seeming to rest for a moment. It is not by any means a
+common butterfly, but is very widely distributed, and sometimes appears
+in considerable numbers in certain favoured spots. Among the localities
+recorded may be mentioned Torquay, Exeter, Plymouth, South Dorset, New
+Forest, Reading, Darent Woods, Morecambe Bay, Haslemere, Windermere, &c.
+
+The caterpillar is of a beautiful green colour, and is covered with
+short whitish hairs. A darker green stripe runs down the middle of the
+back, and a bright yellow stripe along each side. Its food plants are
+the tufted vetch (_Vicia Cracca_), bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus
+corniculatus_ and _L. pilosus_), bitter vetch (_Lathyrus tuberosus_),
+and the everlasting pea (_L. sylvestris_).
+
+The chrysalis is a very beautiful object. Its colour is a delicate
+green, tinged with pink; and the wing-cases project in beautiful curves
+much beyond the general surface.
+
+
+_The Pale Clouded Yellow_ (_Colias Hyale_)
+
+The ground colour of this butterfly (Plate II, fig. 2) is very variable.
+It is usually a sulphury yellow, and on this account the insect is
+commonly known as the Clouded Brimstone; but sometimes the yellow is
+exceedingly pale--almost white--and tinged with green.
+
+A very large black blotch, broken by indefinite patches of the ground
+colour, fills up the tip of each fore wing, and extends to the anal
+angle, becoming narrower as it approaches this point. A black oval spot
+lies just above the middle of this wing.
+
+The hind wings are bordered with black, and a conspicuous spot of deep
+yellow lies very near the centre of each.
+
+The antennæ are rather short, compared with those of the preceding
+members of this family, and are distinguished by their reddish-brown
+colour.
+
+The male and female of this species are similarly marked, but the ground
+colour of the latter is commonly paler.
+
+This is not by any means a very common butterfly with us, though it is
+very plentiful on the other side of the Channel; but it has a way of
+taking us by surprise in certain seasons, and then almost neglecting us
+for several years together.
+
+Its head quarters are certainly the coasts of Kent and Sussex, but it
+has been taken in considerable numbers as far west as Cornwall, and also
+to a less extent in some of the midland and northern counties. It is
+particularly fond of lucerne and clover fields, especially those that
+are situated close to the sea cliffs; and often it may be seen flying
+over the beach, sometimes even flitting over the breakers away from land
+till at last it disappears in the distance. This maritime tendency of
+_Hyale_ makes it probable that a large number of those that are seen on
+our south-east coasts have made a passage across the narrow end of the
+Channel.
+
+The eggs are laid in spring, by females that have hybernated throughout
+the winter, on various leguminous plants, including the lucerne
+(_Medicago sativa_), black medick (_M. lupulina_), purple and Dutch
+clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_), and the bird's-foot
+trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and on these plants you may search for
+the larva, though it can scarcely be said that you are likely to find
+it.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with black dots, and a yellowish stripe on
+each side. When fully grown it ascends a stem of its food plant and
+changes to a green chrysalis with yellow stripes.
+
+_Hyale_ is single-brooded in England, although two broods regularly
+appear on the Continent. In our country the perfect insects emerge
+during July and August. Many of these die before the approach of winter;
+but, as we have already observed, some hybernate and deposit their eggs
+in the following spring.
+
+
+_The Clouded Yellow_ (_Colias Edusa_)
+
+Not only are this and the last species similarly named, but a glance at
+the figures will show that they much resemble each other in appearance;
+and we shall also learn presently that in their habits and life history
+they have much in common.
+
+The male _Edusa_ is shown on Plate II (fig. 3), and when we compare it
+with its relative on the opposite side, we are at once struck with the
+superior richness of the brilliant orange or saffron of the ground
+colour. The black border of both fore and hind wings is also denser,
+wider, and more extensive. The whole of the yellow area of the hind
+wings is dusted more or less with black scales, with the exception of a
+round central spot of deep orange, corresponding with the orange spots
+on the hind wings of _Hyale_.
+
+The female, which is shown in the accompanying woodcut, is generally
+larger than the male, and is further distinguished by the very pale
+yellow spots that break the black border of both pairs of wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--THE CLOUDED YELLOW--FEMALE.]
+
+_Edusa_ further resembles _Hyale_ in the reddish colour of the antennæ;
+and, in both the species, the red legs form a pleasing contrast with the
+yellow furry surface of the under side of the thorax.
+
+There is a variety of the female of this butterfly, in which the ground
+colour is a _very pale_ yellow, almost white. The hind wings are more
+thickly dusted with black scales than in the normal insect, and the
+orange spots of these wings show up much more conspicuously from the
+contrast with their surroundings.
+
+It is usual to apply distinct names to constant varieties of
+species--names that are to be added to the ordinary title. In this
+particular case the distinguishing name is _Helice_, so that we should
+speak of the variety of _Edusa_ above mentioned as:
+
+
+_Colias Edusa_, var. _Helice_
+
+Like _Hyale_, _Edusa_ is particularly capricious in its appearance. In
+certain summers it absolutely swarms in favourite localities, while
+during the intervals between such remarkable appearances--usually
+several years--it is positively scarce. The last favoured season was the
+summer of '92, during which (from the beginning of August to the end of
+the summer) dozens might easily have been caught in an hour or two; in
+fact, so plentiful were they in many places, that they were continuously
+in sight, often several at one time.
+
+Those in search of this insect should repair to the south coast,
+especially the south-east, and where lucerne and clover fields are in
+flower. It has very decided maritime tendencies, and may often be seen
+flying over the cliffs and beaches, and even skipping over the breakers;
+but, at the same time, it is more or less plentiful in many inland
+districts. It has been taken in many parts of Ireland and Scotland,
+particularly along the southern coasts of these countries; but its head
+quarters are undoubtedly the southern cliffs of England, from Cornwall
+to Kent, and also the hilly inland districts of the south-eastern
+counties.
+
+_Edusa_ catching is very lively sport, and is likely to prove sufficient
+for any lover of outdoor exercise under a scorching sun; for this
+butterfly is not only very powerful on the wing, but its flights are
+usually long, so that a good run is often absolutely necessary in order
+to capture it. On very hilly ground, such as _Edusa_ loves, chase is
+often hopeless, and then it is necessary to resort to stratagem. In such
+a case the best plan is to make a very cautious approach when the insect
+has been observed to settle, and then secure it with a sudden
+down-stroke of the net.
+
+The eggs are laid during May and June by a few females that have
+survived the winter.
+
+The caterpillar may be found in June and July on its food plants, the
+chief of which are the bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and
+the purple and Dutch clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_). Its
+colour is grass-green, and it is marked with a narrow whitish stripe on
+each side, which is broken by the yellow of the spiracles.
+
+The chrysalis is of a pale yellowish green, and is marked with yellow
+stripes and reddish-brown dots.
+
+
+_The Brimstone_ (_Gonopteryx Rhamni_)
+
+This, the last member of the present family, is remarkable for the
+graceful outline of its wings. The costal margins of the fore pair are
+most beautifully arched, and both pairs are sharply angled on the hind
+margins. This latter characteristic is quite unique among British
+butterflies, though we shall presently meet with instances of angular
+projections on hind wings only.
+
+The ground colour of the male (Plate II, fig. 4) is a rich sulphury
+yellow, with a greenish tinge. That of the female is a very pale
+greenish yellow. The only conspicuous markings are small saffron spots,
+one near the centre of each wing. The antennæ are red, short, and
+beautifully curved; but, unlike the two preceding species, the legs are
+almost white.
+
+The eggs of this butterfly are laid in April on the two species of
+buckthorn (_Rhamnus catharticus_ and _R. Frangula_) by the females that
+have successfully weathered the winter. They are of a bright yellow
+colour, and are usually hatched in about a fortnight.
+
+The body of the caterpillar is green, and it is thickly covered with
+little black wart-like projections. A pale stripe also runs along each
+side. During May and June it may be found on its food plants, and toward
+the end of the latter month it attaches itself by a silken carpet and
+belt to the under side of one of the leaves.
+
+The chrysalis is of a very peculiar shape, the body being curved, and
+the wing cases standing out prominently beyond the general surface. Its
+colour is a bright apple green marked with yellow, and it is so
+transparent that certain of the structures can be seen through its skin.
+
+The perfect insect emerges in about three weeks after the change to the
+chrysalis; and may be looked for from July to the end of the summer.
+This period may be regarded as the best time in which to hunt for
+_Rhamni_, but it is to be noted that this butterfly makes its appearance
+during all months of the year, even though it is single-brooded.
+
+A large number seem to hybernate, and their winter sleep is so light
+that the welcome rays of the sun on a mild day, even during the bleak
+months of November to February, will often call them out from their
+hiding places. Then, as a rule, the hybernating butterflies do not live
+long after depositing their eggs for the future brood; but the Brimstone
+often lives on till its offspring have themselves attained the perfect
+state, so that it is possible to capture the insects of two different
+years both on the same day. In such a case it is generally easy to
+distinguish between the two, for the newly emerged specimens are
+beautifully bright and fresh in colour, while those of the previous year
+are more or less faded and worn, their wings being often
+semi-transparent through the loss of scales, and frequently disfigured
+by the stains of mildew.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+_THE FRITILLARIES, VANESSAS, AND THE PURPLE EMPEROR_
+
+
+Family--NYMPHALIDÆ
+
+We now come to a rather large family, which contains some of our largest
+and most brilliant butterflies. Some of them display the most gaudy
+colours, and others exhibit patches of a beautiful metallic lustre.
+
+If you were to see all the members of this family side by side, they
+might strike you as being so varied in their appearance that you would
+wonder why they are all placed in one family group. But, were you to
+see, in addition to the perfect insects, all their larvæ and
+chrysalides, the reason would be made clear at once, for these earlier
+stages are seen to resemble each other in certain points at the very
+first glance. The former are all provided with peculiar spines, and the
+latter are all more or less angular, and are all suspended to a silken
+carpet by means of hooks at the tip of the abdomen, and have no belt as
+we have observed in the case of the _Pieridæ_.
+
+The perfect insects, too, although so varied in colouring, are alike in
+that they have only four walking legs, the first pair being so
+imperfectly developed as to be useless for this purpose.
+
+This family includes the Fritillaries and the Vanessas.
+
+
+_The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Selene_)
+
+The interesting group of butterflies known as the Fritillaries vary
+considerably in size, but are remarkably uniform in the ground colour of
+the wings, which, in all cases, is a rich golden or sienna brown; and
+this ground is chequered with darker colours in such a manner as to
+remind one of the petals of the wild flower known as the Snake's Head
+or Fritillary--hence the popular name of the group.
+
+The Small Pearl-bordered, our first example, is one of the lesser
+Fritillaries, and is shown in Plate II (fig. 5).
+
+The arrangement of the black markings on the upper surface will be
+readily made out from the coloured plate, but the pattern of the under
+side will require a little special notice, for it is here, as with the
+other Fritillaries, that we find the chief marks by which we identify
+the species. On this side (fig. 67) the fore wings are light orange
+brown, with a patch of darker brown near the tips, and spotted with a
+dull black. The hind wings have the light brown displaced by a very warm
+chestnut tint, some yellow, and bright silvery spots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--THE SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER
+SIDE.]
+
+Seven silvery spots of triangular form border the hind margin. A large
+one occupies the centre of the wing, and ten others are somewhat
+irregularly scattered over other parts of the wing--five between the
+central spot and the hind margin, and five between it and the costa.
+
+All the spots on these wings, whether yellow, chestnut, or silver, are
+bordered by a narrow black line.
+
+_Selene_ is not a very abundant butterfly, but is widely distributed in
+England, and is also found in parts of Scotland. Its favourite resorts
+are clearings in woods, especially those of Kent and other southern
+counties.
+
+It appears in May and June, in which latter month it deposits its eggs
+on the dog violet (_Viola canina_).
+
+The caterpillar is not fully grown at the end of the summer, and
+hybernates during the winter among the roots of its food plant. In the
+following spring it emerges again, and feeds till May, when it changes
+to the chrysalis on a stem. It is less than an inch long when fully
+grown, and is of a dark-brown colour. Six rows of hairy spines are
+arranged longitudinally on its body.
+
+The chrysalis is greyish brown, and has a number of very short
+projections corresponding with the spines of the caterpillar.
+
+
+_The Pearl-bordered Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Euphrosyne_)
+
+There is very little difference in the size of this and that of the last
+species, but _Euphrosyne_ (Plate II, fig. 6) is generally a trifle
+larger. The two butterflies are also very similar in appearance; indeed,
+they are so much alike on the upper side that it is impossible to decide
+on the name of either without an examination of the under surface.
+
+_Euphrosyne_ has a border of seven triangular silver spots on each hind
+wing, exactly corresponding with those of _Selene_. It has also the
+large central spot of silver. But, beside these, there is _only one_
+other, and that is situated in the basal angle. Thus there are only nine
+silvery or pearly spots on each hind wing of _Euphrosyne_, while there
+are seventeen on _Selene_. This will form a ready means of
+distinguishing between the two species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--THE PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The seasons and localities of this butterfly correspond very closely
+with those of the last species, but it is much more common, and may be
+found in abundance in nearly all our southern woods during May and June.
+
+The caterpillar, also, feeds on the same plant (dog violet) as _Selene_.
+It is black, with whitish lines along the sides; and is provided with a
+number of bristly spines.
+
+The chrysalis is of a grey-brown colour, with small dots of a paler tint
+on the wing cases; and its body has a number of short conical
+projections exactly corresponding with the spines of the caterpillar.
+
+
+_The Queen of Spain Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Latona_)
+
+We now pass from the commonest to the rarest and most prized of our wood
+butterflies--The Queen of Spain (Plate II, fig. 7). This royal personage
+is not easily mistaken for any of the meaner Fritillaries even when the
+upper surface only is examined, as the concave hind margins of the fore
+wings serve as an almost conclusive mark of distinction. The rich tawny
+brown of this side is boldly marked with black, and the long hairs and
+scales of the bases of the wings are tinged with green.
+
+The under side presents a most beautiful appearance. Here the ground
+colour is paler than that of the upper side. The fore wings are spotted
+with black, and have a few small patches of silver at the tips. Each
+hind wing has no fewer than twenty-four bright silvery spots. Seven of
+these, mostly of large size, adorn the hind margin, and above each of
+these is a small one in the middle of a little patch of dark brown. The
+arrangement of the others is not quite so easily described, but may be
+readily made out from our illustration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--THE QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This rare gem among British butterflies has been taken in many
+localities, but in very small numbers. Seeing that it is a common insect
+on the other side of the Channel, and that the British captures have
+been made chiefly in the Isle of Wight and on the south coast, I am
+inclined to believe that many of the highly valued genuine Britishers
+have no right to their title, but are visitors that have spent only a
+few days within our shores, having flown or been blown across the sea.
+
+It is not likely that many of my readers will ever meet with _Latona_
+during their rambles in our own country, and if they are anxious to have
+the species represented in their collections, they will probably have to
+purchase either a British or a foreign specimen, the former of which
+will command a very high price, while the latter may be obtained for
+three or four pence.
+
+The perfect insect may be looked for in August and September, during
+which time the eggs are laid on the leaves of violets and the heartsease
+(_Viola canina_, _V. odorata_, and _V. tricolor_).
+
+The caterpillar is brown, with numerous yellowish spines, and has three
+whitish or yellowish stripes--one down the middle of the back and one
+along each side. It hybernates during the winter, and is fully grown in
+the following June or July. I hope that my reader will be so fortunate
+as to secure either this or some other stage of this rare and beautiful
+insect. The chances are decidedly against him, but that is no reason
+why he should abstain from a vigorous search when he happens to be
+'doing' the southern counties.
+
+
+_The Dark-green Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Aglaia_)
+
+This butterfly is larger than _Latona_, as will be seen by reference to
+Plate II, fig. 8. Its colour is, as usual with the Fritillaries, a tawny
+brown with black markings. The female is usually larger than the male,
+and she is further distinguished by the ground colour being darker and
+the black markings larger.
+
+The under side of the fore wings is very similar in colour and markings
+to the upper, but there are silvery spots near the tips. The hind wings
+are beautifully tinted with olive green and brown, and studded with
+silver. The arrangement of the latter is not easily described, but is
+accurately represented in the accompanying woodcut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--THE DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The favourite resorts of this insect are wooded spots, and also heaths
+and downs clad with heather or ferns, where its food plant (the dog
+violet) lies scattered; but it seems to be less partial to woods than
+the other Fritillaries. It is very widely distributed throughout
+England, and is common in parts of Scotland and Ireland.
+
+The perfect insect is on the wing in July and early August.
+
+The caterpillar first appears toward the end of August, and commences
+its period of hybernation among the roots of its food plant before it
+has grown to any considerable size. It comes out again in the spring,
+and continues to feed till the beginning or middle of July, and then
+changes to the chrysalis state, after protecting itself by binding three
+or four leaves together.
+
+Its colour is a velvety black, with dark and glossy grey between the
+segments. There is a double yellow line along the back, and a thin line
+of orange yellow on each side below the spiracles. It has a number of
+black hairy spines, arranged in six longitudinal rows.
+
+The chrysalis is of a shiny black colour, with brownish abdomen; and the
+conical projections are black with yellow tips.
+
+
+_The High-brown Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Adippe_)
+
+The upper side of this butterfly is so much like that of _Aglaia_ that
+it would be difficult indeed to give a written description of one that
+did not almost equally well apply to the other; so we look to the under
+surface for the chief marks by which we can distinguish between them.
+
+On this side (Plate III, fig. 1) the fore wings are much the same as
+those of _Aglaia_. The hind wings, too, are very similarly coloured and
+marked, but here we have a distinguishing feature in a row of rust-red
+spots with silvery centres, just inside the silver border of the hind
+margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--THE HIGH-BROWN FRITILLARY.]
+
+This butterfly is common in open spaces of woods in many parts of
+England, more particularly in the south, and seems to be also fond of
+hilly heaths and moors.
+
+It is on the wing in July, and, towards the end of this month and in the
+beginning of August, the eggs are laid on the leaves of the dog violet
+(_Viola canina_) and heartsease (_V. tricolor_).
+
+The young caterpillar emerges about two weeks later, and feeds only for
+a short time before it seeks out its winter quarters among the dead
+leaves at the root of its food plant. The feeding is resumed in the
+spring, and continued till the month of June, when it is fully grown. At
+this time it is about an inch and a half long. Its head is black, and
+its body pinkish brown. A white line extends down the back, but is
+interrupted by several black marks. The spines, of which there are six
+rows, are white, with pinkish tips.
+
+
+_The Silver-washed Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Paphia_)
+
+This beautiful and noble butterfly is the largest of the Fritillaries,
+and the most powerful on the wing. During the latter part of June and
+throughout July it may be seen gracefully sweeping through the trees and
+undergrowth of woods, often settling down on a favourite flower for a
+short time. So strong is its flight that it is useless to attempt to
+pursue it for any distance. Sometimes it will sail along a wooded path,
+followed at short intervals by others of its species, and may be taken
+in the net as it passes. But perhaps the most successful method of
+netting _Paphia_ is to wait till it has settled, and then secure it by a
+quick upward or side stroke of the net. If then you miss your aim, off
+it will dart, sailing over the tree tops till, in a very short time, it
+is quite out of sight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--THE SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The upper side of this butterfly is shown in Plate III, fig. 2, where
+the general arrangement of the black spots on the rich orange-brown
+ground is carefully marked. There is a considerable difference between
+the male and female of this species. The figure on Plate III represents
+the male. The female does not possess the broad black lines that follow
+the course of the veins of the fore wings; the basal portions of all
+four wings are also tinged with a rich olive-brown colour, often with a
+decided tendency to green; and the black spots of all the wings are
+larger.
+
+The under side is particularly rich in its decorations. The front wings
+are of the usual orange brown, chequered with black. The hind wings are
+partly brown and partly orange, and exhibit beautiful greenish
+reflections. They have also two bars of silver, and a silvery spot in
+the basal angle, all with rather indefinite outlines.
+
+The female lays her eggs late in July on the food plants (_Viola canina_
+and _V. odorata_) or on the moss that surrounds them.
+
+About two weeks later the young caterpillar is out and feeding; and
+then, after a few more weeks, while it is yet very small, it hides among
+the dead leaves at the roots. Early in the spring it resumes its
+feeding, and is full grown at the end of May.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 3) is black, and there
+are two yellow lines along the back, separated by a black stripe, also
+one yellowish line on each side. Its body is adorned with reddish-brown
+spines, two of which, situated just behind the head, are longer than the
+others.
+
+The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 9) is greyish, marked with metallic
+spots, and has a number of angular projections representing the spines
+of the larva.
+
+_Paphia_ is to be met with in woods in all parts of England and Wales.
+It has also been observed in Ireland, but is rarely seen in Scotland.
+
+
+_The Greasy Fritillary_ (_Melitæa Aurinia_)
+
+Unlike the other Fritillaries, this species (Plate III, fig. 3) exhibits
+a variety of shades on the upper surface. A broad band of sienna brown
+stretches across each wing, near to and parallel with the hind margin.
+The other parts of the wings are marked with patches of sienna, orange,
+and yellow, separated by black lines and bands. The margins are all
+black, and inside the broader margin of the hind wing is a row of six
+very pale yellow spots. The broad sienna band of the hind wing is also
+divided by narrow black lines into seven parts, six of which have black
+centres.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--THE GREASY FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under surface of the fore wings has indefinite yellowish and tawny
+patches, which look as if they had been greased and smeared. The hind
+wings are marked with pale yellow and deep orange; a broad band of the
+latter, near the hind margin, is divided into segments, each of which
+has a yellow spot with black in the centre.
+
+This is a very local insect, although it is widely distributed
+throughout England and Wales. It also occurs sparingly in Scotland and
+Ireland. Its food plants are the honeysuckle (_Lonicera_
+_Periclymenum_), devil's-bit scabious (_Scabiosa succisa_), and the
+plantain (_Plantago_); and its chief resorts are damp meadows and marshy
+places, where these plants (more especially the scabious) abound.
+
+The butterfly appears about the end of April or in June.
+
+The caterpillars emerge from the eggs towards the end of the latter
+month, and always feed in groups under the cover of a silken web. Like
+the preceding species they hybernate during the winter, and commence
+feeding again in the spring. They are fully grown about the end of
+April.
+
+In colour the caterpillar is velvety black, dotted with white, and its
+body is covered with short bristly spines. When fully fed it seeks the
+shelter of a curled leaf or dense herbage, suspends itself by the hind
+claspers to a silken carpet, and then changes to a creamy white
+chrysalis with black dots.
+
+
+_The Glanville Fritillary_ (_Melitæa Cinxia_)
+
+The pattern of the upper side of this Fritillary (Plate III, fig. 4) is
+very similar to that of _Aurinia_, but the ground colour is a uniform
+tawny brown, and the fringes of the wings are of a very pale straw
+colour, barred with black.
+
+The under side of the fore wings is tawny brown, with straw-coloured
+tips bearing black markings. The hind wings have four alternate bands of
+brown and straw colour, and a patch of straw colour at the base. The
+marginal yellow band has six or seven black spots. The brown band next
+to it is divided into six segments with black borders, each with a black
+spot. The next yellow band has also a row of black spots. The inner
+fulvous band is very irregular; and inside this is the yellow base with
+six spots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--THE GLANVILLE FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This is another local insect--very local indeed, for it seems to have
+been found only in a few spots outside its head quarters, the Isle of
+Wight. Those in search of it should carefully scan the rough cliffy
+parts of the island, wherever the species of plantain (_Plantago
+Coronopus_ and _P. maritima_) are plentiful, these being the food plants
+of the larvæ. It first appears on the wing in May, but may be found till
+the end of June.
+
+The caterpillars, which are black and spiny, with reddish head and legs,
+begin to feed in August, and as soon as the chilly weather sets in they
+hybernate in groups under the cover of a tent constructed by binding
+together leaves or blades of grass. In the spring they start out again,
+and feed till the end of April, at which time they change to dark
+brownish and smooth chrysalides.
+
+
+_The Heath Fritillary_ (_Melitæa Athalia_)
+
+Both the upper and under sides of this butterfly are shown on Plate III
+(figs. 5 and 6), and it will be observed from these that its general
+appearance is very similar to that of _Cinxia_.
+
+The upper surface is of the same tawny brown, barred and striped with
+black, and the fringes of the wings are pale yellow, interrupted by
+small patches of black.
+
+The under surface of the fore wings has the same ground colour with the
+exception of the tips, which are yellow; and the whole is marked with
+black, as in the illustration. The hind wings are pale yellow, with two
+broad bands of brown corresponding with those of _Cinxia_; but a series
+of black double arches along the hind margin and the _absence_ of rows
+of black spots serve to distinguish this species from the last.
+
+_Athalia_ is another local butterfly, but is sometimes found in
+abundance in the spots which it frequents. It is met with chiefly in the
+open spaces of woods along the south coast and for some distance inland.
+Devon, Cornwall, Sussex, and Kent seem to be the most favoured counties;
+and London entomologists would do well to search for it in Epping
+Forest.
+
+The butterfly deposits its eggs during June and July, on several
+different food plants, the chief of which are the greater and
+narrow-leaved plantains (_Plantago major_ and _P. lanceolata_), foxglove
+(_Digitalis purpurea_), two species of cow-wheat (_Melampyrum pratense_
+and _M. sylvaticum_), wood sage (_Teucrium Scorodonia_), and the
+germander speedwell (_Veronica Chamædrys_), and the young caterpillars,
+after feeding for only a week or two, commence their period of
+hybernation. They resume their feeding in April, and change to the pupal
+state about the end of May.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is velvety black, finely dotted with
+white, and the spines are yellow or orange, tipped with white.
+
+The chrysalis is creamy white, banded and patched with orange and
+black, and is suspended by anal hooks from a silken, carpet which the
+caterpillar had spun on the leaf of the food plant.
+
+
+_The Comma_ (_Vanessa C-Album_)
+
+Leaving the Fritillaries, we now come to a genus (Vanessa) that includes
+seven most beautiful butterflies, some of which are so common as to be
+known to almost everybody.
+
+It will be observed that this genus belongs to the same family as the
+Fritillaries, and we may therefore expect to find that the two groups
+possess features in common. A slight examination of a few in their
+different stages will show that this is so. Thus, the perfect insects
+have only four walking legs, the caterpillars are all spiny, and the
+chrysalides are angular.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--THE COMMA--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+There is another feature concerning the chrysalides worthy of note. Like
+some of the pupæ of the Fritillaries, they are adorned more or less with
+brilliant metallic spots, sometimes of a rich golden hue, and sometimes
+resembling burnished silver. Now the word 'chrysalis,' which, as we have
+already seen, is derived from a Greek word meaning 'gold,' was
+originally applied to the pupæ of some of the Vanessas, on account of
+their metallic decorations, but it has since been extended to the pupæ
+of all the Lepidoptera, and also to other orders of insects, even though
+the greater number of them display no tints of the precious metal.
+
+The first member for our consideration is the Comma Butterfly, of which
+an illustration is given in Plate III, fig. 7. No one could mistake this
+beautiful butterfly for any other British species, for its wings of rich
+orange brown, with black and dark-brown markings, are so irregularly
+scalloped on the hind margins that they present a somewhat ragged
+appearance. Its name is derived from the fact that a white mark
+something like the letter C, or, as some have it, like a comma, is
+distinctly painted on the dark brown of the under side.
+
+This butterfly generally emerges from the chrysalis late in the
+summer--August and September, but it is often seen earlier, and
+frequently as late as October. It is a great lover of sweets, and may be
+found settled on various flowers and fruits. Its chief food plants are
+the hop (_Humulus Lupulus_), red currant (_Ribes rubrum_), stinging
+nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and the Elm (_Ulmus campestris_).
+
+It is very abundant in certain districts where hops are grown, but seems
+to avoid those counties that border the sea. It is widely distributed in
+the midland counties, and extends to the north of England and into
+Scotland, but is very capricious in its appearance in many parts.
+
+The eggs are laid in May by females that have hybernated through the
+winter, and the caterpillars may be found feeding during July and
+August.
+
+The caterpillar is coloured grey and brown, with a black head, and a
+broad white stripe down the back of the hindermost segments. The body is
+armed with a number of spines, some of which are white, and others pale
+brown.
+
+The chrysalis is a very peculiar object, having two ear-like projections
+extending forwards from the sides of the head. It has a number of
+angular projections, and is of an umber-brown colour, finely netted with
+black lines, and having several spots of a brilliant metallic lustre.
+
+
+_The Large Tortoiseshell_ (_Vanessa Polychloros_)
+
+Our two tortoiseshells--large and small--are very similar in their
+colour and markings, and moreover are not always to be distinguished by
+their size, for specimens of the larger species are sometimes even
+inferior in this respect to the largest of the smaller species; so, to
+avoid all risks of mistaken identity, we must look for more reliable
+marks of distinction between them.
+
+The present species is figured on Plate III (fig. 8), where it will be
+seen that the ground colour of dark tawny brown is spotted and bordered
+with black. The border of the hind wings contains a row of
+crescent-shaped blue spots. The costal margin of the fore wings, between
+the black patches, is decidedly lighter than the general ground, and is
+yellow rather than brown. It will be noticed, too, that a black spot
+lies very near the anal angle of these wings.
+
+The under surface, though by no means brilliant, exhibits a rich
+blending of various shades of brown.
+
+This butterfly is not known to occur in either Scotland or Ireland, and
+is by no means common in England. Its chief localities are in the
+midland and eastern counties.
+
+The perfect insect generally appears about the middle of July, and after
+spending a month or six weeks on the wing, seeks out a sheltered spot in
+which to spend the winter. In the spring--April or May--it again takes
+to flight, and during the latter month the females are busily engaged in
+the deposition of their eggs.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the two species of elm (_Ulmus campestris_ and
+_U. montana_), willow (_Salix alba_), sallow (_S. Caprea_), osier (_S.
+viminalis_), aspen (_Populus tremula_), and certain fruit trees; and is
+full grown about midsummer. It is of a tawny grey colour, with a black
+stripe on each side, and is covered with very small wart-like
+projections, and the spines are branched.
+
+The chrysalis is of a dull pinkish colour, and may be found on tree
+trunks, palings, and walls, about the end of June, suspended from a
+silken carpet by means of its anal hooks.
+
+
+_The Small Tortoiseshell_ (_Vanessa Urticæ_)
+
+_Urticæ_ (Plate III, fig. 9) may be distinguished from _Polychloros_ by
+the _absence_ of the black spot in the anal angle of the fore wings of
+the latter. It has also a white spot near the tip of each fore
+wing-between the black border and the first black costal patch. The
+whole of the base of the hind wing is also black, and the ground colour
+is decidedly brighter.
+
+It is one of the commonest of all British butterflies, and is to be
+found more or less abundantly in nearly all parts of the British Isles.
+
+The hybernated perfect insects come out early in the spring, and lay
+their eggs in close irregular clusters on nettles (_Urtica dioica_ and
+_U. urens_). Shortly after the gregarious caterpillars may be found on
+these plants in dense masses. They change to the chrysalis state about
+the end of May, and from this time there is a continuous succession of
+butterflies till the end of the summer.
+
+The later specimens, which do not emerge till September or October,
+spend only a short time on the wing, and then hybernate till the spring,
+giving rise to the first brood of the following season.
+
+The caterpillar of this species is black above and greyish beneath. It
+is thickly covered with yellow dots, which are so close together on the
+back as to form two yellowish stripes, separated only by a fine black
+line. There are also two yellowish stripes along each side; and the
+body, as with the rest of this genus, is spiny, the spines in this case
+being black or very dark green.
+
+The chrysalis is brownish, and spotted with burnished gold in variable
+quantity--sometimes so plentifully as to cover the greater part of the
+surface.
+
+
+_The Peacock_ (_Vanessa Io_)
+
+This is another of our commonest and most beautiful butterflies. Its
+general appearance is such that it cannot possibly be mistaken for any
+other. The upper side (Plate IV, fig. 1) is rendered conspicuous by the
+beautiful eye-like marks at the costal angles of all four wings; and the
+under surface is very richly decorated with a fine arrangement of black
+and dark-brown patches and streaks.
+
+Io is very abundant in all parts of England, and is well known in many
+parts of Scotland and Ireland, but seems to be rare in the extreme north
+of both of these countries.
+
+Its food plant is the stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and on this the
+eggs are laid in April by females that have hybernated during the
+winter.
+
+The caterpillar is full grown at the end of June or beginning of July.
+It is black, with numerous minute white wart-like projections. Its
+spines also are black, and its claspers brown.
+
+The chrysalis may be found suspended by the tail on some object in the
+neighbourhood of the food plant, or sometimes on the food plant itself.
+It is of a greenish colour, with yellowish patches, but turns darker as
+the time approaches for the emerging of the perfect insect.
+
+This event takes place in August, and the butterfly, after a brief
+period on the wing, seeks out a sheltered spot for its winter nap.
+
+
+_The Camberwell Beauty_ (_Vanessa Antiopa_)
+
+The reader will be fortunate if he succeeds in netting a specimen of
+this highly prized British butterfly. It derives its popular name from
+the fact that a few were taken in Camberwell about a hundred and fifty
+years ago; and since that time it has been seen and taken in variable
+numbers in several parts of England. So widely distributed, indeed, are
+its localities, and so few, comparatively, its appearances, that it
+would be useless to attempt to give any hints as to where it may be
+looked for. It is, however, a very common butterfly in many continental
+countries, and foreign specimens may be obtained from any dealer in
+entomological wares for a few pence each.
+
+This rare British gem is illustrated in fig. 2 of Plate IV. Here it will
+be seen that nearly the whole of the surface is covered with a rich
+velvety purple brown, bordered with a black band containing blue spots;
+and outside this is a border of white, finely dotted and streaked with
+black. The continental specimens may be easily distinguished from the
+genuine Britishers by a darker border with a decidedly yellow tinge.
+
+The eggs of this species are generally laid on the young leaves of the
+willow (_Salix alba_), in the spring, by females that have hybernated,
+but sometimes the nettle (_Urtica dioica_) and the birch (_Betula alba_)
+are selected for the food of the larvæ.
+
+The caterpillar is black and spiny, and has a row of seven rather large
+reddish-brown spots on the back, commencing at the fifth segment.
+
+The chrysalis, like those of the other members of this family, is
+angular and suspended by the 'tail.' The perfect insect appears in
+August, and may be seen from that month till October.
+
+
+_The Red Admiral_ (_Vanessa Atalanta_)
+
+There seems to be a tendency with many to under-estimate the beauty of
+certain natural objects because they happen to be so very common, and
+this is particularly the case with some of our most familiar
+butterflies. The beautiful Red Admiral (Plate IV, fig. 3) may possibly
+suffer in this respect; for, not only is it one of the commonest of our
+butterflies, but it fearlessly hovers among the flowers of our gardens,
+often venturing into the very heart of thickly populated towns.
+
+The bright scarlet bands and white blotches of this gorgeous insect
+stand out boldly on the rich velvety black ground of the wings, and the
+additional touches of blue in the anal angles of the hind wings add to
+the effect. The under side of the fore wings is somewhat similar to the
+upper surface, but is relieved by brown and blue; and this side of the
+hind wings presents most beautiful and indescribable blendings of
+various shades of brown, grey, and pink. The female may be
+distinguished by the presence of a small white spot on the scarlet band
+of the fore wing.
+
+The eggs are deposited singly on the nettle (_Urtica dioica_) in spring
+by females that have hybernated through the winter.
+
+The caterpillar always feeds under the cover of a tent made by drawing
+leaves together. It is spiny, and its colour is usually a greenish or
+yellowish grey, spotted with black, and striped along the sides with
+white or yellow. When fully grown it bites the stem of the nettle nearly
+through a few inches from the top, so that the upper part of the plant
+bends over the withers. It then constructs a commodious tent by binding
+the leaves of this drooping portion together, and suspends itself from
+the roof of this strange home to undergo its metamorphoses.
+
+The change to the chrysalis state takes place in July or August, and the
+perfect insect may be seen during August, September, and October in
+almost every part of the British Isles.
+
+
+_The Painted Lady_ (_Vanessa Cardui_)
+
+Although the time of appearance of this butterfly generally corresponds
+with that of the last species, yet it is exceedingly variable, so much
+so that it is impossible to give any fixed period as its season. It is,
+moreover, very capricious with regard to its localities and its numbers.
+Sometimes it will turn up unexpectedly in positive abundance in certain
+localities where previously it had been a mere straggler; and then, for
+some unaccountable reason, become comparatively scarce for several
+successive seasons.
+
+The upper surface of this beauty (Plate IV, fig. 4) is adorned with pale
+red, orange, and black, and with five white spots near the tip of each
+fore wing. The under side of the fore wings is marked something like the
+upper, but much of the black is replaced by shades of brown. The hind
+wings are beautifully variegated beneath with greys and browns, and have
+a row of eye-like spots near the hind margin.
+
+The eggs of this butterfly are laid singly on various species of
+thistles, particularly the common field thistle (_Cnicus arvensis_),
+generally in the month of June.
+
+The caterpillar, which is black above and red beneath, with yellowish
+stripes along the back and sides, feeds under the cover of a silken web
+which it constructs among the leaves. It is full grown in July or
+August, when it suspends itself after the manner of the other Vanessas
+previous to undergoing its changes.
+
+The chrysalis is angular, coloured with brown and grey, and adorned with
+brilliant gold spots.
+
+The perfect insect may be seen at large throughout late summer and the
+autumn, and the eggs are laid by females that survive the winter.
+
+
+_The White Admiral_ (_Limenitis Sibylla_)
+
+The White Admiral (Plate IV, fig. 5) is neither so pretty nor so common
+as its red namesake, but it is nevertheless a fine insect, although the
+chief beauty is reserved for the under surface. Above, the ground colour
+is a very dark rusty brown, relieved by bands and spots of white. The
+under surface is beautifully marked with silvery blue, bright orange
+brown, and white, the latter being arranged just like the corresponding
+colour on the upper side.
+
+It will be observed that this butterfly does not belong to the _Vanessa_
+genus; so, while we may look for _family_ resemblances, we shall observe
+a few features in which it differs from the preceding species.
+
+It is not by any means abundant, being unknown in Scotland and Ireland,
+and confined in England almost exclusively to the oak woods of the
+south, where its food plant--the honeysuckle (_Lonicera
+Periclymenum_)--abounds. Here it may be seen during July, gracefully
+sailing among the trees and across the open spaces.
+
+The caterpillar is very different from those of the Vanessas. Its colour
+is dark green, with a narrow white stripe along each side. There are
+very conspicuous branched spines on the third and two following
+segments, also on the eleventh and twelfth; and smaller spines on most
+of the others. All the spines are of a brownish colour, with pink tips.
+While it is yet very small it prepares its winter quarters by bending
+round the remains of a leaf on which it has been feeding, securing the
+edges by silken threads, and then binding it to the stem of the plant.
+Soon after, the petiole becomes detached from the stem, and the little
+caterpillar then rests suspended in its snug swinging cradle, where it
+remains perfectly secure till the following April, when the warm sun
+calls it out to feed on the opening leaves. It continues at this till
+about the beginning of June, and then changes to a beautiful angular and
+eared chrysalis, of a bright green colour, marked with brown, and having
+brilliant silvery spots and streaks.
+
+
+Family--APATURIDÆ
+
+_The Purple Emperor_ (_Apatura Iris_)
+
+This grand insect is the only British member of its family, and richly
+deserves its popular title. The male, which is figured on Plate V (fig.
+1), exhibits a most gorgeous imperial purple, which is reflected at
+certain angles only from the upper surface of his large and powerful
+wings. His flight is lofty and vigorous, and among the topmost branches
+of majestic oaks, where he defies the efforts of would-be capturers.
+Unlike our other butterflies, he is also a very quarrelsome creature,
+and will not hesitate to fiercely attack a brother Emperor who dares
+approach the branch he has selected for his throne.
+
+Many attempts have been made to capture this prized creature by means of
+a large net mounted on the end of a pole twenty or thirty feet in
+length, but the wielding of such a cumbersome implement against so
+powerful an insect is no mean task, and but few fall a prey to such a
+snare. But it so happens that this imperial personage has a very
+depraved appetite, the indulgence in which has often brought him to
+ruin. Instead of searching out the sweets so bounteously supplied by the
+blossoms that are so attractive to other lepidopterous insects, he
+delights in sipping the waters of the filthiest puddles, and imbibing
+the odoriferous moisture of dung and the decomposing carcases of
+animals. So deeply seated is this depravity of taste that the Emperor
+may be netted with ease while indulging in his sumptuous feast, and is
+even to be taken at times with the fingers.
+
+The knowledge of this peculiarity of the imperial palate has led
+entomologists to abandon the awkward net, and to bait the woods with
+viands that alone can entice his highness from his lofty seat; and many
+a splendid specimen has been easily captured while enjoying the
+luxurious juice of a dead cat, stoat, or rabbit, or of a seething mass
+of pig's dung.
+
+The female is larger than her mate, and does not display the beautiful
+purple reflections that adorn the male. She is very different, too, in
+her habits, for she sits nearly all day on high branches of trees,
+giving her attention to the graver duties of an imperial mother, and is
+consequently but seldom seem. She lays her eggs in July on the sallow
+(_Salix Caprea_) or the poplar (_Populus_), and in less than a fortnight
+the young caterpillars are hatched. They feed on till the leaves are
+falling, and then fix themselves by their claspers to a silken carpet
+which they construct on a twig. Here they remain, exposed to all the
+wintry blasts and frosts, till the new leaves are out in the spring,
+when they again commence feeding, and continue to do so till they are
+full grown--in May or June.
+
+The under side of this species is shown in fig. 76, in which will also
+be observed the eye-like spots of the fore wings which have given rise
+to its specific name (_Iris_).
+
+The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 5) is a very peculiar creature. Its
+body is green, with seven oblique yellowish stripes on each side, and it
+has a pair of horns attached to its head.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--THE PURPLE EMPEROR--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 10) may be found in June, suspended to
+the under side of a leaf. It is of an apple-green colour, and still
+exhibits the oblique stripes which we observed in the caterpillar.
+
+This insect is not to be found in either Scotland or Ireland, but is
+more or less abundant in many of the oak woods of the midland and
+southern counties of England. Among the numerous favoured localities, we
+may mention Colchester, Forest of Dean, Northamptonshire, Ipswich,
+Huntingdonshire, Buckinghamshire, Epping, Lyndhurst, and the Isle of
+Wight.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+_THE BROWNS AND HEATHS_
+
+
+Family--SATYRIDÆ
+
+This family contains eleven British species, often spoken of
+collectively as the 'Browns,' since in most of them the prevailing tints
+are various shades of brown. They are decidedly dingy in comparison with
+the beautiful butterflies we have been previously observing; but to this
+statement we must allow one marked exception, for the family includes
+the beautiful Marbled White, which stands out prominently among its
+fellows for brilliancy and boldness of colour.
+
+The caterpillars of the 'Satyrs' have no spines, but their bodies are
+covered with very minute hair-bearing warts that give them a soft
+velvety appearance. The hinder extremity tapers off considerably, and
+terminates in two points.
+
+The chrysalides are not angular like those of the preceding species, and
+though generally suspended by the tail, are sometimes found quite free
+among leaves and grasses on the ground.
+
+The perfect insects are rather feeble fliers, and generally take so
+little notice of intruders that they are easily caught in the hand.
+Their wings are devoid of angles, and they have only four perfectly
+developed legs.
+
+
+_The Marbled White_ (_Melanargia Galatea_)
+
+Our first member of this family is the exception to which we have
+already alluded as a relief to the general dinginess of the 'Browns.'
+Its colours above are cream and black, arranged as shown in Plate V,
+fig. 2. The under side (fig. 77) is marked with white, black, and
+greenish grey, with a row of eye-like spots parallel with the hind
+margin of the hind wings.
+
+This butterfly is not known in Scotland or Ireland, nor is it to be
+found in several of the northern counties of England. Its chief haunts
+are the waste cliffy grounds of the southern and some of the midland
+counties of England, where it is usually restricted to certain small
+districts. In some places it is really a common insect, and among these
+may be mentioned Brighton, Horsham, Dover, Folkestone, Margate,
+Gravesend, New Forest, parts of Gloucestershire, Cambridgeshire, and
+Devonshire, also in the Isle of Wight and South Wales.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--THE MARBLED WHITE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The perfect insect is out in July, during which month the eggs are
+deposited on various grasses, or indiscriminately on leaves and stems in
+grassy spots.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on grasses; and, being still small at the end of
+the autumn, hybernates during the winter among the stems of grass. It
+feeds again in April, and is fully grown by the end of May. Its colour
+is a dull green or brownish, with a darker stripe down the back, and
+lighter stripes along the sides. Its spiracles are black.
+
+The chrysalis is pale brown, marked with lines of a slightly darker
+shade. It may be found among grass stems, without any attachment, during
+the month of June.
+
+
+_The Small Ringlet_ (_Erebia Epiphron_)
+
+On account of the very limited range of this butterfly, only those who
+have the opportunity of visiting its haunts can have any practical
+acquaintance with its natural history. It is almost exclusively confined
+to the lake district in England, to a few mountainous localities in
+Scotland, and to one or two similar localities in Ireland. Its strong
+partiality for elevated situations has earned for it the popular name of
+Mountain Ringlet.
+
+The colour of the upper surface (Plate V, fig. 3) is a dark brown, with
+a broad band of rusty brown, parallel with the hind margin of each wing,
+and broken by the wing rays. Each division of these bands has often a
+black central spot, but frequently these are entirely absent. The
+colouring of the under side is very similar but less defined, and the
+rusty spots of the hind wings are very small.
+
+The butterfly is out in June and July. The caterpillars, which are
+green, with white stripes along the sides, feed on various grasses. They
+hybernate during the winter, and change to the chrysalis state in the
+following May or June.
+
+
+_The Northern Brown_ (_Erebia Æthiops_)
+
+The colour of this species (Plate V, fig. 4) is a rich dark brown, with
+rust-coloured and black spotted bands arranged something like those of
+the last. The markings, however, are very variable. There are usually
+four black spots on the band of the fore wings, but the first two of
+these are always united, and centred with white. The third is often very
+small or entirely wanting.
+
+The under side of the fore wings is marked something like the upper, but
+the hind wings on this side are grey, with two broad bands of a darker
+colour.
+
+As its popular name implies, this butterfly is a northerner. It is
+common in Scotland, where it flies in elevated spots. In England it is
+confined to the mountainous districts of the north.
+
+The perfect insect is at large in July and August, during which time the
+eggs are deposited on various grasses or on low-growing herbage in
+grassy spots.
+
+The caterpillar is of a brown colour, and has a narrow black stripe down
+the middle of the back, and two other stripes, lighter than the ground
+colour, one on each side. At about the end of June it turns to a
+chrysalis of a brownish colour.
+
+The food plants of this species include a number of common grasses.
+
+
+_The Speckled Wood or Wood Argus_ (_Pararge Egeria_)
+
+Most of our butterflies delight in the hot sun, and are to be seen on
+the wing only when it is shining brightly. This fact is particularly
+noticeable on a bright day with occasional heavy clouds. While the sun's
+rays are pouring uninterruptedly on the landscape, numbers of these
+light-lovers are to be observed flitting about; but when the dense
+shadow of a passing cloud creeps over the ground they rapidly disappear
+from view, having settled down to rest on leaves and stems. Then, as
+soon as the shadow passes away, the air is again enlivened with their
+sports and flittings.
+
+The Wood Argus is a marked exception to this rule. It delights in the
+cool shade of the narrow paths of woods, where it slowly flies up and
+down the lonely footpath, taking but little heed of strangers that
+intrude on its haunts, and seldom venturing into the full blaze of the
+sun unless pursued. Even on dull days it continues its solitary flight,
+and may even be seen on the wing while a soft rain is bathing the
+dripping foliage.
+
+The upper surface of this pretty butterfly is shown on Plate V, fig. 5,
+and the under side in the accompanying woodcut. Both sides are prettily
+marked with various shades of brown and buff, and adorned with
+white-centred dark eye-spots which have earned for it the name of Argus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--THE WOOD ARGUS--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+It first appears on the wing in April, and may be seen from this month
+continuously to the end of August.
+
+The food plants probably consist of many species of grasses, the
+cock's-foot (_Dactylis glomerata_) and couch grass (_Agropyron repens_)
+being among the number, and the eggs are laid on or in the neighbourhood
+of these during the summer months.
+
+The caterpillar of this species is of a dull greenish or brownish
+colour, and it has two whitish stripes (sometimes three) down the middle
+of the back, and similar stripes along each side. It hybernates during
+the winter, and is full grown in March, when it changes to a dull green
+or brownish chrysalis, which is streaked with black, and has a few white
+dots on the back.
+
+It has been stated that the butterfly is on the wing from April to
+August, and, according to some authorities, there are no less than three
+broods during this time, following each other in rapid succession. It is
+common throughout England and Ireland, and is known in parts of
+Scotland.
+
+
+_The Wall Butterfly_ (_Pararge Megæra_)
+
+Belonging to the same genus is another very familiar butterfly--the
+Wall--which receives its popular title from its peculiar habit of
+frequently resting on walls and stony banks. It is one of the first, if
+not _the_ first, to take to the wing in the morning, and is generally
+the last to seek its hiding place in the evening. I have seen it
+actively flying about during August, as early as 7.30 in the morning,
+and found it still flitting from one spot to another along the western
+side of a wall as late as 8 in the evening, as if in search of a
+convenient shelter for the fast approaching night.
+
+This pretty 'Brown' must be familiar to the reader, and the coloured
+drawing on Plate V (fig. 6) will at once serve for purposes of
+identification without the necessity of a wordy description. It may be
+mentioned, however, that the male (the sex figured) is smaller than the
+female, and is further distinguished by a broad dark oblique band
+passing across each fore wing.
+
+The Wall is a double-brooded butterfly, the first brood appearing in
+May, and the second in August. The caterpillars which produce the latter
+may be found on the cock's foot (_Dactylis glomerata_) and other grasses
+in June, while those of the former are hybernators; and the chrysalides
+of the two broods may be found in April and July respectively.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is green, with a slightly darker stripe
+down the middle of the back, a pale stripe along each side, and another
+similar stripe about midway between these two.
+
+The chrysalis is green with the exception of the more prominent parts of
+its surface, which are almost white.
+
+This species is very common in almost every locality in Britain.
+
+
+_The Grayling_ (_Satyrus Semele_)
+
+The Grayling is the largest of our 'Browns,' and, although a powerful
+flier, it seldom takes long flights. The female, which is shown in fig.
+7, Plate V, is really a beautiful creature, the light markings of which
+stand out in bold contrast with the deep brown ground colour; but the
+male is comparatively dingy, there being much less contrast between the
+ground and the markings. He is also smaller than his mate.
+
+The under side of both sexes is similar (fig. 79), the pattern of the
+fore wings being much like that of the other side, but considerably
+lighter, and the hind wings are beautifully marbled with various greys
+and browns.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--THE GRAYLING--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This species is not nearly so common as the two preceding, but it is
+very widely distributed, and is exceedingly abundant in some parts. On
+some of the heathery cliffs and downs of the south and south-west coasts
+it is so plentiful that the butterflies are started into the air at
+almost every step, for it seldom flies except when disturbed. It is a
+common insect in Ireland, and also in parts of Scotland.
+
+The caterpillar is a hybernator, and may be found feeding on grasses in
+the autumn and the spring. It changes to the chrysalis in June, and the
+perfect insect is on the wing from June to the beginning of September.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is pinkish drab above, and greenish drab
+beneath. A dark brown stripe, edged with a lighter colour, passes down
+the middle of the back, and a dark line on each side. It changes to a
+dark reddish-brown chrysalis on the surface of the ground, or, according
+to some observers, a little beneath the surface.
+
+
+_The Meadow Brown_ (_Epinephele Janira_)
+
+Although this very common butterfly is usually considered to be the
+dingiest of its family, yet it must be admitted that the colour of a
+freshly emerged specimen is really very rich.
+
+The male is of a dark brown colour, with an indistinct patch of a
+lighter tawny brown near the outer margin of the fore wings, and a
+white-centred black eye-spot near the costal angle of the same wings.
+The female (Plate V, fig. 8) is of a lighter colour, the eye-spot on her
+fore wings is larger and far more conspicuous, and an irregular patch of
+light orange brown occupies a large area of each of the same wings. She
+is, moreover, larger than her mate, and in every way a more attractive
+insect.
+
+The Meadow Brown abounds everywhere, from June to September, and may be
+seen on grass land and waste grounds where other butterflies are seldom
+found.
+
+The caterpillar is green, and is rendered slightly rough by a number of
+minute warts. There is also a white stripe on each side. It feeds on
+various grasses in the autumn, hybernates during the winter, and is full
+grown in May.
+
+The chrysalis is apple green, spotted with a lighter green, and has
+several black markings.
+
+
+_The Large Heath_ (_Epinephele Tithonus_)
+
+This butterfly is sometimes called the 'Small Meadow Brown,' and is
+certainly much like the last species, both in colouring and habits.
+
+The fore wings of the male (Plate V, fig. 9) are light orange brown,
+bordered with dark brown, and having a broad patch of the same across
+the middle; and near the costal angle is a round black spot with two
+white dots. The hind wings are dark brown with a patch of light orange
+brown near the centre, and a small eye-spot near the anal angle. The
+female is exactly similar, except that she does not possess the broad
+bar on the fore wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--THE LARGE HEATH--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under side is shown in fig. 80, and is coloured with various shades
+of brown.
+
+This is a very common butterfly, and may be seen during July in most
+English counties, also in the south of Scotland, and in a few localities
+in the south of Ireland. It frequents meadows, heaths, downs, and lanes,
+like _Janira_, but is not nearly so abundant as that species.
+
+The young caterpillar is hatched in August, and is still very small when
+it seeks its winter shelter among the stems of grasses. It resumes
+feeding in the following May, and is full grown towards the end of June.
+Its colour is very variable--pale green, olive green, or dull brown,
+with five longitudinal stripes at about equal distances from each other.
+These consist of a dark one down the middle of the back, a pale line
+along each side, and another pale line midway between these.
+
+The chrysalis may be found at the end of June, attached by the tail to
+blades of grass. It is of a very light colour, almost white, but adorned
+with numerous black lines and patches.
+
+
+_The Ringlet_ (_Epinephele Hyperanthus_)
+
+This is another rather plainly dressed insect, though somewhat prettily
+adorned on the under side. The upper surface is of a very deep sepia
+brown, almost black, with a few indistinct black eye-like spots near the
+margins. The under side (Plate V, fig. 10) is of a lighter umber brown,
+with corresponding eye-spots generally very conspicuous. These spots are
+black, with white centres, and generally surrounded by light rings. They
+are subject, however, to considerable variation. Those on the upper
+surface are sometimes quite absent in the male, but are nearly always
+readily perceptible in the female. On the under side, too, they are
+occasionally quite absent, while in other varieties they are minute
+white-centred dots, without any surrounding light ring. Our coloured
+drawing represents the most usual form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--THE RINGLET--UPPER SIDE.]
+
+The favourite haunts of the Ringlet are the borders of woods, and the
+sheltered sides of flowery hedgerows. It is not so widely distributed as
+some of the common 'Browns,' but is usually very abundant where it
+occurs, sometimes appearing in such numbers that several may be taken
+with a single stroke of the net. It does not seem to be a frequenter of
+Scotland, and is known in Ireland only in the south. Its head quarters
+are the southern and south-midland counties of England.
+
+The eggs are laid in July on various grasses, on which the young
+caterpillars feed from about the middle of August till the cold weather
+sets in. They hybernate at the roots of the grasses till the beginning
+of the following May, and change to the chrysalis state about the middle
+of June, suspending themselves to grass blades by means of their anal
+hooks.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is dull green or brown, and is marked with
+five longitudinal stripes much like those of the Large Heath.
+
+The chrysalis is pale brown, spotted and striped with a darker shade of
+the same colour.
+
+
+_The Marsh Ringlet_ (_Cænonympha Typhon_)
+
+The upper surface of this butterfly is shown in the first figure of
+Plate VI, and the under side in the accompanying woodcut; but it must be
+remembered that the species is a very variable one, so much so that it
+is almost impossible to give anything like a short and, at the same
+time, a satisfactory description. The female may usually be
+distinguished by a pale patch across the middle of the fore wings; and
+the eye spots of the same wings, always more or less indistinct when
+present, are sometimes entirely wanting. The markings of the under side
+are even more variable, the transverse bars and the eye spots being
+often particularly conspicuous, and at other times hardly discernible.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--THE MARSH RINGLET--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This is generally spoken of as a northerner, its chief localities being
+in the mountainous parts of Scotland and the elevated districts of the
+north of England, but in Ireland it extends to the southern ranges. Its
+haunts are elevated moors and marshy heaths, where its food plant--the
+beak-rush (_Rhyncospora alba_)--abounds, and it is on the wing from the
+end of June to August or September.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with five longitudinal stripes--one dark one,
+bordered with yellow, down the middle of the back, and two pale yellow
+ones on each side. It is a hybernator, and is full grown about the end
+of May, when it suspends itself by the hindmost claspers to a silken
+carpet, and changes to a green chrysalis with pale brown wing cases.
+
+
+_The Small Heath_ (_Cænonympha Pamphilus_)
+
+The last member of the family _Satyridæ_ is the well-known Small Heath,
+that may be seen almost all over the British Isles on heaths, meadows
+and moors, from May to September.
+
+The upper surface of this butterfly (Plate VI, fig. 2) is a tawny
+yellow, with a dark brown border, and a spot of the same dark tint near
+the tip of each fore wing. The under side is much like that of the last
+species, but there are no eye spots on the hind wings.
+
+The eggs of the first brood are laid during May and June on the various
+grasses on which the caterpillar feeds.
+
+The caterpillars that emerge from these are fully grown in July or early
+August, and go through their changes during the latter month; but the
+later ones hybernate during the winter, and are not full fed till the
+following May.
+
+The colour of the larva is pale apple green, with a wide darker stripe
+down the back, two others along the sides, and two more between the
+latter and the dorsal stripe. All these five stripes are bordered with a
+whitish colour.
+
+The chrysalis is bright apple green, dotted with white, and the wing
+cases are striped with a purple-brown line edged with white.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+_THE HAIRSTREAKS, COPPERS AND BLUES_
+
+
+Family--LYCÆNIDÆ
+
+This is a large family, including as it does no less than nineteen of
+the British species. These are all of small size, and are characterised
+by their short and jerky flights. They seldom rise much above the
+ground, and are consequently very easily caught.
+
+The caterpillars of this family have all short and rather thick bodies,
+shaped very much like that of the wood louse--flattened beneath and very
+convex above.
+
+The chrysalides are generally attached by the 'tail,' and further
+secured by a silken cord round the body, as we have already observed in
+the case of the _Pieridæ_.
+
+The perfect insects differ from the preceding species in that all six
+legs are perfectly developed and adapted for walking.
+
+There are only three genera in this large family:
+
+  1. _Thecla_--The Hairstreaks, with 'tailed' wings.
+  2. _Polyommatus_--The 'Coppers.'
+  3. _Lycæna_--The 'Blues,' with wings either blue or brown.
+
+
+_The Brown Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Betulæ_)
+
+The five Hairstreaks which constitute the genus _Thecla_ are all pretty
+insects, characterised by hair-like streaks on the under surface.
+
+_Betulæ_ is the largest of these. Its upper surface is of a deep brown
+colour, with orange-brown marks at the anal angles of the hind wings,
+and, in the female, a large patch of orange on the fore wings. The under
+side (Plate VI, fig. 3) is orange brown, much lighter in the male than
+in the female. On the fore wings are two white lines, the inner one of
+which is indistinct; and on the hind wings are two others, the outer one
+being longer and more distinct than the inner.
+
+This butterfly is by no means an abundant insect, though it is widely
+distributed, and in some places plentiful. Its chief haunts are woods,
+and we may mention among its favoured localities Epping Forest, Monk's
+Wood in Cambridgeshire, the wooded parts of South Devon and Dorset, New
+Forest, Colchester, and Peterborough.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--THE BROWN HAIRSTREAK--MALE.]
+
+The perfect insect is on the wing from July to October, and the eggs are
+deposited in the autumn on the twigs of its food plant--the blackthorn
+(_Prunus spinosa_). These do not hatch till the following spring. Toward
+the end of June the caterpillar is fully fed.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is light green, with two white stripes
+down the back, and two others along the sides. There are also two small
+oblique whitish lines on each side of each segment.
+
+The chrysalis is smooth, and of a pale brown colour.
+
+
+_The Black Hairstreak, or White-letter Hairstreak_ (_Thecla W-album_)
+
+The first of the above two popular names has been applied to this
+species on account of the very deep brown colour of the upper side,
+which colour is often a near approach to black. The second is due to the
+W-shaped bend of the white streak of the hind wings. The ground colour
+of the under side (Plate VI, fig. 4) is greyish brown, with a bright
+orange band, spotted with black near the hind margin of the hind wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK.]
+
+_W-album_ is a somewhat rare insect, but is occasionally seen in plenty
+in a few localities, Cambridgeshire, Berkshire, Epping, Colchester and
+Suffolk being among its chief resorts. It is out on the wing in July,
+and should be looked for in wooded country where the common elm (_Ulmus
+campestris_) and the wych elm (_U. montana_), its food plants, exist.
+
+The eggs are laid on the twigs of these trees late in the summer, and
+the young caterpillars do not appear till the following spring. The
+chrysalis may be found attached to an elm twig or leaf about the end of
+June.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green. The ridges along the back are tinged with
+yellow, and there are two fine oblique white lines on each side of each
+segment.
+
+
+_The Dark Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Pruni_)
+
+The upper side of this butterfly is very much like that of _W-album_,
+but it may be distinguished by the presence of a few orange spots near
+the anal angle of the hind wings. The colouring of the under side (Plate
+VI, fig. 5) is also very similar, except that the white lines of the
+wings are thinner and less distinct than in the last species, and do not
+exhibit the W-shaped bend. The orange band of this surface is bordered
+on each side with a row of black spots, each of which is touched with a
+bluish white or a metallic blue.
+
+This insect is not by any means common, but has been seen in
+considerable numbers in certain localities. It is not found in either
+Scotland or Ireland, and its chief haunts in England seem to be in
+Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire. It frequents
+wooded country, and flies during June and July.
+
+The eggs are laid late in the summer on the twigs of the blackthorn
+(_Prunus spinosa_), and are not hatched till the following spring.
+
+The caterpillar, which is pale green, with rows of yellow spots, may be
+found in May.
+
+
+_The Purple Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Quercus_)
+
+This pretty butterfly, by far the commonest of the Hairstreaks, though
+comparatively very small, reminds one forcibly of the noble Purple
+Emperor. Its haunts are the same oak woods, and its upper surface,
+though only a dull dark brown in certain lights, exhibits the same
+imperial purple reflections when viewed at certain angles. The purple of
+the male extends over the whole of the wings, but that of the female is
+confined to a V-shaped patch at the base of the fore wings. In the
+latter case, however, the purple is much richer than in the male sex.
+
+The under side (Plate VI, fig. 6) is coloured with a delicate grey
+ground, adorned with a white streak on each wing, and a couple of orange
+spots near the anal angle of the hind wings.
+
+This species is very widely distributed, being common in oak woods in
+most parts of England, and also in many parts of Scotland and Ireland.
+It flies around the branches of the trees, and often disappoints the
+collector by keeping far beyond the reach of his net.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--THE PURPLE HAIRSTREAK--MALE.]
+
+Those in search of this pretty insect should ramble in oak woods,
+preferably in the south of England, during July and August. The eggs may
+be found glued to the twigs throughout the winter, and the larvæ may be
+beaten from the branches of the oak in June.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is brownish or pinkish green, with a row
+of V-shaped marks down the back.
+
+The chrysalis is of a brown colour, short and thick, and may be found
+either attached to oak leaves, or under the surface of the earth at the
+foot of the tree on which the caterpillar fed.
+
+
+_The Green Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Rubi_)
+
+Next to _Quercus_, this is the most plentiful of the genus. It frequents
+woods and heaths in nearly every county in England, and is also found in
+parts of Scotland and Ireland. It is peculiar among British butterflies
+as being the only one that exhibits a bright green colour. It also
+differs from the other Hairstreaks in two important particulars, for the
+hind wings, though angled at the hind margin, are not 'tailed,' and the
+characteristic hairstreak which gives the popular name to the genus is
+here represented only by a series of white dots across the wings, or, in
+some cases, by one or two dots on the hind wings only.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--THE GREEN HAIRSTREAK.]
+
+The upper side is dark brown, displaying metallic reflections when
+viewed in a strong light. The under side is represented in fig. 7 of
+Plate VI.
+
+The chief food plants of this species are the bramble (_Rubus
+fruticosus_), the birch (_Betula alba_), and the broom (_Cytisus
+scoparius_).
+
+The perfect insect flies in May and June, and the eggs are deposited
+during the latter month on the above plants. The caterpillars are full
+fed in July, and change to the chrysalis state towards the end of the
+summer.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is pale green, with a yellow stripe and
+several white oblique lines along the sides, also a yellowish stripe
+down the back.
+
+The chrysalis is short and thick, and of a dark brown colour.
+
+
+_The Large Copper_ (_Polyommatus Dispar_)
+
+Our next genus contains only two British species. The first of
+these--the Large Copper--was once a common insect at Whittlesea in
+Cambridgeshire, and in some of the fens of Huntingdonshire, but is now
+feared to be quite extinct, as none have been seen for many years. The
+last capture was made in 1847 in Huntingdonshire. However, it _may_ turn
+up again; and even if it does not, it would be a pity to allow the
+memory of so fine an insect to die out; so we find room to figure it
+(Plate VI, fig. 8), and append a few remarks.
+
+There is a very great difference between the male and the female. The
+former is of a brilliant copper hue, and all the wings have a black
+margin and a black streak near the middle. The female is larger; and the
+coppery colour is much redder. The black border of the fore wings is
+wider, and there are also several large black spots on these wings. The
+hind wings are almost entirely covered with black, with the exception of
+a broad coppery band near the hind margin.
+
+The food plant of the caterpillar appears to have been the water dock
+(_Rumex Hydrolapathum_), on which the eggs were laid late in the summer.
+It is probable that the caterpillar was a hybernator, seeking its winter
+shelter while still very young; and it was full fed in June.
+
+Its colour was green, with a darker stripe of the same colour on the
+back; and the chrysalis was attached by anal hooks and a cord round the
+body.
+
+
+_The Small Copper_ (_Polyommatus Phlæas_)
+
+The only other British member of the genus _Polyommatus_--the Small
+Copper--is one of the commonest of our butterflies. It may be found in
+nearly all parts of the British Isles from April to September, more
+particularly in April, June, _and_ August, for it is apparently triple
+brooded.
+
+This brilliant and lively little insect is shown on Plate VI (fig. 9),
+and, being so very familiar, needs no description.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on different species of dock--the broad-leaved
+dock (_Rumex obtusifolius_), the fiddle dock (_R. pulcher_), the sorrel
+(_R. acetosa_), and the sheep sorrel (_R. acetosella_); also on the
+ragwort (_Senecio Jacobæa_). It is full fed about three weeks after
+hatching, and then changes to a small and stout chrysalis, of a pale
+brown colour, on the leaf of its food plant.
+
+The caterpillar itself is green, with a reddish line on the back and on
+each side; and it glides over the surface of the leaves something after
+the manner of a slug, without exhibiting any very apparent motion of its
+short legs and claspers.
+
+
+_The Tailed Blue_ (_Lycæna Bætica_)
+
+We now come to a genus containing no less than ten species of beautiful
+little butterflies, known commonly as the 'Blues;' but one of them
+exhibits no trace of the colour so characteristic of the group, although
+it resembles the others in structure and habits.
+
+Our first example is the Tailed Blue, known also as the Pea-pod Argus.
+The upper side of this insect (Plate VI, fig. 10) is of a dull smoke
+colour, exhibiting purple-blue reflections, which are, in the female,
+confined to distinct blotches on the bases of the wings, but in the male
+are less noticeable, and extend over the whole surface. The hind margin
+of the hind wings has a row of spots, more or less distinct, and much
+more prominent in the female than in the male. The under side is
+beautifully marked with bands of fawn and grey, and with two spots of
+brilliant metallic green in the anal angle of the hind wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--THE TAILED BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This butterfly abounds in the countries of South Europe, where the
+caterpillar feeds on the pods of certain leguminous plants; but only a
+few stragglers have been taken in England, so that its reputation as a
+true Britisher is very uncertain. It is highly probable that the two or
+three specimens caught on our south coast were blown over from the
+Continent, and that the insect has never bred on this side of the
+Channel.
+
+
+_The Silver-studded Blue_ (_Lycæna Ægon_)
+
+The upper surface of the male (Plate VI, fig. 11) of this species is
+purple blue, with a black border on the hind margins of all wings. The
+female (fig. 12 of the same plate) is of a very dark smoky-brown colour,
+often with a bluish tinge, and has generally a row of orange spots near
+the hind margin of the hind wings.
+
+The under side of both sexes is similar, and is illustrated in the
+accompanying woodcut. The ground colour is bluish grey, and is marked
+with a number of black spots surrounded by light rings. Along the hind
+margin of the hind wings is a row of orange spots, each bordered with
+black on the inner side, and with a silvery blue on the outer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88. THE SILVER-STUDDED BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This insect appears in July, and is common in many dry, sandy, or chalky
+spots in various parts of England, and also in a few localities in
+Scotland and Ireland. It has been reported as abundant at Darlington and
+in certain localities in Lancashire, but its head quarters are
+undoubtedly the chalk downs and dry gravelly banks of the southern
+counties.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_), and
+is full grown towards the end of June. Its colour is yellow or grey,
+with a brown dorsal stripe, a white line on each side, and pale oblique
+lines near the former. About the end of June it changes to a dull green
+chrysalis, with projecting wing cases.
+
+
+_The Brown Argus_ (_Lycæna Astrarche_)
+
+Neither male nor female of this species exhibits any trace of blue. The
+upper surface, shown in fig. 13 of Plate VI, is coloured with a warm
+brown, and all four wings have a row of orange spots near the hind
+margin. The fore wings have also a central black spot. The under
+surface, drawn on the same plate (fig. 14), is bluish grey, with a
+border of orange spots on each hind margin as on the other side. There
+are also numerous black spots in light rings, the arrangement of which
+will be seen in the figure.
+
+Some species of butterflies and moths are so variable in their colouring
+and markings that varieties have often been mistaken for distinct
+species; and, in other cases, distinct species are sometimes so similar
+in character that they are looked upon as identical.
+
+A butterfly that closely resembles the normal Brown Argus in many
+points, and named _Artaxerxes_, has often been described as a distinct
+species, but is now, I believe, recognised by most entomologists as a
+constant variety of the present species.
+
+It differs from the normal type in having a _white_ instead of a _black_
+spot in the centre of the fore wings, and the border of orange spots is
+often very indistinct. On the under side, too, instead of black spots in
+white rings, it has white spots, with little or no trace of a black
+centre.
+
+The ordinary Brown Argus is a southerner, and is particularly abundant
+on the chalk downs of the south coast and the Isle of Wight, but
+_Artaxerxes_ is to be found only in Scotland and the north of England;
+and it is interesting to note that, between these northern and southern
+districts, intermediate varieties are to be met with.
+
+Again, _Astrarche_ is a double-brooded butterfly, appearing on the wing
+in May and August; while _Artaxerxes_ is single brooded, flying at
+midsummer. This fact has lent support to the opinion that the two are
+distinct species; but it must be remembered that several insects that
+are single brooded in one country are double brooded in a warmer
+climate.
+
+The caterpillar of _Astrarche_ feeds on the hemlock stork's-bill
+(_Erodium cicutarium_). It is of a pale yellow colour, with a brownish
+line on the back; and is full fed in April and July.
+
+
+_The Common Blue_ (_Lycæna Icarus_)
+
+Although this pretty little butterfly is so common that it is almost
+sure to be known to all who take any interest in insect life, yet it is
+important to observe it carefully, since it is an easy matter to
+confound it with other species of the same genus.
+
+The upper surfaces of the two sexes are very different, that of the male
+(Plate VI, fig. 15) being a beautiful lilac blue; and that of the
+female (Plate VI, fig. 16) a dark brown, powdered with blue at the bases
+of the wings, and having _generally_ a border of orange spots, more or
+less defined, on the hind margins of all wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--THE COMMON BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under side, shown in the accompanying woodcut, is ashy brown; warm
+in the female, but paler in the male. The hind wings, and sometimes all
+four, are bordered with orange spots; and this species may be
+distinguished from _Astrarche_ by the presence of two black spots, in
+white rings, near the base of the fore wings.
+
+There will be no need to name localities for this insect, as it is
+abundant everywhere, frequenting meadows, heaths, and all waste places.
+It is double brooded, and is on the wing continuously from May to
+September, the first brood enduring from May to July, and the second
+from July to the end of the warm weather.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with a dorsal line of a darker tint, and a row
+of white spots on each side. It feeds on clover (_Trifolium pratense_
+and _T. repens_), bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_), bird's-foot
+trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and the rest-harrow (_Ononis spinosa_).
+
+The chrysalis is short and rounded, of a dull green colour, tinged with
+brown on the under surface.
+
+
+_The Clifden Blue_ (_Lycæna Bellargus_)
+
+Our coloured representations of this beautiful blue (Plate VI, figs. 17
+and 18) show that here also there is a great difference between the male
+and female. The former is a most lovely and brilliant sky blue, bordered
+by a fine black line; and the latter is a dull dark brown, with a more
+or less distinct border of orange spots, and the bases of the wings are
+powdered with scales of a tint corresponding with those of the male. In
+both sexes the fringe is very distinctly barred with dark brown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--THE CLIFDEN BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under side (fig. 90) is similar in both sexes--greyish brown, with
+a border of reddish spots, and a number of black spots in white rings,
+the arrangement of which is here represented.
+
+The butterfly frequents chalky downs, chiefly in the south of England,
+and seems to be unknown in Scotland and Ireland. The Isle of Wight, and
+the chalky downs and banks of Sussex, Surrey, and Kent, are its
+favourite localities; and even in these it is generally very local,
+sometimes swarming on a grassy bank of no great extent, when the
+surrounding neighbourhood, though apparently equally suitable to its
+requirements, does not harbour a single specimen. It is on the wing in
+May and June, and again in August.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with two rows of yellow streaks on the back,
+and a yellow stripe on each side. It feeds on the Dutch clover
+(_Trifolium repens_), horse-shoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_), and
+various other leguminous plants.
+
+
+_The Chalk-Hill Blue_ (_Lycæna Corydon_)
+
+The male of this species (Plate VII, fig. 1) is readily to be
+distinguished from all other members of the genus by its pale glossy
+blue, but the female (fig. 2 of Plate VII) so closely resembles that of
+_Bellargus_ that it is often a somewhat difficult matter to discriminate
+between them. The following, however, are a few points worthy of
+observation: The upper side of the female _Corydon_ has the bases of the
+wings more or less sprinkled with the pale silky blue that characterises
+the male; and the black bars of the fringe are _usually_ broader in
+_Corydon_ than in _Bellargus_. The black-centred spots of the under side
+are also usually more conspicuous in the former species than in the
+latter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--THE CHALK HILL BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The difficulty of identification is increased by the fact that both
+these butterflies frequent similar localities, and are often on the wing
+at the same time; but although _Corydon_ is certainly a frequenter of
+chalky districts, yet it is often found plentifully in districts far
+removed from the chalk, notably at Arnside in Lancashire, and in Epping
+Forest.
+
+The butterfly is out in June and July. The caterpillar is green, with
+two rows of short yellow streaks on the back, and a yellow stripe on
+each side. It feeds on the purple and Dutch clovers (_Trifolium
+pratense_ and _T. repens_), bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_),
+horse-shoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_), and lady's fingers (_Anthyllis
+vulneraria_).
+
+
+_The Holly Blue_ (_Lycæna Argiolus_)
+
+While all the other Blues delight to sport on low flowery banks in the
+full blaze of the summer's sun, the Holly Blue prefers to flit among the
+branches of trees, often many feet from the ground. The larva feeds on
+the flowers of the holly (_Ilex Aquifolium_) in the spring, and on those
+of the ivy (_Hedera Helix_) late in the summer; also on the alder
+buckthorn (_Rhamnus Frangula_); and it is in localities where these grow
+that we may find this lovely Blue sporting among the branches, or
+resting on a leaf with its wings folded together, thus making itself
+conspicuous among the dark foliage by exposing the pale silvery blue of
+its under surface.
+
+The upper sides of both the male and female are shown on Plate VII
+(figs. 3 and 4 respectively), where the beautiful lilac blue will be
+seen to have a border of black, wider in the latter than in the former.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--THE HOLLY BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under surface is spotted with black, as shown in fig. 92, and has no
+border of orange spots.
+
+This is a double-brooded butterfly, appearing first in April and May,
+and then again in August. It is not at all uncommon in the south of
+England, and extends northward as far as the Lake District, but is not
+found in Scotland. It is generally distributed throughout Ireland.
+
+The caterpillar may be looked for in June and October. It is light
+green, with a line of dark green down the back.
+
+
+_The Mazarine Blue_ (_Lycæna Semiargus_)
+
+The male (Plate VII, fig. 5) is deep purple blue, with a narrow
+dark-brown border, and the female (fig. 6 of the same plate) dark brown.
+The under side of both sexes is light greyish-brown or drab, with a row
+of black spots in white rings parallel with the hind margin of each
+wing, and no reddish or orange spots.
+
+This pretty butterfly seems to have been plentiful in several localities
+some years since, but has not been seen for a long time; and it is
+probable that its reckless slaughter by those who catch all the pretty
+butterflies they can secure either for ornament or for gain has caused
+its name to be permanently removed from our list of natives.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--THE MAZARINE BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+It was formerly abundant in Dorset, Hereford, Glamorganshire, and near
+Shirley, and was on the wing in June and July, but it disappeared from
+our view before a full account of its life history had been prepared.
+
+
+_The Small Blue_ (_Lycæna Minima_)
+
+We now come to the smallest of all British butterflies--a little insect
+that measures less than one inch from tip to tip when its wings are
+expanded. Its upper surface is of a dull and dark-brown colour, the
+bases of the wings being dusted with blue in the case of the male. The
+under side is pale drab, tinged with greenish blue at the bases of the
+wings, and marked with black spots in light rings as shown in the
+accompanying figure. The upper side is represented in fig. 7 of Plate
+VII.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--THE SMALL BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This butterfly is on the wing in May and June, and during the latter
+month the eggs are deposited on the flowers of the lady's fingers
+(_Anthyllis vulneraria_).
+
+The caterpillars are hatched in about a week, and commence feeding on
+the calyx of the buds, and soon burrow into them till they are quite
+concealed.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is brownish, with a darker stripe on the
+back, and a row of oblique brown streaks on each side.
+
+This species is widely distributed in England, and is plentiful in most
+chalky and limestone districts. It is also found in parts of Scotland
+and Ireland.
+
+
+_The Large Blue_ (_Lycæna Arion_)
+
+The last of our Blues is the largest of the genus, and is, with the
+exception of _Semiargus_, the rarest. It is a very local insect,
+appearing in small numbers, during June and July, in parts of South
+Devon, Gloucestershire, Northamptonshire, and a few other counties.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--THE LARGE BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The colour of the upper side is a dark and rich blue, with a broad dark
+border on the hind margins, and a group of black spots near the centre
+of the fore wings. The under side (fig. 95) is of a pearly grey, without
+any red spots, but having a double border of black spots, and also an
+irregular row of black spots in white rings across the middle of each
+wing.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_), on which plant the
+eggs are laid singly, generally on the flower heads.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+_THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS_
+
+
+Family--ERYCINIDÆ
+
+_The Duke of Burgundy_ (_Nemeobius Lucina_)
+
+The family _Erycinidæ_ has only one British representative, commonly
+known as the Duke of Burgundy Fritillary, but although this butterfly
+certainly resembles the Fritillaries in general appearance (see figs. 9
+and 10 of Plate VII), its habits and life history present many points of
+difference from these.
+
+The upper side is chequered with black and tawny brown, the fringe is
+white and barred with dark brown, and a row of tawny spots with black
+centres border the hind margins. The under side has two rows of white
+spots, one near the base, and the other across the centre of each wing.
+
+The male has only four legs adapted for walking, but the female has six.
+
+The butterfly is out in May and June, and frequents the paths and open
+spaces of woods, chiefly in the south of England, but it has been taken
+in some of the northern counties.
+
+The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 6) is not spiny like those of the true
+Fritillaries, but more closely resembles those of the Blues, being
+somewhat of the form of a woodlouse. It is reddish brown, with tufts of
+hair, black spiracles, and a dark line down the back. It feeds on the
+primrose (_Primula acaulis_) and the cowslip (_P. veris_), and may be
+found during June, July and August.
+
+When fully grown, the caterpillar secures itself to a leaf or stem by
+means of its anal claspers and a silken cord round its body, and changes
+to a short, thick, hairy and light-coloured chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig.
+11), which is marked with several black spots. In this state it spends
+the winter, and emerges early in the following summer.
+
+
+Family--HESPERIIDÆ--THE SKIPPERS
+
+This family contains eight small species, none of which are remarkable
+for brilliancy of color. They are, nevertheless, very interesting
+creatures, for they exhibit peculiarities of structure and habit that
+render them singular among the butterflies, and seem to show a sort of
+cousin relationship with the moths. They have thick bodies that remind
+us somewhat of the _Noctuæ_. Their heads are broad, so that the antennæ,
+which are slightly hooked at the tips, are rather wide apart at the
+bases. When at rest, they neither press their wings together over their
+back like the other butterflies, nor do they set them horizontally after
+the manner of the moths, but seem to lay claim to an intermediate
+position in the scale of Lepidopterous insects by holding them in a half
+elevated position. Their flight, too, is not graceful like that of most
+other butterflies, nor even so steady as that of the little flitting
+blues, but brisk and erratic, and resembling the fitful motions of moths
+disturbed from their slumberings at unwonted hours. Thus they have
+earned their popular title of skippers from their habit of skipping
+rather than flying from flower to flower. All the three pairs of legs of
+these butterflies are fully developed for walking.
+
+The caterpillars have rather large heads, and their bodies taper from
+the middle toward both extremities. Like the larvæ of many moths, they
+hide themselves in leaves which they have rolled and secured with silken
+threads; and when about to change to the chrysalis state, they also spin
+silken cocoons for their further protection.
+
+
+_The Grizzled Skipper_ (_Syrichthus Malvæ_)
+
+The ground color of this species is a very dark brown, relieved by a
+number of square white spots arranged as shown in fig. 11 of Plate VII.
+The fringe is wide, and barred with the same two colours, arranged
+alternately. The pattern of the under side is similar, but the dark
+brown of the upper surface is replaced by a lighter olive tint.
+
+The butterfly may be looked for in May in the open spaces of woods,
+particularly in damp places. It is common all over England, and is found
+also in the south of Scotland.
+
+The caterpillar is either green or brownish, with a darker dorsal stripe
+of the same color, and two white lines on each side. It feeds on the
+raspberry (_Rubus idæus_), the bramble (_R. fruticosus_), and the
+strawberry-leaved cinquefoil (_Potentilla Fragariastrum_), and is full
+fed about the end of June.
+
+The chrysalis is greyish, spotted with black. It is rather elongated,
+and without angles, but has a short and sharp projection extending
+backwards from the 'tail.'
+
+
+_The Dingy Skipper_ (_Nisoniades Tages_)
+
+Colour--a dingy brown, indistinctly barred and spotted with a darker
+tint, and having a row of small white spots just inside the fringe of
+the hind margins. Under side--a paler brown, with rows of small white
+spots.
+
+This butterfly is common in all parts of England, and is found in a few
+localities in Scotland and Ireland. It frequents dry banks, and is
+particularly partial to the chalky districts of the south-eastern
+counties. It is on the wing in May, and a second brood appears in lesser
+numbers in August.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, with two yellow stripes on each side, and
+a row of black spots above each stripe. It feeds on the bird's-foot
+trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and may be found in June, and again in
+September.
+
+The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 12) is shaped something like that of the
+last species, and is coloured green on the front segments, and a rose
+red on the abdomen.
+
+The perfect insect is represented in fig. 12 of Plate VII.
+
+
+_The Small Skipper_ (_Hesperia Thaumas_)
+
+In briefly describing the various British butterflies no mention has
+been made, except in a few cases, of the shape of the wings, this matter
+having been left to the reader's own observations of our illustrations.
+We will, however, call attention to the somewhat square-cut form of the
+wings of _Thaumas_ and the following species.
+
+The above-named butterfly (Plate VII, fig. 13) is a lively-looking
+little insect, its wings being of a bright tawny orange colour, bordered
+with black, beyond which is a light fringe. The male, which is the sex
+figured, is distinguished from the female by an oblique black streak
+across the middle of the front wings. The under side is orange, with a
+decidedly greenish tinge.
+
+The butterfly is out in July, and is very abundant and widely
+distributed. It lays its eggs on various grasses, particularly the
+meadow soft-grass (_Holcus lanatus_).
+
+The caterpillar hybernates through the winter, and is full fed in the
+following June, when it changes to a green chrysalis after spinning a
+light silken cocoon among the blades of grass. The colour of the
+caterpillar is green, with six longitudinal white stripes--two on the
+back, and two on each side.
+
+
+_The New Small Skipper_ (_Hesperia Lineola_)
+
+A few years since (1888) a butterfly was taken in one of our
+south-eastern counties that closely resembled the well-known _Thaumas_
+(or _Linea_), but which turned out to be a species not previously known
+in Britain. When, however, the distinguishing features of the new
+butterfly were made known, several entomologists discovered that they
+had already secured the new prize, but that, being ignorant of its
+characteristics, they had placed it in their series over the label
+_Thaumas_.
+
+Since the above date, this new insect (Plate VII, fig. 18), which is
+named _Lineola_, has been taken in considerable numbers at Leigh,
+Harwich, Southend, and near Shoeburyness in Suffolk, as well as in the
+Fens of Huntingdonshire; and it is highly probable that it may turn up
+in various other localities where it has not yet been observed.
+
+It appears on the wing about the first week of July, a little later than
+_Thaumas_, but the two kindred species are often found flying together.
+
+The chief points by which we distinguish _Lineola_ from the last species
+are these: The general appearance of the wings is a bit dingier than in
+_Thaumas_; the inner portion of the hind wings is of a bright tawny
+colour in _Thaumas_ but not in _Lineola_; the tips of the antennæ are
+yellow beneath in _Thaumas_, but black in _Lineola_; and the black
+streak across the fore wings of the latter species is short and
+generally broken.
+
+The eggs of _Lineola_ are laid at the end of July or beginning of August
+on various grasses, chiefly the various species of _Triticum_, but do
+not hatch till the following April.
+
+The larva is full fed about the end of June or beginning of July, and
+then changes to a long yellowish-green chrysalis, from which the perfect
+insect emerges in two or three weeks.
+
+
+_The Lulworth Skipper_ (_Hesperia Actæon_)
+
+Although this species is somewhat similar to the two preceding, it may
+be readily distinguished by the heavy clouding of dull greenish brown
+that almost covers the wings. The male, which is shown in fig. 14 of
+Plate VII, has a black streak across the fore wings, and the female
+possesses a semicircular row of tawny spots near the tip of the same
+wings, and also a tawny streak near the centre.
+
+This is a very local species, having been found only in a few
+localities. At Lulworth Cove and 'Burning Cliff' in Dorset it has been
+met with in profusion. In Devon it frequents the rough ground near the
+cliffs at Sidmouth and Torquay; and it has also been reported as
+appearing at Stratford-on-Avon, Shenstone near Lichfield, and the
+neighbourhoods of Swanage and Tyneham.
+
+One can scarcely hope to see this insect at large without making a
+special trip to one of its favourite haunts, in which case a day should
+be chosen toward the end of July or early in August.
+
+
+_The Large Skipper_ (_Hesperia Sylvanus_)
+
+During May, June, and August this butterfly may be seen on grassy banks
+in nearly every part of England, as well as in certain localities of
+Scotland and Ireland.
+
+The wings are all of a bright orange-brown colour, with a narrow black
+border, inside which is a broad shading of brown. The latter colour
+usually completely covers the hind wings with the exception of about
+half a dozen squarish spots; and the same colour, together with the dark
+brown wing rays, breaks up the light ground of the fore wings, often
+forming several squarish and triangular patches, most distinct near the
+tips. The male (Plate VII, fig. 15) may be readily distinguished from
+the female by the presence of a thick dark brown streak across the fore
+wings.
+
+The under side of both sexes is pale tawny brown, with a greenish tinge;
+and has several rather indistinct yellowish spots.
+
+The larva is of a dull green colour, with a dark line on the back. Its
+upper surface is dotted with black, and there are white spots on the
+under side of the tenth and eleventh segments. It feeds on several kinds
+of grasses, some of its favourites being the meadow soft grass (_Holcus
+lanatus_), the cock's-foot (_Dactylis glomerata_), and couch grass
+(_Agropyron repens_).
+
+
+_The Silver-spotted Skipper_ (_Hesperia Comma_)
+
+This species is very similar on the upper side to the last, except that
+the squarish spots of both fore and hind wings are much paler and much
+more distinct; and here, too, the male (Plate VII, fig. 16) is to be
+distinguished from the female by a black streak crossing the front wings
+obliquely. The under surface has a greenish tinge, more particularly on
+the hind wings; and this side is conspicuously marked with a number of
+_white_ square spots with sharp outlines, arranged as shown in fig. 96.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--THE SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+Although common in some localities, this butterfly is not widely
+distributed. It is confined to some of the southern and midland counties
+of England, and is particularly partial to the chalk districts of the
+south-east. On the chalk downs of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex it is
+moderately common. It is on the wing during July and August.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on certain leguminous plants, among which are the
+bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_) and the bird's-foot trefoil
+(_Lotus corniculatus_).
+
+
+_The Chequered Skipper_ (_Carterocephalus Palæmon_)
+
+This is another local insect, more so even than the last, but it
+sometimes appears in profusion in certain limited districts. Kettering,
+Oundle in Northamptonshire, and Monk's Wood in Huntingdonshire are
+places where it has been taken freely. It appears in June.
+
+The wings are chequered with very dark brown and orange. The fore wings
+are bordered with small rounded yellow spots, and beside these there are
+about nine very conspicuous yellow spots on the fore wing and three on
+the hind wing. The arrangement of these markings may be seen in fig. 17
+of Plate VII.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the greater plantain (_Plantago major_).
+
+
+
+
+PART IV
+
+COMMON BRITISH MOTHS
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+_SPHINGES_
+
+
+We have already observed the chief features by which we are able to
+distinguish between butterflies and moths (page 56), so we shall devote
+the present division to a description of the characteristics and life
+histories of some of the latter insects.
+
+The number of British butterflies is so limited that space could be
+found for a brief description of every species, but with moths the case
+is very different. There are about two thousand known British species of
+this division of the Lepidoptera, and every year adds some newly
+discovered insects to this long list; we shall therefore have to content
+ourselves with making a selection of these for individual mention.
+
+In doing this I shall endeavour to provide the young entomologist with a
+fairly representative list--one that will enable him to become more or
+less intimately acquainted with all the principal divisions of the
+_Heterocera_; and his attention will be drawn especially to many which
+may be described as 'common' or 'generally distributed,' so that during
+his first few seasons at collecting he may be enabled to identify and
+study a fair proportion of his captures. Occasionally, however, one of
+the rarer species will be described in order to illustrate some striking
+characteristic.
+
+We shall commence with the tribe of _Sphinges_ or _Hawk Moths_.
+
+This group consists of three families--the _Sphingidæ_, including the
+largest of the 'Hawks,' and the 'Bee Hawks,' the _Sesiidæ_ or
+'Clearwings,' and the _Zygænidæ_, including the 'Foresters' and the
+'Burnets'--numbering in all about forty species.
+
+
+Family--SPHINGIDÆ
+
+This family is named from a fancied resemblance of the larvæ to the
+celebrated Egyptian sphinx. The perfect insects have very thick bodies,
+generally tapering toward the tail, and their wings are rather narrow in
+proportion to the length, but are exceedingly powerful, and the flight
+is, with one or two exceptions, very rapid. The antennæ terminate in a
+small and thin hook.
+
+Most of these insects fly at dusk, but a few delight in the brightness
+and heat of the midday sun. In either case the velocity of their flight
+is generally so great that it is a difficult matter to follow them with
+the eye, and a still more difficult matter to secure the insects in the
+net; consequently, the best way to study them is to search out the larvæ
+on their food plants, and rear them till they attain their perfect form.
+
+The larvæ of the _Sphingidæ_ are large and smooth, and most of them have
+a horn projecting from the top of the last segment but one. They all
+undergo their metamorphoses under the surface of the ground.
+
+
+_The Death's-Head Hawk_ (_Acherontia Atropos_)
+
+Our first example of the Sphinges is the beautiful Death's-Head Hawk
+Moth--an insect that often attains a breadth of five inches from tip to
+tip when the wings are fully expanded. Its popular title has been
+applied on account of the peculiar markings of the thorax, which are
+said to resemble a human skull; and this feature has certainly some
+connection with the superstitious beliefs of ignorant country folk
+concerning this moth. But this characteristic is probably not the only
+one that has caused the creature to be regarded with superstitious
+alarm. Both its superior dimensions and nocturnal habits serve to
+intensify the unfounded fear; but, what is particularly striking and
+unique about it is its power of uttering a squeaking sound, which it
+does when disturbed. Even the earlier stages of the insect possess this
+strange power. The caterpillar makes a peculiar snapping noise when
+irritated, and the chrysalis has been observed to squeak shortly before
+the emergence of the perfect form.
+
+The fore wings of this moth are of a very rich dark brown, beautifully
+mottled with lighter tawny shades, and with a small but conspicuous
+yellow dot near the centre. The hind wings are yellow, with a black band
+and margin; and the body is yellow, with six broad black bands, and six
+large blue spots down the middle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--THE DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK MOTH.]
+
+The moth is rather widely distributed, and even common in some parts,
+but is not nearly so often met with as the larva. It is on the wing
+during August and September.
+
+It is probable that the reader will never have an opportunity of
+capturing the perfect form of this remarkable species, but he may with a
+little perseverance obtain some caterpillars and rear them. These larvæ
+feed on the potato, the deadly nightshade (_Atropa Belladonna_), and the
+woody nightshade (_Solanum Dulcamara_); and they are well known to
+potato growers in some parts of the country.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is generally pale yellow, with numerous
+small black dots, and seven oblique violet stripes on each side. The
+horn is yellowish and rough, and is bent downward, but recurved again at
+the tip.
+
+It feeds during the night, and remains hidden throughout the daytime. In
+August it is fully grown, and then retires into the ground to undergo
+its transformations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--THE LARVA OF ATROPOS.]
+
+
+_The Privet Hawk_ (_Sphinx Ligustri_)
+
+This is another fine moth, measuring nearly four and a half inches from
+tip to tip. It is represented in the centre of Plate IX in its natural
+colours, so that it need not be described.
+
+The perfect insect flies in June and July, and, although common, is not
+frequently seen at large. The larvæ, however, are to be met with in
+abundance in privet hedges. Even in the centres of large towns we may
+see them resting on the topmost twigs of a privet hedge, their beautiful
+green tint closely resembling that of the surrounding leaves. After a
+little experience they may be readily discerned by a careful observer,
+but there are certain signs by which their presence may be proved before
+they have been actually seen. Sometimes a number of the twigs are
+completely stripped of their leaves, even the midribs and the leaf
+stalks being almost or entirely devoured; and beneath the bushes are
+the large black masses of excrement that tell of the marauders above.
+When found, these larvæ should always be removed on a piece of the twig
+to which they are attached, for they hold on so firmly by their claspers
+that it is sometimes almost impossible to remove them from their hold
+without injury.
+
+These caterpillars may easily be distinguished from those of the other
+'hawks' by the seven oblique stripes which adorn the sides. These are
+each composed of two colours, white and lilac, and form a pretty
+contrast with the bright green of the rest of the body. The horn is
+smooth and curved, and is black with the exception of part of the under
+side, which is yellow.
+
+They are fully grown in August, and from the end of this month till the
+following June the chrysalides may be dug out from under privet and
+lilac bushes, both of which are attacked by the larva.
+
+
+_The Spurge Hawk_ (_Deilephila Euphorbiæ_)
+
+This is a very rare British species; in fact, it has never been seen in
+this country in its perfect state, but the larva has been found
+plentifully at Appledore and Braunton Burrows, in North Devon, feeding
+on the sea spurge (_Euphorbia Paralias_).
+
+The perfect insect is shown on Plate IX (fig. 2).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--THE CATERPILLAR OF EUPHORBIÆ.]
+
+The caterpillar is black, with a large number of small yellowish white
+dots, and two rows of spots of the same colour on each side. There is
+also a red line on each side, and another down the middle of the back.
+The horn is rough and red with a black tip. It feeds during August and
+September.
+
+
+_The Small Elephant Hawk_ (_Chærocampa Porcellus_)
+
+This pretty insect is one of the smallest of our hawk moths. It is
+widely distributed, being met with in many parts of England and in the
+south of Scotland. It flies in June.
+
+The fore wings are of a dull yellow colour, with rosy-red hind margins,
+and a broad border of the same tint on the costal margin. The hind wings
+have also a rosy-red hind margin, and are smoky black along the costæ,
+and yellow in the anal angle. The body is coloured with bright rose-red,
+tinged with olive on the foremost and hindmost segments.
+
+The popular name of this and the following species has been applied
+because of the power which the caterpillar has of extending and
+retracting its front segments, a peculiarity which has given the idea of
+a semblance to the elephant's proboscis. The colour of the caterpillar
+is light-brown or green, mottled with dark-brown, dark-green, or black.
+It has a conspicuous eye-like spot on each side of the fifth and sixth
+segments, and has no horn.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.--THE SMALL ELEPHANT HAWK MOTH.]
+
+This larva may be found in July and August, feeding on species of
+bedstraw (_Galium verum_, _G. Mollugo_, and _G. palustre_), willow herb
+(_Epilobium hirsutum_), or the purple loosestrife (_Lythrum Salicaria_).
+
+
+_The Large Elephant_ (_Chærocampa Elpenor_)
+
+This species (Plate IX, fig. 3) is very similar to the last in form and
+markings; but is, as its name implies, larger.
+
+The caterpillar, too, is very like that of the last species, but may be
+distinguished from it by the possession of a short black horn, tipped
+with white, on the 'tail.' Its colour is green or brown, mottled and
+spotted with black. The eye-like spots on its fifth and sixth segments
+are black, and each contains a brown spot surrounded by a white line.
+
+Its chief food plants are the hairy willow herb (_Epilobium hirsutum_),
+three species of bedstraw (_Galium verum_, _G. Mollugo_ and _G.
+palustre_), the purple loosestrife (_Lythrum Salicaria_), and the
+enchanter's nightshade (_Circæa lutetiana_). It will also feed on the
+vine and the apple in confinement.
+
+
+_The Eyed Hawk_ (_Smerinthus Ocellatus_)
+
+Our next genus (_Smerinthus_) contains three well-known moths, all of
+which have the hind margin of the fore wings angulated or indented.
+
+The first is the Eyed Hawk, represented in fig. 4 of Plate IX and named
+after the beautiful and conspicuous eye-like spot near the anal angle of
+each hind wing.
+
+The caterpillar has a rough green skin, sprinkled with white dots, and
+marked with seven oblique white lines on each side, each of which is
+bordered with dark green above. The spiracles are pinkish, surrounded by
+violet rings; and the horn is blue.
+
+The moth flies during May, June, and July; and the caterpillar may be
+found in plenty during August, feeding on the apple, willow (_Salix
+alba_), sallow (_S. cinerea_ and _S. Caprea_), poplar (_Populus alba_
+and _P. nigra_), aspen (_P. tremula_), and the blackthorn (_Prunus
+spinosa_).
+
+As with many other _Sphinges_, the larvæ are much more commonly seen
+than the perfect insects; but the latter may often be met with resting
+on tree trunks and fences in the neighbourhood of their food plants.
+
+
+_The Poplar Hawk_ (_Smerinthus Populi_)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.--THE POPLAR HAWK.]
+
+This moth is very common and very widely distributed, and may be easily
+found in any of its stages. The perfect insect flies during May, June,
+and July; and being rather heavy on the wing, it is easily taken with a
+net as it hovers round the branches of its favourite trees or among the
+flowers of gardens at dusk. The larva may be beaten from the boughs of
+poplars and sallows during August and September, and during the latter
+month may often be seen creeping down and around the trunks of these
+trees, searching for a suitable spot in which to undergo its changes.
+The pupa may be dug out of the soil at the foot of the same trees
+during the autumn, winter, and spring months.
+
+The fore wings are ashy grey or greyish brown, marbled with darker
+tints, with a conspicuous white spot near the centre. The hind wings are
+similarly coloured except at the base, where there is a large patch of
+brick-red.
+
+The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour dotted with yellow,
+with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. The spiracles are white,
+edged with red; and the horn is yellow on the upper, and reddish on the
+under side. Its chief food plants are the poplar, the Lombardy poplar
+(_Populus pyramidalis_), aspen (P_. tremula_), and sallow (_Salix
+Caprea_ and _S. cinerea_).
+
+
+_The Lime Hawk_ (_Smerinthus Tiliæ_)
+
+This beautiful moth (fig. 5, Plate IX) is easily identified by its rich
+olive green and brown wings, the fore pair of which have very
+conspicuous patches of deep olive, sometimes uniting to form a
+continuous central bar. It flies in May and June.
+
+The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour, dotted with yellow,
+with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. Thus it is very like the
+larva of _Populi_, but may be distinguished from that species by the
+orange spiracles, and by the horn, which is rough, blue above, and
+yellow beneath. Behind the horn, too, there is a flat purple or violet
+scale with an edging of orange.
+
+The food plants of this species are the lime (_Tilia vulgaris_), elm
+(_Ulmus campestris_), and the hazel (_Corylus Avellana_), from which the
+larvæ may be beaten in August and September, and from under these the
+pupæ may be dug out during the winter months.
+
+
+_The Humming-Bird Hawk_ (_Macroglossa Stellatarum_)
+
+The genus to which this insect belongs contains three interesting
+British species. Their antennæ are thickened toward the end, but
+terminate in a small curved bristle. Their wings are rather short and
+broad; their bodies are very thick, terminating in a broad tuft of hair;
+and the perfect insects fly during the daytime, delighting in the
+hottest sunshine. The larvæ feed principally on low-growing plants, and
+undergo their metamorphoses on the ground among the foliage.
+
+On Plate IX (fig. 6) one of these pretty moths is shown. It is the
+Humming-bird Hawk, so called on account of its exceedingly rapid
+humming-bird-like flight, accompanied by a soft humming sound.
+
+This insect is very common; and, being very partial to the attractions
+offered by many of our favourite garden flowers, it ought to be well
+known to all observers of nature.
+
+Take your stand near a bed of petunias or verbenas, or close to a
+honeysuckle in bloom, on any hot summer's day, and you are almost sure
+to be rewarded by a peep at the wonderful flight and interesting ways of
+this moth. It makes its appearance so suddenly that you first view it as
+an apparently motionless insect, suspended in the air, and thrusting its
+long proboscis into the tube of an attractive flower. Its wings vibrate
+so rapidly that they are quite invisible, and give rise to the soft hum
+already mentioned. Then it darts from one flower to another, making a
+similar brief stay before each while it sucks the grateful sweets. Raise
+your hand as if to strike, and suddenly it vanishes you know not where.
+But it is as bold as it is wary, and will often return to the selfsame
+flower as if to defy your power. A sharp sweep of your net in a
+horizontal direction, or a sudden downward stroke, _may_ secure it; but
+if you miss it, as you probably will, it will disappear like a phantom,
+and give you no opportunity of making a second attempt.
+
+This moth is on the wing throughout the hottest months of the year--May
+to September, and will often greet you as you roam over flowery banks in
+search of butterflies.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the lady's bedstraw (_Galium verum_), hedge
+bedstraw (_G. Mollugo_), and the goose grass (_G. Aparine_), and may be
+searched for in August and September. It is rough, green or brownish,
+and dotted with white. Along each side are two light lines. The horn is
+thin and short, rough, and points upwards.
+
+
+_The Broad-bordered Bee Hawk_ (_Macroglossa Fuciformis_)
+
+The two other moths of this genus are called Bee Hawks from their
+resemblance to the humble bee. They are very much alike, but may be
+distinguished by a difference in the width of the dark border of the
+wings; and are named Broad-bordered and Narrow-bordered respectively.
+
+The former is illustrated in the woodcut appended. The fore wings are
+transparent like those of bees, with a dark central spot and a broad
+reddish-brown hind margin. The base and costa are black and tinged with
+green. The hind wings are similarly coloured, but have no central spot.
+The body is olive-brown, with a broad reddish belt, and behind are tufts
+of hair, which are spread out when the insect flies, just after the
+manner of the tail feathers of a bird. The moth flies in May.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--THE BROAD-BORDERED BEE HAWK.]
+
+The larva resembles that of _Stellatarum_, but exhibits a violet tint
+above the legs. Its horn, too, is curved, and of a reddish or brownish
+colour. It feeds on the honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_), ragged
+robin (_Lychnis Flos-cuculi_), evening campion (_L. vespertina_), red
+campion (_L. diurna_), lady's bedstraw (_Galium verum_), and the field
+scabious (_Scabiosa arvensis_), during the month of July.
+
+
+Family SESIIDÆ--THE CLEARWINGS
+
+This family contains fourteen very pretty British insects that differ
+very much from other moths in many important and interesting
+particulars.
+
+Their antennæ, like those of the _Sphingidæ_, are thickest beyond the
+middle, and those of the males are slightly _ciliated_ or hairy. Their
+bodies are slender, and terminate behind in tufts of hair. The hind
+wings in all cases are transparent, margined and veined with black or
+brown; and the fore wings also, in most cases, have transparent bases.
+
+These moths delight in the hottest sunshine, and may be seen gracefully
+hovering over the flowers in our gardens, looking more like gnats, bees,
+and wasps, than moths.
+
+The larvæ of these insects are all wood-eaters, and spend their time
+within the stems of shrubs and trees, eating out galleries in the
+material that forms both their food and their home. Within these they
+also undergo their changes, and do not expose themselves to the free air
+and light till they reach their perfect stage.
+
+
+_The Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar_ (_Trochilium Apiformis_)
+
+We can find space for a mention of only two of the clearwings, the first
+of which is an insect that closely resembles the dreaded hornet, and
+whose larva feeds in the stems of poplars--features which will account
+for the above name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--THE HORNET CLEARWING OF THE POPLAR.]
+
+The head of this species is yellow, its thorax brown with a large yellow
+patch on each side, its abdomen yellow with two brown belts, and its
+legs reddish orange. The front wings are transparent, with brown costæ,
+and all the wings are margined with brown.
+
+The caterpillar, when full fed, makes a cocoon with silk and the chips
+of wood that it has bitten off; and in this undergoes its metamorphoses.
+It is fully grown in April, and the moth flies from the end of May to
+the end of July.
+
+There is another 'Hornet Clearwing,' the larva of which feeds on the
+stems of osiers. It may be distinguished from the species just described
+by a yellow 'collar' between the head and thorax, both of which are
+blackish.
+
+
+_The Currant Clearwing_ (_Sesia Tipuliformis_)
+
+This is by far the commonest of all the Clearwings, and only too well
+known to those who grow currants. Examine the shoots of _Ribes rubrum_
+(red currant) and _R. nigrum_ (black currant), especially those that
+present a withered or half-withered appearance, and you will almost
+certainly meet with signs of the presence of this intruder. Little
+wriggling larvæ occupy the pithless stems throughout the winter and
+spring. These are full grown in April, and in June the pretty little
+moth emerges through a hole in the side of a shoot, leaving the empty
+pupa case within its former home.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.--THE CURRANT CLEARWING.]
+
+The fore wings of this moth have black margins, and a black transverse
+bar beyond the middle. The body is black, with three pale yellow belts,
+and black tufts of hair at the tip.
+
+
+Family--ZYGÆNIDÆ
+
+The remaining family of the _Sphinges_--the _Zygænidæ_--includes seven
+British species, three of which are known popularly as the Foresters and
+the others as the Burnets.
+
+Their antennæ are thickest beyond the middle, but do not terminate in a
+hook. Their wings are narrow and completely covered with scales.
+
+These moths are very sluggish creatures, spending the greater part of
+their time at rest on the stems of low-growing plants. When they do fly,
+their flight is short and heavy, and their pretty wings glisten in the
+sunshine (for they are lovers of the sun), giving them the appearance of
+bees rather than of moths. On account of this natural sluggishness, they
+are exceedingly local, for they never move far from the spots where
+their food plants abound, and where they had previously spent the
+earlier stages of their existence. Thus we often come across a very
+limited piece of ground actually alive with them, and outside which not
+a single specimen is to be seen.
+
+The larvæ, too, are sluggish creatures, with soft and plump cylindrical
+bodies and no horns. I will briefly describe three members of this
+family.
+
+
+_The Forester_ (_Ino Statices_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are semi-transparent, and of a beautiful
+glossy green. The hind wings also are semi-transparent, but of a dull
+smoky tint. The thorax and abdomen are both of a brilliant metallic
+green colour. The tips of the antennæ are blunt, and the male may be
+distinguished from his mate by these organs being slightly fringed or
+ciliated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--THE FORESTER.]
+
+The caterpillar is dingy grey or greenish, with a row of black spots
+down the back, and a whitish stripe on each side. It feeds on the common
+sorrel (_Rumex acetosa_) and the sheep sorrel (_R. acetosella_), and
+when fully grown it spins a cocoon on the stem of its food plant, and
+there changes to a chrysalis.
+
+The larva may be found during May and early June. The chrysalis state
+lasts only a few days, and the moth is on the wing during June and
+July.
+
+
+_The Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet_ (_Zygæna Trifolii_)
+
+On Plate IX (fig. 7) will be found a coloured representation of this
+Burnet. The two crimson spots in the base of the fore wing are very
+close together, and often touch. The same remark also applies to the two
+spots on the middle of the wing. A glance at the list of British Moths
+(Appendix I) will show that we have also a _Narrow_-bordered
+Five-spotted Burnet. This insect is very similar to the species now
+under consideration, but may be identified by the narrower purplish
+margin on the hind wings, and also by the shape of the antennæ, which
+are not thickened so much near the end as they are in _Trifolii_.
+
+The larva of the present species is yellowish or greenish, with a row of
+black spots on the back and a row on each side. It feeds on the
+bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), hop trefoil (_Trifolium
+procumbens_), and the horse-shoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_) in May.
+Late in May or in early June the chrysalis may be found in a silken
+cocoon attached to a stem or leaf; and the perfect insect flies during
+June and July.
+
+
+_The Six-spotted Burnet_ (_Zygæna Filipendulæ_)
+
+So common is this moth, and so conspicuous when it flies in the blazing
+sun, that it must be familiar to almost everybody. On a bright midsummer
+day hundreds may often be started from their grassy beds from one little
+patch of ground.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.--THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.--THE LARVA OF FILIPENDULÆ.]
+
+The colouring of the wings is much the same as in the last species, but
+there are two crimson spots instead of one near the tips of the fore
+pair.
+
+The larvæ may be seen in vast numbers during May and June, feeding on
+clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_), and the bird's-foot
+trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_); and in the latter month thousands of the
+chrysalides, inclosed in shuttle-shaped cocoons on grass stems, may be
+seen on downs and sunny banks in almost every part of the country.
+
+The caterpillar, which is yellow, may be known by the two rows of black
+spots that adorn each segment of the body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+_BOMBYCES_
+
+
+This tribe is an important one, inasmuch as it contains those few moths
+whose silk is of present or anticipated commercial value. Many of the
+British members, even, make silken cocoons of moderate compactness, but
+none of them yield a quantity and quality of silk to justify any attempt
+to utilise it in the arts.
+
+There are more than a hundred British species in this group, and these
+represent no less than seventeen families, which exhibit a great variety
+in their general appearance and habits.
+
+
+Family--NYCTEOLIDÆ
+
+_The Green Silver-lined_ (_Hylophila prasinana_)
+
+This family, under the name of _Chloephoridæ_, is included by some
+authors among the _Tortrices_ (page 298), which they somewhat resemble
+in habits. It contains only four species, of which we will take one
+example--the Green Silver-lined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.--THE GREEN SILVER-LINED.]
+
+The fore wings of this insect are pale green, with three oblique silvery
+white lines, the middle one of which is far more distinct than the other
+two. The hind wings are silvery white in the female, and yellow in the
+male. It flies in May, and is common in the wooded districts of the
+south-eastern counties.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, dotted and striped with yellow, and has a
+reddish transverse band on the second segment. It feeds on oak (_Quercus
+Robur_), birch (_Betula alba_), hazel (_Corylus_ _Avellana_), beech
+(_Fagus sylvatica_), and alder (_Alnus glutinosa_), from which trees it
+may be beaten in July and August.
+
+
+Family--NOLIDÆ
+
+_The Short-cloaked Moth_ (_Nola cucullatella_)
+
+We select this common moth as a representative of the small family
+_Nolidæ_, which contains only five British species. These are all small
+insects. They are nocturnal in their habits, and may be found at rest on
+the trunks of trees during the daytime. The caterpillars are hairy, and
+undergo their metamorphoses within silken cocoons.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.--THE SHORT-CLOAKED MOTH.]
+
+The fore wings of _Cucullatella_ are pearly grey, with a dark patch at
+the base, a triangular spot on the middle of the costal margin, and wavy
+lines beyond this, parallel with the hind margin. The hind wings are
+grey, and devoid of any markings.
+
+The caterpillar is of a brownish colour, with a line of lighter patches
+down the back, and it is covered with little tufts of hair. It feeds on
+the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_),
+and also on plum trees in our gardens during the month of May. The moth
+is on the wing during June and July.
+
+
+Family--LITHOSIIDÆ
+
+_The Muslin Moth_ (_Nudaria mundana_)
+
+The family _Lithosiidæ_ contains several small moths, distinguished from
+the other _Bombyces_ by the narrowness of their fore wings. When the
+insects are at rest, all the wings are wrapped closely round the body.
+They fly at dusk on summer evenings, but may be obtained during the
+daytime by beating the boughs of trees. If an open net be held under the
+boughs during this operation, the moths will generally feign death and
+allow themselves to fall into it when they are disturbed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.--THE MUSLIN MOTH.]
+
+Most of the larvæ of this family feed on the lichens that cover walls
+and the bark of trees, and they conceal themselves so artfully among
+this peculiar vegetation that it is no easy matter to search them out;
+probably many still remain unknown to entomologists.
+
+Our first example--the Muslin Moth--has light brownish-grey and semi
+transparent wings, the front pair of which have darker markings arranged
+as shown in the illustration. It is a common moth, and may be met with
+in July and August.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on lichens in June. It is of a dull grey colour,
+with a yellow stripe down the back, and has numerous little tufts of
+light hair.
+
+
+_The Common Footman_ (_Lithosia lurideola_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are of a leaden grey, with a bright
+yellow costal stripe which dwindles to a point just before it reaches
+the tip. The hind wings are very pale yellow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.--THE COMMON FOOTMAN.]
+
+The larva is black, with a reddish line on each side just above the
+feet. It may be found during May and June among the lichens of oaks,
+blackthorns, and firs, especially in the woods of the south of England.
+
+The perfect insect flies during July and August.
+
+
+Family--EUCHELIIDÆ
+
+_The Cinnabar_ (_Euchelia Jacobææ_)
+
+The family _Eucheliidæ_ contains only four British species, two of which
+must receive a share of our attention. The first of these is the
+Cinnabar Moth, which is common in all localities where its food
+plants--the groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_) and the ragwort (_S.
+Jacobæa_)--abound.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.--THE LARVA OF JACOBÆÆ.]
+
+Its colours are so striking that a glance at its representation (fig. 1
+of Plate X) will render a written description quite unnecessary.
+
+The caterpillar is a very familiar and conspicuous object. Its colour is
+bright orange, broken by several broad black rings; and its body is
+thinly covered with hair. When fully grown (July or August) it descends
+to the ground, and there changes to a smooth and shining reddish-brown
+chrysalis.
+
+The moth appears in June or early in July.
+
+
+_The Scarlet Tiger_ (_Callimorpha Dominula_)
+
+This is certainly one of the most beautiful of all our moths. Its fore
+wings are dark olive green, with a lovely metallic lustre, and boldly
+marked with large white and yellow spots. These spots are arranged
+generally like those in the illustration, but are subject to great
+variation. The hind wings are crimson, with large black patches, chiefly
+distributed near the hind margin. The thorax is black, with two white
+streaks; and the abdomen crimson, with a black line down the back.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.--THE SCARLET TIGER.]
+
+This moth is a common one. It may be taken in June and July. I have seen
+it flying somewhat freely while the sun was still shining brightly.
+
+The caterpillar is very dark lead colour, nearly black; and is covered
+with little wart-like projections, from each of which protrudes a short
+black hair. There is a broad yellow broken line down the back, and two
+others on the sides. It feeds on the hound's-tongue (_Cynoglossum
+officinale_) and many other low-growing plants, hybernates through the
+winter, and is fully grown in May. Like the other members of this
+family, it spins a light silken cocoon, in which the hairs from its body
+are interwoven.
+
+
+Family--CHELONIIDÆ
+
+_The Wood Tiger_ (_Nemeophila Plantaginis_)
+
+The _Cheloniidæ_ are popularly known as the Tigers--a title suggested by
+the tiger-like colouring of some of the prominent species. They differ
+from the Scarlet Tiger and the other members of the _Eucheliidæ_ in that
+the males have ciliated or fringed antennæ. The larvæ, too, are more
+densely covered with hair.
+
+The Wood Tiger (fig. 2, Plate X) is a beautiful insect, somewhat
+variable in its markings, but so conspicuously coloured that our
+illustration cannot fail to lead to its identification. It may be found
+commonly among the undergrowth of our southern woods during May and
+June.
+
+The caterpillar is dark brown or brownish black, covered with little
+hair-bearing warts. The hairs are long and black on the foremost and
+hind segments, but shorter and of a brown colour on the middle of the
+body. It issues from the egg in September, feeds for a week or two on
+the leaves of violets (_Viola canina_ and _V. odorata_), heartsease (_V.
+tricolor_), plantain (_Plantago_), or groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_),
+and then hybernates till the following March. It is fully grown in May,
+and then spins a light cocoon, with which its hairs are interwoven,
+among the leaves of its food plant.
+
+
+_The Tiger_ (_Arctia caia_)
+
+This splendid moth is exceedingly variable in its colour and markings,
+but its usual appearance corresponds closely with that of the
+illustration on Plate X (fig. 3). In some specimens the cream colour
+almost entirely covers the fore wings, while in others all four of the
+wings are completely covered with shades of brown. This insect is
+probably known to all my readers, for it is abundant everywhere.
+
+The larva is as well known as the perfect insect. It is a kind of
+universal feeder, partaking readily of almost every low-growing plant,
+with perhaps a special partiality for dead nettles (_Lamium album_ and
+_L. purpureum_). It feeds also on the lime tree (_Tilia vulgaris_), and
+is commonly met with on apple trees and on the various plants of our
+flower beds. The young caterpillar makes its appearance in the autumn,
+and hybernates after feeding for two or three weeks only. It is full
+grown in June, when it spins a silken cocoon, and changes to a shiny
+black chrysalis.
+
+The ground colour of the larva is black, but it is covered all over with
+long hairs, those down the middle of the back being grey, and the others
+brown. This familiar larva is known popularly as the Woolly Bear.
+
+
+_The Cream-spot Tiger_ (_Arctia villica_)
+
+There is yet another Tiger--the Cream-spot--too beautiful and too common
+to be excluded from our list. It is represented on Plate X (fig. 4);
+and, like the others of its genus, is so boldly marked that mistaken
+identity is impossible.
+
+It is a very sluggish moth, more often seen at rest than on the wing,
+and will suffer itself to be roughly handled without making any attempt
+to escape.
+
+The caterpillar may be observed on sunny banks, generally feeding on
+chickweed (_Stellaria media_) but sometimes on various other low-growing
+weeds, including the dock and the dandelion. Its colour is black, with
+red head and legs, and its body is covered with long brown hairs. It
+commences to feed in the autumn, hybernates throughout the winter, and
+is full grown in May, towards the end of which month it changes to a
+black chrysalis within a light silken web.
+
+The perfect insect appears in June.
+
+
+_The Buff Ermine_ (_Spilosoma lubricipeda_)
+
+The _Cheloniidæ_ also include three moths that are popularly known as
+the Ermines, two of which--the Buff and the White--are exceedingly
+common, and are among the constant visitors to our gardens during June
+and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114.--THE BUFF ERMINE.]
+
+The Buff Ermine has all four wings of a buff or ochreous tint, and
+spotted with black as here represented.
+
+The caterpillar is whitish, with a white line down the middle of the
+back, and its body is covered with long light brown hairs. It feeds on
+the dock (_Rumex_) and many other low-growing plants during August and
+September, and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, lying within a
+loose cocoon on the surface of the ground.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115.--THE WHITE ERMINE.]
+
+
+_The White Ermine_ (_Spilosoma Menthastri_)
+
+In this species the wings are of a pale cream colour, and the dots of
+the fore wings are more uniformly distributed than in the last. Its
+habits and life history closely correspond with those of _Lubricipeda_,
+and its larva may be found feeding on the same plants.
+
+This latter may be distinguished from the caterpillar of the last
+species by the dark brown or black colour of the body, and the presence
+of an orange line down the back. It is covered with long brown hairs.
+
+
+Family--HEPIALIDÆ
+
+The five species which compose this family are known as the Swifts, a
+title which they have earned by their rather rapid flight. Their wings
+are narrow, and the antennæ very short.
+
+In the larval state they are long, naked and unsightly grubs, that live
+under the surface of the ground and feed on the roots of plants. The
+chrysalides are armed with short spines projecting from the segments.
+
+
+_The Ghost Swift_ (_Hepialus Humuli_)
+
+One of the commonest of these moths is the Ghost Swift, which may be
+seen in hundreds on waste places in the south of England during the
+month of June. The wings of the male are white, with a silky gloss, and
+a very narrow brown margin. The fore wings of the female are yellow,
+marked with irregular reddish lines. The hind wings are of a dull smoke
+colour.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116.--THE GHOST SWIFT--FEMALE.]
+
+The larva is pale yellow, with a brown head, and a brown horny plate on
+the front of the second segment. It feeds throughout the winter on the
+roots of numerous plants, including the dock, dandelion, burdock, white
+dead nettle, black horehound, and the hop.
+
+
+_The Common Swift_ (_Hepialus lupulinus_)
+
+The fore wings of the male of this species are brown, with a bent
+whitish streak, sometimes broken, passing from the base to the middle of
+the inner margin, and then to the apex. The hind wings are smoke
+coloured, with a light brownish fringe. The female is much less
+distinctly marked, and presents a rather dingy appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.--THE COMMON SWIFT.]
+
+The larva is dingy white, with brown horny plates on the second, third
+and fourth segments. It feeds on the roots of dead nettles (_Lamium
+album_ and _L. purpureum_), black horehound (_Ballota nigra_), and
+various other herbaceous plants, throughout the winter months, and is
+full grown in April.
+
+This insect is abundant everywhere in waste places, and may be seen on
+the wing in May and June.
+
+
+Family--COSSIDÆ
+
+The members of this family have longer antennæ than the _Hepialidæ_, and
+the females are provided with extended ovipositors which enable them to
+place their eggs in the deep crevices of the bark of trees.
+
+The larvæ are naked or only very slightly hairy, and have a plate on the
+second segment. They feed on the wood of trees or the interior of the
+stems of reeds. The pupæ have spiny projections on each segment.
+
+
+_The Goat Moth_ (_Cossus ligniperda_)
+
+There are only three British species of this family, the largest of
+which is the Goat Moth, so called on account of the characteristic odour
+of the larva, an odour said to resemble that emitted by the goat.
+
+The fore wings of this fine moth are pale brown, clouded with white, and
+marked by numerous wavy transverse lines. The hind wings are somewhat
+similar, but of a duller tint, and the markings are less distinct. Its
+average breadth from tip to tip is over three inches, and it sometimes
+reaches nearly four inches.
+
+The larva is a most interesting creature. It is dark reddish brown on
+the back, and flesh colour beneath; and its head is intensely black. It
+feeds on the solid wood of the willow, poplar, oak, elm, and other
+trees. The infected trees are often so riddled with the burrows of these
+larvæ that they are completely destroyed, and the presence of the
+intruders is frequently indicated by a heap of small chips of wood lying
+on the ground near the roots. The odour of the larvæ, too, is so
+powerful, that there is generally no difficulty in ascertaining their
+whereabouts by it alone.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118.--THE GOAT MOTH.]
+
+It is not always in living trees, however, that we find these creatures,
+for they often feed on rotting wood, such as the remains of old palings
+and posts, that lie on the ground in damp places.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.--THE LARVA OF LIGNIPERDA (LESS THAN HALF FULL
+SIZE).]
+
+When fully grown they construct a strong cocoon of chips of wood, bound
+together by silk, and within this they change to the chrysalis.
+
+The moth emerges in June or July, and is commonly found resting on the
+bark of willows and poplars during the daytime.
+
+
+_The Leopard Moth_ (_Zeuzera pyrina_)
+
+The wings of this species are white and semi-transparent, and marked
+with numerous bluish-black spots in such a way as to remind one of the
+skin of the leopard. Its body is very long, and the antennæ of the male
+are doubly fringed for about half their length from the base.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120.--THE LEOPARD MOTH.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the wood of various trees--elm, apple, pear,
+ash, alder, poplar, horse chestnut, birch, lilac, and several others. It
+is yellowish, with black shiny spots, and a black plate on the second
+segment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121.--THE LARVA OF PYRINA (ONLY PARTLY GROWN).]
+
+The moth appears in July, and is widely distributed. It is attracted by
+bright lights, but the best way to obtain it is to search the trunks and
+branches of trees that are known to harbour the larvæ early in the
+morning, and so obtain newly emerged specimens.
+
+
+Family--LIPARIDÆ
+
+Passing over the two small species which are the only British
+representatives of the family _Cochliopodidæ_, we come to the
+interesting _Liparidæ_, the remarkable feature of which is that most of
+the caterpillars are adorned with brush-like tufts of hair, and even the
+chrysalides are hairy.
+
+The perfect insects are not brilliantly coloured, but generally display
+very pale tints; and the antennæ of the males are pectinated or
+feathered.
+
+
+_The Brown Tail_ (_Porthesia chrysorrh[oe]a_)
+
+The family contains two moths--the Brown Tail and the Yellow Tail--that
+are very similar in appearance and habits. Both have white wings, and
+their bodies also are white with the exception of the tuft of coloured
+hair at the tip of the abdomen, which gives the names to the species.
+Their larvæ may both be found feeding on the same trees (whitethorn),
+and both change to a brown hairy chrysalis within a loose cocoon among
+the leaves.
+
+The larva of _Chrysorrh[oe]a_ is black, with four rows of little
+wart-like projections on each side, from which proceed little tufts of
+hairs. These hairs are reddish with the exception of one row on each
+side, which is white. The tenth and eleventh segments have each a
+scarlet tubercle, and there are also other small spots of the same
+colour on some of the front segments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 122.--THE BROWN TAIL.]
+
+The larva feeds on the blackthorn in addition to the tree mentioned
+above, and is full grown in June. The moth flies in August.
+
+
+_The Gipsy_ (_Ocneria dispar_)
+
+The fore wings of the male are smoky brown, with darker markings,
+including a V-shaped black mark near the centre. The hind wings are
+brown, darker near the margin. The female is dingy yellowish white, with
+darker markings arranged as in the male. The male is much inferior in
+size, and its antennæ are very strongly pectinated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 123.--THE GIPSY--MALE.]
+
+The larva is brownish black, finely dotted with yellowish grey. There is
+a grey stripe down the middle of the back, and six tubercles on each
+segment give rise to tufts of long hair. It feeds on the whitethorn
+(_Cratægus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and various
+fruit trees.
+
+The caterpillar is full grown in June, and the moth appears in August.
+
+
+_The Black Arches_ (_Psilura Monacha_)
+
+The fore wings of the Black Arches are white, marked with zigzag black
+lines as shown in our illustration. The hind wings are smoky grey. The
+hinder segments of the abdomen are banded with black and rose-pink. The
+male is much smaller than the female, and has the antennæ strongly
+pectinated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 124.--THE BLACK ARCHES--MALE.]
+
+The caterpillar is hairy, and of a greyish-white colour. A brown stripe
+runs down the back. On the top of the second segment are two blue
+tubercles; and there is also a tubercle, of a reddish colour, on each of
+the ninth, tenth, and eleventh segments. It feeds on the oak, birch,
+fir, and the apple; and is full grown in June or July.
+
+The moth flies during July and August.
+
+
+_The Vapourer Moth_ (_Orgyia antiqua_)
+
+During the hottest summer months, and particularly in August and
+September, a rather small brown moth may be seen almost everywhere,
+flying rapidly and in a very erratic manner in the bright rays of the
+midday sun. This is the common Vapourer Moth, which may be known at once
+by its bright chestnut colour, with darker transverse markings, and a
+white crescent-shaped spot in the anal angle of the fore wings. It seems
+somewhat partial to civilised life, for it frequents the streets of our
+metropolis, even in the very densely populated parts; and the larva is
+one of the commonest of the insect forms infesting our gardens and
+squares.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 125.--THE VAPOURER MOTH--MALE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 126.--THE FEMALE VAPOURER.]
+
+The caterpillar is variously coloured; but the prevailing tints are dark
+brown, grey, and pink. On the second segment are two long tufts of hair
+directed forward, and on the twelfth segment a similar tuft directed
+backward. On each of the segments five to eight inclusive is a
+brush-like tuft of yellowish hairs. It feeds on almost every tree
+usually to be found in parks and gardens.
+
+When fully grown it spins a web on the bark of a tree, or on a wall or
+fence, and changes to a hairy chrysalis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 127.--LARVA OF THE VAPOURER MOTH.]
+
+The female of this species is wingless, and never moves away from the
+cocoon out of which she has crawled, but lays her eggs on the outside of
+the silken web, and there remains to die.
+
+The clusters of eggs may be found in abundance throughout the winter
+months.
+
+
+Family--BOMBYCIDÆ
+
+This family contains eleven thick-bodied moths, mostly of large size, in
+which the predominating colours are greys and browns. Their hind wings
+are generally paler than the front pair, and less distinctly marked; and
+the antennæ of the males are pectinated.
+
+The caterpillars are very hairy, but the hairs are uniformly
+distributed, and not arranged in tufts as in the larvæ of the last
+family.
+
+The chrysalides are inclosed in silken cocoons, but are not hairy.
+
+We shall briefly examine three of the members of this family.
+
+
+_The Oak Eggar_ (_Bombyx Quercus_)
+
+The male of this species is shown on Plate X (fig. 5). The female is
+much larger, and of a pale tawny colour.
+
+The ground colour of the caterpillar is black; but it is so closely
+covered with short yellowish brown hairs that the black is scarcely
+visible, excepting when the creature rolls itself up into a ring, which
+it does when alarmed. The spiracles are white, and there is a series of
+white spots down the middle of the back and along each side. It feeds on
+whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), heather (_Calluna_, _Erica_), poplar
+(_Populus nigra_), and various other plants and trees.
+
+As a rule the larva hybernates through the winter, is full grown in the
+following May, and the moth appears in July; but in Scotland the
+caterpillar does not spin its cocoon till September, hybernates in the
+chrysalis state, and emerges in the following June. The same is true of
+the Cornish Eggars; but along the coast of South Devon both varieties
+are to be met with.
+
+The male Eggar seems to enjoy the bright sunshine, for I have seen large
+numbers flying over the rugged cliffs of the south-west throughout all
+hours of the day.
+
+
+_The Drinker_ (_Odonestis potatoria_)
+
+The popular name of this species is applied on account of a peculiar
+feature of the larva, which sucks up the dewdrop that lies on its food
+plant.
+
+The colour of the male is tawny and brown, with a reddish tinge; that of
+the female is yellow. The front wing has an oblique dark bar passing
+from the apex to the middle of the inner margin; also two white
+spots--one in the middle of the wing, and the other between it and the
+costal margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 128.--THE DRINKER--MALE.]
+
+The caterpillar is dark bluish grey above, and has a line of orange
+spots on each side. Along the spiracles are oblique orange streaks, and
+a series of tufts of white hair. It feeds on the annual meadow-grass
+(_Poa annua_), and several other grasses. It is a hybernator, commencing
+its caterpillar state in the autumn, and reaching its full dimensions
+about the end of the following May.
+
+The moth flies during July and August.
+
+
+_The Lappet_ (_Lasiocampa quercifolia_)
+
+Our last example of the _Bombycidæ_ is the Lappet (Plate X, fig. 6), a
+large moth, the female often measuring considerably over three inches
+from tip to tip. The wings are of a rich reddish brown, and exhibit a
+beautiful purplish bloom in a newly emerged insect. Scalloped black
+lines pass transversely across each wing, and a small black dot lies
+near the centre of the fore wings.
+
+The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is usually grey or
+reddish brown. A deep purple band lies between the second and third
+segments, and another between the third and fourth. On the twelfth there
+is a small hump, and a pale stripe, more or less distinct, runs along
+each side. It feeds on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), buckthorn
+(_Rhamnus catharticus_), and the white willow (_Salix alba_).
+
+The moth is not uncommon, and is on the wing in June.
+
+
+Family--ENDROMIDÆ
+
+_The Kentish Glory_ (_Endromis versicolor_)
+
+The beautiful Kentish Glory is the only British representative of its
+family. The male is shown in Plate X (fig. 7); the female is larger and
+similarly marked, but its colours are not so bright.
+
+This moth is not common, but may be seen occasionally in the birch woods
+of the southern counties. The males fly rapidly in the bright sunshine,
+but the females must be searched for on the bark and branches of the
+trees.
+
+The eggs are laid in April on the twigs of the birch (_Betula alba_),
+and the young caterpillar emerges early in May. It is gregarious at
+first, but loses its social tendencies as it gets older. When full
+grown, it is of a pale green colour, with white spiracles, a dark green
+line down the back, and an oblique white stripe on each side of each
+segment. The sides are dotted with black and brown, and there is a
+conspicuous hump on the top of the twelfth segment.
+
+When fully grown it spins a cocoon among the dead leaves beneath the
+tree, and in this it spends the winter months in the chrysalis state.
+
+
+Family--SATURNIIDÆ
+
+_The Emperor Moth_ (_Saturnia pavonia_)
+
+Here is another family with but one British member; but in this, as in
+the last case, the only representative is a really beautiful insect. The
+male _Pavonia_ is shown on Plate X (fig. 8), and will need no written
+description as an aid to its identification. The female is larger, and
+similarly marked, but the ground colour of the wings is pale grey.
+
+This moth is abundant almost everywhere, and may be looked for in the
+neighbourhood of heaths and woods early in the month of May.
+
+The larva feeds on a large number of plants and trees, among which may
+be mentioned the willow (_Salix alba_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_),
+elder (_Sambucus nigra_), whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), bramble
+(_Rubus fruticosus_), heaths (_Erica tetralix_ and _E. cinerea_), and
+the meadow-sweet (_Spiræa ulmaria_). Its colour is a lovely green; and
+each segment has several pink tubercles, each surrounded by a black
+ring, and giving rise to a tuft of short black hairs. The spiracles are
+orange.
+
+In the autumn it spins a pear-shaped cocoon of silk, open at the small
+end (fig. 28).
+
+It may here be mentioned in passing that, in the case of some of the
+larger moths of the few preceding families, the young entomologist is
+likely to meet with larvæ more frequently than the perfect insect. These
+moths, however, are mostly very hardy and easily reared; and a beginner
+cannot do better than endeavour to obtain either ova or larvæ, in order
+that he may be able to watch the different species through their various
+stages.
+
+
+Family--DREPANULIDÆ
+
+We now reach a family containing six small moths that differ in many
+important particulars from those we have just been considering. They are
+of such slender build that a beginner may easily mistake them for
+Geometers. Their wings, though small, are broad, and well proportioned
+to their bodies. In five cases out of the six the front wings are more
+or less hooked at the tips, and on this account the moths in question
+are called the Hook Tips.
+
+The larvæ are not hairy, but they all have little fleshy projections on
+their backs. Their bodies also taper to a point behind, and the last
+pair of claspers are wanting, so that they have only fourteen walking
+appendages. When at rest they usually fix themselves by their claspers
+only, their pointed 'tails' being directed slightly upward, and all the
+front segments being also elevated. When about to change, they descend
+to the ground, and spin their cocoons among dead leaves.
+
+Two only of this family can receive an individual notice.
+
+
+_The Oak Hook Tip_ (_Drepana binaria_)
+
+This can hardly be described as a very common moth, but it is fairly
+plentiful in the woods of the southern counties of England.
+
+Its wings are yellowish brown, marked with two lighter transverse lines.
+There are two black spots between the lines of the fore wings. The
+antennæ of the male are pectinated; those of the female simple. The
+latter sex is further distinguished by the paler colour of the hind
+wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 129.--THE OAK HOOK TIP.]
+
+The larva is brown, with a broad stripe, edged with yellow, down the
+back. There are two projections on the back of the fourth segment. It
+feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_) and birch (_Betula alba_).
+
+This moth is double-brooded, and may be seen on the wing in June and
+August. The larva may be beaten from the above-mentioned trees in June
+and July, and again in September.
+
+
+_The Chinese Character_ (_Cilix glaucata_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are white, with a broad dark blotch from
+the inner margin to near the costa. The central portion of this blotch
+is marked with silvery spots which are said to resemble Chinese
+characters. The hind margin is shaded with a dark grey border, inside
+which is a row of dark spots. The hind wings are clouded with grey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 130.--THE CHINESE CHARACTER.]
+
+This moth is widely distributed, and seems to be common throughout
+England. It is double brooded, the first brood appearing in May and
+June, and the second in August.
+
+The caterpillar, which is brown, with two prominent tubercles on each of
+the third and fourth segments, feeds on the whitethorn (_Cratægus
+oxyacantha_), and the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_).
+
+
+Family--DICRANURIDÆ
+
+The five British species that represent this family are such interesting
+insects that we should like to have given a detailed description of all
+of them, but our limited space will allow of no more than an outline of
+the general characteristics of the group and a selection of two for
+individual mention.
+
+They are thick-bodied moths, and the prevailing colours are white and
+shades of grey. The antennæ are pectinated in the males, and, with the
+exception of the Lobster Moth (_Fagi_), in the females also.
+
+The larvæ, like those of the last family, have no anal claspers, and
+stand, when at rest, with both ends of the body raised. They have two
+'tails' projecting from the last segment. The largest of them (the
+Puss), and three smaller species (Kittens) that closely resemble it in
+habits, all construct hard cocoons to be presently described; but the
+larva of the Lobster Moth spins a light cocoon among the leaves of
+trees.
+
+They all spend the winter in the chrysalis state.
+
+
+_The Poplar Kitten_ (_Dicranura bifida_)
+
+Our illustration shows the arrangement of the white and grey on the
+wings of this moth, but the other Kittens (_Bicuspis_ and _Furcula_) so
+closely resemble it that it is necessary to point out a mark of
+distinction. It will be observed that the fore wings are crossed by a
+broad grey band, edged with black. This band, in the present species, is
+almost of the same width throughout, its interior margin being almost
+straight, and the exterior one slightly concave. In _Furcula_, the outer
+margin of the band is generally sharply bent inward just below the
+costa. In _Bicuspis_ the grey band varies considerably in shape, but
+both this and the dark blotch near the tip of the wing are more sharply
+defined than in the other two species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 131.--THE POPLAR KITTEN.]
+
+The caterpillar is green, dotted with brown, and has a brown stripe on
+the back. This stripe is broken on the third segment, and widens out on
+the eighth and thirteenth segments. It feeds on the Poplar (_Populus
+nigra_) and Aspen (_P. tremula_).
+
+When full grown it descends to the trunk of the tree, and constructs a
+very hard cocoon of a glutinous substance from its own body mingled with
+little pieces of the bark that it removes for the purpose. Thus made,
+the cocoon so closely resembles the surrounding bark that detection is
+very difficult. I have frequently found these cocoons on the inner
+surface of loose bark.
+
+This moth is widely distributed, and may be searched for in June and
+July. The larva feeds during August and September.
+
+
+_The Puss_ (_Dicranura vinula_)
+
+No written description is necessary in this case, the illustration
+easily serving for identification. This beautiful moth flies in May and
+June, and is common everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 132.--THE PUSS MOTH.]
+
+The caterpillar is a very interesting creature. It is green, with a hump
+on the fourth segment, and a patch of brown from the fourth segment to
+the tail. This patch is very wide on the eighth segment, but tapers to a
+point on the thirteenth. The two horns are rather long and rough, and
+from each of them a very slender pink filament is protruded when the
+caterpillar is irritated.
+
+It constructs a cocoon very similar to that of _Bifida_, though of
+course larger, on the bark of the tree on which it fed, generally three
+or four feet from the ground. It feeds on sallows, willows, and poplars,
+and may be found during July and August.
+
+
+Family--NOTODONTIDÆ
+
+_The Coxcomb Prominent_ (_Lophopteryx camelina_)
+
+The family _Notodontidæ_ contains several moths of somewhat varied
+appearance, but foremost among them are the 'Prominents,' distinguished
+by a conspicuous projection on the inner margin of the fore wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 133.--THE COXCOMB PROMINENT.]
+
+Our example of this group is the Coxcomb Prominent.
+
+Its fore wings are brown, with darker markings arranged as shown in the
+illustration; and the hind margins are scalloped. The hind wings are
+much paler, with a dark brown patch in the anal angle.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with a yellowish line on each side. The
+spiracles are black, and there are two small humps on the twelfth
+segment. It feeds during August, September, and October, on various
+trees, including the oak, birch, poplar, hazel, and alder.
+
+The moth flies from June to August, and is moderately common and widely
+distributed.
+
+
+Family--PYGÆRIDÆ
+
+_The Buff Tip_ (_Phalera bucephala_)
+
+The first of our two examples of this small family is the common and
+destructive Buff Tip. The perfect insect is represented on Plate X, fig.
+9, and is too well known to require a lengthy description. During June
+and July it may be seen resting on the bark of trees almost everywhere,
+with its wings folded closely round its body, and its antennæ tucked
+under the wings, looking just like a piece of stick, or a projection of
+the bark on which it sits.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 134.--THE LARVA OF BUCEPHALA.]
+
+The caterpillars appear towards the end of June, and may be seen in
+dense clusters on lime and other trees, sometimes twenty or thirty
+huddled together on a single leaf. As they grow larger they retain their
+gregarious tendencies, and often completely strip the leaves from large
+branches. They are of a dull yellow colour, hairy, and have seven broken
+black lines, one along the middle of the back, and three on each side.
+The head and legs are black.
+
+When full grown, they descend to the root of the tree, burrow into the
+soil, and there remain in the chrysalis state till the following June.
+The chief food plants of this species are the lime (_Tilia vulgaris_),
+elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and hazel (_Corylus Avellana_).
+
+
+_The Chocolate Tip_ (_Pygæra curtula_)
+
+This species is not nearly so common as the last, but is to be met with
+more or less in most of the English counties in the month of May.
+
+Its fore wings are light greyish brown, crossed with four transverse
+paler streaks, and tipped with a patch of chocolate brown. The hind
+wings are pale yellowish grey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 135.--THE CHOCOLATE TIP.]
+
+The young caterpillars feed in companies between leaves which they have
+spun together, but when nearly full grown they cease to be gregarious.
+They are also very different in appearance at different ages. When fully
+fed, the larva is of a reddish-grey colour, spotted with black, with a
+double row of orange-coloured warts on each side. There is also a little
+black hump on each of the fifth and twelfth segments.
+
+The food plants of this species are sallows (_Salix caprea_ and _S.
+cinerea_), poplar (_Populus nigra_), and aspen (_P. tremula_).
+
+
+Family--CYMATOPHORIDÆ
+
+This, the last family of the _Bombyces_, contains seven species of
+moderate size, the larvæ of which are either quite smooth or have small
+warty prominences. The seven species are grouped into three genera, from
+two of which we shall select a representative.
+
+
+_The Peach Blossom_ (_Thyatira Batis_)
+
+The popular name of this pretty little moth is given on account of the
+resemblance of the pink patches of its olive-brown fore wings to the
+petals of the peach flower. It is a moderately common moth, widely
+distributed in England and Ireland, and flies during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 136.--THE PEACH BLOSSOM.]
+
+The caterpillar is marbled with reddish grey and brown, and has a hump
+on the third segment, and a smaller prominence on each of the segments
+six to ten inclusive. It feeds on the bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_)
+during August and September, and spends the winter in the chrysalis
+state, inclosed in a loose cocoon among the dead leaves at the root of
+its food plant.
+
+
+_The Yellow-horned_ (_Asphalia flavicornis_)
+
+This is one of the earliest of our moths, appearing on the wing in
+March, when it may be attracted by means of sugar placed on the bark of
+the birch (_Betula alba_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 137.--THE YELLOW-HORNED.]
+
+The wings are grey, with a decidedly greenish tinge, crossed by three
+dark lines near the base, and two others, which are zigzag, just outside
+the centre. Between these two sets of lines is a conspicuous round pale
+spot. The hind wings are greyish brown, darker along the hind margin.
+
+The larva, which feeds on the above-named tree, is pale greenish, with
+both white and black dots. It rolls itself up in a leaf, and seldom
+ventures out of the retreat thus formed. It is fully fed in July or
+August.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+_THE NOCTUÆ_
+
+
+We have already noticed that several of our moths fly by day; that some
+come out of their hiding places at dusk, and settle down again to rest
+before the deepest shadows of night fall; and that others prefer the
+darkest hours of the night. The tribe of moths we are next to consider
+includes the greater number (about three hundred) of our truly nocturnal
+species, hence the name that heads this chapter.
+
+They are generally of a somewhat dingy appearance, the prevailing
+colours being dull shades of grey, drab, and brown. So closely, in fact,
+do certain of them resemble each other, that the greatest care has to be
+exercised in the identification of species--a task that is rendered
+still more difficult by the variations that we observe in the tints and
+markings of certain species.
+
+These moths have generally rather stout bodies. Their fore wings are
+somewhat narrow, and, when the insects are at rest, these are brought
+close to the body, and the hind pair are folded up beneath them.
+
+
+Family--BRYOPHILIDÆ
+
+_The Marbled Beauty_ (_Bryophila Perla_)
+
+Our first family--the _Bryophilidæ_--contains only four British species.
+These are small and slender-bodied moths, whose larvæ feed in early
+morning on the lichens that cover stones and old walls, and conceal
+themselves by day in holes and chinks and under stones.
+
+The Marbled Beauty is the only moth of this family that may be
+described as common with us. It is abundant in nearly every English
+county, as well as in parts of Scotland and Ireland.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 138.--THE MARBLED BEAUTY.]
+
+Its wings are very pale grey, marked with a darker bluish grey, as shown
+in the engraving. These markings are variable, but the bases of the fore
+wings have always a dark blotch, followed by a patch of pale grey or
+white, extending the whole width of the wing. The moth may be found from
+the beginning of July to the middle of September.
+
+The larva feeds from February to April. It is black above, with a broad
+orange-bordered stripe down the back; and its body is covered with small
+warts, each of which bears a single hair.
+
+
+Family--BOMBYCOIDÆ
+
+In this family there are sixteen British moths, several of which are
+exceedingly common. They are much larger than the _Bryophilidæ_, and of
+a much stouter build. The larvæ are covered with little hair-bearing
+warts, and are, indeed, often so hairy that they may be mistaken for the
+caterpillars of the _Bombyces_.
+
+
+_The Grey Dagger_ (_Acronycta Psi_)
+
+This is the commonest of all the _Bombycoidæ_. It may be found at rest
+on tree trunks and palings during the daytime throughout the summer. Its
+fore wings are pale grey, with four conspicuous black marks, one of
+which--that in the anal angle--resembles the Greek letter _psi_ ([psi])
+placed sideways.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 139.--THE GREY DAGGER.]
+
+The larva is black or very dark grey, with a pale yellow line down the
+back, and a black hump on each of the fifth and twelfth segments, that
+on the fifth being much larger than the other. It feeds in the autumn on
+lime (_Tilia vulgaris_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), whitethorn
+(_Cratægus oxyacantha_), fruit trees, and various other trees, shrubs,
+and herbs.
+
+The moth called the Dark Dagger (_Tridens_) is hardly to be
+distinguished from _Psi_. It is not really any darker, and its markings
+are almost exactly similar; but the larva is very different.
+
+
+_The Poplar Grey_ (_Acronycta megacephala_)
+
+This is also a very common moth, to be found in all the southern and
+midland counties, wherever poplars abound, during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 140.--THE POPLAR GREY.]
+
+Its fore wings are grey, marbled with a very dark grey. A little inside
+the middle of these wings, near the costa, is a round spot with a dark
+centre. This spot is represented in a large number of the _Noctuæ_, and
+is known as the _orbicular_. It will be observed that in the present
+species it is very distinct.
+
+The caterpillar is dark grey, with a line of black dots down the back;
+and it has a number of little warts, bearing hairs. On the back of the
+eleventh segment is a rather large pale spot. It feeds during August on
+various species of poplar, and changes to a chrysalis in a crevice of
+the bark.
+
+
+_The Figure of Eight_ (_Diloba cæruleocephala_)
+
+The fore wings are brownish grey. Near the middle of the wing, but
+nearer the costa than the inner margin, are two whitish spots that
+resemble the figure 8. The hind wings are dull brownish grey, with
+darker wing rays, and a dark spot near the centre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 141.--THE FIGURE OF EIGHT.]
+
+This moth is common in all parts, and flies during September.
+
+The caterpillar emerges from the egg in spring, and is fully grown in
+May or June. It is of a very pale colour--yellowish or greenish--with a
+broad and broken yellow stripe down the back, and a bluish or greenish
+stripe on each side. Its head is blue (hence the specific name) with two
+black spots. It feeds on the hawthorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_) and
+various fruit trees; and on the twigs of these (especially the hawthorn)
+the little clusters of eggs may be seen during the winter.
+
+
+Family--LEUCANIIDÆ
+
+In this family we have a number of rather small moths, with, generally,
+no markings on their wings, save, perhaps, a few dots or streaks.
+
+Their larvæ feed principally on grasses and reeds, and change to the
+chrysalis state either in a cocoon among the food plants, or under the
+surface of the ground.
+
+Several of these insects are very common, and most of them abound in
+fens and marshes.
+
+
+_The Brown-line Bright-eye_ (_Leucania conigera_)
+
+The fore wings are yellowish brown. The 'brown line' is a transverse
+line parallel with the hind margin, and distant from it about one-fourth
+the length of the wing. Another dark brown line, describing a sharp
+bend, passes across the wing near the base. The 'bright eye' is a light
+spot just outside the centre of the wing, nearer the costa than the
+inner margin. This is another of those marks that occur very constantly
+in the wings of the _Noctuæ_. It lies beyond the _orbicular_ spot, and
+is usually somewhat kidney-shaped, and is consequently named the
+_reniform_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 142.--THE BROWN-LINE BRIGHT-EYE.]
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish or greyish, with a pale dorsal line edged
+with black. On each side of this is a broad black line, below which is a
+yellow line edged with black, then a whitish stripe, next a yellow line
+edged with black on the upper side, and lastly a broad brownish line,
+just above the spiracles, edged with black on both sides. It feeds on
+couch grass (_Agropyron repens_) and various other grasses, and is fully
+grown in May.
+
+The moth flies in July and August, and is common throughout the United
+Kingdom.
+
+
+_The Smoky Wainscot_ (_Leucania impura_)
+
+This same genus includes a number of moths, very similar in general
+appearance, and popularly known as the 'Wainscots.' Of these we shall
+take two examples.
+
+The first is the Smoky Wainscot, so called from the dark smoky tint of
+the hind wings. Its fore wings are wainscot brown, with lighter rays;
+and they each have three black dots arranged in the form of a triangle,
+one in the centre, and the other two between this and the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 143.--THE SMOKY WAINSCOT.]
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish, with a fine white line down the back. The
+spiracles are red, and inclosed in black rings. It feeds on sedges
+(_Carex_) from March to May.
+
+The moth is on the wing from June to August.
+
+
+_The Common Wainscot_ (_Leucania pallens_)
+
+This moth is very much like the last. The fore wings exhibit the same
+three dots, but it may be distinguished by the pale colour of the hind
+wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 144.--THE COMMON WAINSCOT.]
+
+The larva feeds on various grasses in March and April. It is of a
+pinkish grey colour, with two rows of black dots on each side of the
+dorsal line. There are also three stripes along the side, two of which
+are brownish and the other grey.
+
+The moth is common everywhere from June to August.
+
+
+_The Bullrush_ (_Nonagria arundinis_)
+
+Our last example of this family is the Bullrush, a moth that is common
+in all parts where its food plant abounds.
+
+It is much larger than the two preceding species. The fore wings are
+yellowish brown, with three parallel transverse lines of black spots.
+The hind wings are whitish, tinged with brown near the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 145.--THE BULLRUSH.]
+
+The caterpillar is of a dull pinkish colour, with a shining brownish
+plate on the second segment. The spiracles are black. It feeds inside
+the stems of the reed-mace (_Typha latifolia_), and changes to a
+chrysalis within the gallery it has excavated, after making a hole
+through which it can escape when it attains the perfect form.
+
+The caterpillar may be found in May and June, the chrysalis in August,
+and the moth in September.
+
+
+Family--APAMEIDÆ
+
+This large family contains no less than forty-four British species, many
+of which are exceedingly common; and of the others only about half a
+dozen can be regarded as rare.
+
+Most of them are of medium size, and with one or two exceptions are
+dressed in rather dingy garbs; but, although the ground colours are
+dull, the various markings of the wings are sharply defined. They may be
+searched for on palings and the bark of trees by day, at which time they
+repose with their wings sloping like the sides of the roof of a house.
+Some are easily attracted by lights, and others partake freely of the
+entomologist's 'sugar.'
+
+The larvæ have small retractile heads, and feed on low-growing plants,
+keeping themselves well concealed on the lower leaves close to the
+ground.
+
+
+_The Frosted Orange_ (_Gortyna Ochracea_)
+
+We commence with one of the brightest members of the family, the Frosted
+Orange. Its fore wings are dark yellow or ochreous, with distinct brown
+markings, the chief of which are two broad transverse bands. The
+orbicular spot is pale yellow and very distinct. The hind wings are
+dingy yellow. This moth flies from July to September, and is easily
+attracted by a light at night. It is common everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 146.--THE FROSTED ORANGE.]
+
+The larva is yellow, dotted with black, with a brownish plate on the
+second segment. It feeds inside the stems of a number of plants,
+including the marsh thistle (_Cnicus palustris_), musk thistle (_Carduus
+nutans_), burdock (_Arctium minus_), mullein (_Verbascum thapsus_),
+foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), and elder (_Sambucus nigra_). When
+about to change to the chrysalis it eats _nearly_ to the surface of the
+stem, leaving only a very thin and transparent layer of the epidermis to
+cover the hole through which it is to escape when it becomes a moth.
+
+The caterpillars are to be found in June, and the chrysalides in July.
+
+
+_The Flame_ (_Axylia putris_)
+
+This also is a pretty insect, but much smaller than _Ochracea_. It is
+common in most parts, and may be seen flying in weedy and waste grounds
+at dusk during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 147.--THE FLAME.]
+
+The fore wings are pale pinkish brown, with dark brown along the costa,
+and two patches of the same colour on the hind margin. There is also a
+double line of small brown dots parallel with the hind margin.
+
+The larva is brown, with one yellow and two white dots on each segment.
+There is also a triangular dark patch on each of the fifth and sixth
+segments. It feeds during August on the stinging nettle (_Urtica
+dioica_), and various other low herbs.
+
+
+_The Light Arches_ (_Xylophasia lithoxylea_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are very light ochreous, with a light
+brown patch on the middle of the costa, and patches of the same colour
+along the hind margin; also a row of small black dots parallel with the
+same margin. The hind wings are pale ochreous: they are brownish along
+the hind margin, and have a light fringe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 148.--THE LIGHT ARCHES.]
+
+The moth is very common in waste places, and flies in June and July.
+
+The caterpillar is of a dirty white colour, dotted with black, and has a
+black head. It feeds on the roots of grasses in May.
+
+
+_The Flounced Rustic_ (_Luperina testacea_)
+
+The fore wings are greyish brown, with darker umber-brown markings.
+These latter are variable, but the most conspicuous is a series of dark
+crescent-shaped spots almost parallel with the hind margin, and
+immediately outside these is a series of paler crescents.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 149.--THE FLOUNCED RUSTIC.]
+
+The caterpillar is dull flesh-colour, with a brown head, and a brownish
+plate on the second segment. It feeds on the stems of grasses.
+
+The moth is common throughout the British Isles, and flies in August and
+September.
+
+
+_The Cabbage Moth_ (_Mamestra Brassicæ_)
+
+Whatever be your methods of moth collecting, you are sure to meet with
+_Brassicæ_ in abundance. They swarm round the insect hunter's sugar in
+such numbers as to become a positive nuisance. They are also attracted
+by light. During the day they may be seen at rest on palings. The
+caterpillar is even better known, and with reason, for it is fearfully
+destructive to our vegetables and even our flower beds. It burrows into
+the hearts of cabbages, filling the galleries it makes with its
+excrement, often leaving no very visible outward signs of its presence
+within. But its ravages are by no means confined to cabbages. It eats
+with more or less relish almost every vegetable and flowering plant of
+our gardens, and is equally partial to the various herbs of the field.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 150.--THE CABBAGE MOTH.]
+
+The fore wings of the moth are dingy brownish grey, marbled in a very
+confused manner by darker markings. The _reniform_ spot is very
+distinct, the orbicular less so. A light zigzag line runs parallel with
+the hind margin. It flies in June and July.
+
+The larva feeds later in the season, and changes to the chrysalis
+beneath the soil in the autumn. It is of a dark grey colour, with a
+darker line on the back, and a lighter one along the spiracles, which
+are white.
+
+
+_The Dot_ (_Mamestra Persicariæ_)
+
+The conspicuous white reniform spot on the very dark marbled fore wings
+is always sufficient for the identification of this species.
+
+This moth is out in June and July; and during the latter month lays its
+eggs on the elder (_Sambucus nigra_), and the various low plants that
+supply the larva with food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 151.--THE DOT.]
+
+The larva is greenish or greyish, sometimes with a reddish tinge, with a
+light line down the back. The twelfth segment is humped, and there are
+dark V-shaped marks on the back of segments five to twelve inclusive. It
+is full grown in September, and burrows into the ground to undergo its
+change to the chrysalis, in which state it remains throughout the
+winter.
+
+
+_The Rustic Shoulder-knot_ (_Apamea basilinea_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are pale ochreous grey, with light brown
+markings; and there is a short dark streak in the middle of the base,
+from which feature the specific name (_Basilinea_) is derived. The hind
+wings are of a similar colour, but shading into a dark smoke colour at
+the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 152.--THE RUSTIC SHOULDER KNOT.]
+
+The caterpillars feed at first on the grains of wheat, on the ears of
+which the moth deposits the eggs in June. At harvest time they remain
+hidden among the husks, and are often threshed out in large numbers by
+the blows of the flail. The cold weather soon overtakes them, and they
+then spin a cocoon in which to pass the winter. On the approach of
+spring they come out again, and feed by night on various low plants,
+hiding themselves among the roots by day. In March they are full grown,
+and change to brown chrysalides beneath the surface of the ground.
+
+The moth flies in June, and is one of the commonest and most destructive
+of our _Noctuæ_.
+
+
+_The Marbled Minor_ (_Miana strigilis_)
+
+The next three genera (_Miana_, _Phothedes_, and _Celæna_) include seven
+small moths known as the 'Minors.' The commonest of them is the Marbled
+Minor, which is to be found in abundance everywhere during June and
+July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 153.--THE MARBLED MINOR.]
+
+This species is very variable, but the fore wings are usually dark
+brown, marbled with a lighter colour--white or grey. There is generally
+an irregular white or pale grey band crossing the wings parallel with
+the hind margin, and two white marks on the inner margin, halfway
+between this band and the base. There is also a deep black blotch across
+the middle of the wing.
+
+The caterpillar is greyish or greenish with paler lines and black
+spiracles. It feeds on grasses in March and April, and changes to a
+chrysalis under the ground in May.
+
+
+Family--CARADRINIDÆ
+
+There are only ten British species in this family, two of which are
+rare; and most of the others are particularly dingy. The transverse
+lines so often seen on the fore wings of Noctuæ are generally well
+marked. The larvæ have short stiff bristles, and feed on low plants;
+they undergo their changes in an earthen cocoon under the ground.
+
+
+_The Mottled Rustic_ (_Caradrina Morpheus_)
+
+We select as our type of this family the Mottled Rustic--a common moth
+that may be procured from June to August. Its fore wings are brownish
+grey, with darker lines and spots; the hind wings are almost white, but
+darker at the tip.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 154.--THE MOTTLED RUSTIC.]
+
+The caterpillar is brownish grey, with a row of triangular spots on each
+side of the back. It is very sluggish, spending the greater part of its
+existence among the roots of low plants. It feeds throughout the winter,
+except during severe weather, and is full grown in April. The food
+plants include teasels (_Dipsacus pilosus_ and _D. sylvestris_), hedge
+bedstraw (_Galium Mollugo_), orpine (_Sedum Telephium_), sallows
+(_Salix_), and various other plants.
+
+The chrysalis may be dug out in May.
+
+
+Family--NOCTUIDÆ
+
+A glance at our list of British _Noctuæ_ (Appendix I) will show that
+this family contains nearly fifty species and only three genera. It
+includes several very common moths that frequent our gardens and are to
+be met with during almost every summer evening ramble.
+
+Most of the species are very dingy, but the half-dozen that comprise the
+genus _Triphæna_ are characterised by the bright colouring of the hind
+wings. The fore wings are narrow and more or less glossy, and overlap to
+a greater or less extent when the insects are at rest; and the hind
+wings are folded and completely hidden beneath them.
+
+The larvæ are rather thick and smooth, and generally of very dingy
+colours. They feed on low plants, often confining their ravages to the
+roots, and generally lie well concealed close to the ground or under the
+surface.
+
+The pupæ are brown, smooth, and shining, and are usually inclosed in
+earthen cocoons.
+
+We shall briefly notice a few members of each of the three genera.
+
+
+_The Turnip Moth_ (_Agrotis Segetum_)
+
+This is another of those destructive insects that attack vegetable and
+flower gardens, often doing so much damage to our crops as to become
+quite a nuisance to cultivators.
+
+The moth is decidedly dingy. Its fore wings are brown, clouded with a
+darker tint. The hind wings are almost white, sometimes with a brown
+hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 155.--THE TURNIP MOTH.]
+
+In June it lays its eggs on the stems of young plants, generally very
+close to the ground. As soon as the young caterpillars emerge they
+commence feeding on the lower parts of the stems, or burrowing deeply
+into the larger succulent roots. When the larvæ have completed their
+work of destruction in this way, they change to brown chrysalides in the
+ground. Some undergo this change in October, and shortly after give rise
+to a second brood of moths; but most of them remain in the caterpillar
+state throughout the winter, and, contrary to the general rule with
+hybernating larvæ, continue to feed almost throughout the winter months,
+and change to the chrysalis in the following May.
+
+The caterpillar grows to a large size. It is of a greyish or greenish
+colour, with a paler line on the back, a light brown line on each side
+of this, black spots between these lines, and black spiracles.
+
+
+_The Heart and Dart_ (_Agrotis Exclamationis_)
+
+The destructive work of _Segetum_ is assisted by similar operations of
+the Heart and Dart, the larva of which feeds voraciously on the roots of
+several of our cultivated vegetables, though the present species does
+not entirely confine its ravages to the farmer's crops, but attacks the
+roots of many low-growing herbs.
+
+The fore wings of the moth are light brown, generally with a reddish
+tinge. The darker markings include a large and very distinct reniform
+spot, a less distinct orbicular, and a conspicuous longitudinal blackish
+streak near the base of the wing known as the _claviform_. Beyond the
+reniform a curved and zigzag dark line crosses the wing. The hind wings
+of the male are very pale, those of the female darker, with a whitish
+fringe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 156.--THE HEART AND DART.]
+
+The moth flies from June to August, and is common everywhere. The
+caterpillar feeds in the autumn, and reaches its full size in October;
+but it is said to feed at intervals throughout the winter. Its colour is
+dingy brown or grey, with paler lines on the sides. The spiracles are
+black, and there are black dots on the sides.
+
+
+_The Garden Dart_ (_Agrotis nigricans_)
+
+This is another dingy moth, whose general appearance is so unattractive
+that the tyro might be inclined to neglect it. But it must not be
+omitted from our selection on that score, for our main object here is to
+give the beginner an acquaintance with those species that are most
+likely to be captured in the earlier part of his career, and this moth
+is certainly one of those that may be described as 'abundant
+everywhere.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 157.--THE GARDEN DART.]
+
+Its fore wings are dull dark brown, often tinged with red, and clouded
+with black. The reniform spot is pale, the orbicular spot less distinct,
+and between the two there is generally a rhomboidal dark spot. There is
+also a short dark streak near the base of the wing, and a black spot
+before the orbicular. The hind wings are pale, but smoky towards the
+hind margin.
+
+The caterpillar is brown and shining, with a fine pale line on the back,
+and a double white stripe below the spiracles. It is also dotted with
+black. It is exceedingly destructive, feeding on clovers (_Trifolium
+pratense_ and _T. repens_) and various low plants in May and June.
+
+The moth flies from June to August.
+
+
+_The Flame Shoulder_ (_Noctua plecta_)
+
+As our example of the next genus we take the Flame Shoulder, a rather
+small moth, easily identified by the broad yellowish-white streak along
+the costa of the reddish-brown fore wings. The orbicular and reniform
+spots are margined with white, and a thin white streak runs from the
+base of the wing to the former. The hind wings are white. This moth
+flies in July, and is common throughout Great Britain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 158.--THE FLAME SHOULDER.]
+
+The caterpillar is reddish brown, with a slender line of white dots on
+the back, and a similar line on each side. The body is smooth and
+velvety, and is netted and dotted all over with dark brown. It feeds on
+the lady's bedstraw (_Galium verum_), sweet woodruff (_Asperula
+odorata_), and many other low plants; and is full fed early in July.
+
+
+_The Lesser Broad Border_ (_Triphæna ianthina_)
+
+We now come to the third and last genus (_Triphæna_) of this extensive
+family, a genus which includes six interesting moths, with bright orange
+or yellow hind wings. Of these we shall take three examples.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 159.--THE LESSER BROAD BORDER.]
+
+The first of them--the Lesser Broad Border--has fore wings of a rich
+reddish or violet brown, with paler markings. The hind wings are bright
+orange, with a broad marginal band of black.
+
+It is a common moth, particularly in the south-western counties, and
+flies during July and August.
+
+The caterpillar is of a dingy yellowish or greenish grey, with a light
+line down the back, and two black spots on each side of segments nine to
+twelve inclusive. It feeds throughout the winter by night on dead
+nettles (_Lamium purpureum_ and _L. album_), primrose (_Primula
+acaulis_), whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus
+spinosa_), and various low plants; and may sometimes be seen in flower
+gardens. It is full grown in April.
+
+
+_The Lesser Yellow Underwing_ (_Triphæna Comes_)
+
+This insect is very similar to the last, but is larger. The fore wings
+are also of a greyish or ochreous brown, and the black margin of the
+hind wings is proportionately narrower.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 160.--THE LESSER YELLOW UNDERWING.]
+
+It is more abundant than _Ianthina_; in fact it is to be found
+everywhere in plenty during the month of July.
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish brown. On the back of each of the eleventh
+and twelfth segments are two conspicuous dark marks. The spiracles are
+white, and below them is a pale brown stripe. It feeds on the foxglove
+(_Digitalis purpurea_), chickweed (_Stellaria media_), thrift (_Armeria
+maritima_), and other low plants in the autumn, hybernates during the
+winter, and attacks sallows (_Salix Caprea_ and _S. cinerea_) and
+whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_) as soon as the buds appear in the
+spring. It is full grown in April, and then changes to a chrysalis on
+the surface of the earth.
+
+
+_The Large Yellow Underwing_ (_Triphæna Pronuba_)
+
+This is by far the commonest moth of the genus, and may be found
+everywhere, in town and country, from June to August. It is represented
+on Plate XI (fig. 1), but its fore wings are very variable, sometimes a
+cold dingy grey, but often of an exceedingly rich and warm brown. On the
+costal margin, not far from the tip, there is always a small black spot,
+which will serve to distinguish it from _Comes_.
+
+The caterpillar (fig. 21) feeds throughout the winter on the roots of
+almost every plant in our gardens; and, during the warmer weather of the
+autumn and spring, on stems and leaves. It is full grown early in the
+summer, and then changes to a chrysalis in the ground. Its colour is
+dirty yellowish or greenish grey, with a row of dark spots on each
+side.
+
+
+Family--AMPHIPYRIDÆ
+
+_The Gothic_ (_Mania typica_)
+
+The above family contains only four British species, two of which we
+shall briefly consider.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 161.--THE GOTHIC.]
+
+The first of these is the Gothic--a very common moth that may be seen
+everywhere about midsummer. Its fore wings are brown with darker
+marblings, and there are numerous lighter markings which may be easily
+made out by reference to the accompanying woodcut.
+
+The caterpillar is smooth and velvety, of a dull brown or greenish
+colour, with darker dorsal and side stripes. The latter are crossed
+obliquely by a series of whitish lines. It feeds on fruit and other
+trees in clusters when very young in early autumn, and afterwards
+descends and feeds on low plants. It hybernates in the winter, and feeds
+again on low plants in the spring. When full grown it burrows into the
+soil to undergo its changes.
+
+
+_The Old Lady_ (_Mania Maura_)
+
+This fine moth is so very different from the last in appearance that the
+reason for placing the two in the same genus is not apparent till the
+earlier stages and life history have been studied. All its wings are
+very deep brown; the front pair has a darker band containing the
+orbicular and reniform spots, and the hind pair a lighter band across
+the middle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 162.--THE OLD LADY.]
+
+It is a common moth, often to be found at rest by day in outhouses and
+sheds. It flies in July and August.
+
+The caterpillar is dark purple or umber brown, with darker and lighter
+markings. It feeds in the autumn on fruit trees, and hybernates during
+the winter. In the spring it feeds again on low plants, and changes to a
+chrysalis in May under the ground.
+
+
+Family--ORTHOSIIDÆ
+
+This is a large family of over thirty species, most of them of rather
+small size, which make their appearance, with two exceptions, either in
+early spring or in late autumn, often attracted in the former season by
+the sallow blossom, and in the latter by ivy bloom.
+
+Several of them are very common insects, that are almost sure to be
+taken by a young collector during his first season.
+
+The fore wings of these moths are more or less pointed at the tip, and
+the usual lines and spots are generally distinct. The males may be
+distinguished from the females by their antennæ, which are always more
+or less ciliated.
+
+The caterpillars are smooth and velvety, and feed by night; and the pupæ
+are inclosed in cocoons constructed of earth and silk.
+
+
+_The Common Quaker_ (_Tæniocampa stabilis_)
+
+Several of the species of the family are known popularly as Quakers, the
+commonest of which--_Stabilis_--is abundant in all parts.
+
+Its fore wings are grey, with generally either an ochreous or reddish
+tinge. The orbicular and reniform spots are outlined with a paler
+colour, and there is a pale transverse line parallel with the hind
+margin, outside which is a row of indistinct black spots. The hind wings
+are greyish brown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 163.--THE COMMON QUAKER.]
+
+The caterpillar is green and velvety, with a yellowish line on the back
+and on each side; and a yellow band crosses the back of the twelfth
+segment transversely. It feeds during June and July on oak (_Quercus
+Robur_) and elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and changes to a chrysalis in
+August on the surface of the ground. In this state it remains throughout
+the winter, and the moth emerges in March or April.
+
+
+_The Chestnut_ (_Cerastis Vaccinii_)
+
+Unfortunately our space will not allow us to notice the whole of even
+the very common moths, so, passing over a few with great reluctance, we
+come to the familiar Chestnut, which may be seen at large in October and
+November, and sometimes even in December, and again appears, after a
+rather short period of hybernation, in February and March.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 164.--THE CHESTNUT.]
+
+The fore wings are reddish brown, with darker wavy lines. The orbicular
+and reniform spots have pale outlines, and the lower half of the latter
+is very dark grey. The hind wings are smoky grey, with generally a pale
+band beyond the middle.
+
+The caterpillar is dark brown, with very indistinct lighter lines. The
+spiracles are black, and inclosed in a yellowish grey stripe. It feeds
+during June and July on the elm (_Ulmus campestris_), oak (_Quercus
+Robur_), and sallow (_Salix caprea_), and various low plants.
+
+
+_The Pink-barred Sallow_ (_Xanthia Flavago_)
+
+This moth is not nearly so common as the preceding species, but has been
+taken more or less in all parts of England.
+
+Its fore wings are orange yellow, with purplish markings arranged as
+represented in fig. 165. The hind wings are yellowish white.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 165.--THE PINK-BARRED SALLOW.]
+
+The caterpillar is brown, with a lateral stripe formed by numerous red,
+yellow and white dots. It feeds on sallow (_Salix caprea_) and various
+low plants.
+
+It is full grown in June, and the moth appears in September.
+
+
+Family--COSMIIDÆ
+
+_The Dun-bar_ (_Calymnia trapezina_)
+
+Our example of this family is the Dun-bar, common everywhere during July
+and August.
+
+Its fore wings are greyish ochreous, with a darker band across the
+middle. On each side of this band is a white line margined with dark
+grey, and there is a row of black spots along the hind margin. The hind
+wings are smoky brown, becoming paler towards the base.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 166.--THE DUN-BAR.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), hornbeam (_Carpinus
+Betulus_), and birch (_Betula alba_), and may be found in abundance
+during May and June. It is green, with dark spots, and white lines on
+the back and sides. Although it partakes of the leaves of the
+above-named trees, yet its chief food seems to be other caterpillars,
+for it devours these with a savage greediness that is simply
+astonishing. It will chase an unfortunate caterpillar, seize it by the
+neck with a fatal grip, and rapidly devour it. Its chief prey seems to
+be the larva of the Winter Moth (_Brumata_).
+
+
+Family--HADENIDÆ
+
+Nearly fifty British _Noctuæ_ are included in the family _Hadenidæ_.
+They are of variable dimensions, and differ much in the brightness of
+their colours, some being very dingy, and others gaily tinted. Their
+antennæ are rather long; and when at rest the wings slope from the back
+like the sides of a roof.
+
+The larvæ are smooth, and not very thick; and there is sometimes a hump
+on the twelfth segment. The pupæ are brown and shiny, and are inclosed
+in earthen cocoons beneath the surface of the soil.
+
+
+_The Broad-barred White_ (_Hecatera serena_)
+
+Although not gaily coloured, this is a pretty little moth, there being a
+bright contrast between the white ground and the grey markings of the
+wings. It is common in the south of England, and seems to be plentiful
+in and around London.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 167.--THE BROAD-BARRED WHITE.]
+
+The caterpillar is of a dingy greenish colour, with a yellowish stripe
+on each side of the back; and there are two distinct dots on the back of
+each segment. It feeds during July and August on sow-thistles (_Sonchus
+oleraceus_ and _S. arvensis_), sleepwort (_Lactuca virosa_), and
+hawkweeds (_Hieracia_).
+
+The moth flies in June and July.
+
+
+_The Marvel-du-jour_ (_Agriopis Aprilina_)
+
+The Marvel-du-jour is decidedly a beautiful moth--quite an exception
+among the _Noctuæ_ in this respect, and it is withal both common and
+widely distributed. We need not describe it, since it is represented on
+Plate XI (fig. 2), and can hardly be mistaken for any other species.
+
+The caterpillar is dull green, often tinged with red. The dorsal line is
+broad and dark, and interrupted by a series of very light lozenge-shaped
+spots. It feeds on the oak in May and June, and is full grown in the
+latter month. It then burrows into the earth at the foot of the tree,
+and there constructs a fragile earthen cocoon previous to changing to a
+chrysalis.
+
+From July to September the chrysalides may be obtained in plenty by
+breaking up the sods at the roots of oaks, and the perfect insect may be
+found toward the end of September and throughout October.
+
+
+_The Small Angle Shades_ (_Euplexia lucipara_)
+
+This pretty little moth is represented in fig. 3 of Plate XI. It is very
+common throughout the country, and may be seen in June and July.
+
+The caterpillar is thickest on the twelfth segment, and gradually tapers
+from this towards the head. Its colour is pale green, with a white
+stripe just below the spiracles, which are black. On each side of the
+back are a number of oblique lines, which meet in the middle line, thus
+forming a series of V-shaped marks pointing towards the tail. It feeds
+on the common bracken fern (_Pteris aquilina_), foxglove (_Digitalis
+purpurea_), and the male fern (_Lastræa Filix-mas_), in August and
+September.
+
+
+_The Angle Shades_ (_Phlogophora Meticulosa_)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 168.--THE ANGLE SHADES.]
+
+This moth is so common and so widely distributed that it is almost sure
+to be taken by the young collector during his first season. Its wings
+are scalloped on the hind margin, and their colour light ochreous, often
+tinged with pink or olive green, and marked with dark brown as shown in
+the illustration. It is double brooded, the first brood appearing in May
+and June, and the second in September and October.
+
+The caterpillar is green or olive brown, and thickly covered with white
+spots. It feeds on groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_) and many other low
+plants, the first brood throughout the winter from November to April,
+and the second in July and August.
+
+
+_The Grey Arches_ (_Aplecta nebulosa_)
+
+The fore wings of this moth vary from greyish white to a rather dark
+smoky tint. The markings are of a darker colour, and are also subject to
+considerable variation. The orbicular and reniform spots are large, and
+paler than the ground colour; and several zigzag or scalloped lines,
+more or less distinct, cross the wings transversely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 169.--THE GREY ARCHES.]
+
+The larva is brown, with a lighter line down the back. On each of the
+segments five to eleven is a dark lozenge-shaped spot, bisected by the
+dorsal line; and on the second segment is a shining plate and a
+triangular mark. It feeds on the dock (_Rumex_), and various other low
+plants during the autumn; and, after its hybernation, on the leaves of
+the sallow (_Salix Caprea_), birch (_Betula alba_), and whitethorn
+(_Cratægus oxyacantha_). It is full grown in May, when it burrows into
+the ground to undergo its metamorphoses.
+
+The moth flies during June and July, and is common in nearly every part
+of Great Britain. Large numbers may be obtained by searching fences and
+tree trunks about midsummer.
+
+
+_The Shears_ (_Hadena dentina_)
+
+The Shears is another very common moth of the same family. The ground
+colour of the fore wings is very variable, but is generally a lighter or
+darker shade of grey. Sometimes, however, it has a very decided brownish
+tinge. Across the centre of the wing is a darker band, wider on the
+costal side, containing the orbicular and reniform spots, as well as a
+light patch beneath them, and bordered on each side by a pale zigzag
+line. There is another similar line near to and parallel with the hind
+margin. The hind wings are smoky grey or smoky brown, darker towards the
+hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 170.--THE SHEARS.]
+
+The caterpillar is greyish, and has a series of triangular black spots
+along each side of the back. It feeds on the roots of the dandelion
+(_Taraxacum officinale_), and changes to a peculiar spiny chrysalis.
+
+The perfect insect appears to be abundant everywhere, and is on the wing
+in June and July.
+
+
+_The Bright-line Brown-eye_ (_Hadena oleracea_)
+
+Every collector is sure to meet with this insect during his first
+season. The moth is abundant everywhere in June, the caterpillar may be
+found feeding in almost every waste and weedy spot in August and
+September, and the chrysalis is certain to be turned over by the pupa
+digger.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 171.--THE BRIGHT-LINE BROWN-EYE.]
+
+The fore wings of the perfect insect are reddish brown. The orbicular
+spot is usually very indistinct, being of almost exactly the same tint
+as the ground colour, and surrounded by a very fine whitish line. The
+reniform is generally more conspicuous, a portion of it being of a light
+ochreous colour. Near the hind margin, and parallel with it, is a white
+line, bent sharply into the form of a W, just on the anal side of the
+middle.
+
+The hind wings are greyish brown in the base, and dark smoke colour
+towards the margin.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green or brown, dotted with both black and
+white, and adorned with a bright yellow line just below the spiracles.
+It feeds on the nettle (_Urtica dioica_), dock (_Rumex_), and many other
+low plants; and, according to some observers, on the elm (_Ulmus
+campestris_).
+
+
+Family--XYLINIDÆ
+
+The next family--_Xylinidæ_--contains twenty British species, several of
+which are local, but two or three are abundant and widely distributed.
+
+The transverse lines that so often cross the wings of the _Noctuæ_ are
+nearly or entirely absent in this family, and longitudinal lines take
+their place. When the insects are at rest the wings are folded rather
+closely, the outer pair being arranged like a roof with a very gentle
+slope. The bodies of the perfect insects are very stout, particularly in
+the thorax, and thus present a rather powerful appearance.
+
+The larvæ are smooth, and generally brightly coloured, and feed
+principally on low plants. The chrysalides are generally inclosed in
+cocoons on or beneath the ground, and are often provided with spines or
+bristles on the under side.
+
+We shall select two members of this family.
+
+
+_The Early Grey_ (_Xylocampa Areola_)
+
+One of the first of the _Noctuæ_ to greet us in the spring is the Early
+Grey, which may be found resting on fences in April, and, if the season
+is mild, in March.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 172.--THE EARLY GREY.]
+
+Its fore wings are light grey, often tinged with rose pink, and marked
+with dark grey. The orbicular and reniform spots are very distinct, and
+surrounded by a pale line; they are both united at their lower edges.
+Along the hind margin is a series of dark spots. The hind wings are pale
+yellowish grey, with a darker central spot, a central transverse darker
+line, and a darker line along the hind margin.
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish grey. The dorsal line is lighter, and
+passes through a brownish spot on the eighth segment. It feeds on the
+honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_) in July and August, being full
+grown towards the end of the latter month.
+
+
+_The Shark_ (_Cucullia umbratica_)
+
+The Shark is a very common moth, to be found everywhere on palings in
+June, but the colour of its wings so closely resembles that of oak and
+other light-wood fences that detection is not so easy as with most other
+moths.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 173.--THE SHARK.]
+
+The fore wings are grey, and marked with longitudinal dark lines, the
+principal of which is a line from the middle of the base to about the
+centre of the wing. The wing rays are also darker than the ground
+colour. The hind wings are greyish white or brownish grey.
+
+The caterpillar is very dark brown, with orange spots on the back and
+along the spiracles. It feeds on sow-thistles (_Sonchus oleraceus_, _S.
+palustris_, and _S. arvensis_) and sleepwort (_Lactuca virosa_) at night
+from July to September, and hides during the daytime among the leaves
+that lie close against the ground. When disturbed it does not roll into
+a ring or feign death like many others of its kind, but wriggles about
+most vigorously as if to repel its foe.
+
+
+Family--GONOPTERIDÆ
+
+_The Herald Moth_ (_Gonoptera Libatrix_)
+
+The above-mentioned family is so called on account of the angular
+margins of the wings, especially the fore pair. It contains only one
+British species, the Herald (Plate XII, fig. 1), a moth that is common
+everywhere in August and September. It hybernates in the perfect state,
+and the hybernated specimens may be seen in the spring time, from March
+up to the end of May or the beginning of June.
+
+Its fore wings are reddish grey, thickly spotted and streaked with
+brown. Transverse whitish lines divide the base into three parts of
+nearly equal widths. The basal and central divisions are tinged with
+orange; and there is a small white spot in the base close to the thorax,
+also another near the centre of the wing. The hind wings are brownish
+grey.
+
+The caterpillar is green and velvety, with a whitish stripe on the side,
+and yellow spiracles. It feeds on willow (_Salix alba_) and sallow
+(_Salix caprea_); and when full grown, about the end of June, it spins a
+white silken cocoon between leaves of its tree, and changes to a very
+dark chrysalis.
+
+
+Family--PLUSIIDÆ
+
+The most peculiar feature of the moths of this family is the tufts of
+hair that stand up perpendicularly on the top of the thorax. The abdomen
+also is crested, and the fore wings of several species have smooth
+patches that display a brilliant metallic lustre.
+
+Most of the larvæ may be described as semi-loopers, for their claspers
+number only three pairs, and when they walk their backs are considerably
+humped, somewhat after the fashion of the _Geometræ_. Some of them
+further imitate the _Geometræ_ in their position of rest, holding on by
+their claspers only, with body straightened out at an angle with the
+leaf or twig on which they support themselves.
+
+Unlike the majority of the _Noctuæ_, they do not descend to the ground
+when about to change, but spin a silken cocoon among the food plants.
+
+
+_The Burnished Brass_ (_Plusia Chrysitis_)
+
+One of the commonest of the _Plusiidæ_ is the Burnished Brass, so called
+on account of the large patches of bright golden green on the fore
+wings. The hind margin of these wings is very gracefully curved, and
+bordered with brown. A brown blotch fills the base of the wing, and the
+remaining area is of a beautiful metallic greenish yellow, broken by two
+large brown blotches, one on the costal and the other on the inner
+margin, which closely approach each other and sometimes meet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 174.--THE BURNISHED BRASS.]
+
+This moth is very common everywhere, and is one of the frequent visitors
+to our flower gardens from June to August.
+
+The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers from this
+point. Its colour is pale green. It has no longitudinal stripes on the
+back, but each segment is adorned with four or six oblique white marks.
+Just above the spiracles is a white stripe. It feeds on the dead nettle
+(_Lamium album_), stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and burdock
+(_Arctium minus_), and is full grown in June.
+
+
+_The Silver_ Y (_Plusia Gamma_)
+
+Our second example of this family is the Silver Y, which may be found in
+abundance everywhere from June to October. Its fore wings are of a shiny
+grey colour, beautifully marbled with a rich dark brown; and just below
+the orbicular spot is a brilliant silvery spot, in form something like
+the Greek letter [gamma] placed obliquely. The base of the hind wings is
+grey; along the margin is a broad and dark smoky brown band, and the
+fringe is very light grey, barred with the dark tint of the band. This
+moth is commonly driven out of its hiding places among low plants as we
+walk in waste places, and when thus disturbed it takes a short and rapid
+flight, generally disappearing so suddenly among the herbage that it is
+difficult to locate it correctly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 175.--THE SILVER Y.]
+
+The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers gradually
+from this point towards the head. Its body is green, with several thin
+longitudinal white stripes, and a thin yellow stripe along the
+spiracles. It may be found from June to October, feeding on many kinds
+of low plants.
+
+
+Family--EUCLIDIIDÆ
+
+_The Mother Shipton_ (_Euclidia Mi_)
+
+Passing over a few small and less important families, we come to the
+_Euclidiidæ_, which contains only two British moths. One of these is the
+Mother Shipton, a very common insect that flies in June.
+
+The fore wings of this species are very dark brown with whitish
+markings. The latter include a peculiarly tortuous line, the character
+of which will be made out more easily from our illustration (Plate XI,
+fig. 4) than from a written description. The hind wings are also very
+dark brown, and rather prettily spotted with an ochreous tint.
+
+The caterpillar is pale grey, with four white stripes, and has only
+three pairs of claspers. It feeds in May on clovers (_Trifolium
+pratense_ and _T. repens_) and other plants.
+
+
+Family--CATOCALIDÆ
+
+This family contains only four British species, but these few are very
+striking moths. They are of large size; and, unlike the _Noctuæ_
+generally, the chief adornment is reserved for the under wings. When at
+rest, the outer or fore wings completely hide the other pair, and then
+their general appearance is dull, though if closely examined it will be
+observed that these outer wings are really beautifully marbled with
+shades of grey.
+
+The caterpillars of this family are very peculiar creatures. Their
+bodies are convex above and flattened beneath; and if disturbed as they
+rest on the bark of a tree, instead of leaving their hold and rolling
+into a ring like so many other larvæ of _Noctuæ_, they apply themselves
+the closer, and hold on as if to defy our attempts to remove them.
+Another peculiarity of these larvæ is the possession of fleshy
+projections along the sides, just above the legs. They feed on the
+leaves of trees, and when about to rest they descend to the trunk, and
+there remain protected by their imitative colouring, detection being
+rendered even more difficult by the close application of their flattened
+under surface to the bark. Before changing to the chrysalis state, they
+spin a light cocoon among the leaves or on the bark.
+
+
+_The Clifden Nonpareil_ (_Catocala Fraxini_)
+
+This is the largest of the family, and, indeed, of all British _Noctuæ_.
+The fore wings and thorax are light grey, dotted and marbled with darker
+grey (see fig. 5, Plate XI); and the thorax and abdomen are banded with
+black and greyish blue.
+
+The young entomologist can hardly expect to meet with this fine insect,
+for it is very rare, and it is only occasionally that a specimen is seen
+in Britain; but its characteristics are so striking that we have
+endeavoured to find it a place here. Reputed British specimens of
+_Fraxini_ command the price of a few pounds each, but specimens from the
+other side of the Channel may be obtained for a few pence. With such
+rarities we should advise a young entomologist to purchase the foreign
+specimen rather than adopt the two other alternatives--give an
+exorbitant price for a supposed Britisher, or else remain a stranger to
+the gem, but all foreign specimens should be labelled according to their
+nationalities.
+
+
+_The Red Underwing_ (_Catocala Nupta_)
+
+The other three members of the family are very similar in appearance,
+the fore wings of all being marbled with shades of grey, relieved by
+touches of black and brown; and the hind wings, red or crimson, give the
+popular names to the species.
+
+The Red Underwing flies in August and September, and is common in the
+southern counties of England, as well as in some of the midland
+counties; it may be often seen flying by day around willows.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 176.--THE RED UNDERWING.]
+
+The caterpillar is similar in form to that of _Fraxini_, and when at
+rest by day on the bark of its tree it is very difficult to detect, so
+closely does it apply itself to the surface, and so perfectly does it
+imitate the colour of its surroundings. It feeds on the crack willow
+(_Salix fragilis_), sallow (_S. alba_), poplar (_Populus_), and plum
+(_Prunus_), and is full grown in June.
+
+
+_The Dark Crimson Underwing_ (_Catocala Sponsa_)
+
+This beautiful insect is represented on Plate XI (fig. 6). It will be
+observed that the black band crossing the centre of the hind wing is
+rather broad and sharply bent--an important feature, since it is the
+most serviceable distinguishing mark between this species and the Light
+Crimson Underwing (_C. Promissa_).
+
+The caterpillar is similar in form and habits to those of _Fraxini_ and
+_Nupta_, and feeds on the oak. It is full fed about the beginning of
+June, when it changes to a chrysalis between leaves which it has spun
+together with silk.
+
+The moth flies in July and August, and is common only in certain oak
+woods of the southern counties. It is particularly abundant in the New
+Forest, where scores may be taken in a single night by judicious
+sugaring.
+
+There yet remain a few small families of the _Noctuæ_, but we must leave
+them in order that we may give a proportionate share of our space to the
+other great division of the larger moths--the _Geometræ_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+_GEOMETRÆ_
+
+
+We have already referred (page 28) to caterpillars that walk by a
+series of strides, alternately looping and extending their long and
+slender bodies. It is this peculiar characteristic of the larvæ of
+the present division that suggested the name _Geometræ_--a term that
+signifies 'earth-measurers,' for they appear to measure the ground
+over which they travel in terms of their own length. We have also
+dealt with the peculiarities of structure in the case of these
+caterpillars--peculiarities which adapt them to this mode of
+progression; and we have now to make a selection from the various
+families of this important division for a more detailed description.
+
+The _Geometræ_ include nearly three hundred species and sixteen
+families. The moths have slender bodies and full wings, and generally
+rest with the latter outspread. A few, however, repose with wings erect
+like the butterflies, and a small number conceal their hind wings after
+the manner of the _Noctuæ_.
+
+
+Family--UROPTERYGIDÆ
+
+_The Swallow Tail_ (_Uropteryx sambucaria_)
+
+Our first family--_Uropterygidæ_--has only one British representative,
+and that is the well-known Swallow Tail, so common in gardens and among
+hedgerows in the south of England. This species is shown on Plate XII
+(fig. 2), and the insect is so readily identified by the conspicuous
+'tails' on the hind wings that no written description will be necessary.
+
+The caterpillar is a most peculiar and interesting creature. Its colour
+is very variable, being either brown, olive, ochreous, or reddish; and
+it is notched or humped in such a manner that it exactly resembles a
+twig. This strange imitation is rendered still more remarkable by the
+attitude assumed by the caterpillar when at rest. It fixes itself to a
+twig by means of its two pairs of claspers, with its body standing out
+at an angle in a perfectly straight posture; but its head is always
+supported by means of a very slender and almost invisible silk fibre. It
+feeds on a number of plants and trees, including elder (_Sambucus
+nigra_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), whitethorn (_Cratægus
+oxyacantha_), bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_), honeysuckle (_Lonicera
+Periclymenum_), and forget-me-not (_Myosotis arvensis_). It may be found
+feeding in the autumn, or hybernating in the crevices of the bark of
+trees in winter. In April or May it comes out again; and in June, in
+which month it is full grown, it binds together some fragments of
+leaves, and forms them into a little swinging hammock in which it
+changes to a brown chrysalis spotted with black.
+
+Just at this time it seems to be particularly sensitive. In the
+caterpillar state it will strongly resent any kind of disturbance, and
+will give a blow to an intruder by suddenly swaying its body right and
+left; and while in its hammock a gentle irritation, such as a puff of
+wind from the mouth, will set it wriggling in a furious manner.
+
+
+Family--ENNOMIDÆ
+
+This family contains about twenty species, several of which rank among
+the commonest as well as the most beautiful of the _Geometræ_. Their
+wings are more or less angulated; and the antennæ are generally
+pectinated in the males.
+
+The larvæ are generally humped and twig-like; and, as in the last
+species, the semblance is increased by the position they assume when at
+rest. The number of limbs varies from ten to fourteen, but where the
+claspers exceed two pairs, the additional two or four, as the case may
+be, are seldom used in walking.
+
+
+_The Brimstone Moth_ (_Rumia luteolata_)
+
+As soon as the warm evenings of May set in, this lively and bright
+little moth may be seen flitting about among our hedges at sunset; and
+it continues with us throughout the whole of the summer, but is
+particularly plentiful during the month of June.
+
+The moth itself need not be described, since it is shown on Plate XII
+(fig. 3); but the caterpillar (fig. 25) must receive a passing notice.
+It varies considerably in colour, being either green, brown, or marbled
+with a mixture of shades of both these colours. It has a hump on the
+back of the seventh segment, and two more on the ninth, and possesses
+four pairs of claspers. It feeds on whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_),
+blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and the apple (_Pyrus Malus_), and may be
+found on these trees throughout the summer.
+
+Some believe that there are three successive broods of this insect each
+year, but it is doubtful whether this is invariably the rule, since both
+the moth and its larva are to be found without intermission throughout
+the season.
+
+
+_The Light Emerald_ (_Metrocampa margaritaria_)
+
+All the wings of this moth are very pale green, and crossed with a white
+band which is bordered with a darker green on the inner side. The fore
+wings have an additional transverse line just halfway between the former
+and the base, but this one is not so distinct. It flies in July, and is
+very widely distributed, and in some parts is very abundant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 177.--THE LIGHT EMERALD.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds in September, and again in May, after hybernation,
+on several of our forest trees, including the oak (_Quercus Robur_), elm
+(_Ulmus campestris_), birch (_Betula alba_), and beech (_Fagus
+sylvatica_). It is of a dingy olive colour, with a dark dorsal line, on
+each side of which is a row of white spots; and it has three pairs of
+claspers.
+
+
+_The Scalloped Oak_ (_Crocallis elinguaria_)
+
+This species is common and widely distributed, and may be seen flying at
+dusk towards the end of July and throughout August. It is represented in
+fig. 4 of Plate XII. The antennæ of the male are strongly pectinated;
+those of the female are simple.
+
+The caterpillar may be found in the autumn, and again in spring, feeding
+on the honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_), whitethorn (_Cratægus
+oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), beech (_Fagus sylvatica_),
+and various fruit trees. It is full grown in June, when it turns to a
+chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves or moss on or near the ground.
+It is of a greyish-brown or greyish-purple colour, and looks very like a
+piece of twig.
+
+
+_The August Thorn_ (_Eugonia quercinaria_)
+
+Our last example of this family is the August Thorn, represented in the
+accompanying woodcut. The fore wings are ochreous yellow, crossed by two
+nearly parallel lines of dark brown. In order to distinguish between
+this and one or two similar species it must be observed that both these
+lines are angulated near the costa, the inner one very sharply so; and
+between the two is a distinct brown spot near the costal margin. The
+hind wings are paler, and are crossed by an indistinct darker line. The
+antennæ of the male are strongly fringed; those of the female are
+simple.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 178.--THE AUGUST THORN.]
+
+The moth is very common in August and September, and is readily
+attracted by lights in the evening.
+
+The larva is grey, marbled with reddish brown. It has three small humps
+on each of the sixth and seventh segments, two on the twelfth, and one
+larger one on the ninth. It feeds on the oak and various other trees
+during the month of June.
+
+
+Family--AMPHIDASYDÆ
+
+The seven British species of the family _Amphidasydæ_ are generally to
+be distinguished by their rather stout abdomens, and the long shaggy
+hair that covers their thoraces. The antennæ of the males are
+pectinated, and those of the females simple; and in three cases the
+latter sex is wingless.
+
+The caterpillars have long and slender twig-like bodies, and are never
+provided with more than two pairs of claspers. The chrysalides terminate
+behind in a sharp spine, and are always to be found buried in the soil.
+
+
+_The Brindled Beauty_ (_Biston hirtaria_)
+
+Early in April, and sometimes in March, this moth may be seen in
+abundance, resting on the lime trees in and around our towns. In fact,
+so strongly marked is its partiality to the haunts of man in the
+neighbourhood of our great metropolis that it has received the name of
+the Cockney. The male is represented in fig. 5 of Plate XII, and the
+female may be distinguished from it by her simple antennæ and larger
+body.
+
+The caterpillar is coloured with alternate bands of dark purple brown
+and reddish brown. There is a yellow band on the front of the second
+segment, a row of yellow spots on each side, and two little bright
+yellow warts on the back of each segment. It feeds by night on lime
+(_Tilia vulgaris_), elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and various fruit trees,
+and often appears in such numbers that the foliage is almost completely
+devoured. During the daytime it may be seen resting on the bark, almost
+invariably fixed longitudinally on the trunk, where it looks like a
+natural ridge of the bark which it so closely resembles in colour. It
+may be found in June and July, and in August it changes to a chrysalis
+at the foot of its tree, just below the surface of the soil.
+
+
+_The Peppered Moth_ (_Amphidasys betularia_)
+
+Although this common species displays no bright tints, yet it is
+prettily marked, its whitish wings being peppered and blotched all over
+with black or very dark brown. It flies in May and June, later than any
+other species of the family, and may generally be found on fences and
+tree trunks during the day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 179.--THE PEPPERED MOTH.]
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is very variable--drab, grey, green, or
+brown; but it may be known by the deep notch in the middle of the head,
+and the arrangement of its 'humps.' These latter are only small reddish
+or whitish projections, of which there is one on each side of the fifth,
+sixth, seventh, eighth, tenth, and eleventh segments; also two on the
+back of the ninth and twelfth. It feeds in August and September on a
+large number of trees, including, in fact, nearly all our commonest
+forest and fruit trees. In September it enters the soil to undergo its
+change to the chrysalis.
+
+
+Family--BOARMIIDÆ
+
+In the next family--_Boarmiidæ_--there are about twenty British members,
+most of which are very pretty moths. They differ generally from the last
+family in that their bodies are more slender, and although some of them
+bear a resemblance to species of the family _Ennomidæ_, their wings are
+not angulated. In several cases the fore and hind wings are both
+similarly marked, a feature very uncommon with moths.
+
+The caterpillars of this family usually have humps on the sixth and
+twelfth segments only, and have two pairs of claspers. The pupæ are to
+be found either on the ground, among leaves or moss, or beneath the
+soil.
+
+
+_The Waved Umber_ (_Hemerophila abruptaria_)
+
+The most gaily coloured member of this family is the Waved Umber, shown
+in fig. 6 of Plate XII. Like many other _Geometræ_, it rests on fences
+and tree trunks by day with wings expanded so that all four are
+displayed. It is on the wing in May and early June, and again in August,
+and often frequents our gardens at dusk.
+
+The caterpillar is very dark brown, with a white collar on the front of
+the second segment. It feeds in June and July on privet (_Ligustrum
+vulgare_) and the cultivated rose trees of flower gardens, and probably
+also on the dog rose (_Rosa canina_). When full grown it spins a silken
+cocoon in a fork of one of the twigs, and there undergoes its
+metamorphoses.
+
+
+_The Willow Beauty_ (_Boarmia gemmaria_)
+
+Our second example of the _Boarmiidæ_ is the Willow Beauty, the male of
+which species is here illustrated. Its wings are brownish grey, marked
+with dark brown lines and streaks. The female is generally larger than
+the male, and has simple antennæ. The moth is abundant throughout
+England, and may be seen generally resting on fences and trees in June
+and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 180.--THE WILLOW BEAUTY.]
+
+The ground colour of the caterpillar is much the same as that of the
+moth, and is marked with a similar darker tint. It has a yellowish line
+along the spiracles, and is much like a piece of brownish twig. It feeds
+on the oak (_Quercus Robur_), Birch (_Betula alba_), ivy (_Hedera
+Helix_), and other trees, and may be found in September and October.
+
+
+Family--GEOMETRIDÆ
+
+The next family contains eight moths, mostly of small size, all of which
+have green wings, and are popularly known as the 'Emeralds.' In most
+cases the male may be distinguished by its pectinated antennæ.
+
+There is no general characteristic by which we may know all the larvæ,
+but some have the head deeply notched.
+
+
+_The Large Emerald_ (_Geometra papilionaria_)
+
+This species is the largest of the family, and measures over two inches
+when its wings are expanded. The colour is dull green, with whitish
+bands and spots, the arrangement of which may be seen in our engraving.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 181.--THE LARGE EMERALD.]
+
+The moth is out in July, and is common in most parts of England.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on birch (_Betula alba_), beech (_Fagus
+sylvatica_) and hazel (_Corylus avellana_) in the autumn, and hybernates
+while still young. In the spring it feeds again, and is full grown in
+June, when it changes to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves.
+
+
+_The Common Emerald_ (_Hemithea strigata_)
+
+One of the commonest of the Emeralds is _Strigata_, which may be found
+in June and July in all parts of England, as well as in some localities
+in Scotland and Ireland. Its wings are of a dull green colour, the front
+pair being slightly scalloped on the hind margin, and crossed by
+indistinct pale lines; and the hind pair are both scalloped and angled
+and crossed in the middle by a transverse pale line. The fringe is
+white, dotted with dull reddish brown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 182.--THE COMMON EMERALD.]
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish green, except the second, third, and fourth
+segments which are brownish. It feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_) and
+whitethorn (_Cratægus oxyacantha_), and may be found in June.
+
+
+Family--EPHYRIDÆ
+
+_The Maiden's Blush_ (_Zonosoma punctaria_)
+
+The family _Ephyridæ_ contains only six British species, chiefly
+remarkable for the fact that their pupæ generally resemble those of
+butterflies.
+
+We choose for our example the pretty little Maiden's Blush, so called on
+account of the soft reddish patch on the middle of each fore wing. It is
+represented in fig. 7 of Plate XII. It is moderately common, occurring
+more or less in all parts of England, as well as certain localities in
+the sister countries. It is a double-brooded moth, and may be caught in
+May and August.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), from which it may be
+obtained by beating both in June and September. It is either green or
+tawny yellow, marked with yellow oblique lines on the sides.
+
+
+Family--ACIDALIIDÆ
+
+The moths of this family, over thirty in number, are mostly of small
+size, and have slender bodies. As a rule the wings are not in the least
+angulated or scalloped, but in a few species the hind pair are slightly
+angled on the hind margin; and both fore and hind wings are similarly
+marked. The antennæ are simple in the females, and generally only
+slightly ciliated in the males.
+
+The caterpillars are long and slender, without projections, and feed
+principally on low plants. The pupæ are to be found in loose cocoons
+among the leaves of the food plants or under the soil.
+
+We shall briefly notice three members of this rather extensive family.
+
+
+_The Lace Border_ (_Acidalia ornata_)
+
+The wings of this moth are silvery white, marked along the hind margin
+with a beautiful lace-like border. This border consists of delicate
+black and dark grey lines, and includes, in the fore wing, two light
+brown blotches, one near the middle and the other in the anal angle. It
+is abundant in England, particularly in chalky districts, but does not
+seem to extend into Scotland. It may be seen on the wing from June to
+August.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 183.--THE LACE BORDER.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_) and marjoram
+(_Origanum vulgare_).
+
+
+_The Riband Wave_ (_A. aversata_)
+
+All the wings of this species are of a pale yellowish or ochreous grey.
+The fore wings are crossed by three transverse dark lines, and the hind
+wings by two. The space between the two outer lines of the fore wing and
+that between the lines of the hind wing are usually filled in with a
+greyish brown, thus forming the 'riband' from which the popular name of
+the insect is derived; and when this is the case the lines which border
+the riband are scarcely distinguishable. Just inside the second line of
+the fore wings, near the costa, is a small but conspicuous brown spot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 184.--THE RIBAND WAVE.]
+
+The moth flies in June and July, and is common in all parts.
+
+The caterpillar is dark brown except segments ten to thirteen, which are
+grey. The line along the spiracles is whitish, and the surface of the
+body is roughened by a number of minute warts. It feeds on various low
+plants, including the meadow sweet (_Spiræa ulmaria_), water avens
+(_Geum rivale_), common avens (_G. urbanum_), and knot-grass (_Polygonum
+aviculare_), during April and May.
+
+
+_The Blood-vein_ (_Timandra amataria_)
+
+Our last example of the _Acidaliidæ_ is the Blood-vein, which is common
+in most parts of England in June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 185.--THE BLOOD-VEIN.]
+
+Its fore wings are pale grey, dusted with darker grey, and crossed by an
+oblique red streak which runs from the tip of the fore wing to near the
+inner margin of the hind wing. A slender dark and wavy line lies outside
+this one, parallel with it in the hind wing, but meeting it near the tip
+of the fore wing.
+
+The caterpillar is grey, with three white longitudinal stripes. It feeds
+in the autumn on dock (_Rumex_), sorrel (_R. acetosa_), and knot-grass
+(_Polygonum aviculare_).
+
+
+Family--CABERIDÆ
+
+Six species, all of rather small size, constitute the British portion of
+the above family. Their wings are mostly white or pale grey, with light
+markings, and without angles. The moths are to be caught with the net
+at dusk, or they may be seen on fences and tree trunks during the day,
+with their wings fully extended and applied closely to the surface on
+which they rest.
+
+The larvæ, which have no humps, feed on trees, and change to the
+chrysalis state in light silken cocoons.
+
+
+_The Common Wave_ (_Cabera exanthemata_)
+
+The first of our two examples of this small family is the Common Wave,
+the wings of which are pale grey, almost white, dusted all over with
+small dark dots. The fore wings are crossed by three parallel and
+equidistant darker transverse lines, and the hind pair by two. The male
+may be distinguished by its ciliated antennæ.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 186.--THE COMMON WAVE.]
+
+The caterpillar is yellow or greenish yellow, with hinder segments
+slightly swollen. It feeds during the latter part of the summer on
+sallows (_Salix caprea_ and _S. cinerea_) and alder (_Alnus glutinosa_),
+and changes to a chrysalis in a light cocoon among fallen leaves. In
+this state it spends the winter, the perfect insect emerging in May or
+June.
+
+This species is very abundant in most parts.
+
+
+_The Clouded Silver_ (_Bapta temerata_)
+
+The other example is the Clouded Silver, the wings of which are white,
+and clouded along the hind margin with smoky grey. On the hind margin of
+the fore wings, close to the fringe, is a row of black crescent-shaped
+spots; and on the inner side of the cloudings is a waved transverse
+band. In the centre of the same wings there is a very distinct dark
+spot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 187.--THE CLOUDED SILVER.]
+
+This moth is not so common as the last, but is widely distributed. It
+flies in May and June.
+
+The caterpillar is bright green on the upper side, and has a row of
+orange spots, bordered with brown, down the middle of the back. It feeds
+in the autumn on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_) and the wild cherry
+(_P. Avium_), and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, inclosed in
+a light silken cocoon.
+
+
+Family--MACARIIDÆ
+
+_The_ V _Moth_ (_Halia Vauaria_)
+
+The family _Macariidæ_ contains only five British species, four of which
+have the tip of the fore wings extended more or less into an angle, and
+the hind wings are also angled to a greater or less extent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 188.--THE V MOTH.]
+
+Our only example is the V Moth, so called from the conspicuous V-shaped
+blackish mark on the middle of the costa of the fore wings. The ground
+colour of all the wings is grey, with a delicate violet tinge. There are
+other dark markings in addition to the one mentioned above, and the
+arrangement of these may be seen in the woodcut.
+
+This species is very common in all parts, and flies at about midsummer.
+
+The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally green, and
+is marked with longitudinal wavy lines. On each side is a series of
+yellow blotches, forming a broken lateral stripe, and the body is
+covered with minute black bristle-bearing warts. It feeds in May on
+gooseberry and currant bushes, and changes to a chrysalis in a web
+between the leaves.
+
+
+Family--FIDONIIDÆ
+
+We now come to a family of moths peculiar for their habit of flying more
+or less by day. As is often the case with day-flying moths, these are
+mostly prettily marked, and are consequently often mistaken by the
+uninitiated for butterflies. Most of them are to be found on heaths,
+downs, and open fields; but one--the Bordered White--is met with only in
+fir woods.
+
+The wings are not angulated, and the antennæ of the males are
+pectinated.
+
+The larvæ are generally to be distinguished by a couple of little horns
+on one or more of the hindermost segments, and in most cases they pupate
+beneath the surface of the soil.
+
+
+_The Common Heath_ (_Ematurga atomaria_)
+
+Of this family we shall select two examples, the first of which is the
+Common Heath, often so abundant on heaths and downs that they are
+disturbed at almost every footstep.
+
+The ground colour of the wings of the male is a dull yellowish grey, and
+that of the female greyish white. In both cases the wings are crossed by
+irregular dark brown bands. The fringe is barred alternately with white
+and dark brown, and the whole of the ground tint between the
+above-mentioned bands is thickly dotted with dark brown. The female is
+generally smaller than the male.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 189.--THE COMMON HEATH.]
+
+The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally reddish
+brown, ochreous brown, or greenish, with a light line along the
+spiracles, and a series of lozenge-shaped spots on the back. It feeds on
+trefoils (_Lotus corniculatus_ and _L. pilosus_) and various other
+plants that grow on heaths.
+
+
+_The Bordered White_ (_Bupalus piniaria_)
+
+The male of this species is boldly marked with yellowish white and dark
+brown, the arrangement of the two colours being shown in fig. 190. The
+female is very different in general appearance. Her wings are of an
+almost uniform orange or yellowish-brown tint. The fore wings are darker
+near the tip, and there is generally a darker transverse band across the
+centre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 190.--THE BORDERED WHITE--MALE.]
+
+The male may often be seen flying in the sunshine among the branches of
+fir trees during May and June, but his mate is rather less active, and
+is generally to be secured by beating the branches.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, with whitish stripes and yellow
+spiracles. It feeds during August and September on the leaves of the
+Scotch fir (_Pinus sylvestris_).
+
+
+Family--ZERENIDÆ
+
+_The Currant Moth_ (_Abraxas grossulariata_)
+
+The family _Zerenidæ_ contains only four British moths, and of these we
+select the Currant Moth or Magpie. This insect is exceedingly common
+everywhere, and on account of its general brightness of appearance, and
+also of its diurnal habits, it is often taken for a butterfly. The
+ground colour of the wings is creamy white, with a yellow transverse
+band, and a yellow blotch at the base; and the whole surface is more or
+less blotched with black.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 191.--THE CURRANT MOTH.]
+
+From the end of June to August this moth may be seen in abundance in our
+gardens, wherever currant bushes exist, flying about both during the
+sunshine and at dusk, with rather a heavy movement.
+
+The caterpillar is white, with a yellow line along the spiracles, and
+numerous black dots. There are, in addition to the dots, two large black
+blotches on the back of each segment. It feeds during May on currant and
+gooseberry bushes, also on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_). About the
+end of May it spins a light silken cocoon, and changes to a short dumpy
+chrysalis of a glossy black colour with bright yellow bands (fig. 34).
+
+
+Family--HYBERNIIDÆ
+
+Passing over the family _Ligiidæ_, which contains only one British moth,
+the Horse-chestnut, we come to the small but interesting family,
+_Hyberniidæ_.
+
+Of this we have six species, five of which favour us during the bleakest
+months of the year. Two of them visit us in October and November, and
+even remain with us up to Christmas. The others follow closely on them,
+and may be seen from January to March.
+
+The males have slender bodies, and their wings are full and without
+angles; but the females are either perfectly or nearly wingless. In
+three cases there is hardly a trace of wings in this sex, so that they
+look more like spiders than moths.
+
+The caterpillars are long and slender and without humps, and all feed on
+the leaves of trees. They change to the chrysalis state under the
+ground.
+
+
+_The Spring Usher_ (_Hybernia leucophæaria_)
+
+Early in February, and often even in January, this moth may be seen in
+abundance in almost every oak wood, sitting on the bark of the trees,
+or occasionally taking a short flight in the sunshine. In colour it is
+very variable. The wings have always a whitish ground marbled and dotted
+with dark brown, but in some the fore wings are almost entirely dark
+brown with the exception of a transverse central bar. The female has
+only the slightest rudiments of wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 192.--THE SPRING USHER.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the young buds and leaves of the oak (_Quercus
+Robur_) and sycamore (_Acer Pseudoplatanus_), concealing itself among
+the small leaves which it has spun together. It is full grown in June,
+when it changes to a chrysalis on the surface of the ground, and remains
+here throughout the summer and part of the following winter.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is very variable, but is usually pale
+green with white markings.
+
+
+_The Mottled Umber_ (_Hybernia defoliaria_)
+
+This very pretty moth is represented in fig. 8 of Plate XII. It is very
+common in most parts, and visits us at the fall of the leaf, generally
+appearing in October, and remaining on the wing till November. Our
+illustration gives the usual appearance of the male, but in some
+specimens the four wings are all of one uniform reddish-brown colour,
+evenly dotted all over with a darker tint. The female is quite wingless.
+
+The caterpillar is exceedingly pretty. Its head is large and brown. The
+back is brown, bordered with a fine black line. Below this is a broad
+and bright yellow line, with a red spot on each segment. The spiracles
+are white. It feeds during spring on oak (_Quercus Robur_), whitethorn
+(_Cratægus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and other trees.
+When disturbed it always allows itself to fall for a foot or two, and
+then remains swinging at the end of a silken fibre till danger is over,
+or hunger recalls it to its food. It changes to a chrysalis on the
+ground about the middle of June.
+
+
+_The March Moth_ (_Anisopteryx æscularia_)
+
+This is another common moth, and should be looked for during March and
+April on the barks of trees in oak and other woods. The fore wings are
+of a dingy brown colour, paler near the base, and crossed by a pale wavy
+line. The hind wings are lighter, with a central dark spot. But this
+description applies to the male only, for the female is wingless, and
+may be known by the tuft of hair that tips the abdomen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 193.--THE MARCH MOTH.]
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, clouded with a darker tint, and has a
+white line on each side of the back. It feeds in May on the three trees
+named for the last species, also on lime (_Tilia vulgaris_) and elm
+(_Ulmus campestris_).
+
+
+Family--LARENTIIDÆ
+
+This is by far the most extensive family of the _Geometræ_, containing
+as it does considerably over a hundred species, or well nigh a half of
+the whole group.
+
+The wings of the various species are smooth and more or less glossy, and
+the front pair are generally crossed by several wavy lines. Many of the
+moths, and particularly those known popularly as the Pugs, are very
+small. Representatives of the family are to be met with almost
+throughout the year--from early spring to the middle of the winter.
+
+Most of the caterpillars are rather long and slender, and without humps;
+and green is the prevailing colour. They feed either on trees or low
+plants, often protecting themselves in folded leaves; and some of the
+smaller species show a decided preference for flowers and seeds.
+
+We shall select about a dozen of the commonest members for individual
+description.
+
+
+_The November Moth_ (_Oporabia dilutata_)
+
+Our first example is the November moth--a rather dingy and very variable
+species that may be found almost everywhere in October and November. The
+ground colour of the fore wings is dingy grey, crossed by several darker
+lines, subject to considerable variations. The hind wings are paler,
+with two slender darker lines parallel with the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 194.--THE NOVEMBER MOTH.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on many trees, the principal of which are the oak,
+whitethorn and blackthorn. Like the perfect insect, it is very variable
+in colour, but is generally of a bright green, with reddish or purplish
+spots on the back and sides. The spiracles are yellow or orange, and
+below them is a white stripe. It is full fed in June.
+
+
+_The Twin-spot Carpet_ (_Larentia didymata_)
+
+The Twin-spot Carpet is common throughout Great Britain, and the
+beginner is likely to meet with it in June and July during his first
+season. Our illustration represents the male, the fore wings of which
+are greyish brown, crossed by several dark lines, and with a double dark
+and conspicuous spot near the middle of the hind margin. The female is
+much lighter, and the markings are also lighter and less distinct.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 195.--THE TWIN-SPOT CARPET.]
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, with a narrow whitish line along the
+spiracles. It feeds in April and May on the leaves of the wood anemone
+(_Anemone nemorosa_), chervil (_Chærophyllum temulum_), and other
+plants.
+
+
+_The Grass Rivulet_ (_Emmelesia albulata_)
+
+We represent the genus _Emmelesia_ by the Grass Rivulet--a pretty little
+moth that flies in June, and which is widely distributed though not
+abundant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 196.--THE GRASS RIVULET.]
+
+Its fore wings are pale grey, crossed by several white lines, the
+arrangement of which may be seen in our engraving. The hind wings are of
+the same ground colour, but have no markings except a white wavy line
+near the hind margin.
+
+The caterpillar feeds during July and August on the seeds of the yellow
+rattle (_Rhinanthus Crista-galli_), protecting itself from its enemies
+by spinning together the petals of the flowers; and when full grown it
+changes to a chrysalis under the same cover.
+
+
+_The Netted Pug_ (_Eupithecia venosata_)
+
+We now come to the enormous genus _Eupithecia_, containing about fifty
+small species, most of which are known as 'Pugs.' Many of these are
+only imperfectly known, there being yet much to learn about their
+earlier stages.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 197.--THE NETTED PUG.]
+
+The Netted Pug flies in May and June, and is to be found in most parts
+of Great Britain. Its fore wings are brownish grey, crossed by two
+zigzag light bands, both of which are bordered with black, and divided
+throughout by a fine dark line. There are also other dark lines, both
+transverse and longitudinal, arranged as here represented.
+
+The caterpillar feeds during July inside the seed capsules of campions
+(_Silene Cucubalis_, _S. maritima_, _S. acaulis_, and _Lychnis diurna_)
+and catchfly (_Silene gallica_ and _S. nutans_).
+
+
+_The Narrow-winged Pug_ (_Eupithecia nanata_)
+
+Early in May, and frequently in April, this pretty little moth may be
+seen flying about at dusk among the heather on our moors. It is one of
+the first Pugs of the season, and is widely distributed, and very common
+in some localities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 198.--THE NARROW-WINGED PUG.]
+
+Its wings are dark grey, and marked with several transverse wavy light
+lines. The fringe is dark grey, spotted with white.
+
+The caterpillar feeds during August and September on the ling (_Calluna
+vulgaris_) and heath (_Erica cinerea_ and _E. Tetralix_).
+
+
+_The Brindled Pug_ (_Eupithecia abbreviata_)
+
+Our last example of the Pugs is the Brindled Pug, another early species,
+appearing on the wing in March and April. It is common in most parts,
+and may generally be easily obtained by searching fences and tree
+trunks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 199.--THE BRINDLED PUG.]
+
+Its fore wings are very long in proportion. The colour is yellowish
+brown, crossed by darker lines. The fore wings have a very broad band of
+the ground colour, broken by two short lines, and crossed by a slender
+angulated stripe.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the oak in June.
+
+
+_The Small Seraphim_ (_Lobophora sexalisata_)
+
+This moth is very much like the Pugs in general appearance, and is quite
+as small and even smaller than some of them; but it and the other
+members of its genus differ from the Pugs in that they cover their hind
+wings when at rest.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 200.--THE SMALL SERAPHIM.]
+
+The fore wings are yellowish or pale brownish grey with four paler
+transverse lines, the two median ones of which are divided throughout by
+a darker fine wavy line. The hind wings are grey, paler at the base, and
+crossed centrally by a double darker line. This species flies in May and
+June, and though apparently widely distributed, can hardly be described
+as common.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the white willow (_Salix alba_) and sallow (_S.
+caprea_) in August and September; and the chrysalis may be found in a
+silken cocoon among the fallen leaves throughout the winter.
+
+
+_The Blue-bordered Carpet_ (_Melanthia bicolorata_)
+
+This same family (_Larentiidæ_) is remarkable for its large number of
+pretty moths, popularly known as the 'Carpets,' many of which are
+exceedingly common in our woods and gardens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 201.--THE BLUE-BORDERED CARPET.]
+
+Our first example of these is the Blue-bordered, which is pretty well
+represented in several counties of Great Britain and Ireland. Its white
+fore wings are boldly marked with a blotch of greyish brown at the base,
+and another extending from the middle of the costal margin more than
+halfway across. The hind margin is marked with two bluish grey bars,
+separated by a white line. The hind wings are white, with a very small
+dark spot, and a bluish grey margin something like that of the fore
+wings.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with longitudinal stripes of a darker and
+lighter shade. It feeds in June on the alder (_Alnus glutinosa_) and
+blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_); and when full grown it changes to a brown
+chrysalis within a light silken web.
+
+The moth flies in July and August.
+
+
+_The Beautiful Carpet_ (_Melanthia albicillata_)
+
+The Beautiful Carpet belongs to the same genus as _Bicolorata_. Its
+wings are of a rich creamy white, clouded with grey along the hind
+margin. The basal blotches of the fore wings are large, of a dark brown
+colour, and marbled with a light tint. Near the tips of these wings is
+another conspicuous blotch of the same colour, from which a delicate
+wavy dark line runs to the inner margin. A small dark spot also lies
+near the middle of the costal margin of each of the four wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 202.--THE BEAUTIFUL CARPET.]
+
+The caterpillar is green, with a white line along the spiracles, and a
+triangular reddish spot on the back of segments four to ten inclusive.
+It feeds on the bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_), raspberry (_R. Idæus_),
+and wild strawberry (_Fragaria vesca_). It may be found in June and
+July.
+
+The moth flies in June.
+
+
+_The Common Carpet_ (_Melanippe sociata_)
+
+The genus _Melanippe_ contains twelve species, some of which are
+extremely common. One of these moths--the Common Carpet--is represented
+in fig. 203. Its wings are all of a smoky-brown colour, crossed by
+numerous white lines, the arrangement of which may be gathered from our
+illustration better than from a written description. It is a
+double-brooded insect, appearing first in May, and then again about the
+end of July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 203.--THE COMMON CARPET.]
+
+The caterpillar is mottled with shades of brown and grey. On the back
+are five or six greyish-white lozenge-shaped marks, and there are a few
+white dots on the back of each segment. It feeds on the hedge bedstraw
+(_Galium Mollugo_), and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis in a
+light cocoon on the ground.
+
+
+_The Silver Ground Carpet_ (_Melanippe montanata_)
+
+In this species the ground colour is silvery white. The bases of the
+fore wings are blotched with pale brown, and a dark brownish-grey bar,
+containing a black spot, crosses the middle. The hind margins of the
+fore wings are faintly marked with pale brown, and lines of the same
+tint, more or less distinct, cross the hind wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 204.--THE SILVER GROUND CARPET.]
+
+This moth is very common in all parts of the country, and may be seen on
+the wing throughout the summer.
+
+The caterpillar is light brown, with several longitudinal lines of
+different colours. On the back of each of the segments seven, eight, and
+nine is a distinct black V-shaped mark, terminating behind with a bright
+red spot. It feeds on the primrose (_Primula acaulis_) in the autumn,
+hybernates through the winter, and is full grown about the beginning of
+April.
+
+
+_The Garden Carpet_ (_Melanippe fluctuata_)
+
+Our third and last member of this genus is the Garden Carpet--a moth
+that must be pretty well known to almost everybody, since it is the
+commonest of all the _Geometræ_ that frequent our gardens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 205.--THE GARDEN CARPET.]
+
+The fore wings are pale grey or brownish, with a patch of dark greyish
+brown at the base, another larger one on the middle of the costa, and a
+third near the tip. The wing is usually clouded between the middle
+blotch and the inner margin, and numerous fine wavy lines, more or less
+distinct, cross the wing.
+
+This moth may be seen throughout the summer, from May to September, but
+is most abundant in June and July.
+
+The caterpillar is extremely variable in colour, being either green,
+brown, or grey, or some intermediate tint; and is marbled and dotted
+with dark brown on the back. It feeds on the nasturtium (_Tropæolum
+majus_), rape (_Brassica Napus_), and various other cruciferous plants;
+and may be found from April to August.
+
+
+_The Yellow Shell_ (_Camptogramma bilineata_)
+
+Passing over two smaller genera, we come to the beautiful little Yellow
+Shell. This moth is so abundant in most parts that we arouse it at
+almost every stroke while beating low bushes.
+
+All its wings are yellow, and crossed by numerous delicate white and
+brown lines. The most conspicuous feature is the two white lines, with
+dark brown edging, crossing the fore wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 206.--THE YELLOW SHELL.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds by night, and is therefore seldom seen except by
+those who make special nocturnal searches with the aid of a lantern or
+sweep net. It devours various grasses, and hides itself among the roots
+or under stones during the daytime. It is full grown in April or May.
+The colour is dull pale green, with a dark green dorsal line, and two
+white stripes on each side.
+
+
+_The Small Ph[oe]nix_ (_Cidaria silaceata_)
+
+Again passing over a few small and less important genera, we select the
+small Ph[oe]nix as the last example of this very extensive family.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 207.--THE SMALL PH[OE]NIX.]
+
+The fore wings of this species are dark brown, paler toward the hind
+margin. Most of the wing rays are generally of a pale yellowish colour,
+and a variable and complicated system of whitish lines crosses the wings
+near the base, and another near the hind margin. Among the latter there
+is always a series of dark triangular spots, with apices pointing
+towards the hind margin.
+
+This moth is moderately common throughout the British Isles, and is
+double brooded, appearing in May and August.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with a row of brown spots along the middle of
+the back. When full grown it changes to a chrysalis in a light web.
+
+
+Family--EUBOLIIDÆ
+
+This is the last family of the _Geometræ_ we shall notice, and contains
+ten species. Most of these are rather pretty moths, and all have the
+tips of the fore wings more or less pointed. As a rule, too, there is a
+dark streak running from the very tip of the wing for a short distance
+obliquely inward.
+
+They are generally very light sleepers, and are easily beaten from their
+hiding places during the day.
+
+The larvæ are not humped, and may be found feeding on low plants.
+
+We shall briefly examine two species.
+
+
+_The Small Mallow_ (_Eubolia limitata_)
+
+This moth is pretty abundant in waste places from June to August, and is
+easily obtained by lightly beating the foliage of small bushes and low
+plants.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 208.--THE SMALL MALLOW.]
+
+Its fore wings are pale brown crossed by a broad central bar, the edges
+of which are darker. The hind wings are of a paler brown, and are
+crossed by two or three fine wavy lines.
+
+Although the perfect insect is so common, the caterpillar seems to be
+seldom met with. It is a grass feeder, and may be looked for in May and
+June.
+
+
+_The Treble Bar_ (_Anaitis plagiata_)
+
+Our last example of the _Geometræ_ is the Treble Bar, a very pretty
+moth, which is illustrated in fig. 9 of Plate XII. It may be readily
+identified by the aid of this coloured picture, and therefore need not
+be described in words. It is pretty generally distributed throughout the
+British Isles, and is in some parts a very abundant species,
+particularly so in the neighbourhood of London.
+
+The caterpillar is brown, with paler spaces between the segments. The
+dorsal line is black and interrupted, and a yellow line runs along each
+side. It feeds on the leaves and flowers of the perforated St. John's
+wort (_Hypericum perforatum_).
+
+This insect is double brooded, the moth appearing in May and August, and
+remaining with us throughout the month following in each case.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+_THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+
+The butterflies, and all the moths contained in the groups of the last
+four chapters, are commonly spoken of as constituting the
+_Macro-lepidoptera_; but in addition to these there are many hundreds of
+small British moths that represent what is known as the
+_Micro-lepidoptera_.
+
+It is not usual for young entomologists to have much to do with the
+'Micros' until they have had a little practical experience with the
+larger species; in fact, a good number of them never seem to extend
+their knowledge beyond the limits of the 'Macros' except that they may
+make an occasional capture of a Micro that happens to fly across their
+path.
+
+Now, since it would be practically impossible to deal fairly, even in
+outline, with both these divisions of the _Lepidoptera_ in a work of the
+present dimensions, I have devoted most space to the larger species so
+as to meet the probable requirements of the majority of my readers. But
+in order that the beginner may also have the means of introducing
+himself intelligently to a study of the 'Micros,' I shall set apart this
+chapter for a simple account of the broad principles of their
+classification, illustrated by means of a few types, so that the
+collector may at least know _something_ of the insects he captures, even
+though he may not be able at once to fix on their names.
+
+The young entomologist, thus provided with the broad features that
+enable him to roughly classify the specimens which reach his cabinet,
+may, as his store increases, pay an occasional visit to a public museum
+or the private collection of an entomological friend, and so obtain the
+names and other details he may require.
+
+The _Micro-lepidoptera_ are divided into five main groups--_Pyralides_,
+_Pterophori_, _Crambi_, _Tortrices_, and _Tineæ_, each of which is
+divided into families and genera, as we have seen in the case of the
+'Macros.'
+
+
+_Pyralides_
+
+The _Pyralides_ may be easily distinguished by the proportionately long
+fore wings, long legs, and elongated abdomen. Some of them have wings of
+a pearly lustre, and are accordingly known popularly as the 'Pearls.'
+Some species fly in bright sunshine, others appear on the wing before
+sunset, and fly till dusk; others, again, are purely nocturnal in their
+habits. All, however, are apparently light sleepers, and may be easily
+beaten out of their resting places and netted by day. Some of these
+moths are common everywhere, but the majority of them are very local,
+though they may be extremely abundant where they occur.
+
+The larvæ have a glossy and bristly appearance, and are generally
+gregarious in their habits.
+
+This group contains about eighty species, arranged in five families as
+follows:
+
+  1. _Pyralididæ_, including about forty species.
+  2. _Botydæ_, about thirty species.
+  3. _Steniiadæ_, containing only five species.
+  4. _Hydrocampidæ_, four species.
+  5. _Acentropodidæ_, containing only one.
+
+
+_The Tabby_ (_Aglossa pinguinalis_)
+
+The first of these families contains the Tabby or Grease Moth, commonly
+met with both in the larval and perfect states in barns and stables.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 209.--THE TABBY OR GREASE MOTH.]
+
+Its fore wings are brownish grey, crossed with zigzag darker lines, and
+having a black spot near the centre of the costal margin. The term
+'Tabby' has been applied on account of the fancied resemblance of the
+transverse markings to the fur of a tabby cat, and the other popular
+name was given under the belief that the caterpillar feeds on fatty
+matter, but it is extremely doubtful whether this supposition is
+correct.
+
+The caterpillar probably feeds exclusively on the vegetable
+accumulations that lie in the undisturbed corners and crevices of
+outhouses and stables, and lives concealed in silken tubes, strengthened
+outside by fragments of hay, chaff &c. that have been spun together. It
+feeds from September to April, except during very severe weather, and
+when full grown it leaves its tube, and changes to a chrysalis in a
+light silken cocoon in some secluded corner.
+
+The moth emerges in July.
+
+
+_The Meal Moth_ (_Pyralis farinalis_)
+
+The same family contains the common Meal Moth, so called because in the
+larval state it feeds on meal and allied substances.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 210.--THE MEAL MOTH.]
+
+The fore wings are yellowish grey, with reddish basal patches, a broad
+reddish band along the hind margin, and two whitish indented transverse
+lines. The hind wings are grey, and are crossed by two lines similar to
+and continuous with those of the front pair.
+
+This moth is to be found in abundance throughout the summer months in
+places where corn, meal, and grain are stored in large quantities,
+sitting on walls and rafters during the daytime, and taking to flight in
+the evening.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on corn, meal, grain, bran, &c., and lives
+concealed in a silken tube covered outside with particles of its food
+substance. It is not fully grown till nearly two years old, and then
+changes to a chrysalis in a white silken cocoon.
+
+
+_The Small Magpie_ (_Eurrhypara urticata_)
+
+The family _Botydæ_ contains the moths that are popularly known as the
+'Pearls' on account of the pearly lustre of the wings. One of its
+species--the Small Magpie--is shown in the accompanying illustration.
+Its fore wings are pearly white, with blackish hind margin, a yellow
+streak at the base, and blackish markings, the arrangement of which may
+be seen in the figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 211.--THE SMALL MAGPIE.]
+
+It is a very common moth, flying at dusk during June and July in waste
+places where the stinging nettle grows.
+
+The caterpillar is whitish, with a dark dorsal line. It feeds on the
+stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), always remaining concealed between
+leaves which it has spun together with silken threads.
+
+
+_The Mother-of-Pearl_ (_Botys ruralis_)
+
+This is another very common species of the family _Botydæ_, abundant
+almost everywhere, and to be found on the wing from June to August.
+
+Its wings are whitish, and exhibit a very decided pearly lustre, and all
+the markings are of a dull dark grey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 212.--THE MOTHER-OF-PEARL.]
+
+The caterpillar is glossy, and has a semi-transparent appearance. It is
+greenish white above, with a darker line down the back; and the sides
+are of a brighter green. It feeds on the stinging nettle (_Urtica
+dioica_) during May.
+
+
+_The Garden Pebble_ (_Pionea forficalis_)
+
+The same family contains also the Garden Pebble, which is one of the
+commonest frequenters of gardens, both in town and country.
+
+The fore wings are pale yellowish grey with brown markings. The latter
+include a fine line from the tip to the middle of the inner margin, and
+another paler one inside and parallel with this, having a dark spot near
+its centre. The hind wings are lighter, and have a pale and interrupted
+line parallel with the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 213.--THE GARDEN PEBBLE.]
+
+The caterpillar is pale greenish, with a dark line along the back and on
+each side. It feeds on the cabbage and other cruciferous plants.
+
+The moth flies from May to the end of the summer, and the caterpillar
+may be found about midsummer, and again in the autumn.
+
+
+_The Beautiful China Mark_ (_Hydrocampa stagnata_)
+
+Our last example of the _Pyralides_--the Beautiful China Mark--belongs
+to the family _Hydrocampidæ_. This small family is remarkable for the
+fact that its four species spend their larval state in the water,
+feeding on the under surfaces of the leaves of water lilies and other
+aquatic plants. These curious larvæ live either in cases which they
+construct for their protection, something after the fashion of the larvæ
+of caddis flies, or quite free in the water, and then they are supplied
+with special breathing organs that enable them to absorb the oxygen held
+in solution in the water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 214.--THE BEAUTIFUL CHINA MARK.]
+
+The moth we have selected for illustration is a very common species, and
+may be seen flying in great numbers in the neighbourhood of ponds during
+June and July.
+
+
+_The Pterophori_
+
+The members of this remarkable group are easily distinguishable from all
+other moths by the feathery appearance of their wings, a feature that
+has gained for them the popular name of _Plume Moths_. Their fore wings
+are more or less divided or cleft, and their hind wings are generally
+divided into three distinct feathery plumes.
+
+The larvæ are hairy, and when full fed they suspend themselves by their
+anal claspers, and change to the chrysalis state without any kind of
+covering. They are generally to be found in spring and early summer, but
+some of them feed in the autumn.
+
+The chrysalides are often hairy, though some of them are perfectly
+smooth.
+
+Plume moths are to be met with more or less throughout the year. Many of
+the earlier species appear on the wing in spring and early summer; but
+the late feeders emerge in the autumn, and hybernate through the winter,
+often taking to the wing on the mild days of our coldest months.
+
+The _Pterophori_ include only about forty British species, all of which,
+with two exceptions, belong to the family _Pterophoridæ_. The two
+exceptions represent as many families--one the _Chrysocorididæ_, and the
+other the _Alucitidæ_.
+
+
+_Platyptilia gonodactyla_
+
+This is one of the commonest of the _Pterophoridæ_, generally appearing
+in our gardens and in waste places towards the end of May, and
+continuing with us for some time. It starts from its retreat at or
+before sunset, and remains on the wing after dark.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 215.--GONODACTYLA.]
+
+Its fore wings are ochreous grey, with a narrow brown costal margin, and
+a triangular brown patch on the costa. Beyond this patch the wing is
+cleft. The hind wings consist of three distinct brownish plumes, the
+third of which has a small tuft of black scales projecting from the
+middle of the inner margin.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the flower stalks of the coltsfoot during March
+and April.
+
+
+_Leioptilus osteodactylus_
+
+This is another species of the same family. It is not uncommon, but is
+more local than the last.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 216.--OSTEODACTYLUS.]
+
+Its fore wings are pale yellow, with a small brown dot at the
+commencement of the dividing fissure, and a brown blotch on the costal
+margin nearer the tip. The hind wings are divided into three distinct
+plumes like those of _Gonodactyla_.
+
+This is a later species, appearing on the wing in July.
+
+
+_Aciptilia pentadactyla_
+
+The fore wings of this species are white, frequently with a few greyish
+scales, and are deeply divided into two feathery plumes. The hind wings
+are pure white, and consist of three plumes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 217.--PENTADACTYLA.]
+
+This pretty insect is common and widely distributed, and flies during
+June and July.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the convolvulus in May.
+
+
+_Alucita hexadactyla_
+
+Our last example of the _Pterophori_ is the Twelve-plume Moth, the only
+British representative of the family _Alucitidæ_.
+
+This little insect is of a yellowish colour, with two dark bands across
+the fore wings; and both fore and hind wings are divided into six
+distinct feathers. It is a common moth, and frequents sheltered spots,
+flying at dusk. It appears in August, remains on the wing till October,
+and then hybernates till the following April. During the winter it is
+commonly met with in outhouses and even in dwelling houses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 218.--HEXADACTYLA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds during June and July on the flower buds of the
+honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_). It is not hairy, like most of the
+larvæ of the last family; and, unlike these, it changes to a chrysalis
+in a silken cocoon.
+
+
+_Crambi_
+
+The third group of the 'Micros' is the _Crambi_, and contains about
+eighty species, arranged in four families.
+
+Some of them are common moths with which all must be more or less
+familiar, as they are roused from the grasses on which they repose at
+almost every footstep as we walk through meadows in the summer. When at
+rest, they present a very peculiar appearance. Their wings are wrapped
+closely round their bodies in such a manner that they are hardly
+distinguishable from the stems on which they repose.
+
+The larvæ have sixteen limbs, and are very variable in their habits.
+Some feed among moss or dry stems in silken tubes, some on the stems of
+reeds, and others inhabit the hives of bees and feed on the wax of the
+honeycomb.
+
+The four families are:
+
+1. _Chilidæ_--five species.
+
+2. _Crambidæ_--about thirty species.
+
+3. _Phycidæ_--over forty species.
+
+4. _Galleridæ_--five species.
+
+
+_Chilo Phragmitellus_
+
+This species is one of those moths known as the 'Veneers,' and is
+popularly termed the Wainscot Veneer. It is one of the largest of the
+family _Chilidæ_.
+
+Its fore wings are long, narrow, and pointed at the tip. They are of a
+pale ochreous brown colour, with a row of small black dots along the
+hind margin.
+
+The caterpillar is pale grey, with brown stripes; and the head and
+second segment are yellowish brown. It feeds on the common reed
+(_Phragmites_) in the autumn, and hybernates till the following spring,
+when it resumes its feeding.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 219.--PHRAGMITELLUS--ENLARGED ONE-HALF.]
+
+This insect is rather local, but may be searched for in all marshy
+places where reeds abound.
+
+
+_Crambus hamellus_
+
+The family _Crambidæ_ is represented by the above-named species, which
+has the popular title of Pearl-streak Veneer. It is not a common moth,
+but is to be obtained in some localities by beating low herbage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 220.--HAMELLUS--SLIGHTLY ENLARGED.]
+
+Its fore wings are ochreous and glossy, with a silvery streak from the
+base, running almost parallel with the costal margin. The hind margin is
+yellow, bordered inside by a wavy brown line. The hind wings are pale
+greyish brown with a yellowish margin.
+
+
+_Crambus tristellus_
+
+The same family contains the species _Tristellus_, which, unlike the
+preceding insect, is abundant everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 221.--TRISTELLUS.]
+
+Its fore wings are generally yellowish brown, but exceedingly variable.
+A pale streak runs from the base to just beyond the middle of the wing,
+and is then forked. Near the hind margin is a very indistinct brown wavy
+line. The hind wings are dull smoke colour with a light fringe. As with
+the other moths of the family, its labial palpi are very long.
+
+The moth flies from July to September.
+
+
+_Crambus hortuellus_
+
+This is also an abundant species, to be met with everywhere during June
+and July.
+
+Its fore wings are dull ochreous brown. The wing rays are whitish near
+the inner margin, and a brown line with a silvery edging crosses near
+the hind margin. The hind wings are dull smoky brown, with a shining
+surface, and the fringe is light.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 222.--HORTUELLUS.]
+
+The larva is pale grey with dark grey spots, and may be found among moss
+in April and May.
+
+
+_Galleria mellonella_
+
+Our last example of the _Crambi_ is a moth that the young entomologist
+is not likely to meet with unless he happens to be in the neighbourhood
+of one of its haunts, but its habits are so peculiar that we are tempted
+to introduce it on that account.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 223.--MELLONELLA.]
+
+It belongs to the family _Galleridæ_, the larvæ of which feed on the wax
+combs in the hives of bees and in the nests of wild bees. They are
+protected from the stings of the inmates by silken tubes which they
+construct, and by the hardened covering of their heads and front
+segments--the only parts that remain exposed while they are feeding.
+
+The fore wings of the moth are reddish-grey or brownish, sometimes with
+a greenish tinge, and yellowish along the inner margin. The hind wings
+are greyish brown.
+
+It flies in July and August, and the caterpillar feeds in May and June.
+
+
+_The Tortrices_
+
+This is a large group of moths, deriving their name from the peculiar
+habit of a number of the larvæ of twisting or rolling up leaves for
+their protection. This habit, however, is not common to all, for some
+feed on stems and flowers, and others devour seeds and fruits.
+
+The perfect insects may easily be known by the shape of the wings. The
+fore pair are gracefully curved on the costal margin in such a way that,
+when the insect is at rest with its wings closed, its outline is much
+the shape of a bell.
+
+The identification of the various species of this extensive group is no
+easy task, for many of them are so variable in their colouring that
+insects of the same species are often very different from each other.
+So puzzling indeed is this tendency to run into varieties that many
+insects, once considered to belong to separate species, have been
+reduced to one; and this has been the case in a number of instances.
+
+There are so many of these little moths that we cannot even give a
+representative of each family, but the following outline will serve to
+show the extensiveness of the group.
+
+  Family 1. _Tortricidæ_, about sixty species.
+    "    2. _Penthinidæ_,   "  twenty    "
+    "    3. _Spilonotidæ_,  "  twelve    "
+    "    4. _Sericoridæ_,   "  twenty-seven species.
+    "    5. _Sciaphilidæ_,  "  twenty-four     "
+    "    6. _Grapholithidæ_, about one hundred and fifty species.
+    "    7. _Pyraloididæ_, four species.
+    "    8. _Conchylidæ_, about fifty species.
+    "    9. _Apheliidæ_, three species.
+
+We shall now briefly examine a few of the commonest insects of the
+group.
+
+
+_Tortrix xylosteana_
+
+This pretty moth is common in most parts, and may often be met with in
+abundance in wooded localities during July. It belongs to the family
+_Tortricidæ_.
+
+Its fore wings are ochreous brown. A very dark oblique streak, edged
+with yellow, runs from the inner margin of the base. A reddish patch in
+the centre of the wing, also edged with yellow, is narrow on the costa,
+and expands as it approaches the inner margin. Beyond this are another
+dark patch on the costa and two reddish-brown blotches on the hind
+margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 224.--XYLOSTEANA WITH WINGS CLOSED.]
+
+The larva is greenish brown, marked with white spots which have black
+centres; and it feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), honeysuckle (_Lonicera
+Periclymenum_), and other plants, in the month of May.
+
+
+_Tortrix viridana_
+
+In June and July this pretty but destructive little insect may be seen
+flying in abundance in almost every oak wood. Its fore wings are one
+uniform pale green with the exception of a streak of yellow along the
+costal margin; and, when at rest, scores may exist on a single twig
+without being seen unless closely examined. The hind wings are of a pale
+smoky tint, and rather glossy.
+
+The larva is green, with black spots, and feeds in May and June on the
+oak and other trees, often almost completely devouring the foliage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 225.--VIRIDANA.]
+
+
+_Peronea cristana_
+
+This moth is not so generally abundant, but is very common in many of
+the woods of the south. It is remarkable for the large number of
+varieties that have been observed, many of which have been regarded as
+distinct species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 226.--CRISTANA--ENLARGED.]
+
+Its fore wings are of some shade of brown or grey, with a light streak
+of variable colour along the inner margin, and a tuft of raised white
+scales in the middle of the wing.
+
+It flies during August and September.
+
+
+_Ptycholoma lecheana_
+
+Our last example of the family _Tortricidæ_ is _Lecheana_, a moth that
+is common in most parts in June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 227.--LECHEANA.]
+
+Its fore wings are brown, lighter towards the base. There are no very
+distinct markings, but there is generally a darker patch in the middle
+of the wing, edged with a silvery streak on each side.
+
+The larva feeds on several trees, including oaks and elms, in the month
+of May.
+
+
+_Penthina pruniana_
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 228.--PRUNIANA.]
+
+The next family--_Penthinidæ_--contains the common species _Pruniana_,
+which may be readily known by its boldly marked wings. The basal portion
+of the fore wings, to the extent of nearly two-thirds of the whole, is
+very dark brown. The remaining third is almost white, and clouded with
+grey. The hind wings are smoky brown with a paler fringe.
+
+The caterpillar of this species feeds on the blackthorn (_Prunus
+spinosa_) in May, and the moth flies in June and July.
+
+
+_Antithesia salicella_
+
+This moth is not nearly so common as the last species, but is fairly
+plentiful in some localities in the south of England. It belongs to the
+same family as _Pruniana_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 229.--SALICELLA.]
+
+The fore wings are whitish at the base and along the inner margin, but
+the light tint is dotted and clouded with shades of brown. The remainder
+of the wings is marbled with dark brown of different depths, relieved
+near the hind margin with a little blue. The hind wings, as is usual
+with the _Tortrices_, are dull smoky brown.
+
+The caterpillar is reddish brown with black spots, and feeds during May
+in rolled leaves of willows.
+
+The moth flies in August and September.
+
+
+_Sciaphila octomaculana_
+
+Our single example of the family _Sciaphilidæ_ is the species
+_Octomaculana_, which, though not very abundant, is widely distributed,
+and moderately common in parts.
+
+Its fore wings are white, dusted with grey, and each is marked with four
+dark grey patches which have given rise to its specific name--a word
+which signifies 'eight-spotted.' The hind wings are grey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 230.--OCTOMACULANA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on thistles and other plants, and the moth flies
+from August to October.
+
+
+_Ephippiphora cirsiana_
+
+This insect represents the family _Grapholithidæ_. It is a common moth,
+and is widely distributed.
+
+Its fore wings are greyish brown, with a large white patch on the middle
+of the inner margin; and beyond this white, in the anal angle, is a
+pale grey patch containing three or four black dots. The tips of the
+wings are reddish brown.
+
+The moth flies in June and July; and the larva, which feeds on thistles,
+may be found in the stems from October to the following May.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 231.--CIRSIANA--ENLARGED.]
+
+
+_Carpocapsa pomonella_
+
+The same extensive family contains a few moths that are very destructive
+to our fruits, the larvæ burrowing into and living entirely within their
+substance. One of these--_Pomonella_--is popularly known as the Codlin,
+as its larva is so often found in the interior of small apples of the
+same name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 232.--POMONELLA.]
+
+The fore wings of this insect are grey, with a number of dark transverse
+lines. The spot in the anal angle is edged with a coppery tint, and
+inclosed by a curved black line.
+
+This moth is common in all parts, flying during June and July; and the
+larva may be looked for in apples and pears in August and September.
+
+
+_Xanthosetia zoegana_
+
+Our last example of the _Tortrices_ is _Zoegana_, which belongs to the
+family _Conchylidæ_. Its fore wings are yellow, with a reddish streak
+along the costa near the base, and a small reddish spot opposite this
+near the inner margin. The tip of the wings is dark reddish brown, in
+the middle of which is a large yellow spot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 233.--ZOEGANA--ENLARGED.]
+
+This moth is widely distributed, and in some parts common. It flies from
+May to August, and the larva feeds on the small scabious (_Scabiosa
+columbaria_).
+
+
+_The Tineæ_
+
+We have noticed that the _Tortrices_ form a very extensive group of
+moths, but they are far outnumbered by the _Tineæ_, for of these there
+are over seven hundred known British species.
+
+Of course, among so many species we are sure to find considerable
+variety in form and structure; but notwithstanding this, the _Tineæ_
+form a well-marked division, and the beginner will find but little
+difficulty in distinguishing between these and the other Micros.
+
+The wings are long and narrow, and are remarkable for the length of the
+fringe, particularly that of the hind wings. The bodies, too, are long
+and slender.
+
+The larvæ are exceedingly variable. Some have the usual number of
+sixteen limbs, and others have as many as eighteen. Again, the larvæ of
+several genera have only fourteen legs, and some are absolutely legless.
+
+With regard to their food and habits, they are equally variable, for
+while some feed exposed, others are always protected in rolled leaves.
+Some construct for themselves portable tubes, so that they always remain
+under cover, and are at the same time perfectly free to ramble in search
+for food. Some, also, are leaf miners; and the group includes the
+so-called 'Clothes Moths,' whose larvæ devour our garments, furs, and
+the upholstering of our furniture.
+
+We shall now briefly notice a few species, in order that we may become
+better acquainted with the general characters of the group.
+
+
+_Diurnea fagella_
+
+This moth represents the small family _Epigraphiidæ_, containing only
+six species, all of which appear in the winter or early spring.
+
+The present species is very common in most parts, and may be seen at
+rest on the barks of trees in March and April.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 234.--FAGELLA.]
+
+The fore wings are usually pale grey or yellowish grey, and dotted with
+brown; but there is a great variety both in the depth of the ground
+colour and the distinctness of the markings. Our illustration gives the
+usual appearance of the insect.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on various trees in September and October, always
+protected between leaves that it has spun together.
+
+
+_Adela cuprella_
+
+The family _Adelidæ_ contains ten species, all remarkable for the great
+length of their antennæ. The one selected for illustration is a
+beautiful little moth with bright bronzy green fore wings, tinged with a
+rich glossy violet. The hind wings are brown with a glossy surface.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 235.--CUPRELLA.]
+
+This moth does not seem to be widely distributed, but is fairly
+plentiful where it occurs. Wimbledon Common and Epping Forest are good
+localities for it. It is on the wing in April and May.
+
+
+_Hyponomeuta Padellus_
+
+The family _Hyponomeutidæ_ contains about twenty insects, some of which
+are very common and exceedingly destructive to our trees. In May and
+June hawthorn and fruit trees may be seen swarming with the gregarious
+larvæ of some of them, and almost entirely stripped of their leaves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 236.--PADELLUS.]
+
+The species here figured has grey or white fore wings with three rows of
+black dots. The hind wings are darker grey without dots.
+
+The larva feeds on hawthorn, apple, and other trees. The perfect insect
+flies in July and August.
+
+
+_Depressaria nervosa_
+
+The next family--_Gelechiidæ_--is represented by the species Nervosa,
+which is common in many localities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 237.--NERVOSA--TWICE NATURAL SIZE.]
+
+Its fore wings are reddish brown, and are marked by a number of short
+longitudinal streaks of a darker colour. The hind wings are light grey.
+
+The caterpillar is black, marked with black spots in white rings, and
+having yellow side stripes. It feeds on the flowers of the hemlock
+water dropwort (_[OE]nanthe crocata_) during June and July.
+
+The moth flies in August and September.
+
+
+_Harpella Geoffrella_
+
+The same extensive family contains the moth Geoffrella, represented in
+the accompanying cut. This is an exceedingly pretty insect. The basal
+portion of its fore wings is yellow, with two longitudinal dark streaks,
+the outer one of which is bent towards the inner margin near the middle
+of the wing. The remaining portion of the wings is brown, with two
+yellowish triangular spots, one on the costal and one on the inner
+margin. On the middle of the costa is a short dark streak.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 238.--GEOFFRELLA.]
+
+This moth appears in May and June, and is rather local, but very
+abundant in some parts.
+
+
+_Coleophora ibipennella_
+
+The family _Coleophoridæ_ contains about seventy small moths,
+characterised by their very narrow and pointed wings, with long fringes,
+and also, generally, by a little tuft of hair on the first joint of the
+antennæ.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 239.--IBIPENNELLA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The larvæ live in little cases which they construct, and feed on various
+leaves and seeds. They spend the winter within their cases, and change
+to the chrysalis state in spring or early summer.
+
+One of these moths--_Ibipennella_--is shown in fig. 239. Its fore wings
+are white, with a satiny gloss, and brownish towards the tips. The
+'nervures' are generally of a yellowish tinge. The hind wings are dark
+grey.
+
+The larva feeds on the birch (_Betula alba_), and may be seen walking on
+the surface of the leaves, carrying, or rather dragging after it, the
+pistol-shaped case in which it lives, nothing protruding save its head
+and front legs. It is full fed in May, and the moth flies in July.
+
+
+_Tischeria complanella_
+
+This species represents the rather extensive family _Elachistidæ_, the
+members of which have narrow and pointed wings. Many of them are adorned
+with beautiful metallic tints, but are generally so small that a lens is
+necessary to show up the splendour of their clothing. Most of the larvæ
+are leaf miners, and are easily reared. All that is necessary is to
+pluck a few twigs, the leaves of which, when held up to the light,
+reveal the tiny larvæ in their burrows, and place them in a vessel of
+water. They do not feed long, and it is probable that most of the larvæ
+so treated will be ready to change before the leaves have become dry.
+The present species has bright yellow fore wings, with pale grey
+cloudings at the hind margins. It is very abundant in many parts, and
+flies during the month of June.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 240.--COMPLANELLA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The larva is one of the numerous leaf miners, and is of a yellowish
+colour. It feeds in oak leaves during the autumn, and its presence is
+indicated by light blotches on the foliage.
+
+
+_Nepticula aurella_
+
+The family _Nepticulidæ_--the last of the _Tineæ_--contains a number of
+little moths, including the smallest of the _Lepidoptera_. Many of them
+are exceedingly beautiful, being decorated with various tints of a
+splendid metallic lustre, but their beauty is revealed only by the use
+of a magnifying lens, and they are so small that very great care and
+patience is required to set them properly.
+
+They may be recognised by their short and thick antennæ, rather large
+head, broad fore wings, and narrow pointed hind wings.
+
+The larvæ have no true legs, but have nine pairs of very imperfectly
+developed claspers. They are leaf miners, and are sometimes so abundant
+that several may be found in a single leaf.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 241.--AURELLA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The species we have selected has fore wings of a rich golden brown, with
+deep violet tips, and a broad bar of pale golden yellow beyond the
+middle. It may be found throughout the spring and summer. The larva
+excavates long irregular burrows in the leaves of the bramble.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES
+
+
+APPENDIX I
+
+I have previously called the reader's attention to our classified list
+of butterflies and moths, and have hinted at one or two of the objects
+for which it is inserted. It contains the scientific and popular names
+of all the British Butterflies, _Sphinges_, _Bombyces_, _Noctuæ_, and
+_Geometræ_, arranged in their various families and genera; and in cases
+where two specific names are commonly applied to the same insect, both
+are given.
+
+Its chief uses to the young entomologist are to show the relation which
+the insects bear one to another, and to supply a guide for the proper
+arrangement of the specimens in his cabinet.
+
+The order adopted is that of South's 'Synonymic List of British
+Lepidoptera,' and it has already been mentioned that similar lists,
+printed on one side of the paper only, may be obtained from dealers in
+naturalists' appliances. These, cut up as required, supply very neat
+labels for cabinets or store boxes.
+
+
+_COMPLETE CLASSIFIED LIST OF BRITISH MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+=RHOPALOCERA (BUTTERFLIES).=
+
+  PAPILIONIDÆ.
+    =Papilio.=
+      _Machaon_--Swallow Tail
+
+  PIERIDÆ.
+    =Aporia.=
+      _Cratægi_--Black-veined White
+    =Pieris.=
+      _Brassicæ_--Large White
+      _Rapæ_--Small White
+      _Napi_--Green-veined White
+      _Daplidice_--Bath White
+    =Euchloë.=
+      _Cardamines_--Orange Tip
+    =Leucophasia.=
+      _Sinapis_--Wood White
+    =Colias.=
+      _Hyale_--Pale Clouded Yellow
+      _Edusa_--Clouded Yellow
+    =Gonopteryx.=
+      _Rhamni_--Brimstone
+
+  NYMPHALIDÆ.
+    =Argynnis.=
+      _Selene_--Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary
+      _Euphrosyne_--Pearl-bordered Fritillary
+      _Latona_--Queen of Spain
+      _Aglaia_--Dark Green Fritillary
+      _Adippe_--High Brown Fritillary
+      _Paphia_--Silver-washed Fritillary
+    =Melitæa.=
+      _Aurinia_ (_Artemis_)--Greasy Fritillary
+      _Cinxia_--Glanville Fritillary
+      _Athalia_--Heath Fritillary
+    =Vanessa.=
+      _C-Album_--Comma
+      _Polychloros_--Large Tortoiseshell
+      _Urticæ_--Small Tortoiseshell
+      _Io_--Peacock
+      _Antiopa_--Camberwell Beauty
+      _Atalanta_--Red Admiral
+      _Cardui_--Painted Lady
+    =Limenitis.=
+      _Sibylla_--White Admiral
+
+  APATURIDÆ.
+    =Apatura.=
+      _Iris_--Purple Emperor
+
+  SATYRIDÆ.
+    =Melanargia.=
+      _Galatea_--Marbled White
+    =Erebia.=
+      _Epiphron_ (_Cassiope_)--Small Ringlet
+      _Æthiops_ (_Blandina_)--Northern Brown (Scotch Argus)
+    =Pararge.=
+      _Egeria_--Speckled Wood
+      _Megæra_--Wall
+    =Satyrus.=
+      _Semele_--Grayling
+    =Epinephele.=
+      _Ianira_--Meadow Brown
+      _Tithonus_--Large Heath (Small Meadow Brown)
+      _Hyperanthes_--Ringlet
+    =Cænonympha.=
+      _Typhon_ (_Davus_)--Marsh Ringlet
+      _Pamphilus_--Small Heath
+
+  LYCÆNIDÆ.
+    =Thecla.=
+      _Betulæ_--Brown Hairstreak
+      _W-Album_--White-letter Hairstreak
+      _Pruni_--Dark Hairstreak
+      _Quercus_--Purple Hairstreak
+      _Rubi_--Green Hairstreak
+    =Polyommatus.=
+      _Dispar_--Large Copper
+      _Phl[oe]as_--Small Copper
+    =Lycæna.=
+      _Bætica_--Tailed Blue
+      _Ægon_--Silver-studded Blue
+      _Astrarche_ (_Agestis_)--Brown Argus
+      _Icarus_ (_Alexis_)--Common Blue
+      _Bellargus_ (_Adonis_)--Clifden Blue
+      _Corydon_--Chalk-hill Blue
+      _Argiolus_--Azure or Holly Blue
+      _Semiargus_ (_Acis_)--Mazarine Blue
+      _Minima_ (_Alsus_)--Small Blue
+      _Arion_--Large Blue
+
+  ERYCINIDÆ.
+    =Nemeobius.=
+      _Lucina_--Duke of Burgundy
+
+  HESPERIIDÆ.
+    =Syrichthus.=
+      _Malvæ_ (_Alveolus_)--Grizzled Skipper
+    =Nisoniades.=
+      _Tages_--Dingy Skipper
+    =Hesperia.=
+      _Thaumas_ (_Linea_)--Small Skipper
+      _Lineola_--New Small Skipper
+      _Actæon_--Lulworth Skipper
+      _Sylvanus_--Large Skipper
+      _Comma_--Silver-spotted Skipper
+    =Carterocephalus.=
+      _Palæmon_ (_Paniscus_)--Chequered Skipper
+
+
+HETEROCERA (MOTHS).
+
+=SPHINGES.=
+
+  SPHINGIDÆ.
+    =Acherontia.=
+      _Atropos_--Death's Head Hawk Moth
+    =Sphinx.=
+      _Convolvuli_--Convolvulus Hawk
+      _Ligustri_--Privet Hawk
+      _Pinastri_--Pine Hawk
+    =Deilephila.=
+      _Euphorbiæ_--Spurge Hawk
+      _Galii_--Bedstraw Hawk
+      _Livornica_--Striped Hawk
+    =Chærocampa.=
+      _Celerio_--Silver-striped Hawk
+      _Porcellus_--Small Elephant
+      _Elpenor_--Large Elephant
+    =Smerinthus.=
+      _Ocellatus_--Eyed Hawk
+      _Populi_--Poplar Hawk
+      _Tiliæ_--Lime Hawk
+    =Macroglossa.=
+      _Stellatarum_--Humming-bird Hawk
+      _Fuciformis_--Broad-bordered Bee Hawk
+      _Bombyliformis_--Narrow-bordered Bee Hawk
+
+  SESIIDÆ.
+    =Trochilium.=
+      _Apiformis_--Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar
+      _Crabroniformis_ (_Bembeciformis_)--Hornet Clearwing of Osier
+    =Sciopteron.=
+      _Tabaniformis_ (_Vespiforme_)--Dusky Clearwing
+    =Sesia.=
+      _Scoliiformis_--Welsh Clearwing
+      _Sphegiformis_--White-barred Clearwing
+      _Andreniformis_--Orange-tailed Clearwing
+      _Tipuliformis_--Currant Clearwing
+      _Asiliformis_ (_Cynipiformis_)--Yellow-legged Clearwing
+      _Myopiformis_--Red-belted Clearwing
+      _Culiciformis_--Large Red-belted Clearwing
+      _Formiciformis_--Red-tipped Clearwing
+      _Ichneumoniformis_--Six-belted Clearwing
+      _Musciformis_ (_Philanthiformis_)--Thrift Clearwing
+      _Chrysidiformis_--Fiery Clearwing
+
+  ZYGÆNIDÆ.
+    =Ino.=
+      _Globulariæ_--Scarce Forester
+      _Statices_--Forester
+      _Geryon_--Cistus Forester
+    =Zygæna.=
+      _Pilosellæ_ (_Minos_)--Transparent Burnet
+      _Exulans_--Scotch Burnet
+      _Meliloti_--New Forest Burnet
+      _Trifolii_--Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet
+      _Loniceræ_--Narrow-bordered Five-spotted Burnet
+      _Filipendulæ_--Six-spotted Burnet
+
+=BOMBYCES.=
+
+  NYCTEOLIDÆ.
+    =Sarothripus.=
+      _Undulanus_--Tortrix Moth
+    =Earias.=
+      _Chlorana_--Cream-bordered Green
+    =Hylophila.=
+      _Prasinana_--Green Silver-lined
+      _Bicolorana_ (_Quercana_)--Large Green Silver-lined
+
+  NOLIDÆ.
+    =Nola.=
+      _Cucullatella_--Short-cloaked
+      _Strigula_--Small Black Arches
+      _Confusalis_ (_Cristulalis_)--Least Black Arches
+      _Albulalis_--Kent Arches
+      _Centonalis_--Scarce Black Arches
+
+  LITHOSIIDÆ.
+    =Nudaria.=
+      _Senex_--Round-winged Muslin
+      _Mundana_--Muslin Moth
+    =Setina.=
+      _Irrorella_--Dew Moth
+    =Calligenia.=
+      _Miniata_--Rosy Footman (Red Arches)
+    =Lithosia.=
+      _Mesomella_--Four-dotted Footman
+      _Muscerda_--Dotted Footman
+      _Sororcula_ (_Aureola_)--Orange Footman
+      _Lutarella_ (_Pygmæola_)--Pigmy Footman
+      _Griseola_ (_Stramineola_)--Pale Footman
+      _Deplana_ (_Helveola_)--Buff Footman
+      _Lurideola_ (_Complanula_)--Common Footman
+      _Complana_--Scarce Footman
+      _Sericea_ (_Molybdeola_)--Leaden Footman
+      _Caniola_--Hoary Footman
+    =Gnophria.=
+      _Quadra_--Four-spotted Footman
+      _Rubricollis_--Red-necked Footman
+    =Emydia.=
+      _Cribrum_--Speckled Footman
+
+  EUCHELIIDÆ.
+    =Deiopeia.=
+      _Pulchella_--Crimson Speckled
+    =Euchelia.=
+      _Jacobææ_--Cinnabar
+    =Callimorpha.=
+      _Dominula_--Scarlet Tiger
+      _Hera_--Jersey Tiger
+
+  CHELONIIDÆ.
+    =Nemeophila.=
+      _Russula_--Clouded Buff
+      _Plantaginis_--Wood Tiger
+    =Arctia.=
+      _Caia_--Tiger
+      _Villica_--Cream-spot Tiger
+    =Spilosoma.=
+      _Fuliginosa_--Ruby Tiger
+      _Mendica_--Muslin
+      _Lubricipeda_--Buff Ermine
+      _Menthastri_--White Ermine
+      _Urticæ_--Water Ermine
+
+  HEPIALIDÆ.
+    =Hepialus.=
+      _Humuli_--Ghost Swift
+      _Sylvanus_--Wood Swift
+      _Velleda_--Northern Swift
+      _Lupulinus_--Common Swift
+      _Hectus_--Gold Swift
+
+  COSSIDÆ.
+    =Cossus.=
+      _Ligniperda_--Goat
+    =Zeuzera.=
+      _Pyrina_ (_Æsculi_)--Leopard
+    =Macrogaster.=
+      _Castaneæ_ (_Arundinis_)--Reed Moth
+
+  COCHLIOPODIDÆ.
+    =Heterogenea.=
+      _Limacodes_ (_Testudo_)--Festoon Moth
+      _Asella_ (_Asellus_)--Triangle Moth
+
+  LIPARIDÆ.
+    =Porthesia= (=Liparis=).
+      _Chrysorrh[oe]a_--Brown Tail
+      _Similis_ (_Auriflua_)--Yellow Tail (Gold Tail)
+    =Leucoma.=
+      _Salicis_--Satin Moth
+    =Lælia.=
+      _C[oe]nosa_--Reed Tussock
+    =Ocneria.=
+      _Dispar_--Gipsy
+    =Psilura.=
+      _Monacha_--Black Arches
+    =Dasychira.=
+      _Fascelina_--Dark Tussock
+      _Pudibunda_--Pale Tussock
+    =Orgyia.=
+      _Gonostigma_--Scarce Vapourer
+      _Antiqua_--Vapourer
+
+  BOMBYCIDÆ.
+    =Trichiura.=
+      _Cratægi_--Pale Oak Eggar
+    =P[oe]cilocampa.=
+      _Populi_--December Moth
+    =Eriogaster.=
+      _Lanestris_--Small Eggar
+    =Bombyx.=
+      _Neustria_--Lackey
+      _Castrensis_--Ground Lackey
+      _Rubi_--Fox
+      _Quercus_--Oak Eggar
+      _Trifolii_--Grass Eggar
+    =Odonestis.=
+      _Potatoria_--Drinker
+    =Lasiocampa.=
+      _Quercifolia_--Lappet
+      _Ilicifolia_--Small Lappet
+
+  ENDROMIDÆ.
+    =Endromis.=
+      _Versicolor_--Kentish Glory
+
+  SATURNIIDÆ.
+    =Saturnia.=
+      _Pavonia_ (_Carpini_)--Emperor
+
+  DREPANULIDÆ.
+    =Drepana.=
+      _Lacertinaria_ (_Lacertula_)--Scalloped Hook Tip
+      _Harpagula_ (_Sicula_)--Scarce Hook Tip
+      _Falcataria_ (_Falcula_)--Pebble Hook Tip
+      _Binaria_ (_Hamula_)--Oak Hook Tip
+      _Cultraria_ (_Unguicula_)--Barred Hook Tip
+    =Cilix.=
+      _Glaucata_ (_Spinula_)--Chinese Character
+
+  DICRANURIDÆ.
+    =Dicranura.=
+      _Bicuspis_--Alder Kitten
+      _Furcula_--Sallow Kitten
+      _Bifida_--Poplar Kitten
+      _Vinula_--Puss
+    =Stauropus.=
+      _Fagi_--Lobster
+
+  NOTODONTIDÆ.
+    =Glyphisia.=
+      _Crenata_--Dusky Marbled Brown
+    =Ptilophora.=
+      _Plumigera_--Plumed Prominent
+    =Pterostoma.=
+      _Palpina_--Pale Prominent
+    =Lophopteryx.=
+      _Camelina_--Coxcomb Prominent
+      _Cuculla_ (_Cucullina_)--Maple Prominent
+      _Carmelita_--Scarce Prominent
+    =Notodonta.=
+      _Bicolor_--White Prominent
+      _Dictæa_--Swallow Prominent
+      _Dictæoides_--Lesser Swallow Prominent
+      _Dromedarius_--Iron Prominent
+      _Trilophus_--Three-humped Prominent
+      _Ziczac_--Pebble Prominent
+      _Trepida_--Great Prominent
+      _Trimacula_ (_Dodonea_)--Marbled Brown
+      _Chaonia_--Lunar Marbled Brown
+
+  PYGÆRIDÆ.
+    =Phalera.=
+      _Bucephala_--Buff Tip
+    =Pygæra= (=Clostera=).
+      _Curtula_--Chocolate Tip
+      _Anachoreta_--Scarce Chocolate Tip
+      _Pigra_ (_Reclusa_)--Small Chocolate Tip
+
+  CYMATOPHORIDÆ.
+    =Thyatira.=
+      _Derasa_--Buff Arches
+      _Batis_--Peach Blossom
+    =Cymatophora.=
+      _Octogesima_ (_Ocularis_)--Figure of Eighty
+      _Or_--Poplar Lutestring
+      _Duplaris_--Lesser Satin
+      _Fluctuosa_--Satin Carpet
+    =Asphalia.=
+      _Diluta_--Lesser Lutestring
+      _Flavicornis_--Yellow-horned
+      _Ridens_--Frosted Green
+
+=NOCTUÆ.=
+
+  BRYOPHILIDÆ.
+    =Bryophila.=
+      _Algæ_--Tree Lichen Beauty
+      _Muralis_ (_Glandifera_)--Marbled (Mottled) Green
+      _Par_--Scarce Marbled Green
+      _Perla_--Marbled Beauty
+
+  BOMBYCOIDÆ.
+    =Moma= (=Diphthera=).
+      _Orion_--Scarce Marvel-du-jour
+    =Demas.=
+      _Coryli_--Nut-tree Tussock
+    =Acronycta.=
+      _Tridens_--Dark Dagger
+      _Psi_--Grey Dagger
+      _Leporina_--Miller
+      _Aceris_--Sycamore
+      _Megacephala_--Poplar Grey
+      _Strigosa_--Grisette
+      _Alni_--Alder
+      _Ligustri_--Coronet
+      _Rumicis_--Knot-grass
+      _Auricoma_--Scarce Dagger
+      _Menyanthidis_--Light Knot-grass
+      _Euphorbiæ_ (_Myricæ_)--Sweet Gale
+    =Diloba.=
+      _Cæruleocephala_--Figure of Eight
+    =Arsilonche.=
+      _Albovenosa_ (_Venosa_)--Powdered Wainscot
+
+  LEUCANIIDÆ.
+    =Synia.=
+      _Musculosa_--Brighton Wainscot
+    =Leucania.=
+      _Conigera_--Brown-line Bright-eye
+      _Vitellina_--Delicate
+      _Turca_--Double Line
+      _Lithargyria_--Clay
+      _Albipuncta_--White-point
+      _Extranea_--American Wainscot
+      _Obsoleta_--Obscure Wainscot
+      _Putrescens_--Devonshire Wainscot
+      _Littoralis_--Shore Wainscot
+      _Impudens_ (_Pudorina_)--Striped Wainscot
+      _Comma_--Shoulder-striped Wainscot
+      _Straminea_--Southern Wainscot
+      _Impura_--Smoky Wainscot
+      _Pallens_--Common Wainscot
+    =Calamia.=
+      _Phragmitidis_--Fen Wainscot
+    =Meliana.=
+      _Flammea_--Flame Wainscot
+    =Senta.=
+      _Maritima_--Silky Wainscot
+    =C[oe]nobia.=
+      _Rufa_--Small Rufous
+    =Tapinostola.=
+      _Fulva_--Small Wainscot
+      _Hellmanni_--Mere Wainscot
+      _Extrema_ (_Concolor_)--Concolorous Wainscot
+      _Bondii_--Bond's Wainscot
+      _Elymi_--Lyme Wainscot
+    =Nonagria.=
+      _Cannæ_--Reed Wainscot
+      _Sparganii_--Iris Wainscot
+      _Arundinis_ (_Typhæ_)--Bullrush
+      _Geminipuncta_--Twin-spotted Wainscot
+      _Neurica_--Nerved Wainscot
+      _Brevilinea_--Fenn's Nonagria
+      _Lutosa_--Large Wainscot
+
+  APAMEIDÆ.
+    =Gortyna.=
+      _Ochracea_ (_Flavago_)--Frosted Orange
+    =Hydr[oe]cia.=
+      _Nictitans_--Golden Ear
+      _Petasitis_--Butter-bur
+      _Micacea_--Rosy Rustic
+    =Axylia.=
+      Putris--Flame
+    =Xylophasia.=
+      _Rurea_--Clouded-border Brindle
+      _Lithoxylea_--Light Arches
+      _Sublustris_--Reddish Light Arches
+      _Monoglypha_ (_Polyodon_)--Dark Arches
+      _Hepatica_--Clouded Brindle
+      _Scolopacina_--Slender Clouded Brindle
+    =Dipterygia.=
+      _Scabriuscula_ (_Pinastri_)--Bird's Wing
+    =Cloantha.=
+      _Polyodon_ (_Perspicillaris_)--Purple Cloud
+    =Aporophyla.=
+      _Australis_--Feathered Brindle
+    =Laphygma.=
+      _Exigua_--Small Mottled Willow
+    =Neuria.=
+      _Reticulata_ (_Saponariæ_)--Bordered Gothic
+    =Neuronia.=
+      _Popularis_--Feathered Gothic
+    =Heliophobus.=
+      _Hispidus_--Beautiful Gothic
+    =Charæas.=
+      _Graminis_--Antler
+    =Pachetra.=
+      _Leucophæa_--Feathered Ear
+    =Cerigo.=
+      _Matura_ (_Cytherea_)--Straw Underwing
+    =Luperina.=
+      _Testacea_--Flounced Rustic
+      _Dumerili_--Dumeril's Luperina
+      _Cespitis_--Hedge Rustic
+    =Mamestra.=
+      _Abjecta_--Crescent Striped
+      _Sordida_ (_Anceps_)--Large Nutmeg
+      _Albicolon_--White Colon
+      _Furva_--Confused
+      _Brassicæ_--Cabbage
+      _Persicariæ_--Dot
+    =Apamea.=
+      _Basilinea_--Rustic Shoulder Knot
+      _Connexa_--Union Rustic
+      _Gemina_--Dusky Brocade
+      _Unanimis_--Small Clouded Brindle
+      _Ophiogramma_--Double Lobed
+      _Leucostigma_ (_Fibrosa_)--Crescent
+      _Didyma_ (_Oculea_)--Common Rustic
+    =Miana.=
+      _Strigilis_--Marbled Minor
+      _Fasciuncula_--Middle-barred Minor
+      _Literosa_--Rosy Minor
+      _Bicoloria_ (_Furuncula_)--Cloaked Minor
+      _Arcuosa_--Dotted Buff
+    =Phothedes.=
+      _Captiuncula_--Least Minor
+    =Celæna.=
+      _Haworthii_--Haworth's Minor
+
+  CARADRINIDÆ
+    =Grammesia.=
+      _Trigrammica_ (_Trilinea_)--Treble Lines
+    =Stilbia.=
+      _Anomala_--Anomalous
+    =Caradrina.=
+      _Morpheus_--Mottled Rustic
+      _Alsines_--Uncertain
+      _Taraxaci_ (_Blanda_)--Rustic
+      _Ambigua_--Ambiguous
+      _Quadripunctata_ (_Cubicularis_)--Pale Mottled Willow
+    =Acosmetia.=
+      _Caliginosa_--Reddish Buff
+    =Hydrilla.=
+      _Palustris_--Marsh Moth
+    =Rusina.=
+      _Tenebrosa_--Brown Rustic
+
+  NOCTUIDÆ.
+    =Agrotis.=
+      _Vestigialis_ (_Valligera_)--Archer's Dart
+      _Puta_--Shuttle-shaped Dart
+      _Suffusa_--Dark Sword Grass
+      _Saucia_--Pearly Underwing
+      _Segetum_--Common Dart (Turnip Moth)
+      _Lunigera_--Crescent Dart
+      _Exclamationis_--Heart and Dart
+      _Corticea_--Heart and Club
+      _Cinerea_--Light Feathered Rustic
+      _Ripæ_--Sand Dart
+      _Cursoria_--Coast Dart
+      _Nigricans_--Garden Dart
+      _Tritici_--White-line Dart
+      _Aquilina_--Streaked Dart
+      _Obelisca_--Square-spot Dart
+      _Agathina_--Heath Rustic
+      _Strigula_ (_Porphyrea_)--True Lover's Knot
+      _Præcox_--Portland
+      _Obscura_ (_Ravida_)--Stout Dart
+      _Simulans_ (_Pyrophila_)--Dotted Rustic
+      _Lucernea_--Northern Rustic
+      _Ashworthii_--Ashworth's Rustic
+    =Noctua.=
+      _Glareosa_--Autumn Rustic
+      _Depuncta_--Plain Clay
+      _Augur_--Double Dot
+      _Plecta_--Flame Shoulder
+      _Flammatra_--Black Collar
+      _C-Nigrum_--Setaceous Hebrew Character
+      _Ditrapezium_--Triple-spotted Clay
+      _Triangulum_--Double-spotted Square-spot
+      _Stigmatica_ (_Rhomboidea_)--Square-spotted Clay
+      _Brunnea_--Purple Clay
+      _Festiva_ (_Conflua_)--Ingrailed Clay
+      _Dahlii_--Barred Chestnut
+      _Subrosea_--Rosy Marsh
+      _Rubi_--Small Square-spot
+      _Umbrosa_--Six-striped Rustic
+      _Baia_--Dotted Clay
+      _Sobrina_--Cousin German
+      _Castanea_ (_Neglecta_)--Grey Rustic
+      _Xanthographa_--Square-spot Rustic
+    =Triphæna.=
+      _Ianthina_--Lesser Broad Border
+      _Fimbria_--Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing
+      _Interjecta_--Least Yellow Underwing
+      _Orbona_ (_Subsequa_)--Lunar Yellow Underwing
+      _Comes_ (_Orbona_)--Lesser Yellow Underwing
+      _Pronuba_--Large Yellow Underwing
+
+  AMPHIPYRIDÆ.
+    =Amphipyra.=
+      _Pyramidea_--Copper Underwing
+      _Tragopogonis_--Mouse
+    =Mania.=
+      _Typica_--Gothic
+      _Maura_--Old Lady
+
+  ORTHOSIIDÆ.
+    =Panolis.=
+      _Piniperda_--Pine Beauty
+    =Pachnobia.=
+      _Leucographa_--White-marked
+      _Rubricosa_--Red Chestnut
+      _Hyperborea_ (_Carnica_)--Mountain Rustic
+    =Tæniocampa.=
+      _Gothica_--Hebrew Character
+      _Incerta_ (_Instabilis_)--Clouded Drab
+      _Opima_--Northern Drab
+      _Populeti_--Lead-coloured Drab
+      _Stabilis_--Common Quaker
+      _Gracilis_--Powdered Quaker
+      _Miniosa_--Blossom Underwing
+      _Munda_--Twin-spotted Quaker
+      _Pulverulenta_ (_Cruda_)--Small Quaker
+    =Orthosia.=
+      _Suspecta_--Suspected
+      _Upsilon_--Dismal
+      _Lota_--Red-lined Quaker
+      _Macilenta_--Yellow-lined Quaker
+    =Anchocelis.=
+      _Rufina_--Flounced Chestnut
+      _Pistacina_--Beaded Chestnut
+      _Lunosa_--Lunar Underwing
+      _Litura_--Brown-spot Pinion
+    =Cerastis= (=Glæa=).
+      _Vaccinii_--Chestnut
+      _Spadicea_--Dark Chestnut
+      _Erythrocephala_--Red-headed
+    =Scopelosoma.=
+      _Satellitia_--Satellite
+    =Dasycampa.=
+      _Rubiginea_--Dotted Chestnut
+    =Oporina.=
+      _Croceago_--Orange Upperwing
+    =Xanthia.=
+      _Citrago_--Orange Sallow
+      _Fulvago_ (_Cerago_)--Sallow
+      _Flavago_ (_Silago_)--Pink-barred Sallow
+      _Aurago_--Barred Sallow
+      _Gilvago_--Dusky Lemon Sallow
+      _Circellaris_ (_Ferruginea_)--Brick
+    =Cirrh[oe]dia.=
+      _Xerampelina_--Centre-barred Sallow
+
+  COSMIIDÆ.
+    =Tethea.=
+      _Subtusa_--Olive
+      _Retusa_--Double Kidney
+    =Cosmia= (=Euperia=).
+      _Paleacea_ (_Fulvago_)--Angle-striped Sallow
+    =Dicycla.=
+      _Oo_--Heart Moth
+    =Calymnia.=
+      _Trapezina_--Dun-bar
+      _Pyralina_--Lunar-spotted Pinion
+      _Diffinis_--White-spotted Pinion
+      _Affinis_--Lesser-spotted Pinion
+
+  HADENIDÆ.
+    =Eremobia.=
+      _Ochroleuca_--Dusky Sallow
+    =Dianth[oe]cia.=
+      _Luteago_ (_Barretti_)--Barrett's Marbled Coronet
+      _Cæsia_--Grey Marbled Coronet
+      _Nana_ (_Conspersa_)--Marbled Coronet
+      _Albimacula_--White Spot
+      _Compta_--The Shears
+      _Capsincola_--Lychnis
+      _Cucubali_--Campion
+      _Carpophaga_--Tawny Shears
+      _Capsophila_--Pod-lover
+      _Irregularis_ (_Echii_)--Viper's Bugloss
+    =Hecatera.=
+      _Chrysozona_ (_Dysodea_)--Small Ranunculus
+      _Serena_--Broad-barred White
+    =Polia.=
+      _Chi_--Grey Chi
+      _Flavicincta_--Large Ranunculus
+      _Xanthomista_ (_Nigrocincta_)--Black-banded
+    =Dasypolia.=
+      _Templi_--Brindled Ochre
+    =Epunda.=
+      _Lichenea_--Feathered Ranunculus
+      _Lutulenta_--Deep-brown Dart
+      _Nigra_--Black Rustic
+    =Cleoceris.=
+      _Viminalis_--Minor Shoulder-knot
+    =Valeria.=
+      _Oleagina_--Green-brindled Dot
+    =Miselia.=
+      _Oxyacanthæ_--Green-brindled Crescent
+      _Bimaculosa_--Crescent
+    =Agriopis.=
+      _Aprilina_--Marvel-du-jour
+    =Euplexia.=
+      _Lucipara_--Small Angle-shades
+    =Phlogophora.=
+      _Meticulosa_--Angle-shades
+    =Trigonophora.=
+      _Flammea_ (_Empyrea_)--Flame Brocade
+    =Aplecta.=
+      _Prasina_ (_Herbida_)--Green Arches
+      _Occulta_--Great Brocade
+      _Nebulosa_--Grey Arches
+      _Tincta_--Silvery Arches
+      _Advena_--Pale Shining Brown
+    =Crymodes.=
+      _Exulis_ (_Assimilis_)--Northern Arches
+    =Hadena.=
+      _Porphyrea_ (_Satura_)--Beautiful Brocade
+      _Adusta_--Dark Brocade
+      _Protea_--Brindled Green
+      _Glauca_--Glaucous Shears
+      _Dentina_--Grey Shears
+      _Trifolii_ (_Chenopodii_)--Nutmeg
+      _Atriplicis_--Orache
+      _Dissimilis_ (_Suasa_)--Dog's Tooth
+      _Oleracea_--Bright-line Brown-eye
+      _Pisi_--Broom
+      _Thalassina_--Pale-shouldered Brocade
+      _Contigua_--Beautiful Brocade
+      _Genistæ_--Light Brocade
+      _Rectilinea_--Saxon
+
+  XYLINIDÆ.
+    =Xylocampa.=
+      _Areola_ (_Lithoriza_)--Early Grey
+    =Xylomiges.=
+      _Conspicillaris_--Silver Cloud
+    =Calocampa.=
+      _Vetusta_--Red Sword Grass
+      _Exoleta_--Sword Grass
+      _Solidaginis_--Golden-rod Brindled
+    =Xylina.=
+      _Ornithopus_ (_Rhizolitha_)--Grey Shoulder Knot
+      _Semibrunnea_--Tawny Pinion
+      _Socia_ (_Petrificata_)--Pale Pinion
+      _Furcifera_ (_Conformis_)--Conformist
+      _Lambda_--Nonconformist
+    =Asteroscopus.=
+      _Nubeculosa_--Rannoch Sprawler
+      _Sphinx_ (_Cassinea_)--Sprawler
+    =Cucullia.=
+      _Verbasci_--Mullein Shark
+      _Scrophulariæ_--Betony Shark
+      _Lychnitis_--Lychnis Shark
+      _Asteris_--Starwort Shark
+      _Gnaphalii_--Cudweed Shark
+      _Absinthii_--Wormwood Shark
+      _Chamomillæ_--Chamomile Shark
+      _Umbratica_--Shark
+
+  GONOPTERIDÆ.
+    =Gonoptera.=
+      _Libatrix_--Herald
+
+  PLUSIIDÆ.
+    =Habrostola.=
+      _Tripartita_ (_Urticæ_)--Light Spectacle
+      _Triplasia_--Dark Spectacle
+    =Plusia.=
+      _Chryson_ (_Orichalcea_)--Scarce Burnished Brass
+      _Chrysitis_--Burnished Brass
+      _Bractea_--Gold Spangled
+      _Festucæ_--Gold Spot
+      _Iota_--Plain Golden Y
+      _Pulchrina_--Beautiful Golden Y
+      _Gamma_--Silver Y
+      _Interrogationis_--Scarce Silver Y
+
+  HELIOTHIDÆ.
+    =Anarta.=
+      _Melanopa_--Broad-bordered White Underwing
+      _Cordigera_--Small Dark Yellow Underwing
+      _Myrtilli_--Beautiful Yellow Underwing
+    =Heliaca= (=Heliodes=).
+      _Tenebrata_ (_Arbuti_)--Small Yellow Underwing
+    =Heliothis.=
+      _Dipsacea_--Marbled Clover
+      _Scutosa_--Rare Marbled Clover
+      _Peltigera_--Bordered Straw
+      _Armigera_--Scarce Bordered Straw
+    =Chariclea.=
+      _Umbra_ (_Marginata_)--Bordered Sallow
+
+  ACONTIIDÆ.
+    =Agrophila.=
+      _Trabealis_ (_Sulphuralis_)--Spotted Sulphur
+    =Acontia.=
+      _Luctuosa_--Four-spotted
+
+  ERASTRIIDÆ.
+    =Erastria.=
+      _Fasciana_ (_Fuscula_)--Marbled White Spot
+      _Venustula_--Rosy Marbled
+    =Bankia.=
+      _Argentula_--Silver-barred
+    =Hydrelia.=
+      _Uncula_ (_Unca_)--Silver Hook
+
+  ANTHOPHILIDÆ.
+    =Thalpochares= (=Micra=).
+      _Ostrina_--Purple Marbled
+      _Parva_--Small Marbled
+      _Paula_--Scarce Marbled
+
+  POAPHILIDÆ.
+    =Phytometra.=
+      _Viridaria_ (_Ænea_)--Small Purple-barred
+
+  EUCLIDIIDÆ.
+    =Euclidia.=
+      _Mi_--Mother Shipton
+      _Glyphica_--Burnet Noctua
+
+  OPHIUSIDÆ.
+    =Ophiodes.=
+      _Lunaris_--Lunar Double Stripe
+
+  CATEPHIIDÆ.
+    =Catephia.=
+      _Alchymista_--Alchymist
+
+  CATOCALIDÆ.
+    =Catocala.=
+      _Fraxini_--Clifden Nonpareil
+      _Nupta_--Red Underwing
+      _Promissa_--Light Crimson Underwing
+      _Sponsa_--Dark Crimson Underwing
+
+  AVENTIIDÆ.
+    =Aventia.=
+      _Flexula_--Scallop Barred
+
+  TOXOCAMPIDÆ.
+    =Toxocampa.=
+      _Pastinum_--Black Neck
+      _Craccæ_--New Black Neck
+
+  BOLETOBIIDÆ.
+    =Boletobia.=
+      _Fuliginaria_--Waved Black
+
+  HERMINIIDÆ.
+    =Rivula.=
+      _Sericealis_--Straw Dot
+    =Zanclognatha.=
+      _Grisealis_--Lesser Fan-foot
+      _Tarsipennalis_--Fan-foot
+      _Emortualis_--Olive Crescent
+    =Herminia.=
+      _Cribralis_--Dotted Fan-foot
+      _Derivalis_--Clay Fan-foot
+    =Pechypogon.=
+      _Barbalis_--Common Fan-foot
+
+  HYPENIDÆ.
+    =Madopa.=
+      _Salicalis_--Lesser Belle
+    =Bomolocha.=
+      _Fontis_ (_Crassalis_)--Beautiful Snout
+    =Hypena.=
+      _Rostralis_--Lesser Snout
+      _Proboscidalis_--Snout
+    =Hypenodes.=
+      _Albistrigalis_--White-streak
+      _Costæstrigalis_--Ribbed-streak
+    =Tholomiges= (=Schrankia=).
+      _Turfosalis_--Tiny Snout
+
+  BREPHIDES.
+    =Brephos.=
+      _Parthenias_--Orange Underwing
+      _Notha_--Light Orange Underwing
+
+=GEOMETRÆ.=
+
+  UROPTERYGIDÆ.
+    =Uropteryx.=
+      _Sambucaria_ (_Sambucata_)--Swallow Tail
+
+  ENNOMIDÆ.
+    =Epione.=
+      _Parallelaria_ (_Vespertaria_)--Dark-bordered Beauty
+      _Apiciaria_--Bordered Beauty
+      _Advenaria_--Little Thorn
+    =Rumia.=
+      _Luteolata_ (_Cratægata_)--Brimstone
+    =Venilia.=
+      _Macularia_--Speckled Yellow
+    =Angerona.=
+      _Prunaria_--Orange Moth
+    =Metrocampa.=
+      _Margaritaria_--Light Emerald
+    =Ellopia.=
+      _Prosapiaria_ (_Fasciaria_)--Barred Red
+    =Eurymene.=
+      _Dolobraria_--Scorched Wing
+    =Pericallia.=
+      _Syringaria_--Lilac Beauty
+    =Selenia.=
+      _Bilunaria_ (_Illunaria_)--Early Thorn
+      _Lunaria_--Lunar Thorn
+      _Tetralunaria_ (_Illustraria_)--Purple Thorn
+    =Odontopera.=
+      _Bidentata_--Scalloped Hazel
+    =Crocallis.=
+      _Elinguaria_--Scalloped Oak
+    =Eugonia.=
+      _Autumnaria_ (_Alniaria_)--Large Thorn
+      _Alniaria_ (_Tiliaria_)--Canary-shouldered Thorn
+      _Fuscantaria_--Dusky Thorn
+      _Erosaria_--September Thorn
+      _Quercinaria_ (_Angularia_)--August Thorn
+    =Himera.=
+      _Pennaria_--Feathered Thorn
+
+  AMPHIDASYDÆ.
+    =Phigalia.=
+      _Pedaria_ (_Pilosaria_)--Pale Brindled Beauty
+    =Nyssia.=
+      _Zonaria_--Belted Beauty
+      _Hispidaria_--Small Brindled Beauty
+      _Lapponaria_--Rare Brindled Beauty
+    =Biston.=
+      _Hirtaria_--Brindled Beauty
+    =Amphidasys.=
+      _Strataria_ (_Prodromaria_)--Oak Beauty
+      _Betularia_--Peppered Moth
+
+  BOARMIIDÆ.
+    =Hemerophila.=
+      _Abruptaria_--Waved Umber
+    =Cleora.=
+      _Angularia_ (_Viduaria_)--Speckled Beauty
+      _Glabraria_--Dotted Carpet
+      _Lichenaria_--Brussels Lace
+    =Boarmia.=
+      _Repandata_--Mottled Beauty
+      _Gemmaria_ (_Rhomboidaria_)--Willow Beauty
+      _Abietaria_--Satin Carpet
+      _Cinctaria_--Ringed Carpet
+      _Roboraria_--Great Oak Beauty
+      _Consortaria_--Pale Oak Beauty
+    =Tephrosia.=
+      _Consonaria_--Square Spot
+      _Crepuscularia_--Small Engrailed
+      _Biundularia_--Engrailed
+      _Luridata_ (_Extersaria_)--Brindled White-spot
+      _Punctularia_--Grey Birch
+    =Gnophos.=
+      _Obscuraria_--Annulet
+    =Dasydia.=
+      _Obfuscaria_--Scotch Annulet
+    =Psodos.=
+      _Coracina_ (_Trepidaria_)--Black Mountain Moth
+
+  GEOMETRIDÆ.
+    =Pseudoterpna.=
+      _Pruinata_ (_Cytisaria_)--Grass Emerald
+    =Geometra.=
+      _Papilionaria_--Large Emerald
+      _Vernaria_--Small Emerald
+    =Phorodesma.=
+      _Pustulata_ (_Bajularia_)--Blotched Emerald
+      _Smaragdaria_--Essex Emerald
+    =Nemoria.=
+      _Viridata_--Small Grass Emerald
+    =Iodis.=
+      _Lactearia_--Little Emerald
+    =Hemithea.=
+      _Strigata_ (_Thymiaria_)--Common Emerald
+
+  EPHYRIDÆ.
+    =Zonosoma.=
+      _Porata_--False Mocha
+      _Punctaria_--Maiden's Blush
+      _Linearia_ (_Trilinearia_)--Clay Triple-lines
+      _Annulata_ (_Omicronaria_)--Mocha
+      _Orbicularia_--Dingy Mocha
+      _Pendularia_--Birch Mocha
+
+  ACIDALIIDÆ.
+    =Hyria.=
+      _Muricata_ (_Auroraria_)--Golden-bordered Purple
+    =Asthena.=
+      _Luteata_--Small Yellow Wave
+      _Candidata_--Small White Wave
+      _Sylvata_--Waved Carpet
+      _Blomeri_ (_Pulchraria_)--Blomer's Rivulet
+    =Eupisteria.=
+      _Obliterata_ (_Heparata_)--Dingy Shell
+    =Venusia.=
+      _Cambrica_ (_Cambricaria_)--Welsh Wave
+    =Acidalia.=
+      _Perochraria_--Ochraceous Wave
+      _Ochrata_--Bright Wave
+      _Rubiginata_ (_Rubricata_)--Tawny Wave
+      _Dimidiata_ (_Scutulata_)--Single-dotted Wave
+      _Bisetata_--Small Fan-footed Wave
+      _Trigeminata_--Treble Brown-spot
+      _Contiguaria_--Greening's Wave
+      _Rusticata_--Least Carpet
+      _Holosericata_--Silky Wave
+      _Dilutaria_ (_Interjectaria_)--Dark Cream Wave
+      _Virgularia_ (_Incanaria_)--Small Dusty Wave
+      _Circellata_--Circellate
+      _Ornata_--Lace Border
+      _Marginepunctata_ (_Promutata_)--Mullein Wave
+      _Straminata_--Dotted-bordered Cream Wave
+      _Subsericeata_--Satin Wave
+      _Immutata_--Lesser Cream Wave
+      _Strigaria_--Streaked Wave
+      _Remutaria_--Cream Wave
+      _Fumata_--Smoky Wave
+      _Strigilaria_ (_Prataria_)--Sub-angled Wave
+      _Imitaria_--Small Blood-vein
+      _Emutaria_--Rosy Wave
+      _Aversata_--Riband Wave
+      _Inornata_--Plain Wave
+      _Degeneraria_--Portland Riband Wave
+      _Emarginata_--Small Scallop
+    =Timandra.=
+      _Amataria_--Blood-vein
+
+  CABERIDÆ.
+    =Cabera.=
+      _Pusaria_--Common White Wave
+      _Rotundaria_--Round-winged Wave
+      _Exanthemata_--Common Wave
+    =Bapta.=
+      _Temerata_--Clouded Silver
+      _Bimaculata_ (_Taminata_)--White-pinion Spotted
+    =Aleucis.=
+      _Pictaria_--Sloe Carpet
+
+  MACARIIDÆ.
+    =Macaria.=
+      _Alternata_--Sharp-angled Peacock
+      _Notata_--Peacock
+      _Liturata_--Tawny-barred Angle
+    =Halia.=
+      _Vauaria_ (_Wavaria_)--V Moth
+      _Brunneata_ (_Pinetaria_)--Rannoch Geometer
+
+  FIDONIIDÆ.
+    =Strenia.=
+      _Clathrata_--Latticed Heath
+    =Panagra.=
+      _Petraria_--Brown Silver-line
+    =Numeria.=
+      _Pulveraria_--Barred Umber
+    =Scodiona.=
+      _Belgiaria_--Grey Scalloped Bar
+    =Selidosema.=
+      _Ericetaria_ (_Plumaria_)--Bordered Grey
+    =Fidonia.=
+      _Carbonaria_--Netted Mountain
+      _Limbaria_ (_Conspicuata_)--Frosted Yellow
+    =Ematurga.=
+      _Atomaria_--Common Heath
+    =Bupalus.=
+      _Piniaria_--Bordered White
+    =Minoa.=
+      _Murinata_ (_Euphorbiata_)--Drab Geometer
+    =Scoria.=
+      _Lineata_ (_Dealbata_)--Black-veined
+    =Aplasta.=
+      _Ononaria_--Rest-harrow
+    =Sterrha.=
+      _Sacraria_--Vestal
+    =Lythria.=
+      _Purpuraria_--Purple-barred Yellow
+    =Aspilates.=
+      _Strigillaria_--Grass Wave
+      _Ochrearia_ (_Citraria_)--Yellow Belle
+      _Gilvaria_--Straw Belle
+
+  ZERENIDÆ.
+    =Abraxas.=
+      _Grossulariata_--Currant Moth (Magpie)
+      _Sylvata_ (_Ulmata_)--Clouded Magpie
+    =Ligdia.=
+      _Adustata_--Scorched Carpet
+    =Lomaspilis.=
+      _Marginata_--Clouded Border
+
+  LIGIIDÆ.
+    =Pachycnemia.=
+      _Hippocastanaria_--Horse Chestnut
+
+  HYBERNIIDÆ.
+    =Hybernia.=
+      _Rupicapraria_--Early Moth
+      _Leucophæaria_--Spring Usher
+      _Aurantiaria_--Scarce Umber
+      _Marginaria_ (_Progemmaria_)--Dotted Border
+      _Defoliaria_--Mottled Umber
+    =Anisopteryx.=
+      _Æscularia_--March Moth
+
+  LARENTIIDÆ.
+    =Cheimatobia.=
+      _Brumata_--Winter Moth
+      _Boreata_--Northern Winter
+  Moth
+    =Oporabia.=
+      _Dilutata_--November Moth
+      _Filigrammaria_--Autumnal Moth
+      _Autumnaria_
+    =Larentia.=
+      _Didymata_--Twin-spot Carpet
+      _Multistrigaria_--Mottled Grey
+      _Cæsiata_--Grey Mountain Carpet
+      _Flavicinctata_ (_Ruficinctata_)--Yellow-ringed Carpet
+      _Salicata_--Striped Twin-spot Carpet
+      _Olivata_--Beech-green Carpet
+      _Viridaria_ (_Pectinitaria_)--Green Carpet
+    =Emmelesia.=
+      _Affinitata_--Rivulet
+      _Alchemillata_--Small Rivulet
+      _Albulata_--Grass Rivulet
+      _Decolorata_--Sandy Carpet
+      _Tæniata_--Barred Carpet
+      _Unifasciata_--Haworth's Carpet
+      _Minorata_ (_Ericetata_)--Heath Rivulet
+      _Adæquata_ (_Blandiata_)--Pretty Pinion
+    =Eupithecia.=
+      _Venosata_--Netted Pug
+      _Consignata_--Pinion-spotted Pug
+      _Linariata_--Toadflax Pug
+      _Pulchellata_--Foxglove Pug
+      _Oblongata_ (_Centaureata_)--Lime-speck
+      _Succenturiata_--Bordered Lime-speck
+      _Subfulvata_--Tawny-speckled Pug
+      _Scabiosata_ (_Subumbrata_)--Shaded Pug
+      _Pernotata_--Guenée's Pug
+      _Plumbeolata_--Lead-coloured Pug
+      _Isogrammaria_--Haworth's Pug
+      _Pygmæata_--Marsh Pug
+      _Helveticaria_--Edinburgh Pug
+      _Egenaria_--Pauper Pug
+      _Satyrata_--Satyr Pug
+      _Castigata_--Grey Pug
+      _Jasioneata_--Jasione Pug
+      _Trisignaria_--Triple-spotted Pug
+      _Virgaureata_--Golden-rod Pug
+      _Fraxinata_--Ash-tree Pug
+      _Extensaria_--Scarce Pug
+      _Pimpinellata_--Pimpinel Pug
+      _Valerianata_--Valerian Pug
+      _Pusillata_--Dwarf Pug
+      _Irriguata_--Marbled Pug
+      _Campanulata_--Campanula Pug
+      _Innotata_--Long-winged Pug
+      _Indigata_--Ochreous Pug
+      _Constrictata_--Wild Thyme Pug
+      _Nanata_--Narrow-winged Pug
+      _Subnotata_--Plain Pug
+      _Vulgata_--Common Pug
+      _Albipunctata_--White-spotted Pug
+      _Expallidata_--Bleached Pug
+      _Absinthiata_--Wormwood Pug
+      _Minutata_--Ling Pug
+      _Assimilata_--Currant Pug
+      _Tenuiata_--Slender Pug
+      _Subciliata_--Maple Pug
+      _Lariciata_--Larch Pug
+      _Abbreviata_--Brindled Pug
+      _Dodoneata_--Oak-tree Pug
+      _Exiguata_--Mottled Pug
+      _Ultimaria_--Tamarisk Pug
+      _Sobrinata_--Juniper Pug
+      _Togata_--Cloaked Pug
+      _Pumilata_--Double-striped Pug
+      _Coronata_--V Pug
+      _Rectangulata_--Green Pug
+      _Debiliata_--Bilberry Pug
+    =Collix.=
+      _Sparsata_--Dentated Pug
+    =Lobophora.=
+      _Sexalisata_ (_Sexalata_)--Small Seraphim
+      _Halterata_ (_Hexapterata_)--Seraphim
+      _Viretata_--Yellow-barred Brindle
+      _Carpinata_ (_Lobulata_)--Early Tooth-striped
+      _Polycommata_--Barred Tooth-striped
+    =Thera.=
+      _Juniperata_--Juniper Carpet
+      _Simulata_--Chestnut-coloured Carpet
+      _Variata_ (_Obeliscata_)--Shaded Broad-bar
+      _Firmata_--Pine Carpet
+    =Hypsipetes.=
+      _Ruberata_--Ruddy High-flier
+      _Trifasciata_ (_Impluviata_)--May High-flier
+      _Sordidata_ (_Elutata_)--July High-flier
+    =Melanthia.=
+      _Bicolorata_ (_Rubiginata_)--Blue-bordered Carpet
+      _Ocellata_--Purple Bar
+      _Albicillata_--Beautiful Carpet
+    =Melanippe.=
+      _Hastata_--Argent and Sable
+      _Tristata_--Small Argent and Sable
+      _Procellata_--Chalk Carpet
+      _Unangulata_--Sharp-angled Carpet
+      _Rivata_--Wood Carpet
+      _Sociata_ (_Subtristata_)--Common Carpet
+      _Montanata_--Silver-ground Carpet
+      _Galiata_--Galium Carpet
+      _Fluctuata_--Garden Carpet
+    =Anticlea.=
+      _Cucullata_ (_Sinuata_)--Royal Mantle
+      _Rubidata_--Flame
+      _Badiata_--Shoulder Stripe
+      _Nigrofasciaria_ (_Derivata_)--Streamer
+      _Berberata_--Barberry Carpet
+    =Coremia.=
+      _Munitata_--Red Carpet
+      _Designata_ (_Propugnata_)--Flame Carpet
+      _Ferrugata_--Red Twin-spot Carpet
+      _Unidentaria_--Dark-barred Twin-spot Carpet
+      _Quadrifasciaria_--Large Twin-spot Carpet
+    =Camptogramma.=
+      _Bilineata_--Yellow Shell
+      _Fluviata_--Gem
+    =Phibalapteryx.=
+      _Tersata_--Fern
+      _Lapidata_--Slender-striped Rufous
+      _Vittata_ (_Lignata_)--Oblique Carpet
+      _Polygrammata_ (_Conjunctaria_)--Many-lined
+      _Vitalbata_--Small Waved Umber
+    =Triphosa.=
+      _Dubitata_--Tissue
+    =Eucosmia.=
+      _Certata_--Scarce Tissue
+      _Undulata_--Scalloped Shell
+    =Scotosia.=
+      _Vetulata_--Brown Scallop
+      _Rhamnata_--Dark Umber
+    =Cidaria.=
+      _Siterata_ (_Psittacata_)--Red-green Carpet
+      _Miata_--Autumn Green Carpet
+      _Picata_--Short-cloak Carpet
+      _Corylata_--Broken-barred Carpet
+      _Sagittata_--Marsh Carpet
+      _Truncata_ (_Russata_)--Common Marbled Carpet
+      _Immanata_--Dark Marbled Carpet
+      _Suffumata_--Water Carpet
+      _Reticulata_--Netted Carpet
+      _Silaceata_--Small Ph[oe]nix
+      _Prunata_ (_Ribesiaria_)--Ph[oe]nix
+      _Testata_--Chevron
+      _Populata_--Northern Spinach
+      _Fulvata_--Barred Yellow
+      _Dotata_ (_Pyraliata_)--Barred Straw
+      _Associata_ (_Dotata_)--Spinach
+    =Pelurga.=
+      _Comitata_--Dark Spinach
+
+  EUBOLIIDÆ.
+    =Eubolia.=
+      _Cervinata_ (_Cervinaria_)--Mallow
+      _Limitata_ (_Mensuraria_)--Small Mallow
+      _Plumbaria_ (_Palumbaria_)--Belle
+      _Bipunctaria_--Chalk Carpet
+    =Mesotype.=
+      _Virgata_ (_Lineolata_)--Oblique-striped
+    =Carsia.=
+      _Paludata_ (_Imbutata_)--Manchester Treble Bar
+    =Anaitis.=
+      _Plagiata_--Treble Bar
+    =Lithostege.=
+      _Griseata_--Pale Grey Carpet
+    =Chesias.=
+      _Spartiata_--Streak
+      _Rufata_ (_Obliquaria_)--Broom Tip
+
+  SIONIDÆ.
+    =Tanagra.=
+      _Atrata_ (_Chærophyllata_)--Chimney Sweep
+
+
+APPENDIX II
+
+_THE LEPIDOPTERIST'S CALENDAR_
+
+The success of the country rambles of an expert lepidopterist depends
+greatly on his knowledge of the times at which the various butterflies
+and moths generally appear, and of the localities which they are known
+to frequent. The experiences he has gained in the past enable him to
+calculate on the probabilities of the future, and he chooses both time
+and locality according to his requirements.
+
+As he makes his way to the hunting ground he counts over the chances of
+meeting with a certain insect that is wanted to fill a long-standing
+blank in his cabinet; and we hear him discussing the probabilities as to
+whether this species is yet 'out,' or whether the larvæ of that species
+are feeding.
+
+How different it is with the young and unguided entomologist! He rambles
+promiscuously here and there, having only the faintest idea as to what
+he is likely to see, and perhaps meeting with only four or five species
+when an experienced collector, without covering a larger area of ground,
+would take scores in the same time.
+
+In order to afford some little help to the beginner, I have thought it
+advisable to introduce a calendar of operations to guide him in his
+work. The space at our command would not allow this to be carried out in
+detail, but the general instructions will undoubtedly assist most of my
+readers until the practical experience gained by a few years' work has
+enabled them to run on their own legs.
+
+Of course, in making reference to the monthly lists of insects on the
+wing, allowance must be made for the forwardness or backwardness of the
+seasons. Thus, an insect entered in the April list _may_ appear in March
+in an exceptionally warm season, but may not emerge till the early part
+of May if the spring has been unusually severe.
+
+It will be observed that in cases where all the species of a certain
+genus or family appear on the wing in the same month, the name of that
+genus or family is entered on the list instead of the names of the
+individual species; but the latter can easily be obtained by reference
+to Appendix I.
+
+
+JANUARY
+
+There is not much field work to be done during this month. If the
+weather is very severe, hardly an insect will be found on the wing; but
+a mild January will sometimes entice the Brimstone Butterfly (_Rhamni_)
+and some of the hybernating Vanessas from their winter quarters.
+
+Hybernating moths may also be met with, on the wing if the weather
+is mild, or sleeping in their sheltered nooks during the frosts.
+These include several _Noctuæ_--_Auricoma_, _Lithargyria_,
+_Suffusa_, _Vaccinii_, _Spadicea_, _Erythrocephala_, _Satellitia_,
+_Rubiginea_, _Croceago_, _Vetusta_, _Exoleta_, _Ornithopus_,
+_Furcifera_, _Semibrunnea_, _Socia_, and _Libatrix_; and also a few
+_Geometræ_--_Zonaria_, _Fluviata_, _Dubitata_, _Siterata_, and _Miata_.
+
+In addition to these hybernating insects, the collector may examine tree
+trunks and fences for the Early Moth (_Rupicapraria_), and late
+specimens of the Winter Moth (_Brumata_); and towards the end of the
+month he may expect to meet with fresh specimens of the Pale Brindled
+Beauty (_Pedaria_) and the Spring Usher (_Leucophæaria_). A few of the
+_Tineæ_ may also be seen.
+
+The net need not be used at all during the colder months of the year, as
+the moths are easily taken in pill boxes from the trunks and fences on
+which they rest.
+
+Pupa digging may be carried on throughout the month if the weather is
+sufficiently mild, but it is of no use attempting this during a frost.
+Hybernating larvæ may also be searched out of their winter quarters if
+the collector does not mind giving them the attention they require; but,
+as a rule, it is better to wait till they themselves start out to feed
+in the spring, at which time all their food plants are showing leaf.
+
+
+FEBRUARY
+
+Our remarks under 'January' concerning pupa digging and other work apply
+equally well to this month. The same hybernating butterflies and moths
+may be looked for; and, in addition to _Pedaria_, _Leucophæaria_, and
+_Rupicapraria_, which now appear more plentifully, the following species
+will probably be seen:
+
+  Small Eggar (_Lanestris_)
+  Small Brindled Beauty (_Hispidaria_)
+  Oak Beauty (_Strataria_)
+  Dotted Border (_Marginaria_)
+  March Moth (_Æscularia_)
+
+About half a dozen species of the _Tineæ_ will also have made their
+appearance before the end of the month.
+
+
+MARCH
+
+Many of the hybernating larvæ will come out during March if the weather
+is mild, and commence to feed; and the young caterpillars will begin to
+appear from the eggs of the early moths already named. This is
+consequently a good time to commence the search for larvæ if you intend
+to go in for rearing. During the daytime some may be beaten from the
+boughs of trees and shrubs; and those which feed on low plants, being
+generally nocturnal in their habits, should be searched for in the
+evening, after dark, with the aid of a lantern.
+
+The hybernating butterflies are now flying more freely than before, and,
+if the weather is bright and warm for the time of year, a few freshly
+emerged species may be seen. These may possibly include:
+
+  Large White (_Brassicæ_)
+  Small White (_Rapæ_)
+  Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+  Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+
+As regards moths, several fresh species may be expected to appear, while
+those named as appearing in February are still to be found. The
+new-comers may include:
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Kentish Glory (_Versicolor_)
+    Yellow-horned (_Flavicornis_)
+
+  =Noctuæ.=
+    Pine Beauty (_Piniperda_)
+    White-marked Rustic (_Leucographa_)
+    Red Chestnut (_Rubricosa_)
+    All species of the genus _Tæniocampa_
+    Early Grey (_Areola_)
+    Green-brindled Dot (_Oleagina_)
+    Orange Underwing (_Parthenias_)
+    Light Orange Underwing (_Notha_)
+
+  =Geometræ.=
+    Early Thorn (_Bilunaria_)
+    Engrailed (_Biundularia_)
+    Mottled Grey (_Multistrigaria_)
+
+Sugaring may be commenced towards the end of March, and sallow blossom
+may be searched in the evening, but it is probable that only a few
+species will be taken by these means.
+
+A few more species of the _Tineæ_ appear in March, and four or five of
+the _Tortrices_ are out before the end of the month.
+
+
+APRIL
+
+This is really a busy month with the entomologist, and it will be
+necessary to put all apparatus and appliances into perfect order early.
+The cyanide bottle should be freshly charged, nets examined and repaired
+if necessary, and all setting boards, breeding cages &c. put in perfect
+trim for the new season's work.
+
+Larvæ are now feeding freely, and a few hours spent in beating,
+sweeping, and searching will enable you to stock your cages liberally.
+
+Sugaring may be continued throughout the month, and the sallow blossom
+may be searched as long as it proves attractive. Moths may also be
+attracted by light at night.
+
+The following butterflies are generally out during April, in addition to
+the hybernated species already named:
+
+  Large White (_Brassicæ_)
+  Small White (_Rapæ_)
+  Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+  Orange Tip (_Cardamines_)
+  Wood White (_Sinapis_)
+  Pearl-bordered Fritillary (_Euphrosyne_)
+  Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+  Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_)
+  Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+  Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+  Grizzled Skipper (_Malvæ_)
+  Dingy Skipper (_Tages_)
+
+The following is a list of the principal moths for April:
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Small Lappet (_Ilicifolia_)
+    Kentish Glory (_Versicolor_)
+    Yellow Horned (_Flavicornis_)
+    Frosted Green (_Ridens_)
+
+  =Noctuæ.=
+    Pine Beauty (_Piniperda_)
+    White-marked Rustic (_Leucographa_)
+    Red Chestnut (_Rubricosa_)
+    All species of the genus _Tæniocampa_
+    Early Grey (_Areola_)
+    Mullein Shark (_Verbasci_)
+    Orange Underwing (_Parthenias_)
+    Light Orange Underwing (_Notha_)
+
+  =Geometræ.=
+    Brimstone (_Luteolata_)
+    Early Thorn (_Bilunaria_)
+    Belted Beauty (_Zonaria_)
+    Brindled Beauty (_Hirtaria_)
+    Waved Umber (_Abruptaria_)
+    Small Engrailed (_Crepuscularia_)
+    Engrailed (_Biundularia_)
+    Sloe Carpet (_Pictaria_)
+    Netted Mountain (_Carbonaria_)
+    Mottled Grey (_Multistrigaria_)
+    Satyr Pug (_Satyrata_)
+    Marbled Pug (_Irriguata_)
+    Campanula Pug (_Campanulata_)
+    Brindled Pug (_Abbreviata_)
+    Oak-tree Pug (_Dodoneata_)
+    Double-striped Pug (_Pumilata_)
+    Early Tooth-striped (_Carpinata_)
+    Shoulder Stripe (_Badiata_)
+    Many-lined (_Polygrammata_)
+    Tissue (_Dubitata_)
+
+In addition to the above, a few species of the _Tortrices_, several of
+the _Tineæ_, and one or two of the Plume Moths (_Pterophori_) are out
+during April.
+
+
+MAY
+
+Little or nothing will be obtained by digging during May, yet a number
+of pupæ may be found among grass and leaves under trees, and also
+attached to the leaves and stems of low plants. These pupæ include those
+of several of the butterflies, among which may be mentioned _Machaon_,
+_Selene_, _Euphrosyne_, _Aurinia_, _Megæra_, _Ianira_, _Rubi_,
+_Astrarche_, _Icarus_, _Bellargus_, _Corydon_, _Lucina_, and _Sylvanus_.
+
+Larvæ may now be taken in abundance by beating the boughs of oaks and
+other trees, and also by examining low plants.
+
+The hybernating butterflies are still on the wing, and the following are
+also out:
+
+  Swallow Tail (_Machaon_)
+  Large White (_Brassicæ_)
+  Small White (_Rapæ_)
+  Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+  Bath White (_Daplidice_)
+  Orange Tip (_Cardamines_)
+  Wood White (_Sinapis_)
+  Small Pearl-bordered (_Selene_)
+  Pearl-bordered (_Euphrosyne_)
+  Greasy Fritillary (_Aurinia_)
+  Glanville Fritillary (_Cinxia_)
+  Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+  Wall (_Megæra_)
+  Marsh Ringlet (_Typhon_)
+  Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+  Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_)
+  Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+  Brown Argus (_Astrarche_)
+  Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+  Clifden Blue (_Bellargus_)
+  Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+  Mazarine Blue (_Semiargus_)
+  Grizzled Skipper (_Malvæ_)
+  Chequered Skipper (_Palæmon_)
+
+There is a great increase in the number of moths this month, and much
+good work may be done by means of light traps and by the examination of
+fences. Many moths are driven from their resting places early in the
+morning by the direct rays of the rising sun, and then seek out a spot
+where they are better sheltered, and where they are consequently less
+easily found. Hence the advantage of searching fences early in the
+morning.
+
+The May list includes:
+
+  =Sphinges.=
+    Small Elephant (_Porcellus_)
+    All species of the genera _Smerinthus_ and _Macroglossa_
+    Some of the Clearwings (_Apiformis_, _Sphegiformis_, and
+      _Culiciformis_)
+    Cream-bordered Green (_Chlorana_)
+    Green Silver-lined (_Prasinana_)
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Wood Tiger (_Plantaginis_)
+    Muslin Moth (_Mendica_)
+    Common Swift (_Lupulinus_)
+    Pale Tussock (_Pudibunda_)
+    Small Lappet (_Ilicifolia_)
+    Emperor (_Pavonia_)
+    All species of family _Drepanulidæ_
+    Alder Kitten (_Bicuspis_)
+    Puss (_Vinula_)
+    Several of the 'Prominents' (_Cuculla_, _Carmelita_, _Dictæa_,
+      _Dictæoides_, _Trilophus_, _Ziczac_, _Trepida_, _Chaonia_,
+      _Trimacula_)
+    Chocolate Tip (_Curtula_)
+    Small Chocolate Tip (_Pigra_)
+
+  =Noctuæ.=
+    Knot Grass (_Rumicis_)
+    Sweet Gale (_Myricæ_)
+    White Colon (_Albicolon_)
+    Cabbage (_Brassicæ_)
+    Treble Lines (_Trigrammica_)
+    Marsh Moth (_Palustris_)
+    Light Brocade (_Genistæ_)
+    Mullein Shark (_Verbasci_)
+    Betony Shark (_Scrophulariæ_)
+    Starwort Shark (_Asteris_)
+    Camomile Shark (_Chamomillæ_)
+    Small Dark Yellow Underwing (_Cordigera_)
+    Small Yellow Underwing (_Tenebrata_)
+    Bordered Sallow (_Umbra_)
+    Lunar Double Stripe (_Lunaris_)
+
+  =Geometræ.=
+    Brimstone (_Luteolata_)
+    Speckled Yellow (_Macularia_)
+    Purple Thorn (_Tetralunaria_)
+    Scalloped Hazel (_Bidentata_)
+    Brindled Beauty (_Hirtaria_)
+    Peppered (_Betularia_)
+    Waved Umber (_Abruptaria_)
+    Ringed Carpet (_Cinctaria_)
+    Square Spot (_Consonaria_)
+    Small Engrailed (_Crepuscularia_)
+    Engrailed (_Biundularia_)
+    Grey Birch (_Punctularia_)
+    Small Grass Emerald (_Viridata_)
+    All species of family _Ephyridæ_
+    Cream Wave (_Remutaria_)
+    White Wave (_Pusaria_)
+    Round-winged Wave (_Rotundaria_)
+    Common Wave (_Exanthemata_)
+    Clouded Silver (_Temerata_)
+    White-pinion Spotted (_Bimaculata_)
+    Latticed Heath (_Clathrata_)
+    Brown Silver-line (_Petraria_)
+    Barred Umber (_Pulveraria_)
+    Netted Mountain (_Carbonaria_)
+    Common Heath (_Atomaria_)
+    Bordered White (_Piniaria_)
+    Rest Harrow (_Ononaria_)
+    Yellow Belle (_Ochrearia_)
+    Clouded Border (_Marginata_)
+    Horse Chestnut (_Hippocastanaria_)
+    Pretty Pinion (_Adæquata_)
+    Pugs (_Venosata_, _Consignata_, _Pulchellata_, _Plumbeolata_,
+      _Satyrata_, _Castigata_, _Pusillata_, _Irriguata_, _Indigata_,
+      _Nanata_, _Vulgata_, _Assimilata_, _Exiguata_, _Coronata_)
+    Yellow-barred Brindle (_Viretata_)
+    Ruddy High-flier (_Ruberata_)
+    May High-flier (_Trifasciata_)
+    Common Carpet (_Sociata_)
+    Silver-ground Carpet (_Montanata_)
+    Streamer (_Nigrofasciaria_)
+    Barberry Carpet (_Berberata_)
+    Flame Carpet (_Designata_)
+    Twin-spot Carpets (_Ferrugata_ and _Unidentaria_)
+    Scarce Tissue (_Certata_)
+    Water Carpet (_Suffumata_)
+    Small Ph[oe]nix (_Silaceata_)
+    Oblique-striped (_Virgata_)
+    Broom Tip (_Rufata_)
+
+A number of the Micros are also out this month. About twenty species of
+the _Pyralides_, one or two of the _Pterophori_, a few _Crambi_, about
+fifty of the _Tortrices_, and no less than two hundred of the _Tineæ_.
+The collector will do well to search fences and tree trunks for these
+moths, whenever he has the opportunity; and also to use the net freely
+in wooded country, waste places, and along hedgerows, _before_ and at
+dusk.
+
+
+JUNE
+
+There is a marked increase in winged insect life during this month. The
+early butterflies are disappearing, or perhaps have quite left us; but
+new species are taking their place. The _Sphinges_ now reach their
+maximum, as do also the _Bombyces_; and the other groups are almost if
+not quite up to their highest total. The _Noctuæ_ and _Geometræ_ each
+amount to over a hundred species. No less than a hundred and fifty
+British _Tortrices_ are on the wing; the _Tineæ_ make a near approach to
+three hundred, and the _Pyralides_ of the month are not far short of
+numbering a hundred species. It will thus be seen that the net and pill
+boxes, as well as the setting boards, are in constant demand.
+
+Dull days may be well occupied in beating for moths, and in the
+examination of fences and the bark of trees; and on bright days, as soon
+as the butterflies have settled down to rest, the same work may be
+carried on till dusk.
+
+Micros and _Geometræ_ are out early in the evening, when they should be
+taken with the net. Later on the _Noctuæ_ may be seen playing round
+their favourite flowers.
+
+Sugar and light traps are likely to do good service during June, and
+decoy females of the _Bombyces_ group may be called to your aid.
+
+Larvæ are also abundant during June, and those of most of the
+butterflies may be taken by carefully searching their food plants.
+
+The following is the list of imagines for the month:
+
+  =Butterflies.=
+    Swallow Tail (_Machaon_)
+    Black-veined White (_Cratægi_)
+    Large White (_Brassicæ_)
+    Small White (_Rapæ_)
+    Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+    Small Pearl-bordered (_Selene_)
+    Pearl-bordered (_Euphrosyne_)
+    Silver-washed Fritillary (_Paphia_)
+    Greasy Fritillary (_Aurinia_)
+    Glanville Fritillary (_Cinxia_)
+    Heath Fritillary (_Athalia_)
+    Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticæ_)
+    White Admiral (_Sibylla_)
+    Small Ringlet (_Epiphron_)
+    Meadow Brown (_Ianira_)
+    Ringlet (_Hyperanthus_)
+    Marsh Ringlet (_Typhon_)
+    Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+    Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_)
+    Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+    Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+    Small Blue (_Minima_)
+    Duke of Burgundy (_Lucina_)
+    Grizzled Skipper (_Malvæ_)
+    Dingy Skipper (_Tages_)
+    Large Skipper (_Sylvanus_)
+    Chequered Skipper (_Palæmon_)
+
+  =Sphinges.=
+    Privet Hawk (_Ligustri_)
+    Spurge Hawk (_Euphorbiæ_)
+    Small Elephant (_Porcellus_)
+    Large Elephant (_Elpenor_)
+    Eyed Hawk (_Ocellatus_)
+    Poplar Hawk (_Populi_)
+    Lime Hawk (_Tiliæ_)
+    Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_)
+    All the Clearwings (Sesiidæ)
+    The Burnets (Fam. _Zygænidæ_)
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Family _Nolidæ_
+    Dew Moth (_Irrorella_)
+    Cinnabar (_Jacobææ_)
+    Scarlet Tiger (_Dominula_)
+    Family _Cheloniidæ_
+    Family _Hepialidæ_
+    Family _Cossidæ_
+    Family _Cochliopodidæ_
+    Dark Tussock (_Fascelina_)
+    Pale Tussock (_Pudibunda_)
+    Scarce Vapourer (_Gonostigma_)
+    Fox (_Rubi_)
+    Lappet (_Quercifolia_)
+    Family _Drepanulidæ_
+    Family _Dicranuridæ_
+    Pale Prominent (_Palpina_)
+    Coxcomb Prominent (_Camelina_)
+    Swallow Prominent (_Dictæa_)
+    Lesser Swallow Prominent (_Dictæoides_)
+    Iron Prominent (_Dromedarius_)
+    Pebble Prominent (_Ziczac_)
+    Great Prominent (_Trepida_)
+    Marbled Brown (_Trimacula_)
+    Buff Tip (_Bucephala_)
+    Peach Blossom (_Batis_)
+    Genus _Cymatophora_
+
+  =Noctuæ.=
+    Scarce Marvel-du-jour (_Orion_)
+    Genus _Acronycta_
+    Powdered Wainscot (_Albovenosa_)
+    Most of the species of genus _Leucania_
+    Flame Wainscot (_Flammea_)
+    Silky Wainscot (_Maritima_)
+    Small Rufous (_Rufa_)
+    Mere Wainscot (_Hellmanni_)
+    Concolorous (_Extrema_)
+    Flame (_Putris_)
+    Genus _Xylophasia_
+    Bird's Wing (_Scabriuscula_)
+    Small Mottled Willow (_Exigua_)
+    Bordered Gothic (_Reticulata_)
+    Feathered Ear (_Leucophæa_)
+    Large Nutmeg (_Sordida_)
+    White Colon (_Albicolon_)
+    Cabbage (_Brassicæ_)
+    Dot (_Persicariæ_)
+    Rustic Shoulder Knot (_Basilinea_)
+    Union Rustic (_Connexa_)
+    Dusky Brocade (_Gemina_)
+    Double Lobed (_Ophiogramma_)
+    Genus _Miana_
+    Treble Lines (_Trigrammica_)
+    Mottled Rustic (_Morpheus_)
+    Rustic (_Taraxaci_)
+    Pale Mottled Willow (_Quadripunctata_)
+    Reddish Buff (_Caliginosa_)
+    Marsh Moth (_Palustris_)
+    Brown Rustic (_Tenebrosa_)
+    Turnip (_Segetum_)
+    Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_)
+    Light-feathered Rustic (_Cinerea_)
+    Sand Dart (_Ripæ_)
+    Garden Dart (_Nigricans_)
+    Lover's Knot (_Strigula_)
+    Double Dot (_Augur_)
+    Flame Shoulder (_Plecta_)
+    Double-spotted Square-spot (_Triangulum_)
+    Ingrailed Clay (_Festiva_)
+    Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing (_Fimbria_)
+    Large Yellow Underwing (_Pronuba_)
+    Gothic (_Typica_)
+    Heart Moth (_Oo_)
+    Genus _Dianth[oe]cia_
+    Broad-barred White (_Serena_)
+    Small Angle Shades (_Lucipara_)
+    Angle Shades (_Meticulosa_)
+    Green Arches (_Prasina_)
+    Grey Arches (_Nebulosa_)
+    Silvery Arches (_Tincta_)
+    Pale Shining Brown (_Advena_)
+    Northern Arches (_Exulis_)
+    Genus Hadena (nearly all)
+    Lychnis Shark (_Lychnitis_)
+    Starwort Shark (_Asteris_)
+    Cudweed Shark (_Gnaphalii_)
+    Camomile Shark (_Chamomillæ_)
+    Shark (_Umbratica_)
+    Genus _Habrostola_
+    Burnished Brass (_Chrysitis_)
+    Plain Golden Y (_Iota_)
+    Beautiful Golden Y (_Pulchrina_)
+    Silver Y (_Gamma_)
+    Scarce Silver Y (_Interrogationis_)
+    Genus _Anarta_
+    Small Yellow Underwing (_Tenebrata_)
+    Bordered Straw (_Peltigera_)
+    Bordered Sallow (_Umbra_)
+    Spotted Sulphur (_Trabealis_)
+    Four-spotted (_Luctuosa_)
+    Family _Erastriidæ_
+    Purple Marbled (_Ostrina_)
+    Small Marbled (_Parva_)
+    Small Purple-barred (_Viridaria_)
+    Mother Shipton (_Mi_)
+    Burnet Noctua (_Glyphica_)
+    Black Neck (_Pastinum_)
+    Family _Herminiidæ_
+    Family _Hypenidæ_
+
+  =Geometræ.=
+    Little Thorn (_Advenaria_)
+    Brimstone (_Luteolata_)
+    Speckled Yellow (_Macularia_)
+    Orange (_Prunaria_)
+    Barred Red (_Prosapiaria_)
+    Scorched Wing (_Dolobraria_)
+    Lunar Thorn (_Lunaria_)
+    Peppered (_Betularia_)
+    Speckled Beauty (_Angularia_)
+    Genus _Boarmia_
+    Square Spot (_Consonaria_)
+    Brindled White-spot (_Luridata_)
+    Grey Birch (_Punctularia_)
+    Blotched Emerald (_Pustulata_)
+    Small Grass Emerald (_Viridata_)
+    Common Emerald (_Strigata_)
+    Nearly all the family _Acidaliidæ_
+    Genus _Bapta_
+    Peacock (_Notata_)
+    Rannoch Geometer (_Brunneata_)
+    Brown Silver-line (_Petraria_)
+    Barred Umber (_Pulveraria_)
+    Grey Scalloped Bar (_Belgiaria_)
+    Frosted Yellow (_Limbaria_)
+    Bordered White (_Piniaria_)
+    Drab Geometer (_Murinata_)
+    Black-veined (_Lineata_)
+    Grass Wave (_Strigillaria_)
+    Clouded Magpie (_Sylvata_)
+    Scorched Carpet (_Adustata_)
+    Clouded Border (_Marginata_)
+    Twin-spot Carpet (_Didymata_)
+    Grey Mountain Carpet (_Cæsiata_)
+    Striped Twin-spot Carpet (_Salicata_)
+    Green Carpet (_Viridaria_)
+    Genus _Emmelesia_
+    Most of the Pugs (_Eupithecia_)
+    Small Seraphim (_Sexalisata_)
+    Seraphim (_Halterata_)
+    Yellow-barred Brindle (_Viretata_)
+    Shaded Broad-bar (_Variata_)
+    Ruddy High-flier (_Ruberata_)
+    Purple Bar (_Ocellata_)
+    Beautiful Carpet (_Albicillata_)
+    Genus _Melanippe_
+    Royal Mantle (_Cucullata_)
+    Flame (_Rubidata_)
+    Genus _Coremia_
+    Yellow Shell (_Bilineata_)
+    Fern (_Tersata_)
+    Oblique Carpet (_Vittata_)
+    Small Waved Umber (_Vitalbata_)
+    Scalloped Shell (_Undulata_)
+    Brown Scallop (_Vetulata_)
+    Short-cloak Carpet (_Picata_)
+    Broken-barred Carpet (_Corylata_)
+    Common Marbled Carpet (_Truncata_)
+    Small Ph[oe]nix (_Silaceata_)
+    Small Mallow (_Limitata_)
+    Belle (_Plumbaria_)
+    Oblique-striped (_Virgata_)
+    Treble Bar (_Plagiata_)
+    Pale Grey Carpet (_Griseata_)
+    Chimney Sweep (_Atrata_)
+
+
+JULY
+
+The number of species on the wing in July is even greater than in June.
+Butterflies are very numerous, some being second broods of
+double-brooded species, and others late single-brooded insects.
+
+_Sphinges_ are beginning to fall off, and so are the _Bombyces_, but the
+_Noctuæ_ and _Geometræ_ are slightly on the increase.
+
+As regards the Micros, a good number of fresh species may be expected,
+all the groups exhibiting a marked increase in the total number on the
+wing with the exception of the _Tineæ_.
+
+Sugaring is likely to pay well this month, and many moths may be
+attracted by light. Tree trunks and fences should be well examined.
+
+Pupæ may certainly be taken, but unless the collector is particularly
+desirous of obtaining the pupæ of insects known to be now passing
+through that stage, he will probably do better by looking after
+imagines.
+
+Larvæ, however, may well receive a little attention, providing the
+setting of butterflies and moths leave a little leisure for other
+employments. Beating by day, and searching by both day and night, even
+if carried on only occasionally, will probably supply you with as many
+species as you can accommodate in your glasses and cages.
+
+The butterflies of the month are:
+
+  Swallow Tail (_Machaon_)
+  Black-veined White (_Cratægi_)
+  Large White (_Brassicæ_)
+  Small White (_Rapæ_)
+  Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+  Wood White (_Sinapis_)
+  Brimstone (_Rhamni_)
+  Dark Green Fritillary (_Aglaia_)
+  High Brown Fritillary (_Adippe_)
+  Silver-washed Fritillary (_Paphia_)
+  Heath Fritillary (_Athalia_)
+  Comma (_C-Album_)
+  Large Tortoiseshell (_Polychloros_)
+  Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticæ_)
+  Peacock (_Io_)
+  Painted Lady (_Cardui_)
+  White Admiral (_Sibylla_)
+  Purple Emperor (_Iris_)
+  Marbled White (_Galatea_)
+  Northern Brown (_Æthiops_)
+  Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+  Grayling (_Semele_)
+  Meadow Brown (_Ianira_)
+  Large Heath (_Tithonus_)
+  Ringlet (_Hyperanthes_)
+  Marsh Ringlet (_Typhon_)
+  Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+  Brown Hairstreak (_Betulæ_)
+  White-letter Hairstreak (_W-Album_)
+  Dark Hairstreak (_Pruni_)
+  Purple Hairstreak (_Quercus_)
+  Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_)
+  Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+  Silver-studded Blue (_Ægon_)
+  Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+  Chalk-hill Blue (_Corydon_)
+  Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+  Mazarine Blue (_Semiargus_)
+  Small Blue (_Minima_)
+  Large Blue (_Arion_)
+  Small Skipper (_Thaumas_)
+  New Small Skipper (_Lineola_)
+
+The moths of July include the following species:
+
+  =Sphinges.=
+    Privet Hawk (_Ligustri_)
+    Bedstraw Hawk (_Galii_)
+    Eyed Hawk (_Ocellatus_)
+    Poplar Hawk (_Populi_)
+    Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_)
+    Hornet Clearwing of Poplar (_Apiformis_)
+    Hornet Clearwing of Osier (_Crabroniformis_)
+    Welsh Clearwing (_Scoliiformis_)
+    Red-belted Clearwing (_Myopiformis_)
+    Red-tipped Clearwing (_Formiciformis_)
+    Six-belted Clearwing (_Ichneumoniformis_)
+    Genus _Ino_
+    Burnets (_Trifolii_, _Loniceræ_ and _Filipendulæ_)
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Tortrix (_Undulanus_)
+    Large Green Silver-lined (_Bicolorana_)
+    Short-cloaked (_Cucullatella_)
+    Most of the family _Lithosiidæ_
+    Tiger (_Caia_)
+    Ruby Tiger (_Fuliginosa_)
+    Buff Ermine (_Lubricipeda_)
+    White Ermine (_Menthastri_)
+    Wood Swift (_Sylvanus_)
+    Northern Swift (_Velleda_)
+    Goat Moth (_Ligniperda_)
+    Leopard (_Pyrina_)
+    Brown Tail (_Chrysorrh[oe]a_)
+    Yellow Tail (_Similis_)
+    Satin (_Salicis_)
+    Reed Tussock (_C[oe]nosa_)
+    Black Arches (_Monacha_)
+    Vapourer (_Antiqua_)
+    Lackey (_Neustria_)
+    Ground Lackey (_Castrensis_)
+    Oak Eggar (_Quercus_)
+    Drinker (_Potatoria_)
+    Sallow Kitten (_Furcula_)
+    Poplar Kitten (_Bifida_)
+    Lobster (_Fagi_)
+    Pale Prominent (_Palpina_)
+    Coxcomb Prominent (_Camelina_)
+    Buff Tip (_Bucephala_)
+    Buff Arches (_Derasa_)
+    Peach Blossom (_Batis_)
+    Figure of Eighty (_Octogesima_)
+    Poplar Lutestring (_Or_)
+    Lesser Satin (_Duplaris_)
+
+  =Noctuæ.=
+    Marbled Green (_Muralis_)
+    Marbled Beauty (_Perla_)
+    Grey Dagger (_Psi_)
+    Miller (_Leporina_)
+    Poplar Grey (_Megacephala_)
+    Grisette (_Strigosa_)
+    Coronet (_Ligustri_)
+    Knot Grass (_Rumicis_)
+    Scarce Dagger (_Auricoma_)
+    Light Knot Grass (_Menyanthidis_)
+    Brown Line Bright Eye (_Conigera_)
+    Double Line (_Turca_)
+    Clay (_Lithargyria_)
+    Wainscots (_Littoralis_, _Impudens_, _Comma_, _Impura_, _Pallens_,
+      _Phragmitidis_, _Maritima_, _Rufa_, _Bondii_, _Neurica_)
+    Ear Moth (_Nictitans_)
+    Flame (_Putris_)
+    Genus _Xylophasia_
+    Antler (_Graminis_)
+    Straw Underwing (_Matura_)
+    Most of Genus _Mamestra_
+    Genus _Miana_
+    Haworth's Minor (_Haworthii_)
+    Treble Lines (_Trigrammica_)
+    Genus _Caradrina_
+    Brown Rustic (_Tenebrosa_)
+    Archer's Dart (_Vestigialis_)
+    Pearly Underwing (_Saucia_)
+    Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_)
+    Heart and Club (_Corticea_)
+    Sand Dart (_Ripæ_)
+    Coast Dart (_Cursoria_)
+    Garden Dart (_Nigricans_)
+    Streaked Dart (_Aquilina_)
+    True Lover's Knot (_Strigula_)
+    Stout Dart (_Obscura_)
+    Dotted Rustic (_Simulans_)
+    Northern Rustic (_Lucernea_)
+    Ashworth's Rustic (_Ashworthii_)
+    Most of Genus _Noctua_
+    Genus _Triphæna_
+    Copper Underwing (_Pyramidea_)
+    Mouse (_Tragopogonis_)
+    Old Lady (_Maura_)
+    Suspected (_Suspecta_)
+    Dismal (_Upsilon_)
+    Olive (_Subtusa_)
+    Genus _Calymnia_
+    Dusky Sallow (_Ochroleuca_)
+    Marbled Coronet (_Nana_)
+    Genus _Hecatera_
+    Minor Shoulder Knot (_Viminalis_)
+    Small Angle Shades (_Lucipara_)
+    Genus _Aplecta_
+    Dark Brocade (_Adusta_)
+    Shears (_Dentina_)
+    Nutmeg (_Trifolii_)
+    Pale-shouldered Brocade (_Thalassina_)
+    Silver Cloud (_Conspicillaris_)
+    Lychnis Shark (_Lychnitis_)
+    Wormwood Shark (_Absinthii_)
+    Family _Plusiidæ_
+    Beautiful Yellow Underwing (_Myrtilli_)
+    Marbled Clover (_Dipsacea_)
+    Four-spotted (_Luctuosa_)
+    Rosy Marbled (_Venustula_)
+    Marbled White-spot (_Fasciana_)
+    Small Purple-barred (_Viridaria_)
+    Red Underwing (_Nupta_)
+    Light Crimson Underwing (_Promissa_)
+    Dark Crimson Underwing(_Sponsa_)
+    New Black-neck (_Craccæ_)
+    Family _Herminiidæ_
+    Family _Hypenidæ_
+
+  =Geometræ.=
+    Swallow-tail (_Sambucaria_)
+    Dark-bordered Beauty (_Parallelaria_)
+    Bordered Beauty (_Apiciaria_)
+    Orange (_Prunaria_)
+    Light Emerald (_Margaritaria_)
+    Barred Red (_Prosapiaria_)
+    Lilac Beauty (_Syringaria_)
+    Early Thorn (_Bilunaria_)
+    Scalloped Oak (_Elinguaria_)
+    Genus _Cleora_
+    Genus _Boarmia_
+    Annulet (_Obscuraria_)
+    Scotch Annulet (_Obfuscaria_)
+    Black Mountain Moth (_Coracina_)
+    Family _Geometridæ_
+    Golden-bordered Purple (_Muricata_)
+    Waved Carpet (_Sylvata_)
+    Dingy Shell (_Obliterata_)
+    Welsh Wave (_Cambrica_)
+    Most of the _Acidaliæ_
+    Blood Vein (_Amataria_)
+    Family _Macariidæ_
+    Latticed Heath (_Clathrata_)
+    Bordered Grey (_Ericetaria_)
+    Common Heath (_Atomaria_)
+    Rest Harrow (_Ononaria_)
+    Vestal (_Sacraria_)
+    Grass Wave (_Strigillaria_)
+    Family _Zerenidæ_
+    Twin-spot Carpet (_Didymata_)
+    Grey Mountain Carpet (_Cæsiata_)
+    Yellow-ringed Carpet (_Flavicinctata_)
+    Beech-green Carpet (_Olivata_)
+    Green Carpet (_Viridaria_)
+    Genus _Emmelesia_
+    Pugs (_Linariata_, _Oblongata_, _Succenturiata_, _Pernotata_,
+      _Isogrammaria_, _Virgaureata_, _Innotata_, _Subnotata_,
+      _Absinthiata_, _Tenuiata_, _Subciliata_, _Rectangulata_)
+    Chestnut-coloured Carpet (_Simulata_)
+    Shaded Broad Bar (_Variata_)
+    Pine Carpet (_Firmata_)
+    July High-flier (_Sordidata_)
+    Genus _Melanthia_
+    Genus _Melanippe_
+    Flame (_Rubidata_)
+    Red Carpet (_Munitata_)
+    Large Twin-spot Carpet (_Quadrifasciaria_)
+    Yellow Shell (_Bilineata_)
+    Fern (_Tersata_)
+    Oblique Carpet (_Vittata_)
+    Many-lined (_Polygrammata_)
+    Dark Umber (_Rhamnata_)
+    Short-cloak Carpet (_Picata_)
+    Marsh Carpet (_Sagittata_)
+    Common Marbled Carpet (_Truncata_)
+    Dark Marbled Carpet (_Immanata_)
+    Netted Carpet (_Reticulata_)
+    Ph[oe]nix (_Prunata_)
+    Chevron (_Testata_)
+    Northern Spinach (_Populata_)
+    Barred Yellow (_Fulvata_)
+    Barred Straw (_Dotata_)
+    Spinach (_Associata_)
+    Dark Spinach (_Comitata_)
+    Small Mallow (_Limitata_)
+    Belle (_Plumbaria_)
+    Chalk Carpet (_Bipunctaria_)
+    Oblique-striped (_Virgata_)
+    Manchester Treble Bar (_Paludata_)
+    Treble Bar (_Plagiata_)
+    Pale Grey Carpet (_Griseata_)
+    Chimney Sweep (Atrata)
+
+
+AUGUST
+
+Although there is a very appreciable falling off in the number of
+species on the wing during August, yet there remains plenty of work for
+the lepidopterist.
+
+Many of the butterflies of July continue to fly during the whole or part
+of this month, and several fresh species commence their flight. August,
+too, may be looked upon as _the_ month for second broods, and an
+opportunity now arises for searching for some of the species that were
+missed at the time of their early appearance in May. Clover and lucerne
+fields should be well worked.
+
+A few _Sphinges_ and a number of the _Bombyces_ are still on the wing.
+The _Noctuæ_ are on the decrease, but there are yet nearly a hundred
+species (including the rarer ones) at large.
+
+These last may be taken at sugar in considerable numbers, and it is
+interesting to note that two of the Vanessas (_Atalanta_ and _Cardui_)
+may be caught sipping on your baited trees during the daytime.
+
+_Geometræ_ and Micros fall off very considerably this month, but these,
+as well as moths of the other groups, may be taken from tree trunks and
+palings. Light traps may also be used with much success during August.
+
+Fallen fruits should be examined for the larvæ that feed within them;
+and late in the month ripe fruit will supply food to the lovers of
+sweets.
+
+Ivy blossom should be well worked at night; and clover and lucerne
+fields form admirable hunting grounds for moths at night, especially
+just after rain.
+
+Larvæ are to be obtained in abundance by beating and searching, the
+latter process being conducted by night as well as by day.
+
+The following is the list of imagines for August:
+
+  =Butterflies.=
+    Swallow Tail (_Machaon_)
+    Large White (_Brassicæ_)
+    Small White (_Rapæ_)
+    Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+    Bath White (_Daplidice_)
+    Wood White (_Sinapis_)
+    Pale Clouded Yellow (_Hyale_)
+    Clouded Yellow (_Edusa_)
+    Brimstone (_Rhamni_)
+    Queen of Spain (_Latona_)
+    Dark Green Fritillary (_Aglaia_)
+    High Brown Fritillary (_Adippe_)
+    Silver-washed Fritillary (_Paphia_)
+    Genus _Vanessa_
+    White Admiral (_Sibylla_)
+    Purple Emperor (_Iris_)
+    Marbled White (_Galatea_)
+    Northern Brown (_Æthiops_)
+    Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+    Wall (_Megæra_)
+    Grayling (_Semele_)
+    Meadow Brown (_Ianira_)
+    Large Heath (_Tithonus_)
+    Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+    Brown Hairstreak (_Betulæ_)
+    Purple Hairstreak (_Quercus_)
+    Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+    Tailed Blue (_Bætica_)
+    Silver-studded Blue (_Ægon_)
+    Brown Argus (_Astrarche_)
+    Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+    Clifden Blue (_Bellargus_)
+    Chalk-hill Blue (_Corydon_)
+    Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+    Mazarine Blue (_Semiargus_)
+    Dingy Skipper (_Tages_)
+    New Small Skipper (_Lineola_)
+    Lulworth Skipper (_Actæon_)
+    Large Skipper (_Sylvanus_)
+    Silver-spotted Skipper (_Comma_)
+
+  =Sphinges.=
+    Death's-head Hawk (_Atropos_)
+    Convolvulus Hawk (_Convolvuli_)
+    Bedstraw Hawk (_Galii_)
+    Striped Hawk (_Livornica_)
+    Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_)
+    Red-tipped Clearwing (_Formiciformis_)
+    Six-belted Clearwing (_Ichneumoniformis_)
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Round-winged Muslin (_Senex_)
+    Muslin (_Mundana_)
+    Footmen (_Muscerda_, _Lutarella_, _Griseola_)
+    Wood Swift (_Sylvanus_)
+    Brown Tail (_Chrysorrh[oe]a_)
+    Yellow Tail (_Similis_)
+    Satin (_Salicis_)
+    Gipsy (_Dispar_)
+    Black Arches (_Monacha_)
+    Vapourer (_Antiqua_)
+    Lackey (_Neustria_)
+    Ground Lackey (_Castrensis_)
+    Oak Eggar (_Quercus_)
+    Grass Eggar (_Trifolii_)
+    Drinker (_Potatoria_)
+    Hook Tips (_Lacertinaria_, _Falcataria_, _Binaria_, _Cultraria_)
+    Chinese Character (_Glaucata_)
+    Sallow Kitten (_Furcula_)
+    Poplar Kitten (_Bifida_)
+    Prominents (_Camelina_, _Trilophus_, _Ziczac_)
+    Lesser Lutestring (_Diluta_)
+
+  =Noctuæ.=
+    Marbled Green (_Muralis_)
+    Marbled Beauty (_Perla_)
+    Grey Dagger (_Psi_)
+    Scarce Dagger (_Auricoma_)
+    Wainscots (_Musculosa_, _Albipuncta_, _Impura_, _Pallens_,
+      _Fulva_, _Cannæ_, _Arundinis_, _Geminipuncta_, _Neurica_,
+      _Lutosa_)
+    Frosted Orange (_Ochracea_)
+    Genus _Hydr[oe]cia_
+    Slender Clouded Brindle (_Scolopacina_)
+    Feathered Brindle (_Australis_)
+    Feathered Gothic (_Popularis_)
+    Antler (_Graminis_)
+    Straw Underwing (_Matura_)
+    Genus _Luperina_
+    Confused (_Furva_)
+    Small Clouded Brindle (_Unanimis_)
+    Crescent (_Leucostigma_)
+    Common Rustic (_Didyma_)
+    Anomalous (_Anomala_)
+    Mottled Rustic (_Morpheus_)
+    Pale Mottled Willow (_Quadripunctata_)
+    Archer's Dart (_Vestigialis_)
+    Shuttle-shaped Dart (_Puta_)
+    Pearly Underwing (_Saucia_)
+    Crescent Dart (_Lunigera_)
+    Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_)
+    Coast Dart (_Cursoria_)
+    Garden Dart (_Nigricans_)
+    White-line Dart (_Tritici_)
+    Streaked Dart (_Aquilina_)
+    Square-spot Dart (_Obelisca_)
+    Heath Rustic (_Agathina_)
+    Portland (_Præcox_)
+    Stout Dart (_Obscura_)
+    Dotted Rustic (_Simulans_)
+    Plain Clay (_Depuncta_)
+    Setaceous Hebrew Character (_C-Nigrum_)
+    Barred Chestnut (_Dahlii_)
+    Small Square-spot (_Rubi_)
+    Six-striped Rustic (_Umbrosa_)
+    Grey Rustic (_Castanea_)
+    Square-spot Rustic (_Xanthographa_)
+    Genus _Triphæna_
+    Mouse (_Tragopogonis_)
+    Old Lady (_Maura_)
+    Mountain Rustic (_Hyperborea_)
+    Suspected (_Suspecta_)
+    Olive (_Subtusa_)
+    Double Kidney (_Retusa_)
+    Angle-striped Sallow (_Paleacea_)
+    Genus _Calymnia_
+    Dusky Sallow (_Ochroleuca_)
+    Grey Chi (_Chi_)
+    Large Ranunculus (_Flavicincta_)
+    Feathered Ranunculus (_Lichenea_)
+    Crescent (_Bimaculosa_)
+    Great Brocade (_Occulta_)
+    Beautiful Brocade (_Porphyrea_)
+    Golden-rod Brindled (_Solidaginis_)
+    Herald (_Libatrix_)
+    Scarce Burnished Brass (_Chryson_)
+    Burnished Brass (_Chrysitis_)
+    Gold Spot (_Festucæ_)
+    Scarce Bordered Straw (_Armigera_)
+    Four-spotted (_Luctuosa_)
+    Clifden Nonpareil (_Fraxini_)
+    Red Underwing (_Nupta_)
+    Dark Crimson Underwing (_Sponsa_)
+
+  =Geometræ.=
+    Dark-bordered Beauty (_Parallelaria_)
+    Bordered Beauty (_Apiciaria_)
+    Purple Thorn (_Tetralunaria_)
+    Scalloped Oak (_Elinguaria_)
+    Canary-shouldered Thorn (_Alniaria_)
+    Dusky Thorn (_Fuscantaria_)
+    September Thorn (_Erosaria_)
+    August Thorn (_Quercinaria_)
+    Dotted Carpet (_Glabraria_)
+    Annulet (_Obscuraria_)
+    Scotch Annulet (_Obfuscaria_)
+    Family _Ephyridæ_
+    Small Dusty Wave (_Virgularia_)
+    Mullein Wave (_Marginepunctata_)
+    Small Blood Vein (_Imitaria_)
+    Common White Wave (_Pusaria_)
+    Vestal (_Sacraria_)
+    Yellow Belle (_Ochrearia_)
+    Straw Belle (_Gilvaria_)
+    Currant (_Grossulariata_)
+    _Autumnaria_
+    Haworth's Carpet (_Unifasciata_)
+    Bordered Lime Speck (_Succenturiata_)
+    Pugs (_Virgaureata_, _Campanulata_, _Indigata_, _Constrictata_,
+      _Expallidata_, _Sobrinata_, _Variata_)
+    July High Flier (_Sordidata_)
+    Carpets (_Bicolorata_, _Montanata_, _Fluctuata_, _Berberata_)
+    Yellow Shell (_Bilineata_)
+    Gem (_Fluviata_)
+    Oblique Carpet (_Vittata_)
+    Many-lined (_Polygrammata_)
+    Tissue (_Dubitata_)
+    Common Marbled Carpet (_Truncata_)
+    Ph[oe]nix (_Prunata_)
+    Chevron (_Testata_)
+    Northern Spinach (_Populata_)
+    Barred Yellow (_Fulvata_)
+    Barred Straw (_Dotata_)
+    Small Mallow (_Limitata_)
+    Chalk Carpet (_Bipunctaria_)
+    Treble Bar (_Plagiata_)
+    Broom Tip (_Rufata_)
+
+
+SEPTEMBER
+
+The number of species on the wing is now considerably lower, yet there
+is a good deal to be done both with butterflies and moths.
+
+Many of the former are worn and ragged, but good fresh specimens of some
+species may be taken. Clover and lucerne fields and the flowery borders
+of corn fields remain very attractive.
+
+Tree trunks and palings should be searched as before. Sugar still
+attracts numbers of the _Noctuæ_; and ivy blossom should be examined at
+night whenever an opportunity offers itself.
+
+September is a good month for larva hunting. Most of the species that
+pupate in the autumn are now full fed, and will undergo the change to
+the chrysalis state shortly after they have been housed, thus giving but
+little trouble to the entomologist. The day feeders may be beaten or
+swept from their food plants, but, of course, the nocturnal species are
+best discovered by searching at night.
+
+Some have already 'gone down' for the winter, and, consequently, pupa
+hunting may be started. However, as there is yet much to be done with
+imagines and larvæ, it may, perhaps, be better to leave the pupæ alone
+till about the end of the month, especially as many of the larvæ have
+not yet had time to complete their transformation.
+
+The list of imagines for September includes:
+
+  =Butterflies.=
+    Clouded Yellow (_Edusa_)
+    Brimstone (_Rhamni_)
+    Queen of Spain (_Latona_)
+    Comma (_C-Album_)
+    Large Tortoiseshell (_Polychloros_)
+    Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticæ_)
+    Peacock (_Io_)
+    Camberwell Beauty (_Antiopa_)
+    Red Admiral (_Atalanta_)
+    Painted Lady (_Cardui_)
+    Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+    Wall (_Megæra_)
+    Grayling (_Semele_)
+    Large Heath (_Tithonus_)
+    Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+    Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+    Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+    Clifden Blue (_Bellargus_)
+    Chalk-hill Blue (_Corydon_)
+    Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+
+  =Sphinges.=
+    Death's-head Hawk (_Atropos_)
+    Convolvulus Hawk (_Convolvuli_)
+    Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_)
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Tortrix (_Undulanus_)
+    Crimson Speckled (_Pulchella_)
+    Vapourer (_Antiqua_)
+    Pale Oak Eggar (_Cratægi_)
+    Lesser Lutestring (_Diluta_)
+
+  =Noctuæ.=
+    Figure of Eight (_Cæruleocephala_)
+    Small Wainscot (_Fulva_)
+    Bullrush (_Arundinis_)
+    Large Wainscot (_Lutosa_)
+    Frosted Orange (_Ochracea_)
+    Rosy Rustic (_Micacea_)
+    Feathered Brindle (_Australis_)
+    Beautiful Gothic (_Hispidus_)
+    Antler (_Graminis_)
+    Flounced Rustic (_Testacea_)
+    Hedge Rustic (_Cespitis_)
+    Haworth's Minor (_Haworthii_)
+    Anomalous (_Anomala_)
+    Shuttle-shaped Dart (_Puta_)
+    Dark Sword Grass (_Suffusa_)
+    Pearly Underwing (_Saucia_)
+    Turnip (_Segetum_)
+    Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_)
+    Autumn Rustic (_Glareosa_)
+    Mouse (_Tragopogonis_)
+    Red-lined Quaker (_Lota_)
+    Yellow-lined Quaker (_Macilenta_)
+    Genus _Anchocelis_
+    Genus _Xanthia_
+    Centre-barred Sallow (_Xerampelina_)
+    Double Kidney (_Retusa_)
+    Genus _Polia_
+    Black Rustic (_Nigra_)
+    Green-brindled Crescent (_Oxyacanthæ_)
+    Marvel-du-jour (_Aprilina_)
+    Angle Shades (_Meticulosa_)
+    Flame Brocade (_Flammea_)
+    Brindled Green (_Protea_)
+    Genus _Calocampa_
+    Genus _Xylina_
+    Herald (_Libatrix_)
+    Gold Spot (_Festucæ_)
+    Silver Y (_Gamma_)
+    Scarce Bordered Straw (_Armigera_)
+    Clifden Nonpareil (_Fraxini_)
+    Buttoned Snout (_Rostralis_)
+
+  =Geometræ.=
+    Bordered Beauty (_Apiciaria_)
+    Brimstone (_Luteolata_)
+    Genus _Eugonia_
+    November (_Dilutata_)
+    Autumnal (_Filigrammaria_)
+    Juniper Pug (_Sobrinata_)
+    Shaded Broad Bar (_Variata_)
+    Slender-striped Rufous (_Lapidata_)
+    Tissue (_Dubitata_)
+    Carpets (_Siderata_, _Miata_, _Immanata_)
+    Chevron (_Testata_)
+    Mallow (_Cervinata_)
+    Streak (_Spartiata_)
+
+
+OCTOBER
+
+As there is very little winged life this month, and the larvæ have
+nearly all sought out their winter quarters, special attention may be
+given to pupæ. The earlier this work is started after the insects have
+completed their change the better. If left late, many pupæ will have
+been destroyed by floods, moles, &c., and a prolonged series of frosty
+days may render digging unproductive if not impossible. Again, it must
+be remembered that some larvæ are not yet down, and by digging at the
+roots of the trees on which they are feeding, you are preparing an
+acceptable bed for the late species, for the pupæ of which you may call
+again in about a month.
+
+Larvæ may be obtained by beating and searching as before, but this work
+should be done as early in the month as possible, since but few are
+feeding after the first week or so.
+
+Butterfly catching is now practically over, only a few of the late
+species and the hybernators being on the wing, and these only on mild
+days.
+
+_Noctuæ_ are still attracted by sugar and ivy blossom, and a few may be
+found at rest. _Geometræ_ and Micros may be taken from palings and tree
+trunks by day, or caught flying at dusk.
+
+The imagines of October may include the following butterflies:
+
+  Brimstone (_Rhamni_)
+  Pale Clouded Yellow (_Hyale_)
+  Clouded Yellow (_Edusa_)
+  Comma (_C-Album_)
+  Large Tortoiseshell (_Polychloros_)
+  Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticæ_)
+  Peacock (_Io_)
+  Camberwell Beauty (_Antiopa_)
+  Red Admiral (_Atalanta_)
+  Painted Lady (_Cardui_)
+  Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+
+And a few late 'Blues.'
+
+The principal moths of the month are:
+
+  =Sphinges.=
+    Death's-head Hawk (_Atropos_)
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Plumed Prominent (_Plumigera_)
+
+  =Noctuæ.=
+    Large Wainscot (_Lutosa_)
+    Red-lined Quaker (_Lota_)
+    Yellow-lined Quaker (_Macilenta_)
+    Beaded Chestnut (_Pistacina_)
+    Brown-spot Pinion (_Litura_)
+    Chestnut (_Vaccinii_)
+    Dark Chestnut (_Spadicea_)
+    Red-headed Chestnut (_Erythrocephala_)
+    Satellite (_Satellitia_)
+    Dotted Chestnut (_Rubiginea_)
+    Orange Upperwing (_Croceago_)
+    Brick (_Circellaris_)
+    Brindled Ochre (_Templi_)
+    Green Brindled Crescent (_Oxyacanthæ_)
+    Marvel-du-jour (_Aprilina_)
+    Angle Shades (_Meticulosa_)
+    Flame Brocade (_Flammea_)
+    Red Sword-grass (_Vetusta_)
+    Sword-grass (_Exolita_)
+    Genus _Xylina_
+    Sprawler (_Sphinx_)
+    Silver Y (_Gamma_)
+
+  =Geometræ.=
+    Feathered Thorn (_Pennaria_)
+    Vestal (_Sacraria_)
+    Scarce Umber (_Aurantiaria_)
+    Mottled Umber (_Defoliaria_)
+    Winter (_Brumata_)
+    Northern Winter (_Boreata_)
+    November (_Dilutata_)
+    Juniper Carpet (_Juniperata_)
+    Gem (_Fluviata_)
+    Carpets (_Siderata_, _Miata_)
+    Mallow (_Cervinata_)
+    Streak (_Spartiata_)
+
+
+NOVEMBER
+
+No butterflies are to be seen this month with the exception of the
+hybernating species, and even these will not venture on the wing unless
+the weather is mild and bright for the season.
+
+Most of the moths met with are also hybernators, but a few species are
+to be found only at this season, and these should be looked for on
+fences and tree trunks. A few _Noctuæ_ may be taken at sugar, and the
+_Geometræ_ attracted by lights.
+
+The only larvæ now existing are hybernators, and many of these may be
+met with during your pupa-digging operations; but they are best left
+alone till the spring, as a rule.
+
+The chief work of the entomologist in November is certainly pupa
+hunting, and this may be carried on in real earnest whenever the weather
+is favourable, following the instructions given in Chapter VII.
+
+It will be remembered, also, that many of the _Lepidoptera_ pass the
+winter in the egg state, and search may be made for ova when time
+permits.
+
+The November list, besides some of the hybernating species previously
+mentioned, include:
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    December (_Populi_)
+
+  =Noctuæ.=
+    Genus _Cerastis_
+    Satellite (_Satellitia_)
+    Dotted Chestnut (_Rubiginea_)
+    Orange Upperwing (_Croceago_)
+    Brindled Ochre (_Exempli_)
+
+  =Geometræ.=
+    Feathered Thorn (_Pennaria_)
+    Scarce Umber (_Aurantiaria_)
+    Mottled Umber (_Defoliaria_)
+    Winter (_Brumata_)
+    Northern Winter (_Boreata_)
+
+
+DECEMBER
+
+Outdoor work is now at a minimum. The weather is too severe, as a rule,
+to allow pupa digging to be carried on with either success or comfort,
+but favourable opportunities should be seized for this employment as
+well as for ova collecting.
+
+Now and again we may meet with _P. Populi_ at rest by day, or fluttering
+round a light at night. _Brumata_ and _Defoliaria_ may also be seen, and
+the Early Moth (_Rupicapraria_) may appear on the wing before the new
+year; but nothing is likely to be met with beyond these save the
+hybernators, already named in other lists, and some of the _Tineæ_.
+
+It is a good plan to utilise your spare time during the dreary months of
+winter by attending to your cabinet. Rearrange your specimens where
+necessary, and see that all are properly labelled; remove all greasy
+specimens, and deal with them as recommended on page 127; also renew the
+supply of camphor or naphthaline in your drawers and store boxes. Time
+may also be found for the construction of apparatus that is likely to be
+required next season, and for repairing any that has been damaged during
+the work of the last.
+
+
+
+
+COLOURED PLATES
+
+
+PLATE I (_Frontispiece_)
+
+  1. SWALLOW-TAIL (_Papilio Machaon_).
+  2. BLACK-VEINED WHITE (_Aporia Cratægi_).
+  3. LARGE WHITE (_Pieris Brassicæ_). Female.
+  4. SMALL WHITE (_Pieris Rapæ_). Male.
+  5. GREEN-VEINED WHITE (_Pieris Napi_). Under side.
+  6. BATH WHITE (_Pieris Daplidice_). Female.
+  7. ORANGE TIP (_Euchloë Cardamines_). Male.
+  8. ORANGE TIP (_Euchloë Cardamines_). Male. Under side.
+
+PLATE II
+
+  1. WOOD WHITE (_Leucophasia Sinapis_).
+  2. PALE CLOUDED YELLOW (_Colias Hyale_).
+  3. CLOUDED YELLOW (_Colias Edusa_). Male.
+  4. BRIMSTONE (_Gonopteryx Rhamni_). Male.
+  5. SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Selene_).
+  6. PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Euphrosyne_).
+  7. QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Latona_).
+  8. DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Aglaia_).
+
+PLATE III
+
+  1. HIGH BROWN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Adippe_). Under side.
+  2. SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_).
+  3. GREASY FRITILLARY (_Melitæa Aurinia_).
+  4. GLANVILLE FRITILLARY (_Melitæa Cinxia_).
+  5. HEATH FRITILLARY (_Melitæa Athalia_).
+  6. HEATH FRITILLARY (_Melitæa Athalia_). Under side.
+  7. COMMA (_Vanessa C-Album_).
+  8. LARGE TORTOISESHELL (_Vanessa Polychloros_).
+  9. SMALL TORTOISESHELL (_Vanessa Urticæ_).
+
+
+PLATE IV
+
+  1. PEACOCK (_Vanessa Io_).
+  2. CAMBERWELL BEAUTY (_Vanessa Antiopa_).
+  3. RED ADMIRAL (_Vanessa Atalanta_).
+  4. PAINTED LADY (_Vanessa Cardui_).
+  5. WHITE ADMIRAL (_Limenitis Sibylla_).
+
+PLATE V
+
+  1. PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_). Male.
+  2. MARBLED WHITE (_Melanargia Galatea_).
+  3. SMALL RINGLET (_Erebia Epiphron_).
+  4. NORTHERN BROWN (_Erebia Æthiops_).
+  5. WOOD ARGUS (_Pararge Egeria_).
+  6. WALL BUTTERFLY (_Pararge Megæra_).
+  7. GRAYLING (_Satyrus Semele_). Female.
+  8. MEADOW BROWN (_Epinephele Ianira_). Female.
+  9. LARGE HEATH (_Epinephele Tithonus_). Male.
+  10. RINGLET (_Epinephele Hyperanthus_).
+
+PLATE VI
+
+  1. MARSH RINGLET (_Cænonympha Typhon_).
+  2. SMALL HEATH (_Cænonympha Pamphilus_).
+  3. BROWN HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla Betulæ_). Under side.
+  4. WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla W-album_). Under side.
+  5. DARK HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla Pruni_). Under side.
+  6. PURPLE HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla Quercus_). Under side.
+  7. GREEN HAIRSTREAK(_Thecla Rubi_). Under side.
+  8. LARGE COPPER (_Polyommatus Dispar_). Male.
+  9. SMALL COPPER (_Polyommatus Phlæas_).
+  10. TAILED BLUE (_Lycæna Bætica_).
+  11. SILVER-STUDDED BLUE (_Lycæna Ægon_). Male.
+  12. SILVER-STUDDED BLUE (_Lycæna Ægon_). Female.
+  13. BROWN ARGUS (_Lycæna Astrarche_).
+  14. BROWN ARGUS (_Lycæna Astrarche_). Under side.
+  15. COMMON BLUE (_Lycæna Icarus_). Male.
+  16. COMMON BLUE (_Lycæna Icarus_). Female.
+  17. CLIFDEN BLUE (_Lycæna Bellargus_). Male.
+  18. CLIFDEN BLUE (_Lycæna Bellargus_). Female.
+
+PLATE VII
+
+   1. CHALK-HILL BLUE (_Lycæna Corydon_). Male.
+   2. CHALK-HILL BLUE (_Lycæna Corydon_). Female.
+   3. HOLLY BLUE (_Lycæna Argiolus_). Male.
+   4. HOLLY BLUE (_Lycæna Argiolus_). Female.
+   5. MAZARINE BLUE (_Lycæna Semiargus_). Male.
+   6. MAZARINE BLUE (_Lycæna Semiargus_). Female.
+   7. SMALL BLUE (_Lycæna Minima_).
+   8. LARGE BLUE (_Lycæna Arion_).
+   9. DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_).
+  10. DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_). Under side.
+  11. GRIZZLED SKIPPER (_Syrichthus Malvæ_).
+  12. DINGY SKIPPER (_Nisoniades Tages_).
+  13. SMALL SKIPPER (_Hesperia Thaumas_).
+  14. LULWORTH SKIPPER (_Hesperia Actæon_). Male.
+  15. LARGE SKIPPER (_Hesperia Sylvanus_). Male.
+  16. SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER (_Hesperia Comma_).
+  17. CHEQUERED SKIPPER (_Carterocephalus Palæmon_).
+  18. NEW SMALL SKIPPER (_Hesperia Lineola_).
+
+PLATE VIII
+
+   1. LARVA OF SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY (_Papilio Machaon_).
+   2. LARVA OF ORANGE TIP (_Euchloë Cardamines_).
+   3. LARVA OF SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_).
+   4. LARVA OF PEACOCK BUTTERFLY (_Vanessa Io_).
+   5. LARVA OF PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_).
+   6. LARVA OF DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_).
+   7. PUPA OF SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY (_Papilio Machaon_).
+   8. PUPA OF ORANGE TIP (_Euchloë Cardamines_).
+   9. PUPA OF SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_).
+  10. PUPA OF PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_).
+  11. PUPA OF DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_).
+  12. PUPA OF DINGY SKIPPER (_Nisoniades Tages_).
+
+PLATE IX
+
+  1. PRIVET HAWK MOTH (_Sphinx Ligustri_).
+  2. SPURGE HAWK (_Deilephila Euphorbiæ_).
+  3. LARGE ELEPHANT HAWK (_Ch[oe]rocampa Elpenor_).
+  4. EYED HAWK (_Smerinthus Ocellatus_).
+  5. LIME HAWK (_Smerinthus Tiliæ_).
+  6. HUMMING-BIRD HAWK (_Macroglossa Stellatarum_).
+  7. BROAD-BORDERED FIVE-SPOTTED BURNET (_Zygæna Trifolii_).
+
+PLATE X
+
+  1. CINNABAR MOTH (_Euchelia Jacobææ_).
+  2. WOOD TIGER (_Nemeophila Plantaginis_).
+  3. TIGER (_Arctia Caia_).
+  4. CREAM-SPOT TIGER (_Arctia Villica_).
+  5. OAK EGGAR (_Bombyx Quercus_). Male.
+  6. LAPPET (_Lasiocampa Quercifolia_).
+  7. KENTISH GLORY (_Endromis Versicolor_). Male.
+  8. EMPEROR MOTH (_Saturnia Pavonia_). Male.
+  9. BUFF TIP (_Phalera Bucephala_).
+
+PLATE XI
+
+  1. LARGE YELLOW UNDERWING (_Triphæna Pronuba_).
+  2. MARVEL-DU-JOUR (_Agriopis Aprilina_).
+  3. SMALL ANGLE SHADES (_Euplexia Lucipara_).
+  4. MOTHER SHIPTON (_Euclidia Mi_).
+  5. CLIFDEN NONPAREIL (_Catocala Fraxini_).
+  6. DARK CRIMSON UNDERWING (_Catocala Sponsa_).
+
+PLATE XII
+
+  1. HERALD (_Gonoptera Libatrix_).
+  2. SWALLOW-TAIL MOTH (_Uropteryx Sambucaria_).
+  3. BRIMSTONE MOTH (_Rumia Luteolata_).
+  4. SCALLOPED OAK (_Crocallis Elinguaria_).
+  5. BRINDLED BEAUTY (_Biston Hirtaria_).
+  6. WAVED UMBER (_Hemerophila Abruptaria_).
+  7. MAIDEN'S BLUSH (_Zonosoma Punctaria_).
+  8. MOTTLED UMBER (_Hybernia Defoliaria_).
+  9. TREBLE BAR (_Anaitis Plagiata_).
+
+[Illustration: Plate II.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate III.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate IV.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate V.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VI.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VII.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VIII.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate IX.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate X.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XI.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XII.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Abbreviata, 284
+
+  Abraxas, 279
+
+  Abruptaria, 273
+
+  Acherontia, 204
+
+  Acidalia, 275
+
+  Acidaliidæ, 275
+
+  Aciptilia, 295
+
+  Acronycta, 240
+
+  Actæon, 199
+
+  Adela, 304
+
+  Adippe, 159
+
+  Admiral, Red, 168
+
+  Admiral, White, 170
+
+  Ægon, 189
+
+  Æscularia, 281
+
+  Æthiops, 175
+
+  Aglaia, 158
+
+  Aglossa, 291
+
+  Agriopis, 258
+
+  Agrotis, 250
+
+  Albulata, 283
+
+  Alucita, 295
+
+  Amataria, 276
+
+  Amphidasydæ, 271
+
+  Amphidasys, 272
+
+  Amphipyridæ, 254
+
+  Anaitis, 289
+
+  Angle Shades, 258
+
+  Anisopteryx, 281
+
+  Antennæ, 5
+
+  Antiopa, 167
+
+  Antiqua, 228
+
+  Antithesia, 301
+
+  Apamea, 247
+
+  Apameidæ, 244
+
+  Apatura, 171
+
+  Apiformis, 213
+
+  Aplecta, 259
+
+  Aporia, 141
+
+  Aprilina, 258
+
+  Arctia, 221
+
+  Areola, 261
+
+  Argiolus, 193
+
+  Argus, Brown, 189
+
+  Argus, Wood, 175
+
+  Argynnis, 154
+
+  Arion, 194
+
+  Arrangement of specimens, 136
+
+  Arundinis, 243
+
+  Asphalia, 238
+
+  Astrarche, 189
+
+  Atalanta, 168
+
+  Athalia, 163
+
+  Atomaria, 278
+
+  Atropos, 204
+
+  August Thorn, 271
+
+  Aurella, 306
+
+  Aurinia, 161
+
+  Aversata, 276
+
+  Axylia, 245
+
+
+  Bætica, 188
+
+  Bapta, 277
+
+  Basilinea, 247
+
+  Bath White, 146
+
+  Batis, 237
+
+  Beating for moths, 83
+
+  Beautiful Carpet, 286
+
+  Beautiful China Mark, 293
+
+  Bellargus, 191
+
+  Betulæ, 183
+
+  Betularia, 272
+
+  Bicolorata, 285
+
+  Bifida, 234
+
+  Bilineata, 287
+
+  Binaria, 232
+
+  Biston, 271
+
+  Black Arches, 227
+
+  Black Hairstreak, 184
+
+  Black-veined White, 141
+
+  Blood Vein, 276
+
+  Blue-bordered Carpet, 285
+
+  Blue Chalk Hill, 192
+
+  ---- Clifden, 191
+
+  ---- Common, 190
+
+  ---- Holly, 193
+
+  ---- Large, 194
+
+  ---- Mazarine, 193
+
+  ---- Silver-studded, 189
+
+  ---- Small, 194
+
+  ---- Tailed, 188
+
+  Boarmia, 273
+
+  Boarmiidæ, 272
+
+  Bombyces, 217
+
+  Bombycidæ, 229
+
+  Bombycoidæ, 240
+
+  Bombyx, 229
+
+  Bordered White, 279
+
+  Botys, 293
+
+  Brassicæ (_Pieris_), 142
+
+  Brassicæ (_Mamestra_), 246
+
+  Bright-line Brown-eye, 260
+
+  Brimstone Butterfly, 152
+
+  Brimstone Moth, 269
+
+  Brindled Beauty, 271
+
+  Brindled Pug, 284
+
+  Broad-barred White, 257
+
+  ---- bordered Bee Hawk, 211
+
+  ---- ---- Five spotted Burnet, 215
+
+  Brown Argus, 189
+
+  ---- Hairstreak, 183
+
+  ---- line Bright-eye, 242
+
+  ---- Meadow, 178
+
+  ---- Northern, 175
+
+  ---- Tail, 226
+
+  Bryophila, 239
+
+  Bryophilidæ, 239
+
+  Bucephala, 236
+
+  Buff Ermine, 222
+
+  ---- Tip, 236
+
+  Bullrush, 243
+
+  Bupalus, 279
+
+  Burnets, 215
+
+  Burnished Brass, 263
+
+  Butterflies--British, 139
+
+  ---- antennæ of, 5
+
+  ---- body, 3
+
+  ---- catching, 64
+
+  ---- eye, 3
+
+  ---- legs, 8, 10
+
+  ---- proboscis, 6
+
+  ---- wings, 2, 8
+
+
+  Cabbage Moth, 246
+
+  Cabera, 277
+
+  Caberidæ, 276
+
+  Cabinets, 134
+
+  Caia, 221
+
+  Callimorpha, 220
+
+  C-Album, 164
+
+  Calymnia, 256
+
+  Camberwell Beauty, 167
+
+  Camelina, 235
+
+  Camptogramma, 287
+
+  Caradrina, 249
+
+  Caradrinidæ, 248
+
+  Cardamines, 148
+
+  Cardui, 169
+
+  Carpocapsa, 302
+
+  Carterocephalus, 201
+
+  Catching Butterflies, 64
+
+  ---- moths, 82, 85
+
+  Caterpillar state, 22
+
+  Catocala, 265
+
+  Catocalidæ, 265
+
+  Cerastis, 256
+
+  Chalk-hill Blue, 192
+
+  Cheloniidæ, 220
+
+  Chequered Skipper, 201
+
+  Chestnut, 256
+
+  Chilo, 296
+
+  Chinese Character, 233
+
+  Chloroform bottle, 72
+
+  Chocolate Tip, 237
+
+  Ch[oe]rocampa, 207
+
+  Chrysalis state, 44
+
+  Chrysitis, 263
+
+  Chrysorrh[oe]a, 226
+
+  Cidaria, 288
+
+  Cilix, 233
+
+  Cinnabar, 219
+
+  Cinxia, 162
+
+  Cirsiana, 301
+
+  Classification of Lepidoptera, 55
+
+  Clearwings, 212
+
+  Clifden Blue, 191
+
+  Clifden Nonpareil, 265
+
+  Clouded Silver, 277
+
+  Clouded Yellow, 151
+
+  C[oe]nonympha, 181
+
+  Coleophora, 305
+
+  Colias, 149
+
+  Collecting box, 73
+
+  Collecting larvæ, 101
+
+  ---- ova, 99
+
+  ---- pupæ, 108
+
+  Comes, 253
+
+  Comma, 164, 200
+
+  Common Blue, 190
+
+  ---- Carpet, 286
+
+  Common Emerald, 274
+
+  ---- Footman, 219
+
+  ---- Heath, 278
+
+  ---- Quaker, 255
+
+  ---- Swift, 223
+
+  ---- Wainscot, 243
+
+  ---- Wave, 277
+
+  Complanella, 306
+
+  Conigera, 242
+
+  Copper--Large, 187
+
+  ---- Small, 188
+
+  Corydon, 192
+
+  Cosmiidæ, 256
+
+  Cossidæ, 224
+
+  Cossus, 224
+
+  Coxcomb Prominent, 235
+
+  Crambi, 296
+
+  Crambus, 297
+
+  Cratægi, 141
+
+  Cream-spot Tiger, 221
+
+  Cristana, 300
+
+  Crocallis, 270
+
+  Cucullatella, 218
+
+  Cucullia, 261
+
+  Cuprella, 304
+
+  Currant Clearwing, 213
+
+  Currant Moth, 279
+
+  Curtula, 237
+
+  Cyanide bottle, 68
+
+  Cymatophoridæ, 237
+
+
+  Daplidice, 146
+
+  Dark Crimson Underwing, 266
+
+  Dark Dagger, 241
+
+  Dark Green Fritillary, 158
+
+  Dark Hairstreak, 185
+
+  Death's-head Hawk, 204
+
+  Decoys, 96
+
+  Defoliaria, 281
+
+  Deilephila, 207
+
+  Dentina, 259
+
+  Depressaria, 304
+
+  Dicranura, 234
+
+  Dicranuridæ, 233
+
+  Didymata, 283
+
+  Diloba, 241
+
+  Dilutata, 282
+
+  Dingy Skipper, 198
+
+  Dispar, 187, 227
+
+  Diurnea, 303
+
+  Dominula, 220
+
+  Dot, 247
+
+  Drepana, 232
+
+  Drepanulidæ, 232
+
+  Drinker, 230
+
+  Duke of Burgundy, 196
+
+  Dun-bar, 256
+
+
+  Early Grey, 261
+
+  Edusa, 151
+
+  Egeria, 175
+
+  Eggs, 16
+
+  Elephant Hawk, 207
+
+  Elinguaria, 270
+
+  Elpenor, 208
+
+  Ematurga, 278
+
+  Emmelesia, 283
+
+  Emperor Moth, 231
+
+  Emperor, Purple, 171
+
+  Endromidæ, 231
+
+  Endromis, 231
+
+  Ennomidæ, 269
+
+  Entomological pins, 76
+
+  Ephippiphora, 301
+
+  Ephyridæ, 275
+
+  Epinephele, 178
+
+  Epiphron, 174
+
+  Erebia, 174
+
+  Erycinidæ, 196
+
+  Eubolia, 289
+
+  Euboliidæ, 288
+
+  Euchelia, 219
+
+  Eucheliidæ, 219
+
+  Euchloë, 148
+
+  Euclidia, 264
+
+  Euclidiidæ, 264
+
+  Eugonia, 271
+
+  Euphorbiæ, 207
+
+  Euphrosyne, 156
+
+  Eupithecia, 283
+
+  Euplexia, 258
+
+  Eurrhypara, 292
+
+  Exanthemata, 277
+
+  Exclamationis, 250
+
+  Eyed Hawk, 208
+
+
+  Fagella, 303
+
+  Farinalis, 292
+
+  Fidoniidæ, 278
+
+  Figure of Eight, 241
+
+  Filipendulæ, 215
+
+  Flame, 245
+
+  Flame Shoulder, 252
+
+  Flavago, 256
+
+  Flavicornis, 238
+
+  Flounced Rustic, 246
+
+  Fluctuata, 287
+
+  Forester, 214
+
+  Forficalis, 293
+
+  Fraxini, 265
+
+  Fritillaries, 154
+
+  Fritillary, Dark Green, 158
+
+  ---- Glanville, 162
+
+  ---- Greasy, 161
+
+  ---- Heath, 163
+
+  ---- High Brown, 159
+
+  ---- Pearl-bordered, 156
+
+  ---- Queen of Spain, 156
+
+  ---- Silver-washed, 159
+
+  ---- Small Pearl-bordered, 154
+
+  Galatea, 173
+
+  Galleria, 298
+
+  Gamma, 264
+
+  Garden Carpet, 287
+
+  Garden Dart, 251
+
+  Garden Pebble, 293
+
+  Gemmaria, 273
+
+  Geoffrella, 305
+
+  Geometra, 274
+
+  Geometræ, 268
+
+  Geometridæ, 274
+
+  Ghost Swift, 223
+
+  Gipsy, 227
+
+  Glaucata, 233
+
+  Goat Moth, 224
+
+  Gonodactyla, 294
+
+  Gonoptera, 264
+
+  Gonopteridæ, 262
+
+  Gonopteryx, 152
+
+  Gortyna, 244
+
+  Gothic, 254
+
+  Grass Rivulet, 283
+
+  Grayling, 177
+
+  Grease, 127
+
+  Greasy Fritillary, 161
+
+  Green Hairstreak, 186
+
+  Green-chequered White, 146
+
+  Green Silver-lined, 217
+
+  Grizzled Skipper, 197
+
+  Grey Arches, 259
+
+  Grey Dagger, 240
+
+  Grossulariata, 279
+
+
+  Hadena, 259
+
+  Hadenidæ, 257
+
+  Hairstreak, Black, 184
+
+  ---- Brown, 183
+
+  ---- Dark, 185
+
+  ---- Green, 186
+
+  ---- Purple, 185
+
+  ---- White-letter, 184
+
+  Halia, 278
+
+  Hamellus, 297
+
+  Harpella, 305
+
+  Hawk Moths, 204
+
+  Heart and Dart, 250
+
+  Heath, Large, 179
+
+  ---- Moth, 278
+
+  Heath, Small, 181
+
+  ---- Fritillary, 163
+
+  Hecatera, 257
+
+  Helice, 151
+
+  Hemerophila, 273
+
+  Hemithea, 274
+
+  Hepialidæ, 223
+
+  Hepialus, 223
+
+  Herald Moth, 262
+
+  Hesperia, 198
+
+  Hesperiidæ, 197
+
+  Hexadactyla, 295
+
+  High Brown Fritillary, 159
+
+  Hirtaria, 271
+
+  Holly Blue, 193
+
+  Hornet Clearwing of Osier, 213
+
+  Hornet Clearwing of Poplar, 213
+
+  Hortuellus, 297
+
+  Humming-bird Hawk, 210
+
+  Humuli, 223
+
+  Hyale, 149
+
+  Hybernia, 280
+
+  Hyberniidæ, 280
+
+  Hydrocampa, 293
+
+  Hylophila, 217
+
+  Hyperanthus, 180
+
+  Hyponomeuta, 304
+
+
+  Ianira, 178
+
+  Ianthina, 252
+
+  Ibipennella, 305
+
+  Icarus, 190
+
+  Ichneumon flies, 25
+
+  Impura, 243
+
+  Ino, 214
+
+  Io, 167
+
+  Iris, 171
+
+
+  Jacobææ, 219
+
+
+  Kentish Glory, 231
+
+  Killing bottle, 68
+
+  Killing box, 70
+
+
+  Labial palpi, 6
+
+  Lace Border, 275
+
+  Lappet, 230
+
+  Larentia, 283
+
+  Larentiidæ, 282
+
+  Large Blue, 194
+
+  Large Copper, 187
+
+  Large Elephant, 208
+
+  Large Emerald, 274
+
+  Large Heath, 179
+
+  Large Skipper, 200
+
+  Large Tortoiseshell, 165
+
+  Large White, 142
+
+  Large Yellow Underwing, 253
+
+  Larvæ, 22
+
+  Larvæ Beating, 107
+
+  Larvæ, blowpipe for, 131
+
+  Larva boxes, 101
+
+  Larva cage, 115
+
+  Larvæ collecting, 101
+
+  Larvæ, glass for, 114
+
+  Larvæ rearing, 113
+
+  Lasiocampa, 230
+
+  Latona, 156
+
+  Laurel box, 70
+
+  Leaf Miners, 33, 303
+
+  Leaf Rollers, 33, 303
+
+  Lecheana, 300
+
+  Legs of Lepidoptera, 8, 10
+
+  Leioptilus, 295
+
+  Leopard Moth, 225
+
+  Lepidoptera--antennæ, 5
+
+  ---- body, 3
+
+  ---- classification of, 55
+
+  ---- eggs of, 16
+
+  ---- general characteristics, 1
+
+  ---- legs of, 8, 10
+
+  ---- metamorphoses, 14
+
+  ---- proboscis, 6
+
+  ---- wings, 2, 8
+
+  Lesser Broad Border, 252
+
+  Lesser Yellow Underwing, 253
+
+  Leucania, 242
+
+  Leucaniidæ, 242
+
+  Leucophasia, 149
+
+  Leucophæaria, 280
+
+  Libatrix, 262
+
+  Light Arches, 245
+
+  Light Emerald, 270
+
+  Light Traps, 87
+
+  Ligniperda, 224
+
+  Ligustri, 206
+
+  Lime Hawk, 210
+
+  Limenitis, 170
+
+  Limitata, 289
+
+  Lineola, 199
+
+  Liparidæ, 226
+
+  Lithosia, 218
+
+  Lithosiidæ, 219
+
+  Lithoxylea, 245
+
+  Lobophora, 285
+
+  Lobster Moth, 28
+
+  Lophopteryx, 235
+
+  Lubricipeda, 222
+
+  Lucina, 196
+
+  Lucipara, 258
+
+  Lulworth Skipper, 199
+
+  Luperina, 246
+
+  Lupulinus, 223
+
+  Luteolata, 269
+
+  Lycæna, 183, 188
+
+  Lycænidæ, 183
+
+
+  Macariidæ, 278
+
+  Machaon, 139
+
+  Macroglossa, 210
+
+  Maiden's Blush, 275
+
+  Malvæ, 197
+
+  Mamestra, 246
+
+  Mania, 254
+
+  Marbled Beauty, 239
+
+  Marbled Minor, 248
+
+  Margaritaria, 270
+
+  Marsh Moth, 281
+
+  Marsh Ringlet, 181
+
+  Marvel-du-jour, 258
+
+  Maura, 254
+
+  Mazarine Blue, 193
+
+  Meadow Brown, 178
+
+  Meal Moth, 292
+
+  Megacephala, 241
+
+  Megæra, 177
+
+  Melanargia, 173
+
+  Melanthia, 285
+
+  Melitæa, 161
+
+  Mellonella, 298
+
+  Menthastri, 222
+
+  Meticulosa, 258
+
+  Metrocampa, 270
+
+  Mi, 264
+
+  Miana, 248
+
+  Micro-lepidoptera, 290
+
+  Minima, 194
+
+  Monacha, 227
+
+  Montanata, 286
+
+  Morpheus, 249
+
+  Mother-of-pearl, 293
+
+  Mother Shipton, 264
+
+  Moths, 203
+
+  ---- antennæ of, 5
+
+  ---- catching, 82
+
+  ---- traps, 87
+
+  Mottled Rustic, 249
+
+  Mottled Umber, 281
+
+  Mundana, 218
+
+  Muslin Moth, 218
+
+
+  Nanata, 284
+
+  Napi, 145
+
+  Narrow-winged Pug, 284
+
+  Nebulosa, 259
+
+  Nemeobius, 196
+
+  Nemeophila, 220
+
+  Nepticula, 306
+
+  Nervosa, 304
+
+  Nets, 65, 87, 91
+
+  Netted Pug, 283
+
+  New Small Skipper, 199
+
+  Nigricans, 251
+
+  Nisoniades, 198
+
+  Noctua, 252
+
+  Noctuæ, 239
+
+  Noctuidæ, 249
+
+  Nola, 218
+
+  Nolidæ, 218
+
+  Nonagria, 243
+
+  Northern Brown, 175
+
+  Notodontidæ, 235
+
+  November Moth, 282
+
+  Nudaria, 218
+
+  Nupta, 266
+
+  Nycteolidæ, 217
+
+  Nymphalidæ, 154
+
+
+  Oak Eggar, 229
+
+  Oak Hook Tip, 232
+
+  Ocellatus, 208
+
+  Ochracea, 244
+
+  Ocneria, 227
+
+  Octomaculana, 301
+
+  Odonestis, 230
+
+  Old Lady, 254
+
+  Oleracea, 260
+
+  Oporabia, 282
+
+  Orange Tip, 148
+
+  Orgyia, 228
+
+  Ornata, 275
+
+  Orthosiidæ, 255
+
+  Osteodactylus, 295
+
+  Ova collecting, 99
+
+  Ova preserving, 130
+
+
+  Padellus, 304
+
+  Painted Lady, 169
+
+  Palæmon, 201
+
+  Pale Clouded Yellow, 149
+
+  Pallens, 243
+
+  Palpi, 6
+
+  Pamphilus, 181
+
+  Paphia, 159
+
+  Papilio, 139
+
+  Papilionaria, 274
+
+  Papilionidæ, 139
+
+  Pararge, 175
+
+  Pavonia, 231
+
+  Peach Blossom, 237
+
+  Peacock, 167
+
+  Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 156
+
+  Pentadactyla, 295
+
+  Penthina, 300
+
+  Peppered Moth, 272
+
+  Perla, 239
+
+  Peronea, 300
+
+  Persicariæ, 247
+
+  Phalera, 236
+
+  Phlæas, 188
+
+  Phlogophora, 258
+
+  Phragmitellus, 296
+
+  Pieridæ, 141
+
+  Pinguinalis, 291
+
+  Piniaria, 279
+
+  Pink-barred Sallow, 256
+
+  Pins, 76
+
+  Pionea, 293
+
+  Plagiata, 289
+
+  Plantaginis, 220
+
+  Platyptilia, 294
+
+  Plecta, 252
+
+  Plusia, 263
+
+  Plusiidæ, 263
+
+  Polychloros, 165
+
+  Polyommatus, 187
+
+  Poplar Grey, 241
+
+  Poplar Hawk, 209
+
+  Poplar Kitten, 234
+
+  Populi, 209
+
+  Porcellus, 207
+
+  Porthesia, 226
+
+  Potatoria, 230
+
+  Prasinana, 217
+
+  Preserving larvæ, 131
+
+  ---- ova, 130
+
+  ---- pupæ, 133
+
+  Privet Hawk, 206
+
+  Proboscis, 6
+
+  Pronuba, 253
+
+  Pruni, 185
+
+  Pruniana, 300
+
+  Psi, 240
+
+  Psilura, 227
+
+  Pterophori, 294
+
+  Ptycholoma, 300
+
+  Punctaria, 275
+
+  Pupa state, 44
+
+  Pupæ collecting, 108
+
+  ---- digging, 111
+
+  ---- management of, 118
+
+  ---- preserving, 133
+
+  Purple Emperor, 171
+
+  Purple Hairstreak, 185
+
+  Puss Moth, 235
+
+  Putris, 245
+
+  Pygæra, 237
+
+  Pygæridæ, 236
+
+  Pyralides, 291
+
+  Pyralis, 292
+
+  Pyrina, 225
+
+
+  Queen of Spain, 156
+
+  Quercifolia, 230
+
+  Quercinaria, 271
+
+  Quercus (_Bombyx_), 229
+
+  Quercus (_Thecla_), 185
+
+
+  Rapæ, 144
+
+  Rearing larvæ, 113
+
+  Red Admiral, 168
+
+  Red Underwing, 266
+
+  Relaxing, 125
+
+  Rhamni, 152
+
+  Riband Wave, 276
+
+  Ringlet, 180
+
+  ---- Marsh, 181
+
+  ---- Small, 174
+
+  Rubi, 186
+
+  Rumia, 269
+
+  Ruralis, 293
+
+  Rustic Shoulder-knot, 247
+
+
+  Salicella, 301
+
+  Sambucaria, 268
+
+  Saturnia, 231
+
+  Saturniidæ, 231
+
+  Satyridæ, 173
+
+  Satyrus, 177
+
+  Scalloped Oak, 270
+
+  Scarlet Tiger, 220
+
+  Sciaphila, 301
+
+  Segetum, 250
+
+  Selene, 154
+
+  Semele, 177
+
+  Semiargus, 193
+
+  Serena, 257
+
+  Sesia, 213
+
+  Sesiidæ, 212
+
+  Setting boards, 122
+
+  Shark, 261
+
+  Shears, 259
+
+  Short-cloaked, 218
+
+  Sibylla, 170
+
+  Silaceata, 288
+
+  Silver-ground Carpet, 286
+
+  Silver-spotted Skipper, 200
+
+  Silver-studded Blue, 189
+
+  Silver-washed Fritillary, 159
+
+  Silver Y, 264
+
+  Sinapis, 149
+
+  Six-spot Burnet, 215
+
+  Skippers, 196
+
+  Skipper, Chequered, 201
+
+  ---- Dingy, 198
+
+  ---- Grizzled, 197
+
+  ---- Lulworth, 199
+
+  ---- New Small, 199
+
+  ---- Silver-spotted, 200
+
+  ---- Small, 198
+
+  Sleeving, 116
+
+  Small Angle Shades, 258
+
+  ---- Blue, 194
+
+  ---- Copper, 188
+
+  ---- Elephant, 207
+
+  ---- Heath, 181
+
+  ---- Magpie, 292
+
+  ---- Mallow, 289
+
+  ---- Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 154
+
+  ---- Ph[oe]nix, 288
+
+  ---- Ringlet, 174
+
+  ---- Seraphim, 285
+
+  ---- Skipper, 198
+
+  ---- Tortoiseshell, 166
+
+  ---- White, 144
+
+  Smerinthus, 208
+
+  Smoky Wainscot, 243
+
+  Sociata, 286
+
+  Speckled Wood, 175
+
+  Sphinges, 203
+
+  Sphingidæ, 204
+
+  Sphinx, 206
+
+  Spilosoma, 222
+
+  Sponsa, 266
+
+  Spring Usher, 280
+
+  Spurge Hawk, 207
+
+  Stabilis, 255
+
+  Stagnata, 293
+
+  Statices, 214
+
+  Stellatarum, 210
+
+  Store boxes, 135
+
+  Strigata, 274
+
+  Strigilis, 248
+
+  Stuffing insects, 126
+
+  Sugaring, 92
+
+  Sugaring net, 94
+
+  Sugar traps, 96
+
+  Swallow-tail Butterfly, 139
+
+  Swallow-tail Moth, 268
+
+  Swifts, 223
+
+  Sylvanus, 200
+
+  Syrichthus, 197
+
+
+  Tabby, 291
+
+  Tæniocampa, 255
+
+  Tages, 198
+
+  Tailed Blue, 188
+
+  Temerata, 277
+
+  Testacea, 246
+
+  Thaumas, 198
+
+  Thecla, 183
+
+  Thyatira, 237
+
+  Tiger, Common, 221
+
+  ---- Cream-spot, 221
+
+  ---- Scarlet, 220
+
+  ---- Wood, 220
+
+  Tiliæ, 210
+
+  Timandra, 276
+
+  Tineæ, 303
+
+  Tipuliformis, 213
+
+  Tithonus, 179
+
+  Tortoiseshell, Large, 165
+
+  Tortoiseshell, Small, 166
+
+  Tortrices, 298
+
+  Treble Bar, 289
+
+  Trifolii, 215
+
+  Triphæna, 252
+
+  Tristellus, 297
+
+  Trochilium, 213
+
+  Turnip Moth, 250
+
+  Twin-spot Carpet, 283
+
+  Typhon, 181
+
+  Typica, 254
+
+
+  Umbratica, 261
+
+  Uropterygidæ, 268
+
+  Uropteryx, 268
+
+  Urticæ, 166
+
+  Urticata, 292
+
+
+  Vaccinii, 256
+
+  Vanessa, 164
+
+  Vapourer Moth, 228
+
+  Vauaria, 278
+
+  Venosata, 283
+
+  Versicolor, 231
+
+  Villica, 221
+
+  Vinula, 235
+
+  Viridana, 299
+
+  V moth, 278
+
+
+  W album, 184
+
+  Wainscots, 243
+
+  Wall Butterfly, 177
+
+  Waved Umber, 273
+
+  White Admiral, 170
+
+  ---- Bath, 146
+
+  ---- Black-veined, 141
+
+  ---- Ermine, 222
+
+  ---- Green-chequered, 146
+
+  ---- Green-veined, 145
+
+  ---- Large, 142
+
+  White-letter Hairstreak, 184
+
+  ---- Marbled, 173
+
+  ---- Small, 144
+
+  ---- Wood, 149
+
+  Willow Beauty, 273
+
+  Wings, 2, 8
+
+  Wood Argus, 175
+
+  Wood Tiger, 220
+
+  Wood White, 149
+
+
+  Xanthia, 256
+
+  Xanthosetia, 302
+
+  Xylinidæ, 261
+
+  Xylocampa, 261
+
+  Xylophasia, 245
+
+  Xylosteana, 299
+
+
+  Yellow-horned, 238
+
+  Yellow Shell, 287
+
+
+  Zerenidæ, 279
+
+  Zeuzera, 225
+
+  Zoegana, 302
+
+  Zonosoma, 275
+
+  Zygæna, 215
+
+  Zygænidæ, 214
+
+
+  PRINTED BY
+  SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
+  LONDON
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Some minor changes have been made to obvious format and punctuation
+inconsistencies. Other inconsistent usages have been retained except
+where obvious typographical errors have been corrected as follows:
+
+Page 97 'dicover' changed to 'discover' (... not being able to discover
+the 'entrance out,' ...)
+
+Page 188 'Polyommatas' changed to 'Polyommatus' (_The Small Copper_
+(_Polyommatas Phlæas_))
+
+Page 219 'Jacobæa' changed to 'Jacobææ' (FIG. 112.--THE LARVA OF
+JACOBÆÆ.)
+
+Page 263 'rested' changed to 'crested' (The abdomen also is crested)
+
+Page 334 'Rannock' changed to 'Rannoch' (Rannoch Geometer (_Brunneata_))
+
+Page 354 'Ibipenella' change to 'Ibipennella' (Ibipennella, 305)
+
+Page 354 missing page reference added (Ichneumon flies, 25)
+
+Page 355 'Leucophearia' changed to 'Leucophæaria' (Leucophæaria, 280)
+
+Page 356 'Octomacularia' changed to 'Octomaculana' (Octomaculana, 301)
+
+Page 358 'Tryphæna' changed to 'Triphæna' and moved to its alphabetical
+position in the index (Triphæna, 252)
+
+Page 358 'Umbricata' changed to 'Umbratica' (Umbratica, 261)
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 34131-8.txt or 34131-8.zip *******
+
+
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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+<body>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Butterflies and Moths, by William S. Furneaux</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Butterflies and Moths</p>
+<p>       (British)</p>
+<p>Author: William S. Furneaux</p>
+<p>Release Date: October 25, 2010  [eBook #34131]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by Simon Gardner, Chris Curnow,<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
+    from page images generously made available by<br />
+    Internet Archive<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.archive.org/">http://www.archive.org</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/butterfliesmoths00furn">
+      http://www.archive.org/details/butterfliesmoths00furn</a>
+	</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="trans-note">
+<h4>Transcriber's Note</h4>
+
+<p>Changes to the text are limited to typographical errors,
+as listed <a href="#TRANS_NOTES">at the end of the book</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Note that numerous taxonomic names have changed since 1894. The
+formatting of Latin names also differs from current conventions; <i>e.g.</i>, in
+this book species names are typically, but not invariably, capitalised.
+No attempt has been made to update this.</p>
+
+<p>The woodcut illustrations of adult insects from Figure 65 onwards have
+been prepared with thumbnails which preserve the same scale as the
+original book. The thumbnail illustrations should appear to scale when viewed
+on a monitor with 96 DPI, with a browser setting of 100%. Clicking on one of
+these thumbnail images or on the frontispiece will display a larger image.</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><a href="#Page_vii">Table of contents.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Page_ix">List of illustrations.</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 269px;">
+<a href="images/i_cover.jpg"><img src="images/i_cover_tn.jpg" width="269" height="400" alt="" title="[Cover]" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<h1>                    BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS<br />
+<span style="font-size:medium">(BRITISH)</span></h1>
+
+<div class="trans-note"><p class="center">OUT-DOOR WORLD LIBRARY.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>THE OUT-DOOR WORLD; or, Young Collector's
+Handbook. By <span class="smcap">W. Furneaux</span>, F.R.G.S. With 18
+Plates, 16 of which are coloured, and 549 Illustrations in
+the Text. Crown 8vo. 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p>BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (<span class="smcap">British</span>).
+By <span class="smcap">W. Furneaux</span>, F.R.G.S. With 12 coloured Plates and
+241 Illustrations in the Text. 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> net.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>To be followed by</i></p>
+
+<p>BRITISH BIRDS. By <span class="smcap">W. H. Hudson</span>, F.Z.S.
+With a Chapter on Structure and Classification by <span class="smcap">Frank
+E. Beddard</span>, F.R.S.</p>
+
+<p>LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. By
+<span class="smcap">W. Furneaux</span>, F.R.G.S.</p>
+
+<p>
+BRITISH MAMMALS AND REPTILES.<br />
+<span style="font-size:smaller">AND OTHER VOLUMES.</span>
+</p>
+<hr />
+<p class="center">
+London: LONGMANS, GREEN, &amp; CO.<br />
+New York: 15 East 16<sup>th</sup> Street.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 277px;">
+<a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a>
+<a href="images/i_005.jpg"><img src="images/i_005_tn.jpg" width="277" height="400" alt="" title="Frontispiece." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate I</span>
+<p class="center"><i>Danielsson &amp; Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="center">
+<span style="font-size:x-large">BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS</span><br />
+(BRITISH)</p>
+
+<p class="center">                               BY</p>
+
+<p class="center">                      W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S.</p>
+
+<p class="center">  AUTHOR OF 'THE OUT-DOOR WORLD, OR YOUNG COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK'</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 499px;">
+<img src="images/i_006.jpg" width="499" height="267" alt="" title="[Title page decoration]" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">                  WITH TWELVE COLOURED PLATES
+             AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">                             LONDON</p>
+
+<p class="center">                    LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+              AND NEW YORK. 15 EAST 16<sup>th</sup> STREET</p>
+
+<p class="center">                              1894</p>
+
+<p class="center">                   <i>All rights reserved</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><!-- Page v --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The favourable reception with which the 'Out-door World'
+has been greeted has encouraged the publishers to issue
+a series of volumes dealing in fuller detail with the various
+branches of Natural History treated of in that work.
+Necessarily each subject was only briefly touched upon, but
+the study is of so enticing a character that 'appetite grows
+by feeding,' and the students of the 'Out-door World,'
+having tasted the sweetness of companionship with Nature,
+will not rest satisfied with the help afforded by that handbook.
+Each one will want to go deeper into that particular department
+which most appeals to his own inclinations.</p>
+
+<p>The present volume is written expressly for those who
+desire to extend their knowledge of the British Lepidoptera,
+or, to use the more popular names, 'Butterflies and Moths.'</p>
+
+<p>The general characteristics of this interesting order of
+insects are described somewhat fully, but, of course, it would
+be impossible to give an individual account of all the British
+Lepidoptera in a work of this size, so a selection has been
+made such as will satisfy the requirements of the great majority
+of those who intend to take up this particular branch<!-- Page vi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>
+of entomology. The number of British Butterflies, however, is
+so limited that a place has been found for a figure and a description
+of every species; and, of the larger moths, many
+of the common and typical kinds have been included. An
+introduction to the study of the Micro-lepidoptera has also
+been added.</p>
+
+<p>No trouble has been spared to render this work thoroughly
+practical. In addition to the verbal descriptions of so many
+species, twelve coloured plates and a large number of woodcuts
+have been specially prepared to help the student in his
+work. It is believed that the extreme care with which these
+have been produced will render them of the greatest assistance
+to the collector in the recognition of his specimens.</p>
+
+<p>But he has not only to recognise his specimens&mdash;he must
+first catch them; and here full directions have been given to
+insure success in this part of his work, as well as in the
+management, preservation, and arrangement of his captures.</p>
+
+<p>The Author hopes that this volume may be the means of
+adding many happy hours&mdash;hours of the purest enjoyment&mdash;to
+the lives of those whom he has succeeded in luring into
+the fields and lanes and woods of the Out-door World.</p>
+<p><!-- Page vii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of contents">
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="center"><span style="font-size:larger">PART I</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="center"><i>STRUCTURE AND LIFE HISTORY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span style="font-size:small">CHAP.</span></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><span style="font-size:small">PAGE</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">I.</td><td align="left">GENERAL CHARACTERS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">II.</td><td align="left">THE EGG</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">III.</td><td align="left">THE LARVA</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IV.</td><td align="left">THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">V.</td><td align="left">CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="center"><span style="font-size:larger">PART II</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="center"><i>WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VI.</td><td align="left">CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VII.</td><td align="left">COLLECTING OVA, LARVÆ, AND PUPÆ</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VIII.</td><td align="left">REARING LEPIDOPTERA</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IX.</td><td align="left">SETTING AND PRESERVING</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">X.</td><td align="left">PRESERVING OVA, LARVÆ AND PUPÆ</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XI.</td><td align="left">THE CABINET&mdash;ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="center"><span style="font-size:larger">PART III</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="center"><i>BRITISH BUTTERFLIES</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XII.</td><td align="left">THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES'</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XIII.</td><td align="left">THE FRITILLARIES, VANESSAS, AND THE PURPLE EMPEROR</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XIV.</td><td align="left">THE BROWNS AND HEATHS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XV.</td><td align="left">THE HAIRSTREAKS, COPPERS AND BLUES</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_183">183</a><!-- Page viii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XVI.</td><td align="left">THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="center"><span style="font-size:larger">PART IV</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="center"><i>COMMON BRITISH MOTHS</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XVII.</td><td align="left">SPHINGES</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XVIII.</td><td align="left">BOMBYCES</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XIX.</td><td align="left">THE NOCTUÆ</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XX.</td><td align="left">GEOMETRÆ</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXI.</td><td align="left">THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="center"><span style="font-size:larger">APPENDICES</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">I.</td><td align="left">COMPLETE CLASSIFIED LIST OF BRITISH MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">II.</td><td align="left">THE LEPIDOPTERIST'S CALENDAR</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="left">References To Coloured Plates</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="left">Index</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><!-- Page ix --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+<p class="center">
+<i>COLOURED PLATES</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="List of coloured plates.">
+<tr><td align="right">1-7.</td><td align="left" colspan="2">British Butterflies</td><td align="left"><i><a href="#Frontispiece">Frontispiece</a></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8.</td><td align="left">Larvæ and Pupæ of British Butterflies</td><td align="left" rowspan="5" style="font-size:800%">}</td><td align="right" rowspan="5"><a href="#COLOURED_PLATES"><i>At end</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9.</td><td align="left">Sphinges</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10.</td><td align="left">Bombyces</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11.</td><td align="left">Noctuæ</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12.</td><td align="left">Noctua and Geometræ</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Full references accompany the Plates.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right"><span style="font-size:smaller">FIG.</span></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><span style="font-size:smaller">PAGE</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_1">1</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Scales from the Wings of Butterflies</span></td><td align="right">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_2">2</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Portion of the Wing of a Butterfly from which some of the Scales have been removed</span></td><td align="right">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_3">3</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Body of a Butterfly&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_4">4</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Section of the Eye of an Insect</span></td><td align="right">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_5">5</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Antennæ of Butterflies</span></td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_6">6</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Antennæ of Moths</span></td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_7">7</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Section of the Proboscis of a Butterfly</span></td><td align="right">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_8">8</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Diagram of the Wings of a Butterfly</span></td><td align="right">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_9">9</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Undeveloped Fore Leg of a Butterfly</span></td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_10">10</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Four Stages of the Large White Butterfly (<i>Pieris Brassicæ</i>)</span></td><td align="right">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_11">11</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Egg of the Meadow Brown Butterfly</span></td><td align="right">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_12">12</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Egg of the Speckled Wood Butterfly</span></td><td align="right">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_13">13</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Egg of the Vapourer Moth</span></td><td align="right">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_14">14</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Caterpillar of the Clouded Yellow Butterfly</span></td><td align="right">22</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_15">15</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Caterpillar of the Dark Green Fritillary Butterfly</span></td><td align="right">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_16">16</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Caterpillar of the Purple Emperor Butterfly</span></td><td align="right">24<!-- Page x --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_17">17</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">An Ichneumon Fly</span> (<i>Cryptus Migrator</i>)</td><td align="right">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_18">18</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Another Ichneumon Fly</span> (<i>Pimpla Instigator</i>)</td><td align="right">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_19">19</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Caterpillar of the Angle Shades Moth</span> (<i>Meticulosa</i>)</td><td align="right">26</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_20">20</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Walking Leg of a Caterpillar</span></td><td align="right">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_21">21</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Larva of the Yellow Underwing Moth</span> (<i>Pronuba</i>)</td><td align="right">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_22">22</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Larva of the Crimson Speckled Moth</span> (<i>Pulchella</i>)</td><td align="right">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_23">23</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Larva of the Lobster Moth</span> (<i>Fagi</i>)</td><td align="right">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_24">24</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Caterpillar of the Iron Prominent Moth</span> (<i>Dromedarius</i>)</td><td align="right">29</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_25">25</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Larva of the Brimstone Moth</span> (<i>Luteolata</i>)</td><td align="right">29</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_26">26</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Claspers of a Caterpillar</span></td><td align="right">30</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_27">27</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Homes of Leaf Miners and Leaf Rollers</span></td><td align="right">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_28">28</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Cocoon of the Emperor Moth</span></td><td align="right">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_29">29</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Cocoon of the Six-Spotted Burnet</span> (<i>Filipendulæ</i>)</td><td align="right">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_30">30</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Pupa of the Privet Hawk</span> (<i>Ligustri</i>)</td><td align="right">44</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_31">31</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Chrysalis of the Large White Butterfly</span> (<i>Brassicæ</i>)</td><td align="right">44</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_32">32</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Pupa of the Dark Green Fritillary</span> (<i>Aglaia</i>)</td><td align="right">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_33">33</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Pupa of the Black-veined White Butterfly</span> (<i>Cratægi</i>)</td><td align="right">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_34">34</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Pupa of the Currant Moth</span></td><td align="right">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_35">35</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pupa of the Pale Tussock Moth</span> (<i>Pudibunda</i>)</td><td align="right">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_36">36</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Butterfly, just after Emerging</span></td><td align="right">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_37">37</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Butterfly at Rest (Large Copper)</span></td><td align="right">57</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_38">38</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Moth at Rest (Gothic)</span></td><td align="right">57</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_39">39</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Wire Frame for a Butterfly Net</span></td><td align="right">65</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_40">40</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Stick for the Net</span></td><td align="right">65</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_41">41</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Metal <span class="lettershape">Y</span></span></td><td align="right">66</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_42">42</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pattern for the Net</span></td><td align="right">67</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_43">43</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Cyanide Bottle</span></td><td align="right">68</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_44">44</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Section of the Laurel Box</span></td><td align="right">70</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_45">45</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Chloroform Bottle</span></td><td align="right">72</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_46">46</a>.</td><td align="left" rowspan="4"><span style="font-size:600%">}</span> <span class="smcap">Fittings for the Collecting Box</span></td><td align="right" rowspan="4">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_47">47</a>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_48">48</a>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_49">49</a>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_50">50</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Frame of Net for Collecting Insects on Lamps and Windows</span></td><td align="right">87</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_51">51</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Trap for Catching Moths</span></td><td align="right">88</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_52">52</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Metal Joint for Lantern and Net</span></td><td align="right">91</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_53">53</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Net and Lantern for Taking Moths from High Blossoms</span></td><td align="right">91</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_54">54</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Frame for the Sugaring Net</span></td><td align="right">94</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_55">55</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Cage for Decoy Females</span></td><td align="right">96</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_56">56</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Sugar Trap</span></td><td align="right">96</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_57">57</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Larva Glass</span></td><td align="right">114</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_58">58</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Larva Glass</span></td><td align="right">114</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_59">59</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Larva Cage</span></td><td align="right">115</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_60">60</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Section of a Setting Board</span></td><td align="right">123</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_61">61</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Sections of Setting Boards</span></td><td align="right">123</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_62">62</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Butterfly on the Setting Board</span></td><td align="right">124<!-- Page xi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_63">63</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Another Method of Setting Butterflies and Moths</span></td><td align="right">126</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_64">64</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Blowpipe for Larvæ</span></td><td align="right">131</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_65">65</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Bath White&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">147</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_66">66</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Clouded Yellow&mdash;Female</span></td><td align="right">151</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_67">67</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">155</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_68">68</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Pearl-bordered Fritillary&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">156</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_69">69</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Queen of Spain Fritillary&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">157</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_70">70</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Dark-green Fritillary&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">158</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_71">71</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The High-brown Fritillary</span></td><td align="right">159</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_72">72</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Silver-washed Fritillary&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">160</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_73">73</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Greasy Fritillary&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">161</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_74">74</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Glanville Fritillary&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">162</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_75">75</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Comma&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">164</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_76">76</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Purple Emperor&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">172</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_77">77</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Marbled White&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">174</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_78">78</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Wood Argus&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">176</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_79">79</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Grayling&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">178</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_80">80</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Large Heath&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">179</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_81">81</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Ringlet&mdash;Upper Side</span></td><td align="right">180</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_82">82</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Marsh Ringlet&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">181</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_83">83</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Brown Hairstreak&mdash;Male</span></td><td align="right">184</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_84">84</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The White-letter Hairstreak</span></td><td align="right">184</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_85">85</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Purple Hairstreak&mdash;Male</span></td><td align="right">186</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_86">86</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Green Hairstreak</span></td><td align="right">186</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_87">87</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Tailed Blue&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">188</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_88">88</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Silver-studded Blue&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">189</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_89">89</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Common Blue&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">191</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_90">90</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Clifden Blue&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">191</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_91">91</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Chalk-hill Blue&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">192</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_92">92</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Holly Blue&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">193</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_93">93</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Mazarine Blue&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">194</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_94">94</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Small Blue&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">194</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_95">95</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Large Blue&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">195</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_96">96</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Silver-spotted Skipper&mdash;Under Side</span></td><td align="right">201</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_97">97</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Death's-head Hawk Moth</span></td><td align="right">205</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_98">98</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Larva of Atropos</span></td><td align="right">206</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_99">99</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Caterpillar of Euphorbiæ</span></td><td align="right">207</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_100">100</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Small Elephant Hawk Moth</span></td><td align="right">208</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_101">101</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Poplar Hawk</span></td><td align="right">209</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_102">102</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Broad-bordered Bee Hawk</span></td><td align="right">212</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_103">103</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar</span></td><td align="right">213</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_104">104</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Currant Clearwing</span></td><td align="right">213</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_105">105</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Forester</span></td><td align="right">214</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_106">106</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Six-spotted Burnet</span></td><td align="right">215</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_107">107</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Larva of Filipendulæ</span></td><td align="right">215</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_108">108</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Green Silver-lined</span></td><td align="right">217</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_109">109</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Short-cloaked Moth</span></td><td align="right">218<!-- Page xii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_110">110</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Muslin Moth</span></td><td align="right">218</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_111">111</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Common Footman</span></td><td align="right">219</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_112">112</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Larva of Jacobææ</span></td><td align="right">219</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_113">113</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Scarlet Tiger</span></td><td align="right">220</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_114">114</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Buff Ermine</span></td><td align="right">222</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_115">115</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The White Ermine</span></td><td align="right">222</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_116">116</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Ghost Swift&mdash;Female</span></td><td align="right">223</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_117">117</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Common Swift</span></td><td align="right">224</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_118">118</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Goat Moth</span></td><td align="right">225</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_119">119</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Larva of Ligniperda (less than half full size)</span></td><td align="right">225</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_120">120</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Leopard Moth</span></td><td align="right">226</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_121">121</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Larva of Pyrina (only partly grown)</span></td><td align="right">226</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_122">122</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Brown Tail</span></td><td align="right">227</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_123">123</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Gipsy&mdash;Male</span></td><td align="right">227</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_124">124</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Black Arches&mdash;Male</span></td><td align="right">228</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_125">125</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Vapourer Moth&mdash;Male</span></td><td align="right">228</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_126">126</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Female Vapourer</span></td><td align="right">228</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_127">127</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Larva of the Vapourer Moth</span></td><td align="right">229</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_128">128</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Drinker&mdash;Male</span></td><td align="right">230</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_129">129</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Oak Hook Tip</span></td><td align="right">233</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_130">130</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Chinese Character</span></td><td align="right">233</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_131">131</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Poplar Kitten</span></td><td align="right">234</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_132">132</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Puss Moth</span></td><td align="right">235</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_133">133</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Coxcomb Prominent</span></td><td align="right">235</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_134">134</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Larva of Bucephala</span></td><td align="right">236</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_135">135</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Chocolate Tip</span></td><td align="right">237</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_136">136</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Peach Blossom</span></td><td align="right">237</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_137">137</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Yellow Horned</span></td><td align="right">238</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_138">138</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Marbled Beauty</span></td><td align="right">240</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_139">139</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Grey Dagger</span></td><td align="right">240</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_140">140</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Poplar Grey</span></td><td align="right">241</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_141">141</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Figure of Eight</span></td><td align="right">241</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_142">142</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Brown-line Bright-eye</span></td><td align="right">242</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_143">143</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Smoky Wainscot</span></td><td align="right">243</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_144">144</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Common Wainscot</span></td><td align="right">243</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_145">145</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Bullrush</span></td><td align="right">244</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_146">146</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Frosted Orange</span></td><td align="right">245</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_147">147</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Flame</span></td><td align="right">245</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_148">148</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Light Arches</span></td><td align="right">246</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_149">149</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Flounced Rustic</span></td><td align="right">246</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_150">150</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Cabbage Moth</span></td><td align="right">247</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_151">151</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Dot</span></td><td align="right">247</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_152">152</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Rustic Shoulder-knot</span></td><td align="right">248</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_153">153</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Marbled Minor</span></td><td align="right">248</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_154">154</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Mottled Rustic</span></td><td align="right">249</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_155">155</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Turnip Moth</span></td><td align="right">250</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_156">156</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Heart and Dart</span></td><td align="right">251<!-- Page xiii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_157">157</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Garden Dart</span></td><td align="right">251</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_158">158</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Flame Shoulder</span></td><td align="right">252</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_159">159</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Lesser Broad Border</span></td><td align="right">252</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_160">160</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Lesser Yellow Underwing</span></td><td align="right">253</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_161">161</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Gothic</span></td><td align="right">254</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_162">162</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Old Lady</span></td><td align="right">254</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_163">163</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Common Quaker</span></td><td align="right">255</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_164">164</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Chestnut</span></td><td align="right">256</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_165">165</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Pink-barred Sallow</span></td><td align="right">256</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_166">166</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Dun-bar</span></td><td align="right">257</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_167">167</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Broad-barred White</span></td><td align="right">257</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_168">168</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Angle Shades</span></td><td align="right">258</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_169">169</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Grey Arches</span></td><td align="right">259</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_170">170</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Shears</span></td><td align="right">260</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_171">171</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Bright-line Brown-eye</span></td><td align="right">260</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_172">172</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Early Grey</span></td><td align="right">261</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_173">173</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Shark</span></td><td align="right">262</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_174">174</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Burnished Brass</span></td><td align="right">263</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_175">175</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Silver <span class="lettershape">Y</span></span></td><td align="right">264</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_176">176</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Red Underwing</span></td><td align="right">266</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_177">177</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Light Emerald</span></td><td align="right">270</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_178">178</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The August Thorn</span></td><td align="right">271</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_179">179</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Peppered Moth</span></td><td align="right">272</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_180">180</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Willow Beauty</span></td><td align="right">273</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_181">181</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Large Emerald</span></td><td align="right">274</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_182">182</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Common Emerald</span></td><td align="right">274</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_183">183</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Lace Border</span></td><td align="right">275</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_184">184</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Riband Wave</span></td><td align="right">276</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_185">185</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Blood-vein</span></td><td align="right">276</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_186">186</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Common Wave</span></td><td align="right">277</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_187">187</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Clouded Silver</span></td><td align="right">277</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_188">188</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The <span class="lettershape">V</span> Moth</span></td><td align="right">278</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_189">189</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Common Heath</span></td><td align="right">279</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_190">190</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Bordered White&mdash;Male</span></td><td align="right">279</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_191">191</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Currant Moth</span></td><td align="right">280</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_192">192</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Spring Usher</span></td><td align="right">281</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_193">193</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The March Moth</span></td><td align="right">282</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_194">194</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The November Moth</span></td><td align="right">282</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_195">195</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Twin-spot Carpet</span></td><td align="right">283</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_196">196</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Grass Rivulet</span></td><td align="right">283</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_197">197</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Netted Pug</span></td><td align="right">284</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_198">198</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Narrow-winged Pug</span></td><td align="right">284</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_199">199</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Brindled Pug</span></td><td align="right">284</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_200">200</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Small Seraphim</span></td><td align="right">285</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_201">201</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Blue-bordered Carpet</span></td><td align="right">285</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_202">202</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Beautiful Carpet</span></td><td align="right">286<!-- Page xiv --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_203">203</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Common Carpet</span></td><td align="right">286</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_204">204</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Silver Ground Carpet</span></td><td align="right">287</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_205">205</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Garden Carpet</span></td><td align="right">287</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_206">206</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Yellow Shell</span></td><td align="right">288</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_207">207</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Small Ph&oelig;nix</span></td><td align="right">288</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_208">208</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Small Mallow</span></td><td align="right">289</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_209">209</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Tabby or Grease Moth</span></td><td align="right">291</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_210">210</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Meal Moth</span></td><td align="right">292</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_211">211</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Small Magpie</span></td><td align="right">292</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_212">212</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Mother-of-Pearl</span></td><td align="right">293</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_213">213</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Garden Pebble</span></td><td align="right">293</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_214">214</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Beautiful China Mark</span></td><td align="right">294</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_215">215</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Gonodactyla</span></td><td align="right">295</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_216">216</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Osteodactylus</span></td><td align="right">295</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_217">217</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pentadactyla</span></td><td align="right">295</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_218">218</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hexadactyla&mdash;Enlarged</span></td><td align="right">296</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_219">219</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Phragmitellus&mdash;Enlarged one-half</span></td><td align="right">297</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_220">220</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hamellus&mdash;Slightly Enlarged</span></td><td align="right">297</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_221">221</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Tristellus</span></td><td align="right">297</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_222">222</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Hortuellus</span></td><td align="right">298</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_223">223</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Mellonella</span></td><td align="right">298</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_224">224</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Xylosteana with wings closed</span></td><td align="right">299</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_225">225</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Viridana</span></td><td align="right">300</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_226">226</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Cristana&mdash;Enlarged</span></td><td align="right">300</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_227">227</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Lecheana</span></td><td align="right">300</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_228">228</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pruniana</span></td><td align="right">300</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_229">229</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Salicella</span></td><td align="right">301</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_230">230</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Octomaculana&mdash;Enlarged</span></td><td align="right">301</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_231">231</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Cirsiana&mdash;Enlarged</span></td><td align="right">302</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_232">232</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Pomonella</span></td><td align="right">302</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_233">233</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Zoegana&mdash;Enlarged</span></td><td align="right">302</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_234">234</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Fagella</span></td><td align="right">303</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_235">235</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Cuprella</span></td><td align="right">304</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_236">236</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Padellus</span></td><td align="right">304</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_237">237</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Nervosa&mdash;Twice Natural Size</span></td><td align="right">304</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_238">238</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Geoffrella</span></td><td align="right">305</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_239">239</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Ibipennella&mdash;Enlarged</span></td><td align="right">305</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_240">240</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Complanella&mdash;Enlarged</span></td><td align="right">306</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#FIG_241">241</a>.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Aurella&mdash;Enlarged</span></td><td align="right">307</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a>PART I<br />
+<br />
+STRUCTURE AND LIFE-HISTORY
+OF THE LEPIDOPTERA</h2>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I
+<br />
+<i>GENERAL CHARACTERS</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>The word <i>Lepidoptera</i>, which you see at the head of this page, is
+the name of the order of insects to which this volume is to be
+devoted. It is formed from two Greek words, one (<i>lepis</i>) signifying
+a <i>scale</i>, and the other (<i>pteron</i>) denoting a <i>wing</i>; and was
+applied by the great naturalist Linnæus to the scaly-winged insects
+popularly known as Butterflies
+and Moths.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="FIG_1" id="FIG_1"></a><img src="images/i_018.jpg" width="400" height="222" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Scales from the Wings of
+Butterflies.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Every one of my readers
+has undoubtedly handled some
+of the interesting creatures of
+this group&mdash;having been led
+to do so either by the extreme
+beauty of their clothing, or,
+perhaps, from a murderous
+intent in order to protect his
+own garments from the ravages
+of a supposed marauder. A light mealy powder will probably have
+been observed afterwards on the fingers that have touched the
+victim's wings.</p>
+
+<p>This powder, although it sometimes presents a beautiful glossy
+surface when spread over the skin, does not exhibit any definite
+form or structure without a more minute examination. Yet these<!-- Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
+are the scales that led the immortal naturalist to invent the somewhat
+long but useful term <i>Lepidoptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The very next time the opportunity offers itself, dust off a little
+of the mealy powder with a small and very soft brush on to a
+strip of white paper or a slip of glass, and examine it with a
+powerful lens or the low power of a compound microscope. What
+a sight you will then behold! Each little particle of dust is a
+beautifully formed scale, stamped with a number of minute
+rounded projections, and often displaying the most gorgeous colours.
+A great variety of designs and tints are often exhibited by the
+'dust' from a single wing. Take, for instance, for your inspection,
+scales from the wing of one of our commonest insects, the Small
+Tortoiseshell Butterfly (<a href="#Plate_III">Plate
+III</a>), and you will be surprised
+at the pleasing contrasts. But
+when your curiosity leads you
+to deal with others in the same
+manner, the varied display of
+forms and colours is simply
+amazing.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 352px;">
+<a name="FIG_2" id="FIG_2"></a><img src="images/i_019.jpg" width="352" height="351" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Portion of the Wing of a
+Butterfly from which some of
+the scales have been removed.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In order that we may learn
+still more of the structure of
+the wings of the <i>Lepidoptera</i>,
+we will examine a portion of
+one from which some of the
+scales have been removed,
+again bringing the lens or the
+microscope into our service.
+We now see that the scales
+are arranged in rows with great regularity on a thin and transparent
+membrane, which is supported by a system of branching
+rays. And the membrane itself, in parts which have been laid
+bare, is marked with regular rows of dots&mdash;the points at which
+the scales were originally attached by means of short hollow
+rods.</p>
+
+<p>The framework that supports the thin membrane we have
+spoken of as consisting of a system of <i>rays</i>, but to these the terms
+<i>veins</i>, <i>nerves</i>, <i>nervures</i>, or <i>nervules</i> are more commonly applied by
+various naturalists. We cannot do better, however, than adhere
+to the name originally used, for the structures in question do not
+perform the functions of veins, though at first they contain blood,<!-- Page 3 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
+nor are they themselves parts of the nervous systems of the insects
+to which they belong.</p>
+
+<p>The result of our examination of the wings of butterflies and
+moths has been to justify the application of the term <i>Lepidoptera</i>;
+but we must now study other equally important and interesting
+features of the structure of these insects. First, let us note the
+general form of the body.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 159px;">
+<a name="FIG_3" id="FIG_3"></a><a href="images/i_020.jpg"><img src="images/i_020_tn.jpg" width="159" height="400" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of Figure 3." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Body of a Butterfly&mdash;Under
+Side.
+</span>
+<p>1-7, segments of the abdomen;
+8, anal extremity; <i>a</i>, antennæ;
+<i>b</i>, tarsus; <i>c</i>, tibia; <i>d</i>, femur;
+<i>e</i>, palpi; <i>f</i>, head; <i>g</i>, thorax.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>A cursory glance at this portion of the
+creature's anatomy will show that it consists
+of three distinct and well-defined
+parts. In front there is the head, the size
+of which is somewhat small in proportion.
+Two very large eyes make up the greater
+portion of its bulk. It is remarkable, too,
+that butterflies possess eyes proportionately
+much larger than those of moths.
+Now, since butterflies always fly by day,
+and moths are, generally speaking, nocturnal
+insects, we might be led to suppose
+that the reverse of this arrangement would
+have suited the creatures better; for a
+small eye, we should think, would be able
+to collect sufficient light in the daytime
+to form a bright image, and a larger light-receiving
+area would be necessary during
+the darker hours for the same purpose.
+But it is evident that the sense of vision
+must depend on other conditions besides
+the size of the eye; and as these conditions
+are not understood in relation to the
+eyes of insects, any attempt at an explanation
+would be quite useless.</p>
+
+<p>The eye of a butterfly or moth is worthy
+of a closer examination, for it is a most beautiful and marvellous
+structure. The outer globular transparent membrane&mdash;the <i>cornea</i>&mdash;is
+divided into a large number of minute polygonal <i>facets</i>, each
+one of which admits light into a small conical compartment surrounded
+by a coloured membrane, and supplied with a fibre of the
+nerve of vision (the <i>optic</i> nerve). Hence the eye is often spoken of
+as <i>compound</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If you look closely into the eyes of various butterflies and moths<!-- Page 4 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+you will generally see a ground colour of grey, blue, brown, or
+black; but when viewed at certain angles in a strong light the
+most gorgeous hues of metallic brilliancy&mdash;gold, copper, and bronze&mdash;are
+to be observed. All such colours are due to the reflection of
+light from the colouring matter that lies between the numerous
+conical compartments.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_4" id="FIG_4"></a><img src="images/i_021.jpg" width="300" height="272" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Section of the
+Eye of an Insect.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A glance at the section of a compound eye will show
+you that all the little cones radiate from a common centre.
+And, as each little compartment is surrounded by opaque
+colouring matter, it is clear that perpendicular rays only are
+capable of penetrating to its base and exciting the nerve fibre that
+lies there. Thus each little division of a compound eye forms its
+own image of the object that happens to be exactly opposite its
+facet. But how many facets do we find in a single eye? Sometimes
+only a few hundreds, but sometimes
+as many as seventeen or eighteen
+thousand! We must not, however,
+conclude that the nature of the vision
+of butterflies and moths is necessarily
+very different from our own. We have
+two eyes, but the images formed by them
+are both blended, so that we do not see
+double. We can understand, therefore,
+that the thousands of images formed in
+a single eye may be blended together so
+as to form one continuous picture. Still
+there remains this difference: while in our own case the two images
+formed by the two eyes are practically the same, in the case of
+insects every one of the little conical tubes of a compound eye
+forms an image of an object that cannot possibly be formed by any
+one of the others. Thus, if the lepidopterous insect sees a continuous
+picture of its surroundings, such a picture is produced by the overlapping
+and blending, at their edges, of hundreds or thousands of
+distinct parts.</p>
+
+<p>There is yet another interesting difference between the vision
+of these insects and that of ourselves. As already stated, our two
+eyes are both turned toward the same point at the same time.
+But look at the butterfly's eyes. Here are no movable eyeballs,
+and the two eyes, placed as they are at the <i>sides</i> of the head, are
+always turned in <i>opposite</i> directions. The corneæ, too, are very
+convex; and consequently the range of vision is vastly wider than<!-- Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+ours. A boy is often easily surprised by a playmate who approaches
+him stealthily from behind, but did you ever try the same game
+with a butterfly? I have, many a time. After getting cautiously
+so near to a butterfly at rest as to be able to distinguish between
+its head and its hinder extremity, I have quietly circled round it so
+as to approach it from behind, being at the time under the impression
+that it wouldn't see me under those circumstances. But not
+the slightest advantage did I derive from this stratagem, for the
+position and construction of its eyes enabled it to see almost all
+ways at once.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the two compound eyes, the <i>Lepidoptera</i>, or at
+least most of them, are provided with two small simple eyes;
+but these are generally so hidden among the closely set hair that
+covers the head, that it is doubtful whether they are of much
+service as organs of vision.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 235px;">
+<a name="FIG_5" id="FIG_5"></a><img src="images/i_022a.jpg" width="207" height="400" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;Antennæ of
+Butterflies.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 235px;">
+<a name="FIG_6" id="FIG_6"></a><img src="images/i_022b.jpg" width="235" height="400" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;Antennæ of
+Moths.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The antennæ proceed from two points close to the upper
+borders of the eyes. They are jointed organs, and are of very
+different forms in the various species of <i>Lepidoptera</i>. They are
+generally long, slender, and clubbed at the extremity in butterflies,
+but exhibit several minor points of difference which we shall have to
+note later on. In moths the antennæ are sometimes long, slender,
+and pointed. Some are thick, and more or less prismatic in form;
+while others are slightly or deeply pectinated or comb-like. The<!-- Page 6 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+antennæ of butterflies are always straight, or only slightly curved;
+and, although the insects can sway them bodily, they have no
+power to bend them, or to stow them away in any place of shelter.
+Moths, on the other hand, when at rest, are almost invariably found
+to have their antennæ snugly tucked under the wings, and brought
+so closely against the side of the head for this purpose that even
+the uncovered portion is often difficult to find.</p>
+
+<p>There are two other prominent appendages belonging to the
+heads of the <i>Lepidoptera</i>. These are the <i>labial palpi</i> or feelers of
+the lips. They are generally easily seen, projecting forward on the
+under side of the head, sometimes so long and conspicuous as to
+give one the idea of a snout or long nose. The palpi are
+jointed&mdash;usually
+in three parts&mdash;are covered with scales, and often furnished
+with hairs or bristles.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 243px;">
+<a name="FIG_7" id="FIG_7"></a><img src="images/i_024.jpg" width="243" height="400" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7.&mdash;Section
+of the Proboscis
+of a
+Butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>If you watch a moth or butterfly when it is feeding on the
+sweet juices of a flower, or on some kind of artificial sweet with
+which you have provided it, you will observe its long trunk or <i>proboscis</i>,
+by which food is sucked up. This instrument is so long and
+slender that it seems almost impossible that it can be a tube
+through which a liquid freely passes. But a careful examination
+will show that this is the case. It is composed of two separate
+pieces&mdash;two half tubes, which, when closely applied to each other,
+form a very thin and flexible pipe, perfectly air-tight and adapted
+for suction. Sometimes you can see a butterfly or moth manipulating
+with its proboscis as if it required readjustment in some way
+or other. It has split the tube throughout its length, so that it now
+looks like two exceedingly fine hairs. Then, after a short time, the
+two halves are put together again, and immediately, as if by magic,
+become a single tube in which no kind of seam is to be observed
+without a powerful magnifier.</p>
+
+<p>In order to observe the nature of such a wonderful arrangement
+we must have recourse to the aid of a good microscope. Thus
+assisted, we can see at once how the junction of the two sides of
+the proboscis is brought about so quickly and so perfectly. The
+inner edges of each half are very regularly fringed with lines of
+closely set hairs&mdash;so regular, in fact, are they, that they give one
+the idea of long yet minute beautifully formed combs. When the
+two parts are brought together, the hairs of two opposite edges
+interlock, those on one side exactly filling the spaces between those
+of the other.</p>
+
+<p>The microscope also reveals another interesting fact, viz. that<!-- Page 7 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+the proboscis is not a single tube, but, although so remarkably thin,
+is really a set of three distinct pipes, one lying on each side of the
+central one. It is said that the central tube only is used for sucking
+up the liquid food, and there seems to be some doubt as to the
+uses of the other two. Some naturalists are of opinion that the
+latter are air tubes, and are connected with the respiration of the
+insect; while others say that through these the insects eject a thin
+watery fluid with which to dissolve or dilute those sweetmeats
+that are not sufficiently liquid to be readily sucked up. But possibly
+both these opinions are correct, the proboscis serving all three
+of the purposes here named. The only observation of my own
+bearing on the subject is this. While a moth was feeding on a
+drop of syrup in a strong light, a powerful lens revealed drops,
+of liquid, mingled with bubbles of air, passing
+alternately <i>up and down</i> the two lateral tubes of
+the proboscis. At the same time the upward
+current of syrup in the central tube was by no
+means steady and continuous.</p>
+
+<p>When this organ is not in use, it is beautifully
+coiled into a close spiral which lies between the
+labial palpi. The length varies considerably in
+different insects, and consequently the number of
+turns in the spiral must differ also. Sometimes
+there are less than two turns, while some of the
+longer ones form spirals of from six to ten turns.</p>
+
+<p>In concluding our brief account of the head
+of lepidopterous insects it is, I suppose, hardly
+necessary to add that there is no kind of chewing
+apparatus to be described; all the members of this order, at least in
+the perfect state, deriving the whole of the little nourishment they
+require entirely by suction through the proboscis or 'trunk.'</p>
+
+<p>The second division of the body is the <i>thorax</i>. This is much
+larger than the head, and consists of three ring-like segments,
+joined one behind the other so intimately that the lines of junction
+are hardly visible, even after the thick clothing of fine hair has been
+brushed off. Behind the thorax is the abdomen, which is composed
+of several segments, the junctions between the rings often being
+most distinct.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 332px;">
+<a name="FIG_8" id="FIG_8"></a><a href="images/i_026.jpg"><img src="images/i_026_tn.jpg" width="332" height="400" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of figure 8." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8.&mdash;Diagram of the Wings of a Butterfly.</span>
+
+<p>I. <i>Fore wing.</i>&mdash;1-5, subcostal nervules; 6, 7, discoidal nervules; 8-10, median
+nervules; 11, submedian nervure; 12, internal nervure; 13-15, disco-cellular
+nervules; 16, interno-median nervule; 17, median nervure; 18, subcostal
+nervure; <i>a</i>, costal nervure; <i>b</i>, costa or anterior margin; <i>c</i>, apex or anterior
+angle; <i>d</i>, posterior or hind margin; <i>e</i>, posterior or anal angle; <i>f</i>, interior or
+inner margin; <i>g</i>, base; <i>h</i>, discoidal cell.</p>
+
+<p>II. <i>Hind wing.</i>&mdash;1, 2, subcostal nervules; 3, discoidal nervule; 4-6, median
+nervules; 7, submedian nervure; 8, precostal nervure; 9, subcostal nervure; 10,
+median nervure; 11, 12, disco-cellular nervules; <i>a</i>, costal nervure; <i>b</i>, costa or
+anterior margin; <i>c</i>, apex or anterior angle; <i>d</i>, hind margin; <i>e</i>, tail or caudal
+appendage; <i>f</i>, anal angle; <i>g</i>, abdominal or inner margin; <i>h</i>, base.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the sides of the thorax proceed the two pairs of wings, the
+general structure of which we have already to a certain extent
+examined. But when we are a little farther advanced in our<!-- Page 8 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+insect studies, we shall have to become acquainted with detailed
+descriptions given as aids to the identification of species. Now,
+such descriptions cannot be satisfactory, either to the one who
+gives or to him who receives, unless expressed in such definite
+terms as render a misunderstanding impossible. A botanist cannot
+give an accurate and concise description of a flower without the use
+of certain names and expressions which have gradually become an
+almost necessary part of his vocabulary; neither can an entomologist
+give a really useful, and, at the same time, a <i>succinct</i>
+description of an insect unless he is acquainted with the names of its
+parts. Therefore, seeing that we distinguish the various species of
+butterflies and moths <i>mainly</i> by the arrangement and colour of the
+markings of their wings, it is really necessary that we should know
+the names of the different parts of these organs. For this reason I
+have inserted drawings of a fore and of a hind wing of a butterfly,
+together with the names of the various parts of the wings, and also
+the names of the principal rays or <i>nervures</i>. Yet I would not
+advise any young entomologist to attempt to commit to memory
+all the names given. Rather use the diagram for reference when
+occasion requires, more particularly when you have an insect in
+your possession that you desire to study. In ordinary descriptions
+of butterflies and moths the names of the <i>nervures</i> are not so
+generally used as those of the <i>parts</i> of the wing. Consequently it
+is exceedingly useful to know what is meant by the terms <i>base</i>,
+<i>costal margin</i>, <i>apex</i>, <i>hind margin</i>, <i>anal angle</i>, <i>inner margin</i>,
+<i>discoidal cell</i> &amp;c. as applied to the wing.</p>
+
+<p>The two pairs of wings are attached to the second and third
+segments of the thorax; but of the <i>three</i> pairs of legs, which we
+have next to consider, one pair arises from each of the three
+segments. The arrangement of these limbs is well shown in the
+sketch on page 3, as are also the names of the different parts of
+the limb, the latter being given for reference by the reader when
+the need arises.</p>
+
+<p>All insects, in their perfect state, we are told, have three pairs
+of legs; but if you examine the under surface of certain butterflies,
+such as the Marbled White, or any of the Vanessas, Browns, or
+Heaths, it is quite likely that you will raise objection to such a
+statement; for in these you may possibly see only four legs. But this
+is the result of a too cursory observation. Look a little more closely
+at your specimen, and you will see a pair of smaller legs folded
+up under the fore part of the thorax. By means of a blunt needle<!-- Page 9 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+you can straighten out these limbs, and then the difference in
+length to be observed between them and the other four is very
+striking indeed. They are also thinner than the middle and hind
+legs; and, unlike these, are not provided with claws.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 390px;">
+<a name="FIG_9" id="FIG_9"></a><img src="images/i_027.jpg" width="390" height="205" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 9.&mdash;The Undeveloped
+Fore Leg
+of a Butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These imperfectly developed legs are, of course, quite useless as
+far as walking is concerned; indeed, it is extremely doubtful as to
+whether they are of any service whatever to the owner. On one<!-- Page 10 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+occasion, however, while watching a Peacock Butterfly apparently
+engaged in cleaning its divided proboscis, I observed that this organ
+was frequently passed under the thorax, and that the front pair of
+legs were pressed against it on each side, while it was being drawn
+outward between them. It is probable, therefore, that these limbs
+constitute a pair of brushes by means of which the fine grooves of
+the divided trunk are cleared of any solid or sticky matter that may
+lodge therein. It is certain that moths, and those butterflies that
+possess six <i>equal</i> legs, use the front pair for this same purpose. The
+former, also, employ them for brushing their antennæ, which seem
+to be, by the way, particularly sensitive to different kinds of
+irritation.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well-known fact that tobacco smoke has a powerful
+influence on certain small insects; and even though it can hardly
+be regarded as a perfect all-round insecticide, it is certainly more
+or less objectionable to the larger and hardier species. A short time
+since, while watching a number of newly
+emerged moths of the <i>Sphinx</i> group, and at
+the same time enjoying the solace afforded by
+the luxurious weed, a puff of the smoke was
+accidentally allowed to play into the box in
+which my pets were for the time imprisoned.
+Immediately they rubbed their front legs
+vigorously over the antennæ, as if to remove
+the obnoxious irritant that had thus intruded on their presence.
+Similar observations have led many naturalists to suppose that the
+antennæ are the seat of various senses, such as those of touch,
+hearing, and smell. Seeing that insects do not, as far as we know,
+possess special organs for all the five senses which we enjoy (and it
+is interesting to note here that some insects certainly experience
+other sensations which are quite beyond our ken), we can quite
+understand the common tendency to locate the seats of certain of
+the senses in such easily affected parts as the antennæ. But little,
+I believe, has been definitely proved save that the antennæ are
+sensitive to touch and to irritants generally.</p>
+
+<p>While speaking of the senses of insects, I cannot refrain from
+mentioning a most remarkable example of a peculiar sensitiveness
+that has been observed in certain moths of the family <i>Bombyces</i>
+(<a href="#Page_217">page 217</a>)&mdash;notably the Oak Eggar, the Emperor, and the Kentish
+Glory. Take a newly emerged female of either of these species,
+shut her up in a small box, conceal the box in your pocket, and then<!-- Page 11 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+walk about in some country spot known to you as being one of
+the haunts of that species of moth. Then, if any of the males of
+the same species happen to be in the neighbourhood, they will
+settle or hover about close to the female which, although still
+concealed and quite out of their reach, has attracted them to the
+spot.</p>
+
+<p>What a marvellously acute sense this must be, that thus enables
+the insects to scent out, as it were, their mates at considerable
+distances, even when doubly surrounded by a wooden box and the
+material of a coat pocket! You would naturally expect that
+entomologists have turned this wonderful power to account. Many
+a box has been filled with the beautiful Kentish Glories of the male
+kind, who had been led into the snare by the attractions of a virgin
+Glory that they were never to behold. Many an Emperor has also
+been decoyed from his throne to the place of his execution, beguiled
+by the imaginary charms of an Empress on whom he was never to
+cast one passing glance. And these and other similar captures
+have been made in places where, without the employment of the
+innocent enchantress, perhaps not a single male could have been
+found, even after the most diligent search.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking of this surprising sense, I am again tempted to revert
+to the antennæ; for it is a remarkable fact that the males of those
+species of moths which exhibit the power of thus searching out their
+mates, are just those that are also remarkable for their very broad
+and deeply pectinated antennæ&mdash;a fact that has led to the supposition
+that the power in question is located in the antennæ, and is
+also proportional to the amount of surface displayed by these organs.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the present time we have been considering the butterfly
+and moth in their perfect forms, but everybody knows that
+the former is not <i>always</i> a butterfly, nor is the latter always a
+moth; but that they both pass through certain preparatory stages
+before they attain their final winged state.</p>
+
+<p>We shall now notice briefly what these earlier stages are, leaving
+the detailed descriptions of each for the following chapters.</p>
+
+<p>The life of the perfect butterfly or moth is of very short
+duration, often only a few days, nearly the whole of its existence
+having been spent in preparing itself for the brief term to be enjoyed</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span class="i4">... in fields of light,</span><br />
+And where the flowers of Paradise unfold.
+</p>
+
+<p>It may be interesting to consider of what use the metamorphoses<!-- Page 12 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+of insects are, and to what extent these metamorphoses render them
+fit for the work they have to do.</p>
+
+<p>It is certain that the chief work of insects, taken as a whole, is
+to remove from the earth the excess of animal and vegetable matter.
+If they are to do this work effectually, it is clear that they must
+be very voracious feeders, and also be capable of multiplying their
+species prodigiously. Now each of these powers requires the special
+development of a certain set of organs, and an abnormal development
+of one set must necessarily be produced at the expense of the
+other. Hence we find insects existing in two distinct stages, with
+or without an intermediate quiescent state, during the first of which
+the digestive apparatus is enormously developed, while the reproductive
+organs occupy but very little space; then, during the other
+stage, the digestive apparatus is of the simplest possible description,
+and the organs of reproduction are in a perfect state of
+development.</p>
+
+<p>Allowing, then, that the chief work of the insect is the removal
+of surplus organic matter, we can see that a large share of its life
+should be spent in the larval or grub stage, and that the perfect
+state <i>need</i> not occupy any more time than is necessary for the
+fertilisation of the eggs that almost completely fill the body of the
+female at the time of her emergence from the chrysalis shell.</p>
+
+<p>Many insects undergo their metamorphoses by slow degrees,
+but the <i>Lepidoptera</i>, after existing for some considerable period
+without any important visible change in structure, pass by a rapid
+transition into the next state. Thus, a caterpillar, that has not
+altered in general form for several weeks, changes into a chrysalis
+within the course of a few days; and again, after a period of quiescence
+that may extend throughout the whole of the colder months,
+becomes a perfect butterfly or moth within twenty minutes of the
+moment of its emergence.</p>
+
+<p>But this suddenness is more apparent than real, as may easily be
+proved by internal examinations of the insect at various stages of
+growth; showing that we are led astray by the rapidity of <i>external</i>
+changes&mdash;the mere <i>moultings</i> or castings of the skin&mdash;while the
+gradual transformations proceeding within are not so readily
+observed.</p>
+
+<p>We have already said that the life of the perfect butterfly or
+moth is short. A few days after emergence from the chrysalis case,
+the female deposits her eggs on the leaves or stems of the plant
+that is to sustain the larvæ. Her work is now accomplished, and<!-- Page 13 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+the few days more allowed her are spent in frolicking among the
+flowers, and sucking the sweet juices they provide. But males
+and females alike&mdash;bedecked with the most gorgeous colours and
+overflowing with sportive mirth when first they take to the wing&mdash;soon
+show the symptoms of a fast approaching end. Their colours
+begin to fade, and the beauty-making scales of the wings gradually
+disappear through friction against the petals of hundreds of flowers
+visited and the merry dances with scores and scores of playful
+companions. At last, one bright afternoon, while the sun is still
+high in the heavens, a butterfly, more weary than usual, with heavy
+and laborious flight, seeks a place of rest for the approaching
+night. Here, on a waving stalk, it is soon lulled to sleep by a gentle
+breeze.</p>
+
+<p>Next morning, a few hours before noon, the blazing sun calls
+it out for its usual frolics. But its body now seems too heavy to
+be supported by the feeble and ragged wings, and, after one or two
+weak attempts at play, incited by the approach of a younger and
+merrier companion, it settles down in its final resting place. On
+the following morning a dead butterfly is seen, still clinging by its
+claws to a swinging stem, from which it is eventually thrown during
+a storm.</p>
+
+<p>The tale of the perfect moth is very similar to the above, except
+that it is generally summoned to activity by the approach of
+darkness.</p>
+
+<p>We see, then, that butterflies and moths exhibit none of that
+quality which we term parental affection. Their duty ends with
+the deposition of the eggs, and the parents are dead before the
+young larvæ have penetrated the shell that surrounds them.</p>
+
+<p>Yet it is wonderful to see how unmistakably the females
+generally lay their eggs on the very plants that provide the
+necessary food for their progeny, as if they were not only conscious
+of and careful concerning the exact requirements of their offspring,
+but also possessed such a knowledge of botanical science as
+enabled them to discriminate between the plant required and all
+others.</p>
+
+<p>Has the perfect insect any selfish motive in this apparently
+careful selection of a plant on which to lay its eggs? Does the
+female herself derive any benefit from the particular plant chosen
+for this purpose? In most cases, certainly not. For it often
+happens that the blossom of this plant is not by any means one of
+those that supply the sweets which insects love, and still more<!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+frequently does it occur that the eggs are deposited either before
+the flowers have appeared or after they have faded.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 226px;">
+<a name="FIG_10" id="FIG_10"></a><a href="images/i_031.jpg"><img src="images/i_031_tn.jpg" width="226" height="400" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of figure 10." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;The Four Stages of the
+Large White Butterfly (Pieris
+Brassicæ).</span>
+<p><i>a</i>, larva; <i>b</i>, pupa; <i>c</i>, imago; <i>d</i>, egg.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Neither can we easily impute to the insect an acquired knowledge
+of the nature and wants of her offspring, or an acquaintance
+with botany sufficient to enable her to distinguish plant
+forms. Our only solution of the problem (which is really no solution
+at all) is to attribute the
+whole thing to that inexplicable
+quality which we are pleased
+to term <i>natural instinct</i>. It
+is to be observed, however, that
+it is not <i>all</i> butterflies and
+moths that display this unerring
+power. Some few seem to
+deposit their eggs indiscriminately
+on all kinds of herbage.
+But, I believe, the larvæ of
+these species are generally
+grass feeders, and would seldom
+have to travel far from
+any spot without meeting with
+an acceptable morsel.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>But we must now pass on
+to a brief consideration of the
+other stages of the insect's
+existence. After a time, varying
+from a few days to several
+months, the young caterpillars
+or larvæ make their appearance.
+They soon commence
+feeding in right earnest. Their
+period of existence in this state
+varies from a few weeks to
+several months, and even, in
+some cases, to years. During this time their growth is generally
+very rapid, and they undergo a series of <i>moults</i> or changes of skin,
+of which we shall have more to say in a future chapter. Then,
+when fully grown, they prepare for an apparently quiescent form,
+which we speak of as the <i>pupa</i> or chrysalis, and in which they
+again spend a very variable period, extending over a few days,
+weeks, or months. Now, inclosed in a protective case, each pupa<!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+is undergoing a remarkable change. Some of its old organs are
+disappearing, and others are developing; and, after all the parts of
+the future insect have been developed as far as its narrow shell will
+permit, it bursts forth into the world as a perfect insect or <i>imago</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Its wings at first are small, shapeless, and crumpled in a most
+unsightly fashion; but it is not long before they assume their full
+size, beautiful form, and gorgeous colouring. Then, in about
+another hour or two, the wings, at first soft and flaccid, have
+become sufficiently dry and stiff to bear their owner rapidly
+through the air.</p>
+
+<p>We have thus observed some of the more striking features in
+the structure of the butterfly and moth in its most perfect state;
+and alluded in a very brief manner to the various stages through
+which these creatures must necessarily pass before finally reaching
+this stage. But now we must study these earlier stages more
+closely, and watch the insects during the marvellous transitions
+they are destined to undergo. This we shall do in the following
+chapters.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><!-- Page 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER II
+<br />
+<i>THE EGG</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>I suppose you are all acquainted with the general structure of the
+hen's egg, having dissected several, in your own way, many a time.</p>
+
+<p>Its outer covering, which you speak of as the 'shell,' you have
+observed is hard and brittle. It is composed of a <i>calcareous</i> or limy
+substance, known chemically as <i>carbonate of lime</i>. If you put
+some pieces of it into an egg cup, and throw over them a little
+vinegar or any other liquid acid, you will see them gradually
+dissolve away, and small bubbles of carbonic acid gas will rise into
+the air. Then again, if you take a long and narrow strip of the
+shell, and hold one end of it in a gas or lamp flame, after a short
+time that end will become softer, and will glow brightly in the
+flame, for it is converted into lime&mdash;the same substance that is
+used by the builders for making their mortar&mdash;and the bright glow
+is really a miniature <i>lime light</i>, such as is always produced when a
+piece of lime is made intensely hot.</p>
+
+<p>Just inside this shell you have seen a thin membrane or skin
+that is easily peeled off the substance of the egg itself. Next to
+this comes the 'white' of the egg, which is really colourless while
+liquid, but turns white and more or less solid in the cooking. Last
+of all, in the centre of this, you have noticed the oval yellow mass
+that is termed the 'yoke' or 'yolk,' and which contains the
+embryo of the future chick.</p>
+
+<p>Now if you imagine this egg to be reduced in size till two or
+three dozen of them would be required to form a single line about
+one inch long, the outer calcareous shell to be entirely removed, the
+skin or membrane to be converted into a firmer substance of a
+horny nature, and, finally, the yolk to be absent and the whole
+internal space to be filled with the 'white,' you will then have some
+idea of the nature of the egg of a butterfly or moth.<!-- Page 17 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To put the matter more briefly, then, we will say that the eggs
+of these insects are simply little liquid masses, usually of a colourless
+substance, surrounded by a horny and flexible covering.</p>
+
+<p>Such a description may certainly give you some idea of
+the nature of the eggs of insects, but no amount of book reading
+will serve the purpose so well or be so pleasant as the examination
+of the eggs themselves. During the summer months
+very little difficulty will be experienced in finding some eggs
+in your own garden. Turn over some leaves and examine their
+under surfaces, choosing especially those plants which show, by
+their partially eaten leaves, that they are favourites with the insect
+world. Or you may amuse yourself by catching a number of butterflies&mdash;common
+'Whites' are as good for the purpose as any&mdash;and
+temporarily confine them in a wooden or cardboard box, containing
+a number of leaves from various plants, and covered with gauze.
+In this way you are sure to obtain a few females that have not yet
+laid all their eggs; and if you watch your prisoners you will soon
+see them carefully depositing the eggs on the under surfaces of
+leaves, bending their abdomens round the edges if there is not sufficient
+room to get themselves completely under. And then, when
+you are satisfied with the number of eggs thus obtained for your
+examination, you can have the pleasure of seeing all your liberated
+captives flying joyfully in the free air.</p>
+
+<p>In giving these simple instructions I have assumed that the
+reader has not yet learnt any of the characters by which female
+butterflies are to be distinguished from their lords and masters; but
+I hope that he will know soon, at least with regard to a good many
+species, from which individuals he may most reasonably expect to
+obtain eggs, and so be able to avoid the imprisonment, even though
+only temporary, of insects which cannot satisfy his wants.</p>
+
+<p>Again, it is not necessary, after all, that butterflies should be
+captured for the purpose of obtaining eggs. Watch them as they
+hover about among your flowers. Some, you will observe, are intent
+on nothing but idle frolicking; and you may conclude at once that
+<i>these</i> have no immediate duty to perform. Others are flying without
+hesitation from flower to flower, gorging themselves with the
+sweets of life: these are not the objects of your search. But you
+will descry certain others, flying round about the beds and borders
+with a steadier and more matronly air, taking little or no notice of
+their more frivolous companions, and paying not the slightest heed
+to the bright nectar-producing cups of the numerous flowers. These<!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+are seriously engaged with family affairs only. Watch one of them
+carefully, and as soon as she has settled herself on a leaf, walk steadily
+towards her till you are near enough to observe her movements.
+She will not move unless you approach too closely, for, like busy
+folk generally, she has no time to worry about petty annoyances.
+You will now actually witness the deposition of the eggs exactly as
+carried on in the perfect freedom of nature; and the eggs themselves
+may be taken either for examination or for the rearing of the
+caterpillars.</p>
+
+<p>Some species of <i>Lepidoptera</i> lay some hundreds of eggs, and it
+is seldom that the number laid by one female is much below a
+hundred.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, the under surfaces of leaves are generally
+chosen for the deposit of eggs, but a few of the insects we are considering
+always select the upper surface for this purpose. Thus
+the Puss Moth (<a href="#Page_235">page 235</a>), and two or three others resembling it,
+though much smaller, known as the Kittens (<a href="#Page_234">page 234</a>), invariably
+lay them on the upper surface. And this is the more surprising
+since the eggs of these moths are brown or black, and consequently
+so conspicuous on the green leaves as to be in danger of being
+sighted by the numerous enemies of insects.</p>
+
+<p>The Hairstreak Butterflies (<a href="#Page_183">page 183</a>) afford another exception to
+the general rule, for their eggs are deposited on the <i>bark</i> of the trees
+and shrubs (birch, sloe, elm, oak, and bramble) on which their
+larvæ feed.</p>
+
+<p>At the moment each egg is laid it is covered with a liquid
+sticky substance, so that it is immediately glued to the leaf or stem
+as soon as it is deposited. The sticky substance soon dries, causing
+the egg to be so firmly fastened in its place that it is often impossible
+to force it off without destroying it completely.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the <i>Lepidoptera</i> deposit their eggs singly, or in small
+irregular clusters; but by far the larger number set them very
+regularly side by side, in so compact a mass that it would be
+impossible to place them on a smaller area without piling one on
+top of another. This is not accomplished with the aid of the sight,
+for the insect performing her task with such precision often has her
+head on one side of a leaf or stem while arranging her eggs on the
+other. If you take the trouble to watch her, you will see that she
+carefully <i>feels</i> out a place for each egg by means of the tip of her
+abdomen immediately before laying it.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are laid by moths and butterflies at various seasons<!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+of the year. In some cases they are deposited early in the spring,
+even before the buds of the food plants have burst; and the young
+larvæ, hatched a few weeks later, commence to feed on the young
+and tender leaves. Then, throughout the late spring, the whole of
+the summer and autumn, and even till the winter frosts set in, the
+eggs of various species are being laid.</p>
+
+<p>Those deposited during the warm weather are often hatched in
+a few days, but those laid toward the autumn remain unchanged
+until the following spring.</p>
+
+<p>In this latter case the frosts of the most severe winter are not
+capable of destroying the vitality of the eggs. In many instances
+the perfect insect or the larva would be killed by the temperature
+of an average winter day, but the vitality of the eggs is such that
+they have been subjected to a temperature, artificially produced, of
+fifty degrees below the freezing point, and even after this the young
+larvæ walked out of their cradles at their appointed time just as if
+nothing unusual had occurred.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments have also been performed on the eggs with a view
+of determining how far their vitality is influenced by high temperatures.
+We know that the scorching midsummer sun has no
+destructive influence on them, but these experiments prove that
+they are not influenced by a temperature only twenty degrees below
+the boiling point&mdash;actually a considerably higher temperature than
+is <i>necessary</i> to properly cook a hen's egg.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now examine a number of eggs of different species, that
+we may note some of the many variations in form and colour.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to colour, we have already observed that the eggs
+of a few species are black; but more commonly they are much
+lighter&mdash;pearly white, green, yellow, and grey being of frequent
+occurrence.</p>
+
+<p>The great variety of form, however, will provide a vast amount
+of enjoyment to anyone who possesses a good magnifying lens or
+a small compound microscope. Some are globular, others oval;
+while many others represent cups, basins, and domes. Then we
+have miniature vases, flasks, bottles with short necks, and numerous
+figures that must remind a juvenile admirer of the sweet
+cakes and ornamental jellies that have so often gladdened his
+longing eyes.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the beautifully sculptured surfaces of a large number are
+even more striking than their general shapes. Some are regularly
+ribbed from top to bottom with parallel or radiating ridges, and at<!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+the same time marked with delicate transverse lines. Others are
+beautifully pitted or honeycombed, some ornamented with the
+most faithful representation of fine wicker-work, while a few are
+provided with a cap, more or less ornamental, that is raised by the
+young larva when about to see the world for the first time. A few
+of these beautiful forms are here illustrated and named, and another
+has already appeared on <a href="#Page_14">page 14</a>, but an enthusiastic young
+naturalist may easily secure a variety of others for his own
+examination.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_11" id="FIG_11"></a><img src="images/i_037a.jpg" width="300" height="169" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 11.&mdash;Egg of
+the Meadow
+Brown Butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_12" id="FIG_12"></a><img src="images/i_037b.jpg" width="300" height="173" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12.&mdash;Egg of
+the Speckled
+Wood Butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_13" id="FIG_13"></a><img src="images/i_037c.jpg" width="300" height="178" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 13.&mdash;Egg of
+the Vapourer
+Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It may be surmised from the accompanying illustrations that
+the form of the egg is always the same for any one species.
+This is really the case, and consequently an experienced entomologist
+can often decide on the name of the butterfly or moth that
+deposited a cluster of eggs he happens to find in his rambles and
+searchings; but in such decisions he is always greatly assisted by a
+knowledge of the food plants of the various insects, and sometimes
+also by the manner in which the eggs are arranged.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that the period during which the <i>Lepidoptera</i>
+remain in the egg stage is very variable, and depends largely on
+the season in which they were laid; but it is often possible to tell
+when to expect the young larvæ by certain changes which take
+place in the appearance of the egg. As the horny covering of
+the egg is transparent, the gradual development of the caterpillar
+from the clear fluid can be watched to a certain extent; but
+if you have a microscope, and would like to witness this development
+to perfection, proceed as follows.</p>
+
+<p>Arrange that some butterflies and moths shall lay their eggs on
+strips of glass of convenient dimensions for microscopic work&mdash;three
+inches long by one wide is the usual size for this kind of work.
+This is easily accomplished by placing a proper selection of female
+insects in a rather small box temporarily lined with such 'slips.'
+When a few eggs have thus been secured, all you have to do is<!-- Page 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+to examine them at intervals with your microscope, always using
+the reflector so as to direct a strong light <i>through</i> the eggs
+from below.</p>
+
+<p>But even without such an arrangement some interesting
+changes are to be observed. As a rule, the colour of the egg
+turns darker as the time for the arrival of the infant larva approaches,
+and you will often be able to see a little brown or
+black head moving slightly within the 'shell.' You may know
+then that the hatching is close at hand, and the movements of
+the tiny creature are well worth careful watching. Soon a small
+hole appears in the side of the case, and a little green or dark
+cap begins to show itself. Then, with a magnifier of some kind,
+you may see a pair of tiny jaws, working horizontally, and not
+with an up-and-down motion like our own, gradually gnawing
+away at the cradle, till at last the little creature is perfectly free to
+ramble in search of food.</p>
+
+<p>Strange to say, the young larva does not waste a particle of
+the horny substance that must necessarily be removed in securing
+its liberty, but devours it with an apparent relish. Indeed, it appreciates
+the flavour of this viand so highly that it often disposes
+of the whole of its little home, with the exception of the small
+circular patch by which it was cemented to the plant. When the
+whole brood have thus dispensed with their empty cradles, there
+remains on the stem or leaf a glittering patch of little pearly
+plates.</p>
+
+<p>After the performance of this feat the young caterpillar starts
+off in life on its own account with as much briskness and confidence
+as if it had previously spent a term in the world under the same
+conditions; but we must reserve an account of its doings and sufferings
+for our next chapter.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER III
+<br />
+<i>THE LARVA</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>In almost every case the young caterpillar, on quitting the 'shell'
+of the egg, finds itself standing on and surrounded by its natural
+food, and immediately commences to do justice to the abundant
+supply. It will either nibble away at the surface of the leaf, removing
+the soft cellular substance, so that the leaf exhibits a number of
+semi-transparent patches when held up to the light, or it will
+make straight for the edge, and, closing its horizontal
+jaws on either side, bite the leaf completely
+through, and thus remove a small piece each time.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 226px;">
+<a name="FIG_14" id="FIG_14"></a><img src="images/i_039.jpg" width="226" height="400" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;The
+Caterpillar of
+the Clouded
+Yellow Butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several naturalists have amused themselves by
+performing experiments and making calculations
+on the efficiency of the masticating and digesting
+powers of the caterpillar. The illustrious Réaumur,
+for example, proved that some of the cabbage
+eaters disposed of more than twice their own
+weight of food in twenty-four hours, during which
+time their weight increased one-tenth. Let us see
+what this would be equivalent to in human beings:
+A man weighing eleven stone would devour over
+three hundred pounds of food in a day, and at the
+end of that day weigh about fifteen pounds more
+than he did at the beginning!</p>
+
+<p>So the young caterpillar eats, and rests, and
+grows, till, while still young, its body has become too large for the
+already tightened skin. It evidently feels very uncomfortable. Its
+appetite fails, and it remains for a time perfectly quiet in one spot,
+having previously spun a little carpet of silk to form a firm foothold
+during its temporary indisposition. Its colours have also
+become dingy, and anyone, not understanding the character of its<!-- Page 23 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+growth, might easily be led to suppose that the poor creature was
+displaying the earlier symptoms of a serious and perhaps fatal
+illness.</p>
+
+<p>But soon an encouraging symptom is observed. The caterpillar
+begins to get restless. Its front segments are turned alternately
+right and left, and are also made to swell out much beyond their
+normal size. Then in a very short time&mdash;often less than a minute
+from the first appearances of restlessness&mdash;the skin, which has
+become somewhat dry and brittle, splits along the back over the
+second, third and fourth segments, revealing a new and bright coat
+beneath. The caterpillar continues its struggles and, in addition
+to the previous movements, causes the swelling to move backward
+along the body. This, acting like a
+wedge, causes the rent in the old coat
+to extend in that direction.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_15" id="FIG_15"></a><img src="images/i_040.jpg" width="300" height="273" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 15.&mdash;The Caterpillar of
+the Dark Green Fritillary
+Butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The caterpillar now draws its head
+backward, and, with a few convulsive
+struggles, pulls the front segments
+out of their old skin, and passes its
+head out of the rent in the back.
+With its foremost segments thus
+rendered perfectly free, it walks
+straight out of the old garment,
+which is left still fixed by the legs to
+the silken carpet.</p>
+
+<p>The larva, although now fresh and smart in its appearance, is
+exhausted by these struggles and its prolonged fast. The new skin,
+moreover, is very soft and tender, even to the cases of the head
+and legs, which are normally very hard. But a short period of
+rest suffices to dry its skin and sharpen its appetite, and then it
+eats more vigorously than ever.</p>
+
+<p>We will now leave the caterpillar for a moment while we look
+at its cast-off clothes. They are still clinging to a stem so firmly
+that they can scarcely be removed without injury. The hard shell
+that covered the head and jaws is perfect in form, and so are the
+claws and cases of the legs. All the hairs or spines that happened
+to adorn the previous owner still retain their positions; and the
+whole skin, although always more or less shrivelled, is sometimes
+so slightly altered in form that it might be mistaken for a living
+caterpillar if not closely examined.</p>
+
+<p>But this is not all. For, according to the accounts of some<!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+authoritative observers, the lining of the digestive organs, which is
+really a continuation of the outer skin, is cast off (or rather cast
+<i>out</i>) at the same time, as are also the linings of the larger breathing
+tubes which are presently to be described.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 245px;">
+<a name="FIG_16" id="FIG_16"></a><img src="images/i_041.jpg" width="245" height="400" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 16.&mdash;The Caterpillar
+of the
+Purple Emperor
+Butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have seen that some caterpillars, on quitting their egg cases
+(which may really be regarded as the first moult), make their first
+meal of the old covering. So also some of them, in their future
+moultings, exhibit an apparently useless economy (seeing that they
+are surrounded by an abundance of their
+natural vegetable diet) by devouring their
+old coats! In the face of this fact we can
+hardly describe them as strict vegetarians.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus passed through its first hardship,
+the caterpillar has by no means seen
+the end of the troubles and dangers that beset
+it; for, during its existence in the larval state,
+it has to go through a series of three, four, five,
+or even six moults, all of which are periods
+of considerable inconvenience, and perhaps
+even pain, and frequently prove fatal. And
+it is by no means an uncommon thing to
+meet with the lifeless body of an unfortunate
+individual who, as shown by its shabby
+appearance and the silken carpet under its
+feet, has evidently fallen a victim to the
+dangerous process of ridding itself of an old garment.</p>
+
+<p>But this is only one of the many dangers to which caterpillars
+are exposed. Throughout every hour of the day the sharp and
+hungry eyes of the numerous insect-eating birds are searching the
+leaves for such delicacies to satisfy the wants of themselves and
+their broods. The lively little lizards, too, during the sunny
+hours are busily engaged in searching them out among the foliage
+of heaths and banks.</p>
+
+<p>Very formidable enemies also exist in the form of Ichneumon
+and other species of flies, which pierce the skins of caterpillars with
+their sharp <i>ovipositors</i>, and lay their eggs within the bodies of
+the unfortunate victims. As soon as the young larvæ are hatched
+from these eggs, they commence feeding on the fatty substance
+stored beneath the caterpillar's skin. They carefully avoid, at
+first, attacking the vital organs of their host's body, and in this
+way secure for themselves a more lasting supply of fresh food.<!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+When the fatty substance is nearly all gone, they eat their way
+into the more important structures, of course steadily growing all
+the time; and so, even though the body of the caterpillar is rapidly
+diminishing, the total bulk shows often no very appreciable decrease
+in size. When the larvæ of the flies are fully fed, they either
+change to the pupa within the carcase of their host, or eat their
+way out of its body and construct for themselves a cocoon in which
+to undergo the transformation.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
+<a name="FIG_17" id="FIG_17"></a><img src="images/i_042a.jpg" width="350" height="351" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 17.&mdash;An Ichneumon Fly
+(Cryptus Migrator).</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
+<a name="FIG_18" id="FIG_18"></a>
+<img src="images/i_042b.jpg" width="350" height="283" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig.&nbsp;18.&mdash;Another Ichneumon
+Fly (Pimpla Instigator).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As for the caterpillar itself, it sometimes dies before the time
+for its metamorphosis has arrived; but it often changes to the
+chrysalis before its fate is sealed. In this latter case, a number of
+flies, having undergone their final transformation within the
+chrysalis shell (there being but little else than shell remaining
+of the victim's body), break forth from the remains of the carcase
+somewhere about the time at which the butterfly or moth should
+have appeared.</p>
+
+<p>Caterpillars have also their nocturnal enemies and devourers,
+among which may be mentioned frogs, toads, newts, and insect-eating
+mammals.</p>
+
+<p>We must now learn something of the structure of caterpillars;
+and then become acquainted with their habits, and the change to
+the chrysalis or pupa.</p>
+
+<p>Take a caterpillar from your garden, preferably a full-grown
+one of a rather large species, that is not very densely covered with
+hair, and examine it carefully as we note the main points in its<!-- Page 26 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+structure. The first point that strikes our notice is the division of
+its body into segments or rings, separated from each other by a
+more or less distinct line or slight constriction of the body.</p>
+
+<p>There are thirteen of these segments, reckoning, as is usual, the
+head as the first.</p>
+
+<p>The head is usually very hard, and often of a much darker
+colour than the rest of the body. It is also frequently divided into
+two lobes by a couple of oblique lines, between which the parts of
+the mouth are situated. The two powerful horizontal jaws, to
+which we have already referred, are very hard and sharp, and
+curved like a sickle, and therefore splendidly adapted for biting from
+the edges of leaves. The head is also provided with a pair of
+antennæ, usually very short and inconspicuous and protected by a
+horny covering.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike the perfect insect, the caterpillar has no large compound
+eyes, but twelve very small simple eyes, situated on the cheeks,
+very near the mouth&mdash;six on each
+side.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_19" id="FIG_19"></a><img src="images/i_043.jpg" width="300" height="83" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 19.&mdash;The Caterpillar of
+the Angle Shades Moth
+(Meticulosa).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>If you examine them with a magnifier,
+you see that each one is provided
+with a small and very convex
+lens&mdash;a lens of very <i>short focus</i>, such
+as would be used for the examination
+of small objects held very near to
+the eye. From this arrangement we should be inclined to conclude
+that the caterpillar can see only those objects that are
+close to its mouth; and this idea is strengthened if you place
+one in a box containing a number of leaves, one of which is
+that of its own food plant. It will wander about the box, apparently
+looking at every part of every leaf it passes, after the
+manner of a very short-sighted individual, and never taking a
+general look round. A butterfly or a moth can see a flower in
+the distance, for it flies unhesitatingly from one to another in
+the straightest and shortest path, but if you place a caterpillar
+in the centre of a ring composed of a leaf of its food plant and
+nine others from other plants, the chances are (nine to one) that it
+will <i>not</i> walk towards what it would like to have.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the eyes are situated on the <i>lower</i> part of the cheek,
+directed slightly downward, and are therefore adapted for seeing
+what is just under its jaws as it walks along. Had we no knowledge
+whatever of the caterpillar's twelve little eyes, we should probably<!-- Page 27 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+have thought that it sought out its food by some sense other than
+that of vision.</p>
+
+<p>Another important and interesting feature of the head is the
+silk-spinning apparatus, situated under cover of the lower lip. This
+consists of two tubular glands, corresponding to our own salivary
+glands, the special purpose of which is to secrete a viscid fluid that
+solidifies on exposure to air. The opening by which the fluid
+escapes is so situated that the caterpillar can easily apply it to the
+surface of any object over which it is walking, and then, by drawing
+or turning away its head, cause a silken fibre to be produced.</p>
+
+<p>Some caterpillars make use of this spinning apparatus only on
+a few special occasions, but others, more especially some of the
+smaller species, seem to have it always in use, so that if at any
+time you suddenly start them into the air by giving a smart tap to
+the plant or twig on which they rest, they invariably fall slowly on
+the end of a growing web, the spinning of which they stop as soon
+as they consider they have fallen far enough. Sometimes, as you
+are walking through a wood, you will see hundreds, nay, thousands
+of little caterpillars thus suspended, swinging gently in the
+breeze. Not long since, after only a few minutes' walk among the
+trees of Epping Forest, I found I was decorated with several dozens
+of these swingers with which I had come into collision&mdash;in this
+case consisting chiefly of the larvæ of the Green Tortrix Moth
+(<i>Tortrix viridana</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_20" id="FIG_20"></a><img src="images/i_045a.jpg" width="300" height="199" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 20.&mdash;Walking Leg
+of a Caterpillar.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now let us examine the caterpillar's limbs. Attached to each
+of the second, third, and fourth segments is a pair of true walking
+legs, corresponding with those of the perfect insect. These are
+covered with a hard and shining substance, and are also each
+provided with a hook. The fifth and sixth segments have no limbs
+at all, nor have the eleventh and twelfth, but some or all of the
+others (seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and thirteenth) are furnished
+with a pair of claspers which we shall presently describe.</p>
+
+<p>First, as regards the number of claspers, it will be seen from
+what has just been said that this is not always the same. Some
+caterpillars possess five pairs, thus making up the total number of
+walking appendages to sixteen. In fact, we must regard this as the
+<i>usual</i> number. But there are at least a few hundred exceptions to
+the rule. Many of the <i>Bombyces</i> (<a href="#Page_217">page 217</a>), for example, have only
+four pairs of claspers; and in others of the same group the fifth
+pair is present, but only partially developed, and quite useless for
+walking.<!-- Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_21" id="FIG_21"></a>
+<img src="images/i_045b.jpg" width="300" height="94" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 21&mdash;Larva of the Yellow Underwing
+Moth (Pronuba).</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_22" id="FIG_22"></a><img src="images/i_045c.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 22.&mdash;Larva of the
+Crimson Speckled
+Moth (Pulchella).</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_23" id="FIG_23"></a><img src="images/i_045d.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 23.&mdash;Larva of the Lobster Moth
+(Fagi).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Look at the peculiar caterpillar of the Lobster Moth (<a href="#FIG_23">fig. 23</a>)&mdash;a
+creature that differs from most other caterpillars not only in its
+claspers, but in many other respects too. Observe its long and
+slender legs, its humped middle segments, and its upturned hindermost
+segment, of enormous size and mounted with a pair of
+clubbed 'horns.' This last segment you will observe, has no
+claspers.</p>
+
+<p>Another allied caterpillar is that of the Iron Prominent Moth
+(<a href="#FIG_24">fig. 24</a>). This one also has humped segments, and the claspers of
+the thirteenth segment are imperfectly developed.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of other exceptions to the general rule are to be
+found in the caterpillars of the Geometer Moths (<a href="#Page_268">page 268</a>), one of
+which is here represented. These have generally only two pairs of<!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+claspers, one pair on each of the tenth and last segments, so that
+there is a distance equal to the combined length of six segments
+between the hindermost true leg and the first pair of claspers. But
+even among the Geometers there are variations to be observed in
+the number of claspers, and some of these will be pointed out in our
+brief descriptions of the commoner species.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_24" id="FIG_24"></a>
+<img src="images/i_046a.jpg" width="300" height="308" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 24.&mdash;Caterpillar of
+the Iron Prominent
+Moth (Dromedarius).</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_25" id="FIG_25"></a>
+<img src="images/i_046b.jpg" width="300" height="150" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 25.&mdash;Larva of the Brimstone
+Moth (Luteolata).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These limbs which we have been calling claspers are known by
+several other names. Thus they are termed 'pro-legs,' 'temporary
+legs,' 'false legs,' and 'abdominal legs;' but if you watch a
+caterpillar as it walks up a stalk or along the edge of a leaf,
+you will certainly agree that the term 'clasper' is everything that
+could be desired. But why not call them legs, seeing that they
+are used in walking? The reason is that they differ in many
+respects from the three foremost pairs of
+limbs as regards structure, persistency, and
+function. The true legs, as we have called
+them, continue to exist, though concealed, in the chrysalis state,
+and again appear, far more perfectly developed, in the butterfly
+or moth, but the claspers are no more to be seen after the
+caterpillar has passed into the quiescent stage. We have noticed,
+too, that the true legs are pointed and clawed, also that they are protected
+by a hard and horny covering; but examine a large caterpillar,
+holding it between the fingers and thumb with its under side
+uppermost, and you will soon see that the claspers are not at all hard,
+but soft and fleshy; not pointed, but often terminating in a broad
+flat circular surface. You will also observe, as the creature struggles
+to escape from your grasp, and tries to get a hold on something with
+its claspers, that these limbs, if we may so call them, are retractile,
+and are sometimes completely drawn into the body. Finally,
+examine the broad end of a clasper with a magnifier, and you will<!-- Page 30 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+see it surrounded by a circle of little hooks, turning in all directions.
+You will no longer wonder how it is that a caterpillar can hold so
+tenaciously to a piece of twig that it is often almost impossible
+to remove it without injury.</p>
+
+<p>Now put your caterpillar down, so that you may observe its gait.
+If it happens to be one with the full complement of sixteen limbs,
+you see that at each stride it makes but little progress. The
+segments contract and relax alternately and in succession, thus
+sending a series of wave-like motions along the body, and urging
+onward the front segments while the claspers keep the hinder
+portion firmly fixed.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_26" id="FIG_26"></a><img src="images/i_047.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 26.&mdash;The Claspers
+of a Caterpillar.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>But if your caterpillar is one of the Geometers, with only two,
+or perhaps three, pairs of claspers, the mode of procedure is very
+different. The creature stretches its body out at full length, often
+raising its head high in the air, and swinging
+its long body right and left with a most
+furious motion, as if to hastily scan the
+neighbourhood. Then, having satisfied
+itself as to the <i>direction</i> of its proposed
+course (which, by the way, is often changed
+considerably at almost every stride), it
+holds on by the true legs and pulls its
+hinder quarters forward till the body forms
+almost a closed loop, with the fourth segment
+nearly touching the ninth. The
+claspers now become the holdfasts. The
+little hooks with which they are provided
+are firmly fixed to the surface on which it is walking; and the
+body being again straightened out to its utmost length, the same
+man&oelig;uvre is repeated. So, you see, the insect progresses by
+strides equal in length to about six segments of the body, and
+these the longest segments generally; and the rate at which the
+strides succeed each other, especially in some of the smaller species,
+is really astonishing.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen the caterpillar in the act of taking its walk, and
+now we will give it a twig of its food plant so that we may see it
+feed. It walks up the twig without hesitation&mdash;for caterpillars
+(excepting those which feed on roots) always seem to move upward
+when in search of food&mdash;and soon finds itself on a leaf. Over this
+it walks till it reaches the edge; and, grasping the edge firmly
+between the claspers, so as to give perfectly free play to its legs and<!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+head, it stretches its body at full length, and takes a series of bites
+as it brings its head backward in a curve. When the head has
+thus been brought close to its fore legs, the body is again extended,
+and the same ground is gone over again.</p>
+
+<p>If the caterpillar is a fairly large and hardy one, it will bite
+through the smaller veins, and perhaps even the larger ones; but
+the smaller species often change their position on reaching a
+moderately thick vein, and so devour little else than the soft cellular
+substance of the leaf. In any case, it is astonishing to see how
+rapidly the leaf disappears under the influence of the powerful jaws
+and marvellous digestive apparatus of the hungry grub.</p>
+
+<p>Those who take a delight in watching the <i>movements</i> of caterpillars
+are sure to be interested in observing them when at rest;
+for at such times the various attitudes assumed are as pleasing
+and instructive as are their active moments. And these attitudes
+are all the more interesting on account of the mimicry by which
+the creatures often baffle their numerous enemies. We may
+profitably spend a little time in studying a few cases in point.</p>
+
+<p>Many species, when at rest, fix themselves by means of their
+claspers to a small twig or leaf stalk, or on the midrib of the leaf
+itself. Here they remain perfectly still, with their bodies perfectly
+straight or with head slightly raised. I need hardly say that these
+generally fix themselves on the <i>under</i> side of the leaves and stalks,
+thus securing themselves against the attacks of the feathered foes
+above. But some birds are equal to the caterpillars in this matter;
+and it is really amusing to see them hopping about beneath the
+leaves in our gardens, every now and again slyly turning one
+eye upward, and smartly plucking an unwary grub from its resting
+place.</p>
+
+<p>The precautions of the caterpillar, however, do not end merely
+with the selection of an under surface. You will find that the
+bright green species invariably settle on a leaf or a <i>green</i> stalk,
+while the darkly coloured insects often choose a twig covered with
+a brownish bark. Some even make for the <i>trunk</i> of the tree on
+which they feed, and here remain quite still in a vertical position,
+so that they look just like a ridge in the bark, the colour of which
+is faithfully imitated by their skin. Further, many of the caterpillars
+that resort to this stratagem have bodies that are notched
+or knotted and spotted in such a manner that the resemblance to
+their surroundings is so perfect as to defy any but the most
+experienced eye. And even this is not all, for a number of these<!-- Page 32 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+mimics of the insect world never venture to feed by day, but take
+in their quantum of provisions during the dark hours, and practise
+their deceptions throughout the day.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the Geometer caterpillars, of which we have already
+spoken, are well trained in the art of deception. You are out
+on a caterpillar hunt, and engaged in carefully turning over the
+twigs of the hazel or some other shrub, so that you may the more
+readily examine the under surfaces of the leaves. At last you lay
+hold of a small broken twig for this very purpose. To your
+astonishment it is very soft, and readily bends between your
+fingers. You look more closely at this peculiar piece of stick, and
+find, to your surprise, that you have grasped a looper caterpillar
+that was standing out at an angle just like a broken twig,
+supported by its two pairs of claspers, and coloured and knotted
+exactly like the little branch on which it rested.</p>
+
+<p>At other times you meet with little green caterpillars of the
+same group, supporting themselves in exactly the same manner on
+a small twig, and looking just like a leaf stalk from which the
+blade had fallen or been devoured.</p>
+
+<p>What a wonderful power is exhibited in the grasp of the
+claspers and the tension of the muscles, enabling the caterpillar to
+fix itself and retain its position for so long a time! Imagine an
+acrobat fixing himself by his hands on an upright pole, throwing
+out his body at an angle, and without any further support retaining
+his position motionless for several hours!</p>
+
+<p>Other experiences of the larva hunter are equally interesting
+and, perhaps, even more tantalising. He is engaged in very
+cautiously turning over the leaves of a certain food plant from
+which he hopes to obtain the larva of a much-coveted species.
+Then, just as his eye catches a glimpse of the very object of his
+search, down falls the caterpillar, rolled up into a little ball, among
+the herbage below. This latter is diligently and patiently examined.
+But no, the anticipated prize is nowhere to be seen.
+It is probably a green one, and this adds to the difficulty of the
+patient entomologist. Then, as he carefully separates the low
+herbs, hoping to find the spot where the larva had fallen, the
+insect, rolled up into a compact little ball, only sinks deeper and
+deeper into the maze.</p>
+
+<p>Many caterpillars avoid capture in this manner, while others
+seek to avoid detection by remaining perfectly motionless, even
+when roughly handled. They allow themselves to drop from their<!-- Page 33 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+resting place on the slightest sign of danger, and, when the alarm
+is over and all is quiet again, they ascend the food plant and
+resume their position.</p>
+
+<p>Some caterpillars not only rest, but even feed under cover,
+quite secure from most, if not all, of their enemies. Several of
+them feed on roots, and many a farmer can relate sad experiences
+of the havoc committed by these caterpillars on his turnips and
+other crops. Then there are those which feed on flowers and buds,
+completely burying themselves in the dense mass of food.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="FIG_27" id="FIG_27"></a><img src="images/i_050.jpg" width="400" height="334" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 27.&mdash;The Homes of Leaf Miners and Leaf Rollers.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We must conclude this brief account of resting and hiding
+places and attitudes of caterpillars by a few observations on the
+leaf miners and leaf rollers.</p>
+
+<p>The former are very small caterpillars&mdash;the larvæ of certain
+small moths&mdash;that eat burrows into leaves without doing any considerable
+injury to the outer <i>epidermis</i>, and thus prepare a safe
+resting place within the substance of their food.</p>
+
+<p>The latter, also mostly of small size, make themselves secure
+by curling a leaf or a portion of a leaf into a cylinder, and holding
+it in position by means of a number of silken threads.</p>
+
+<p>If you examine a leaf thus curled you will soon be convinced<!-- Page 34 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+that a considerable number of the extremely delicate threads must
+be necessary to hold it in position; but, if you would like to know
+how a very small and feeble caterpillar can manage to roll up a
+comparatively large and rigid leaf, you must watch the little creature
+at its work.</p>
+
+<p>You need have but little difficulty in finding a willing worker,
+for such caterpillars are extremely numerous. Take a few out of
+their self-made homes, place them on a sprig of the food plant,
+and you will soon have the pleasure of seeing one start its extraordinary
+work.</p>
+
+<p>At first it spins a number of threads stretching from the edge of
+a leaf to about the middle of the surface. These threads are not
+tight by any means, and the leaf is, as yet, unchanged in position.
+But now the little mechanic exhibits a tact that almost seems to
+prove a knowledge of the principles of its art. Each thread in turn
+is pulled <i>at right angles</i> at its middle, and then fastened by means
+of the creature's spinneret. Each time this is done the edge of
+the leaf is bent round <i>a little</i>; and when at last the cylinder is
+completed, a number of other threads are stretched across from the
+scroll to the flat part of the leaf to secure it firmly in its place.</p>
+
+<p>Many caterpillars are solitary in their habits: that is, they are
+always found singly, whether walking, resting, or feeding. But a
+large number of species are gregarious, living in dense clusters
+either throughout their larval state or, perhaps, only while young.
+In many such cases it is difficult or even impossible to find any
+reason for this gregarious tendency&mdash;to discover any advantage
+that the insects may derive from the habit. Many species, however,
+are true co-operators in the defence of their communities.
+The caterpillars of such live in clusters, sometimes several scores
+in each, and all help in the spinning of a complicated mass of silk
+fibres, which, with the leaves and twigs they join together, form a
+safe home in which they can rest, feed, or change to the chrysalis
+state. In early summer hundreds of such caterpillar 'nests' are
+to be seen in many of our hawthorn and other hedgerows.</p>
+
+<p>Before closing our general account of the caterpillar we must
+have a word to say about the breathing apparatus, more especially
+as in our future descriptions we shall frequently have to mention
+the colours and markings which surround the openings in its body
+through which the air supply is admitted.</p>
+
+<p>If you examine the sides of the segments of a caterpillar, using
+a lens if the insect is a small one, you will observe some little<!-- Page 35 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+round holes, often inclosed in a ring or a patch of some prominent
+colour. These are the <i>spiracles</i> or openings of a series of air tubes
+called <i>tracheæ</i>. These latter divide and subdivide within the body
+of the caterpillar, the branches of one often uniting with those of
+another, thus forming a really complicated arrangement of air pipes
+by which the supply of oxygen is distributed.</p>
+
+<p>A microscopic examination of a portion of one of the tracheæ
+will show that its walls are supported by an elastic spiral of a firm
+substance. This arrangement serves to keep the air passages open,
+and secures for the caterpillar a free supply of air at times when a
+contraction of the segments would otherwise cause the tubes to
+collapse.</p>
+
+<p>There are nine spiracles on each side of the caterpillar's body,
+and never more than one in the side of the same segment. The
+head, which we have been regarding as the first segment, has no
+spiracles. The second segment has a pair&mdash;one on each side.
+There are none in the third and fourth; but all the segments, from
+the fifth to the twelfth inclusive, have each a pair; the last
+(thirteenth) segment has none.</p>
+
+<p>We have already observed the general arrangement of the caterpillar's
+limbs; but perhaps it may be interesting and even convenient
+to the reader to give here a little table that will show at a
+glance the disposition of both limbs and spiracles.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Disposition of caterpillar limbs and spiracles.">
+<tr><td align="left">First</td><td align="left">segment&mdash;head</td><td align="left">Two short antennæ, two jaws, and twelve eyes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Second</td><td align="left">&emsp;"</td><td align="left">Legs and spiracles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Third</td><td align="left">&emsp;"</td><td align="left">Legs only.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fourth</td><td align="left">&emsp;"</td><td align="left">Legs only.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fifth</td><td align="left">&emsp;"</td><td align="left">Spiracles only.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sixth</td><td align="left">&emsp;"</td><td align="left">Spiracles only.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Seventh</td><td align="left">&emsp;"</td><td align="left">Spiracles, and sometimes claspers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Eighth</td><td align="left">&emsp;"</td><td align="left">Spiracles, and sometimes claspers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ninth</td><td align="left">&emsp;"</td><td align="left">Spiracles, and sometimes claspers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tenth</td><td align="left">&emsp;"</td><td align="left">Spiracles, and generally claspers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Eleventh</td><td align="left">&emsp;"</td><td align="left">Spiracles only.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Twelfth</td><td align="left">&emsp;"</td><td align="left">Spiracles only.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Thirteenth</td><td align="left">&emsp;"</td><td align="left">Claspers only, and these occasionally absent.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><!-- Page 36 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We must now watch the caterpillar through its later days, to
+see how it prepares for passing into the pupal stage, and to
+witness the various interesting changes that take place at this
+period.</p>
+
+<p>When fully grown, it ceases to eat, and begins to wander about
+in search of a convenient spot for the coming event. Its colours
+fade, and the body becomes appreciably smaller, especially in length,
+as it ejects the whole contents of its digestive apparatus. According
+to some accounts, it even evacuates the lining of the intestines
+with their contents.</p>
+
+<p>A great variety of situations are chosen by the different species
+at this time. Some will fix themselves on their own food plant,
+and there remain till they finally emerge in the perfect state,
+suspending themselves from a silken carpet, hiding themselves
+in a rolled leaf, or constructing a cocoon of some kind. A large
+number walk down the food plants, and undergo their changes
+in moss that happens to lie at the foot; or construct a cocoon
+on the surface of the ground, utilising for the purpose any decayed
+leaves, fragments of vegetable matter, or pieces of earth or small
+stones. Many seek a further protection than this, and burrow
+into the soil, where they either lie in a little oval cell that they prepare,
+or in a cocoon constructed by spinning together some particles
+of earth. Again, there are those caterpillars, chiefly of butterflies
+that frequent our gardens, which find their way to the nearest wall
+or fence, and there secure themselves in a sheltered nook. We
+will watch a few of these varied methods of procedure, taking as
+our first instance the caterpillar of the common Large White or
+Cabbage Butterfly.</p>
+
+<p>When fully fed, this larva seeks out a sheltered spot, generally
+selecting the under surface of some object, or of the ledge of a
+wall or fence. Sometimes it will not even leave its food plant,
+though it generally walks some considerable distance before a suitable
+shelter is found. Having satisfied itself as to the site of the
+temporary abode, it sets to work at spinning a silken carpet. At
+first the threads spread over a rather wide area, and seem to be
+laid in a somewhat irregular and aimless manner; but after a little
+time its labours are concentrated on one small spot, where it spins
+several layers of silk fibres.</p>
+
+<p>This done, it fixes the little hooks of the claspers firmly in its
+carpet bed, and then proceeds with a highly interesting movement.
+It is not satisfied with only the one mode of suspension. In fact,<!-- Page 37 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+this alone would hardly be safe, for when it casts its skin, as it is
+shortly about to do, its claspers will all disappear; and although it
+afterwards secures itself by the 'tail,' it would be dangling in such
+a manner as to swing with every breeze&mdash;a very unsatisfactory
+state of affairs, especially with those that pupate late in the summer
+and remain in the pupal state throughout the winter storms.</p>
+
+<p>Its next procedure, then, is to make a strong silk band round the
+middle of its body, so as to keep it close to the surface against which
+it rests. But how is this to be done? It bends its head round till
+the spinning organ can be applied to a point close beside the middle
+of its body. Here it fixes one end of a thread; and then, gradually
+twisting its body, brings its head round to the other side, still keeping
+it close to the same segment, and fastens the other end of the
+thread exactly opposite the point at which it started.</p>
+
+<p>The head is now brought back to its former position, thus
+adding another thread to the band; and the process is repeated
+several times, till at last the caterpillar is satisfied with the thickness
+and strength of the cord formed.</p>
+
+<p>Now it straightens out its body as if to rest from its labours;
+but the work is not yet complete. Soon it exhibits much restlessness.
+Its foremost segments are seen to shorten, and consequently
+become thicker. Then the skin splits, and the last moult of the
+caterpillar commences. The movements that follow are exactly
+similar to those we have already described in connection with one
+of the earlier moults: the alternate and successive contractions of
+all the segments gradually force back the old coat, and this is
+finally thrown entirely off by a somewhat vigorous wriggling of the
+'tail.'</p>
+
+<p>Then, for a moment, the creature is supported only by its silken
+cord. But this lasts <i>only</i> for a moment. For, as soon as it is
+quite free from the old garment, it applies its tail to the densest
+part of the carpet it had prepared at the start, and secures its hinder
+extremity by means of little hooks.</p>
+
+<p>But what a change has now come over the creature! It is no
+longer a caterpillar. Its head is no longer distinct, although we
+can readily make out the positions of the eyes. Its mouth and
+jaws have quite disappeared, and the legs and claspers are apparently
+gone. The three segments that bore the legs are no longer distinctly
+separable, though in reality they still exist. The head and thorax
+are peculiarly shaped; and, instead of being cylindrical, are angled
+and ridged; but, beneath the soft greenish skin&mdash;the new garment&mdash;we<!-- Page 38 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+can discern the outline of a pair of small wings, and see a
+proboscis and a pair of long antennæ. Also the six long legs of the
+future butterfly can be traced with care.</p>
+
+<p>The abdomen is conical in form, coming to a sharp point at
+the end, and its segments are quite distinct.</p>
+
+<p>No stranger to the metamorphoses of insects would connect
+the present form with that of a caterpillar; they are so very
+unlike. And yet the time occupied in the whole change, from the
+spinning of the carpet, does not occupy more than about thirty or
+thirty-five hours.</p>
+
+<p>The apparent suddenness of this change is really surprising, but
+in reality the transformation is not nearly so sudden as it appears.
+Dissection of a caterpillar a few days before the final moult is due
+will show that the changes are already going on. In fact, a
+simple removal of the skin will prove that the organs of the
+future butterfly are developing. Still, in proportion to the short
+time occupied, the change is extremely great; and it may reasonably
+be inquired, Why so great a change within so short a space of
+time?&mdash;why is not the change continued steadily and equally
+through the larval existence? The reason has already been hinted
+at. Caterpillars are living eating machines, whose office is to
+remove excess of vegetable matter. Consequently they must have
+their jaws and bulky digestive apparatus in full development to the
+end. If these organs were to <i>gradually</i> disappear as the caterpillar
+reaches its non-eating stages, it would simply be starved to death.
+So the change from the larval to the pupal state, which we may
+regard as the final moult of the caterpillar, is a far greater change
+than any of the preceding ones, and occupies a proportionately
+longer time, although it is principally confined to the last few days
+of the caterpillar life.</p>
+
+<p>A number of caterpillars, and especially those of the butterflies,
+suspend themselves when about to change; and the peculiarities of
+the modes adopted must be left for our descriptions of species in a
+future chapter; but we will find room here for one more interesting
+example, taking this time the larva of one of the commonest of the
+Vanessas (<a href="#Page_166">page 166</a>)&mdash;the Small Tortoiseshell Butterfly.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars of this insect are gregarious when young; and
+if ever you meet with one, you are almost sure to be able to obtain
+a hundred or so without much searching. But as they grow older
+they feed singly, yet generally without straying very far from their
+birthplace.<!-- Page 39 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When full grown they sometimes stray to a neighbouring plant
+or fence to undergo the change to a chrysalis, but more commonly
+they are perfectly satisfied with the protection afforded by the leaves
+of their food plant. We will now watch one of these as we did the
+larva of the Large White Butterfly.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the under side of the leaf is chosen. Here a silken
+carpet is spun as before described; but the caterpillar, instead of
+clinging with <i>all</i> its claspers, suspends itself in a vertical position
+by its hindermost pair only.</p>
+
+<p>Here it hangs, head downwards, awaiting the coming events.
+The splitting and casting of the skin goes on just as in the case of
+the Large White, but there is this puzzle to be solved: how
+can the insect shuffle itself out of its old coat without falling to the
+ground, leaving the cast-off garments still hanging by the hooks
+of the claspers? This really seems a matter of impossibility, since
+the little hooks which alone suspend the insect are thrown off with
+the skin of the claspers.</p>
+
+<p>The thing is managed in this way. As the skin slowly splits
+through the wrigglings of the apparently uncomfortable occupant,
+it is gradually pushed backward&mdash;that is, upward&mdash;till it is in a
+shrivelled condition, and the body of the insect is nearly free. But
+the chrysalis thus brought to light is provided with little hooks on
+the end of its 'tail' by which it can attach itself to the irregularities
+of the crumpled coat. Its conical abdomen is also very flexible,
+and it can, by bending this, seize hold of a ridge in the skin,
+holding it between the segments. Thus, although practically quite
+free from the old garb, it never falls to the ground.</p>
+
+<p>There is now, however, another point to be attended to. The
+newly formed chrysalis desires to be entirely independent of its
+cast-off skin, and to suspend itself directly from the silky carpet it
+has prepared. To this end it works steadily for a time, alternately
+bending its supple abdomen from side to side, gripping the folds of
+the skin between the segments, pulling its body a little higher at
+each movement, and securing itself at each step by the little hooks
+at its extremity.</p>
+
+<p>So it climbs, and at last it reaches the network of silk fibres, and
+thrusts the tip of its abdomen among them till some of the hooks
+have taken hold. Not satisfied with this, it turns its body round
+and round to get the little hooks so entangled between the silk
+fibres that a fall is impossible, and in so doing it frequently pushes
+the old skin out of its place so that it falls to the ground.<!-- Page 40 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Although the caterpillars of this species do not show any great
+gregarious tendency when nearly full fed, yet it is not an uncommon
+thing to find several hanging from the under surface of
+one leaf, all being attached to the one common carpet at which all
+had worked. And when bred in confinement, a number will often
+spin in company in a corner of their cage. I have thus obtained a
+cluster of thirty-seven pupæ, all hanging by the 'tails' to the
+same mass of silk, which was so small that they formed quite a
+compact mass of beings with their tails close
+together.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_28" id="FIG_28"></a>
+<img src="images/i_057a.jpg" width="300" height="190" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 28.&mdash;The Cocoon of the
+Emperor Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_29" id="FIG_29"></a><img src="images/i_057b.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 29.&mdash;The Cocoon
+of the Six-spotted
+Burnet (Filipendulæ).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have seen that the Large White Butterfly
+makes itself secure by a silk band round its
+middle, while the 'Tortoiseshell' is fixed only
+by its tail. But the extra provision for the safety
+of the former is not so necessary in the case of
+the latter, as it never spends more than two or
+three weeks in the pupal state. Here it is the perfect insect that
+braves the winter, and not the chrysalis.</p>
+
+<p>There is a great variety in the means taken by the caterpillars
+of moths to protect themselves during their metamorphoses, but we
+shall have space for only a few illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>A clever cocoon is spun by the larva of the Emperor Moth
+(<i>Pavonia</i>). It is pear-shaped, and composed of a brownish silk;
+and is so constructed that the newly emerged moth can easily walk
+out of the small end without breaking a fibre, while the entry of an
+insect enemy from without is impossible.</p>
+
+<p>This is managed as follows. A number of rather stiff threads
+are made to project from the small end of the cocoon, and these
+converge as they pass outward so that the ends are all near<!-- Page 41 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+together. The other portions of the cocoon are of compact silk,
+and any insect intruder that ventures to enter by what we may
+almost term the <i>open</i> end is met by a number of spikes, as it were,
+that play on it at every attempt. Many of these wonderful cocoons
+may be found during the winter months attached to the food plants
+of this insect.</p>
+
+<p>Of the silken cocoons spun by various caterpillars some are so
+thin and light that the chrysalis can easily be seen through them,
+and others are so densely woven as to be quite opaque. A
+great difference is also to be observed in the adhesive power of the
+silk fibres. In some cases little threads of silk can be pulled off
+the cocoon; but some of them, that of the Oak Eggar (<a href="#Page_229">page 229</a>) for
+example, look as if they had been constructed of paper rather than
+of silk, because, at the time of spinning, the moist silk fibres stuck
+so closely together.</p>
+
+<p>An extreme case of this character is to be met with in the
+cocoon of the Puss Moth (<a href="#Page_235">page 235</a>); for here the fluid from the
+spinneret of the caterpillar does not harden at once on exposure to
+air, and so the threads become thoroughly united together, thus
+forming a solid gluey cocoon.</p>
+
+<p>When the Puss caterpillar is about to change, it descends the
+tree (poplar, willow, or sallow) till it is within a few feet of the
+ground. Then it commences gnawing away at the bark, at the
+same time cementing all the pieces together with the gluey substance
+from its spinning glands. In this way it surrounds itself
+with a very hard cocoon, which so closely resembles the surrounding
+bark in colour that detection is difficult indeed.</p>
+
+<p>But how will the caterpillar proceed if it is removed from its
+native tree and has no bark to gnaw? That you can easily answer
+for yourself, or rather Puss will answer it for you. Go and search
+among the poplars, willows and sallows in the month of July. You
+may possibly come across a caterpillar that is just in the act of
+creeping down the bark in search of a resting place; but if not you
+may be successful in obtaining a few either by examining the twigs,
+or you may start them from their hiding places by smartly tapping
+the smaller branches with a strong stick.</p>
+
+<p>Having secured one or more larvæ, take them home, and they
+will give some rather novel performances. If they are not fully
+grown, you must supply them with fresh leaves every day till they
+refuse to eat; and then is the time for your experiments. Shut one
+in a little wooden box, and you will have the pleasure of watching it<!-- Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+construct a cocoon of chips of wood that it has bitten out with its
+powerful jaws, all joined together into a hard shell by means of
+transparent glue. Shut another Puss in a glass vessel&mdash;a tumbler,
+for instance&mdash;either by placing it under the inverted vessel, or by
+covering over the top. Perhaps it will not be superfluous to mention
+that, should you place it under an inverted vessel, this vessel
+should not stand on a polished table, for, whatever be the material,
+unless <i>extremely</i> hard, it is sure to be utilised in the manufacture
+of the cocoon.</p>
+
+<p>Let us suppose, then, that the caterpillar is under an inverted
+tumbler that stands on a plate or saucer. Now it is for <i>you</i> to
+decide what material shall be used in the construction of the new
+home. Give Puss some fine strips of brightly coloured ribbon,
+and it will construct a very gaudy house by gluing them together.
+Or, provide it with sawdust, pieces of rag, glass beads, sand, paper,
+anything in fact; and the material will be 'made up' into a
+cocoon more or less ornamental according to the nature of the supply.</p>
+
+<p>But what if you give it <i>nothing</i> with which to work, and so
+inclose it that nothing its jaws can pierce is within its reach?
+For instance, shut it in with tumbler and saucer as before, inverting
+the former on the latter, and give it no material whatever.
+What will it do now? We will watch and see.</p>
+
+<p>At first it is very restless, and walks round and round the edge
+of the tumbler, evidently a little dissatisfied with the prospects.
+Then, after a little while, the events of nature transpiring in their
+fixed order regardless of trivial mishaps, the glutinous fluid begins
+to flow from the creature's spinning glands, and it moves about in
+a somewhat aimless fashion, applying the transparent adhesive
+matter both to tumbler and saucer.</p>
+
+<p>It seems now to become a little more reconciled to its unnatural
+surroundings; and, making the best of bad matters, keeps its
+body in one place, and starts the construction of a ridge or barrier
+all round itself. By the continued application of the creature's
+spinneret this barrier is made gradually thicker and higher, till at
+last the overhanging sides meet and the caterpillar is inclosed in
+its self-constructed prison. But the walls of this prison are so
+transparent that every movement can be watched; and, after the
+insect has spent a few days in completing the cocoon, we can see
+it cast off its old skin, and appear in the new garb of a fine
+greenish chrysalis.</p>
+
+<p>Its soft green skin soon hardens and turns to a rich dark brown<!-- Page 43 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+colour, and it settles down for a long rest lasting till the following
+May or June.</p>
+
+<p>When the whole operation of building is completed, lift up the
+tumbler, and up will come the saucer too. The two are firmly
+glued together by the substance secreted; and the power of this as
+a cementing material will be well illustrated if you endeavour by
+mere pulling force to separate the two articles.</p>
+
+<p>The Puss is not the only caterpillar that works up a foreign
+material with the contents of the spinning organs. There are
+several others, in fact, that use for this purpose fragments of wood
+or other parts of the food plants; and a still larger number bind
+together leaves, fresh or dead, or particles of earth or other matter.
+Several such cocoons will be described in our accounts of
+individual species in another chapter. We shall now devote a
+little space to a few general remarks on the chrysalides and the
+final metamorphosis of butterflies and moths.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER IV
+<br />
+<i>THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>As soon as the last moult of the caterpillar is over, the chrysalis
+that had already been developing under the cover of the old skin
+is exposed to full view; and although the perfect insect is not to
+be liberated for some time to
+come, yet some of its parts are
+apparently fully formed.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_30" id="FIG_30"></a><img src="images/i_061a.jpg" width="300" height="368" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 30.&mdash;The
+Pupa of the
+Privet Hawk
+(<i>Ligustri</i>).</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_31" id="FIG_31"></a><img src="images/i_061b.jpg" width="300" height="282" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 31.&mdash;The
+Chrysalis of
+the Large
+White Butterfly
+(<i>Brassicæ</i>).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The newly exposed skin of
+the chrysalis is very soft and
+moist, but as it hardens it forms
+a membranous or horny covering
+that protects and holds
+firmly in place the trunk and
+the various limbs and appendages
+that are distinctly to be
+traced on the under surface.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, you examine a
+chrysalis directly after the moult
+is over, you will often find that
+the wings, antennæ, proboscis,
+and legs of the future butterfly
+can be easily separated from
+the trunk of the body on which
+they lie by means of a blunt needle, and can be spread out so as to
+be quite free from that surface.</p>
+
+<p>In form the chrysalides of butterflies and moths are as variable
+as the caterpillars. Many of the former are sharply angular like
+that of the 'Small Tortoiseshell' already mentioned; but some of
+the butterflies&mdash;the Skippers (<a href="#Page_197">page 197</a>)&mdash;have smooth and tapering
+chrysalides, and so have most of the moths.<!-- Page 45 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In colour they are equally variable. Some are beautifully
+tinted with delicate shades of green, some spotted on a light ground,
+some striped with bands more or less gaudy and distinct, but
+the prevailing tint, especially
+among the moths, is a reddish
+brown, often so deep that it is
+almost a black.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_32" id="FIG_32"></a><img src="images/i_062a1.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 32.&mdash;The
+Pupa of the
+Dark Green
+Fritillary (<i>Aglaia</i>).</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_33" id="FIG_33"></a><img src="images/i_062a2.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 33.&mdash;The
+Pupa of the
+Black-veined
+White Butterfly
+(<i>Cratægi</i>).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a rule there is no
+marked resemblance between
+the different stages of the
+same insect. Thus, a brilliantly
+coloured caterpillar
+may change to a dull and
+unattractive chrysalis, from
+which may emerge a butterfly
+or moth that partakes of the
+colours of neither. But in a
+few cases there <i>are</i> colours
+or other features that remain
+persistent throughout the three stages, or show themselves prominently
+in two.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting example in point is that of the Magpie or Currant
+Moth (<a href="#Page_279">page 279</a>). The caterpillar of this moth is cream-coloured,
+with orange stripes along the sides, and very bold black markings
+down the back. The chrysalis, which is at first entirely yellow,
+afterwards turns black with the exception of some yellow transverse
+bands. Then, the moth exhibits the same colours as these
+two earlier stages, with the
+same degree of boldness;
+for its pale cream-coloured
+wings, tinted with patches
+of yellow, are marked with
+numerous deep black spots.
+Thus, in this case, we find
+the same general character
+of the colouring throughout
+the insect's existence.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_34" id="FIG_34"></a><img src="images/i_062b1.jpg" width="300" height="232" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 34.&mdash;The
+Pupa of the
+Currant Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_35" id="FIG_35"></a><img src="images/i_062b2.jpg" width="300" height="299" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 35.&mdash;Pupa
+of the Pale
+Tussock Moth
+(<i>Pudibunda</i>).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another interesting example,
+though not so striking as the last, is to be found in the case
+of a group of moths known as the <i>Liparidæ</i>. The caterpillars of
+these are remarkable for their very hairy bodies, often ornamented<!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+by several bold brush-like tufts. The chrysalides are also hairy;
+and several of the moths themselves are not only thickly clad with
+shaggy hair, but a bold tuft often tips the abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>We must not leave these few remarks on the characters of
+chrysalides without a mention of the brilliant spots of burnished
+gold that decorate the pupæ of certain butterflies. This is the
+feature that led to the invention of the term <i>chrysalis</i>, which is
+derived from the Greek word <i>chrysos</i>, meaning <i>gold</i>. For the
+same reason the term <i>aurelia</i> has been applied to the pupæ of
+<i>Lepidoptera</i>, this being derived from <i>aurum</i>&mdash;the Latin name for
+gold.</p>
+
+<p>Strictly, then, these two terms apply only to the pupæ of a
+certain number of the butterflies; but the former is now generally
+used to designate the pupæ of all the <i>Lepidoptera</i>, and is even extended
+to the corresponding stages of insects of other orders.</p>
+
+<p>If you examine one of these gold-speckled chrysalides, the
+brilliant metallic lustre seems to belong to the outer surface, just
+as if certain spots had been tipped with real gold; but after the
+butterfly has quitted its case the beautiful golden spots are gone.
+This proves that the metallic appearance is not due to reflection
+from the outer surface of the chrysalis, but to a reflection from some
+structure beneath it. This latter is a very thin membrane which
+lies just under the outer transparent covering of the chrysalis.</p>
+
+<p>The period during which the <i>Lepidoptera</i> remain in the chrysalis
+state varies very considerably in different species, and also
+depends more or less on the temperature. As a rule, when a caterpillar
+pupates before the end of the summer, it remains dormant
+in the pupal condition for only a few weeks; but, if late in the
+summer or in the autumn, it remains in this condition throughout
+the winter, and emerges in the following spring or early summer.</p>
+
+<p>Both these conditions are illustrated in the life history of the
+Large White or Cabbage Butterfly&mdash;an insect with which we have
+already become acquainted. We get two distinct broods of this
+butterfly every year, the first appearing in May and the second in
+August. The eggs of the first brood hatch in about a fortnight, and
+the larvæ are full grown about four weeks later. These then change
+to chrysalides, from which the perfect insects (the second brood)
+emerge in a few weeks&mdash;the period varying slightly with the temperature
+of the season. From the eggs of this second brood we
+get another invading army of cabbage eaters that change to pupæ
+late in the summer. These remain dormant till the following<!-- Page 47 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+April, and may be found in numbers throughout the winter, attached
+to the walls and fences of kitchen and market gardens.</p>
+
+<p>If, then, the pupæ of the same species are so influenced by the
+temperatures of the seasons, can we limit or prolong the period
+of quiescence by subjecting them to high or low temperatures
+artificially produced? Most certainly we can; and every practical
+entomologist knows how to obtain the perfect butterflies and
+moths of certain species long before their appointed times, or,
+if he desires it, to compel them to remain in their dormant stage
+long after the natural period has terminated.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes an enthusiastic insect hunter obtains a large number
+of what we may term 'winter pupæ,' by collecting and breeding
+various species. He also anticipates a number of successful captures
+of perfect insects during the following summer. Thus, from two
+distinct sources, he obtains a goodly assortment of butterflies and
+moths, the setting, preserving, and arranging of which entails an
+immense amount of home work.</p>
+
+<p>Under such circumstances he will sometimes endeavour to cause
+some of his pupæ to emerge before their accustomed time, so that he
+may get some of his insects 'on the boards' before his field work
+is in full swing, and so avoid a rush, or prevent the loss of insects
+that will be spoiled before he has time to take them in hand.</p>
+
+<p>This process of hurrying up his pupæ he calls 'forcing,' and
+simply consists in keeping them for a time in a warm room or hothouse
+where the high temperature is pretty constant.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the entomologist may desire to try the effect
+of a continued <i>low</i> temperature on his pupæ. This he can do by
+placing his pupæ in an ice house. Such experiments have often
+been performed, and the results are very interesting. In some
+cases the emergence of the perfect insect has been delayed for many
+months, and even years; and then, after an exposure to a normal
+temperature lasting only a week or two, the winged insect has
+made its appearance just as if nothing unusual had happened.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the effects of <i>extreme</i> temperatures on the duration
+of the chrysalis state; and we naturally infer, from such results,
+that the pupa under natural conditions is influenced, though in a
+lesser degree, by the variations experienced with the seasons,
+especially in such a fickle climate as our own.</p>
+
+<p>The insect hunter has always to bear this in mind, and particularly
+so when he sets out on a search for certain desired species.
+Suppose, for example, he has set his mind on the capture of a<!-- Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+certain butterfly that <i>usually</i> appears in the <i>first</i> week in May.
+Before finally naming the day, he has to consider what the weather
+has been during the last few weeks, and if he finds that this has
+been much warmer than the average for the corresponding periods
+in the past, he selects a day in <i>April</i>, earlier or later according to
+the difference between the present season and the average.</p>
+
+<p>If he does not pay due attention to such considerations, he will
+sometimes find that all the insects netted are shabby and much
+worn, even though, under average conditions, he would be catching
+newly emerged and brilliant specimens. This, then, will explain
+how it is that we so often see in entomologists' periodicals startling
+accounts of 'early captures,' and of the appearance of certain insects
+late in the season that <i>ought</i> not to have emerged till the following
+summer.</p>
+
+<p>I will give just one illustration of these variations. The beautiful
+Orange Tip Butterfly (<a href="#Frontispiece">Plate I</a>, fig. 7) generally appears about the
+middle of May in the southern counties. Farther north it is of
+course a little later. In the north of England it has been taken in
+June; and in Scotland as late as July. On the other hand, I have
+taken it in Gloucestershire as early as March, on a rather bleak
+day with a cold east wind; and, withal, in a field on the slope of the
+Cotswolds fully exposed to the unfavourable breeze; but it was
+evident that, in this case, the butterfly had been enticed from
+its winter quarters by the milder weather of the few previous
+weeks.</p>
+
+<p>It may be as well, in passing, to observe that it is not only the
+pupa that is influenced by temperature. The hatching of eggs may
+be forced by high temperatures, or be retarded by exposure to cold;
+and in nature the period of incubation varies with the seasons.
+The larvæ, too, grow faster or more slowly, or pupate earlier or
+later from similar causes. And so no very definite date or period
+can be assigned to any one stage of any insect.</p>
+
+<p>Now let us return to one of the chrysalides that we have already
+watched through the earlier stages of its existence, and follow it in
+its future development.</p>
+
+<p>It is now, as we say, in its quiescent or dormant condition, but
+we must not suppose that it is always in a profound sleep, nor can
+we say that it is insensible to its surroundings. Touch it gently or
+surprise it with a puff of air from your mouth, and it will begin to
+wag its pointed tail, sometimes with such vigour as to send the
+body rolling round and round in its box. Lay it on a bed of cocoa-nut<!-- Page 49 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+fibre or finely sifted soil and let it remain <i>quite undisturbed</i> for
+a few hours or days, and you will probably find that, by occasional
+movements of its body, it has made a slight depression in its bed,
+and lies partly submerged. I have known some chrysalides to
+completely bury themselves in this way during the course of a day
+or two, and others to partly expose themselves after having been
+lightly covered. Others again, I have observed, will move smartly
+if a strong light is suddenly turned on them. Many, too, certainly
+appear to have a strong objection to exposure to the direct rays
+of a hot sun; for, when thus exposed, they will struggle persistently,
+as if to work their bodies into some shady corner. I
+would not advise a young entomologist to try this experiment,
+however, if he values the pupæ he possesses, for direct sunlight
+is undoubtedly very harmful to many species, and perhaps it is
+to all.</p>
+
+<p>Some chrysalides are not nearly so active as has just been
+represented; in fact, there are many which seem to show no signs
+of life during the greater part of the time spent in that state. But
+in all, whether apparently active or not, certain important internal
+changes are at work. We have already noticed that, even in the
+last days of the <i>larval</i> existence, some of the organs of the future
+imago are to be traced. But these are as yet imperfectly developed.
+We have also observed that a continuation of these changes,
+gradually carried on, would be impossible in a voracious feeder; so
+the insect, now fully grown, and no longer requiring a supply of
+food, settles down in perfect quiet, submitting itself quite passively
+to any further changes that nature may demand.</p>
+
+<p>It has already suffered the loss of its claspers. Its wonderful
+jaws that did so much damage (for good or evil as the case may be)
+to the vegetable world are now gone, and the bulky digestive
+apparatus has rapidly dwindled to useless dimensions. These and
+other changes, already in progress, have to be perfected while the
+creature is in a restful and helpless condition, though they may
+often be retarded or even suspended during cold weather when
+progress would certainly bring it to an untimely end.</p>
+
+<p>But now the grandest of all these transformation scenes is
+nigh at hand. The protective skin is already loosening from the
+almost perfect imago, and consequently feels softer and far more
+yielding than it did when in close contact with the body: the
+swaddled butterfly or moth (for such the pupa is) is slowly preparing
+to throw off its imprisoning garb. The wings and large<!-- Page 50 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+compound eyes are assuming their final colours, which now begin
+to show themselves through the more or less transparent skin,
+and the long legs, the perfectly formed antennæ, and the slender
+proboscis, all of which are folded closely under the creature's thorax,
+now begin to move within their loosened sheaths.</p>
+
+<p>Now let us watch it closely, for one of the most wonderful sights
+ever witnessed by a naturalist is about to be presented to our view.
+We think we can observe slight movements; and, it may be, we can
+actually see the struggling insect endeavouring to set itself free. The
+legs and proboscis are moving within the loosened skin; and lo! as
+we watch these motions, the prison wall bursts with a slight snapping
+noise (at least, such is the case with some of the larger species),
+and in a moment out pop a few long legs which immediately
+struggle for a foothold. The proboscis also appears, alternately
+lengthening itself out and coiling into a spiral, as if impatient to
+reach the sweet nectar from the bottom of
+some fragrant flower cup.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_36" id="FIG_36"></a><img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="300" height="224" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 36&mdash;A Butterfly,
+just after
+Emerging.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All this takes place in less time than one
+requires to describe it; and, before many
+seconds have passed, the struggling insect
+has quite completed its last moult, and is
+bidding good-bye to the rent garment that
+has done it good service for so long a time.</p>
+
+<p>But how dreadfully disappointing! Did
+we not say only a few minutes since, that a
+beautiful butterfly or moth was about to emerge? How, then, is
+this? Here is an odd-looking creature, such as we have never seen
+before! True, it has the right kind of body, though even that is so
+soft and heavy that it is fairly dragged along as the insect walks.
+Its antennæ, too, seem to be just the right thing&mdash;that is, just
+what we were expecting to see. But oh! the wings! Are we
+looking at a deformity?&mdash;a failure on the part of Nature to produce
+what she ought?</p>
+
+<p>We will not judge hastily, but continue to watch it a little
+longer. It seems very restless at first, and, with the fluttering
+apologies for wings, drags its heavy body along till it reaches some
+surface up which it can climb. If nothing of the kind is close at
+hand you may place a <i>rough</i> upright stick in its path, and it
+will immediately begin to ascend. Its motto is now 'Excelsior!'
+and its ambition to rise may be so great that, on reaching the very
+top of the stick provided for it, it struggles for a still higher position<!-- Page 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+in life till, failing to get a foothold in the air itself, it falls to the
+ground and has to retrace its steps.</p>
+
+<p>I once thought I would like to test the perseverance of a large
+moth in performing its first upward journey; and as it was one
+from a chrysalis to be found in nature at the foot of a tree that
+attains some considerable height, I was, of course, prepared to
+exercise a little patience myself.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the moth had emerged, I placed it at the bottom of
+a window curtain that hung from about eight feet high to the
+floor. In less than half a minute it had reached the top, and was
+struggling hard to get still higher. I took it down, and again
+placed it at the bottom. Up it went as fast as before; and this
+was repeated nine times with exactly the same result. For the
+tenth time I placed the persevering creature at the bottom of
+the curtain; and, after it had walked about halfway up, it <i>suddenly</i>
+stopped, apparently quite satisfied with having travelled a distance
+of over seventy feet in an upward direction. Its six legs were
+immediately arranged symmetrically in a business-like manner,
+and there it settled quite still, as if it had some definite object in
+stopping just exactly in that spot.</p>
+
+<p>But we must now return to our own insect, which has by this
+time settled itself in a similar manner on the stick we provided
+for it. The peculiar organs which represent the wings, though so
+very small, show distinctly, in miniature, the colour and pattern of
+the fully developed wings of the species. An interesting change is
+just now commencing. These wings are apparently growing larger,
+but the development is very unequal, so that they become curled and
+crumpled till they are even more unsightly than before. All seems
+to be going amiss. But this lasts only for a short time. The
+fluid from the body steadily rushes into the <i>nervures</i>, causing the
+wings to expand, and in a few minutes the beautiful pinions are
+stretched to the full extent, assume their normal shape, and expose
+the full glory of their brilliant colours.</p>
+
+<p>It may be interesting if I give an example showing the exact
+time taken for the full development of the wings of a certain
+insect. So I will here quote an entry from my note book; and, by
+the way, let me strongly advise all my young readers who follow
+up this subject to habitually enter in a book kept specially for the
+purpose all facts which strike them as they pursue their study of
+nature. The note to which I refer runs as follows:</p>
+
+<p>'Early on the evening of the 22nd [April] I selected a few<!-- Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+chrysalides of Populi [the Poplar Hawk Moth, <a href="#Page_209">page 209</a>] which,
+from the looseness of their cases, were thought to be just on the
+point of emerging. At 8.46 one of them showed signs of restlessness;
+and, after a few vigorous movements, during which it rolled
+itself over on the glass [I had placed the pupæ on a piece of plate
+glass so that slight movements might be more easily detected], the
+front of its case was suddenly thrust off with considerable force;
+and in <i>less than four seconds</i> the imago was quite free and
+crawling on the table. After trying hard to reach a higher point
+than was provided for about four minutes, it rested to expand its
+wings&mdash;now about seven-sixteenths of an inch long, or one-third
+the total length of the body. At 9 o'clock the wings reached
+half the length of the body, and were much curled. At 9.12 they
+were fully expanded and straightened out.'</p>
+
+<p>From this extract we see that the whole period from the
+bursting of the case to the full expansion of the wings was only
+twenty-six minutes; and it will be well to remind the reader that
+the process occupies even a much shorter time than this with
+many species, both of butterflies and moths. It will be observed,
+also, that the <i>evening</i> was chosen as the time for the observation.
+There was a reason for this. The Poplar Hawk Moth, as is the case
+with many others, almost invariably emerges from the chrysalis in
+the evening&mdash;usually after dark. But it may be mentioned in
+passing that a far larger number of the <i>Lepidoptera</i> as invariably
+emerge in the morning.</p>
+
+<p>Again we will return to our newly emerged insect, for there are
+still one or two interesting points to observe. The wings have
+fully expanded, it is true, but how very limp they are! Take the
+creature on the tip of your finger and hold it so that its body is
+in a horizontal position. Immediately the wings bend downward
+with their own weight, so soft and flexible are they. The body, too,
+is still very soft, and apparently much too heavy for flight. Then,
+if you place it on a flat surface, it will immediately try to find
+some perpendicular or overhanging surface from which it can
+suspend itself by means of its legs, so that the pendant and
+straightened wings are in the best possible position for drying. As
+the insect walks away in search of such a resting place, the body
+still drags as it did before, and the wings bend over, either both on
+one side or one on each side of the body.</p>
+
+<p>It is some time before the wings are sufficiently dry and rigid
+for flight, but the period varies greatly with different species.<!-- Page 53 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+Some of the small butterflies and moths take to flight long before
+an hour has passed, but in many cases several hours elapse before
+the creature starts from its first resting place. Butterflies that
+emerge in the morning spend their first day actively on the wing;
+but the nocturnal moths that emerge early in the day do not fly till
+evening twilight. When, however, the time arrives, the insect
+flutters its wings as if to test their power before committing itself
+to the air; and frequently, after only a few seconds spent in this
+preparatory exercise, off it darts with astonishing rapidity. But
+others seem far more cautious. They vibrate their wings, sometimes
+with such rapidity that they are lost in a kind of mist, and
+with such power that their bodies would be carried suddenly into
+the air were they not firmly anchored by three pairs of hooked
+claws. Then, continuing the rapid vibration, they move slowly
+along, always holding on firmly by one or more legs, as if to still
+further satisfy themselves concerning the efficiency of their wings.
+Then they venture on a few short trial trips from one neighbouring
+object to another, and at last gain sufficient confidence for a long
+voyage.</p>
+
+<p>How strange must be the feelings of a winged insect during its
+first flight! After a long period during which it was a helpless,
+crawling grub, and this followed by a term of imprisonment during
+which it was almost or quite shut off from the world, it now suddenly
+acquires such great powers of locomotion that it is often a
+match for ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>But, alas! this life is short. A few days spent in sporting with
+those it meets and in sucking the sweet juices of many flowers;
+then a day or two during which the female deposits its eggs; again
+a few days employed in pleasures that become less and less attractive,
+till, at last, the creature becomes weary of life and settles
+down to die.</p>
+
+<p>We have now traced the complete life history of the <i>Lepidoptera</i>
+from the egg to the perfect insect, avoiding descriptions that
+apply only to certain species as far as possible, excepting where
+such are useful as illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>Only one thing more remains to be done before we start in real
+earnest with our practical work. We shall shortly be giving hints
+on the modes of capture, the 'setting' and the preservation of
+butterflies and moths. And in so doing we shall often have to
+observe important points in which our dealings with these two
+great divisions of the order will differ very materially. Hence we<!-- Page 54 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+must not consider ourselves ready to proceed with the practical
+portion of the entomologist's labours till we are perfectly satisfied
+that we know the main features that enable us to distinguish
+between the butterflies and the moths, and also know just a little
+concerning the subdivisions on each side.</p>
+
+<p>This, then, shall form the subject of the next short chapter.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER V
+<br />
+<i>CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>The <i>Lepidoptera</i> are divided into two very unequal groups, to
+which we have so frequently alluded as 'Butterflies' and 'Moths.'
+And, although these two terms are popularly applied in a fairly
+accurate manner, yet, strange to say, very few persons indeed have
+any definite knowledge of the differences that entomologists recognise
+between the two groups.</p>
+
+<p>Every entomologist has his circle of sympathetic and, perhaps,
+even admiring friends. Consequently, many a little package is
+sent round to his abode 'with great care,' accompanied by a note
+or a message concerning the fine 'butterfly I have just caught, and
+thought you would like to add to your collection.'</p>
+
+<p>The 'butterflies' that so frequently reach us through these
+channels nearly always turn out to be <i>brightly coloured</i> moths,
+and this naturally gives one the idea that the popular notion as to
+the classification of the <i>Lepidoptera</i> is based on colour or brilliancy
+of design, the term 'butterfly' being applied to the gayer species,
+and 'moth' to the more dingy members of the race.</p>
+
+<p>There is really some shadow of a reason in this method of
+nomenclature, for butterflies <i>are usually</i> more brightly clad than
+moths; but the scientific classification, at least as far as the main
+divisions and subdivisions are concerned, has nothing whatever to
+do with colour or design; and we must at once acquaint ourselves
+with the fact that there <i>are</i> very dingy butterflies, and most
+beautiful and highly coloured moths.</p>
+
+<p>How shall we account for the fact that the specimens so kindly
+sent us by our friends are generally moths? Is it because moths
+are more numerous and more frequently seen? They are certainly
+more numerous; for, while our butterflies do not number seventy<!-- Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+species, the other division contains about two thousand. Yet, in
+spite of this fact, moths are not generally observed as much as
+butterflies, for the former are nearly all night-fliers, and the latter
+<i>always</i> fly by day and rest by night.</p>
+
+<p>Still our question remains unanswered. The reason is this.
+The captives sent us are seldom caught on the wing. Most of our
+grown-up friends, even though they admire our own pluck and
+general carelessness concerning the remarks of the spectators of
+our entomological antics, would not themselves like to be seen, hat
+in hand, chasing a butterfly; and the night-flying moths are, of
+course, less frequently observed. But they often, in the course of
+their daily employments, meet with a large moth fast asleep
+in some corner of a dwelling house, workshop, or outhouse. Such
+moths are easily caught while in the midst of their slumbers,
+and, as they often make no attempt to fly by day, are as easily
+transferred to a box suitable for transmission by messenger or by
+post.</p>
+
+<p>In the above few remarks we have alluded to some features by
+which the two great groups of the <i>Lepidoptera</i> may be distinguished;
+but we have already referred (<a href="#Page_5">page 5</a>) to a far more
+important one in our description of the various forms of antennæ.
+All butterflies&mdash;at least all <i>British</i> butterflies&mdash;have knobbed or
+clubbed antennæ, while the corresponding organs of all our moths
+terminate in a sharp point.</p>
+
+<p>This distinction obtains in all British <i>Lepidoptera</i>, and is so far
+regarded as the most important basis of classification that naturalists
+have derived from it the two Greek terms that are synonymous
+with our two popular names&mdash;butterflies and moths. The scientific
+name for the former group is <i>Rhopalocera</i>&mdash;a term derived from
+two Greek words, one signifying a horn, and the other a club, and
+thus meaning 'club-horned.' The corresponding name for moths
+is <i>Heterocera</i>, derived from the same source, and meaning 'variously
+horned.'</p>
+
+<p>But, although we find embodied in these two long and formidable
+names an unerring mark of distinction between British
+butterflies and moths, we must not neglect other less important
+facts which, though less distinctive, are not without interest.</p>
+
+<p>Observe a butterfly at rest. Its wings are turned vertically
+over its back, and brought so closely together that they often
+touch. In this position the 'upper' surfaces of the 'upper' wings
+are completely hidden from view, and the 'under' surfaces are<!-- Page 57 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+exposed on the two sides, except that those of the 'upper' pair are
+partly hidden by the other pair.</p>
+
+<p>Now look at a moth under the same circumstances, and you
+will generally find the wings lying over its body, which is almost or
+completely hidden beneath them. As a rule the upper pair together
+form a triangular figure, and entirely cover the second pair; but
+in some cases a portion of each of the under wings extends beyond
+the margin of those above them, and in others the upper pair
+extend so far forward that nearly the whole of the under wings is
+exposed behind them.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_37" id="FIG_37"></a><img src="images/i_074a.jpg" width="300" height="352" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 37.&mdash;A Butterfly at Rest
+(Large Copper).</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_38" id="FIG_38"></a><img src="images/i_074b.jpg" width="300" height="366" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 38.&mdash;A Moth at Rest
+(Gothic).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Again, the wings of butterflies are so rigid that they can never
+be folded; but you will observe that the under wings of moths are
+generally very thin, soft, and pliant,
+and are neatly pleated lengthwise when
+not in use.</p>
+
+<p>Another feature deserving notice is
+a slight difference to be often observed in the form of the body.
+The butterfly, which generally has a slender body, has a distinct
+constriction or waist between the thorax and abdomen. This is
+not so apparent with moths, and especially with the thick-bodied
+species.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Rhopalocera</i> or Butterflies are divided into <i>Families</i>, each
+of which contains insects that possess certain features in common
+by which they may all be distinguished from the members of any
+other family.</p>
+
+<p>The British species represent eight families. They are as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Papilionidæ.</i>&mdash;Containing only one British species&mdash;the
+beautiful Swallow-tail (<a href="#Frontispiece">Plate I</a>, fig. 1).<!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Pieridæ.</i>&mdash;Containing ten species. These are often known
+collectively as the 'Whites,' but include four butterflies that are
+distinguished by beautiful shades of yellow and orange.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Nymphalidæ.</i>&mdash;This family contains seventeen insects,
+among them being several splendid species. It includes the
+Fritillaries and Vanessas.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Apaturidæ.</i>&mdash;Of this we have only one representative&mdash;the
+Purple Emperor (<a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a>, fig. 1).</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Satyridæ.</i>&mdash;Including the 'Browns' and 'Heaths,' and
+numbering eleven species.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Lycænidæ.</i>&mdash;Including the Hairstreaks, 'Coppers,' and
+'Blues,' in all seventeen species.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Erycinidæ.</i>&mdash;Containing only the 'Duke of Burgundy.'</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Hesperiidæ.</i>&mdash;This family contains seven British butterflies
+commonly known as the 'Skippers.'</p>
+
+<p>Although all the members of the same family resemble each other
+in certain points of structure, or in their habits, yet we can often find
+among them a smaller group differing from all the others in one or
+two minor particulars. Such smaller groups are called <i>Genera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>To make this all quite clear we will take an example.</p>
+
+<p>The Brimstone Butterfly (<a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a>, fig. 4) belongs to the second
+family&mdash;<i>Pieridæ</i>, <i>all</i> the members of which are distinguished
+from those of the other families by the characteristics mentioned
+on <a href="#Page_141">page 141</a>.</p>
+
+<p>But our Brimstone Butterfly possesses another very prominent
+feature in which it differs from all the other British <i>Pieridæ</i>, and
+that is the conspicuous projecting angles of both fore and hind
+wings. Among the foreign species of the family we are considering
+there are several that possess these angles; but as there are no
+others among our own members, the 'Brimstone' is placed by
+itself in the list of British <i>Lepidoptera</i> as the only member of the
+genus <i>Gonopteryx</i> or 'angle-winged' butterflies.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the full relationship of this butterfly to other insects may
+be shown in the following manner:</p>
+
+
+<p><i>The Brimstone Butterfly.</i></p>
+<ul>
+<li><b>ORDER.</b>&mdash;<i>Lepidoptera</i></li>
+<li><b>Section.</b>&mdash;<i>Rhopalocera</i></li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Family.</span>&mdash;<i>Pieridæ</i></li>
+<li><i>Genus.</i>&mdash;<i>Gonopteryx</i></li>
+<li>Species.&mdash;<i>Rhamni</i></li>
+</ul>
+<p><!-- Page 59 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now, every butterfly has a Latin or Greek name in addition to
+that by which it is popularly known. I should have said <i>two</i> Latin
+or Greek names. The first of these is always the <i>generic</i> name,
+and the second is the one by which we denote the particular
+member or <i>species</i> of that genus. Thus, the scientific name of the
+Brimstone Butterfly is <i>Gonopteryx Rhamni</i>.</p>
+
+<p>'But,' the reader may be inclined to ask, 'why should we not
+be satisfied with the one popular name only?' And, 'If we <i>must</i>
+have a separate scientific name, could we not find suitable terms
+among our English words to build up such a name&mdash;one that
+might express the principal characteristics of the insect, and also
+serve all the purposes of classification?'</p>
+
+<p>Such questions sound very reasonable, and so they are. But
+the entomologist's answer is this. We ourselves may get on well
+without the help of the dead languages, but we have brother
+naturalists all over the world, speaking a great variety of different
+languages. We endeavour to help one another&mdash;to exchange notes
+and generally to assist one another in our labours; and this can be
+greatly facilitated if we all adopt the same system of nomenclature.
+The educated of most of the great nations generally know something
+of Latin and Greek, and consequently the adoption of these
+languages is generally acceptable to all.</p>
+
+<p>This sounds well, but for my own part I believe that if we are
+to make any branch of natural history a popular study, especially
+with the young, we must to a certain extent avoid anything that
+may prove distasteful. There is no doubt whatever that many a
+youngster has been turned away from the pursuit of the study of
+nature by the formidable array of almost unpronounceable names
+that stretch nearly halfway across a page; and those who desire
+to make such a study pleasant to beginners should be very cautious
+with the use of these necessary evils. One would think, on glancing
+over some of the scientific manuals that are written 'especially
+for the young,' that the authors considered our own too mean a
+language for so exalted a purpose, for in such works we find all or
+nearly all the popular names by which the schoolboy knows certain
+creatures he has seen entirely omitted, and the description of a
+species appended to a long Latin term that conveys no idea whatever
+to the reader, who is studying the description of a well-known
+animal or plant and doesn't know it.</p>
+
+<p>Our plan will be to give the popular names throughout, except
+in the case of those few species that are not so well known as to<!-- Page 60 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+have received one; but the scientific names will always be given
+as well for the benefit of those readers who would like to know
+them. And the short description of the method of classification
+just given will enable the more ambitious of my readers to thoroughly
+understand the table of British butterflies and moths
+toward the end of the book.</p>
+
+<p>This table includes <i>all</i> the British species of butterflies and of
+the larger moths; and the arrangement is such as to show clearly
+the divisions into sections, families, &amp;c. It will therefore be of
+great value for reference, and as a guide for the arrangement of
+the specimens in the cabinet.</p>
+
+<p>In the foregoing description of the method of classification
+butterflies only are mentioned; but the division and arrangement
+of moths is carried out in just the same manner except that the
+system is a little more complicated. The number of moths is so
+large in comparison, that we are able to select from them some
+very large groups the species of which possess features in common.
+These groups are termed <i>tribes</i>, and are again divided into families
+just like the butterflies. Thus the arrangement of moths includes
+<i>tribes</i>, <i>families</i>, <i>genera</i> and <i>species</i>. We will take an example by
+way of illustration as we did before, and ask the reader to verify
+the same by comparison with our table:</p>
+
+<p><i>Example.</i>&mdash;The 'Common Tiger' (<a href="#Plate_X">Plate X</a>, fig. 3).</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><b>ORDER.</b>&mdash;<i>Lepidoptera</i></li>
+<li><b>Section.</b>&mdash;<i>Heterocera</i></li>
+<li>TRIBE.&mdash;<i>Bombyces</i></li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Family.</span>&mdash;<i>Cheloniidæ</i></li>
+<li><i>Genus.</i>&mdash;<i>Arctia</i></li>
+<li>Species.&mdash;<i>Caia</i></li>
+<li>Scientific Name.&mdash;<i>Arctia Caia.</i></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>I have already said that the Latin and Greek names of butterflies
+and moths are not at all necessary to the young entomologist.
+It is quite possible to be well acquainted with the natural history
+of these creatures, and to derive all the pleasure and benefits that
+the study of them can afford without the knowledge of such names;
+but most entomologists go in for them, often to the entire exclusion
+of the popular English terms.</p>
+
+<p>There are those who consider themselves (or would have us
+consider them) expert entomologists because they have the power<!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+to vomit forth a long list of scientific names of butterflies and
+moths which (to them) have no meaning whatever; and it is astonishing
+that we meet with so many youngsters who can rattle
+away such terms, and, at the same time, are totally ignorant of
+the real nature of the creatures they name.</p>
+
+<p>If you wish to be a naturalist in the true sense of the term, study
+your <i>specimens</i>, and take but little pains to commit their hard
+names to memory; and you will then find that the latter will
+gradually become your own property without any special effort on
+your part. Your continued reference to illustrated works and
+museum collections will bring them to you almost unconsciously,
+and you will generally find your entomological vocabulary extending
+as rapidly as your cabinet becomes filled.</p>
+
+<p>Again, with regard to the <i>meanings</i> of the scientific terms, don't
+trouble much about them. It unfortunately happens that in a very
+large number of cases these names are ill chosen, and do not in any
+way refer to the distinguishing characteristics of the species to
+which they are applied. You will observe, too, if you look at the
+table, that many insects have <i>two</i> scientific names applied to the
+species, one being placed in brackets after the other. In such
+cases both these names are in common use, having both been
+applied by independent authorities, and the insertion of the
+two will prove an assistance at times.</p>
+
+<p>It is a common practice with entomologists, in their communications,
+to use only the second or <i>specific</i> name of insects. Thus,
+they would speak of the Brimstone Butterfly as <i>Rhamni</i>, and not
+<i>Gonopteryx Rhamni</i>. When <i>writing</i> a communication, however,
+they very commonly place in front of the specific name the initial
+letter of the first or <i>generic</i> name. Thus the full title of the
+butterfly just mentioned would be abbreviated to <i>G. Rhamni</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Having said so much concerning the principles of classification
+and nomenclature, we will pass on to the practical portion of the
+entomologist's work.<!-- Page 62 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><!-- Page 63 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PART II<br />
+<br />
+WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3>CHAPTER VI
+<br />
+<i>CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>It is not at all surprising that entomology should prove such a
+fascinating study to the young, and more especially that portion
+which deals with the department we are now considering. Butterflies
+and moths are among the most beautiful and most interesting
+of living creatures. The study of their life history is enchanting,
+and the creatures themselves are of such a size as to be conveniently
+handled and preserved, and withal occupy so little space
+that anyone with only moderate accommodation may possess a
+fairly typical collection.</p>
+
+<p>Compare the work of the entomologist with that of one whose
+hobby is the study of mammals. The latter has to deal with large
+and cumbersome objects, a collection of which requires an enormous
+amount of space; and, unless he has the time and means to
+travel in foreign countries, he cannot get together a good typical
+collection of specimens representing his particular branch, for the
+few British mammals contain no representatives of several of the
+orders into which the class is divided.</p>
+
+<p>Entomology is undoubtedly, <i>par excellence</i>, <i>the</i> study for
+youngsters. It is equally suited to the studious and to those of an
+adventurous turn of mind. It leads its follower into the bright sunshine
+and the flowery meadows; and with body and mind pleasantly
+occupied, the joy of living is deeply felt. The necessary apparatus
+can be made by anyone. No dangerous gun is required, and there
+are no precipitous rocks to scale. When the autumn flowers fade
+the year's work of the entomologist is not done, for the arranging<!-- Page 64 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+of his cabinet and the demands of his living specimens keep him
+more or less actively engaged until the flowers of the following
+spring call both him and the insects he loves once more into the
+field. And so, season after season, and year after year, he finds
+himself engrossed in labours so fascinating that idleness&mdash;the curse
+of so many of our youths&mdash;is with him an impossibility.</p>
+
+<p>I assume that the readers of this book have a desire to take up
+the study of one branch of entomology&mdash;that of butterflies and
+moths&mdash;in real earnest; that they intend not only to <i>read</i> about
+these interesting insects, but to <i>know</i> them. And there is only one
+way in which one may really get to know living creatures; that
+is by searching them out in their haunts, observing their growth
+and habits, and by an occasional close examination in order to
+become acquainted with their structure.</p>
+
+<p>Hence I shall in this, the practical portion of the work, give
+such information as will assist the beginner in catching, preserving,
+rearing, breeding, and arranging the specimens that are to form his
+collection.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Catching Butterflies</i></h4>
+
+<p>There was a time when we would try to capture a butterfly at
+rest on a flower by a quick sweep of the hand, or, more commonly,
+by a sharp downward stroke of the cap. We were led to this action
+by a mere childish love of sport, or by a desire to possess an insect
+simply because it was pretty. When we succeeded in securing our
+prize, we handled it somewhat carelessly, often passing it from one
+hand to the other, or boxing it in our closed and perspiring fist till
+our fingers were dusted with the pretty microscopic scales of the
+creature's wings, and the wings themselves, stripped of all their
+beautiful clothing, were merely transparent and veined membranes.
+Having thus carelessly but unintentionally deprived the creature of
+its greatest beauty, we set it free, often in such a damaged or
+exhausted condition that the poor thing could scarcely fly.</p>
+
+<p>But our childish ideas and inclinations have vanished. Now
+we would rather watch the insect than catch it, for we find much
+pleasure and interest in its varied movements. And if for purposes
+of study we occasionally require to make one captive, we proceed
+in such a manner as to preserve its beauty unimpaired. The cap
+now gives place to a well-made and suitable net; and we are
+careful to provide ourselves with sufficient and proper accommodation
+for our captives.<!-- Page 65 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is probable that many of my readers are as yet unacquainted
+with the nature of an entomologist's requirements for field work,
+so we shall describe them, confining ourselves at first to those that
+are required for a butterfly hunt.</p>
+
+<p>First and foremost comes the net. This essential portion of your
+equipment may be either purchased or constructed by yourself.
+Very little skill is required to enable you to do the former. Provided
+your pocket is well charged, you may start off at once to the
+dealer in naturalists' appliances, and treat yourself to a complete
+outfit. But even in this case a little advice may not be out of
+place. See that what you purchase is very <i>strongly</i> made. You can
+get nicely finished nets constructed on the most convenient principles,
+made to fold and go in an ordinary coat pocket, but with
+<i>weak joints</i>. See that you have the most convenient form of net
+by all means, but do not
+go in for convenience and
+appearance at the expense
+of strength and durability.
+Nothing is more annoying
+than to find your net give
+way just when you are in
+the midst of a good day's
+sport.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_39" id="FIG_39"></a><img src="images/i_082a.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 39.&mdash;A Wire Frame
+for a Butterfly Net.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_40" id="FIG_40"></a><img src="images/i_082b.jpg" width="300" height="221" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 40.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The folding net is certainly
+very convenient, for
+you can conceal it in your
+pocket while you are walking
+through town or travelling in a railway carriage, and thus avoid
+that contemptuous gaze which certain of the public are prone to
+cast on a poor 'bug hunter.' And although such nets are generally
+purchased, yet they <i>may</i> be constructed by anyone who has had
+experience in the working of metals. But other forms of nets,
+equally useful and even stronger, can be made by anybody; and I
+will give a few hints on two or three different ways of putting
+them together.</p>
+
+<p>A very simple and strong frame for a net may be made as
+follows: Get a piece of stout iron or brass wire about forty inches
+in length, and bend it into a circle with the two ends, turned out
+about two inches each, at right angles to the circumference as
+shown in the accompanying sketch.</p>
+
+<p>Now take a good tough stick, the length of an ordinary walking<!-- Page 66 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+stick, and cut out two grooves opposite each other at the end, just
+large enough to take the straight ends of the wire. The end of the
+stick will now resemble fig. 40 in shape. Place the ends in their
+grooves, and bind them tightly to the stick by a good many turns
+of rather fine wire.</p>
+
+<p>A frame well made after this fashion is as strong as anything
+you could desire, but it has the disadvantage of being always fixed
+to the handle, thus preventing the use of the latter as a walking
+stick when you are not directly engaged in your entomological
+work.</p>
+
+<p>A much more convenient frame may be made by thrusting the
+ends of a piece of cane into the two narrow arms of a metal <span class="lettershape">Y</span>.
+You may purchase the <span class="lettershape">Y</span> at any of the naturalists' stores, or you
+can make one yourself if you know how to perform the operation of
+soldering. I have always made mine with odds and ends of brass
+tubing such as old gas pipes. One piece must be just the size to
+fix on the stick; and the other two must fit the cane
+tightly. The three pieces must be filed off at the
+proper angles, and the doubly bevelled end of the
+wider tube must then be flattened down to the
+width of the smaller ones before soldering. If you
+decide to buy one, give the preference to strong
+brass rather than the cheaper and more fragile ones
+made of tinned iron.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_41" id="FIG_41"></a><img src="images/i_083.jpg" width="300" height="275" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 41.
+The Metal <span class="lettershape">Y</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The advantage of such an arrangement over the
+last frame is evident at once. The cane, with net attached, can
+be pulled out of the <span class="lettershape">Y</span> when not in use, and bent small enough to
+go in the pocket or a satchel; and the <span class="lettershape">Y</span> can also be separated
+from the stick, thus allowing the latter to be used as a walking
+stick.</p>
+
+<p>Some entomologists speak very favourably of what is known
+as the 'umbrella net'&mdash;a large and light net that will shut up like
+an umbrella, and may even be made to look very much like this
+useful protector, but the possession of such an imitation is somewhat
+tantalising in a pelting shower. The ring of this net consists
+of two steel springs attached to a couple of brass hinges, one of
+which is fixed near one end of the handle, while the other slides up
+and down in the gamp fashion.</p>
+
+<p>One other form of net&mdash;'the clap net'&mdash;although still occasionally
+seen, has had its best days. Two sticks are provided to this
+one, so that the two sides of the net may be brought together on<!-- Page 67 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+the insect; but as both hands are required to manage it, it is almost
+surprising that it ever had any advocates at all.</p>
+
+<p>When your frame is completed, sew round it a strip of strong
+calico, to which the net itself may be afterwards sewn, for the lighter
+material of the net is too delicate to stand the constant friction
+against the metal or cane frame.</p>
+
+<p>The material usually employed in making the 'bag' is called
+leno. It can be purchased at most of the drapers' shops, and three
+colours&mdash;white, yellow and green&mdash;are usually kept in stock.
+Measure the circumference of your net frame, and see that you get
+sufficient leno to make a good full net. Suppose, for instance, that
+the circle of your frame measures thirty-six inches round, then your
+leno should be at least forty inches in length. Fold this double,
+and then cut out two pieces of the shape shown in fig. 42, letting
+the depth of the net be nearly or quite equal to the width of the
+material. There is nothing to be done now but to
+stitch the bag together and sew it to the calico on
+the ring.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_42" id="FIG_42"></a><img src="images/i_084.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 42.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>At first you will find the leno rather stiff and
+harsh, but a damping and good rubbing between
+the hands will soften it down; or, if you prefer it,
+you may soften the material by a slight washing
+before cutting out the net. The latter is perhaps
+the better plan, for the washing will remove the
+objectionable 'dressing' that renders the material
+rather hard and stiff.</p>
+
+<p>Of the three colours mentioned above, green is the one most
+generally chosen, because it is more in harmony with the surroundings
+of a butterfly catcher; but many prefer the white leno
+to the green, as the insects are more easily seen in a net of this
+colour. Yellow is certainly not a desirable tint.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule it will be necessary to kill an insect as soon as it is
+captured. This is always the case with butterflies unless you
+require to keep them alive either to watch their movements or to
+obtain eggs. For this purpose you will require a killing bottle or
+box containing some volatile substance.</p>
+
+<p>The selection of this necessary piece of apparatus is a point
+deserving of much consideration, for so many different forms are in
+use by different entomologists, and so many advocates each declare
+that his own plan is far superior to that of any of the others, that
+the final decision is not to be worked out in a moment. The best<!-- Page 68 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+thing for a beginner is to try as many as he can, and then, after
+some considerable experience of his own, he will be able to decide
+which apparatus suits himself best.</p>
+
+<p>I recommend this because it is impossible to say of any one
+plan that it is the best, for that which gives perfect satisfaction to
+one individual will often fail to give anything but annoyance in
+the hands of another.</p>
+
+<p>To enable my young readers to follow the advice I have just
+given, I will describe some of the commonly used killing arrangements
+and show how they should be used.</p>
+
+<p>I will take first the 'cyanide bottle.' This is a wide-mouthed
+bottle, containing a very poisonous substance called <i>cyanide of
+potassium</i>. It is fitted with a good sound
+cork. The 'cyanide' is a solid substance, and
+must be fixed in some way or other at the
+bottom of the bottle so that it cannot shake
+about and damage the butterflies.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_43" id="FIG_43"></a><img src="images/i_085.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 43.&mdash;The Cyanide
+Bottle.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A cyanide bottle can be purchased ready
+for use at the cost of a shilling or thereabouts;
+but if you are old enough to be trusted with
+deadly poisons, you may buy the 'cyanide' of
+a chemist who knows you well and is satisfied
+as to your intentions, and then prepare your
+own. Every entomologist should know how
+to do this, for the poison loses its power after
+some time, and it is not always convenient to
+leave your bottle in the hands of a chemist or
+a 'naturalist' to have it recharged. This will
+cost you more than it would to do it yourself,
+but that is nothing compared with the annoyance that may result
+when, the night before an anticipated butterfly hunt, you are calmly
+told that 'your bottle will be ready in a few days.' You can charge it
+yourself in a few minutes if you can manage to keep a small supply
+of 'cyanide' in stock, and it is ready for use very shortly after.</p>
+
+<p>Here is the <i>modus operandi</i>.&mdash;Purchase an ounce or two of the
+cyanide of potassium, and immediately put it into a stoppered or
+well-corked bottle. Label it at once, not only with the name,
+but also with the word <span class="smcap">Poison</span> in very large and conspicuous
+letters. This dangerous chemical is often sold in sticks that look
+much like certain 'sugar sticks' I was acquainted with in my
+younger days; but whether this is or is not the case with your<!-- Page 69 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+cyanide, see that the bottle is kept quite out of the reach of the
+inquisitive and sugar-loving juveniles of the house.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity above mentioned is more than you will require for
+the first 'charge,' but you will soon experience the convenience of
+having a supply always at hand for recharging when your cyanide
+bottle fails to do its work expeditiously, or when an accident calls
+for the somewhat sudden appearance of a new one.</p>
+
+<p>Now procure a bottle for your work. Its mouth must be wide
+enough to take the largest insect you hope to catch, and the widest
+part of the bottle need not be much larger. Get a perfectly sound
+cork to fit it tightly; and, to insure the more perfect exclusion of
+air, paint over the top of the cork with melted paraffin wax.</p>
+
+<p>Dissolve a few drams of the cyanide in a little water, using a
+glass rod to stir up the mixture till the solid has all disappeared;
+and be careful that neither the solid nor the solution touches
+the skin if it should be in the slightest degree scratched or
+broken. Now sprinkle plaster of Paris into the solution, a little
+at a time, and stir all the while. As soon as the mixture begins
+to set, pour it into your bottle as cleanly as you can&mdash;that is, without
+touching the sides&mdash;and press it down with the flat end of a
+stick if it is not level. Now cork it, and put the bottle away in a
+cool place till required for use.</p>
+
+<p>This is, I think, the best way of charging the bottle; but there
+are two other common methods that may, perhaps, be regarded as a
+little more simple. One is this: put a few small lumps of the
+'cyanide' into your bottle, and then cover them with a stiff mixture
+of plaster of Paris and water, and press down as before. The other
+plan is to cover the 'cyanide' with a few thicknesses of blotting
+paper, cut just a little larger than the inside of the bottle. The first
+of these two methods is fairly satisfactory, but I have always found
+that the charge, when made in this way, has a tendency to become
+wet and pasty, in which condition it will spoil the wings of the
+insects. The other is very objectionable, especially for field work,
+for the blotting paper fails to keep its place while you are on the
+chase. If the plaster is used, the mixing must be done quickly and
+without hesitation, or the mixture will become solid before you can
+press it into your bottle.</p>
+
+<p>We will not enter now into the <i>pros</i> and <i>cons</i> of the cyanide
+bottle, but will consider the advantages and disadvantages of the
+various methods of killing the insects after we have noticed a few
+more.<!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The 'laurel box' has had many devoted advocates, although it
+does not seem to be much in use now. It is a very good arrangement,
+however, but is a little more troublesome than the cyanide
+bottle, as it requires frequent replenishing.</p>
+
+<p>A very good laurel box may be prepared as follows. Get a
+small tin box of cylindrical form, measuring about five inches by
+two, and cut a circle of perforated zinc or wood just the size to
+fit it snugly as a false bottom without any danger of falling out of
+its place. Now gather some of the young leaves of the green laurel
+bush, and beat them almost to a pulp with a mallet or hammer.
+Place this in your tin box, and press down the perforated false
+bottom on it. The bruised laurel leaves give off
+a very powerful odour, which stupefies butterflies
+immediately.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_44" id="FIG_44"></a><img src="images/i_087.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 44.&mdash;Section
+of the Laurel
+Box.</span>
+<p><i>a</i>, space for insects;
+<i>b</i>, perforated partition;
+<i>c</i>, bruised
+laurel leaves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of course the reader may be able to think
+of various other ways in which the laurel box
+may be made. Any arrangement will do providing
+the vapour can come to the insects without
+allowing the leaves to touch their wings;
+and any ingenious youth could manufacture a
+more satisfactory article than the one I have
+mentioned. My desire is, as far as possible, to
+give instructions that may easily be carried out
+by anyone, even if he has not the slightest
+mechanical skill, leaving the clever youth, sometimes,
+the opportunity of displaying his own inventive
+power. But in this case I will give a
+few suggestions concerning other ways in which
+a laurel killer may be constructed. A firm and <i>fixed</i> false bottom
+is a decided advantage. This is easily managed by fixing a circular
+piece of perforated zinc or 'tin' by means of a little solder; or even
+a wood partition may be used, fixed with a few brads, driven into
+it from the outside. With the fixed partition, however, you must
+have a lid at each end of the box. This is easily managed if you
+get two tins of the same size, knock out the bottom of one, and fit
+the lid of the other in its place.</p>
+
+<p>I have heard of laurel boxes without any partition save a piece
+of rag in which the bruised leaves are wrapped. The whole is
+<i>pressed</i> into the box so firmly that it is not likely to be displaced
+while you are on the chase. I do not recommend this, for in addition
+to the chance of its slipping there is a danger of the sap of the<!-- Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+leaves exuding through the rag and spoiling the insects' wings.
+But if the reader should prefer to try this on account of its simplicity,
+it will probably occur to him that a bottle may be used instead
+of a tin box.</p>
+
+<p>A well-made laurel box, with a fixed metal partition, is a piece
+of apparatus strongly to be recommended to all young entomologists
+who desire to test the relative value of the various poisons
+that are used by the different experts; for with it any one of these
+substances can be used. In the poison compartment you can place
+pieces of 'cyanide' wrapped in blotting paper, or any kind of
+porous substance moistened with liquid ammonia, chloroform,
+benzole, or any other volatile liquid insecticide. All the above-named
+substances are declared to be 'the best,' so they must all
+be worth the trial.</p>
+
+<p>'Cyanide' is valued on account of its lasting powers. A cyanide
+bottle well charged will retain its efficiency throughout a whole
+season. I always recharge two in the spring, one for active service
+in the field and the other as a reserve force; and these kept in a
+cool place do good execution throughout the year. If they should
+exhibit a slight failing, a few minutes' warming before a fire will
+improve them; but for field work it is better to recharge. At
+the same time see that the corks are in good condition.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the 'cyanide,' the bruised laurel takes the first rank for
+permanency; but you must not expect this to last many days.
+For a few days' continuous work one charge will suffice, but if the
+laurel box has not been in use for some time you must have a fresh
+supply.</p>
+
+<p>The liquid poisons, such as ammonia, chloroform, and benzole,
+are so volatile that they are very powerful for a short time, but so
+much vapour is lost each time the box is opened that it is absolutely
+necessary to carry a bottle of the one you use into the field with
+you. Also see that you have sufficient of the blotting paper or
+other absorbent to prevent the liquid from leaking through the
+perforations of the partition.</p>
+
+<p>If you choose ammonia&mdash;a substance that is not regarded as a
+poison, and is therefore easily obtained from any chemist&mdash;always
+get the strongest, and see that it is labelled 'Liq. Ammonia, S.G.
+·880' as a guarantee. A small bottle such as you can conveniently
+carry in the waistcoat pocket will contain sufficient for a day's
+work. Use only a few drops at a time, but renew frequently.
+Although the ammonia corrodes cork, yet a good cork is far preferable<!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+for the pocket to a glass stopper, for its elasticity prevents
+it from losing its hold, and the liquid from saturating your pocket
+and its surroundings; but a glass stopper is certainly better for the
+stock solution kept at home.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the above remarks apply equally well to benzole and to
+chloroform, but the latter is so powerful a poison that a very little
+is required for a day's work, and consequently a very small
+bottle is more convenient. The dealers in naturalist's appliances
+supply metal 'chloroform bottles' with screw stoppers and a small
+nozzle that will allow the liquid to run out only in drops. This is
+a very good arrangement, since it enables you to avoid the 'drop
+too much' which is not only unnecessary and therefore wasteful,
+but saves you from experiencing the disappointment
+of an empty bottle before your work is half done.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_45" id="FIG_45"></a><img src="images/i_089.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 45.&mdash;The
+Chloroform
+Bottle.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some entomologists recommend the solid carbonate
+of ammonium instead of liquid ammonia, but this is
+not so powerful. It must be remembered that we
+have the butterflies to consider, as well as our own
+convenience, in the selection of the poisons we use.
+It is the opinion of many well-known entomologists
+that 'insects cannot feel pain,' and that we are therefore
+at liberty to deal with them in any way we please.
+Still it is as well to save all possible suffering, and be
+satisfied with no killing box that is not practically
+instantaneous in its effects.</p>
+
+<p>Among other poisons used by entomologists I may
+mention sulphur fumes and tobacco smoke. The former may be
+obtained by burning a little sulphur or a sulphured lucifer match
+under the perforations of a killing box of the pattern described, and
+the latter&mdash;well, every smoker knows that. I should at once condemn
+the former method, at least for field work, as troublesome
+and inconvenient; and as to the other, I have tried the effect of a
+puff (and many puffs) of tobacco smoke on an imprisoned insect,
+but was so dissatisfied with the result that I am not likely to do so
+again.</p>
+
+<p>We have now considered a good many insecticides more or less
+suitable to our purpose, but there still remains the unsolved problem
+as to which is the best. Each one has its advantages. For
+<i>convenience</i> nothing beats the cyanide bottle. It is very speedy in
+its action, and the use of a bottle is a little preferable to a metal
+box, for you can always satisfy yourself as to its efficiency without<!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+opening it. Cyanide, chloroform, benzole, and some others render
+the insects more or less brittle and stiff, so that it is not so easy to
+'set' them for the cabinet. Perhaps, if you happen to have a
+supply of growing laurel close at hand, you cannot do better than
+stick to the laurel box. The time taken in bruising up a few leaves
+is inconsiderable, and the moisture given off from them will keep
+your insects moist and supple, or will even 'relax' them if they
+have become rigid. But try various plans for yourself, and you
+will be able to settle a question which all the entomologists in the
+world cannot answer for you&mdash;which method answers best in <i>your</i>
+hands.</p>
+
+<p>The next item for our consideration is the 'collecting box.'
+This is merely a box in which the butterflies are pinned as soon as
+they are dead. Here, again, we shall note a few variations from
+which a selection can be made according to the means or the
+ingenuity of the reader. For a couple of shillings you can obtain
+a good zinc collecting box, lined with cork, of oval form (a most
+convenient shape for the pocket), and quite large enough for one
+day's captures; and half that modest sum will purchase a wooden
+box, also lined with cork, adapted to the same purpose.</p>
+
+<p>As with many other things, so with collecting boxes, the cheapest
+is often the dearest in the end. You may feel inclined to save a
+shilling by buying a wooden box, but you are sure to discard it after
+a little practical experience for a metal one. We shall speak a little
+later on concerning the advisability of 'setting' the butterflies as
+soon as possible after capture; but this is not always practicable,
+especially after a good day's catch. Now, if the insects are pinned
+in a wooden box, they soon become dry and rigid, and consequently
+cannot be 'set' till they have been put through the more or less
+tedious process of 'relaxing.' If you use a wooden collecting box
+you will often find, on a hot and dry day, that all or nearly all your
+butterflies are rigid before you arrive home; but a metal box will
+keep them moist and supple, so that you can even put off the
+setting till the following day if you are unable to do it immediately
+after your return.</p>
+
+<p>Another point worth considering is the best economy of space. If
+your collecting box is only about one inch deep inside, you have
+room for only one layer of pinned insects; but a box only a little
+deeper may be lined with cork both at top and bottom, and thus be
+made to accommodate double the number. The zinc boxes sold by
+the dealers are generally lined with cork in this manner, and are,<!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+of course, deep enough for the double layer of specimens; but the
+wooden boxes are sometimes lined on the bottom only. After these
+few remarks you will at once see the economy of expending the
+extra shilling on the former.</p>
+
+<p>Although the prices of collecting boxes are low, yet there are
+many who would prefer making their own, and there is much to be
+said in favour of this. A great deal of pleasure is to be derived
+from the construction of your own apparatus, especially when that
+apparatus is afterwards to be used in the pursuit of a delightful
+hobby. During the whole of the time thus engaged, you are looking
+forward with the most pleasurable feelings to the glorious treat
+before you, and every joint you make seems to bring you nearer to
+the realisation of your joys. During the bleak winter months there
+is no better employment for an entomologist who has a little spare
+time than the preparation for the next outing. It is just one of
+those artful schemes by which he seeks to get as much pleasure out
+of life as it is capable of affording. How many there are who,
+for the lack of a pleasant and instructive hobby, find their leisure
+hours the most dismal of all, and who complain of the toil and
+wearisomeness of their lot! The mournful thought with them is,
+'Is life worth living?' but who ever heard such an expression from
+the lips of an active entomologist?</p>
+
+<p>But I must have done with moralising and proceed to business.
+The question is&mdash;How shall we set to work about the construction
+of a collecting box? If it is to be a wooden one, select or make a
+box of such a size as to suit your pocket or satchel, and cover the
+bottom, and lid too if the depth allows of it, with sheet cork or
+slices of good wine corks, about one-eighth of an inch thick, fixed
+on with glue.</p>
+
+<p>The metal box is not quite so easy, but even here you may
+save yourself much work by keeping your eyes open. Very neat
+little collecting boxes can be made out of the flat metal boxes in
+which are sold certain favourite brands of tobacco. Some of these
+are just the right depth, and also of a very convenient size for the
+coat pocket. Beg one of these boxes from a smoking friend, and if
+the lid is not held by a hinge (a great advantage, by the way), you
+can easily solder on a brass one.</p>
+
+<p>All that remains now is the fixing of the cork. Buy a sheet
+of cork at a naturalist's shop, this being a commodity always in
+stock, and cut out two pieces just the size to cover the bottom
+and the lid.<!-- Page 75 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Gum and glue are not very satisfactory as fixing agents, for, as
+you will presently learn, there are times when it will be necessary
+to keep the box moist, and moisture softens both these substances.
+The cork must be fixed by means of little strips of metal. Here
+are two ways of doing this:</p>
+
+<p>First.&mdash;Cut a few little strips of sheet tin, each about two inches
+long and one-eighth wide. Double and bend them as shown in
+<a href="#FIG_46">fig. 46</a>, and solder them to the surfaces which the cork is to
+cover (<a href="#FIG_47">fig. 47</a>). As the cork is pushed in its place, these little
+slips are allowed to force themselves through slits in it made by
+means of a penknife, and then the ends are bent over as shown in
+<a href="#FIG_48">fig. 48</a>. Two or three such fasteners will be quite sufficient to hold
+down each sheet of cork.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_46" id="FIG_46"></a>
+<img src="images/i_092a.jpg" width="300" height="134" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 46.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_47" id="FIG_47"></a>
+<img src="images/i_092b.jpg" width="300" height="138" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 47.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="FIG_48" id="FIG_48"></a>
+<img src="images/i_092c.jpg" width="400" height="93" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 48.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_49" id="FIG_49"></a>
+<img src="images/i_092d.jpg" width="300" height="83" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 49.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Second.&mdash;Put the sheets of cork in their places <i>first</i>, then
+make a few little slits through both metal and cork with the
+point of a penknife, and then bind the two together with a
+few ordinary paper fasteners. This arrangement is shown in
+section in <a href="#FIG_49">fig. 49</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Just one point more concerning the metal collecting box. You
+will often call moisture to your aid in keeping the butterflies
+flexible and soft. This will have but little action on zinc, but will
+sooner or later cause the 'tin' (really tinned iron) box to rust.
+Here, then, is a point in favour of zinc, but still a home-made 'tin'
+collector will last a long time if kept dry when not in use.</p>
+
+<p>As already hinted, there are times when it is desirable to take
+home certain butterflies alive, either for a study of their movements
+or for the purpose of securing eggs for breeding. To this end you
+must provide yourself either with a number of 'chip boxes' with a
+few small holes pricked in the cover, or with some metal boxes
+with perforations for the admission of air. If the latter, you will<!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+have no difficulty in securing a few 'tin' boxes of suitable size,
+but, as the surface of the metal is very smooth, you should always
+introduce a few leaves or something else that will provide a foothold
+for the inmates.</p>
+
+<p>The last item of the outfit is the pins. Ordinary draper's pins
+are quite out of the question. They are far too thick and clumsy for
+the collector's work. If you are not already acquainted with the
+'entomological pins,' you had better ask a dealer to give you a
+sample card. This will be very useful for reference until you
+become well acquainted with the various lengths, thicknesses,
+numbers and prices. The card will contain one of each kind, with
+price and number attached.</p>
+
+<p>If you fix a butterfly with the ordinary pin, you may find the
+latter partly covered over with verdigris after a time. This bright
+green substance is formed by the action of decomposing animal
+matter on the copper of the pin, and gives a very unsightly appearance
+to the specimen. To avoid this the entomological pins are
+either silvered, blackened or gilded. The silvered pins tarnish
+after a time, but the two other kinds keep their colour well, and
+are therefore better. The gilded ones are rather expensive and unnecessary,
+and perhaps the black ones are to be preferred to the
+silvered, although they are rather more costly.</p>
+
+<p>Most dealers will supply you with a box of mixed pins, each box
+containing about six different sizes. This is very convenient for
+those who work in a rather small way; but if you intend to make
+entomology a prolonged study you had better get an ounce or so of
+each of the more useful sizes.</p>
+
+<p>Butterflies vary much in size, and Nos. 3 to 8 are the most
+useful sizes of pins to fix them; No. 3 being for the largest, and 8
+for the smallest.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing all the foregoing requisites to be quite ready, still you
+are really by no means prepared for all your work. The butterflies
+captured should be set as soon as possible after your return, and
+everything required for <i>this</i> part of the work must be in perfect
+trim. Yet I think it will be more convenient just now to confine
+our attention to the subject of 'Catching Butterflies,' leaving all
+the indoor work to form the substance of another chapter. Our
+next point, then, shall be the consideration of seasons, times, and
+localities.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest of the butterflies make their appearance on the
+wing in April, or, if the weather is mild, towards the end of March;<!-- Page 77 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+and from this time you can find employment up to the end of
+September or the beginning of October&mdash;a period of about seven
+months. But it must not be supposed that all parts of this long
+season are equally prolific, and will yield equally valuable catches.
+Remember the short term of a butterfly's life, and bear in mind
+that each one has its own regular season in which to spend the
+winged state; you will then see that anyone who wishes to 'work'
+as many species as possible must arrange his outings in accordance
+with the insects' own times.</p>
+
+<p>Some butterflies are double-brooded, and the two broods may
+not come forth at certain fixed times. Hence they seem to be on
+the wing almost without cessation for several months together, and
+therefore need not have a special day set apart for them. But
+others are more uniform in their date of appearance, and die off at
+about the same time. To catch such as these you must be careful
+to watch the weather, make allowance for any severities that may
+tend to cause a delay, or an unusually high temperature that may
+hasten their emergence, and then select a day in which you may
+expect to find them fresh and unworn. A week too early, and none
+are to be seen; a week too late, and nearly all you catch are worn
+and worthless.</p>
+
+<p>A glance at our Calendar (<a href="#APPENDIX_II">Appendix II</a>) will give you a few
+illustrations in point. Thus you will observe that May is a month
+for the 'Whites,' early 'Blues' and certain of the Fritillaries;
+July for most of the Hairstreaks and Browns, and so on. Before
+you have been long collecting you will have captured the very
+common species, and then you will find that your butterfly hunts
+are very unproductive unless you make it a point to try for certain
+species at the proper times.</p>
+
+<p>Time, however, is not the only thing to take into account when
+preparing for a day with the butterflies. It is equally important
+that we should carefully select our locality in accordance with the
+known haunts of the various species. As long as you are simply
+working up the common kinds, you may wander almost at random
+in waste places, flowery meadows, corn fields, railway banks, &amp;c.;
+but when you have secured a few specimens of each of these, you
+must search out the favoured resorts of the more local and the
+rarer species. For instance, wooded spots must be visited if you
+are to take certain of the Fritillaries, oak woods for the Purple
+Emperor and the Purple Hairstreak, fenny districts for the beautiful
+Swallow-tail, and so forth. In some cases the butterflies are<!-- Page 78 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+closely restricted to certain isolated localities, to which you must
+travel if determined to obtain them.</p>
+
+<p>There yet remains another important matter to consider, and
+that is the kind of day you shall select for your outing. Butterflies
+are not only strictly day-fliers, but most of them venture out only
+on bright days. Always choose as hot a day as possible, with a
+very bright sun. If you are to be out for a full day's collecting,
+manage to be on the hunting ground at about ten o'clock in the
+morning. As a rule there are not many out before this time, and
+some do not appear to stir till an hour later: still there are a few
+'early birds' among them, one of which&mdash;the Wall Butterfly&mdash;I
+have seen on the wing before eight.</p>
+
+<p>If your season, your day, and your locality are all well chosen,
+you may reckon on a good six hours' work. At about four the
+butterflies begin to lag, and then drop into their hiding places, one
+by one, till only a few of the late stragglers remain on the wing.</p>
+
+<p>So far I have furnished some general instructions that may be
+regarded as preparatory to the start; but I will now give a few
+hints as to the mode of procedure when the day for field work has
+come.</p>
+
+<p>First, see that you have secured <i>all</i> your apparatus, and that it
+is in perfect condition. What is more annoying than to find, after
+you have travelled some miles to get to your hunting ground, that
+you have left your screw ferrule at home, or that the soldering of
+your metal <span class="lettershape">Y</span> is just giving way? If you are troubled with a short
+memory, it will be advisable to make out a list of every requisite
+for your field work, and keep this for reference on all field days.</p>
+
+<p>Here is a list of your equipment for a day with the butterflies.
+Net, ferrule or <span class="lettershape">Y</span>, stick, collecting box (the cork of which should be
+damped if the box is a metal one), a few 'chip boxes' for live
+insects, killing apparatus, a good supply of pins of several sizes, a
+piece of string, needle and cotton, and your penknife.</p>
+
+<p>You observe in this list one or two items not previously mentioned,
+since they hardly come under the category of apparatus,
+but a moment's thought will convince you of their usefulness, especially
+in the case of a breakdown. If your net catches in a thorn&mdash;a
+very common occurrence&mdash;and a big rent is made, the needle and
+cotton will save you a deal of agony, and perhaps loss of temper.
+If your stick breaks under your exertions, the knife or the string
+may prove a most valuable companion. Your pins may be stuck
+in the cork of your collecting box, certainly the most convenient<!-- Page 79 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+spot for immediate use; but you may also have a reserve store in
+a small pocket cushion, or arranged neatly on a strip of flannel
+which can be rolled up in the waistcoat pocket.</p>
+
+<p>At last you are on the hunting ground, fully equipped but inexperienced,
+and at first find yourself just a little awkward in the
+use of your new gear. Your experience with the cap has been a
+very wide one, and you are possibly an expert at knocking down
+'Whites' in the streets and in your neighbour's kitchen gardens.
+Now you have to wield the net, and coax your captives into your
+killing bottle; hence a slight feeling of incompetence at first.</p>
+
+<p>You soon get over this, however, and within five minutes you
+may be seen furiously slashing away at all the poor butterflies that
+come within range, common 'Whites' and dingy 'Browns' receiving
+as much attention at your hands as any rare gem that
+may happen to cross your path.</p>
+
+<p>How different are the movements of an experienced collector!
+He walks stealthily along the route he has chosen, apparently
+taking but little notice of the majority of butterflies that approach
+and pass him. He has already secured his 'series' of nearly all
+the species, and is carefully on the watch for the gems that are
+required to complete his cabinet. His actions are slow and deliberate
+rather than rash; and he trusts more to his eyes than his
+legs.</p>
+
+<p>The beginner may take to his field work quite to his own satisfaction,
+and may travel homeward with a feeling of great pride over
+his first day's catch; but yet there are a few points in which a little
+advice may not be quite out of place, particularly so with regard to
+the management of the net, and the killing and pinning of the
+insects.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the butterflies may be caught on the wing, and it is far
+better to net them in the air than to sweep them off the herbage
+and flowers. If these are rather low, you should strike the net
+smartly <i>upwards</i> from below them, but of course this movement is
+impossible with insects that happen to be almost above your reach.
+If a butterfly is busily engaged in searching out its sweet food,
+flying from flower to flower, don't think of giving chase, but follow
+it up stealthily, and you will sooner or later get an opportunity of
+striking at it while in the air. Sometimes, however, you will see a
+powerful flier making a straight dash across your field, taking no
+notice whatever of the fragrant blossoms, but evidently engaged on
+some important errand. If such happens to be a species you<!-- Page 80 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+require, then you must run for it, but you will probably be satisfied
+with only a few chases of this kind, particularly if the sun is very
+hot, and the ground diversified with clumps of furze, heather,
+'molehills,' and ditches.</p>
+
+<p>There are times when your only plan of netting a butterfly is
+to sweep it from a flower or leaf on which it has settled. If the
+vegetation is very low, you have simply to bring the net down upon
+it, and then, holding up the apex of the net with the other hand so
+as to give it room to fly, you can inclose it by grasping the lower
+part of the net as soon as the butterfly has fluttered upward. If
+the herbage is tall it is advisable to strike either upward or sideways
+at the insect, starting it from the leaf or flower on which it rests;
+for if you bring <i>down</i> the net you will have to inclose the whole or
+part of the plant on which the butterfly has settled&mdash;a procedure
+that often ends in a torn net, or in the insect becoming damaged
+through being rubbed against the plant.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever you capture a butterfly by a sweep of the net
+through the air, you immediately turn the ring into a horizontal
+position, so that the bag of the net closes itself as it falls over the
+edge. This gives you an opportunity of examining the insect before
+you introduce your killing bottle. This is a very necessary precaution,
+for you are generally unable to judge of the condition of a
+butterfly while on the wing, and in some cases you cannot even be
+certain of the species. If, then, you were to call the killing bottle
+into requisition for every capture you make, you would certainly
+find yourself taking the life of many an insect that is of no use
+whatever to you. Always examine your specimens at the moment
+they have been secured, at least as far as it is possible to do so, by
+looking through the gauze; and let your examination be as brief as
+possible, or some of the butterflies that were at first in splendid
+condition will render themselves useless to you during their
+struggles to get away.</p>
+
+<p>When satisfied that an insect is likely to be of value to you, keep
+it in the apex of the net by grasping the bag beneath it with the
+left hand, and then introduce the opened killing bottle with the
+other hand. As a rule you will experience not the slightest difficulty
+in coaxing it into its trap, and then you quickly cover the
+mouth of the killing bottle with the gauze, then apply your left
+hand, using it as a temporary stopper for a few seconds, and now,
+the insect having been quieted, replace the cork.</p>
+
+<p>A good killing bottle is almost instantaneous in its action, not<!-- Page 81 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+only stupefying, but immediately killing the insects; and as soon as
+you are sure that each specimen is quite dead, you may pin it in
+your collecting box.</p>
+
+<p>You must be cautious, however, on the one hand, that you do
+not take it out too soon. If you do you may find that it recovers
+from the mere stupefying effect of the poison, even after it has been
+pinned, and when you open your collecting box for the next butterfly,
+you are horrified at the sight of the poor victim struggling to
+free itself.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, don't keep the insects in the killing bottle
+too long. If you do you will soon have a number, one lying on
+another, and all tumbled about together while you are on the chase.
+Of course, under such circumstances you are sure to damage them
+more or less.</p>
+
+<p>Many collectors, although they may always use a killing bottle for
+moths, never employ one for butterflies, but kill them by pinching
+the thorax. It is well to know how to do this, for it sometimes
+turns out to be a really quicker process than that we have just been
+considering; and, more than this, you can resort to it should you
+break or lose your bottle while in the field. It is done in this
+manner: Bring the two opposite sides of the net together, closing
+them on the insect so that it cannot flutter. If now the wings are
+brought together over the back, all is right, but if not, give it just
+a little room to flutter till you have the opportunity of closing the
+gauze upon it with the wings in the desired position. Now pinch
+the thorax smartly between the finger and the thumb, applying the
+pressure outside the net, but be careful not to squeeze the abdomen.
+In a moment you will find the insect quite dead, and not in the
+least damaged unless you performed the operation clumsily.</p>
+
+<p>Now as to pinning. Hold the dead butterfly between the finger
+and thumb of the left hand, and pass a pin of convenient size through
+the centre of the thorax above, and push it through so that the point
+appears centrally on the under surface. It is now ready for your
+collecting box.</p>
+
+<p>So you work on till the sun begins to get low, and the butterflies
+become fewer and fewer, till only a few stragglers of common species
+are to be seen. Still there are a few hours of daylight and perhaps
+even of bright sunshine before you, and if you are not weary with
+the work done, you may very profitably spend these hours in the
+collection and study of the habits of moths.<!-- Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Catching Moths by Day</i></h4>
+
+<p>The reason for choosing the sunny hours for butterfly collecting
+is obvious, all these lovers of brightness being then actively on
+the wing; and although many may be driven out of their hiding
+places by beating the herbage with the handle of your net, or even
+be searched out as they rest on stalks and leaves during dull days
+or at morning and evening twilight, yet such methods are comparatively
+tedious and unproductive.</p>
+
+<p>Some moths also are lovers of sunshine, and while engaged in
+butterfly hunting you will often meet with a moth flying briskly
+from flower to flower and taking its fill of both sweetness and
+brightness. Again, as you wade among flowery herbs in quest of
+butterflies you will certainly disturb a number of moths, causing
+them to take a short flight in search of a safer spot. Thus you will
+almost invariably find a few moths among the contents of your
+collecting box even though you made no special effort to seek
+them out. But we shall now see how we may set to work to
+obtain a successful catch of moths at times when butterflies are
+not so much in demand, or during the less brilliant hours of the
+day, when butterflies are at rest.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus required for this work need not differ in any important
+respect from that recommended for butterflies. The same net is
+used, any reliable killing bottle will do, and the pins and collecting
+box used for butterflies are equally serviceable. But your mode
+of procedure is very different.</p>
+
+<p>As you walk towards your proposed hunting ground you will
+do well to examine the trunks of trees, old walls, and wooden fences.
+In this way you will meet with moths fast asleep, which are
+consequently easily taken. All you have to do is to hold the open
+killing bottle obliquely just below the insect, and then push it
+gently downward with a small twig or stalk. As a rule the moth
+will drop direct into the bottle and make no attempt to fly away;
+but some are very light sleepers, ready to take flight at the slightest
+disturbance; and when dealing with these you must be careful to
+bring the mouth of the killing bottle so closely round them that
+there is no room for flight except into the bottle itself. It is well,
+however, not to take long at this kind of searching, but to reserve
+as much as possible of your time for what you consider to be a
+very favourable locality.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking generally, a good locality for butterflies is a favourable<!-- Page 83 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+one also for moths, and you will do well to give special attention
+to well-grown hedges, especially those that surround clover fields;
+also overgrown banks, the borders of woods, open spaces in woods,
+the trunks of isolated trees, gravel pits, and old chalk quarries.</p>
+
+<p>Walk beside or among the undergrowth of woods, or among the
+tall herbage of waste places, tapping the branches and twigs with
+the handle of your net as you go. Then, if your locality is well
+selected, you will rouse moths to flight at almost every stroke.
+Some of these will shoot upward among the lofty branches and
+disappear quite beyond your reach; others will fly rather low and
+somewhat heavily, giving you favourable opportunities to try your
+skill with the net; others, again, will fly only a yard or so, and
+alight on a neighbouring leaf, often remaining so quiet that the
+killing bottle is easily made to inclose them.</p>
+
+<p>There are moths that show a decided preference for large trees.
+These may be seen hovering about high branches during the evening
+twilight, and sometimes even in sunshine. In many such
+cases the chance of a capture seems hopeless, but occasionally one
+will descend so low that a watchful collector is able to secure it by a
+sweep of the net.</p>
+
+<p>If at any time you are in a locality by day where you suspect
+the presence of certain species of moths at rest among the upper
+branches of trees, such branches should be beaten if possible to dislodge
+the insects they may shelter. A long stick will often serve
+this purpose well, and, failing this, a few stones thrown among
+the branches may prove effectual. In the case of small and rather
+slender trees, a kick against the trunk will set the whole in vibration
+sufficient to surprise all the lodgers; and the same effect may
+be produced with larger trees by giving each a good sound blow
+with a mallet or some other suitable implement.</p>
+
+<p>This or any other plan of 'beating' for moths is much more
+conveniently worked by two collectors together than by one alone;
+for one engaged in beating the herbage cannot be at the same
+time fully on the alert with the net. If two persons are together,
+one may take the lead, armed with the beating stick only, while
+the other, only very slightly in the rear, is always ready to
+strike.</p>
+
+<p>We have said that butterflies should always be killed in the
+field, but this plan is not so universally adopted with moths. Many
+collectors carry a large supply of pill boxes when going out for the
+latter and then take as many as they possibly can by boxing them<!-- Page 84 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+direct in these. This method of 'pill-boxing' is very simple in
+the case of the lazy and soundly sleeping moths. It is only
+necessary to hold the open box below the insect, and then cause
+it to fall by pressing the lid down gently on it from above.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the moths so caught will remain quiet in the boxes
+and can be taken home alive without much fear of damage. All
+may then be killed at the same time by packing all the pill
+boxes in some vessel of sufficient accommodation, and shutting
+them in with a little chloroform, ammonia, benzole, or other
+suitable poison. The vapour will soon find its way through the
+pores of the pill boxes, but, in order to make its action speedy,
+each one should have a few perforations in the lid.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever advantages this method may give to the collector
+who works at night, when the process of pinning would be more
+or less tedious, there is no necessity for its adoption during the
+day. The large number of pill boxes required is certainly far
+more bulky than the single collecting box that would accommodate
+all the day's captures; and although most of the insects boxed
+alive may be none the worse for the shaking they get, and may not
+damage themselves by fluttering in their small prisons, yet there is
+often a little loss on this score.</p>
+
+<p>If you do adopt the pill-boxing method, be very careful
+that you do not mix the occupied boxes with the empties; and unless
+you fix on some definite plan for the prevention of such an
+occurrence, you will often find yourself releasing a prisoner from a
+box you have just opened to receive a new-comer.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose that you start with all your empties in your right
+pocket. Then each one, as soon as it is tenanted, might be placed
+in the <i>left</i>, with the name of the insect, or any particular concerning
+it you would wish to note, pencilled on the lid.</p>
+
+<p>When examining the trunks of trees you will be continually
+meeting with specimens of very small Moths&mdash;<i>Pyralides</i>, <i>Crambi</i>,
+<i>Tortrices</i>, and <i>Tineæ</i>&mdash;and at first may find some difficulty in
+boxing or bottling such small and delicate creatures. A grass
+stalk will enable you to tip some of them into your killing bottle,
+but some are so snugly packed in crevices of the bark that it is
+almost impossible to get them out without damage, even with a
+thin and slender stalk. But a sudden puff of wind from your
+mouth will often be sufficient to dislodge them and blow them
+into your net, and from this they are easily transferred to a box or
+bottle.<!-- Page 85 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These few hints will prove sufficient to start you on moth-hunting
+expeditions during the daytime, and will enable you to
+make good use of the dull days and cloudy hours when the butterflies
+are quiet; but we must now turn our attention to the night
+work of the entomologist, and see how we may attract and catch
+moths during their hours of work and play.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Searching for Moths at Night.</i></h4>
+
+<p>It is a well-known fact that the night-flying moths are attracted
+by lights, a characteristic of these insects that it is difficult to
+explain. Their love of darkness is in many instances so decided
+that they absolutely refuse to take flight while the fading light of
+day still lingers on the horizon, and even display a great aversion
+to the rays of the moon; and yet these very same species will
+often rush madly into the fierce glare of a naked artificial light, or
+fly with an energy almost amounting to fury against the glass of a
+street lamp or lighted window.</p>
+
+<p>Puzzling as this peculiar tendency is, we can profitably turn
+it to our own account by making it a means of luring a number of
+moths into our presence.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest way of putting this mode of capture into effect is
+to post yourself at your open window, with net and cyanide bottle
+at hand, while the brightest light you can command casts its rays
+as far and as wide as possible into darkness outside. If you use
+an oil lamp for the purpose, let it stand just inside the window
+frame, or, if a jointed gas bracket happens to be situated beside the
+window, bend it round so that the rays may pass over a wide area
+outside.</p>
+
+<p>Two such lights are sometimes a very decided advantage&mdash;one
+quite outside the window to attract the moths from all possible
+points, and then another near the middle of the room to invite
+them inside. Whether you use either one or two lights, always
+see that it or they are so surrounded by a screen that the moths
+cannot by any possibility rush into the flame. There is nothing
+better for this purpose than a covering of light gauze, for this is
+not only a barrier for the prevention of the suicidal tendencies of
+the insects, but it also gives a good foothold to those who would
+like to rest and enjoy the luminous feast.</p>
+
+<p>You will soon begin to learn that moths, like ourselves, exhibit
+great differences in their ways of enjoying their festal moments.<!-- Page 86 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+Some will satisfy themselves by flying <i>near</i> the light in almost a
+straight course, hardly slackening their speed as they pass; or will,
+perhaps, make a hurried curve round the light and then pass on at
+once about other business. To catch these you must be always on
+the alert, with net in hand, ready to make a dash at the right
+moment. But many will make straight for the flame, and then,
+finding a barrier in the form of gauze or glass, will either flutter
+round and round as if dissatisfied with your attempt to save them
+from an untimely end, or else settle quietly on the screen to enjoy
+the brightness for a long period. The flutterers are usually easily
+covered by a glass or the open cyanide bottle, and as for those that
+settle down quietly, you can take them at your leisure.</p>
+
+<p>It will not do for a collector to depend solely on this method of
+obtaining moths, but at times when either his duties or the bad
+weather keeps him at home it affords him a means of capturing a
+few specimens that otherwise would have been missed. He may
+be even so busily engaged in other matters that he cannot afford
+the time to stand and watch with net in hand, but the insects that
+fly into his room and dance round the gas jet or inquisitively
+examine the white surface of the ceiling are easily netted or boxed
+without much loss of time.</p>
+
+<p>The chances of success at this kind of work will vary considerably
+with the aspect, the season, and the weather. If your
+window opens on a large flower or fruit garden, on a patch of
+wooded country with plenty of underwood, a piece of waste ground
+overgrown with rank vegetation, or a stretch of heath or moor,
+then you may expect a very large number of visitors; but if you
+are situated on a level and barren country, or in the dense
+atmosphere of a thickly populated district, you must not reckon on
+many intruders.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the season, this is more extended than that of the
+butterflies. A few species of moths may give you a call during
+the bleak nights of October and November, and also during the
+somewhat less dismal nights of February and March; but from
+April to September you may rely on a goodly number of captures.
+Of course you will not expect many of the 'rarities' and 'gems'
+to find you out; these are to be searched for in the open field in
+the manner to be presently described; but your lights will attract a
+large number of the commoner species of <i>Geometræ</i> and <i>Noctuæ</i>,
+the former <i>chiefly</i> during the early summer, and the latter more
+or less throughout the season.<!-- Page 87 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A little experience will show you that the atmospheric conditions
+form a very important consideration. The dark and warm
+nights are the most productive. Very little luck is to be anticipated
+when the full moon is throwing down her silvery rays from a clear
+sky; nor will you see many while a cold east or north-east wind is
+blowing. Under these conditions many moths prefer to keep in the
+sheltered nooks where they slept away the sunny hours of the day.
+They love a warm and moist air such as calls forth the odours of
+the fragrant blossoms that provide their sweets, and show no dislike
+to a fine drizzling rain that you yourself would prefer to avoid. A
+pelting shower will generally keep them under cover, but they
+delight in the fresh and moist air that immediately
+succeeds the passing storm.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_50" id="FIG_50"></a>
+<img src="images/i_104.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 50.&mdash;Frame
+of Net for Collecting
+Insects
+on Lamps and
+Windows.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>If you reside on the outskirts of a town an
+occasional tour of inspection of street lamps
+may add a few specimens to your collection, and
+some entomologists attach so much importance
+to the value of these luminaries that they provide
+themselves with a special net for the removal of
+moths from the glass and rails (<a href="#FIG_50">fig. 50</a>). The
+straight side marked <i>a</i> is applied to the panes
+of glass when flutterers or settlers are to be
+taken, and the bend on the opposite side is to
+secure those that rest on the rail. Such a frame
+is easily made by bending a piece of stout wire
+to the required shape, and then soldering it to a
+ferrule to receive a long stick. The net itself
+should not be deep.</p>
+
+<p>Many different forms of traps are now made for catching
+moths, and these are deservedly coming rapidly into favour. They
+are generally constructed on a 'catch-'em-alive-oh' principle, and
+have the advantage that, after having been set, they may be left alone
+all night without any watching, and give an ambitious collector the
+opportunity of taking insects in his garden and searching in the
+open field both at the same time.</p>
+
+<p>One of these traps may be constructed as follows at the cost
+of only a few pence over the price of a small paraffin lamp. Put
+together a square box, the sides about two feet and the front open,
+or procure a suitable one from your grocer. Place a paraffin lamp
+with a bright tin reflector at the back of this, and make a hole in
+the top just over the chimney to allow the heated air to pass out<!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+freely. Three sheets of glass are now to be placed as shown in the
+sketch (<a href="#FIG_51">fig. 51</a>), one upright piece completely shutting off the lamp,
+and two others placed obliquely with a space between them just
+large enough to allow admission. These must be exactly the
+width of the box, and should not be permanently fixed, but simply
+resting on small wooden supports nailed on to the sides. When required
+for use, it is only necessary to light up the lamp, strew some
+dead leaves on the bottom of the box, and put the sheets in their
+places. It will be seen at once that the angles at which they are
+placed will direct all light-seekers into the lower compartment,
+whence they are not at all likely to find their way out again; and
+after vain endeavours to reach the light they finally settle down on
+the sides of the box or seek shelter among the dead leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="FIG_51" id="FIG_51"></a>
+<img src="images/i_105.jpg" width="400" height="313" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 51.&mdash;A Trap for Catching Moths.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Occasionally it happens
+that an entomologist
+is lucky enough to claim
+the friendship of a person
+who, from the nature of
+his calling, is peculiarly
+well qualified to render
+him great assistance.
+Thus a friendly lamplighter,
+expert and patient
+in the use of the cyanide
+bottle or pill box, is capable
+of giving valuable aid at
+times; and the keeper of a
+lighthouse has it in his power to capture many a gem that is seldom
+seen on the wing; but, although much may be done by means of
+these and other stationary lights, this kind of work does not compare
+favourably with the night rambles of a naturalist in the very
+haunts of the objects of his search.</p>
+
+<p>For such out-door work in search of moths a good lantern is
+essential. An ordinary 'bull's-eye' is almost useless, for, although
+it concentrates a good light on certain objects, the narrow range of
+its rays constitutes a strong objection to its use for entomological
+work. For this purpose it is necessary that the rays of light not
+only pass in front of you, but also shoot off right and left to warn you
+of the approach of a moth before it is too late to wield the net.
+This wide range may be obtained by means of three flat glass sides,
+or, better still, by a bent plate glass front.<!-- Page 89 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to this you must go out provided with your net,
+killing bottle, and a number of pill boxes. Choose your night
+according to the hints already given, and if you are on the look-out
+for any particular species, be careful that the date of your outing is
+well timed, making any necessary allowances for the forwardness
+or backwardness of the season, for a moth that is generally due on
+a certain <i>average</i> time of the year may appear some weeks sooner
+if the preceding weeks have been unusually warm, or its emergence
+may be delayed considerably by the prevalence of cold east
+winds or a late frost.</p>
+
+<p>Make up your mind as to the field of your operations before you
+start, and if possible choose a route that will carry you through a
+variety of situations, so that you may pass the favourite haunts of
+a number of different species. Clearings in woods with an abundant
+undergrowth, waste places with plenty of tall and rank vegetation,
+overgrown railway banks, clover fields, the flowery borders of corn
+fields, plantations in parks, heaths and moors, sheltered and overgrown
+hollows such as chalk pits and old disused quarries, reed and
+marsh land, all these are good localities, each one inhabited by its
+own peculiar species, and if your route runs through a fair variety
+of such places you may, other things being equally favourable,
+depend on a good catch.</p>
+
+<p>See that your time also is well chosen. Of course you cannot
+say exactly what the night will be till it actually comes, and, as
+you have to start off before it is dark, you must consider the
+probabilities of the future from the present condition of the air. Let
+it be a night when a bright moon is not due, and if it follow a
+warm and moist day with a south or south-west wind, or if drizzly,
+so much the better; but let your feet be shod with boots that will
+permit you to wade through moist herbage without danger, and
+take a waterproof if necessary.</p>
+
+<p>It is always advisable to be on your hunting ground before
+twilight sets in, as a number of moths venture out before the sun
+has disappeared; and then you can work on till midnight if you
+feel inclined, or even extend your labours till the early hours of the
+morning.</p>
+
+<p>Before dusk you will meet with many of the little <i>Tortrices</i>
+(<a href="#Page_298">page 298</a>) in sheltered spots, and a little later the <i>Geometræ</i> and
+Hawks will be on the wing. Thus, before dark, you may make
+good use of your net, dealing with your captures just in the same
+way as recommended in the case of butterflies.<!-- Page 90 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After a time, however, the lantern will have to be brought to
+your assistance in making known the whereabouts of the later
+species, consisting chiefly of the <i>Noctuæ</i>, many of which do not
+make their appearance till it is quite dark. If now you carry your
+lantern in your left hand, your work will be rendered somewhat
+difficult and tedious, for, although one hand is sufficient to manage
+the net properly, you are compelled to rest your light on the ground
+every time you make a capture, as it is impossible to box your
+specimens unless both hands are quite free. This difficulty is easily
+overcome by suspending the lantern by means of a string or strap
+placed round your neck, allowing it to hang on your chest; and a
+further advantage is gained by having a second strap round your
+chest to prevent it from swaying about with every movement of
+your body. This arrangement gives you both hands perfectly free
+during the whole time, and also prevents the necessity of continually
+bringing yourself into a stooping or kneeling posture
+while you are examining or boxing the specimens you have
+netted.</p>
+
+<p>There are now two courses open to you. Either you can kill
+and pin the moths as you catch them, fixing each one securely in
+the collecting box, or you may simply shut each one in a separate
+pill box and leave the remainder of the work to be done at home.
+If the ordinary collecting box only is used, a little of your time is
+necessarily occupied in pinning and transferring, and if many
+insects are about such an occupation may appear to you to be a
+waste of valuable time. But this is not all. Often and often will
+you find that while thus engaged a splendid moth will come and
+flutter round your light; and, before you have time to drop your
+collecting box and pick up the net, the fine creature you would
+have prized has darted off again. This certainly seems to speak in
+favour of the pill-boxing method, but it must be remembered that
+a few of the moths will continue to flutter after they have been
+boxed, so that when you arrive home they are more or less
+damaged, a large number of the scales that once adorned the wings
+now lying on the sides and bottom of the boxes. Perhaps the best
+plan is to take both the collecting box and also a quantity of pill
+boxes, and a little experience will soon show you which is the
+better accommodation for certain kinds.</p>
+
+<p>Particular attention must be paid to flowers, some of which are
+very attractive to the <i>Noctuæ</i> especially. Sallow blossom in spring
+and ivy bloom in autumn should be carefully and frequently<!-- Page 91 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+watched, and at other times the blossoms of heather, ragwort,
+bramble, clover, and various other flowers must be searched.</p>
+
+<p>As you cast the rays of the lantern on the feasting moths some
+will prove themselves very wary, and dart away at your approach;
+but others will take but little notice of your advance, and will
+continue to suck the sweet nectar, their eyes glaring like living
+sparks.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule the <i>Noctuæ</i> thus engaged are easily pill-boxed or
+caught direct in the cyanide bottle; but a few of the more restless
+species are to be made sure of only by a sweep of the net. Some
+will feign death as soon as disturbed, and allow themselves to drop
+among the foliage, where further search is generally fruitless.</p>
+
+<p>Another common difficulty arises
+from the inconvenient height of many
+of the attractive blossoms&mdash;often so
+great that it is impossible to reach
+them with the net, and very difficult
+to direct the rays of your lantern on
+them. This is particularly the case
+with sallow and ivy, the
+flowers of which are two
+rich sources of supply
+to the entomologist.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_52" id="FIG_52"></a>
+<img src="images/i_108a.jpg" width="300" height="299" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 52.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_53" id="FIG_53"></a><img src="images/i_108b.jpg" width="300" height="344" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 53.&mdash;Net and Lantern
+for Taking Moths from
+High Blossoms.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Those who intend
+giving special attention
+to these blossoms should
+be provided with some
+form of apparatus that
+will enable them to extend their operations as high as possible.
+Perhaps the most effective arrangement is the well-known combination
+here figured. It consists of a long and stout stick, at the top of
+which is a tubular joint (<a href="#FIG_52">fig. 52</a>) that might be termed a <span class="lettershape">T</span>-piece
+were it not that the smaller part does not stand out at right angles
+to the other. In this is fixed, in a straight line with the stick, a
+short rod on which hangs a lantern&mdash;an ordinary bull's-eye answers
+well here; and in the smaller tube is another short rod carrying a
+shallow basin-shaped net, and of such a length that the net is just
+in advance of the lantern.</p>
+
+<p>At first sight this arrangement will strike you as being very
+unsatisfactory, there being no kind of trap to prevent the escape of
+the insects. But it must be remembered that moths are more or<!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+less addicted to habits of intemperance&mdash;that they will hold on to
+the supply of the sweet fluid they enjoy till they are ready to drop
+with intoxication. This being the case, some will fall into your
+net as soon as they are startled by the sudden and near approach
+of the glare of your lamp, and others are easily <i>made</i> to fall therein
+by gently tapping the flower-bearing stems from below with the
+edge of the ring.</p>
+
+<p>Having become acquainted with this very sad propensity, which
+thus brings ruin to so many unfortunate moths, can we not yet
+further turn their evil doings to our own profit in our endeavours
+to become acquainted with their structure and history? Most
+certainly we can. All we have to do is to distribute in their haunts
+a bountiful supply of some artificial intoxicant such as they love,
+and then lie in wait for the victims that fall a prey to our snare.
+This process is known to entomologists as 'sugaring,' and is a
+splendid means of securing an abundance of species, often including
+some rare ones that are scarcely to be obtained by any other plan.
+Let us now inquire into the <i>modus operandi</i> of this interesting
+operation.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing to do is to prepare the luring sweetmeat. Supply
+yourself with a quantity of strong, dark treacle, and also some dark
+brown sugar; always remembering, in the selection of these viands,
+that odour rather than purity is to be the guide. The best kinds of
+sugar are those very dark and moist brands imported in a raw state
+from the West Indies, nothing being better than that known as
+'Jamaica Foots.'</p>
+
+<p>Mix about equal quantities of these with a little stale beer, and
+boil and stir till all the sugar is dissolved. The consistency of the
+mixture should be such that it will work well with a brush when
+used as a paint&mdash;not too thick, nor so thin that it is easily
+absorbed by the substance on which it is 'painted,' nor must it be
+in such a fluid condition that it easily runs.</p>
+
+<p>When satisfied on these points, transfer the mixture to a tin
+canister, see it properly covered, and set it aside as your 'stock'
+from which you can draw supplies as required. Now secure an
+ordinary painter's brush of convenient size, and a number of strips
+of linen or other rag, each one of which is fastened to a hook formed
+of bent wire. These items, together with the usual lantern, collecting
+box, pill boxes, and killing bottle, complete your outfit for the
+sugaring expedition.</p>
+
+<p>When the selected time for operations has arrived, take sufficient<!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+'sugar' for your night's work, mix it well with sufficient
+strong rum to give it a very decided odour, and start off at dusk
+with this and the other requisites just mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The night chosen should be warm and calm, with a rather damp
+atmosphere, and no moon preferred. Let your locality be a well-wooded
+one; abounding, if possible, with giant oaks and other trees,
+and containing open spaces with plenty of underwood and rank
+herbage. Such localities are to be met with at their best in forest
+lands, and if you would do wonders at sugaring you cannot do better
+than arrange for spending your holidays in such a spot as the New
+Forest, taking with you sufficient 'sugar' for several nights' work.</p>
+
+<p>Having reached a likely spot of no very great extent, you prepare
+for real work. Light up the lamp, and get out your sugaring
+tin and brush ready for action. Take your course along some
+definite track that you are sure to remember, painting vertical strips
+of sugar, about a foot long, on the trunks of trees or on palings,
+and hanging strips of rag that have just been steeped in the sugar
+on the branches of small trees and shrubs where you do not find
+good surfaces for the brush.</p>
+
+<p>After satisfying yourself concerning the amount of sugar distributed,
+retrace your steps, examining every patch of sugar as you
+go. It will not be long before signs of life appear. Earwigs, spiders,
+centipedes and slugs will soon search out the luscious feast, but
+unless the time and the locality are ill chosen, the lantern will soon
+reveal a goodly number of moths, with eyes glaring like little balls
+of fire, greedily devouring the bounteous repast. These will consist
+chiefly of <i>Noctuæ</i>, but <i>Sphinges</i>, <i>Geometræ</i> and numerous small
+species also join the company.</p>
+
+<p>Some will exhibit a restless disposition, either darting off before
+you make a close approach, or keeping their wings in rapid vibration
+as if to be fully prepared for a hasty retreat when occasion demands.
+These must receive your attention first; and, having secured them,
+proceed to box as many as you require of the more lazy and
+gluttonous species.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule, moths thus engaged are easily pill-boxed, but the
+livelier ones will not submit to such treatment without attempting
+to escape. The best way to secure these is either to cover them
+with the opened cyanide bottle (or its substitute), and replace the
+cork as soon as a favourable opportunity occurs; or to perform the
+same feat with a glass-bottomed pill box.</p>
+
+<p>The advantage of the latter over the ordinary boxes will be<!-- Page 94 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+seen at once. After the insect is covered, its movements can be
+watched, and so a favourable opportunity can be seized for snapping
+on the lid.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, some moths feign death when in danger,
+allowing themselves to fall in places where they are often quite safe
+from capture. Others allow themselves to fall simply because they
+have so gorged themselves with the intoxicating sweet that they
+can no longer maintain their hold. Both these classes of sugar
+seekers may easily be secured by means of a net commonly known
+as the 'sugaring net.'</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_54" id="FIG_54"></a>
+<img src="images/i_111.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 54.&mdash;Frame
+for the Sugaring
+Net.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This implement is so simple in its construction that anyone can
+easily make his own. The frame may consist of two straight
+wires or canes fixed in a metal <span class="lettershape">Y</span>, and the other ends joined by a
+piece of strong string or catgut as shown in <a href="#FIG_54">fig. 54</a>. The net itself need
+not be deep. As soon as you reach a tree where moths are feeding
+on the sugar, press the string of the net against
+the bark just below them. The string at once
+assumes the form of the trunk so well that you
+may be sure of every insect that falls while you
+are boxing.</p>
+
+<p>For this work both hands must be free, and
+this is easily managed in spite of the number of
+appliances called into service. The lantern is
+slung round your neck and secured by a strap
+round the chest. The 'sugaring net' has a very
+short stick, and just while you are engaged in
+boxing specimens, it may be gently held against the trunk by a
+slight pressure of the body. But such precautions as these are
+necessary only when the night worker is out alone. There are
+many circumstances, however, that render the work of two or more
+in company much more enjoyable than that of a single-handed
+entomologist. The labours are considerably expedited where a
+division enables each one of the night ramblers to take a particular
+portion of the work; and if there is such a person as a nervous
+entomologist, that individual should on no account go a sugaring in
+lonely spots on dark nights. Every rustling leaf gives such a one
+a start; all footsteps are those of approaching disturbers of the
+peace; and when at last the invisible landowner or his keeper,
+attracted by the mysterious movements of the lamp, greets him
+with his gruff 'What's your business here?' then for the moment
+he forgets his enchanting hobby and wishes he were safely at home.<!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is certainly advisable to take a friend, whether an entomologist
+or not, on such expeditions; and if you intend working on private
+grounds, always make previous arrangements with the property
+owner, that you may fear no foes and dread no surprises; for a
+sugarer is far more sure of success in his work if he keeps a cool
+head and has nothing to think about for the time being but his
+moths and his boxes.</p>
+
+<p>A few hours at this interesting employment pass away very
+rapidly, and when midnight arrives there is often no great desire to
+leave off, especially when it is known that some species of moths
+are not very busy till very late at night. Still it is not advisable
+to surfeit oneself with even the sweets of life. Perhaps it is better
+as a rule to work the early species only on one night, and reserve
+another for the later ones. The searchings are then always carried
+on with vigour throughout, and the labours that are thus never
+made laborious ever retain their attractiveness in the future.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been observed that, when sugaring has been carried
+on for a few successive nights in the same locality, the success is
+greater each night than on the one preceding it. Hence it is a
+common practice to work a chosen 'run' for two, three, or more
+nights in succession; and some collectors even go so far as to lay on
+the bait for a night or two previous to starting work. For the same
+reason it is often advisable to continue the use of a fairly productive
+beat rather than to wander in search of a new one.</p>
+
+<p>In the neighbourhood of large towns one may often meet with
+patches of sugared bark that mark the course and extent of a
+brother entomologist's beat, and such are valuable to an inexperienced
+amateur in that they give him some idea of the nature of
+the localities that are chosen by more expert collectors. But it
+must be remembered that each entomologist has a moral right to a
+run he has baited, and that it is considered ungentlemanly, if not
+unjust, to take insects from sugar laid by another. I have sometimes
+seen cards, bearing the names of the collectors and the date of
+working, tacked on to baited trees and fences, thus establishing
+their temporary exclusive rights to the use of their runs. Such
+precautions are not necessary in large tracts of forest land, where
+the choice of runs is practically unlimited.</p>
+
+<p>There are two other modes of capture available to the moth
+collector&mdash;the use of decoy females, and the employment of 'sugar
+traps'&mdash;and both these may be used on the sugaring run, or at other
+times either in the woods or in your own garden.<!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_55" id="FIG_55"></a><img src="images/i_113a.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 55.&mdash;Cage for
+Decoy Females.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_56" id="FIG_56"></a><img src="images/i_113b.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 56.&mdash;A Sugar
+Trap.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wonderful acuteness of the sense by which the males of
+certain species are enabled to seek out the females has already been
+alluded to, and the possession of a suitable decoy will often bring
+you a number of beautiful admirers without the least trouble, except
+that taken in securing the decoy and preparing her temporary abode.
+It is absolutely necessary that the female moth be one that has
+recently emerged, and consequently you had better secure her in
+one of her earlier stages, either by previous rearing or by collecting
+the pupæ.</p>
+
+<p>A little cage composed of a framework of wire covered with gauze
+must now be made. Perhaps the simplest pattern is that illustrated.
+Here the gauze is attached to two wire rings, only a few inches in
+diameter, and suspended by a string. Such a cage answers every
+purpose in the field, and has the advantage of folding into an
+exceedingly small space when not in use. It may be suspended in
+your garden or taken into the field whenever you have a suitable
+decoy at your disposal.</p>
+
+<p>The sugar trap may be of much the same pattern as that in
+which a light is used, but if intended for field work it should be of a
+convenient size for portability. A lighter and far more convenient
+form may be constructed as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Procure a large cylindrical tin box, and cut a circular piece of
+perforated zinc just small enough to drop into it. Then make two
+wire rings, one a <i>little larger</i> than the top of the tin, and the other
+only about an inch in diameter. Next make a conical net of leno,
+open at both ends, and of such a size that the two rings may form
+the frames of its two extremities. When the trap is required for<!-- Page 97 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+use, cut a circular piece of flannel or other absorbent, steep it in
+sugar that has just been flavoured with rum, and place it in the
+bottom of the tin. Then place a few pebbles of equal size around
+the sides to support the zinc partition, drop in the partition, and
+then allow the net to hang on the rim as shown in the sketch.</p>
+
+<p>This arrangement will explain itself. The moths, attracted by
+the sweet perfume, flutter about in the net till at last they find their
+way through the small ring. Once in, they make further attempts
+to reach the sugar; and, at last, finding all efforts fruitless,
+and, like Paddy at the fair, not being able to discover the 'entrance
+out,' they finally settle down in a disappointed mood awaiting your
+pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps another word of explanation is necessary here. Why
+not allow the poor creatures to reach the sugar that attracted them
+to the spot? The reason is this. They sometimes gorge themselves
+to such an extent that their bodies, dilated to the fullest capacity
+with syrup, are a bit troublesome when the insects are placed in the
+cabinet. It is therefore advisable to see that the zinc is so far above
+the sugar that the moths are unable to reach the latter by thrusting
+their extended proboscides through the perforations. A few dead
+leaves scattered on the zinc is also a useful addition, since it affords
+shelter to such of the insects as prefer it.</p>
+
+<p>This is a very useful trap to keep in one's garden throughout the
+season. It may not attract large numbers, but it has the advantage
+that it requires no watching. It is simply necessary to set it at
+dusk, and remove the captives in the morning or at your leisure.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><!-- Page 98 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII
+<br />
+<i>COLLECTING OVA, LARVÆ, AND PUPÆ</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>We have already observed that insects should, as a rule, be set as
+soon as possible after their capture; and it would therefore seem
+that this is the proper place for instructions in this part of the work.
+But it so happens that butterflies and moths are to be obtained by
+means other than those already described, and we shall therefore
+consider these previous to the study of the various processes
+connected with the setting and preserving of our specimens.</p>
+
+<p>Were we to confine our attention to the capture of the perfect
+forms only, our knowledge of the <i>Lepidoptera</i> would be scanty
+indeed, for we should then be ignorant of the earlier stages of the
+creatures' lives, and have no opportunity of witnessing the wonderful
+transformations through which they have to pass.</p>
+
+<p>Such an imperfect acquaintance with butterflies and moths will,
+I hope, not satisfy the readers of these pages; so it is intended, in
+the next two chapters, to give a little assistance to those who would
+like to know how to set to work at the collection of their eggs and
+larvæ, how to search for the pupæ, and how to rear the insects
+from the stage at which they are acquired till they finally emerge
+in the perfect form.</p>
+
+<p>These portions of an entomologist's work certainly take up a
+great deal of his time, and also require much patience and perseverance;
+but the advantages derived cannot be over-estimated, for
+in addition to the knowledge gained of the early stages of insect
+life, this kind of work will enable him to place in his cabinet a
+number of gems he would otherwise have not and probably know
+not. Occasionally a prize may be obtained in the form of a cluster
+of eggs (<i>ova</i>) of a rare species, in many instances the larvæ are to
+be obtained with comparative ease, while the perfect insects of the
+same species are not often seen or not easily captured, and many a<!-- Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+rare pupa has been dug out of its hiding place during a season
+when the entomologist had but little other work to occupy his time.</p>
+
+<p>These and other similar subjects we shall now consider in turn.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Collecting Ova</i></h4>
+
+<p>The collection of ova may be carried on more or less throughout
+the year. A number of moths are out in February, and even
+in January if the weather is mild. These soon lay their eggs,
+which are hatched about the time that the buds of the food plant
+are breaking. From this time till late in the summer the ova of
+various species are being deposited, the average period from laying
+to hatching being from two to three weeks. Then, during the
+autumn, when the leaves of food plants are turning brown and
+crisp, ova are still being laid, but these remain unchanged till the
+new buds of the following spring are bursting.</p>
+
+<p>Of course if you intend searching for the ova of particular species
+you must previously ascertain the favourite haunts of those species,
+become acquainted with their food plants, and also with the season
+or seasons during which the eggs are laid. But the few following
+hints will suffice as general instructions for the search.</p>
+
+<p>In nearly all cases we must expect to find ova on the food plants
+of the respective species, but at times, especially with certain
+moths, we may come across them in the most unlikely spots.
+Thus, it sometimes happens that a moth settles on a street lamp,
+and lays her eggs on the framework round the glass, or even on
+the glass itself. The same thing may take place on the sash or
+glass of a brightly lighted window.</p>
+
+<p>Such occurrences, however, we must regard as accidental and
+comparatively rare, and therefore we confine our searchings for ova
+to the food plants of the species we require.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule the under sides of the leaves will yield the most, but
+we have already noticed (<a href="#Page_18">page 18</a>) that some moths leave their eggs
+exposed on the upper surface. Again, some larvæ feed on flowers
+and seeds and fruit, and the eggs of such are deposited on these
+parts. Those insects which feed on the leaves of shrubs and trees
+often lay their eggs on trunks, branches and twigs. Sometimes
+these are laid singly, sometimes in dense clusters; and it is not
+unusual to find them arranged in rings or spirals with great regularity.
+When examining the trunks of trees for ova it is necessary
+to look well into the crevices of the bark, for some insects take<!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
+particular care to lay them in deep sheltered chinks; but others
+take no such precautions, and deposit them on exposed ridges or
+plain surfaces where they are easily discovered.</p>
+
+<p>One difficulty of the ova collector lies in the fact that many
+insects lay on the upper branches of large trees. Of course a search
+for these is out of the question; but in places where the trees have
+been cut down a few years previously, and where a consequent
+undergrowth has developed, there are considerable chances of
+success with these species. Young saplings of trees often yield
+well, especially in places where tall trees of the same species are
+absent. It may be mentioned, too, that some moths (<a href="#Page_294">page 294</a>)
+actually lay their eggs beneath the surface of water, depositing
+them on the under surfaces of floating pond weeds; and others
+(<a href="#Page_298">page 298</a>) even enter the nests of wasps and bees for the same purpose.
+It is clear, then, from these few remarks, that the work of
+an ambitious collector of insects' eggs is by no means a monotonous
+task; for his employment takes him into the meadows and
+woods, leads him to the banks of ponds, and even compels him to
+tear down banks and hedges for the nests of <i>Hymenoptera</i> at the
+risk of a sting or two.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most productive sources of eggs is undoubtedly the
+possession of captured females. When you are out netting butterflies
+you often see a female that is evidently engaged in her
+matronly duties. Instead of seeking food from the various flowers
+in her path, she pays attention only to the foliage, looking out a
+suitable leaf on which to deposit her eggs. Should you meet with
+an insect thus engaged which you would like to rear at home, or of
+which you would like to know the egg, secure it in a perforated
+pill box with a leaf of the proper plant; and it will often supply
+you with abundance of eggs for your purpose, in many cases depositing
+them in the box before you arrive home. The eggs of
+numerous species of moths are also to be easily obtained from
+captured females.</p>
+
+<p>Some insects do not seem inclined to deposit their eggs in captivity
+as freely as when at large, and in order to induce them to do
+so we must, as far as possible, put them in their natural conditions.
+Let them have plenty of room, and supply them with fresh twigs
+of their food plants, kept green by standing them in vessels of
+water. It is also advisable, supposing you are not well acquainted
+with the dispositions of the species you have, to keep a portion of the
+box well shaded from direct sunlight, and allow another part to be<!-- Page 101 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+as bright as possible; for some species will not lay in a bright light,
+while others will not do so without it.</p>
+
+<p>Again, while some deposit their eggs within a few hours of
+quitting the pupa case, others do not lay for several days. With
+regard to the latter, it is frequently necessary to feed them while
+in captivity, by placing in the box a piece of rag or sponge that has
+been dipped in honey or syrup.</p>
+
+<p>Each batch of ova should be carefully examined with a view to
+knowing them by sight on a future occasion. A sketch should be
+made in your note book, showing every detail that you can make
+out with the aid of a good lens. Then observations concerning the
+season, colour of the eggs, the situation in which deposited, arrangement,
+and any other useful particulars, should be entered.</p>
+
+<p>In the next chapter some hints will be given concerning the
+management of ova and the rearing of the larvæ from the time of
+hatching.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Collecting Larvæ</i></h4>
+
+<p>This occupation is generally far more productive to the
+entomologist than searching for ova. The latter are very small,
+usually well concealed, and to be detected only by a careful
+scrutinising use of the eyes; but the superior size of the larvæ,
+the frequent bright colouring, and the fact that they are easily
+beaten from their hold, render the searchings of their hunters
+comparatively easy and fruitful.</p>
+
+<p>Before setting out on a larva-hunting expedition, there are a few
+requisites to prepare. These include not only the implements for
+your work in the field, but also the cages in which you intend to
+rear your little captives. The latter are described a little later on
+under the head 'Rearing Lepidoptera,' and the former we will now
+briefly summarise.</p>
+
+<p>The outfit must consist of a quantity of suitable boxes, a stout
+hooked stick, a strong net, and a white material to place under the
+herbage while you are 'beating.'</p>
+
+<p>'Larva boxes' are usually made of zinc, and have little sliding
+doors in the lids, so that the lids need not be removed while out of
+doors after the fragment of the required food plant has been
+inserted. Such boxes are not by any means essential. Small tin
+boxes will answer all purposes nearly as well, providing a number
+of small holes be made in them for the admission of air. Chip
+boxes are also fairly satisfactory, but these also should be perforated.<!-- Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+The best way to do this is to push a red-hot iron wire
+through the chip, making about half a dozen small holes in each
+box. This method will give you clean holes of a uniform size
+without otherwise injuring the boxes.</p>
+
+<p>Metal boxes possess the advantage that they keep the food
+plants moist for a long time, while chip boxes allow them to dry
+rather rapidly. Yet there are some larvæ that do far better in the
+latter, since such a quantity of moisture exudes through their skins
+that they soon become uncomfortably wet if their apartment is not
+well ventilated. Under these circumstances perhaps it is better to
+take a supply of both, so that changes may be made as found
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p>One grave objection to chip boxes, however, is the weakness of
+the material. They are easily crushed by pressure, and a bottom
+or a top disc of wood often falls out; but this is easily overcome by
+gluing narrow strips of calico round the top and bottom edges.
+Chip boxes should always be treated in this way, and they will
+then last five or six times as long.</p>
+
+<p>Your supply of boxes should always include one large one of
+metal in which to bring home a supply of food for the larvæ. If
+you have a botanist's vasculum, by all means take it, for nothing
+can serve this purpose better. If not, any rather large square tin
+box will do, and this may be carried in your satchel, or a couple of
+hooks may be soldered to it so that a leather strap can be fixed for
+slinging it over your shoulder.</p>
+
+<p>The net required is that commonly known as the 'sweep net.'
+It must be very strong, for it has to submit to rather rough usage.
+The frame must be made of thick wire; and the bag, which need
+not be more than a foot deep, should be of strong calico or holland.</p>
+
+<p>Now with regard to the white material previously mentioned.
+This may be a square of calico, hemmed round the edges. Nothing
+is more convenient than this, as it occupies but little room in the
+pocket when not in use, if neatly folded. The material need not
+be thick, but the larger it is the better. Many prefer a white
+umbrella or an ordinary umbrella with a white lining, but as this
+is only a matter of taste and convenience you must decide for yourself
+as to which you will use.</p>
+
+<p>If your field of operations is only a little way from your head
+quarters, and quantity of luggage therefore not a serious consideration,
+you may provide yourself with a heavy mallet, loaded if
+necessary with a pound or two of lead. This will prove very useful<!-- Page 103 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+in shaking larvæ from trees and large branches. Lastly, take a
+pencil and a note book or writing paper for your observations in
+the field.</p>
+
+<p>Now for the choice of the season. Larvæ are to be found all
+the year round. Early in the spring, as soon as the buds are
+bursting, some break out of the eggs recently laid by the moths
+that appear in February and March. Later on, during April and
+May, a host of both butterflies and moths are busy arranging for
+their broods. Then, throughout the whole of the summer, thousands
+of caterpillars of all sorts and sizes are to be met with everywhere.
+And finally, during the bleak winter months, you may
+amuse yourself by digging the hybernators out of their hiding
+places where they rest themselves till the spring sun again calls them
+out to refresh them with the young and tender leaves of a new
+year. Thus, unless you are merely intending to search out certain
+species you happen to require, there is not much difficulty in
+settling on the season.</p>
+
+<p>The day selected should be dry, for your work lies among the
+herbage of banks, meadows, and woods, and nothing is more unpleasant
+than wading through a wet and dense vegetation, or beating
+down on yourself a shower of large drops from the branches of
+trees and shrubs.</p>
+
+<p>Having reached the hunting ground, the first thing to do is to
+look out for <i>signs</i> of the presence of larvæ rather than for the
+larvæ themselves. Healthy vegetation with sound leaves must be
+passed by as untenanted; but the presence of partly eaten foliage
+immediately arouses suspicion.</p>
+
+<p>A little experience will soon enable you to distinguish between
+the ravages of larvæ and of slugs, snails, wasps, &amp;c. Some of
+the smaller larvæ certainly eat out clean holes like those cut by
+<i>Hymenopterous</i> insects, but as a rule they bite away at the edges,
+leaving the midrib and the larger veins standing out almost naked.</p>
+
+<p>By looking well into the edges of the eaten leaves, it is easy to
+see whether the marauders have been recently at work. If they
+are dried up and discoloured, it is not of much use to search; but if
+still green and moist, you may feel almost sure that the hungry
+larvæ are not far off.</p>
+
+<p>In this case you will carefully turn over the leaves to examine
+the under sides, and also the leaf stalks and branches or stems;
+but you must be prepared for all kinds of protective mimicry.
+Little green caterpillars will be seen lying on the midrib or<!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+veins, so straight and so still that they are scarcely perceptible.
+Others are snugly tucked in a depression of a leaf with the same
+result. Then we must also be prepared for the artful little tricks
+of the larvæ of <i>Geometræ</i> (<a href="#Page_268">p. 268</a>), by which they imitate stalks
+and twigs so closely that a sharp eye is necessary to discriminate
+between the two.</p>
+
+<p>While thus searching we may meet with the cast skin of a caterpillar.
+This gives us fresh hopes, and so we continue our careful
+examination. At last, on grasping a leaf in order to turn it over for
+inspection, we feel something hairy or something soft and smooth.
+But lo! it is gone. It is one of those numerous caterpillars that
+feign death and drop to the ground on the slightest sign of danger.
+We search below for it, but the density of the vegetation renders
+this hopeless, and we are just about to start off in search of a more
+productive locality when we espy a quantity of the excrement of
+larvæ lying on a little bare patch of ground close by. This gives
+us a new idea. Here is another indication of the presence of the
+creatures we require, one that we can put into practice; and by-and-by
+we learn that in many cases this is really the surest sign
+of their whereabouts.</p>
+
+<p>We look at these little pellets of excrement, and gain at once
+some idea of the <i>size</i> of the larvæ that produce them. Then we
+observe whether they are fresh and moist, or dry and stale. If the
+latter, it is not of much use to examine the leaves above; but if
+otherwise, there is little doubt of our meeting with larvæ, as the
+present position they occupy is so truly marked. The leaves just
+over them are carefully examined, either by turning them over as
+before described, or, if the height of the foliage admits of it,
+by placing our heads below and looking upward.</p>
+
+<p>If we find that the larvæ are some of those that endeavour to
+escape by feigning death and allowing themselves to drop at the
+slightest disturbance, the net is always kept beneath the leaves we
+are touching in order to intercept them in their downward journey.</p>
+
+<p>Continuing the search, we meet with leaves that are rolled up
+and bound with silk threads, and others that are drawn together
+and similarly bound. These are carefully uncurled and pulled
+asunder with the result that active little larvæ are exposed to view,
+or, it may be, pupæ are discovered. In some cases flowers are
+drawn together in just the same way, and an examination reveals
+one or more of the species that prefer petals and other parts of
+flowers to the green leaves.<!-- Page 105 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Silken threads always arouse our suspicions. These may be seen
+lying on the surfaces of leaves, and passing from one leaf to another,
+or they may be hanging perpendicularly from the branches of trees
+above. In the latter case a larva may be frequently seen on the
+lower extremity of the fibre, swinging gently in the breeze, and,
+should we require it, we have only to place the open box below for
+its reception.</p>
+
+<p>Hawthorn and other trees are sometimes seen almost devoid of
+leaves, nearly every bit of green having been greedily devoured by
+a host of small larvæ. In such cases we often meet with dense
+clusters of silk fibres that may easily be mistaken for spiders' nests.
+But when we look more closely into the structure we observe that
+we have discovered instead nests of gregarious larvæ, such a large
+number being in each little community that the deplorable appearance
+of the tree is at once explained.</p>
+
+<p>A little farther on we meet with a sickly-looking plant in the
+midst of a number of flourishing individuals of the same species,
+and stop to make inquiries into the cause of this strange occurrence.
+Is it due to a poorness of the soil? No, this cannot be the case;
+for intermingled with its roots are those of its flourishing companions.
+We pluck a stunted and half-shrivelled leaf and examine
+it. At first we do not notice the cause of its peculiar condition;
+but, holding it up to the light, and looking <i>through</i> it, we see a
+number of little galleries that have been eaten out of its internal
+soft substance, leaving the thin skin (<i>epidermis</i>) almost entirely
+intact. But nothing more is to be seen. Another leaf is examined
+in exactly the same way; and here we see the little destroyer, lying
+motionless in its burrow till a gentle pressure applied against it
+from outside causes it to wriggle along its narrow passage. This is
+the larva of one of the little leaf miners mentioned again on
+<a href="#Page_303">page 303</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Reaching a little marshy spot we see a number of water-loving
+reeds, most of them beautifully green and in a flourishing condition,
+but here and there in their midst is a poor stunted specimen&mdash;another
+result of the ravages of the larvæ of one or more moths.
+An examination of the blades reveals nothing; but on splitting
+open the stalk we discover some larvæ that have already devoured
+a quantity of the internal pith, and thus endangered the life of the
+plant. On inspecting other similar reeds we are at first puzzled as
+to how the larvæ could get inside the stems without damaging the
+outer portion; but at last we see in each one a little discoloured<!-- Page 106 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+hole that was eaten out by the young caterpillar just after its escape
+from the egg. Once within the reed, it found a plentiful supply of
+food, and there grew at the expense of the plant without doing any
+further external damage save by causing a stunted growth.</p>
+
+<p>It may be that the stem eaters we have found are just about
+full grown. If so we examine a number of the stems with a hope
+that we may find one or two that are just about to change to the
+chrysalis state, or even a pupa already formed. By this means we
+may secure one of the perfect insects without the necessity of feeding
+larvæ at home. Such a consideration becomes a most important
+one when it happens that the required food plant is one that cannot
+be easily obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Close by the reeds is another water-loving plant in the form of
+an old willow tree. This is always an attractive object to the
+entomologist, so it comes in for a share of our inspection. On its
+leaves we may find several species of the larvæ of <i>Lepidoptera</i>,
+including those of some of our largest insects. But a strange feature
+catches our eyes as we happen to glance at the bark of the tree.
+Here we see a few holes of different sizes, about which are a number
+of little fragments of wood that remind us of 'sawdust;' and,
+examining the ground below, we see quite a little heap of this
+dust, looking just as if a carpenter had been at work on the spot.</p>
+
+<p>This is not the effect of a saw, however; it is a sure sign of the
+ravages of wood-eating larvæ (<a href="#Page_224">p. 224</a>), whose powerful jaws gain
+them admittance into the very hearts of trees, and the application
+of the nose to one of the larger holes leaves no doubt of the presence
+of the large and beautiful caterpillar of the Goat Moth
+(<a href="#Page_224">p. 224</a>).</p>
+
+<p>If we require any of these wood-eaters, either for rearing or for
+preservation, we must be prepared for a little rather heavy work.
+A strong pocket knife is not sufficient, but with a good chisel the
+wood can be gradually cut away, and the galleries traced, till at
+last we come to the larvæ snugly resting in their burrows.</p>
+
+<p>It often happens that the tree thus tenanted is half decayed, and
+consequently the work is rendered much easier. Also, while tearing
+away the wood, we often meet with a number of cocoons that
+have been constructed by the caterpillars for their winter quarters,
+or as a resting place while undergoing their transformations. These
+are composed of the wood dust bound together by strong silk fibres,
+and are often in such a good state of preservation that they form
+useful illustrations for the cabinet.<!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As further aids to larvæ searching we may mention that many
+species&mdash;chiefly of the <i>Noctuæ</i>&mdash;hide under the surface of the ground
+or among dense and low herbage during the day, and come out to
+feed only by night; that many others feed on roots, and are therefore
+seldom seen above the surface of the soil; also that a good
+number burrow into fruits, in the interior of which they spend the
+whole of their larval stage. The best way to secure the latter is to
+examine the 'windfalls' that lie scattered on orchard lands, for it
+is a well-known fact that the fruits that are infested with larvæ
+generally fall earlier than others&mdash;a result that must be attributed
+to the damaging work of the larvæ themselves.</p>
+
+<p>All the larvæ collected should be carefully boxed at once, a
+separate compartment being used for each species, and a few fragments
+of the food plant being introduced in each case. It is also a
+good plan to have each box previously lined with moss as a further
+addition to the comfort of the captives. Without such a precaution
+some of the more delicate species are liable to injury during their
+transmission from field to home.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto we have obtained our larvæ by <i>searching</i> only, but
+there are times and occasions when our boxes may be far more
+rapidly filled by methods that are not such a tax on our time and
+patience. Suppose, for instance, that we reach a bush, the mutilated
+leaves of which seem to show that larvæ are present on its
+branches. We spread our white cloth or open out the white-lined
+umbrella just under a selected branch, and then tap that
+branch very smartly with our stick.</p>
+
+<p>Down comes a host of living creatures! Spiders, larvæ, beetles,
+aphides, earwigs, and what not, struggling and running about on
+our white fabric in all directions, and all mingled with bits of stick,
+leaves, and fragments of all kinds. We leave the cloth or the umbrella,
+as the case may be, quite still for a few seconds to allow all
+the living creatures to get a good foothold, and then, raising it into
+a vertical position, allow all the rubbish to drop off.</p>
+
+<p>We can now put the cloth down again, and select as many of
+the larvæ as we require, giving our first attention to the nimble
+runners and loopers that are already near the edge and just on the
+point of making their escape. This productive method of larva
+hunting is known as 'beating,' and is particularly applicable to tall
+herbs and the lower branches of trees and shrubs.</p>
+
+<p>The same principle may be employed in the case of branches
+that are quite out of the reach of the stick, but the blows are here<!-- Page 108 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+applied to the trunk, a mallet or some other rather heavy implement
+taking the place of the stick.</p>
+
+<p>Another splendid method of securing larvæ where mere searching
+would be tedious and unproductive, lies in the use of the sweep
+net described on <a href="#Page_102">page 102</a>. This implement comes into service in
+waste places that are covered with rank vegetation, in clover and
+hayfields, and in all spots covered with low herbs.</p>
+
+<p>Walking among the vegetation, the net is swept right and left
+before you, and the contents examined at frequent intervals. It is
+advisable to work the different species of herbs separately as far as
+possible, otherwise there may be some difficulty in the determination
+of the food plants of the mixed larvæ that the net will
+contain. If, however, this plan is impracticable, you may save
+time by turning out all the 'sweepings' into one large box, leaving
+the sorting to be done at home in leisure hours.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Collecting Pupæ</i></h4>
+
+<p>We have seen that ova and larvæ may be obtained in greater or
+less abundance at all times of the year, so variable are the seasons
+of the different butterflies and moths. The same remark applies
+equally well to pupæ; but so many of the Lepidoptera spend the
+winter months in the chrysalis state that this period may be
+regarded as the harvest time of the pupa hunter.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of caterpillars undergo their change to the
+quiescent state during the months of August and September, and,
+of course, remain in this state until the warm days of the following
+spring or summer. And as insects even in the pupal stage have a
+number of enemies and dangers to contend with, it is advisable to
+start your search for them as soon as possible after they have
+changed.</p>
+
+<p>If you set your mind on searching for particular species, you
+should endeavour to ascertain the <i>usual</i> time at which such species
+pupate; make any necessary allowances for the forwardness or
+backwardness of the season, and then allow a week or two for the
+change to be completed, for insects should never be disturbed at
+times when their metamorphoses are in progress.</p>
+
+<p>For general pupa hunting the best season is undoubtedly from
+the end of August to the end of October, but there is no reason
+why the work should not be carried on throughout the winter. If,
+however, you continue your work so late, you must not expect<!-- Page 109 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+nearly as much success as time advances. You must remember
+that entomologists are not the only pupa hunters. Many hungry
+birds are always on the look-out for insects, and seem to enjoy
+them equally well in all their stages. Those that hybernate on or
+under the ground are liable to fall a prey to moles and beetles. In
+addition to these dangers, all pupæ are subject to the effects of
+extreme cold, dampness, or floods.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the choice of a day, very little need be said. Any
+day that is sufficiently genial for yourself will do for your work,
+except that periods of hard frost render the ground too hard for
+digging&mdash;the most profitable part of the pupa hunter's task.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus required is extremely simple: A satchel or
+large pockets full of small metal or chip boxes, a small garden
+trowel, and a strong chisel.</p>
+
+<p>If metal boxes are used they should be perforated; in fact,
+nothing is better than the ordinary larva boxes of the dealers.
+All the boxes, of whatever kind, should be lined with moss previous
+to starting work.</p>
+
+<p>The trowel and chisel do not pack well with a number of small
+boxes, therefore it is a good plan to fix them in a couple of
+leather sheaths attached to your belt. In this position they are far
+more handy for use, and the boxes are also in less danger of being
+crushed or damaged, as they probably would be if in contact with
+hard and heavy tools.</p>
+
+<p>A note book is also a valuable addition to your outfit, as it
+enables you to make memoranda concerning the trees and localities
+from which you obtain your pupæ.</p>
+
+<p>The best localities for pupa hunting are clearings in woods,
+parks with numerous large timber trees, and meadows in which
+large isolated trees are scattered; and the best trees include willows,
+poplars, oaks, beeches, birches, elms, and hawthorns.</p>
+
+<p>The best thing you can do on arriving at the selected hunting
+ground is to make at once for isolated trees of large size, and work
+each one as follows:</p>
+
+<p>First examine well the crevices of the bark, for many caterpillars
+descend the tree to within a short distance of the ground,
+and then seek out a snug little crevice in which to spend the
+winter, often protecting themselves with silken cocoons, or constructing
+a neat little shelter of gnawed fragments of the wood
+cemented together.</p>
+
+<p>If there is any loose bark, very carefully force it out with your<!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+chisel, and examine both its inner surface and the wood from which
+it was removed. The wood thus exposed may reveal openings
+of the galleries of wood-eating larvæ, in which case, unless the
+material is too hard to be broken up with the chisel, you may be
+able to trace out a few pupæ. Where these exist, they are usually
+to be found very near the entrance, sometimes even protruding
+slightly from the opening, for the larvæ generally place themselves
+in this position of easy escape when about to change.</p>
+
+<p>Next give your attention to the moss, if any, covering the lower
+portion of the trunk. This affords a very favourite shelter to
+many species. Tear it off very carefully, beginning at the top, and
+watch for loose pupæ and cocoons as you do so. Then hold the
+clumps you have removed over a patch of bare ground or over a
+spread handkerchief, and pull it to pieces, in order that any pupæ
+it contains may fall out; also examine the fragments carefully for
+others that may remain attached.</p>
+
+<p>This done, the surface of the ground must be examined.
+Remove all dead leaves, and watch for pupæ that may be sheltered
+beneath them. If any loose stones lie on the ground, turn them
+over. Search well into the angles between the roots, and if there
+are any holes or hollows beneath them or in the trunk itself, pull
+out all loose matter within, and <i>feel</i> gently above and around for
+cocoons.</p>
+
+<p>After all loose matter has been removed, there still remains the
+soil for examination. If this is very hard and clayey, it is probably
+useless to carry the search any farther; also if very wet you
+need not expect much; but if comparatively dry and friable there
+are more hopes of success.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule the north and east sides of the trunk are
+drier than those which are exposed to the heavy rains brought
+by the south and south-west winds, and are consequently more
+favoured by larvæ that are seeking a resting place for the winter.</p>
+
+<p>Most larvæ seek shelter in the angles between the roots of the
+trees on which they fed, but a few species seem to prefer the
+edges rather than the corners; and in cases where no such angles
+are formed at the surface, you will do well to examine the earth
+and turf all round the trunk; but it is generally useless to extend
+the search more than a few inches from the tree.</p>
+
+<p>After having searched every available nook and corner as far
+as possible without digging, thrust the trowel obliquely into the
+soil a few inches from the tree, turn over the sod, and then examine<!-- Page 111 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+the spot from which it was removed. Now give your attention
+to the sod itself. If loose and friable, break it up gently,
+keeping a sharp eye for falling pupæ, and also for earthen cocoons
+that are easily mistaken for little lumps of soil.</p>
+
+<p>If the soil is held together by roots, it must be pulled to pieces,
+and the fragments shaken over a bare piece of ground where the
+fall of a pupa or cocoon could be easily seen; and if you have
+removed a grassy turf, it will be necessary to look between the bases
+of the blades as well as among the roots.</p>
+
+<p>In this way you may search round tree after tree, wherever the
+soil is of such a character as to allow of the admittance and shelter
+of larvæ. But the variability of your success will be quite beyond
+your comprehension. Sometimes you will sight a grand old oak
+with the most favourable anticipations, and consider yourself quite
+certain of a good find when you discover, on a nearer approach,
+the liberal coating of moss that clothes its trunk and the dry sandy
+soil at its foot; and yet the most careful search ends in nothing
+but disappointment. At other times you try your luck at tree
+after tree without ever seeing a single pupa or even a cast-off case,
+and then, when just on the point of despairing, you search round
+another that is apparently much less promising, and, to your great
+surprise and delight, a dozen or two are turned out in a few minutes.
+Such an occurrence as this is not at all uncommon, and cannot be
+satisfactorily explained, but we must take things as they come and
+make the best of them, remembering that pupa searching is one of
+the best of all entomological operations wherewith to test one's
+perseverance and patience.</p>
+
+<p>It may be mentioned, in conclusion, that the pupæ of <i>Lepidoptera</i>
+are never to be found far below the surface of the soil. Generally
+they exist, if buried at all, only an inch or two down, and very
+rarely at a greater depth than four inches.</p>
+
+<p>In our next chapter we shall learn how to rear the perfect
+insects from the earlier stages we have been considering.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER VIII
+<br />
+<i>REARING LEPIDOPTERA</i></h3>
+
+
+<h4><i>Management of Ova</i></h4>
+
+<p>In the management of insects in all stages the strictest attention
+must always be paid to one general rule on which the success of
+the work almost entirely depends; and that is&mdash;keep every specimen
+as far as possible under the same conditions as those in which you
+find it in nature.</p>
+
+<p>Applying this principle to ova, we store them in airy and light
+places, protected from the direct rays of the sun, and avoid handling
+and rough treatment of any kind. It is also advisable in most
+cases to maintain a slight amount of dampness corresponding with
+that of the open air at the particular season of the year.</p>
+
+<p>They do not require much space, and it is certainly desirable
+not to give much, otherwise the newly hatched larvæ, when their
+time arrives, will actively wander all round their premises in search
+of food, and give you no end of trouble in gathering them up.</p>
+
+<p>Chip boxes are, as a rule, very good and very convenient
+receptacles for ova. After placing the eggs in these, cover them
+over with very fine muslin, held in place by elastic bands; and label
+each as far as you can with the name of the species contained, and
+other particulars worth remembering. The boxes may then be
+put in front of a window facing north, or in any situation within
+or out of doors where rain and sun cannot reach them. A greenhouse
+is an admirable place in which to keep them, the natural
+dampness of the atmosphere being apparently a considerable
+assistance to the tiny larvæ just as they are striving to escape from
+their shell.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever place is selected, it is absolutely necessary that the
+ova be carefully watched, so that each brood may be supplied with
+the required food plant within a few hours of quitting the shells.<!-- Page 113 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When ova are kept in a warm room, very great inconvenience
+and even loss is sometimes caused by the appearance of larvæ before
+the necessary food plant shows its buds. Yet, on the other hand,
+it is sometimes a great gain to the entomologist to get certain
+broods off early in the season, providing the food is at hand; for
+in this way he can not only get some of his work over during a
+slack season, but also, if he desires it, secure an additional brood;
+that is, one brood more than the usual number. Thus, supposing
+a certain species he is rearing is naturally double-brooded, he can,
+by judicious management, secure three successive broods before the
+food plant casts its last leaves.</p>
+
+<p>This hastening of the natural events of insect life is known as
+<i>forcing</i>, and merely consists in subjecting the species concerned to
+a reasonable amount of artificial heat, such as that of a room in
+which a fire is always kept, or of a hothouse.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting at all times to note the dates on which eggs are
+laid or collected, and the times at which the young larvæ appear.
+In addition to this all changes that take place in the colours or
+forms of eggs should be carefully observed; for such changes will
+assist you in distinguishing between fertile and sterile ova, and
+also enable you to judge approximately as to the date of the
+appearance of future broods.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Rearing Larvæ</i></h4>
+
+<p>The main point in connection with the rearing of larvæ is certainly
+the selection and construction of the cages or their substitutes.
+For newly hatched and all very small caterpillars a small bottle
+with a wide mouth makes a very fair abode. Put a layer of sand
+or sifted soil in the bottom, fix in this a small twig of the food plant
+or lay a few leaves on the top, and then, after the larvæ have been
+introduced, cover the top with a piece of muslin, held in place by an
+elastic band.</p>
+
+<p>The great drawback with this arrangement is the lack of any
+provision for keeping the food moist and fresh, thus rendering a
+change necessary at very frequent intervals; but this may be
+obviated by using damp sand as a foundation for the little twig
+of food plant. With this improvement, if you cover the top of the
+bottle with apiece of glass, a saucer, or any impermeable substance,
+you may keep the twig fresh for several days, generally until the
+disappearance of the last leaf calls for a fresh supply; but it is<!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+very doubtful whether the damp atmosphere resulting from this
+inclosure is not injurious to the larvæ. It certainly does not seem
+to have much influence on some, but the unhealthy conditions that
+result must be detrimental to the inmates. It must also be remembered
+that many species require a <i>dry</i> soil in which to burrow
+when about to change.</p>
+
+<p>When the time comes for the change of food, great care must be
+taken not to injure young and small larvæ. In many cases they
+need never be touched, for if a fresh twig be placed beside the stale
+one, they will readily find their way to it; and to facilitate this, and
+also to afford a convenient foothold to those larvæ that accidentally
+fall from the twig, the layer of sand at the bottom of the bottle
+should be covered with moss or cocoa-nut fibre.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_57" id="FIG_57"></a><img src="images/i_131a.jpg" width="300" height="379" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 57.&mdash;A Larva Glass.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_58" id="FIG_58"></a>
+<img src="images/i_131b.jpg" width="300" height="304" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 58.&mdash;A Larva Glass.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>If you find it necessary to
+move the larvæ yourself from
+the stale food, never touch
+them with your fingers, but lift them gently by means of a small
+camel-hair brush. Larger larvæ need never be moved at all. They
+will always search out fresh food for themselves, and the stale may
+be removed after they have quitted it.</p>
+
+<p>For rearing larger species ordinary bottles are hardly satisfactory,
+and we must either use large jars or construct cages of some kind.</p>
+
+<p>An ordinary bell jar such as is used for covering ferns or for
+aquaria makes a very useful 'larva glass.' Place a small bottle of
+water at the bottom, and then introduce sufficient dry clean sand or
+sifted soil to reach up to its neck. On the top of this place a layer
+of moss or cocoa-nut fibre. Next introduce the food plant, fixing it
+firmly in the bottle of water, and plugging up the space between<!-- Page 115 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+the stem and the rim with cotton wool. This precaution is to
+prevent the larvæ from falling into the water as they attempt to
+pass up or down the stem, and the wool also helps to keep the
+twig in a vertical position. The glass is now ready for the caterpillars,
+but it is advisable to keep a covering of muslin or gauze
+over the top in all cases even though the larvæ contained are unable
+to creep up the surface of glass, for the great enemies of caterpillars&mdash;the
+ichneumon flies&mdash;are always on the alert, and will often take
+advantage of an open window to 'sting' the larva rearer's pets.</p>
+
+<p>Another form of larva glass can easily be made out of a large
+glass jar if you know how to cut off the bottom, or of a chemist's bell
+jar which is open both at top and bottom. In this case the bottle
+of water and the soil are arranged as
+before in a pan of unglazed earthenware,
+and then covered over with the
+glass. This is shown in <a href="#FIG_58">fig. 58</a>, and is
+an exceedingly convenient larva house,
+since the lifting of the glass enables
+you to get at the insects without any
+trouble.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_59" id="FIG_59"></a><img src="images/i_132.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 59.&mdash;A Larva Cage.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Wood larva cages are very commonly
+used for the larger species after
+they have attained a fair size and require
+more food than can be stocked
+in bottles and glasses. These cages
+have glass fronts, either sliding or in
+the form of a hinged door, and sides
+of perforated zinc. They are kept in
+stock by all dealers in entomologists' requisites, but equally useful
+ones are easily constructed. If you select a box of suitable size at
+the grocer's, cut out large pieces from the lid and sides with a fret
+saw, and fix in the glass and zinc, you will have a cage that will
+answer all purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The internal arrangements consist of a shallow tray filled with
+soil, in which stands the bottle of water for the food, and a layer of
+moss sufficiently high to cover the bottle completely.</p>
+
+<p>A series of such boxes standing on end on a shelf, or hanging on
+a wall, will form a very satisfactory nursery for your pets, and will
+occupy but little space.</p>
+
+<p>We have already observed that some larvæ burrow into soil
+when about to change, while others creep to a sheltered corner, or<!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+suspend themselves from the food plant itself. It will be seen that the
+larva cage just described supplies all these demands, and care must be
+taken not to disturb the occupants while they are undergoing their
+metamorphoses. Those that suspend themselves on the food plant
+should be allowed to remain where they have fixed themselves, and
+when it is necessary to remove the stale food in order to give a fresh
+supply to the later larvæ, let it be fixed in an airy place where it can
+be watched till the perfect insects emerge. Those which suspend
+themselves on the sides or top of the cage, or spin cocoons in the
+corners, should never be disturbed unless you are greatly in want of
+the same cage for the accommodation of another brood; and even
+then it is possible that their presence will not in any way interfere
+with the new species. But if their removal becomes a necessity, let
+it be carried out as carefully as possible, and not until the change
+to the pupal stage is known to be complete.</p>
+
+<p>The species that burrow into the soil or bury themselves in the
+moss need never be disturbed till the rearing season is quite over,
+and then they may be transferred to a box specially kept for the
+accommodation of pupæ.</p>
+
+<p>There is yet another method of rearing larvæ to which we must
+refer&mdash;a method known as 'sleeving'&mdash;particularly useful when
+you happen to have the required food plants in your own garden.
+The ova or larvæ are placed on the plant, the whole or part of
+which is then covered with a bag or 'sleeve' of gauze. The larvæ
+thus imprisoned have the full benefit of fresh air and light, and
+are also free from the attacks of ichneumon flies. They have a
+fair amount of liberty, and yet cannot get beyond your reach;
+also abundance of fresh food without further trouble on the part of
+the rearer.</p>
+
+<p>But even this arrangement is not perfection. It will not suit
+the night feeders that like to hide beneath the soil during the day,
+and it interferes somewhat with the burrowing tendencies of those
+which pupate underground. These little difficulties, however, can
+be overcome by placing the food plants in large pots or tubs of
+soil, and tying the mouth of the 'sleeve' round the outside of this
+utensil. If this cannot be done, those insects that pupate underground
+must be removed from the plant when their restless
+disposition shows that the changing time has arrived, and then be
+transferred to a box of soil where they can find the seclusion they
+seek.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ that hybernate throughout the winter are rather<!-- Page 117 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+more troublesome, especially those which are inclined to take a
+ramble on certain mild days in search of food when none is at
+hand. Still there is no reason why even a beginner should not
+attempt the rearing of these. They will require food in the
+autumn until the cold weather sets in, and again early in spring
+as soon as the new leaves appear; but this is not of much
+consequence to those who reside in districts where the required
+food plants abound.</p>
+
+<p>Wood feeders also require some special treatment and precautions,
+and the successful rearing of some is a matter of no little
+difficulty. A wooden cage is, of course, quite out of the question
+with these, unless you wish to test the power of their jaws. They
+must be kept in large pots or jars, covered over with wire gauze or
+perforated zinc, and supplied with fresh stems or logs of wood, or
+with moist sawdust fresh from their favourite tree. A few of them&mdash;the
+'Goat' (<a href="#Page_224">page 224</a>), for example&mdash;will eat dead and rotting
+wood, and may be fed on old palings and other waste providing the
+right kind is selected.</p>
+
+<p>The troubles and disappointments of larva rearers are numerous
+and varied, and commence with the earliest moments of the
+young insects. Even the hatching period sometimes proves a
+trial, for it occasionally happens that the young larva has not
+sufficient strength to bite its way through the shell that surrounds
+it, and dies with nothing but the surface of its head exposed to
+view. This may be the result of keeping the ova in too dry a spot,
+the shell having become too hard and horny for the little creature's
+jaws.</p>
+
+<p>Then the moulting seasons are always periods of trial to the
+larvæ, and often of loss to the rearer. Some of the hardier species
+may pass through all their moults without appearing to suffer anything
+more than a slight inconvenience at each, but in other cases
+the greater part of a brood may fall victims to these ailments of
+the growing stage.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from these sources of loss, however, larvæ are subject to
+numerous diseases, infectious and otherwise, about which we know
+but little. A fever may rage in one of our cages; a fungoid growth
+may establish itself on the bodies of our pets, or we may see them
+cut down, one by one, through a fatal attack of diarrh&oelig;a.</p>
+
+<p>In many such cases we are at a loss as to what to do. Blue
+pills and black draughts are not to be prescribed, and the modern
+practices of surgery and inoculation have not yet been applied to<!-- Page 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+insect patients with very great success; but we must do our best
+to adopt hygienic principles, paying the greatest attention to
+proper means of ventilation and to a regular and wholesome dieting.
+In the case of diarrh&oelig;a&mdash;a very common insect malady&mdash;the
+best we can do is to avoid the young and juicy leaves of the food
+plant, and substitute the older, and drier foliage.</p>
+
+<p>Ichneumon flies have already been mentioned as great enemies
+of larvæ. These flies either deposit their eggs on the skins of
+caterpillars, or thrust their sharp <i>ovipositors</i> into the creature's
+flesh and lay their eggs beneath the skin. When the young
+ichneumons are hatched, they immediately begin to feed on the
+fatty matter that is usually stored in comparative abundance under
+the skin of the caterpillar, and thus they grow at the expense of
+their host, within whose body they lie completely hidden from
+view.</p>
+
+<p>The poor caterpillar, though being eaten alive, often shows no
+external signs of the mischief wrought within, and, even though
+its substance is really decreased by the hungry internal parasites,
+yet the rapid growth of these robbers maintains the general plumpness
+of a healthy larva. But the ichneumons, having at last
+devoured the store of fat, and avoided the vital organs of the
+caterpillar, as if with a view to preserve their living home to the
+latest moment, now commence to attack the latter, speedily
+reducing the vitality of their host to the lowest ebb, and finally
+causing its death.</p>
+
+<p>This untimely end may come before the caterpillar is full grown,
+or the insect may change to the pupa before the ichneumons have
+done their worst, but it rarely occurs that the unfortunate creature
+has sufficient strength to carry it on to the final stage.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of the collected larvæ will have been 'stung,'
+much to the disgust and disappointment of the rearer; and hence
+the advantage of rearing your specimens from ova wherever possible,
+providing you keep them so well under cover that the ichneumons
+cannot visit your broods.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Management of Pupæ</i></h4>
+
+<p>The disappointments connected with the rearing of <i>Lepidoptera</i>
+are by no means at an end when all have passed successfully into
+the pupal condition, and the number of perfect insects obtained
+will often fall far short of the number of pupæ in your boxes; but<!-- Page 119 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+we must now see what can be done to minimise the death rate of
+the captives.</p>
+
+<p>One or more suitable boxes must be prepared for the reception
+of the pupæ, and the following suggestion will answer all
+purposes:</p>
+
+<p>Get a wooden box, quite rough and unplaned inside, large enough
+to accommodate your pupæ with ease, and not less than eight
+inches deep. Make several holes in the bottom, or else knock the
+bottom completely out, and nail in its place a sheet of perforated
+zinc. Also make a lid consisting of gauze attached to a light wood
+frame.</p>
+
+<p>Place a layer of clean gravel, about an inch deep, in the bottom,
+and over this a few inches of sifted soil or cocoa-nut fibre.</p>
+
+<p>Now take all the pupæ that are 'earthed' in your cages, and
+arrange them on the prepared bed; also add to them the pupæ
+you may have dug out during your various excursions. Cover all
+with a layer of the material selected for the bed, and then add a
+layer of moss.</p>
+
+<p>Next come the pupæ that are suspended by silky fibres, or are
+inclosed in cocoons. These should be fixed with pins around
+the sides of the box, running the pins either through the tuft of
+silk at the 'tail,' or the outer layer of the cocoon, or through the
+portion of the dried food plant to which they are attached.</p>
+
+<p>Here your pupæ will remain till they emerge, and the box may
+be kept in any airy place where it is not likely to be forgotten, for
+it is essential that the perfect insects should be removed as soon
+as possible after quitting their cases. It does not matter much
+whether the pupæ be kept in or out of doors, providing they are
+sheltered from rain and very severe frosts; but of course, if the
+former, the imagines will emerge a little earlier, even if the room
+in which your specimens are stored has no fire.</p>
+
+<p>Even when protected in boxes such as that described the pupæ
+are subject to enemies and dangers. The soil and moss employed
+may contain slugs, mites, or other creatures which prey on insects,
+and the amount of moisture present in these materials and in the
+atmosphere may prove too little for some species or too much for
+others.</p>
+
+<p>The remedy for the former evil is a simple one. Bake the soil
+or fibre well before fitting up the box, and boil and afterwards dry
+the moss. You may then be sure that all life previously contained
+is quite destroyed.<!-- Page 120 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But the degree of humidity is a point not so easily settled, and
+so variable are the experiences and opinions of different entomologists
+that it is difficult to advise a beginner on the subject. The
+fact that some strongly advise a perennial dampness, while others
+recommend no attempt at the application of water, would seem
+to show that there are probably important points to be urged on
+both sides.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing can be better than a very careful observation of pupæ
+in their natural conditions. When engaged in pupa digging you
+will observe that the larger number are to be found on the east and
+north sides of trees where the soil is protected from the heaviest
+rains; on the other hand a good many are certainly found in very
+moist and sometimes even in wet situations.</p>
+
+<p>Particular notice should be taken of such experiences, making
+every allowance for the exceptions that prove the rule, and then let
+the natural conditions be maintained in your nurseries at home.
+To carry this out two pupa boxes should be kept, one for those
+species that seem to require dry situations, and the other for the
+species that apparently do best with moist surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>But when it is desired to maintain the pupæ in a moist condition,
+great care must be taken not to allow any accumulation of
+stagnant water. The box we have described, with its bottom of
+perforated zinc, is well adapted for this purpose. Let it stand on
+a couple of strips of wood, so that any excess of moisture may
+readily drain through. The perforated bottom will also allow of a
+free circulation of air, thus securing the ventilation that is desirable
+in all boxes, whether wet or dry.</p>
+
+<p>If you have any insects that have pupated within moist stems,
+they should be kept in a moist condition till they emerge. The
+simplest way of doing this is to support the stems in a layer of
+wetted but well-drained silver sand.</p>
+
+<p>Forcing may be resorted to when it is required to obtain the
+imagines for early setting in order to get them in the cabinet before
+the busy season begins. The method is simple. Place the pupa
+box on a shelf in a room where a fire is kept every day. By this
+means you may get all your specimens out within a few weeks,
+even when you start the forcing at the beginning or middle of the
+winter. If, however, you require the imagines for breeding, you
+must be careful that the eggs are not laid long before the buds of
+the necessary food plants are due.</p>
+
+<p>When you are expecting the appearance of perfect insects, the<!-- Page 121 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+pupa boxes should be examined every day. A morning visit to
+your pupæ (for most insects emerge in the morning) may reward
+you with the sight of a newly emerged imago, clinging to the
+rough surface of the box, thus affording you an opportunity of
+observing the wonderful expansion of the wings. But the greeting
+is not always of such a pleasant character, for your disappointed
+eyes will sometimes be cast on a host of horrid ichneumons that
+have just quitted a shell from which you were expecting a prize
+of some specially valued species.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><!-- Page 122 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER IX
+<br />
+<i>SETTING AND PRESERVING</i></h3>
+
+
+<h4><i>Setting and Preserving Butterflies and Moths</i></h4>
+
+<p>Up to the present we have been dealing only with living forms&mdash;learning
+how to catch and rear the Lepidoptera that fall to our
+lot; but now we have to become acquainted with the methods of
+preparing our dead specimens in such a way that they may form a
+useful collection for future study and reference. Our first attention
+shall be given to the apparatus necessary for this work.</p>
+
+<p>The most important requirement is the setting boards, of which
+several are necessary, the sizes varying according to the dimensions
+of the different insects to be 'set.' The <i>lengths</i> of all the boards
+should be the same, not only for the convenience of packing when
+not in use, but also in order that they may, if required, be arranged
+neatly in the 'drying house' to be presently described. The widths
+only will vary, and in this respect the boards must be adapted
+to the measurements of the insects from tip to tip when the
+wings are fully expanded. Thus, a set of a dozen boards, ten
+or twelve inches long, and from one to five inches wide, will do
+for a good start. Of course you may commence with a smaller
+number than twelve, but if you really mean to do the thing well,
+you will eventually require a good stock of boards.</p>
+
+<p>Here, again, it may be mentioned that all the necessary requisites
+may be purchased ready for use, a set of boards and a drying
+house complete costing from ten to twenty shillings according to
+size and quality; but as the reader, like myself, may prefer to construct
+his own, I will supply him with hints and suggestions sufficient
+for the work.</p>
+
+<p>Each board is constructed in this way. Cut out and plane up
+a piece of wood of the required length and breadth, and about one-eighth
+of an inch thick. Glue on the top of this a layer of cork<!-- Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+about half an inch in thickness, leaving the whole under a moderate
+pressure until the glue is quite hard. The sheets of cork for this
+purpose may be bought at any naturalist's stores; but slices cut
+from good large bottle corks may be made to answer equally well
+if you don't mind the extra time expended in cutting and fixing.</p>
+
+<p>When the glue has well set, trim off the edges of the cork flush
+with the sides of the wood,
+and then cut out a groove
+down the whole length of
+the cork, of course in the
+middle, and of such a size
+that it will just contain
+the bodies of the insects for which it is intended.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_60" id="FIG_60"></a>
+<img src="images/i_140a.jpg" width="300" height="60" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 60.&mdash;Section of a Setting Board.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The satisfactory cutting of this groove is not a very easy matter,
+but if its position is first carefully marked, a long rat-tail file may
+be made to plough it out neatly and regularly. As an alternative
+the following plan is good. First cover the wood with a layer of
+cork about a <i>quarter</i> of an inch thick, and then glue on the top of
+this <i>two</i> narrower strips, about as thick as the bodies of the insects
+for which the board is intended,
+leaving a space of the required
+size between them, as shown in
+<a href="#FIG_60">fig. 60</a>. In this way you get a
+groove of square section, that is
+in some respects preferable to
+the round one cut out by means
+of the rat-tail file.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_61" id="FIG_61"></a><img src="images/i_140b.jpg" width="300" height="294" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 61.&mdash;Sections of Setting
+Boards.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now comes a question about
+which there is a difference in the
+tastes or fancies of entomologists.
+Shall the boards be perfectly
+flat on the top, or shall the sides
+slope from the groove, or shall
+the surface be rounded? A
+glance at the three sections of
+setting boards will show clearly what is meant. The rounded board
+is most commonly used, and the graceful curve thus given to a
+butterfly or moth set on such is certainly attractive; but it is not
+natural. The wings of these insects are rigid, and are never seen
+bent into such curves in a living specimen. For this reason I
+much prefer a perfectly plane surface on each side of the groove.<!-- Page 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+Then, as to whether there shall be a slope or not, this is a matter
+of less importance. A very decided sloping of the wings is certainly
+not so convenient for future examination; nor does it, to my mind,
+look nearly so well as both sides in the same plane, or at a very
+gentle inclination. But perhaps this subject had better be left to
+the taste of the reader, remembering, however, that, whatever plan
+be adopted, all the boards should be alike in this respect, so that
+there may be a degree of uniformity in the cabinet.</p>
+
+<p>The surface of the cork must, in all cases, be nicely smoothed
+down with glass paper, and then covered with thin white paper,
+fixed to its surface with ordinary paste.</p>
+
+<p>When insects are on the boards, they should be placed in an
+airy spot, as free as possible from dust, while they are drying.
+Hence the advisability of some form of 'drying house.' This is
+simply a box, standing on end,
+and provided with a hinged door
+consisting of a sheet of perforated
+zinc in a wooden frame.
+The boards may slide in this on
+little slips of wood nailed or
+glued on to the sides, or the
+wooden bases of the boards may
+project beyond the cork at the
+ends, and slide into grooves in
+the side of the house.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_62" id="FIG_62"></a><img src="images/i_141.jpg" width="300" height="263" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 62.&mdash;A Butterfly on the
+Setting Board.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Beyond these requirements
+nothing is wanted save a good
+stock of pins, thin card or ordinary
+writing paper, and a 'setting needle.' The last-named item
+is simply a needle mounted in a handle, and a good one may be
+made by thrusting the head of a darning needle into a piece of twig.
+The pins used for setting&mdash;that is, for fixing the pieces of paper or
+card to keep the parts in position&mdash;may be of the ordinary kind;
+but entomological pins are far preferable, even for this purpose;
+for, being much thinner, they do not damage and disfigure the
+setting boards so much.</p>
+
+<p>Now as to the setting. First see that the pin with which you
+are to fix your dead insect passes centrally through the thorax.
+Then fix it firmly on the setting board, its body lying neatly in the
+groove of the cork. Cut out some little pointed strips of card or
+paper, and, after bringing the wings into position with the setting<!-- Page 125 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+needle, fix each one by a pinned strip. In spreading out the wings,
+care must be taken not to pierce them at all, but simply to push
+them into their place by pressing the needle at their bases, or by
+putting the needle beneath and <i>lifting</i> them out.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of pointed pieces of card, uniform strips of paper may
+be used, as shown in <a href="#FIG_63">fig. 63</a>, each strip passing over both wings.</p>
+
+<p>After the four wings have been properly arranged, a few extra
+pins may be used to keep other parts in position. Thus, the
+antennæ may be placed at equal angles, the proboscis may be extended,
+and a couple of pins may be used to support the abdomen
+if it is inclined to bend downward.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="FIG_63" id="FIG_63"></a>
+<img src="images/i_142.jpg" width="400" height="400" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 63.&mdash;Another Method of Setting
+Butterflies and Moths.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As before mentioned,
+insects should
+be set soon after they
+are dead, while the
+parts are still soft and
+supple. But where
+this cannot be done,
+and the specimens have
+become stiff, brittle,
+and rigid, they must be
+'relaxed' before any
+attempt is made at
+setting them out.</p>
+
+<p>This process of relaxing
+consists in placing
+the specimens in a
+very moist atmosphere
+for a few days. There
+are several simple
+ways of doing this, many of which will readily suggest themselves
+to the reader. Your collecting box, if a zinc one, may also be
+used as a relaxer. Pin your stiff insects in it, after well moistening
+the cork, and simply shut them up for a day or two. Any metal box
+will serve the same purpose providing you put into it a piece of
+sheet cork on which to fix the insects, and this cork may rest on a
+bed of moist sand.</p>
+
+<p>Another plan is to float the pinned specimens on corks in a
+shallow vessel of water, and cover them over with a bell glass.</p>
+
+<p>Insects that are being relaxed should be examined from time
+to time, and the degree of flexibility acquired tested by a gentle<!-- Page 126 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+pressure of the setting needle or by blowing on them. If not
+sufficiently supple, give another day in the damp cell, but never
+allow them to be forgotten till they are covered with mildew.</p>
+
+<p>The time occupied in thoroughly drying butterflies and moths
+will vary considerably according to their sizes and the condition of
+the atmosphere. In hot and dry summer weather four or five days
+will prove quite sufficient for the <i>very</i> small and thin-bodied species.
+From one to two weeks, however, may be looked upon as the
+average period; but the large and thick-bodied moths may require
+more than this.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the best test of their condition is the gentle pressing of
+the setting needle against the abdomen&mdash;the last part of the body
+to become dry and stiff. If the abdomen seems quite firm and
+rigid, you are pretty safe in removing the specimen from the
+board; but if it bends at all under a slight pressure of the needle
+let it remain for a day or two longer.</p>
+
+<p>If your cabinet is quite ready for the reception of new-comers,
+the insects may be put in their proper places immediately after
+their removal from the setting boards; but if not, they may
+be pinned temporarily in a 'store box' till the time comes when
+you have proper accommodation provided. The full consideration
+of these matters will be dealt with in another chapter.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible that the setting of some of your specimens will not
+exactly please you. If such is the case, put them in a relaxing box
+for a day or two, and then reset them more to your fancy.</p>
+
+<p>We have now to deal with a matter that applies more
+particularly to moths, especially the very large and thick-bodied
+species. The abdomens of these become more or less contracted
+and shrivelled on drying, sometimes to such an extent as to look
+most unsightly.</p>
+
+<p>There is a remedy for this, and the time and patience required
+in working it out will be well repaid by the superior results
+obtained.</p>
+
+<p>While the abdomen is still in a soft condition, make a slit
+throughout its length with a very sharp knife or a sharp-pointed
+pair of scissors. This slit should be made down the centre of the
+under surface, or, if the insect is to be placed in the cabinet with
+the under side exposed, down the middle line of the back. Then
+remove all the contents of the abdomen, scraping them out with a
+piece of hooked wire, or removing them with a fine pair of forceps,
+and leaving the skin as clean as possible both within and without.<!-- Page 127 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+Now introduce a packing of cotton wool, just sufficient in quantity
+to maintain the natural form of the body as the specimen
+dries.</p>
+
+<p>There is another good method of stuffing moths that possesses
+a decided advantage over the one just described, since it leaves the
+specimen in such a perfect condition that it shows no appearance
+of having been stuffed when viewed from either side. This consists
+in snipping off the abdomen at the waist, clearing out the contents
+with a hooked wire, lightly stuffing it with cotton wool pushed in
+at the waist, and then setting it aside to dry, while the other part
+of the insect is undergoing the same process on the setting board.
+When both parts of the moth are thoroughly dry, the stuffed
+abdomen is easily fixed in its place with a little coaguline; and this,
+if neatly done, will not show the slightest sign of the treatment to
+which the insect has been submitted.</p>
+
+<p>Even after your insects are finally housed in the cabinet, they
+are subject to two other dangers, both of which are more destructive
+to moths than to butterflies. One is technically known
+as 'grease,' and the other is the invasion of certain museum pests
+that feed on the specimens, causing them to fall to pieces.</p>
+
+<p>Examine the moths that have been for a time in the cabinet,
+and some are sure to exhibit an oily or greasy appearance, the hairs
+of the abdomen, and perhaps also of the thorax, being clogged
+together just as if the specimen had been dipped in oil, the
+same miserable condition perhaps being shared also by parts of
+the wings.</p>
+
+<p>This is due to the gradual oozing out of the fatty matter that
+is always present to a greater or less extent in the bodies of the
+insects, and which must necessarily show itself more sparingly in
+specimens that have been carefully stuffed.</p>
+
+<p>The old saying, 'Prevention is better than cure,' applies well in
+the present case; but as there are times when a knowledge of the
+'cure' is the only means of saving a valuable specimen from
+destruction, we will study both.</p>
+
+<p>To deal with the two in the order of the well-worn proverb, we
+will consider the prevention first. Always carefully clean out and
+stuff the abdomens of large-bodied insects; and as a rule, treat them
+with some substance that will either absorb or dissolve out all oily
+matter. I think the best plan is to remove the abdomen, clean it
+out if its size permits of such an operation, and then, after labelling
+it to prevent its future application to the wrong body, either let it<!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+remain in a bottle of magnesia for several weeks, or soak it in benzole
+or ether for a few hours or longer.</p>
+
+<p>If magnesia has been employed as an absorbent, you have
+simply to blow or lightly brush off the loose powder that clings to the
+body, and then fix it in its place with coaguline. A body dipped in
+ether or benzole will look as if completely spoilt at first, for the furry
+coat that clothes it will lie matted and almost entirely robbed of its
+beautiful colours, reminding one forcibly of the proverbial 'drowned
+rat.' But take no notice of this change. Let the body have at
+least a few hours in the liquid, extending the time to a day or two
+in the case of very large ones and those which experience has
+proved to be particularly liable to 'grease;' and, immediately on
+withdrawing it, fix it with a pin in a good strong draught, such as
+you may obtain by opening a window about an inch, or, if a breezy
+day, in the open air.</p>
+
+<p>These liquids are so volatile (and for that reason should never
+be left exposed in an open vessel) that they rapidly evaporate,
+leaving the dry hair to be loosened by the breeze, thus bringing
+back the natural appearance almost perfectly.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that many of the smaller insects that were not
+considered to require the stuffing or grease-removing operations
+will sooner or later exhibit a greasy tendency in the cabinet. At
+first the abdomen is affected, and the oily matter then gradually
+creeps over the rest of the body, finally spreading over the wings,
+and giving the insect a most deplorable aspect. But these are not
+irreparably lost, and the following cure will often bring them back
+to their former beauty.</p>
+
+<p>If the abdomen only shows signs of grease, cut it off and soak
+it in one of the above-named liquids for a day or so, replacing it as
+above after the drying operation. If, however, the oily matter
+has spread to the thorax and the bases of the wings, the whole
+specimen must be soaked, using a basin or jar of suitable size,
+covered with a plate of glass. A good draught during the drying
+operation will do much to prevent the hair from sticking in matted
+tufts close against the surface of the body and wings, and a gentle
+brushing with a very soft camel-hair brush will loosen and reset
+the fur.</p>
+
+<p>The other danger to which we have referred is the invasion of
+certain 'mites' and other museum pests that pay periodical visits
+to our cabinet drawers and store boxes, often committing such
+havoc as to severely try the patience of an interested naturalist.<!-- Page 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The way to prevent such intrusions is to make the atmosphere
+of the compartments so obnoxious (to them) that they dare not
+enter; and, further, to so spice up your specimens that they are
+no longer safely edible to the invaders.</p>
+
+<p>The first object can be attained by always keeping camphor or
+naphthaline (albo-carbon) in each division. A lump of either substance
+may be secured by pins or a little perforated cell in the
+corner of each drawer or box, or the bottom of each may be dusted
+with finely powdered naphthaline; but as both these solids are
+volatile, care must be taken to renew the supply as occasion
+requires.</p>
+
+<p>Then, with regard to the second precaution, perhaps nothing
+is more effectual than corrosive sublimate. A little of this may be
+dissolved in a small bottle of alcohol (spirits of wine), labelled with
+the name and the word <span class="smcap">Poison</span>, and kept ready for use. All the
+skins of stuffed specimens should be painted with this solution, and
+the stuffing itself may be moistened with it before insertion.</p>
+
+<p>There is yet another circumstance that renders a watchful care
+of your cabinet specimens necessary, if you happen to possess
+many that were captured 'at sugar.' Some of these will have so
+gorged themselves with syrup that they are literally full of it, and
+this will sometimes find its way to the outside, often dropping on
+the surface beneath. In such cases the sugar should be removed
+as completely as possible, and the bodies stuffed, before they are
+quite dry; but if the specimens have been in the cabinet so long
+that they are stiff and hard, the under sides of the abdomens may
+be completely cut out with a very sharp knife and thrown away,
+and then the sugar cleaned out from the upper shell as neatly as
+possible.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><!-- Page 130 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER X
+<br />
+<i>PRESERVING OVA, LARVÆ AND PUPÆ</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>Many young entomologists give their attention almost solely to the
+perfect forms of insects, often collecting and studying a very large
+number of species without regard to their earlier stages and metamorphoses.
+This is decidedly a very great mistake. Although
+the lifeless form pinned in a cabinet may be a most beautiful object
+in itself, yet a study of this alone is uninteresting compared with
+that of the wonderful changes it has undergone since the time it
+was a very young larva.</p>
+
+<p>The different stages of the insects should be known as far as
+possible, and these, as well as the perfect forms, should be included
+in the collection for future study and reference. A good cabinet,
+according to my own opinion, is one that possesses, among other
+good features, a number of complete sets illustrative of the life
+history of at least the more typical forms; and as it is not a
+difficult matter to preserve the earlier stages, there is really no
+excuse for their omission from the collection.</p>
+
+<p>The empty shells of ova are in themselves sometimes interesting
+objects, especially when they illustrate some peculiar instinct
+on the part of the parent. Sterile eggs, also, often fall into the
+hands of breeders and rearers, and these, though in other respects
+unprofitable, are useful in the cabinet.</p>
+
+<p>If fertile eggs are to be prepared for a collection, they must be
+killed. This is easily done by thrusting into each one the point of
+a very fine needle, or by immersing them for a moment in boiling
+water, or by shutting them up in a bottle with camphor. In drying
+they often contract more or less, and frequently change their
+colour; still these are useful, providing notes have been taken of
+the characters thus lost. The larger eggs are capable of special
+treatment where the owner has the necessary time and patience,
+and where the highest results are desired. By means of a surgeon's<!-- Page 131 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+injector of small size the contents of the eggs can be removed; and
+then, by the same instrument, a warm solution of gelatine, coloured
+in such a way as to restore the natural tint, may be forced into the
+empty shell. As the gelatine cools and hardens, it prevents any
+shrinking of the shell, and thus both form and colour are well
+preserved.</p>
+
+<p>For the preservation of larvæ you will require one or two
+simple appliances.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these is a suitable glass blowpipe, one form of which
+is here illustrated. It consists of a glass tube, one end of which
+has been drawn out very fine; a piece of watch spring tied to it in
+such a manner that it will hold the skin of a larva at the small end,
+and a piece of india-rubber tubing at the other end, pressed by
+means of a brass spring clip.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="FIG_64" id="FIG_64"></a><a href="images/i_148.jpg"><img src="images/i_148_tn.jpg" width="400" height="80" alt="" title="[Larger image of Figure 64.]" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 64.&mdash;A Blowpipe for Larvæ.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A little drying oven is also very useful, but not absolutely necessary.
+If you decide to have one, any square box of sheet iron (not
+soldered tinned iron) may be readily converted into one. It must
+be provided with a hinged door in the front with a ventilator at the
+bottom, a hole for the escape of hot air at the top, and a tripod wire
+stand inside on which to rest the specimens while drying. The
+whole should be supported on a wire stand, so that heat may be
+applied below.</p>
+
+<p>Each larva to be preserved should be dealt with in this way.
+First kill it by means of any one of the killing bottles or boxes already
+described, or by immersion in spirit of wine. When quite dead,
+enlarge the anal orifice by thrusting a needle into it, and then lay
+it on a piece of blotting paper with its head toward you. Now
+take a round ruler, previously covered with blotting paper, and roll
+the larva gently from head to tail till all the contents of the skin
+have been expelled. Next fix the skin on the fine end of the blowpipe,
+by thrusting the point of the latter into the opening, and
+allowing the spring to press gently on its edge. Gently blow into
+the skin till it is inflated just to a <i>little below</i> natural size, then<!-- Page 132 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+either hold it near a fire or rest it in the drying oven till it is quite
+dry and rigid.</p>
+
+<p>If you have done your work neatly, the skin and blowpipe will
+both be quite air-tight when the clip is closed; and the air, finding
+no outlet, will still further inflate the skin when it expands on
+exposure to heat. This is the reason why you are directed to blow
+it out to something short of the natural dimensions. If you find
+that this expansion causes the skin to stretch beyond its normal
+size, a little of the air must be allowed to escape while it is yet soft
+and flexible.</p>
+
+<p>The front of the larva is generally the last portion to become
+dry, and when this is quite rigid the skin may be removed from
+the blowpipe. This is a matter that requires the greatest care; for
+the skin is so very thin and brittle that a little rough handling will
+break it to pieces. As a rule it may be easily pushed off the pipe
+by a slight pressure behind, or a gentle twisting motion will loosen
+its hold; but this latter method can hardly be applied to hairy
+larvæ without breaking off the hairs, now rendered very brittle by
+the heat.</p>
+
+<p>If you find the slightest difficulty in detaching the skin of a
+valuable specimen, it is far better to damage the blowpipe than to
+risk spoiling the skin. Supposing your blowpipe is a glass one,
+you can easily break off the end of it after making a cut with a very
+small triangular file, and the portion thus removed may be left
+attached to the skin. Then, after softening the glass blowpipe in a
+gas flame or the flame of a spirit lamp, it can be drawn out thin
+again for future work. Those who can manipulate glass tubing in
+this way will find it far better to lay in a stock of suitable material,
+drawing it out when required, than to purchase blowpipes ready
+made at the naturalist's shop.</p>
+
+<p>Very fine hollow stems, such as those of the bamboo cane, may
+be used instead of glass; and these possess the advantage of being
+easily cut with a sharp knife when there is any difficulty in removing
+the skin. Again, whether glass or fine stems are used, a little
+grease of any kind placed previously on the end will allow the dried
+skin to be slid off with less difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>Preserved larvæ should preferably be mounted on small twigs
+or artificial imitations of the leaves of the proper food plants. A
+little coaguline applied to the claspers will fix them very firmly on
+these twigs or leaves, which are then secured in the cabinet by
+means of one or two small pins.<!-- Page 133 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is much to be regretted that the natural colours of many
+caterpillars cannot be preserved in the blown skins. Some are
+rendered much lighter in colour on account of the withdrawal of
+the contents, while others turn dark during the drying. In the
+smooth-skinned species the natural tints may be restored by painting
+or by staining with suitable aniline dyes, but these artificial imitations
+of the natural colours are always far less beautiful than the
+hues of the living larvæ.</p>
+
+<p>Very few words need be said on the preservation of pupæ.
+Many of them do not alter much in form and colour, and therefore
+they require no special preparation.</p>
+
+<p>If a pupa has to be killed for the purpose of adding to the value
+of the collection, simply plunge it into boiling water, and it is ready
+to be fixed in the cabinet as soon as it is quite dry.</p>
+
+<p>The empty pupa cases, too, from which the perfect insects have
+emerged, are often worth preserving, especially if the damage done
+by the imago on forcing its way out is repaired with the aid of a little
+coaguline.</p>
+
+<p>Let all larvæ and pupæ be preserved in their characteristic attitudes
+and positions as far as possible, so that each one tells some
+interesting feature of the life history of the living being it represents.
+Further, enrich your collection by numerous specimens of
+the various kinds of cocoons constructed by the larvæ, pinning each
+one beside its proper species; and never refuse a place to any
+object that relates something of the life history of the creatures
+you are studying.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><!-- Page 134 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XI
+<br />
+<i>THE CABINET</i>&mdash;<i>ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>The selection of a cabinet or other storehouse for the rapidly
+increasing specimens of insect forms is often a matter of no small
+difficulty to a youthful entomologist. Indeed, there are very many
+points of considerable importance to be considered before any final
+decision is made. Freedom from dust, the exclusion of pests, the
+convenience of the collector, the depth of his pocket, and the
+general appearance of the storehouse must be considered, and it is
+impossible, therefore, to describe a form that is equally suitable
+to all.</p>
+
+<p>If it is absolutely necessary that the cabinet (or its substitute)
+be of a very inexpensive character, and if, at the same time, the
+collector has not the mechanical skill necessary for its construction,
+then perhaps the best thing he can do is to procure a number of
+shallow (about an inch and a half deep) cardboard, glass-topped
+boxes, such as are to be obtained at drapers' shops. For the sake
+of uniformity and convenience in packing, have them all of one
+size. Glue in small slices of cork just where the insects are to be
+pinned, and see that each box is supplied with either camphor or
+naphthaline. All the boxes may be packed in a cupboard or in a
+case made specially to contain them; and a label on the front of
+each will enable you to select any one when required without disturbing
+the others.</p>
+
+<p>It may be mentioned here that glass is not necessary, though it
+is certainly convenient at times, especially when you are exhibiting
+your specimens to admiring non-entomological friends, who have
+almost always a most alarming way of bringing the tip of the first
+finger dangerously near as they are pointing out their favourite
+colours. 'Isn't <i>that</i> one a beauty?' is a common remark, and<!-- Page 135 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+therewith off snaps a wing of one of your choicest insects. When
+glass is used, however, see that the specimens are excluded from
+light, or the colours will soon lose their natural brilliancy.</p>
+
+<p>Anyone who has a set of carpenter's tools and the ability to use
+them well will be able to construct for himself either a set of store
+boxes or a cabinet of many drawers in which to keep his natural
+treasures. In this case a few considerations are necessary before
+deciding on the form which the storehouse is to take.</p>
+
+<p>A cabinet, if nicely made, forms a very sightly article of furniture;
+and, if space can be found for it, is the best and most convenient
+receptacle. One of about twelve to twenty drawers will be
+quite sufficient for a time; and the few following hints and suggestions
+may be useful.</p>
+
+<p>The wood used should be well seasoned, and free from resin.
+The drawers should fit well, and slide without the least danger of
+shaking. Each one should be lined with sheet cork, about one-eighth
+of an inch thick, glued to the bottom, nicely levelled with
+sand paper, and then covered with thin, pure white paper, laid on
+with thin paste. It is also advisable to cover each with glass,
+inclosed in a light wood frame that fits so closely as to prevent the
+intrusion of mites.</p>
+
+<p>The drawers may be arranged in a single vertical tier if the
+cabinet is to stand on the floor, or in two tiers if it is to be shorter
+for placing on the top of another piece of furniture; and glass doors,
+fastened by a lock and key, may be made to cover the front if such
+are desired as a matter of fancy, or as a precaution against the
+meddlesome habits of juvenile fingers.</p>
+
+<p>Store boxes are sometimes chosen in preference to cabinets
+because they are more portable, and because they can be arranged
+on shelves&mdash;an important consideration when floor space is not
+available.</p>
+
+<p>These boxes should be cork-lined and glazed like the cabinet
+drawers; and if they are made in two equal portions, lined with
+cork on both sides, and closing up like a book, they may be arranged
+on shelves like books, in which position they will collect but little
+dust.</p>
+
+<p>Both store boxes and cabinets are always kept in stock by the
+dealers, the former ranging from a few shillings each, and the latter
+from fifteen shillings to a guinea per drawer. Knowing this, you
+can decide for yourself between the two alternatives&mdash;making and
+purchasing.<!-- Page 136 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We have now to consider the manner in which our specimens
+should be arranged and labelled.</p>
+
+<p>The table forming <a href="#APPENDIX_I">Appendix I</a> contains the names of <i>all</i> the
+British butterflies and larger moths, and shows their division
+into <i>Sections</i>, <i>Tribes</i>, <i>Families</i>, and <i>Genera</i>. This table is the
+result of most careful study on the part of leading entomologists,
+and shows how, in their opinion, the insects can best be arranged
+to show their relation to one another; and you cannot do better
+than adopt the same order in your collection.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/i_153.jpg"><img src="images/i_153_tn.jpg" width="400" height="355" alt="" title="[Linked to larger image of sample display table.]" />
+</a></div>
+
+<p>Complete label lists can be purchased, printed on one side of
+the paper only. These, when cut up, supply you with neat labels
+for your specimens.</p>
+
+<p>If you intend to study the British <i>Lepidoptera</i> as completely
+as possible, you may as well start at once with a sufficiently extensive
+cabinet, and arrange all the labels of your list before you introduce
+the insects. You will thus have a place provided ready for
+each specimen as you acquire it, and the introduction of species<!-- Page 137 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+obtained later on will not compel you to be continually moving and
+rearranging the drawers.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the number of blank spaces will at first suggest an
+almost hopeless task, but a few years of careful searching and
+rearing will give you heart to continue your interesting work.</p>
+
+<p>Arrange all the insects in perpendicular rows. Put the names
+of each section, tribe, family, and genus <i>at the head</i> of their
+respective divisions, and the names of the species below each insect
+or series of insects. The opposite plan, in which the circles
+represent the insects themselves, will make this clear.</p>
+
+<p>Three or four specimens of each species are generally sufficient,
+except where variations in colouring are to be exhibited. Wherever
+differences exist in the form or markings of the sexes, both should
+appear; and one specimen of each species should be pinned so as
+to exhibit the under side.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, each drawer or box should have a neat label <i>outside</i>
+giving the name or names of the divisions of insects that are
+represented within. This will enable you to find anything you
+may require without the necessity of opening drawer after drawer
+or box after box.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PART III<br />
+<br />
+BRITISH BUTTERFLIES</h2>
+
+
+<p>We have now treated in detail of the changes through which
+butterflies and moths have to pass, and have studied the methods
+by which we may obtain and preserve the insects in their different
+stages. I shall now give such a brief description of individual
+species as will enable the reader to recognise them readily. We
+will begin with the butterflies.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII
+<br />
+<i>THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES'</i></h3>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Papilionidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Swallow-tail</i> (<i>Papilio Machaon</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our first family (<i>Papilionidæ</i>) contains only one British species&mdash;the
+beautiful Swallow-tail (<i>Papilio Machaon</i>), distinguished at once
+from all other British butterflies by its superior size and the 'tails'
+projecting from the hind margin of the hind wings.</p>
+
+<p>This beautiful insect is figured on <a href="#Frontispiece">Plate I</a>, where its bold black
+markings on a yellow ground are so conspicuous as to render a
+written description superfluous. Attention may be called, however,
+to the yellow scales that dot the dark bands and blotches, making
+them look as if they had been powdered; also to the blue clouds
+that relieve the black bands of the hind wings, and the round reddish
+orange spot at the anal angle of each of the same wings.</p>
+
+<p>It appears that this butterfly was once widely distributed
+throughout England, having been recorded as common in various
+counties, and has also been taken in Scotland and Ireland; but it
+is now almost exclusively confined to the fens of Cambridgeshire,<!-- Page 140 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+Huntingdonshire, and Norfolk. Occasionally we hear of the capture
+of single specimens quite outside these localities, sometimes even
+in most unlikely spots, where its food plant does not abound. But
+we know that <i>Machaon</i> is a general favourite with entomologists,
+and that it is sent in the pupal state, by post, to all parts of the
+kingdom; so that the occasional capture of the insect far beyond
+the borders of its haunts is probably the outcome of an escape from
+prison, or of the tender-heartedness of some lover of nature who
+could not bear to see such a beautiful creature deprived of its short
+but joyous, sunny flight.</p>
+
+<p>You cannot hope to see this splendid butterfly on the wing unless
+you visit its haunts during its season&mdash;May to August; but the
+pupæ may be purchased for a few pence each from most of the
+entomological dealers; and if you obtain a few of these and watch
+them closely, you may be fortunate enough to see the perfect insect
+emerge from its case, and witness the gradual expansion of its
+beautiful wings.</p>
+
+<p>The pupa (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a>, fig. 7) itself is a most beautiful object.
+Its colour is a pale green, and it is fixed to its support by the tail,
+and further secured by a very strong silk band.</p>
+
+<p>The larva (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a>, fig. 1), too, is exceedingly beautiful. Its
+ground colour is a lovely green, and twelve velvety black rings
+mark the divisions between the segments. Between these are also
+black bars, all spotted with bright orange except the one on the
+second segment.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable feature of this larva is the possession of a forked,
+<span class="lettershape">Y</span>-shaped 'horn,' that is projected from the back, just behind the
+head, when the creature is alarmed. If it is gently pressed or
+irritated in any way, this horn is thrust out just as if it were an
+important weapon of defence. And perhaps it is, for it is the source
+of a powerful odour of fennel&mdash;one of the food plants of the caterpillar&mdash;that
+may possibly prove objectionable to some of its numerous
+enemies.</p>
+
+<p>The food plants of <i>Machaon</i> are the milk parsley or hog's
+fennel (<i>Peucedanum palustre</i>), cow-parsnip (<i>Heracleum sphondylium</i>),
+and the wild angelica (<i>Angelica sylvestris</i>); but in confinement
+it will also partake of rue and carrot leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar of this species may be found in the fens during
+the greater part of the summer. It turns to a chrysalis in the
+autumn, and remains in this state throughout the winter, attached
+to the stems of reeds in the vicinity of its food plants. The perfect<!-- Page 141 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+insect is first seen in May, and is more or less abundant from this
+time to the month of August.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pieridæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>This family, though known commonly as the 'Whites,' contains
+four British species that display beautiful tints of bright yellow or
+orange.</p>
+
+<p>In many respects the <i>Pieridæ</i> resemble the last species. Thus
+the perfect insects have six fully developed legs; the caterpillars
+are devoid of bristles or spines; and the chrysalides are attached
+by means of silky webs at the 'tails,' and strong cords of the same
+material round the middle.</p>
+
+<p>All the larvæ are also cylindrical or wormlike in shape; and
+their skins are either quite smooth, or are covered with very short
+and fine hairs, that sometimes impart a soft, velvety appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The members of this family are remarkable for their partiality
+for certain of our cultivated plants and trees; and are, in some
+cases, so abundant and so voracious, that they are exceedingly
+destructive to certain crops.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Black-veined White</i> (<i>Aporia Cratægi</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This butterfly may now be regarded as one of our rarities. At
+one time it was rather abundant in certain localities in England,
+among which may be mentioned the neighbourhoods of Cardiff and
+Stroud, also parts of Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, Huntingdonshire, and
+the Isle of Thanet; but it is to be feared that this species is nearly
+or quite extinct in this country. It is well, however, not to give up
+the search for it, and if you happen to be in one of its favoured
+localities of former days, you might net all the doubtful 'Whites'
+of large size that arouse your suspicions, liberating them again if,
+on inspection, they do not answer to the description of the species
+'wanted.' This course becomes absolutely necessary, since the
+Black-veined White is hardly to be distinguished from the Common
+Large White while on the wing.</p>
+
+<p>If you examine a number of British butterflies you will observe
+that in nearly all species the wings are bordered by a fringe of hair,
+more or less distinct. But the case is different with <i>Cratægi</i>. Here
+they are bordered by a black nervure, without any trace of fringe,
+thus giving an amount of rigidity to the edges (see <a href="#Frontispiece">Plate I</a>, fig. 2).</p>
+
+<p>The wing rays, or nervures, are very distinct&mdash;a feature that<!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+gave rise to the popular name of the butterfly. In the male they
+are quite or nearly black, but those of the fore wings of the female
+are decidedly brown in colour. At the terminations of the wing
+rays there are triangular patches of dark scales, the bases of which
+unite on the outer margins of the wings.</p>
+
+<p>Another peculiar feature of this insect is the scanty distribution
+of scales on the wings. This is particularly so in the case of the
+female, whose wings are semi-transparent in consequence.</p>
+
+<p>The butterfly is on the wing during June and July, at which
+time its eggs are laid on the hawthorn (<i>Cratægus Oxyacantha</i>)
+or on fruit trees&mdash;apple, pear and plum.</p>
+
+<p>A vigorous search of these trees in the proper localities <i>may</i>
+reveal to you a nest of the gregarious larvæ, all resting under the
+cover of a common web of silk. These remain thus under their
+silken tent throughout the hottest hours of the day, and venture out
+to feed only during the early morning and in the evening.</p>
+
+<p>When the leaves begin to fall in the autumn, they construct a
+more substantial web to protect themselves from the dangers of the
+winter, and in this they hybernate till the buds burst in the
+following spring. They now venture out, at first during the mildest
+days only, and feed voraciously on the young leaves, returning to
+their homes to rest. Soon, however, they gradually lose their
+social tendencies, till at last, when about half or three-quarters
+fed, they become quite solitary in their habits.</p>
+
+<p>In May they are fully grown, and change to the chrysalis state
+on the twigs of their food trees.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is black above, with two reddish stripes. The sides
+and under surface are grey, the former being relieved by black
+spiracles.</p>
+
+<p>The pupa (<a href="#Page_45">page 45</a>) is greenish or yellowish white, striped with
+bright yellow, and spotted with black.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the reader will never meet with this insect in
+any of its stages. But, though it may have left us, it is still very
+abundant on the Continent, where it does great damage to fruit
+trees; and the foreign pupæ may be purchased of English
+dealers.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Large White</i> (<i>Pieris Brassicæ</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>We pass now from one of the rarest to one of the most abundant
+of British butterflies. Everybody has seen the 'Large White,'
+though we doubt whether everybody knows that this insect is not<!-- Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+of the same species as the two other very common 'Whites.' The
+three&mdash;Large, Small, and Green-veined&mdash;are so much alike in
+general colour and markings, and so similar in their habits and in
+the selection of their food plants, that the non-entomological, not
+knowing that insects do not grow in their perfect state, may
+perhaps regard the larger and the smaller as older and younger
+members of the same species. But no&mdash;they are three distinct
+species, exhibiting to a careful observer many important marks by
+which each may be known from the other two.</p>
+
+<p>On <a href="#Frontispiece">Plate I</a> (fig. 3) will be seen a picture of the female <i>Brassicæ</i>,
+in which the following markings are depicted: On each fore wing&mdash;a
+blotch at the tip, a round spot near the centre, another round
+one nearer the inner margin, and a tapering spot on the inner margin
+with its point toward the base of the wing. On the hind wings
+there is only one spot, situated near the middle of the costal
+margin.</p>
+
+<p>The male may be readily distinguished by the absence of the
+black markings on the fore wings, with the exception of those
+at the tips. He is also a trifle smaller than his mate.</p>
+
+<p>This butterfly is double-brooded. The first brood appears in
+April and May, the second in July and August; and the former&mdash;the
+spring brood&mdash;which emerges from the chrysalides that have
+hybernated during the winter, have <i>grey</i> rather than black tips to
+the front wings.</p>
+
+<p>The ova of <i>Brassicæ</i> may be found on the leaves of cabbages in
+every kitchen garden, also on the nasturtium, during May and
+July. They are pretty objects (see <a href="#FIG_10">fig. 10</a>), something like little
+bottles or sculptured vases standing on end, and are arranged
+either singly or in little groups.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the young larvæ are out&mdash;from ten to fifteen days
+after the eggs are deposited&mdash;having devoured their shells, they
+start feeding on the selfsame spot, and afterwards wander about,
+dealing out destruction as they go, till little remains of their
+food plant save the mere stumps and skeletons of the leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The ground colour of the caterpillar is bluish green. It has a
+narrow yellow stripe down the middle of the back, and two similar
+but wider stripes along the sides; and the surface of the body is
+rendered somewhat rough by a number of small black warty projections,
+from each of which arises a short hair.</p>
+
+<p>When fully grown, it creeps to some neighbouring wall or
+fence, up which it climbs till it reaches a sheltering ledge. Here<!-- Page 144 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+it constructs its web and silken cord as already described (page 36),
+and then changes to a bluish-white chrysalis, dotted with black.
+The butterflies of the summer brood emerge shortly after, but
+the chrysalides of the next brood hybernate till the following
+spring.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that we are so plagued with 'Whites' seeing
+that they have so many enemies. Many of the insect-feeding birds
+commit fearful havoc among their larvæ, and often chase the
+perfect insects on the wing, but perhaps their greatest enemy is the
+ichneumon fly.</p>
+
+<p>Look under the ledges of a wall of any kitchen garden, and you
+will see little clusters of oval bodies of a bright yellow colour.
+Most gardeners know that these are in some way or other
+connected with the caterpillars that do so much damage to their
+vegetables. They are often considered to be eggs laid by the
+larvæ, and are consequently killed out of pure revenge, or
+with a desire to save the crops from the future marauders.</p>
+
+<p>No greater mistake could be made. These yellow bodies are
+the silken cocoons of the caterpillar's own foes. They contain the
+pupæ of the little flies whose larvæ have lived within the body of
+an unfortunate grub, and, having flourished to perfection at the
+expense of their host, left its almost empty and nearly lifeless
+carcase to die and drop to the ground just at the time when it
+ought to be working out its final changes. Often you may see the
+dying grub beside the cluster of cocoons just constructed by its
+deadly enemies. Should you wish to test the extent of the
+destructive work of these busy flies, go into your garden and collect
+a number of larvæ, and endeavour to rear them under cover. The
+probability is that only a small proportion will ever reach the
+final state, the others having been fatally 'stung' before you took
+them.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small White</i> (<i>P. Rapæ</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This butterfly closely resembles the last species except in point
+of size. The male, represented on <a href="#Frontispiece">Plate I</a> (fig. 4), has a dark grey
+blotch at the tip of each fore wing, a round spot of the same colour
+beyond the centre of that wing, and another on the costal margin
+of the hind wing. The female may be distinguished by an
+additional spot near the anal angle of the fore wing.</p>
+
+<p>Although this and the two other common butterflies (<i>Brassicæ</i>
+and <i>Napi</i>) that frequent our kitchen gardens are usually spoken of<!-- Page 145 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+as 'Whites,' a glance at a few specimens will show that they are
+not really white at all, but exhibit delicate shades of cream and
+yellow, inclining sometimes to buff. The under surfaces are particularly
+noticeable in this respect, for here the hind wings and the
+tips of the fore wings display a very rich yellow.</p>
+
+<p>The species we are now considering is also very variable both in
+its ground colour and the markings of the wings. The former is in
+some cases a really brilliant yellow; and the latter are in some
+cases entirely wanting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rapæ</i> is double-brooded, the first brood appearing in April and
+May, and the other in July and August.</p>
+
+<p>During these months the eggs may be seen in plenty on its
+numerous food plants, which include the cabbages and horse-radish
+of our gardens, also water-cress (<i>Nasturtium officinale</i>), rape
+(<i>Brassica Napus</i>), wild mustard (<i>B. Sinapis</i>), wild mignonette
+(<i>Reseda lutea</i>), and nasturtium (<i>Tropæolum majus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are conical in form&mdash;something like a sugar loaf, with
+ridges running from apex to base, and very delicate lines from
+ridge to ridge transversely.</p>
+
+<p>The young larvæ often make their first meal of the shell, and
+then attack the food plant so voraciously that they are fully grown
+in about three or four weeks. In colour they are of a beautiful
+glaucous green, hardly distinguishable at times from the leaves on
+which they rest. A yellow stripe runs along the middle of the
+back, and lines of yellow spots adorn the sides; and the whole body
+is covered with very short hairs, each one arising from a minute
+warty projection.</p>
+
+<p>The pupæ may be found during the same seasons and in the
+same situations as those of <i>Brassicæ</i>. They are very variable in
+colour. Some are of a very pale grey or putty colour, some are
+decidedly brown, and others of a greenish tinge; and they are
+often spotted and striped with dark grey or black.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Green-veined White</i> (<i>P. Napi</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>A non-observant beginner at entomological work may easily
+mistake this insect for the last species, for the ground colour and
+markings are very similar, even to the features by which the sexes
+are distinguished from each other; but an inspection of the under
+surface will give a ready means of identification, for here the wing
+rays are bordered with black scales which, by contrast with the<!-- Page 146 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+rich yellow around them, often appear of a greenish hue. The
+butterfly receives its popular name from this circumstance.</p>
+
+<p>A careful observer, however, will readily find distinguishing
+marks on the upper side, for here also the chief 'veins' are more
+or less accompanied with black scales, especially the extremities of
+those of the fore wings, where little triangular blotches are often
+distinctly formed; and the dark veining of the under surface of the
+hind wings frequently shows through. The under side of this
+insect is shown on <a href="#Frontispiece">Plate I</a> (fig. 5).</p>
+
+<p>This butterfly is not so abundant as the two preceding, but is
+widely distributed throughout England, and is in most parts
+decidedly plentiful.</p>
+
+<p>The first brood (for it also is double-brooded) appears during
+April and May, and the second in July and August.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are very similar to those of <i>Rapæ</i>, resembling ribbed
+and striated sugar loaves; and the larvæ are of the same rich glaucous
+green, but may be identified by the black spiracles surrounded by
+yellow rings. In our gardens we may find both eggs and larvæ on
+mignonette and horse-radish; the other food plants of this species
+include the water-cress (<i>Nasturtium officinale</i>), winter cress
+(<i>Barbarea vulgaris</i>), rape (<i>Brassica Napus</i>), cuckoo-flower
+(<i>Cardamine pratensis</i>), and Jack-by-the-hedge (<i>Sisymbrium
+Alliaria</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The pupa is greenish, and marked with small black dots.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Bath or Green-chequered White</i> (<i>P. Daplidice</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that many butterflies migrate from one country
+to another across the seas; and as the Bath White is very
+common on the other side of the Channel, and has been taken very
+sparingly in England almost exclusively in the south-east, it is
+highly probable that the majority of those that have been captured
+here are specimens that have taken a voluntary trip across the
+water, or have been blown over during rough weather.</p>
+
+<p>This butterfly is one of our greatest rarities, and the capture of a
+specimen in England is an event that must necessarily be recorded
+in our entomological literature. It seems that <i>Daplidice</i> has bred
+in England, for its caterpillars have been found at large on one or
+two occasions, so I will give a short description of the various
+stages of the insect, with a hope that some of my readers may be
+fortunate enough to meet with it.<!-- Page 147 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The female butterfly is shown on <a href="#Frontispiece">Plate I</a>, fig. 6. From this it
+will be observed that each of the fore wings is tipped with a rather
+large smoky-black blotch, in which are four white spots. A double
+spot of the same colour also occupies a place near the centre of the
+wing, and another smaller and round one lies near the anal angle.
+The hind wings are clouded with grey, and bordered along the
+hind margin with distinct smoky-black spots.</p>
+
+<p>The male may be distinguished from the female by the absence
+of the spot near the anal angle of the fore wings, and of all the
+clouds and spots of the hind wings. Nevertheless the latter have
+a decidedly clouded appearance, but this is due to the markings of
+the under surface showing through them.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_65" id="FIG_65"></a><a href="images/i_164.jpg"><img src="images/i_164_tn.jpg" width="300" height="137" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Bath White." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 65.&mdash;The Bath White&mdash;Under
+Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The under side of both sexes is most beautifully marked&mdash;the
+fore wings resembling the upper sides, but the hind pair chequered
+with a beautiful soft green on a
+pale yellow ground.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs of this insect are
+deposited during April and May,
+and again in August or September&mdash;for
+it is, like the other
+'Whites,' double-brooded&mdash;on
+two species of Wild Mignonette
+(<i>Reseda lutea</i> and <i>R. luteola</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars, which are
+of a bluish colour, with two
+yellow stripes down the back, and
+two others along the sides, may be <i>looked</i> for in June and September.
+Those of the first brood only have been taken in this
+country, while the others on the Continent change to the chrysalis
+in the autumn, and hybernate in this state throughout the winter.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is of a brownish colour, and closely resembles that
+of the Small White in form.</p>
+
+<p>Those in search of this rare British insect should wander along
+the south-east coast, and net all the doubtful slow-flying small
+Whites (<i>Daplidice</i> is rather slow and heavy on the wing), and
+their perseverance <i>may</i> be rewarded with a prize that will ever be
+a reminder of a glorious catch and an eventful day. If you fail in
+this, and most probably you will, rather than remain a stranger to
+this beautiful and interesting insect, fill up the blank in your
+cabinet with a foreign specimen, which can be obtained at any time
+for a few pence, but be careful to label it 'not British,' in order<!-- Page 148 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+that your brother collectors may not be deceived, or be led to make
+any unnecessary inquiries.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Orange Tip</i> (<i>Euchloë Cardamines</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>No one could possibly mistake the male of this species for any
+other British butterfly, the popular name alone giving quite
+sufficient information for its identification, but the female Orange
+Tip is <i>not</i> tipped with orange, and its markings, both above and
+beneath, resemble those of <i>Daplidice</i> so nearly that the same
+written description might apply almost equally well to both.</p>
+
+<p>On <a href="#Frontispiece">Plate I</a> (fig. 7) is shown the upper side of the male, and
+just opposite it (fig. 8) the under surface of the same. The female
+is usually a little larger than her mate, and is marked similarly on
+both sides except that the bright orange blotch is entirely wanting.
+She may always be distinguished from <i>Daplidice</i> by the smaller
+size of the white spots that break the dark blotch at the tip of the
+fore wing; also by the very small size of the dark spot in the
+centre of the same wing. The green chequerings of the under side
+of the hind wings are also more sharply defined, and the insect is
+generally of a lighter build.</p>
+
+<p>Like many other butterflies, the Orange Tip is subject to variations
+in colouring. Sometimes a pale but bright yellow takes the
+place of the white ground, and the orange blotch of the male is
+occasionally present on the upper or lower surface only.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cardamines</i> is a single-brooded insect, and is essentially a
+creature of the spring, at which time it may be found in abundance
+in lanes, meadows, and clearings in woods throughout the British
+Isles. Its flight is so light and airy that even the female may
+easily be distinguished from other Whites when on the wing, while
+the brilliant orange of the male, intensified by the bright rays of
+the spring sun, may be identified at some considerable distance.</p>
+
+<p>The food plants of <i>Cardamines</i> include the cuckoo-flower
+(<i>Cardamine pratensis</i>) and the bitter cress (<i>C. impatiens</i>), after
+which the insect is named, also water-cress (<i>Nasturtium officinale</i>),
+winter cress (<i>Barbarea vulgaris</i>), rock cress (<i>Arabis perfoliata</i>),
+hedge mustard (<i>Sisymbrium officinale</i>), Jack-by-the-hedge (<i>S.
+Alliaria</i>), wild mustard (<i>Brassica Sinapis</i>), &amp;c., and the eggs of
+the butterfly may be found on these during May and June.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a>, fig. 2) is green, with a white stripe
+on each side, and its body is covered with short hair. In July it is<!-- Page 149 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+fully grown, and ascends a stem of the food plant to prepare itself
+for its long winter sleep.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a>, fig. 8) is a very peculiar object. Both
+ends are much elongated and sharply pointed; and the foremost
+extremity stands out at an angle with the stem to which it is
+attached.</p>
+
+<p>This butterfly should be looked for during April and May, but in
+mild seasons it may often be met with in March.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Wood White</i> (<i>Leucophasia Sinapis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The distinguishing feature of this butterfly (see <a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a>, fig. 1)
+is the extreme lightness and delicacy of its build. Its wings are
+narrow, and rounded at the tips; and the only mark to relieve the
+white ground of the upper side is a squarish blotch at the tip of the
+fore wing, and even this is either very indistinct or entirely absent
+in the female. The under surface is clouded with a pale greenish
+tint.</p>
+
+<p>This insect may be looked for in May and again in August, in
+paths and clearings in woods, where it moves along with a slow but
+steady flight, hardly ever seeming to rest for a moment. It is not
+by any means a common butterfly, but is very widely distributed,
+and sometimes appears in considerable numbers in certain favoured
+spots. Among the localities recorded may be mentioned Torquay,
+Exeter, Plymouth, South Dorset, New Forest, Reading, Darent
+Woods, Morecambe Bay, Haslemere, Windermere, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is of a beautiful green colour, and is covered with
+short whitish hairs. A darker green stripe runs down the middle
+of the back, and a bright yellow stripe along each side. Its food
+plants are the tufted vetch (<i>Vicia Cracca</i>), bird's-foot trefoil (<i>Lotus
+corniculatus</i> and <i>L. pilosus</i>), bitter vetch (<i>Lathyrus tuberosus</i>),
+and the everlasting pea (<i>L. sylvestris</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is a very beautiful object. Its colour is a delicate
+green, tinged with pink; and the wing-cases project in beautiful
+curves much beyond the general surface.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Pale Clouded Yellow</i> (<i>Colias Hyale</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The ground colour of this butterfly (<a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a>, fig. 2) is very variable.
+It is usually a sulphury yellow, and on this account the insect
+is commonly known as the Clouded Brimstone; but sometimes the
+yellow is exceedingly pale&mdash;almost white&mdash;and tinged with green.<!-- Page 150 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A very large black blotch, broken by indefinite patches of the
+ground colour, fills up the tip of each fore wing, and extends to the
+anal angle, becoming narrower as it approaches this point. A black
+oval spot lies just above the middle of this wing.</p>
+
+<p>The hind wings are bordered with black, and a conspicuous spot
+of deep yellow lies very near the centre of each.</p>
+
+<p>The antennæ are rather short, compared with those of the preceding
+members of this family, and are distinguished by their
+reddish-brown colour.</p>
+
+<p>The male and female of this species are similarly marked, but
+the ground colour of the latter is commonly paler.</p>
+
+<p>This is not by any means a very common butterfly with us,
+though it is very plentiful on the other side of the Channel; but it
+has a way of taking us by surprise in certain seasons, and then
+almost neglecting us for several years together.</p>
+
+<p>Its head quarters are certainly the coasts of Kent and Sussex,
+but it has been taken in considerable numbers as far west as Cornwall,
+and also to a less extent in some of the midland and northern
+counties. It is particularly fond of lucerne and clover fields,
+especially those that are situated close to the sea cliffs; and often
+it may be seen flying over the beach, sometimes even flitting over
+the breakers away from land till at last it disappears in the distance.
+This maritime tendency of <i>Hyale</i> makes it probable that a
+large number of those that are seen on our south-east coasts have
+made a passage across the narrow end of the Channel.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are laid in spring, by females that have hybernated
+throughout the winter, on various leguminous plants, including the
+lucerne (<i>Medicago sativa</i>), black medick (<i>M. lupulina</i>), purple and
+Dutch clovers (<i>Trifolium pratense</i> and <i>T. repens</i>), and the bird's-foot
+trefoil (<i>Lotus corniculatus</i>), and on these plants you may search
+for the larva, though it can scarcely be said that you are likely to
+find it.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green, with black dots, and a yellowish stripe
+on each side. When fully grown it ascends a stem of its food plant
+and changes to a green chrysalis with yellow stripes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hyale</i> is single-brooded in England, although two broods
+regularly appear on the Continent. In our country the perfect insects
+emerge during July and August. Many of these die before
+the approach of winter; but, as we have already observed, some
+hybernate and deposit their eggs in the following spring.<!-- Page 151 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Clouded Yellow</i> (<i>Colias Edusa</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Not only are this and the last species similarly named, but a
+glance at the figures will show that they much resemble each other
+in appearance; and we shall also learn presently that in their habits
+and life history they have much in common.</p>
+
+<p>The male <i>Edusa</i> is shown on <a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a> (fig. 3), and when we
+compare it with its relative on the opposite side, we are at once struck
+with the superior richness of the brilliant orange or saffron of the
+ground colour. The black border of both fore and hind wings is also
+denser, wider, and more extensive. The whole of the yellow area
+of the hind wings is dusted more or less with black scales, with the
+exception of a round central spot of deep orange, corresponding with
+the orange spots on the hind wings of <i>Hyale</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_66" id="FIG_66"></a><a href="images/i_168.jpg"><img src="images/i_168_tn.jpg" width="300" height="146" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Clouded Yellow." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 66.&mdash;The Clouded Yellow&mdash;Female.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The female, which is shown in the accompanying woodcut, is
+generally larger than the male, and is further distinguished by the
+very pale yellow spots
+that break the black
+border of both pairs of
+wings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Edusa</i> further resembles
+<i>Hyale</i> in the reddish
+colour of the antennæ;
+and, in both the species,
+the red legs form a
+pleasing contrast with the
+yellow furry surface of the
+under side of the thorax.</p>
+
+<p>There is a variety of the female of this butterfly, in which the
+ground colour is a <i>very pale</i> yellow, almost white. The hind wings
+are more thickly dusted with black scales than in the normal insect,
+and the orange spots of these wings show up much more conspicuously
+from the contrast with their surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>It is usual to apply distinct names to constant varieties of species&mdash;names
+that are to be added to the ordinary title. In this particular
+case the distinguishing name is <i>Helice</i>, so that we should speak
+of the variety of <i>Edusa</i> above mentioned as:</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Colias Edusa</i>, var. <i>Helice</i></h4>
+
+<p>Like <i>Hyale</i>, <i>Edusa</i> is particularly capricious in its appearance.
+In certain summers it absolutely swarms in favourite localities,<!-- Page 152 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+while during the intervals between such remarkable appearances&mdash;usually
+several years&mdash;it is positively scarce. The last favoured
+season was the summer of '92, during which (from the beginning of
+August to the end of the summer) dozens might easily have been
+caught in an hour or two; in fact, so plentiful were they in many
+places, that they were continuously in sight, often several at one time.</p>
+
+<p>Those in search of this insect should repair to the south coast,
+especially the south-east, and where lucerne and clover fields are
+in flower. It has very decided maritime tendencies, and may often
+be seen flying over the cliffs and beaches, and even skipping over the
+breakers; but, at the same time, it is more or less plentiful in many
+inland districts. It has been taken in many parts of Ireland and
+Scotland, particularly along the southern coasts of these countries;
+but its head quarters are undoubtedly the southern cliffs of England,
+from Cornwall to Kent, and also the hilly inland districts of the
+south-eastern counties.</p>
+
+<p><i>Edusa</i> catching is very lively sport, and is likely to prove
+sufficient for any lover of outdoor exercise under a scorching sun;
+for this butterfly is not only very powerful on the wing, but its
+flights are usually long, so that a good run is often absolutely
+necessary in order to capture it. On very hilly ground, such as
+<i>Edusa</i> loves, chase is often hopeless, and then it is necessary to
+resort to stratagem. In such a case the best plan is to make a
+very cautious approach when the insect has been observed to settle,
+and then secure it with a sudden down-stroke of the net.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are laid during May and June by a few females that
+have survived the winter.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar may be found in June and July on its food
+plants, the chief of which are the bird's-foot trefoil (<i>Lotus corniculatus</i>),
+and the purple and Dutch clovers (<i>Trifolium pratense</i> and
+<i>T. repens</i>). Its colour is grass-green, and it is marked with a narrow
+whitish stripe on each side, which is broken by the yellow of the
+spiracles.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is of a pale yellowish green, and is marked with
+yellow stripes and reddish-brown dots.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Brimstone</i> (<i>Gonopteryx Rhamni</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This, the last member of the present family, is remarkable for
+the graceful outline of its wings. The costal margins of the fore
+pair are most beautifully arched, and both pairs are sharply angled
+on the hind margins. This latter characteristic is quite unique<!-- Page 153 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+among British butterflies, though we shall presently meet with
+instances of angular projections on hind wings only.</p>
+
+<p>The ground colour of the male (<a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a>, fig. 4) is a rich sulphury
+yellow, with a greenish tinge. That of the female is a very
+pale greenish yellow. The only conspicuous markings are small
+saffron spots, one near the centre of each wing. The antennæ are
+red, short, and beautifully curved; but, unlike the two preceding
+species, the legs are almost white.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs of this butterfly are laid in April on the two species of
+buckthorn (<i>Rhamnus catharticus</i> and <i>R. Frangula</i>) by the females
+that have successfully weathered the winter. They are of a bright
+yellow colour, and are usually hatched in about a fortnight.</p>
+
+<p>The body of the caterpillar is green, and it is thickly covered
+with little black wart-like projections. A pale stripe also runs
+along each side. During May and June it may be found on its
+food plants, and toward the end of the latter month it attaches itself
+by a silken carpet and belt to the under side of one of the leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is of a very peculiar shape, the body being curved,
+and the wing cases standing out prominently beyond the general
+surface. Its colour is a bright apple green marked with yellow,
+and it is so transparent that certain of the structures can be seen
+through its skin.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect emerges in about three weeks after the change
+to the chrysalis; and may be looked for from July to the end of the
+summer. This period may be regarded as the best time in which
+to hunt for <i>Rhamni</i>, but it is to be noted that this butterfly makes
+its appearance during all months of the year, even though it is single-brooded.</p>
+
+<p>A large number seem to hybernate, and their winter sleep is so
+light that the welcome rays of the sun on a mild day, even during
+the bleak months of November to February, will often call them out
+from their hiding places. Then, as a rule, the hybernating butterflies
+do not live long after depositing their eggs for the future
+brood; but the Brimstone often lives on till its offspring have themselves
+attained the perfect state, so that it is possible to capture the
+insects of two different years both on the same day. In such a case
+it is generally easy to distinguish between the two, for the newly
+emerged specimens are beautifully bright and fresh in colour,
+while those of the previous year are more or less faded and worn,
+their wings being often semi-transparent through the loss of scales,
+and frequently disfigured by the stains of mildew.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><!-- Page 154 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII
+<br />
+<i>THE FRITILLARIES, VANESSAS, AND THE PURPLE
+EMPEROR</i></h3>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nymphalidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>We now come to a rather large family, which contains some of our
+largest and most brilliant butterflies. Some of them display the
+most gaudy colours, and others exhibit patches of a beautiful metallic
+lustre.</p>
+
+<p>If you were to see all the members of this family side by side,
+they might strike you as being so varied in their appearance that
+you would wonder why they are all placed in one family group.
+But, were you to see, in addition to the perfect insects, all their
+larvæ and chrysalides, the reason would be made clear at once, for
+these earlier stages are seen to resemble each other in certain points
+at the very first glance. The former are all provided with peculiar
+spines, and the latter are all more or less angular, and are all suspended
+to a silken carpet by means of hooks at the tip of the abdomen,
+and have no belt as we have observed in the case of the
+<i>Pieridæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insects, too, although so varied in colouring, are
+alike in that they have only four walking legs, the first pair being
+so imperfectly developed as to be useless for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>This family includes the Fritillaries and the Vanessas.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary</i> (<i>Argynnis Selene</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The interesting group of butterflies known as the Fritillaries
+vary considerably in size, but are remarkably uniform in the
+ground colour of the wings, which, in all cases, is a rich golden or
+sienna brown; and this ground is chequered with darker colours in
+such a manner as to remind one of the petals of the wild flower<!-- Page 155 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+known as the Snake's Head or Fritillary&mdash;hence the popular name
+of the group.</p>
+
+<p>The Small Pearl-bordered, our first example, is one of the lesser
+Fritillaries, and is shown in <a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a> (fig. 5).</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_67" id="FIG_67"></a>
+<a href="images/i_172.jpg"><img src="images/i_172_tn.jpg" width="300" height="110" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 67.&mdash;The Small Pearl-bordered
+Fritillary&mdash;Under
+Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The arrangement of the black markings on the upper surface
+will be readily made out from the coloured plate, but the pattern
+of the under side will require a little special notice, for it is here,
+as with the other Fritillaries, that we find the chief marks by
+which we identify the species. On this side (<a href="#FIG_67">fig. 67</a>) the fore wings
+are light orange brown, with a patch of darker brown near the tips,
+and spotted with a dull black. The hind wings have the light
+brown displaced by a very warm chestnut tint, some yellow, and
+bright silvery spots.</p>
+
+<p>Seven silvery spots of triangular form border the hind margin.
+A large one occupies the centre
+of the wing, and ten others are
+somewhat irregularly scattered
+over other parts of the wing&mdash;five
+between the central spot and
+the hind margin, and five between
+it and the costa.</p>
+
+<p>All the spots on these wings,
+whether yellow, chestnut, or silver,
+are bordered by a narrow black
+line.</p>
+
+<p><i>Selene</i> is not a very abundant butterfly, but is widely distributed
+in England, and is also found in parts of Scotland. Its favourite
+resorts are clearings in woods, especially those of Kent and other
+southern counties.</p>
+
+<p>It appears in May and June, in which latter month it deposits
+its eggs on the dog violet (<i>Viola canina</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is not fully grown at the end of the summer,
+and hybernates during the winter among the roots of its food
+plant. In the following spring it emerges again, and feeds till
+May, when it changes to the chrysalis on a stem. It is less than
+an inch long when fully grown, and is of a dark-brown colour.
+Six rows of hairy spines are arranged longitudinally on its
+body.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is greyish brown, and has a number of very short
+projections corresponding with the spines of the caterpillar.<!-- Page 156 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Pearl-bordered Fritillary</i> (<i>Argynnis Euphrosyne</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>There is very little difference in the size of this and that of the
+last species, but <i>Euphrosyne</i> (<a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a>, fig. 6) is generally a trifle
+larger. The two butterflies are also very similar in appearance;
+indeed, they are so much alike on the upper side that it is impossible
+to decide on the name of either without an examination of the
+under surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_68" id="FIG_68"></a><a href="images/i_173.jpg"><img src="images/i_173_tn.jpg" width="300" height="107" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Pearl-bordered Fritillary." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 68.&mdash;The Pearl-bordered
+Fritillary&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Euphrosyne</i> has a border of seven triangular silver spots on
+each hind wing, exactly corresponding with those of <i>Selene</i>. It
+has also the large central spot of silver. But, beside these, there is
+<i>only one</i> other, and that is situated in the basal angle. Thus there
+are only nine silvery or pearly
+spots on each hind wing of
+<i>Euphrosyne</i>, while there are
+seventeen on <i>Selene</i>. This
+will form a ready means of
+distinguishing between the two
+species.</p>
+
+<p>The seasons and localities
+of this butterfly correspond
+very closely with those of the
+last species, but it is much more common, and may be found in
+abundance in nearly all our southern woods during May and
+June.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar, also, feeds on the same plant (dog violet) as
+<i>Selene</i>. It is black, with whitish lines along the sides; and is
+provided with a number of bristly spines.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is of a grey-brown colour, with small dots of a
+paler tint on the wing cases; and its body has a number of short
+conical projections exactly corresponding with the spines of the
+caterpillar.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Queen of Spain Fritillary</i> (<i>Argynnis Latona</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>We now pass from the commonest to the rarest and most
+prized of our wood butterflies&mdash;The Queen of Spain (<a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a>,
+fig. 7). This royal personage is not easily mistaken for any of the
+meaner Fritillaries even when the upper surface only is examined,
+as the concave hind margins of the fore wings serve as an almost
+conclusive mark of distinction. The rich tawny brown of this side<!-- Page 157 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+is boldly marked with black, and the long hairs and scales of the
+bases of the wings are tinged with green.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_69" id="FIG_69"></a><a href="images/i_174.jpg"><img src="images/i_174_tn.jpg" width="300" height="140" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Queen of Spain Fritillary." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 69.&mdash;The Queen of Spain
+Fritillary&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The under side presents a most beautiful appearance. Here the
+ground colour is paler than that of the upper side. The fore wings
+are spotted with black, and have a few small patches of silver at the
+tips. Each hind wing has no fewer than twenty-four bright silvery
+spots. Seven of these, mostly of large size, adorn the hind margin,
+and above each of these is a small one in the middle of a little patch
+of dark brown. The arrangement of the others is not quite so
+easily described, but may be readily made out from our illustration.</p>
+
+<p>This rare gem among British butterflies has been taken in
+many localities, but in very small numbers. Seeing that it is a
+common insect on the other side of the Channel, and that the
+British captures have been made chiefly in the Isle of Wight and
+on the south coast, I am
+inclined to believe that
+many of the highly valued
+genuine Britishers have no
+right to their title, but are
+visitors that have spent
+only a few days within our
+shores, having flown or been
+blown across the sea.</p>
+
+<p>It is not likely that
+many of my readers will
+ever meet with <i>Latona</i>
+during their rambles in our
+own country, and if they are anxious to have the species represented
+in their collections, they will probably have to purchase either a
+British or a foreign specimen, the former of which will command
+a very high price, while the latter may be obtained for three or four
+pence.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect may be looked for in August and September,
+during which time the eggs are laid on the leaves of violets and the
+heartsease (<i>Viola canina</i>, <i>V. odorata</i>, and <i>V. tricolor</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is brown, with numerous yellowish spines, and
+has three whitish or yellowish stripes&mdash;one down the middle of the
+back and one along each side. It hybernates during the winter,
+and is fully grown in the following June or July. I hope that my
+reader will be so fortunate as to secure either this or some other
+stage of this rare and beautiful insect. The chances are decidedly<!-- Page 158 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+against him, but that is no reason why he should abstain from a
+vigorous search when he happens to be 'doing' the southern
+counties.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Dark-green Fritillary</i> (<i>Argynnis Aglaia</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This butterfly is larger than <i>Latona</i>, as will be seen by reference
+to <a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a>, fig. 8. Its colour is, as usual with the Fritillaries, a
+tawny brown with black markings. The female is usually larger
+than the male, and she is further distinguished by the ground
+colour being darker and the black markings larger.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_70" id="FIG_70"></a><a href="images/i_175.jpg"><img src="images/i_175_tn.jpg" width="300" height="157" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Dark-green Fritillary." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 70.&mdash;The Dark-green Fritillary&mdash;Under
+Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The under side of the fore wings is very similar in colour and
+markings to the upper, but there are silvery spots near the tips.
+The hind wings are beautifully
+tinted with olive
+green and brown, and
+studded with silver. The
+arrangement of the latter
+is not easily described, but
+is accurately represented
+in the accompanying
+woodcut.</p>
+
+<p>The favourite resorts
+of this insect are wooded
+spots, and also heaths and
+downs clad with heather
+or ferns, where its food
+plant (the dog violet) lies scattered; but it seems to be less partial
+to woods than the other Fritillaries. It is very widely distributed
+throughout England, and is common in parts of Scotland and
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect is on the wing in July and early August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar first appears toward the end of August, and
+commences its period of hybernation among the roots of its food
+plant before it has grown to any considerable size. It comes out
+again in the spring, and continues to feed till the beginning or
+middle of July, and then changes to the chrysalis state, after protecting
+itself by binding three or four leaves together.</p>
+
+<p>Its colour is a velvety black, with dark and glossy grey between
+the segments. There is a double yellow line along the back, and a
+thin line of orange yellow on each side below the spiracles. It has
+a number of black hairy spines, arranged in six longitudinal rows.<!-- Page 159 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is of a shiny black colour, with brownish abdomen;
+and the conical projections are black with yellow tips.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The High-brown Fritillary</i> (<i>Argynnis Adippe</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The upper side of this butterfly is so much like that of <i>Aglaia</i>
+that it would be difficult indeed to give a written description of
+one that did not almost equally well apply to the other; so we look
+to the under surface for the chief marks by which we can distinguish
+between them.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_71" id="FIG_71"></a><a href="images/i_176.jpg"><img src="images/i_176_tn.jpg" width="300" height="143" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The High-brown Fritillary." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 71.&mdash;The High-brown Fritillary.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On this side (<a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a>, fig. 1) the fore wings are much the same
+as those of <i>Aglaia</i>. The hind wings, too, are very similarly coloured
+and marked, but here we have a distinguishing feature in a row of
+rust-red spots with silvery
+centres, just inside
+the silver border of the
+hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>This butterfly is common
+in open spaces of
+woods in many parts of
+England, more particularly
+in the south, and
+seems to be also fond of
+hilly heaths and moors.</p>
+
+<p>It is on the wing in
+July, and, towards the end of this month and in the beginning of
+August, the eggs are laid on the leaves of the dog violet (<i>Viola
+canina</i>) and heartsease (<i>V. tricolor</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The young caterpillar emerges about two weeks later, and feeds
+only for a short time before it seeks out its winter quarters among
+the dead leaves at the root of its food plant. The feeding is resumed
+in the spring, and continued till the month of June, when it is fully
+grown. At this time it is about an inch and a half long. Its head
+is black, and its body pinkish brown. A white line extends down
+the back, but is interrupted by several black marks. The spines,
+of which there are six rows, are white, with pinkish tips.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Silver-washed Fritillary</i> (<i>Argynnis Paphia</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This beautiful and noble butterfly is the largest of the Fritillaries,
+and the most powerful on the wing. During the latter part of June<!-- Page 160 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+and throughout July it may be seen gracefully sweeping through
+the trees and undergrowth of woods, often settling down on a
+favourite flower for a short time. So strong is its flight that it is
+useless to attempt to pursue it for any distance. Sometimes it will
+sail along a wooded path, followed at short intervals by others of
+its species, and may be taken in the net as it passes. But perhaps
+the most successful method of netting <i>Paphia</i> is to wait till it
+has settled, and then secure it by a quick upward or side stroke
+of the net. If then you miss your aim, off it will dart, sailing
+over the tree tops till, in a very short time, it is quite out of
+sight.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_72" id="FIG_72"></a><a href="images/i_177.jpg"><img src="images/i_177_tn.jpg" width="300" height="163" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Silver-washed Fritillary." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 72.&mdash;The Silver-washed Fritillary&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The upper side of this butterfly is shown in <a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a>, fig. 2,
+where the general arrangement of the black spots on the rich
+orange-brown ground is carefully marked. There is a considerable
+difference between the male and female of this species. The figure
+on Plate III represents the male. The female does not possess
+the broad black lines that follow the course of the veins of the fore
+wings; the basal portions of all four wings are also tinged with a
+rich olive-brown colour, often with a decided tendency to green;
+and the black spots of all the wings are larger.</p>
+
+<p>The under side is particularly rich in its decorations. The front
+wings are of the usual orange brown, chequered with black. The
+hind wings are partly brown and partly orange, and exhibit beautiful
+greenish reflections. They have also two bars of silver, and a silvery
+spot in the basal angle, all with rather indefinite outlines.<!-- Page 161 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The female lays her eggs late in July on the food plants (<i>Viola
+canina</i> and <i>V. odorata</i>) or on the moss that surrounds them.</p>
+
+<p>About two weeks later the young caterpillar is out and feeding;
+and then, after a few more weeks, while it is yet very small, it hides
+among the dead leaves at the roots. Early in the spring it resumes
+its feeding, and is full grown at the end of May.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the caterpillar (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a>, fig. 3) is black, and
+there are two yellow lines along the back, separated by a black stripe,
+also one yellowish line on each side. Its body is adorned with
+reddish-brown spines, two of which, situated just behind the head,
+are longer than the others.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a>, fig. 9) is greyish, marked with
+metallic spots, and has a number of angular projections representing
+the spines of the larva.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paphia</i> is to be met with in woods in all parts of England and
+Wales. It has also been observed in Ireland, but is rarely seen
+in Scotland.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Greasy Fritillary</i> (<i>Melitæa Aurinia</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Unlike the other Fritillaries, this species (<a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a>, fig. 3)
+exhibits a variety of shades on the upper surface. A broad band of
+sienna brown stretches across each wing, near to and parallel with
+the hind margin. The other parts of the wings are marked with
+patches of sienna, orange, and yellow, separated by black lines and
+bands. The margins are all black, and inside the broader margin
+of the hind wing is a row of six very
+pale yellow spots. The broad sienna
+band of the hind wing is also
+divided by narrow black lines into
+seven parts, six of which have black
+centres.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_73" id="FIG_73"></a><a href="images/i_178.jpg"><img src="images/i_178_tn.jpg" width="300" height="73" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Greasy Fritillary." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 73.&mdash;The Greasy Fritillary&mdash;Under
+Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The under surface of the fore
+wings has indefinite yellowish and
+tawny patches, which look as if they
+had been greased and smeared. The hind wings are marked with
+pale yellow and deep orange; a broad band of the latter, near the
+hind margin, is divided into segments, each of which has a yellow
+spot with black in the centre.</p>
+
+<p>This is a very local insect, although it is widely distributed
+throughout England and Wales. It also occurs sparingly in Scotland
+and Ireland. Its food plants are the honeysuckle (<i>Lonicera</i><!-- Page 162 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+<i>Periclymenum</i>), devil's-bit scabious (<i>Scabiosa succisa</i>), and the
+plantain (<i>Plantago</i>); and its chief resorts are damp meadows
+and marshy places, where these plants (more especially the
+scabious) abound.</p>
+
+<p>The butterfly appears about the end of April or in June.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars emerge from the eggs towards the end of the
+latter month, and always feed in groups under the cover of a silken
+web. Like the preceding species they hybernate during the winter,
+and commence feeding again in the spring. They are fully grown
+about the end of April.</p>
+
+<p>In colour the caterpillar is velvety black, dotted with white, and
+its body is covered with short bristly spines. When fully fed it
+seeks the shelter of a curled leaf or dense herbage, suspends itself
+by the hind claspers to a silken carpet, and then changes to a creamy
+white chrysalis with black dots.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Glanville Fritillary</i> (<i>Melitæa Cinxia</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The pattern of the upper side of this Fritillary (<a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a>,
+fig. 4) is very similar to that of <i>Aurinia</i>, but the ground colour
+is a uniform tawny brown, and the fringes of the wings are of a
+very pale straw colour, barred with black.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_74" id="FIG_74"></a><a href="images/i_179.jpg"><img src="images/i_179_tn.jpg" width="300" height="88" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Glanville Fritillary." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 74.&mdash;The Glanville
+Fritillary&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The under side of the fore wings is tawny brown, with straw-coloured
+tips bearing black markings. The hind wings have four
+alternate bands of brown and straw
+colour, and a patch of straw colour at
+the base. The marginal yellow band has
+six or seven black spots. The brown
+band next to it is divided into six segments
+with black borders, each with a
+black spot. The next yellow band has
+also a row of black spots. The inner
+fulvous band is very irregular; and inside
+this is the yellow base with six spots.</p>
+
+<p>This is another local insect&mdash;very local indeed, for it seems to
+have been found only in a few spots outside its head quarters, the
+Isle of Wight. Those in search of it should carefully scan the
+rough cliffy parts of the island, wherever the species of plantain
+(<i>Plantago Coronopus</i> and <i>P. maritima</i>) are plentiful, these being
+the food plants of the larvæ. It first appears on the wing in May,
+but may be found till the end of June.<!-- Page 163 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars, which are black and spiny, with reddish head and
+legs, begin to feed in August, and as soon as the chilly weather sets
+in they hybernate in groups under the cover of a tent constructed
+by binding together leaves or blades of grass. In the spring they
+start out again, and feed till the end of April, at which time they
+change to dark brownish and smooth chrysalides.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Heath Fritillary</i> (<i>Melitæa Athalia</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Both the upper and under sides of this butterfly are shown on
+<a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a> (figs. 5 and 6), and it will be observed from these that its
+general appearance is very similar to that of <i>Cinxia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The upper surface is of the same tawny brown, barred and striped
+with black, and the fringes of the wings are pale yellow, interrupted
+by small patches of black.</p>
+
+<p>The under surface of the fore wings has the same ground colour
+with the exception of the tips, which are yellow; and the whole is
+marked with black, as in the illustration. The hind wings are pale
+yellow, with two broad bands of brown corresponding with those of
+<i>Cinxia</i>; but a series of black double arches along the hind margin
+and the <i>absence</i> of rows of black spots serve to distinguish this
+species from the last.</p>
+
+<p><i>Athalia</i> is another local butterfly, but is sometimes found in
+abundance in the spots which it frequents. It is met with chiefly
+in the open spaces of woods along the south coast and for some
+distance inland. Devon, Cornwall, Sussex, and Kent seem to be
+the most favoured counties; and London entomologists would do
+well to search for it in Epping Forest.</p>
+
+<p>The butterfly deposits its eggs during June and July, on several
+different food plants, the chief of which are the greater and narrow-leaved
+plantains (<i>Plantago major</i> and <i>P. lanceolata</i>), foxglove
+(<i>Digitalis purpurea</i>), two species of cow-wheat (<i>Melampyrum
+pratense</i> and <i>M. sylvaticum</i>), wood sage (<i>Teucrium Scorodonia</i>),
+and the germander speedwell (<i>Veronica Chamædrys</i>), and the
+young caterpillars, after feeding for only a week or two, commence
+their period of hybernation. They resume their feeding in April,
+and change to the pupal state about the end of May.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the caterpillar is velvety black, finely dotted
+with white, and the spines are yellow or orange, tipped with
+white.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is creamy white, banded and patched with<!-- Page 164 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
+orange and black, and is suspended by anal hooks from a silken,
+carpet which the caterpillar had spun on the leaf of the food
+plant.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Comma</i> (<i>Vanessa C-Album</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Leaving the Fritillaries, we now come to a genus (Vanessa)
+that includes seven most beautiful butterflies, some of which are
+so common as to be known to almost everybody.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that this genus belongs to the same family
+as the Fritillaries, and we may therefore expect to find that
+the two groups possess features in common. A slight examination
+of a few in their different stages will show that this is so.
+Thus, the perfect insects have only four walking legs, the caterpillars
+are all spiny, and the chrysalides are angular.</p>
+
+<p>There is another feature concerning the chrysalides worthy of
+note. Like some of the pupæ of the Fritillaries, they are adorned more
+or less with brilliant metallic
+spots, sometimes of
+a rich golden hue, and
+sometimes resembling
+burnished silver. Now
+the word 'chrysalis,'
+which, as we have already
+seen, is derived from a
+Greek word meaning
+'gold,' was originally applied
+to the pupæ of some
+of the Vanessas, on account
+of their metallic decorations, but it has since been extended
+to the pupæ of all the Lepidoptera, and also to other orders of
+insects, even though the greater number of them display no tints
+of the precious metal.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_75" id="FIG_75"></a><a href="images/i_181.jpg"><img src="images/i_181_tn.jpg" width="300" height="123" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Comma." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 75.&mdash;The Comma&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first member for our consideration is the Comma Butterfly,
+of which an illustration is given in <a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a>, fig. 7. No one could
+mistake this beautiful butterfly for any other British species, for
+its wings of rich orange brown, with black and dark-brown markings,
+are so irregularly scalloped on the hind margins that they
+present a somewhat ragged appearance. Its name is derived
+from the fact that a white mark something like the letter C, or,
+as some have it, like a comma, is distinctly painted on the dark
+brown of the under side.<!-- Page 165 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This butterfly generally emerges from the chrysalis late in the
+summer&mdash;August and September, but it is often seen earlier, and
+frequently as late as October. It is a great lover of sweets, and
+may be found settled on various flowers and fruits. Its chief food
+plants are the hop (<i>Humulus Lupulus</i>), red currant (<i>Ribes
+rubrum</i>), stinging nettle (<i>Urtica dioica</i>), and the Elm (<i>Ulmus
+campestris</i>).</p>
+
+<p>It is very abundant in certain districts where hops are grown,
+but seems to avoid those counties that border the sea. It is widely
+distributed in the midland counties, and extends to the north of
+England and into Scotland, but is very capricious in its appearance
+in many parts.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are laid in May by females that have hybernated
+through the winter, and the caterpillars may be found feeding
+during July and August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is coloured grey and brown, with a black head,
+and a broad white stripe down the back of the hindermost segments.
+The body is armed with a number of spines, some of which are
+white, and others pale brown.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is a very peculiar object, having two ear-like projections
+extending forwards from the sides of the head. It has a
+number of angular projections, and is of an umber-brown colour,
+finely netted with black lines, and having several spots of a brilliant
+metallic lustre.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Large Tortoiseshell</i> (<i>Vanessa Polychloros</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our two tortoiseshells&mdash;large and small&mdash;are very similar in
+their colour and markings, and moreover are not always to be
+distinguished by their size, for specimens of the larger species are
+sometimes even inferior in this respect to the largest of the smaller
+species; so, to avoid all risks of mistaken identity, we must look for
+more reliable marks of distinction between them.</p>
+
+<p>The present species is figured on <a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a> (fig. 8), where it will
+be seen that the ground colour of dark tawny brown is spotted and
+bordered with black. The border of the hind wings contains a row
+of crescent-shaped blue spots. The costal margin of the fore wings,
+between the black patches, is decidedly lighter than the general
+ground, and is yellow rather than brown. It will be noticed,
+too, that a black spot lies very near the anal angle of these
+wings.<!-- Page 166 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The under surface, though by no means brilliant, exhibits a rich
+blending of various shades of brown.</p>
+
+<p>This butterfly is not known to occur in either Scotland or
+Ireland, and is by no means common in England. Its chief localities
+are in the midland and eastern counties.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect generally appears about the middle of July,
+and after spending a month or six weeks on the wing, seeks out a
+sheltered spot in which to spend the winter. In the spring&mdash;April
+or May&mdash;it again takes to flight, and during the latter month the
+females are busily engaged in the deposition of their eggs.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on the two species of elm (<i>Ulmus campestris</i>
+and <i>U. montana</i>), willow (<i>Salix alba</i>), sallow (<i>S. Caprea</i>),
+osier (<i>S. viminalis</i>), aspen (<i>Populus tremula</i>), and certain fruit
+trees; and is full grown about midsummer. It is of a tawny grey
+colour, with a black stripe on each side, and is covered with very
+small wart-like projections, and the spines are branched.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is of a dull pinkish colour, and may be found on
+tree trunks, palings, and walls, about the end of June, suspended
+from a silken carpet by means of its anal hooks.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Tortoiseshell</i> (<i>Vanessa Urticæ</i>)</h4>
+
+<p><i>Urticæ</i> (<a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a>, fig. 9) may be distinguished from <i>Polychloros</i>
+by the <i>absence</i> of the black spot in the anal angle of the fore wings
+of the latter. It has also a white spot near the tip of each fore
+wing-between the black border and the first black costal patch.
+The whole of the base of the hind wing is also black, and the ground
+colour is decidedly brighter.</p>
+
+<p>It is one of the commonest of all British butterflies, and is to be
+found more or less abundantly in nearly all parts of the British
+Isles.</p>
+
+<p>The hybernated perfect insects come out early in the spring, and
+lay their eggs in close irregular clusters on nettles (<i>Urtica dioica</i>
+and <i>U. urens</i>). Shortly after the gregarious caterpillars may be
+found on these plants in dense masses. They change to the
+chrysalis state about the end of May, and from this time there is a
+continuous succession of butterflies till the end of the summer.</p>
+
+<p>The later specimens, which do not emerge till September or
+October, spend only a short time on the wing, and then hybernate
+till the spring, giving rise to the first brood of the following season.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar of this species is black above and greyish beneath.<!-- Page 167 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+It is thickly covered with yellow dots, which are so close together
+on the back as to form two yellowish stripes, separated only by a
+fine black line. There are also two yellowish stripes along each
+side; and the body, as with the rest of this genus, is spiny, the
+spines in this case being black or very dark green.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is brownish, and spotted with burnished gold in
+variable quantity&mdash;sometimes so plentifully as to cover the greater
+part of the surface.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Peacock</i> (<i>Vanessa Io</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This is another of our commonest and most beautiful butterflies.
+Its general appearance is such that it cannot possibly be mistaken
+for any other. The upper side (<a href="#Plate_IV">Plate IV</a>, fig. 1) is rendered conspicuous
+by the beautiful eye-like marks at the costal angles of all
+four wings; and the under surface is very richly decorated with a
+fine arrangement of black and dark-brown patches and streaks.</p>
+
+<p>Io is very abundant in all parts of England, and is well known
+in many parts of Scotland and Ireland, but seems to be rare in the
+extreme north of both of these countries.</p>
+
+<p>Its food plant is the stinging nettle (<i>Urtica dioica</i>), and on this
+the eggs are laid in April by females that have hybernated during
+the winter.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is full grown at the end of June or beginning of
+July. It is black, with numerous minute white wart-like projections.
+Its spines also are black, and its claspers brown.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis may be found suspended by the tail on some
+object in the neighbourhood of the food plant, or sometimes on the
+food plant itself. It is of a greenish colour, with yellowish patches,
+but turns darker as the time approaches for the emerging of the
+perfect insect.</p>
+
+<p>This event takes place in August, and the butterfly, after a brief
+period on the wing, seeks out a sheltered spot for its winter nap.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Camberwell Beauty</i> (<i>Vanessa Antiopa</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The reader will be fortunate if he succeeds in netting a specimen
+of this highly prized British butterfly. It derives its popular name
+from the fact that a few were taken in Camberwell about a hundred
+and fifty years ago; and since that time it has been seen and taken
+in variable numbers in several parts of England. So widely distributed,<!-- Page 168 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+indeed, are its localities, and so few, comparatively, its
+appearances, that it would be useless to attempt to give any hints
+as to where it may be looked for. It is, however, a very common
+butterfly in many continental countries, and foreign specimens may
+be obtained from any dealer in entomological wares for a few pence
+each.</p>
+
+<p>This rare British gem is illustrated in fig. 2 of <a href="#Plate_IV">Plate IV</a>. Here
+it will be seen that nearly the whole of the surface is covered with
+a rich velvety purple brown, bordered with a black band containing
+blue spots; and outside this is a border of white, finely dotted and
+streaked with black. The continental specimens may be easily distinguished
+from the genuine Britishers by a darker border with a
+decidedly yellow tinge.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs of this species are generally laid on the young leaves of
+the willow (<i>Salix alba</i>), in the spring, by females that have hybernated,
+but sometimes the nettle (<i>Urtica dioica</i>) and the birch
+(<i>Betula alba</i>) are selected for the food of the larvæ.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is black and spiny, and has a row of seven rather
+large reddish-brown spots on the back, commencing at the fifth
+segment.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis, like those of the other members of this family,
+is angular and suspended by the 'tail.' The perfect insect appears
+in August, and may be seen from that month till October.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Red Admiral</i> (<i>Vanessa Atalanta</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>There seems to be a tendency with many to under-estimate the
+beauty of certain natural objects because they happen to be so very
+common, and this is particularly the case with some of our most
+familiar butterflies. The beautiful Red Admiral (<a href="#Plate_IV">Plate IV</a>, fig. 3)
+may possibly suffer in this respect; for, not only is it one of the
+commonest of our butterflies, but it fearlessly hovers among the
+flowers of our gardens, often venturing into the very heart of thickly
+populated towns.</p>
+
+<p>The bright scarlet bands and white blotches of this gorgeous
+insect stand out boldly on the rich velvety black ground of the
+wings, and the additional touches of blue in the anal angles of the
+hind wings add to the effect. The under side of the fore wings is
+somewhat similar to the upper surface, but is relieved by brown
+and blue; and this side of the hind wings presents most beautiful
+and indescribable blendings of various shades of brown, grey, and<!-- Page 169 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
+pink. The female may be distinguished by the presence of a small
+white spot on the scarlet band of the fore wing.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are deposited singly on the nettle (<i>Urtica dioica</i>) in
+spring by females that have hybernated through the winter.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar always feeds under the cover of a tent made by
+drawing leaves together. It is spiny, and its colour is usually a
+greenish or yellowish grey, spotted with black, and striped along
+the sides with white or yellow. When fully grown it bites the stem
+of the nettle nearly through a few inches from the top, so that the
+upper part of the plant bends over the withers. It then constructs
+a commodious tent by binding the leaves of this drooping portion
+together, and suspends itself from the roof of this strange home to
+undergo its metamorphoses.</p>
+
+<p>The change to the chrysalis state takes place in July or August,
+and the perfect insect may be seen during August, September,
+and October in almost every part of the British Isles.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Painted Lady</i> (<i>Vanessa Cardui</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Although the time of appearance of this butterfly generally
+corresponds with that of the last species, yet it is exceedingly
+variable, so much so that it is impossible to give any fixed period
+as its season. It is, moreover, very capricious with regard to its
+localities and its numbers. Sometimes it will turn up unexpectedly
+in positive abundance in certain localities where
+previously it had been a mere straggler; and then, for some
+unaccountable reason, become comparatively scarce for several
+successive seasons.</p>
+
+<p>The upper surface of this beauty (<a href="#Plate_IV">Plate IV</a>, fig. 4) is adorned
+with pale red, orange, and black, and with five white spots near
+the tip of each fore wing. The under side of the fore wings is
+marked something like the upper, but much of the black is replaced
+by shades of brown. The hind wings are beautifully variegated
+beneath with greys and browns, and have a row of eye-like spots
+near the hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs of this butterfly are laid singly on various species of
+thistles, particularly the common field thistle (<i>Cnicus arvensis</i>),
+generally in the month of June.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar, which is black above and red beneath, with
+yellowish stripes along the back and sides, feeds under the cover of a
+silken web which it constructs among the leaves. It is full grown<!-- Page 170 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+in July or August, when it suspends itself after the manner of the
+other Vanessas previous to undergoing its changes.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is angular, coloured with brown and grey, and
+adorned with brilliant gold spots.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect may be seen at large throughout late summer
+and the autumn, and the eggs are laid by females that survive the
+winter.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The White Admiral</i> (<i>Limenitis Sibylla</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The White Admiral (<a href="#Plate_IV">Plate IV</a>, fig. 5) is neither so pretty nor so
+common as its red namesake, but it is nevertheless a fine insect,
+although the chief beauty is reserved for the under surface. Above,
+the ground colour is a very dark rusty brown, relieved by bands
+and spots of white. The under surface is beautifully marked with
+silvery blue, bright orange brown, and white, the latter being
+arranged just like the corresponding colour on the upper side.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that this butterfly does not belong to the
+<i>Vanessa</i> genus; so, while we may look for <i>family</i> resemblances,
+we shall observe a few features in which it differs from the preceding
+species.</p>
+
+<p>It is not by any means abundant, being unknown in Scotland
+and Ireland, and confined in England almost exclusively to the
+oak woods of the south, where its food plant&mdash;the honeysuckle
+(<i>Lonicera Periclymenum</i>)&mdash;abounds. Here it may be seen during
+July, gracefully sailing among the trees and across the open spaces.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is very different from those of the Vanessas.
+Its colour is dark green, with a narrow white stripe along each
+side. There are very conspicuous branched spines on the third and
+two following segments, also on the eleventh and twelfth; and
+smaller spines on most of the others. All the spines are of a
+brownish colour, with pink tips. While it is yet very small it prepares
+its winter quarters by bending round the remains of a leaf on
+which it has been feeding, securing the edges by silken threads,
+and then binding it to the stem of the plant. Soon after, the petiole
+becomes detached from the stem, and the little caterpillar then
+rests suspended in its snug swinging cradle, where it remains
+perfectly secure till the following April, when the warm sun calls
+it out to feed on the opening leaves. It continues at this till about
+the beginning of June, and then changes to a beautiful angular and
+eared chrysalis, of a bright green colour, marked with brown, and
+having brilliant silvery spots and streaks.<!-- Page 171 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Apaturidæ</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>The Purple Emperor</i> (<i>Apatura Iris</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This grand insect is the only British member of its family, and
+richly deserves its popular title. The male, which is figured on
+<a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a> (fig. 1), exhibits a most gorgeous imperial purple, which is
+reflected at certain angles only from the upper surface of his large
+and powerful wings. His flight is lofty and vigorous, and among
+the topmost branches of majestic oaks, where he defies the efforts
+of would-be capturers. Unlike our other butterflies, he is also a
+very quarrelsome creature, and will not hesitate to fiercely attack
+a brother Emperor who dares approach the branch he has selected
+for his throne.</p>
+
+<p>Many attempts have been made to capture this prized creature
+by means of a large net mounted on the end of a pole twenty or
+thirty feet in length, but the wielding of such a cumbersome implement
+against so powerful an insect is no mean task, and but few
+fall a prey to such a snare. But it so happens that this imperial
+personage has a very depraved appetite, the indulgence in which
+has often brought him to ruin. Instead of searching out the sweets
+so bounteously supplied by the blossoms that are so attractive to
+other lepidopterous insects, he delights in sipping the waters of the
+filthiest puddles, and imbibing the odoriferous moisture of dung and
+the decomposing carcases of animals. So deeply seated is this depravity
+of taste that the Emperor may be netted with ease while
+indulging in his sumptuous feast, and is even to be taken at times
+with the fingers.</p>
+
+<p>The knowledge of this peculiarity of the imperial palate has led
+entomologists to abandon the awkward net, and to bait the woods
+with viands that alone can entice his highness from his lofty seat;
+and many a splendid specimen has been easily captured while
+enjoying the luxurious juice of a dead cat, stoat, or rabbit, or of a
+seething mass of pig's dung.</p>
+
+<p>The female is larger than her mate, and does not display the
+beautiful purple reflections that adorn the male. She is very
+different, too, in her habits, for she sits nearly all day on high
+branches of trees, giving her attention to the graver duties of an
+imperial mother, and is consequently but seldom seem. She lays
+her eggs in July on the sallow (<i>Salix Caprea</i>) or the poplar (<i>Populus</i>),
+and in less than a fortnight the young caterpillars are hatched.<!-- Page 172 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+They feed on till the leaves are falling, and then fix themselves by
+their claspers to a silken carpet which they construct on a twig. Here
+they remain, exposed to all the wintry blasts and frosts, till the new
+leaves are out in the spring, when they again commence feeding, and
+continue to do so till they are full grown&mdash;in May or June.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 304px;">
+<a name="FIG_76" id="FIG_76"></a>
+<a href="images/i_189.jpg"><img src="images/i_189_tn.jpg" width="304" height="203" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Purple Emperor." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 76.&mdash;The Purple Emperor&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The under side of this species is shown in <a href="#FIG_76">fig. 76</a>, in which will
+also be observed the eye-like spots of the fore wings which have
+given rise to its specific name (<i>Iris</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a>, fig. 5) is a very peculiar creature.
+Its body is green, with seven oblique yellowish stripes on each
+side, and it has a pair of horns attached to its head.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a>, fig. 10) may be found in June, suspended
+to the under side of a leaf. It is of an apple-green colour,
+and still exhibits the oblique stripes which we observed in the
+caterpillar.</p>
+
+<p>This insect is not to be found in either Scotland or Ireland, but
+is more or less abundant in many of the oak woods of the midland
+and southern counties of England. Among the numerous favoured
+localities, we may mention Colchester, Forest of Dean, Northamptonshire,
+Ipswich, Huntingdonshire, Buckinghamshire, Epping,
+Lyndhurst, and the Isle of Wight.<!-- Page 173 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr/>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV
+<br />
+<i>THE BROWNS AND HEATHS</i></h3>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Satyridæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>This family contains eleven British species, often spoken of
+collectively as the 'Browns,' since in most of them the prevailing
+tints are various shades of brown. They are decidedly dingy in
+comparison with the beautiful butterflies we have been previously
+observing; but to this statement we must allow one marked
+exception, for the family includes the beautiful Marbled White,
+which stands out prominently among its fellows for brilliancy and
+boldness of colour.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars of the 'Satyrs' have no spines, but their bodies
+are covered with very minute hair-bearing warts that give them a
+soft velvety appearance. The hinder extremity tapers off considerably,
+and terminates in two points.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalides are not angular like those of the preceding
+species, and though generally suspended by the tail, are sometimes
+found quite free among leaves and grasses on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insects are rather feeble fliers, and generally take so
+little notice of intruders that they are easily caught in the hand.
+Their wings are devoid of angles, and they have only four perfectly
+developed legs.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Marbled White</i> (<i>Melanargia Galatea</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our first member of this family is the exception to which we
+have already alluded as a relief to the general dinginess of the
+'Browns.' Its colours above are cream and black, arranged
+as shown in <a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a>, fig. 2. The under side (<a href="#FIG_77">fig. 77</a>) is marked
+with white, black, and greenish grey, with a row of eye-like
+spots parallel with the hind margin of the hind wings.<!-- Page 174 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_77" id="FIG_77"></a>
+<a href="images/i_191.jpg"><img src="images/i_191_tn.jpg" width="300" height="123" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Marbled White." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 77.&mdash;The Marbled White&mdash;Under
+Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This butterfly is not known in Scotland or Ireland, nor is it to
+be found in several of the northern counties of England. Its chief
+haunts are the waste cliffy grounds of the southern and some of
+the midland counties of England, where it is usually restricted to certain
+small districts. In some places it is really a common insect,
+and among these may be mentioned Brighton, Horsham, Dover,
+Folkestone, Margate,
+Gravesend, New Forest,
+parts of Gloucestershire,
+Cambridgeshire, and
+Devonshire, also in the
+Isle of Wight and South
+Wales.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect is
+out in July, during which
+month the eggs are deposited
+on various grasses,
+or indiscriminately on
+leaves and stems in grassy
+spots.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on grasses; and, being still small at the
+end of the autumn, hybernates during the winter among the stems of
+grass. It feeds again in April, and is fully grown by the end of May.
+Its colour is a dull green or brownish, with a darker stripe down
+the back, and lighter stripes along the sides. Its spiracles are black.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is pale brown, marked with lines of a slightly
+darker shade. It may be found among grass stems, without any
+attachment, during the month of June.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Ringlet</i> (<i>Erebia Epiphron</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>On account of the very limited range of this butterfly, only those
+who have the opportunity of visiting its haunts can have any
+practical acquaintance with its natural history. It is almost
+exclusively confined to the lake district in England, to a few
+mountainous localities in Scotland, and to one or two similar
+localities in Ireland. Its strong partiality for elevated situations
+has earned for it the popular name of Mountain Ringlet.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the upper surface (<a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a>, fig. 3) is a dark
+brown, with a broad band of rusty brown, parallel with the hind
+margin of each wing, and broken by the wing rays. Each division<!-- Page 175 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+of these bands has often a black central spot, but frequently these
+are entirely absent. The colouring of the under side is very
+similar but less defined, and the rusty spots of the hind wings are
+very small.</p>
+
+<p>The butterfly is out in June and July. The caterpillars, which
+are green, with white stripes along the sides, feed on various
+grasses. They hybernate during the winter, and change to the
+chrysalis state in the following May or June.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Northern Brown</i> (<i>Erebia Æthiops</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The colour of this species (<a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a>, fig. 4) is a rich dark brown,
+with rust-coloured and black spotted bands arranged something
+like those of the last. The markings, however, are very variable.
+There are usually four black spots on the band of the fore wings,
+but the first two of these are always united, and centred with
+white. The third is often very small or entirely wanting.</p>
+
+<p>The under side of the fore wings is marked something like the
+upper, but the hind wings on this side are grey, with two broad
+bands of a darker colour.</p>
+
+<p>As its popular name implies, this butterfly is a northerner. It
+is common in Scotland, where it flies in elevated spots. In
+England it is confined to the mountainous districts of the
+north.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect is at large in July and August, during which
+time the eggs are deposited on various grasses or on low-growing
+herbage in grassy spots.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is of a brown colour, and has a narrow black
+stripe down the middle of the back, and two other stripes, lighter
+than the ground colour, one on each side. At about the end of
+June it turns to a chrysalis of a brownish colour.</p>
+
+<p>The food plants of this species include a number of common
+grasses.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Speckled Wood or Wood Argus</i> (<i>Pararge Egeria</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Most of our butterflies delight in the hot sun, and are to be
+seen on the wing only when it is shining brightly. This fact is
+particularly noticeable on a bright day with occasional heavy
+clouds. While the sun's rays are pouring uninterruptedly on the
+landscape, numbers of these light-lovers are to be observed flitting<!-- Page 176 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+about; but when the dense shadow of a passing cloud creeps over
+the ground they rapidly disappear from view, having settled down
+to rest on leaves and stems. Then, as soon as the shadow passes
+away, the air is again enlivened with their sports and flittings.</p>
+
+<p>The Wood Argus is a marked exception to this rule. It
+delights in the cool shade of the narrow paths of woods, where it
+slowly flies up and down the lonely footpath, taking but little heed
+of strangers that intrude on its haunts, and seldom venturing into
+the full blaze of the sun unless pursued. Even on dull days it
+continues its solitary flight, and may even be seen on the wing
+while a soft rain is bathing the dripping foliage.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_78" id="FIG_78"></a><a href="images/i_193.jpg"><img src="images/i_193_tn.jpg" width="300" height="101" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Wood Argus." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 78.&mdash;The Wood Argus&mdash;Under
+Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The upper surface of this pretty butterfly is shown on <a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a>,
+fig. 5, and the under side in the accompanying woodcut. Both
+sides are prettily marked with various shades of brown and buff,
+and adorned with white-centred
+dark eye-spots which have earned
+for it the name of Argus.</p>
+
+<p>It first appears on the wing in
+April, and may be seen from this
+month continuously to the end of
+August.</p>
+
+<p>The food plants probably consist
+of many species of grasses, the
+cock's-foot (<i>Dactylis glomerata</i>)
+and couch grass (<i>Agropyron repens</i>)
+being among the number, and the
+eggs are laid on or in the neighbourhood of these during the summer
+months.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar of this species is of a dull greenish or brownish
+colour, and it has two whitish stripes (sometimes three) down the
+middle of the back, and similar stripes along each side. It
+hybernates during the winter, and is full grown in March, when it
+changes to a dull green or brownish chrysalis, which is streaked
+with black, and has a few white dots on the back.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated that the butterfly is on the wing from April
+to August, and, according to some authorities, there are no less
+than three broods during this time, following each other in rapid
+succession. It is common throughout England and Ireland, and is
+known in parts of Scotland.<!-- Page 177 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Wall Butterfly</i> (<i>Pararge Megæra</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Belonging to the same genus is another very familiar butterfly
+&mdash;the Wall&mdash;which receives its popular title from its peculiar habit
+of frequently resting on walls and stony banks. It is one of the
+first, if not <i>the</i> first, to take to the wing in the morning, and is
+generally the last to seek its hiding place in the evening. I have
+seen it actively flying about during August, as early as 7.30 in the
+morning, and found it still flitting from one spot to another along
+the western side of a wall as late as 8 in the evening, as if in search
+of a convenient shelter for the fast approaching night.</p>
+
+<p>This pretty 'Brown' must be familiar to the reader, and the
+coloured drawing on <a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a> (fig. 6) will at once serve for purposes
+of identification without the necessity of a wordy description. It
+may be mentioned, however, that the male (the sex figured) is
+smaller than the female, and is further distinguished by a broad dark
+oblique band passing across each fore wing.</p>
+
+<p>The Wall is a double-brooded butterfly, the first brood appearing
+in May, and the second in August. The caterpillars which produce
+the latter may be found on the cock's foot (<i>Dactylis glomerata</i>)
+and other grasses in June, while those of the former are hybernators;
+and the chrysalides of the two broods may be found in April
+and July respectively.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the caterpillar is green, with a slightly darker
+stripe down the middle of the back, a pale stripe along each side,
+and another similar stripe about midway between these two.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is green with the exception of the more prominent
+parts of its surface, which are almost white.</p>
+
+<p>This species is very common in almost every locality in Britain.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Grayling</i> (<i>Satyrus Semele</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The Grayling is the largest of our 'Browns,' and, although a
+powerful flier, it seldom takes long flights. The female, which is
+shown in fig. 7, <a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a>, is really a beautiful creature, the light
+markings of which stand out in bold contrast with the deep brown
+ground colour; but the male is comparatively dingy, there being
+much less contrast between the ground and the markings. He is
+also smaller than his mate.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_79" id="FIG_79"></a>
+<a href="images/i_195.jpg"><img src="images/i_195_tn.jpg" width="300" height="115" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of Figure 79." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 79.&mdash;The Grayling&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The under side of both sexes is similar (<a href="#FIG_79">fig. 79</a>), the pattern of
+the fore wings being much like that of the other side, but considerably<!-- Page 178 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
+lighter, and the hind wings are beautifully marbled with various
+greys and browns.</p>
+
+<p>This species is not nearly so common as the two preceding, but
+it is very widely distributed, and is exceedingly abundant in some
+parts. On some of the heathery cliffs and downs of the south and
+south-west coasts it is so
+plentiful that the butterflies
+are started into the air at
+almost every step, for it
+seldom flies except when disturbed.
+It is a common
+insect in Ireland, and also in
+parts of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is a hybernator,
+and may be found
+feeding on grasses in the
+autumn and the spring. It
+changes to the chrysalis in June, and the perfect insect is on the
+wing from June to the beginning of September.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the caterpillar is pinkish drab above, and greenish
+drab beneath. A dark brown stripe, edged with a lighter colour,
+passes down the middle of the back, and a dark line on each side.
+It changes to a dark reddish-brown chrysalis on the surface of the
+ground, or, according to some observers, a little beneath the surface.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Meadow Brown</i> (<i>Epinephele Janira</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Although this very common butterfly is usually considered to be
+the dingiest of its family, yet it must be admitted that the colour of
+a freshly emerged specimen is really very rich.</p>
+
+<p>The male is of a dark brown colour, with an indistinct patch of
+a lighter tawny brown near the outer margin of the fore wings, and
+a white-centred black eye-spot near the costal angle of the same
+wings. The female (<a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a>, fig. 8) is of a lighter colour, the eye-spot
+on her fore wings is larger and far more conspicuous, and an
+irregular patch of light orange brown occupies a large area of each
+of the same wings. She is, moreover, larger than her mate, and in
+every way a more attractive insect.</p>
+
+<p>The Meadow Brown abounds everywhere, from June to September,
+and may be seen on grass land and waste grounds where
+other butterflies are seldom found.<!-- Page 179 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green, and is rendered slightly rough by a
+number of minute warts. There is also a white stripe on each side.
+It feeds on various grasses in the autumn, hybernates during the
+winter, and is full grown in May.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is apple green, spotted with a lighter green, and
+has several black markings.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Large Heath</i> (<i>Epinephele Tithonus</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This butterfly is sometimes called the 'Small Meadow Brown,'
+and is certainly much like the last species, both in colouring and
+habits.</p>
+
+<p>The fore wings of the male (<a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a>, fig. 9) are light orange
+brown, bordered with dark brown, and having a broad patch of the
+same across the middle; and near the costal angle is a round black
+spot with two white dots.
+The hind wings are dark
+brown with a patch of light
+orange brown near the centre,
+and a small eye-spot near the
+anal angle. The female is
+exactly similar, except that
+she does not possess the broad
+bar on the fore wings.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_80" id="FIG_80"></a>
+<a href="images/i_196.jpg"><img src="images/i_196_tn.jpg" width="300" height="101" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Large Heath." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 80.&mdash;The Large Heath&mdash;Under
+Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The under side is shown
+in <a href="#FIG_80">fig. 80</a>, and is coloured
+with various shades of brown.</p>
+
+<p>This is a very common butterfly, and may be seen during July
+in most English counties, also in the south of Scotland, and in a
+few localities in the south of Ireland. It frequents meadows,
+heaths, downs, and lanes, like <i>Janira</i>, but is not nearly so abundant
+as that species.</p>
+
+<p>The young caterpillar is hatched in August, and is still very
+small when it seeks its winter shelter among the stems of grasses.
+It resumes feeding in the following May, and is full grown towards
+the end of June. Its colour is very variable&mdash;pale green, olive
+green, or dull brown, with five longitudinal stripes at about equal
+distances from each other. These consist of a dark one down the
+middle of the back, a pale line along each side, and another pale
+line midway between these.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis may be found at the end of June, attached by<!-- Page 180 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
+the tail to blades of grass. It is of a very light colour, almost
+white, but adorned with numerous black lines and patches.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Ringlet</i> (<i>Epinephele Hyperanthus</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_81" id="FIG_81"></a><a href="images/i_197.jpg"><img src="images/i_197_tn.jpg" width="300" height="106" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Ringlet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 81.&mdash;The Ringlet&mdash;Upper Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is another rather plainly dressed insect, though somewhat
+prettily adorned on the under side. The upper surface is of a very
+deep sepia brown, almost black, with a few indistinct black eye-like
+spots near the margins. The under side (<a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a>, fig. 10) is of a lighter
+umber brown, with corresponding eye-spots generally very conspicuous.
+These spots are black, with white centres, and generally
+surrounded by light rings. They are subject, however, to considerable
+variation. Those on the upper surface are sometimes quite
+absent in the male, but are nearly always readily perceptible in the
+female. On the under side, too, they are occasionally quite absent,
+while in other varieties they
+are minute white-centred
+dots, without any surrounding
+light ring. Our coloured
+drawing represents the most
+usual form.</p>
+
+<p>The favourite haunts of
+the Ringlet are the borders
+of woods, and the sheltered
+sides of flowery hedgerows.
+It is not so widely distributed
+as some of the common
+'Browns,' but is usually very abundant where it occurs, sometimes
+appearing in such numbers that several may be taken with a single
+stroke of the net. It does not seem to be a frequenter of Scotland,
+and is known in Ireland only in the south. Its head quarters are
+the southern and south-midland counties of England.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are laid in July on various grasses, on which the young
+caterpillars feed from about the middle of August till the cold weather
+sets in. They hybernate at the roots of the grasses till the beginning
+of the following May, and change to the chrysalis state about
+the middle of June, suspending themselves to grass blades by
+means of their anal hooks.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the caterpillar is dull green or brown, and is
+marked with five longitudinal stripes much like those of the
+Large Heath.<!-- Page 181 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is pale brown, spotted and striped with a darker
+shade of the same colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Marsh Ringlet</i> (<i>Cænonympha Typhon</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_82" id="FIG_82"></a><a href="images/i_198.jpg"><img src="images/i_198_tn.jpg" width="300" height="85" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Marsh Ringlet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 82.&mdash;The Marsh Ringlet&mdash;Under
+Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The upper surface of this butterfly is shown in the first figure
+of <a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>, and the under side in the accompanying woodcut;
+but it must be remembered that the species is a very variable one,
+so much so that it is almost impossible to give anything like a short
+and, at the same time, a satisfactory description. The female may
+usually be distinguished by a pale patch across the middle of the fore
+wings; and the eye spots of the same wings, always more or less
+indistinct when present, are sometimes entirely wanting. The
+markings of the under side are even more variable, the transverse
+bars and the eye spots being often
+particularly conspicuous, and at
+other times hardly discernible.</p>
+
+<p>This is generally spoken of as a
+northerner, its chief localities being
+in the mountainous parts of Scotland
+and the elevated districts of
+the north of England, but in Ireland
+it extends to the southern
+ranges. Its haunts are elevated
+moors and marshy heaths, where
+its food plant&mdash;the beak-rush (<i>Rhyncospora alba</i>)&mdash;abounds, and it
+is on the wing from the end of June to August or September.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green, with five longitudinal stripes&mdash;one dark
+one, bordered with yellow, down the middle of the back, and two
+pale yellow ones on each side. It is a hybernator, and is full grown
+about the end of May, when it suspends itself by the hindmost
+claspers to a silken carpet, and changes to a green chrysalis with
+pale brown wing cases.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Heath</i> (<i>Cænonympha Pamphilus</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The last member of the family <i>Satyridæ</i> is the well-known Small
+Heath, that may be seen almost all over the British Isles on heaths,
+meadows and moors, from May to September.</p>
+
+<p>The upper surface of this butterfly (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>, fig. 2) is a tawny
+yellow, with a dark brown border, and a spot of the same dark tint<!-- Page 182 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+near the tip of each fore wing. The under side is much like that
+of the last species, but there are no eye spots on the hind wings.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs of the first brood are laid during May and June on the
+various grasses on which the caterpillar feeds.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars that emerge from these are fully grown in July or
+early August, and go through their changes during the latter month;
+but the later ones hybernate during the winter, and are not full
+fed till the following May.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the larva is pale apple green, with a wide darker
+stripe down the back, two others along the sides, and two more
+between the latter and the dorsal stripe. All these five stripes are
+bordered with a whitish colour.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is bright apple green, dotted with white, and the
+wing cases are striped with a purple-brown line edged with white.<!-- Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV
+<br />
+<i>THE HAIRSTREAKS, COPPERS AND BLUES</i></h3>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lycænidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>This is a large family, including as it does no less than nineteen
+of the British species. These are all of small size, and are characterised
+by their short and jerky flights. They seldom rise much
+above the ground, and are consequently very easily caught.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars of this family have all short and rather thick
+bodies, shaped very much like that of the wood louse&mdash;flattened
+beneath and very convex above.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalides are generally attached by the 'tail,' and further
+secured by a silken cord round the body, as we have already observed
+in the case of the <i>Pieridæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insects differ from the preceding species in that all
+six legs are perfectly developed and adapted for walking.</p>
+
+<p>There are only three genera in this large family:</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li><i>Thecla</i>&mdash;The Hairstreaks, with 'tailed' wings.</li>
+<li><i>Polyommatus</i>&mdash;The 'Coppers.'</li>
+<li><i>Lycæna</i>&mdash;The 'Blues,' with wings either blue or brown.</li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Brown Hairstreak</i> (<i>Thecla Betulæ</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The five Hairstreaks which constitute the genus <i>Thecla</i> are all
+pretty insects, characterised by hair-like streaks on the under
+surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_83" id="FIG_83"></a><a href="images/i_201a.jpg"><img src="images/i_201a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="103" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Brown Hairstreak." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 83.&mdash;The Brown Hairstreak&mdash;Male.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Betulæ</i> is the largest of these. Its upper surface is of a deep
+brown colour, with orange-brown marks at the anal angles of the
+hind wings, and, in the female, a large patch of orange on the fore
+wings. The under side (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>, fig. 3) is orange brown, much
+lighter in the male than in the female. On the fore wings are two<!-- Page 184 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
+white lines, the inner one of which is indistinct; and on the hind
+wings are two others, the outer one being longer and more distinct
+than the inner.</p>
+
+<p>This butterfly is by no means an abundant insect, though it is
+widely distributed, and in some places
+plentiful. Its chief haunts are woods,
+and we may mention among its
+favoured localities Epping Forest,
+Monk's Wood in Cambridgeshire, the
+wooded parts of South Devon and
+Dorset, New Forest, Colchester, and
+Peterborough.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect is on the wing
+from July to October, and the eggs are
+deposited in the autumn on the twigs
+of its food plant&mdash;the blackthorn
+(<i>Prunus spinosa</i>). These do not hatch till the following spring.
+Toward the end of June the caterpillar is fully fed.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the caterpillar is light green, with two white stripes
+down the back, and two others along the sides. There are also two
+small oblique whitish lines on each side of each segment.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is smooth, and of a pale brown colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Black Hairstreak, or White-letter Hairstreak</i>
+(<i>Thecla W-album</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_84" id="FIG_84"></a><a href="images/i_201b.jpg"><img src="images/i_201b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="75" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The White-letter Hairstreak." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 84.&mdash;The White-letter
+Hairstreak.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first of the above two popular names has been applied to
+this species on account of the very deep brown colour of the upper
+side, which colour is often a near approach
+to black. The second is due to the <span class="lettershape">W</span>-shaped
+bend of the white streak of the hind wings.
+The ground colour of the under side (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate
+VI</a>, fig. 4) is greyish brown, with a bright
+orange band, spotted with black near the
+hind margin of the hind wings.</p>
+
+<p><i>W-album</i> is a somewhat rare insect, but
+is occasionally seen in plenty in a few localities,
+Cambridgeshire, Berkshire, Epping,
+Colchester and Suffolk being among its chief resorts. It is out
+on the wing in July, and should be looked for in wooded country
+where the common elm (<i>Ulmus campestris</i>) and the wych elm
+(<i>U. montana</i>), its food plants, exist.<!-- Page 185 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The eggs are laid on the twigs of these trees late in the summer,
+and the young caterpillars do not appear till the following spring.
+The chrysalis may be found attached to an elm twig or leaf about
+the end of June.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is pale green. The ridges along the back are
+tinged with yellow, and there are two fine oblique white lines on each
+side of each segment.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Dark Hairstreak</i> (<i>Thecla Pruni</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The upper side of this butterfly is very much like that of
+<i>W-album</i>, but it may be distinguished by the presence of a few
+orange spots near the anal angle of the hind wings. The colouring
+of the under side (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>, fig. 5) is also very similar, except that
+the white lines of the wings are thinner and less distinct than in the
+last species, and do not exhibit the <span class="lettershape">W</span>-shaped bend. The orange
+band of this surface is bordered on each side with a row of black
+spots, each of which is touched with a bluish white or a metallic
+blue.</p>
+
+<p>This insect is not by any means common, but has been seen in
+considerable numbers in certain localities. It is not found in
+either Scotland or Ireland, and its chief haunts in England seem
+to be in Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire.
+It frequents wooded country, and flies during June and July.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are laid late in the summer on the twigs of the blackthorn
+(<i>Prunus spinosa</i>), and are not hatched till the following
+spring.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar, which is pale green, with rows of yellow spots,
+may be found in May.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Purple Hairstreak</i> (<i>Thecla Quercus</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_85" id="FIG_85"></a><a href="images/i_203a.jpg"><img src="images/i_203a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="96" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Purple Hairstreak." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 85.&mdash;The Purple
+Hairstreak&mdash;Male.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This pretty butterfly, by far the commonest of the Hairstreaks,
+though comparatively very small, reminds one forcibly of the noble
+Purple Emperor. Its haunts are the same oak woods, and its upper
+surface, though only a dull dark brown in certain lights, exhibits
+the same imperial purple reflections when viewed at certain angles.
+The purple of the male extends over the whole of the wings, but
+that of the female is confined to a <span class="lettershape">V</span>-shaped patch at the base of
+the fore wings. In the latter case, however, the purple is much
+richer than in the male sex.<!-- Page 186 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The under side (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>, fig. 6) is coloured with a delicate
+grey ground, adorned with a white streak on each wing, and a
+couple of orange spots near the anal angle of the hind wings.</p>
+
+<p>This species is very widely distributed,
+being common in oak woods
+in most parts of England, and also in
+many parts of Scotland and Ireland.
+It flies around the branches of the
+trees, and often disappoints the collector
+by keeping far beyond the reach
+of his net.</p>
+
+<p>Those in search of this pretty insect
+should ramble in oak woods, preferably
+in the south of England, during July
+and August. The eggs may be found glued to the twigs throughout
+the winter, and the larvæ may be beaten from the branches of the
+oak in June.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the caterpillar is brownish or pinkish green, with
+a row of <span class="lettershape">V</span>-shaped marks down the back.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is of a brown colour, short and thick, and may be
+found either attached to oak leaves, or under the surface of the
+earth at the foot of the tree on which the caterpillar fed.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Green Hairstreak</i> (<i>Thecla Rubi</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Next to <i>Quercus</i>, this is the most plentiful of the genus. It
+frequents woods and heaths in nearly every county in England, and
+is also found in parts of Scotland and Ireland. It is peculiar
+among British butterflies as being the only
+one that exhibits a bright green colour. It
+also differs from the other Hairstreaks in two
+important particulars, for the hind wings,
+though angled at the hind margin, are not
+'tailed,' and the characteristic hairstreak
+which gives the popular name to the genus is
+here represented only by a series of white
+dots across the wings, or, in some cases, by
+one or two dots on the hind wings only.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_86" id="FIG_86"></a><a href="images/i_203b.jpg"><img src="images/i_203b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="67" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Green Hairstreak." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 86.&mdash;The Green
+Hairstreak.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The upper side is dark brown, displaying metallic reflections
+when viewed in a strong light. The under side is represented in
+fig. 7 of <a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>.<!-- Page 187 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The chief food plants of this species are the bramble (<i>Rubus
+fruticosus</i>), the birch (<i>Betula alba</i>), and the broom (<i>Cytisus
+scoparius</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect flies in May and June, and the eggs are
+deposited during the latter month on the above plants. The
+caterpillars are full fed in July, and change to the chrysalis state
+towards the end of the summer.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the caterpillar is pale green, with a yellow stripe
+and several white oblique lines along the sides, also a yellowish
+stripe down the back.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is short and thick, and of a dark brown
+colour.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Large Copper</i> (<i>Polyommatus Dispar</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our next genus contains only two British species. The first of
+these&mdash;the Large Copper&mdash;was once a common insect at Whittlesea
+in Cambridgeshire, and in some of the fens of Huntingdonshire,
+but is now feared to be quite extinct, as none have been seen for
+many years. The last capture was made in 1847 in Huntingdonshire.
+However, it <i>may</i> turn up again; and even if it does not, it would
+be a pity to allow the memory of so fine an insect to die out; so
+we find room to figure it (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>, fig. 8), and append a few
+remarks.</p>
+
+<p>There is a very great difference between the male and the
+female. The former is of a brilliant copper hue, and all the wings
+have a black margin and a black streak near the middle. The female
+is larger; and the coppery colour is much redder. The black border
+of the fore wings is wider, and there are also several large black
+spots on these wings. The hind wings are almost entirely covered
+with black, with the exception of a broad coppery band near the
+hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>The food plant of the caterpillar appears to have been the water
+dock (<i>Rumex Hydrolapathum</i>), on which the eggs were laid late
+in the summer. It is probable that the caterpillar was a hybernator,
+seeking its winter shelter while still very young; and it was
+full fed in June.</p>
+
+<p>Its colour was green, with a darker stripe of the same colour on
+the back; and the chrysalis was attached by anal hooks and a cord
+round the body.<!-- Page 188 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Copper</i> (<i>Polyommatus Phlæas</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The only other British member of the genus <i>Polyommatus</i>&mdash;the
+Small Copper&mdash;is one of the commonest of our butterflies. It may
+be found in nearly all parts of the British Isles from April to September,
+more particularly in April, June, <i>and</i> August, for it is
+apparently triple brooded.</p>
+
+<p>This brilliant and lively little insect is shown on <a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>
+(fig. 9), and, being so very familiar, needs no description.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on different species of dock&mdash;the broad-leaved
+dock (<i>Rumex obtusifolius</i>), the fiddle dock (<i>R. pulcher</i>),
+the sorrel (<i>R. acetosa</i>), and the sheep sorrel (<i>R. acetosella</i>); also on
+the ragwort (<i>Senecio Jacobæa</i>). It is full fed about three weeks
+after hatching, and then changes to a small and stout chrysalis, of
+a pale brown colour, on the leaf of its food plant.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar itself is green, with a reddish line on the back
+and on each side; and it glides over the surface of the leaves something
+after the manner of a slug, without exhibiting any very
+apparent motion of its short legs and claspers.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Tailed Blue</i> (<i>Lycæna Bætica</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>We now come to a genus containing no less than ten species of
+beautiful little butterflies, known commonly as the 'Blues;' but
+one of them exhibits no trace of the colour so characteristic of the
+group, although it resembles the others in structure and habits.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_87" id="FIG_87"></a><a href="images/i_205.jpg"><img src="images/i_205_tn.jpg" width="300" height="77" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Tailed Blue." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 87.&mdash;The Tailed
+Blue&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our first example is the Tailed Blue,
+known also as the Pea-pod Argus. The upper
+side of this insect (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>, fig. 10) is of a
+dull smoke colour, exhibiting purple-blue reflections,
+which are, in the female, confined
+to distinct blotches on the bases of the wings,
+but in the male are less noticeable, and
+extend over the whole surface. The hind
+margin of the hind wings has a row of spots,
+more or less distinct, and much more prominent
+in the female than in the male. The under side is beautifully
+marked with bands of fawn and grey, and with two spots of brilliant
+metallic green in the anal angle of the hind wings.</p>
+
+<p>This butterfly abounds in the countries of South Europe, where
+the caterpillar feeds on the pods of certain leguminous plants; but<!-- Page 189 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+only a few stragglers have been taken in England, so that its reputation
+as a true Britisher is very uncertain. It is highly probable
+that the two or three specimens caught on our south coast were
+blown over from the Continent, and that the insect has never bred
+on this side of the Channel.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Silver-studded Blue</i> (<i>Lycæna Ægon</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The upper surface of the male (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>, fig. 11) of this species
+is purple blue, with a black border on the hind margins of all wings.
+The female (fig. 12 of the same plate) is of a very dark smoky-brown
+colour, often with a bluish tinge, and has generally a row of orange
+spots near the hind margin of the hind wings.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_88" id="FIG_88"></a><a href="images/i_206.jpg"><img src="images/i_206_tn.jpg" width="300" height="67" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Silver-studded Blue." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 88.
+The Silver-studded
+Blue&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The under side of both sexes is similar, and is illustrated in the
+accompanying woodcut. The ground colour is bluish grey, and is
+marked with a number of black spots
+surrounded by light rings. Along the
+hind margin of the hind wings is a row
+of orange spots, each bordered with black
+on the inner side, and with a silvery
+blue on the outer.</p>
+
+<p>This insect appears in July, and is
+common in many dry, sandy, or chalky
+spots in various parts of England, and
+also in a few localities in Scotland and
+Ireland. It has been reported as abundant at Darlington and in
+certain localities in Lancashire, but its head quarters are undoubtedly
+the chalk downs and dry gravelly banks of the southern
+counties.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on the bird's-foot (<i>Ornithopus perpusillus</i>),
+and is full grown towards the end of June. Its colour is yellow or
+grey, with a brown dorsal stripe, a white line on each side, and
+pale oblique lines near the former. About the end of June it changes
+to a dull green chrysalis, with projecting wing cases.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Brown Argus</i> (<i>Lycæna Astrarche</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Neither male nor female of this species exhibits any trace of
+blue. The upper surface, shown in fig. 13 of <a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>, is coloured
+with a warm brown, and all four wings have a row of orange spots
+near the hind margin. The fore wings have also a central black<!-- Page 190 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+spot. The under surface, drawn on the same plate (fig. 14), is
+bluish grey, with a border of orange spots on each hind margin as
+on the other side. There are also numerous black spots in light
+rings, the arrangement of which will be seen in the figure.</p>
+
+<p>Some species of butterflies and moths are so variable in their
+colouring and markings that varieties have often been mistaken for
+distinct species; and, in other cases, distinct species are sometimes
+so similar in character that they are looked upon as identical.</p>
+
+<p>A butterfly that closely resembles the normal Brown Argus in
+many points, and named <i>Artaxerxes</i>, has often been described as a
+distinct species, but is now, I believe, recognised by most entomologists
+as a constant variety of the present species.</p>
+
+<p>It differs from the normal type in having a <i>white</i> instead of a
+<i>black</i> spot in the centre of the fore wings, and the border of orange
+spots is often very indistinct. On the under side, too, instead of
+black spots in white rings, it has white spots, with little or no trace
+of a black centre.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary Brown Argus is a southerner, and is particularly
+abundant on the chalk downs of the south coast and the Isle of
+Wight, but <i>Artaxerxes</i> is to be found only in Scotland and the
+north of England; and it is interesting to note that, between these
+northern and southern districts, intermediate varieties are to be met
+with.</p>
+
+<p>Again, <i>Astrarche</i> is a double-brooded butterfly, appearing on
+the wing in May and August; while <i>Artaxerxes</i> is single brooded,
+flying at midsummer. This fact has lent support to the opinion
+that the two are distinct species; but it must be remembered that
+several insects that are single brooded in one country are double
+brooded in a warmer climate.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar of <i>Astrarche</i> feeds on the hemlock stork's-bill
+(<i>Erodium cicutarium</i>). It is of a pale yellow colour, with a
+brownish line on the back; and is full fed in April and July.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Common Blue</i> (<i>Lycæna Icarus</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Although this pretty little butterfly is so common that it is
+almost sure to be known to all who take any interest in insect life,
+yet it is important to observe it carefully, since it is an easy matter
+to confound it with other species of the same genus.</p>
+
+<p>The upper surfaces of the two sexes are very different, that of
+the male (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>, fig. 15) being a beautiful lilac blue; and that of<!-- Page 191 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+the female (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>, fig. 16) a dark brown, powdered with blue at
+the bases of the wings, and having <i>generally</i> a border of orange
+spots, more or less defined, on the hind margins of all wings.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_89" id="FIG_89"></a><a href="images/i_208a.jpg"><img src="images/i_208a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="77" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Common Blue." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 89.&mdash;The Common
+Blue&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The under side, shown in the accompanying woodcut, is ashy
+brown; warm in the female, but paler in the male. The hind
+wings, and sometimes all four, are
+bordered with orange spots; and this
+species may be distinguished from
+<i>Astrarche</i> by the presence of two black
+spots, in white rings, near the base of
+the fore wings.</p>
+
+<p>There will be no need to name localities
+for this insect, as it is abundant
+everywhere, frequenting meadows,
+heaths, and all waste places. It is
+double brooded, and is on the wing continuously from May to
+September, the first brood enduring from May to July, and the
+second from July to the end of the warm weather.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green, with a dorsal line of a darker tint, and
+a row of white spots on each side. It feeds on clover (<i>Trifolium
+pratense</i> and <i>T. repens</i>), bird's-foot (<i>Ornithopus perpusillus</i>),
+bird's-foot trefoil (<i>Lotus corniculatus</i>), and the rest-harrow (<i>Ononis
+spinosa</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is short and rounded, of a dull green colour, tinged
+with brown on the under surface.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Clifden Blue</i> (<i>Lycæna Bellargus</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our coloured representations of this beautiful blue (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>,
+figs. 17 and 18) show that here also
+there is a great difference between
+the male and female. The former is
+a most lovely and brilliant sky blue,
+bordered by a fine black line; and the
+latter is a dull dark brown, with a more
+or less distinct border of orange spots,
+and the bases of the wings are powdered
+with scales of a tint corresponding with
+those of the male. In both sexes the
+fringe is very distinctly barred with dark brown.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_90" id="FIG_90"></a><a href="images/i_208b.jpg"><img src="images/i_208b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="78" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Clifden Blue." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 90.&mdash;The Clifden
+Blue&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The under side (fig. 90) is similar in both sexes&mdash;greyish brown,<!-- Page 192 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
+with a border of reddish spots, and a number of black spots in white
+rings, the arrangement of which is here represented.</p>
+
+<p>The butterfly frequents chalky downs, chiefly in the south of
+England, and seems to be unknown in Scotland and Ireland. The
+Isle of Wight, and the chalky downs and banks of Sussex, Surrey,
+and Kent, are its favourite localities; and even in these it is generally
+very local, sometimes swarming on a grassy bank of no great extent,
+when the surrounding neighbourhood, though apparently equally
+suitable to its requirements, does not harbour a single specimen.
+It is on the wing in May and June, and again in August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green, with two rows of yellow streaks on the
+back, and a yellow stripe on each side. It feeds on the Dutch clover
+(<i>Trifolium repens</i>), horse-shoe vetch (<i>Hippocrepis comosa</i>), and
+various other leguminous plants.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Chalk-Hill Blue</i> (<i>Lycæna Corydon</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_91" id="FIG_91"></a><a href="images/i_209.jpg"><img src="images/i_209_tn.jpg" width="300" height="95" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Chalk Hill Blue." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 91.&mdash;The Chalk Hill
+Blue&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The male of this species (<a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>, fig. 1) is readily to be distinguished
+from all other members of the genus by its pale glossy
+blue, but the female (fig. 2 of <a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>) so closely resembles that
+of <i>Bellargus</i> that it is often a somewhat difficult matter to discriminate
+between them. The following, however, are a few points
+worthy of observation: The upper
+side of the female <i>Corydon</i> has the
+bases of the wings more or less
+sprinkled with the pale silky blue that
+characterises the male; and the black
+bars of the fringe are <i>usually</i> broader
+in <i>Corydon</i> than in <i>Bellargus</i>. The
+black-centred spots of the under side
+are also usually more conspicuous in
+the former species than in the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of identification is
+increased by the fact that both these butterflies frequent similar
+localities, and are often on the wing at the same time; but although
+<i>Corydon</i> is certainly a frequenter of chalky districts, yet it
+is often found plentifully in districts far removed from the chalk,
+notably at Arnside in Lancashire, and in Epping Forest.</p>
+
+<p>The butterfly is out in June and July. The caterpillar is green,
+with two rows of short yellow streaks on the back, and a yellow
+stripe on each side. It feeds on the purple and Dutch clovers<!-- Page 193 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+(<i>Trifolium pratense</i> and <i>T. repens</i>), bird's-foot trefoil (<i>Lotus
+corniculatus</i>), horse-shoe vetch (<i>Hippocrepis comosa</i>), and lady's
+fingers (<i>Anthyllis vulneraria</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Holly Blue</i> (<i>Lycæna Argiolus</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>While all the other Blues delight to sport on low flowery banks
+in the full blaze of the summer's sun, the Holly Blue prefers to flit
+among the branches of trees, often many feet from the ground.
+The larva feeds on the flowers of the holly (<i>Ilex Aquifolium</i>) in
+the spring, and on those of the ivy (<i>Hedera Helix</i>) late in the
+summer; also on the alder buckthorn (<i>Rhamnus Frangula</i>); and it
+is in localities where these grow that we may find this lovely Blue
+sporting among the branches, or resting on a leaf with its wings
+folded together, thus making itself conspicuous among the dark
+foliage by exposing the pale silvery blue of its under surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_92" id="FIG_92"></a>
+<a href="images/i_210.jpg"><img src="images/i_210_tn.jpg" width="300" height="73" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Holly Blue." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 92.&mdash;The Holly
+Blue&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The upper sides of both the male and female are shown on
+<a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a> (figs. 3 and 4 respectively), where the beautiful lilac
+blue will be seen to have a border of black, wider in the latter than
+in the former.</p>
+
+<p>The under surface is spotted with
+black, as shown in <a href="#FIG_92">fig. 92</a>, and has no
+border of orange spots.</p>
+
+<p>This is a double-brooded butterfly,
+appearing first in April and May, and
+then again in August. It is not at all
+uncommon in the south of England,
+and extends northward as far as the
+Lake District, but is not found in
+Scotland. It is generally distributed throughout Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar may be looked for in June and October. It is
+light green, with a line of dark green down the back.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Mazarine Blue</i> (<i>Lycæna Semiargus</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_93" id="FIG_93"></a><a href="images/i_211a.jpg"><img src="images/i_211a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="79" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Mazarine Blue." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 93.&mdash;The Mazarine
+Blue&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The male (<a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>, fig. 5) is deep purple blue, with a narrow
+dark-brown border, and the female (fig. 6 of the same plate) dark
+brown. The under side of both sexes is light greyish-brown or
+drab, with a row of black spots in white rings parallel with the
+hind margin of each wing, and no reddish or orange spots.<!-- Page 194 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This pretty butterfly seems to have been plentiful in several
+localities some years since, but has not been seen for a long time;
+and it is probable that its reckless
+slaughter by those who catch all
+the pretty butterflies they can secure
+either for ornament or for gain has
+caused its name to be permanently
+removed from our list of natives.</p>
+
+<p>It was formerly abundant in Dorset,
+Hereford, Glamorganshire, and
+near Shirley, and was on the wing in
+June and July, but it disappeared
+from our view before a full account of its life history had been
+prepared.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Blue</i> (<i>Lycæna Minima</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_94" id="FIG_94"></a><a href="images/i_211b.jpg"><img src="images/i_211b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="51" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Small Blue." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 94.&mdash;The Small
+Blue&mdash;Under Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We now come to the smallest of all British butterflies&mdash;a little
+insect that measures less than one inch from tip to tip when its
+wings are expanded. Its upper surface is of a dull and dark-brown
+colour, the bases of the wings being dusted with blue in the case of
+the male. The under side is pale drab, tinged with greenish blue
+at the bases of the wings, and marked with black spots in light
+rings as shown in the accompanying figure.
+The upper side is represented in fig. 7 of
+<a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>.</p>
+
+<p>This butterfly is on the wing in May
+and June, and during the latter month
+the eggs are deposited on the flowers of
+the lady's fingers (<i>Anthyllis vulneraria</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars are hatched in about a
+week, and commence feeding on the calyx of the buds, and soon
+burrow into them till they are quite concealed.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the caterpillar is brownish, with a darker stripe
+on the back, and a row of oblique brown streaks on each side.</p>
+
+<p>This species is widely distributed in England, and is plentiful
+in most chalky and limestone districts. It is also found in parts of
+Scotland and Ireland.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Large Blue</i> (<i>Lycæna Arion</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The last of our Blues is the largest of the genus, and is, with
+the exception of <i>Semiargus</i>, the rarest. It is a very local insect,<!-- Page 195 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+appearing in small numbers, during June and July, in parts of
+South Devon, Gloucestershire, Northamptonshire, and a few other
+counties.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 302px;">
+<a name="FIG_95" id="FIG_95"></a>
+<a href="images/i_212.jpg"><img src="images/i_212_tn.jpg" width="302" height="98" alt="" title="Linked ot larger image of The Large Blue." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 95.&mdash;The Large Blue&mdash;Under
+Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The colour of the upper side
+is a dark and rich blue, with a
+broad dark border on the hind
+margins, and a group of black spots
+near the centre of the fore wings.
+The under side (<a href="#FIG_95">fig. 95</a>) is of a
+pearly grey, without any red spots,
+but having a double border of
+black spots, and also an irregular
+row of black spots in white rings
+across the middle of each wing.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on thyme (<i>Thymus Serpyllum</i>), on which
+plant the eggs are laid singly, generally on the flower heads.<!-- Page 196 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI
+<br />
+<i>THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS</i></h3>
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Erycinidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Duke of Burgundy</i> (<i>Nemeobius Lucina</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The family <i>Erycinidæ</i> has only one British representative, commonly
+known as the Duke of Burgundy Fritillary, but although
+this butterfly certainly resembles the Fritillaries in general appearance
+(see figs. 9 and 10 of <a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>), its habits and life history
+present many points of difference from these.</p>
+
+<p>The upper side is chequered with black and tawny brown, the
+fringe is white and barred with dark brown, and a row of tawny
+spots with black centres border the hind margins. The under side
+has two rows of white spots, one near the base, and the other across
+the centre of each wing.</p>
+
+<p>The male has only four legs adapted for walking, but the female
+has six.</p>
+
+<p>The butterfly is out in May and June, and frequents the paths
+and open spaces of woods, chiefly in the south of England, but it
+has been taken in some of the northern counties.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a>, fig. 6) is not spiny like those of the
+true Fritillaries, but more closely resembles those of the Blues,
+being somewhat of the form of a woodlouse. It is reddish brown,
+with tufts of hair, black spiracles, and a dark line down the back.
+It feeds on the primrose (<i>Primula acaulis</i>) and the cowslip
+(<i>P. veris</i>), and may be found during June, July and August.</p>
+
+<p>When fully grown, the caterpillar secures itself to a leaf or stem
+by means of its anal claspers and a silken cord round its body, and
+changes to a short, thick, hairy and light-coloured chrysalis (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate
+VIII</a>, fig. 11), which is marked with several black spots. In this state
+it spends the winter, and emerges early in the following summer.<!-- Page 197 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Hesperiidæ&mdash;The Skippers</span></h4>
+
+<p>This family contains eight small species, none of which are
+remarkable for brilliancy of color. They are, nevertheless, very
+interesting creatures, for they exhibit peculiarities of structure and
+habit that render them singular among the butterflies, and seem to
+show a sort of cousin relationship with the moths. They have
+thick bodies that remind us somewhat of the <i>Noctuæ</i>. Their heads
+are broad, so that the antennæ, which are slightly hooked at the
+tips, are rather wide apart at the bases. When at rest, they
+neither press their wings together over their back like the other
+butterflies, nor do they set them horizontally after the manner of
+the moths, but seem to lay claim to an intermediate position in the
+scale of Lepidopterous insects by holding them in a half elevated
+position. Their flight, too, is not graceful like that of most other
+butterflies, nor even so steady as that of the little flitting blues, but
+brisk and erratic, and resembling the fitful motions of moths disturbed
+from their slumberings at unwonted hours. Thus they have
+earned their popular title of skippers from their habit of skipping
+rather than flying from flower to flower. All the three pairs of legs
+of these butterflies are fully developed for walking.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars have rather large heads, and their bodies taper
+from the middle toward both extremities. Like the larvæ of many
+moths, they hide themselves in leaves which they have rolled and
+secured with silken threads; and when about to change to the
+chrysalis state, they also spin silken cocoons for their further
+protection.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Grizzled Skipper</i> (<i>Syrichthus Malvæ</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The ground color of this species is a very dark brown, relieved
+by a number of square white spots arranged as shown in fig. 11
+of <a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>. The fringe is wide, and barred with the same two
+colours, arranged alternately. The pattern of the under side is
+similar, but the dark brown of the upper surface is replaced by a
+lighter olive tint.</p>
+
+<p>The butterfly may be looked for in May in the open spaces of
+woods, particularly in damp places. It is common all over England,
+and is found also in the south of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is either green or brownish, with a darker dorsal
+stripe of the same color, and two white lines on each side. It
+feeds on the raspberry (<i>Rubus idæus</i>), the bramble (<i>R. fruticosus</i>),<!-- Page 198 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+and the strawberry-leaved cinquefoil (<i>Potentilla Fragariastrum</i>),
+and is full fed about the end of June.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis is greyish, spotted with black. It is rather elongated,
+and without angles, but has a short and sharp projection
+extending backwards from the 'tail.'</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Dingy Skipper</i> (<i>Nisoniades Tages</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Colour&mdash;a dingy brown, indistinctly barred and spotted with a
+darker tint, and having a row of small white spots just inside the
+fringe of the hind margins. Under side&mdash;a paler brown, with rows
+of small white spots.</p>
+
+<p>This butterfly is common in all parts of England, and is found
+in a few localities in Scotland and Ireland. It frequents dry
+banks, and is particularly partial to the chalky districts of the
+south-eastern counties. It is on the wing in May, and a second
+brood appears in lesser numbers in August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is pale green, with two yellow stripes on each
+side, and a row of black spots above each stripe. It feeds on the
+bird's-foot trefoil (<i>Lotus corniculatus</i>), and may be found in June,
+and again in September.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a>, fig. 12) is shaped something like that
+of the last species, and is coloured green on the front segments,
+and a rose red on the abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect is represented in fig. 12 of <a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Skipper</i> (<i>Hesperia Thaumas</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>In briefly describing the various British butterflies no mention
+has been made, except in a few cases, of the shape of the wings,
+this matter having been left to the reader's own observations of
+our illustrations. We will, however, call attention to the somewhat
+square-cut form of the wings of <i>Thaumas</i> and the following
+species.</p>
+
+<p>The above-named butterfly (<a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>, fig. 13) is a lively-looking
+little insect, its wings being of a bright tawny orange
+colour, bordered with black, beyond which is a light fringe. The
+male, which is the sex figured, is distinguished from the female by
+an oblique black streak across the middle of the front wings.
+The under side is orange, with a decidedly greenish tinge.</p>
+
+<p>The butterfly is out in July, and is very abundant and widely
+distributed. It lays its eggs on various grasses, particularly the
+meadow soft-grass (<i>Holcus lanatus</i>).<!-- Page 199 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar hybernates through the winter, and is full fed
+in the following June, when it changes to a green chrysalis after
+spinning a light silken cocoon among the blades of grass. The
+colour of the caterpillar is green, with six longitudinal white
+stripes&mdash;two on the back, and two on each side.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The New Small Skipper</i> (<i>Hesperia Lineola</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>A few years since (1888) a butterfly was taken in one of our
+south-eastern counties that closely resembled the well-known
+<i>Thaumas</i> (or <i>Linea</i>), but which turned out to be a species not previously
+known in Britain. When, however, the distinguishing features
+of the new butterfly were made known, several entomologists
+discovered that they had already secured the new prize, but that,
+being ignorant of its characteristics, they had placed it in their
+series over the label <i>Thaumas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Since the above date, this new insect (<a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>, fig. 18),
+which is named <i>Lineola</i>, has been taken in considerable numbers
+at Leigh, Harwich, Southend, and near Shoeburyness in Suffolk,
+as well as in the Fens of Huntingdonshire; and it is highly probable
+that it may turn up in various other localities where it has
+not yet been observed.</p>
+
+<p>It appears on the wing about the first week of July, a little
+later than <i>Thaumas</i>, but the two kindred species are often found
+flying together.</p>
+
+<p>The chief points by which we distinguish <i>Lineola</i> from the last
+species are these: The general appearance of the wings is a bit
+dingier than in <i>Thaumas</i>; the inner portion of the hind wings is
+of a bright tawny colour in <i>Thaumas</i> but not in <i>Lineola</i>; the tips
+of the antennæ are yellow beneath in <i>Thaumas</i>, but black in
+<i>Lineola</i>; and the black streak across the fore wings of the latter
+species is short and generally broken.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs of <i>Lineola</i> are laid at the end of July or beginning of
+August on various grasses, chiefly the various species of <i>Triticum</i>,
+but do not hatch till the following April.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is full fed about the end of June or beginning of July,
+and then changes to a long yellowish-green chrysalis, from which
+the perfect insect emerges in two or three weeks.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Lulworth Skipper</i> (<i>Hesperia Actæon</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Although this species is somewhat similar to the two preceding,
+it may be readily distinguished by the heavy clouding of dull<!-- Page 200 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
+greenish brown that almost covers the wings. The male, which is
+shown in fig. 14 of <a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>, has a black streak across the fore
+wings, and the female possesses a semicircular row of tawny
+spots near the tip of the same wings, and also a tawny streak near
+the centre.</p>
+
+<p>This is a very local species, having been found only in a few
+localities. At Lulworth Cove and 'Burning Cliff' in Dorset it has
+been met with in profusion. In Devon it frequents the rough
+ground near the cliffs at Sidmouth and Torquay; and it has also
+been reported as appearing at Stratford-on-Avon, Shenstone near
+Lichfield, and the neighbourhoods of Swanage and Tyneham.</p>
+
+<p>One can scarcely hope to see this insect at large without making
+a special trip to one of its favourite haunts, in which case a day
+should be chosen toward the end of July or early in August.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Large Skipper</i> (<i>Hesperia Sylvanus</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>During May, June, and August this butterfly may be seen on
+grassy banks in nearly every part of England, as well as in certain
+localities of Scotland and Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The wings are all of a bright orange-brown colour, with a narrow
+black border, inside which is a broad shading of brown. The latter
+colour usually completely covers the hind wings with the exception
+of about half a dozen squarish spots; and the same colour, together
+with the dark brown wing rays, breaks up the light ground of the
+fore wings, often forming several squarish and triangular patches,
+most distinct near the tips. The male (<a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>, fig. 15) may be
+readily distinguished from the female by the presence of a thick
+dark brown streak across the fore wings.</p>
+
+<p>The under side of both sexes is pale tawny brown, with a
+greenish tinge; and has several rather indistinct yellowish spots.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is of a dull green colour, with a dark line on the back.
+Its upper surface is dotted with black, and there are white spots on
+the under side of the tenth and eleventh segments. It feeds on
+several kinds of grasses, some of its favourites being the meadow
+soft grass (<i>Holcus lanatus</i>), the cock's-foot (<i>Dactylis glomerata</i>),
+and couch grass (<i>Agropyron repens</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Silver-spotted Skipper</i> (<i>Hesperia Comma</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_96" id="FIG_96"></a>
+<a href="images/i_218.jpg"><img src="images/i_218_tn.jpg" width="300" height="65" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Silver-spotted Skipper." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 96.&mdash;The Silver-spotted
+Skipper&mdash;Under
+Side.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This species is very similar on the upper side to the last, except
+that the squarish spots of both fore and hind wings are much paler<!-- Page 201 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+and much more distinct; and here, too, the male (<a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>, fig. 16)
+is to be distinguished from the female by a black streak crossing
+the front wings obliquely. The under surface has a greenish tinge,
+more particularly on the hind wings;
+and this side is conspicuously marked
+with a number of <i>white</i> square spots
+with sharp outlines, arranged as shown
+in <a href="#FIG_96">fig. 96</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Although common in some localities,
+this butterfly is not widely distributed.
+It is confined to some of the
+southern and midland counties of England,
+and is particularly partial to the
+chalk districts of the south-east. On the chalk downs of Kent,
+Surrey, and Sussex it is moderately common. It is on the wing
+during July and August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on certain leguminous plants, among which
+are the bird's-foot (<i>Ornithopus perpusillus</i>) and the bird's-foot
+trefoil (<i>Lotus corniculatus</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Chequered Skipper</i> (<i>Carterocephalus Palæmon</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This is another local insect, more so even than the last, but
+it sometimes appears in profusion in certain limited districts.
+Kettering, Oundle in Northamptonshire, and Monk's Wood in
+Huntingdonshire are places where it has been taken freely. It
+appears in June.</p>
+
+<p>The wings are chequered with very dark brown and orange.
+The fore wings are bordered with small rounded yellow spots, and
+beside these there are about nine very conspicuous yellow spots on
+the fore wing and three on the hind wing. The arrangement of
+these markings may be seen in fig. 17 of <a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on the greater plantain (<i>Plantago major</i>).<!-- Page 203 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<h2><a name="PART_IV" id="PART_IV"></a>PART IV<br />
+<br />
+COMMON BRITISH MOTHS</h2>
+
+<hr />
+<h3>CHAPTER XVII
+<br />
+<i>SPHINGES</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>We have already observed the chief features by which we are able
+to distinguish between butterflies and moths (<a href="#Page_56">page 56</a>), so we shall
+devote the present division to a description of the characteristics
+and life histories of some of the latter insects.</p>
+
+<p>The number of British butterflies is so limited that space could
+be found for a brief description of every species, but with moths
+the case is very different. There are about two thousand known
+British species of this division of the Lepidoptera, and every year
+adds some newly discovered insects to this long list; we shall
+therefore have to content ourselves with making a selection of these
+for individual mention.</p>
+
+<p>In doing this I shall endeavour to provide the young entomologist
+with a fairly representative list&mdash;one that will enable him to
+become more or less intimately acquainted with all the principal
+divisions of the <i>Heterocera</i>; and his attention will be drawn
+especially to many which may be described as 'common' or
+'generally distributed,' so that during his first few seasons at
+collecting he may be enabled to identify and study a fair
+proportion of his captures. Occasionally, however, one of the
+rarer species will be described in order to illustrate some striking
+characteristic.</p>
+
+<p>We shall commence with the tribe of <i>Sphinges</i> or <i>Hawk
+Moths</i>.<!-- Page 204 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This group consists of three families&mdash;the <i>Sphingidæ</i>, including
+the largest of the 'Hawks,' and the 'Bee Hawks,' the <i>Sesiidæ</i> or
+'Clearwings,' and the <i>Zygænidæ</i>, including the 'Foresters' and the
+'Burnets'&mdash;numbering in all about forty species.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Sphingidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>This family is named from a fancied resemblance of the larvæ
+to the celebrated Egyptian sphinx. The perfect insects have very
+thick bodies, generally tapering toward the tail, and their wings are
+rather narrow in proportion to the length, but are exceedingly
+powerful, and the flight is, with one or two exceptions, very rapid.
+The antennæ terminate in a small and thin hook.</p>
+
+<p>Most of these insects fly at dusk, but a few delight in the brightness
+and heat of the midday sun. In either case the velocity of
+their flight is generally so great that it is a difficult matter to
+follow them with the eye, and a still more difficult matter to secure
+the insects in the net; consequently, the best way to study them is
+to search out the larvæ on their food plants, and rear them till they
+attain their perfect form.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ of the <i>Sphingidæ</i> are large and smooth, and most of
+them have a horn projecting from the top of the last segment but
+one. They all undergo their metamorphoses under the surface of
+the ground.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Death's-Head Hawk</i> (<i>Acherontia Atropos</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our first example of the Sphinges is the beautiful Death's-Head
+Hawk Moth&mdash;an insect that often attains a breadth of five inches
+from tip to tip when the wings are fully expanded. Its popular
+title has been applied on account of the peculiar markings of the
+thorax, which are said to resemble a human skull; and this feature
+has certainly some connection with the superstitious beliefs of
+ignorant country folk concerning this moth. But this characteristic
+is probably not the only one that has caused the creature to
+be regarded with superstitious alarm. Both its superior dimensions
+and nocturnal habits serve to intensify the unfounded fear; but,
+what is particularly striking and unique about it is its power of
+uttering a squeaking sound, which it does when disturbed. Even
+the earlier stages of the insect possess this strange power. The
+caterpillar makes a peculiar snapping noise when irritated, and the<!-- Page 205 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
+chrysalis has been observed to squeak shortly before the emergence
+of the perfect form.</p>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this moth are of a very rich dark brown,
+beautifully mottled with lighter tawny shades, and with a small
+but conspicuous yellow dot near the centre. The hind wings are
+yellow, with a black band and margin; and the body is yellow,
+with six broad black bands, and six large blue spots down the
+middle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;">
+<a name="FIG_97" id="FIG_97"></a>
+<a href="images/i_222.jpg"><img src="images/i_222_tn.jpg" width="420" height="237" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Death's-Head Hawk Moth" />
+</a><span class="caption">Fig. 97.&mdash;The Death&#39;s-Head Hawk Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The moth is rather widely distributed, and even common in
+some parts, but is not nearly so often met with as the larva. It is
+on the wing during August and September.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the reader will never have an opportunity of
+capturing the perfect form of this remarkable species, but he may
+with a little perseverance obtain some caterpillars and rear them.
+These larvæ feed on the potato, the deadly nightshade (<i>Atropa
+Belladonna</i>), and the woody nightshade (<i>Solanum Dulcamara</i>);
+and they are well known to potato growers in some parts of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the caterpillar is generally pale yellow, with
+numerous small black dots, and seven oblique violet stripes on each<!-- Page 206 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>
+side. The horn is yellowish and rough, and is bent downward, but
+recurved again at the tip.</p>
+
+<p>It feeds during the night, and remains hidden throughout the
+daytime. In August it is fully grown, and then retires into the
+ground to undergo its transformations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="FIG_98" id="FIG_98"></a><a href="images/i_223.jpg"><img src="images/i_223_tn.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of Figure 98." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 98.&mdash;The Larva of Atropos.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Privet Hawk</i> (<i>Sphinx Ligustri</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This is another fine moth, measuring nearly four and a half
+inches from tip to tip. It is represented in the centre of <a href="#Plate_IX">Plate IX</a>
+in its natural colours, so that it need not be described.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect flies in June and July, and, although common,
+is not frequently seen at large. The larvæ, however, are to be met
+with in abundance in privet hedges. Even in the centres of large
+towns we may see them resting on the topmost twigs of a privet
+hedge, their beautiful green tint closely resembling that of the
+surrounding leaves. After a little experience they may be readily
+discerned by a careful observer, but there are certain signs by which
+their presence may be proved before they have been actually
+seen. Sometimes a number of the twigs are completely stripped
+of their leaves, even the midribs and the leaf stalks being almost<!-- Page 207 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
+or entirely devoured; and beneath the bushes are the large black
+masses of excrement that tell of the marauders above. When
+found, these larvæ should always be removed on a piece of the
+twig to which they are attached, for they hold on so firmly by
+their claspers that it is sometimes almost impossible to remove
+them from their hold without injury.</p>
+
+<p>These caterpillars may easily be distinguished from those of
+the other 'hawks' by the seven oblique stripes which adorn the
+sides. These are each composed of two colours, white and lilac,
+and form a pretty contrast with the bright green of the rest of the
+body. The horn is smooth and curved, and is black with the
+exception of part of the under side, which is yellow.</p>
+
+<p>They are fully grown in August, and from the end of this month
+till the following June the chrysalides may be dug out from under
+privet and lilac bushes, both of which are attacked by the larva.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Spurge Hawk</i> (<i>Deilephila Euphorbiæ</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This is a very rare British species; in fact, it has never been
+seen in this country in its perfect state, but the larva has been found
+plentifully at Appledore and
+Braunton Burrows, in North
+Devon, feeding on the sea
+spurge (<i>Euphorbia Paralias</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect is shown
+on <a href="#Plate_IX">Plate IX</a> (fig. 2).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="FIG_99" id="FIG_99"></a><img src="images/i_224.jpg" width="400" height="161" alt="" title="[Not to scale.]" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 99.&mdash;The Caterpillar of
+Euphorbiæ.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is black,
+with a large number of small
+yellowish white dots, and two rows of spots of the same colour on
+each side. There is also a red line on each side, and another down
+the middle of the back. The horn is rough and red with a black
+tip. It feeds during August and September.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Elephant Hawk</i> (<i>Chærocampa Porcellus</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This pretty insect is one of the smallest of our hawk moths.
+It is widely distributed, being met with in many parts of England
+and in the south of Scotland. It flies in June.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_100" id="FIG_100"></a><a href="images/i_225.jpg"><img src="images/i_225_tn.jpg" width="300" height="98" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Small Elephant Hawk Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 100.&mdash;The Small Elephant
+Hawk Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings are of a dull yellow colour, with rosy-red
+hind margins, and a broad border of the same tint on the costal
+margin. The hind wings have also a rosy-red hind margin,<!-- Page 208 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>
+and are smoky black along the costæ, and yellow in the anal
+angle. The body is coloured with bright rose-red, tinged with
+olive on the foremost and hindmost segments.</p>
+
+<p>The popular name of this
+and the following species has
+been applied because of the
+power which the caterpillar
+has of extending and retracting
+its front segments, a peculiarity
+which has given the
+idea of a semblance to the
+elephant's proboscis. The
+colour of the caterpillar is
+light-brown or green, mottled
+with dark-brown, dark-green, or black. It has a conspicuous eye-like
+spot on each side of the fifth and sixth segments, and has no
+horn.</p>
+
+<p>This larva may be found in July and August, feeding on species
+of bedstraw (<i>Galium verum</i>, <i>G. Mollugo</i>, and <i>G. palustre</i>), willow
+herb (<i>Epilobium hirsutum</i>), or the purple loosestrife (<i>Lythrum
+Salicaria</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Large Elephant</i> (<i>Chærocampa Elpenor</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This species (<a href="#Plate_IX">Plate IX</a>, fig. 3) is very similar to the last in
+form and markings; but is, as its name implies, larger.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar, too, is very like that of the last species, but may
+be distinguished from it by the possession of a short black horn,
+tipped with white, on the 'tail.' Its colour is green or brown,
+mottled and spotted with black. The eye-like spots on its fifth
+and sixth segments are black, and each contains a brown spot
+surrounded by a white line.</p>
+
+<p>Its chief food plants are the hairy willow herb (<i>Epilobium
+hirsutum</i>), three species of bedstraw (<i>Galium verum</i>, <i>G. Mollugo</i>
+and <i>G. palustre</i>), the purple loosestrife (<i>Lythrum Salicaria</i>),
+and the enchanter's nightshade (<i>Circæa lutetiana</i>). It will also
+feed on the vine and the apple in confinement.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Eyed Hawk</i> (<i>Smerinthus Ocellatus</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our next genus (<i>Smerinthus</i>) contains three well-known moths,
+all of which have the hind margin of the fore wings angulated or
+indented.<!-- Page 209 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The first is the Eyed Hawk, represented in fig. 4 of <a href="#Plate_IX">Plate IX</a>
+and named after the beautiful and conspicuous eye-like spot near
+the anal angle of each hind wing.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar has a rough green skin, sprinkled with white
+dots, and marked with seven oblique white lines on each side, each
+of which is bordered with dark green above. The spiracles are
+pinkish, surrounded by violet rings; and the horn is blue.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies during May, June, and July; and the caterpillar
+may be found in plenty during August, feeding on the apple, willow
+(<i>Salix alba</i>), sallow (<i>S. cinerea</i> and <i>S. Caprea</i>), poplar (<i>Populus alba</i>
+and <i>P. nigra</i>), aspen (<i>P. tremula</i>), and the blackthorn (<i>Prunus
+spinosa</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As with many other <i>Sphinges</i>, the larvæ are much more commonly
+seen than the perfect insects; but the latter may often be
+met with resting on tree trunks and fences in the neighbourhood of
+their food plants.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Poplar Hawk</i> (<i>Smerinthus Populi</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_101" id="FIG_101"></a><a href="images/i_226.jpg"><img src="images/i_226_tn.jpg" width="300" height="144" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Poplar Hawk moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 101.&mdash;The Poplar Hawk.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This moth is very common and very widely distributed, and may
+be easily found in any of its stages. The perfect insect flies during
+May, June, and July; and being rather heavy on the wing, it is easily
+taken with a net as it hovers round the branches of its favourite
+trees or among the flowers of gardens at dusk. The larva may be
+beaten from the boughs of poplars and sallows during August and
+September, and during the latter month may often be seen creeping
+down and around the trunks of these trees, searching for a suitable
+spot in which to undergo its changes. The pupa may be dug out<!-- Page 210 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+of the soil at the foot of the same trees during the autumn, winter,
+and spring months.</p>
+
+<p>The fore wings are ashy grey or greyish brown, marbled with
+darker tints, with a conspicuous white spot near the centre. The
+hind wings are similarly coloured except at the base, where there is
+a large patch of brick-red.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour dotted with yellow,
+with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. The spiracles
+are white, edged with red; and the horn is yellow on the upper,
+and reddish on the under side. Its chief food plants are the
+poplar, the Lombardy poplar (<i>Populus pyramidalis</i>), aspen
+(P<i>. tremula</i>), and sallow (<i>Salix Caprea</i> and <i>S. cinerea</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Lime Hawk</i> (<i>Smerinthus Tiliæ</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This beautiful moth (fig. 5, <a href="#Plate_IX">Plate IX</a>) is easily identified by its
+rich olive green and brown wings, the fore pair of which have very
+conspicuous patches of deep olive, sometimes uniting to form a
+continuous central bar. It flies in May and June.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour, dotted with yellow,
+with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. Thus it is very
+like the larva of <i>Populi</i>, but may be distinguished from that species
+by the orange spiracles, and by the horn, which is rough, blue above,
+and yellow beneath. Behind the horn, too, there is a flat purple or
+violet scale with an edging of orange.</p>
+
+<p>The food plants of this species are the lime (<i>Tilia vulgaris</i>),
+elm (<i>Ulmus campestris</i>), and the hazel (<i>Corylus Avellana</i>), from
+which the larvæ may be beaten in August and September, and
+from under these the pupæ may be dug out during the winter
+months.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Humming-Bird Hawk</i> (<i>Macroglossa Stellatarum</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The genus to which this insect belongs contains three interesting
+British species. Their antennæ are thickened toward the end,
+but terminate in a small curved bristle. Their wings are rather
+short and broad; their bodies are very thick, terminating in a broad
+tuft of hair; and the perfect insects fly during the daytime,
+delighting in the hottest sunshine. The larvæ feed principally on
+low-growing plants, and undergo their metamorphoses on the ground
+among the foliage.</p>
+
+<p>On <a href="#Plate_IX">Plate IX</a> (fig. 6) one of these pretty moths is shown. It is<!-- Page 211 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
+the Humming-bird Hawk, so called on account of its exceedingly
+rapid humming-bird-like flight, accompanied by a soft humming
+sound.</p>
+
+<p>This insect is very common; and, being very partial to the attractions
+offered by many of our favourite garden flowers, it ought to
+be well known to all observers of nature.</p>
+
+<p>Take your stand near a bed of petunias or verbenas, or close to
+a honeysuckle in bloom, on any hot summer's day, and you are
+almost sure to be rewarded by a peep at the wonderful flight and
+interesting ways of this moth. It makes its appearance so suddenly
+that you first view it as an apparently motionless insect, suspended
+in the air, and thrusting its long proboscis into the tube of an attractive
+flower. Its wings vibrate so rapidly that they are quite
+invisible, and give rise to the soft hum already mentioned. Then
+it darts from one flower to another, making a similar brief stay
+before each while it sucks the grateful sweets. Raise your hand as
+if to strike, and suddenly it vanishes you know not where. But it
+is as bold as it is wary, and will often return to the selfsame flower
+as if to defy your power. A sharp sweep of your net in a horizontal
+direction, or a sudden downward stroke, <i>may</i> secure it; but if you
+miss it, as you probably will, it will disappear like a phantom, and
+give you no opportunity of making a second attempt.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is on the wing throughout the hottest months of the
+year&mdash;May to September, and will often greet you as you roam over
+flowery banks in search of butterflies.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on the lady's bedstraw (<i>Galium verum</i>),
+hedge bedstraw (<i>G. Mollugo</i>), and the goose grass (<i>G. Aparine</i>),
+and may be searched for in August and September. It is rough,
+green or brownish, and dotted with white. Along each side are two
+light lines. The horn is thin and short, rough, and points upwards.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Broad-bordered Bee Hawk</i> (<i>Macroglossa Fuciformis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The two other moths of this genus are called Bee Hawks from
+their resemblance to the humble bee. They are very much alike,
+but may be distinguished by a difference in the width of the dark
+border of the wings; and are named Broad-bordered and Narrow-bordered
+respectively.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_102" id="FIG_102"></a>
+<a href="images/i_229.jpg"><img src="images/i_229_tn.jpg" width="300" height="120" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Broad-bordered Bee Hawk." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 102.&mdash;The Broad-bordered
+Bee Hawk.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The former is illustrated in the woodcut appended. The fore
+wings are transparent like those of bees, with a dark central spot
+and a broad reddish-brown hind margin. The base and costa are<!-- Page 212 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
+black and tinged with green. The hind wings are similarly
+coloured, but have no central spot. The body is olive-brown, with
+a broad reddish belt, and behind
+are tufts of hair, which are
+spread out when the insect flies,
+just after the manner of the tail
+feathers of a bird. The moth
+flies in May.</p>
+
+<p>The larva resembles that of
+<i>Stellatarum</i>, but exhibits a
+violet tint above the legs. Its
+horn, too, is curved, and of a
+reddish or brownish colour. It
+feeds on the honeysuckle (<i>Lonicera
+Periclymenum</i>), ragged
+robin (<i>Lychnis Flos-cuculi</i>), evening campion (<i>L. vespertina</i>), red
+campion (<i>L. diurna</i>), lady's bedstraw (<i>Galium verum</i>), and the
+field scabious (<i>Scabiosa arvensis</i>), during the month of July.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family <span class="smcap">Sesiidæ&mdash;The Clearwings</span></h4>
+
+<p>This family contains fourteen very pretty British insects that
+differ very much from other moths in many important and interesting
+particulars.</p>
+
+<p>Their antennæ, like those of the <i>Sphingidæ</i>, are thickest
+beyond the middle, and those of the males are slightly <i>ciliated</i> or
+hairy. Their bodies are slender, and terminate behind in tufts of
+hair. The hind wings in all cases are transparent, margined and
+veined with black or brown; and the fore wings also, in most
+cases, have transparent bases.</p>
+
+<p>These moths delight in the hottest sunshine, and may be seen
+gracefully hovering over the flowers in our gardens, looking more
+like gnats, bees, and wasps, than moths.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ of these insects are all wood-eaters, and spend their
+time within the stems of shrubs and trees, eating out galleries in
+the material that forms both their food and their home. Within
+these they also undergo their changes, and do not expose themselves
+to the free air and light till they reach their perfect
+stage.<!-- Page 213 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar</i> (<i>Trochilium Apiformis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>We can find space for a mention of only two of the clearwings,
+the first of which is an insect that closely resembles the dreaded
+hornet, and whose larva feeds in the stems of poplars&mdash;features
+which will account for the above name.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_103" id="FIG_103"></a><a href="images/i_230a.jpg"><img src="images/i_230a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="122" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of ;The Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 103.&mdash;The Hornet Clearwing
+of the Poplar.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The head of this species is
+yellow, its thorax brown with a
+large yellow patch on each side,
+its abdomen yellow with two
+brown belts, and its legs reddish
+orange. The front wings are
+transparent, with brown costæ,
+and all the wings are margined
+with brown.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar, when full
+fed, makes a cocoon with silk
+and the chips of wood that it
+has bitten off; and in this undergoes
+its metamorphoses. It is fully grown in April, and the moth
+flies from the end of May to the end of July.</p>
+
+<p>There is another 'Hornet Clearwing,' the larva of which feeds
+on the stems of osiers. It may be distinguished from the species
+just described by a yellow 'collar' between the head and thorax,
+both of which are blackish.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Currant Clearwing</i> (<i>Sesia Tipuliformis</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_104" id="FIG_104"></a><a href="images/i_230b.jpg"><img src="images/i_230b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="62" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Currant Clearwing." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 104.&mdash;The
+Currant
+Clearwing.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is by far the commonest of all the Clearwings, and only too
+well known to those who grow currants. Examine the shoots of
+<i>Ribes rubrum</i> (red currant) and <i>R. nigrum</i> (black
+currant), especially those that present a withered
+or half-withered appearance, and you will almost
+certainly meet with signs of the presence of this
+intruder. Little wriggling larvæ occupy the pithless
+stems throughout the winter and spring.
+These are full grown in April, and in June the
+pretty little moth emerges through a hole in
+the side of a shoot, leaving the empty pupa case
+within its former home.</p>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this moth have black margins, and a black
+transverse bar beyond the middle. The body is black, with three
+pale yellow belts, and black tufts of hair at the tip.<!-- Page 214 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Zygænidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>The remaining family of the <i>Sphinges</i>&mdash;the <i>Zygænidæ</i>&mdash;includes
+seven British species, three of which are known popularly as the
+Foresters and the others as the Burnets.</p>
+
+<p>Their antennæ are thickest beyond the middle, but do not
+terminate in a hook. Their wings are narrow and completely
+covered with scales.</p>
+
+<p>These moths are very sluggish creatures, spending the greater
+part of their time at rest on the stems of low-growing plants. When
+they do fly, their flight is short and heavy, and their pretty wings
+glisten in the sunshine (for they are lovers of the sun), giving them
+the appearance of bees rather than of moths. On account of this
+natural sluggishness, they are exceedingly local, for they never
+move far from the spots where their food plants abound, and where
+they had previously spent the earlier stages of their existence.
+Thus we often come across a very limited piece of ground actually
+alive with them, and outside which not a single specimen is to
+be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ, too, are sluggish creatures, with soft and plump
+cylindrical bodies and no horns. I will briefly describe three
+members of this family.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Forester</i> (<i>Ino Statices</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_105" id="FIG_105"></a><a href="images/i_231.jpg"><img src="images/i_231_tn.jpg" width="300" height="54" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Forester moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 105.&mdash;The
+Forester.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this species are semi-transparent, and of a
+beautiful glossy green. The hind wings also are semi-transparent,
+but of a dull smoky tint. The thorax and abdomen are both of a
+brilliant metallic green colour. The tips of the
+antennæ are blunt, and the male may be distinguished
+from his mate by these organs being
+slightly fringed or ciliated.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is dingy grey or greenish,
+with a row of black spots down the back, and
+a whitish stripe on each side. It feeds on the
+common sorrel (<i>Rumex acetosa</i>) and the sheep
+sorrel (<i>R. acetosella</i>), and when fully grown it spins a cocoon on
+the stem of its food plant, and there changes to a chrysalis.</p>
+
+<p>The larva may be found during May and early June. The
+chrysalis state lasts only a few days, and the moth is on the wing
+during June and July.<!-- Page 215 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet</i> (<i>Zygæna Trifolii</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>On <a href="#Plate_IX">Plate IX</a> (fig. 7) will be found a coloured representation of
+this Burnet. The two crimson spots in the base of the fore wing
+are very close together, and often touch. The same remark also
+applies to the two spots on the middle of the wing. A glance at
+the list of British Moths (Appendix I) will show that we have also a
+<i>Narrow</i>-bordered Five-spotted Burnet. This insect is very similar
+to the species now under consideration, but may be identified by
+the narrower purplish margin on the hind wings, and also by the
+shape of the antennæ, which are not thickened so much near the
+end as they are in <i>Trifolii</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The larva of the present species is yellowish or greenish, with a
+row of black spots on the back and a row on each side. It feeds on
+the bird's-foot trefoil (<i>Lotus corniculatus</i>), hop trefoil (<i>Trifolium
+procumbens</i>), and the horse-shoe vetch (<i>Hippocrepis comosa</i>) in
+May. Late in May or in early June the chrysalis may be found
+in a silken cocoon attached to a stem or leaf; and the perfect
+insect flies during June and July.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Six-spotted Burnet</i> (<i>Zygæna Filipendulæ</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_106" id="FIG_106"></a><a href="images/i_232a.jpg"><img src="images/i_232a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="79" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Six-spotted Burnet moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 106.&mdash;The Six-spotted
+Burnet.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>So common is this moth, and so conspicuous when it flies in the
+blazing sun, that it must be familiar to almost everybody. On a
+bright midsummer day hundreds may often be started from their
+grassy beds from one little patch of ground.</p>
+
+<p>The colouring of the wings is much the same as in the last
+species, but there are two crimson spots instead of one near the
+tips of the fore pair.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_107" id="FIG_107"></a><img src="images/i_232b.jpg" width="300" height="126" alt="" title="[Not to scale.]" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 107.&mdash;The Larva of
+Filipendulæ.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The larvæ may be seen in vast numbers during May and June,
+feeding on clovers (<i>Trifolium pratense</i> and <i>T. repens</i>), and the<!-- Page 216 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>
+bird's-foot trefoil (<i>Lotus corniculatus</i>); and in the latter month
+thousands of the chrysalides, inclosed in shuttle-shaped cocoons on
+grass stems, may be seen on downs and sunny banks in almost
+every part of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar, which is yellow, may be known by the two
+rows of black spots that adorn each segment of the body.<!-- Page 217 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII
+<br />
+<i>BOMBYCES</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>This tribe is an important one, inasmuch as it contains those few
+moths whose silk is of present or anticipated commercial value.
+Many of the British members, even, make silken cocoons of moderate
+compactness, but none of them yield a quantity and quality of
+silk to justify any attempt to utilise it in the arts.</p>
+
+<p>There are more than a hundred British species in this group,
+and these represent no less than seventeen families, which exhibit a
+great variety in their general appearance and habits.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nycteolidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Green Silver-lined</i> (<i>Hylophila prasinana</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This family, under the name of <i>Chloephoridæ</i>, is included by
+some authors among the <i>Tortrices</i> (<a href="#Page_298">page 298</a>), which they somewhat
+resemble in habits. It contains
+only four species, of which we will take
+one example&mdash;the Green Silver-lined.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_108" id="FIG_108"></a><a href="images/i_234.jpg"><img src="images/i_234_tn.jpg" width="300" height="79" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Green Silver-lined moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 108.&mdash;The Green
+Silver-lined.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this insect are pale
+green, with three oblique silvery white
+lines, the middle one of which is far more
+distinct than the other two. The hind
+wings are silvery white in the female, and
+yellow in the male. It flies in May, and
+is common in the wooded districts of the
+south-eastern counties.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is pale green, dotted and striped with yellow,
+and has a reddish transverse band on the second segment. It
+feeds on oak (<i>Quercus Robur</i>), birch (<i>Betula alba</i>), hazel (<i>Corylus</i><!-- Page 218 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
+<i>Avellana</i>), beech (<i>Fagus sylvatica</i>), and alder (<i>Alnus glutinosa</i>),
+from which trees it may be beaten in July and August.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nolidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Short-cloaked Moth</i> (<i>Nola cucullatella</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>We select this common moth as a representative of the small
+family <i>Nolidæ</i>, which contains only five British species. These are
+all small insects. They are nocturnal in their habits, and may be
+found at rest on the trunks of trees during the daytime. The caterpillars
+are hairy, and undergo their metamorphoses
+within silken cocoons.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_109" id="FIG_109"></a><a href="images/i_235a.jpg"><img src="images/i_235a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="43" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Short-cloaked Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 109.&mdash;The
+Short-cloaked
+Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of <i>Cucullatella</i> are pearly
+grey, with a dark patch at the base, a triangular
+spot on the middle of the costal margin,
+and wavy lines beyond this, parallel with
+the hind margin. The hind wings are grey,
+and devoid of any markings.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is of a brownish colour, with a line of lighter
+patches down the back, and it is covered with little tufts of hair.
+It feeds on the blackthorn (<i>Prunus spinosa</i>), whitethorn (<i>Cratægus
+oxyacantha</i>), and also on plum trees in our gardens during the
+month of May. The moth is on the wing during June and July.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lithosiidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Muslin Moth</i> (<i>Nudaria mundana</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The family <i>Lithosiidæ</i> contains several small moths, distinguished
+from the other <i>Bombyces</i> by the narrowness of their fore
+wings. When the insects are at rest, all the wings are wrapped
+closely round the body. They fly at dusk on
+summer evenings, but may be obtained during
+the daytime by beating the boughs of trees. If
+an open net be held under the boughs during
+this operation, the moths will generally feign
+death and allow themselves to fall into it when
+they are disturbed.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_110" id="FIG_110"></a><a href="images/i_235b.jpg"><img src="images/i_235b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="47" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Muslin Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 110.&mdash;The
+Muslin Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Most of the larvæ of this family feed on the
+lichens that cover walls and the bark of trees, and they conceal
+themselves so artfully among this peculiar vegetation that it is no
+easy matter to search them out; probably many still remain unknown
+to entomologists.<!-- Page 219 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Our first example&mdash;the Muslin Moth&mdash;has light brownish-grey
+and semi transparent wings, the front pair of which have darker
+markings arranged as shown in the illustration. It is a common
+moth, and may be met with in July and August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on lichens in June. It is of a dull grey
+colour, with a yellow stripe down the back, and has numerous
+little tufts of light hair.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Common Footman</i> (<i>Lithosia lurideola</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_111" id="FIG_111"></a><a href="images/i_236a.jpg"><img src="images/i_236a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="66" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Common Footman moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 111.&mdash;The Common
+Footman.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this species are of a leaden grey, with a
+bright yellow costal stripe which dwindles
+to a point just before it reaches the
+tip. The hind wings are very pale
+yellow.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is black, with a reddish
+line on each side just above the feet.
+It may be found during May and
+June among the lichens of oaks, blackthorns,
+and firs, especially in the woods
+of the south of England.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect flies during July and August.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Eucheliidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Cinnabar</i> (<i>Euchelia Jacobææ</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The family <i>Eucheliidæ</i> contains only four British species, two
+of which must receive a share of our attention. The first of these
+is the Cinnabar Moth, which is
+common in all localities where its
+food plants&mdash;the groundsel (<i>Senecio
+vulgaris</i>) and the ragwort
+(<i>S. Jacobæa</i>)&mdash;abound.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_112" id="FIG_112"></a><img src="images/i_236b.jpg" width="300" height="148" alt="" title="[Not to scale.]" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 112.&mdash;The Larva of
+Jacobææ.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its colours are so striking that
+a glance at its representation (fig. 1
+of <a href="#Plate_X">Plate X</a>) will render a written
+description quite unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is a very familiar and conspicuous object. Its
+colour is bright orange, broken by several broad black rings; and
+its body is thinly covered with hair. When fully grown (July or<!-- Page 220 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
+August) it descends to the ground, and there changes to a smooth
+and shining reddish-brown chrysalis.</p>
+
+<p>The moth appears in June or early in July.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Scarlet Tiger</i> (<i>Callimorpha Dominula</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_113" id="FIG_113"></a><a href="images/i_237.jpg"><img src="images/i_237_tn.jpg" width="300" height="93" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Scarlet Tiger moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 113.&mdash;The Scarlet Tiger.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is certainly one of the most beautiful of all our moths.
+Its fore wings are dark olive green, with a lovely metallic lustre,
+and boldly marked with large white and yellow spots. These spots
+are arranged generally like those in the illustration, but are subject
+to great variation. The hind wings are crimson, with large black
+patches, chiefly distributed
+near the hind margin. The
+thorax is black, with two
+white streaks; and the abdomen
+crimson, with a
+black line down the back.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is a common
+one. It may be taken in
+June and July. I have
+seen it flying somewhat
+freely while the sun was still shining brightly.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is very dark lead colour, nearly black; and is
+covered with little wart-like projections, from each of which protrudes
+a short black hair. There is a broad yellow broken line down
+the back, and two others on the sides. It feeds on the hound's-tongue
+(<i>Cynoglossum officinale</i>) and many other low-growing
+plants, hybernates through the winter, and is fully grown in May.
+Like the other members of this family, it spins a light silken
+cocoon, in which the hairs from its body are interwoven.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cheloniidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Wood Tiger</i> (<i>Nemeophila Plantaginis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Cheloniidæ</i> are popularly known as the Tigers&mdash;a title
+suggested by the tiger-like colouring of some of the prominent
+species. They differ from the Scarlet Tiger and the other
+members of the <i>Eucheliidæ</i> in that the males have ciliated or
+fringed antennæ. The larvæ, too, are more densely covered with
+hair.</p>
+
+<p>The Wood Tiger (fig. 2, <a href="#Plate_X">Plate X</a>) is a beautiful insect, somewhat<!-- Page 221 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
+variable in its markings, but so conspicuously coloured that
+our illustration cannot fail to lead to its identification. It may be
+found commonly among the undergrowth of our southern woods
+during May and June.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is dark brown or brownish black, covered with
+little hair-bearing warts. The hairs are long and black on the foremost
+and hind segments, but shorter and of a brown colour on the
+middle of the body. It issues from the egg in September, feeds for
+a week or two on the leaves of violets (<i>Viola canina</i> and <i>V. odorata</i>),
+heartsease (<i>V. tricolor</i>), plantain (<i>Plantago</i>), or groundsel (<i>Senecio
+vulgaris</i>), and then hybernates till the following March. It is
+fully grown in May, and then spins a light cocoon, with which its
+hairs are interwoven, among the leaves of its food plant.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Tiger</i> (<i>Arctia caia</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This splendid moth is exceedingly variable in its colour and
+markings, but its usual appearance corresponds closely with that of
+the illustration on <a href="#Plate_X">Plate X</a> (fig. 3). In some specimens the cream
+colour almost entirely covers the fore wings, while in others all four
+of the wings are completely covered with shades of brown. This
+insect is probably known to all my readers, for it is abundant everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is as well known as the perfect insect. It is a kind
+of universal feeder, partaking readily of almost every low-growing
+plant, with perhaps a special partiality for dead nettles (<i>Lamium
+album</i> and <i>L. purpureum</i>). It feeds also on the lime tree (<i>Tilia
+vulgaris</i>), and is commonly met with on apple trees and on the
+various plants of our flower beds. The young caterpillar makes its
+appearance in the autumn, and hybernates after feeding for two or
+three weeks only. It is full grown in June, when it spins a silken
+cocoon, and changes to a shiny black chrysalis.</p>
+
+<p>The ground colour of the larva is black, but it is covered all over
+with long hairs, those down the middle of the back being grey, and
+the others brown. This familiar larva is known popularly as the
+Woolly Bear.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Cream-spot Tiger</i> (<i>Arctia villica</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>There is yet another Tiger&mdash;the Cream-spot&mdash;too beautiful and
+too common to be excluded from our list. It is represented on
+<a href="#Plate_X">Plate X</a> (fig. 4); and, like the others of its genus, is so boldly marked
+that mistaken identity is impossible.<!-- Page 222 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is a very sluggish moth, more often seen at rest than on the
+wing, and will suffer itself to be roughly handled without making
+any attempt to escape.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar may be observed on sunny banks, generally feeding
+on chickweed (<i>Stellaria media</i>) but sometimes on various
+other low-growing weeds, including the dock and the dandelion.
+Its colour is black, with red head and legs, and its body is covered
+with long brown hairs. It commences to feed in the autumn,
+hybernates throughout the winter, and is full grown in May,
+towards the end of which month it changes to a black chrysalis
+within a light silken web.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect appears in June.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Buff Ermine</i> (<i>Spilosoma lubricipeda</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Cheloniidæ</i> also include three moths that are popularly
+known as the Ermines, two of which&mdash;the Buff and the White&mdash;are
+exceedingly common, and are
+among the constant visitors to our
+gardens during June and July.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_114" id="FIG_114"></a><a href="images/i_239a.jpg"><img src="images/i_239a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="95" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Buff Ermine moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 114.&mdash;The Buff Ermine.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Buff Ermine has all four
+wings of a buff or ochreous tint, and
+spotted with black as here represented.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is whitish, with
+a white line down the middle of the
+back, and its body is covered with
+long light brown hairs. It feeds on the dock (<i>Rumex</i>) and many
+other low-growing plants during August and September, and spends
+the winter in the chrysalis
+state, lying within a loose
+cocoon on the surface of the
+ground.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The White Ermine</i> (<i>Spilosoma Menthastri</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_115" id="FIG_115"></a><a href="images/i_239b.jpg"><img src="images/i_239b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="92" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The White Ermine moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 115.&mdash;The White Ermine.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this species the wings
+are of a pale cream colour,
+and the dots of the fore wings are more uniformly distributed than
+in the last. Its habits and life history closely correspond with<!-- Page 223 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>
+those of <i>Lubricipeda</i>, and its larva may be found feeding on the
+same plants.</p>
+
+<p>This latter may be distinguished from the caterpillar of the last
+species by the dark brown or black colour of the body, and the
+presence of an orange line down the back. It is covered with long
+brown hairs.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Hepialidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>The five species which compose this family are known as the
+Swifts, a title which they have earned by their rather rapid flight.
+Their wings are narrow, and the antennæ very short.</p>
+
+<p>In the larval state they are long, naked and unsightly grubs,
+that live under the surface of the ground and feed on the roots of
+plants. The chrysalides are armed with short spines projecting from
+the segments.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Ghost Swift</i> (<i>Hepialus Humuli</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_116" id="FIG_116"></a><a href="images/i_240.jpg"><img src="images/i_240_tn.jpg" width="300" height="90" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Ghost Swift moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 116.&mdash;The Ghost Swift&mdash;Female.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the commonest of these moths is the Ghost Swift, which
+may be seen in hundreds on waste places in the south of England
+during the month of
+June. The wings
+of the male are
+white, with a silky
+gloss, and a very
+narrow brown margin.
+The fore wings
+of the female are
+yellow, marked with
+irregular reddish
+lines. The hind wings are of a dull smoke colour.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is pale yellow, with a brown head, and a brown horny
+plate on the front of the second segment. It feeds throughout the
+winter on the roots of numerous plants, including the dock, dandelion,
+burdock, white dead nettle, black horehound, and the hop.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Common Swift</i> (<i>Hepialus lupulinus</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_117" id="FIG_117"></a><a href="images/i_241.jpg"><img src="images/i_241_tn.jpg" width="300" height="81" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Common Swift moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 117.&mdash;The Common
+Swift.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of the male of this species are brown, with a bent
+whitish streak, sometimes broken, passing from the base to the
+middle of the inner margin, and then to the apex. The hind wings<!-- Page 224 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>
+are smoke coloured, with a light brownish fringe. The female is
+much less distinctly marked, and presents
+a rather dingy appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is dingy white, with brown
+horny plates on the second, third and fourth
+segments. It feeds on the roots of dead
+nettles (<i>Lamium album</i> and <i>L. purpureum</i>),
+black horehound (<i>Ballota nigra</i>),
+and various other herbaceous plants,
+throughout the winter months, and is full
+grown in April.</p>
+
+<p>This insect is abundant everywhere in waste places, and may be
+seen on the wing in May and June.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cossidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>The members of this family have longer antennæ than the
+<i>Hepialidæ</i>, and the females are provided with extended ovipositors
+which enable them to place their eggs in the deep crevices of the
+bark of trees.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ are naked or only very slightly hairy, and have a
+plate on the second segment. They feed on the wood of trees or
+the interior of the stems of reeds. The pupæ have spiny projections
+on each segment.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Goat Moth</i> (<i>Cossus ligniperda</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>There are only three British species of this family, the largest of
+which is the Goat Moth, so called on account of the characteristic
+odour of the larva, an odour said to resemble that emitted by the
+goat.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 338px;">
+<a name="FIG_118" id="FIG_118"></a><a href="images/i_242.jpg"><img src="images/i_242_tn.jpg" width="338" height="197" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Goat Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 118.&mdash;The Goat Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_119" id="FIG_119"></a><img src="images/i_242b.jpg" width="300" height="60" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 119.&mdash;The Larva of Ligniperda
+(less than half full size).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this fine moth are pale brown, clouded with
+white, and marked by numerous wavy transverse lines. The hind
+wings are somewhat similar, but of a duller tint, and the markings
+are less distinct. Its average breadth from tip to tip is over three
+inches, and it sometimes reaches nearly four inches.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is a most interesting creature. It is dark reddish
+brown on the back, and flesh colour beneath; and its head is
+intensely black. It feeds on the solid wood of the willow, poplar,
+oak, elm, and other trees. The infected trees are often so riddled
+with the burrows of these larvæ that they are completely destroyed,
+<!-- Page 225 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>
+and the presence of the intruders is frequently indicated by a heap
+of small chips of wood lying on the ground near the roots. The
+odour of the larvæ, too, is so powerful, that there is generally no
+difficulty in ascertaining their whereabouts by it alone.</p>
+
+<p>It is not always in living trees, however, that we find these
+creatures, for they often feed on rotting wood, such as the
+remains of old palings and
+posts, that lie on the ground
+in damp places.</p>
+
+<p>When fully grown they
+construct a strong cocoon of
+chips of wood, bound together
+by silk, and within this they
+change to the chrysalis.</p>
+
+<p>The moth emerges in June or July, and is commonly found
+resting on the bark of willows and poplars during the daytime.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Leopard Moth</i> (<i>Zeuzera pyrina</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_120" id="FIG_120"></a><a href="images/i_243a.jpg"><img src="images/i_243a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="132" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Leopard Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 120.&mdash;The Leopard Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_121" id="FIG_121"></a><img src="images/i_243b.jpg" width="300" height="84" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 121.&mdash;The Larva of Pyrina
+(only partly grown).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wings of this species are white and semi-transparent, and
+marked with numerous bluish-black spots in such a way as to
+remind one of the skin of the leopard. Its body is very long, and<!-- Page 226 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>
+the antennæ of the male are doubly fringed for about half their
+length from the base.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on the wood of various trees&mdash;elm, apple,
+pear, ash, alder, poplar, horse chestnut, birch, lilac, and several
+others. It is yellowish, with
+black shiny spots, and a black
+plate on the second segment.</p>
+
+<p>The moth appears in July,
+and is widely distributed. It
+is attracted by bright lights,
+but the best way to obtain it is
+to search the trunks and branches of trees that are known to
+harbour the larvæ early in the morning, and so obtain newly
+emerged specimens.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Liparidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>Passing over the two small species which are the only British
+representatives of the family <i>Cochliopodidæ</i>, we come to the
+interesting <i>Liparidæ</i>, the remarkable feature of which is that most
+of the caterpillars are adorned with brush-like tufts of hair, and
+even the chrysalides are hairy.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insects are not brilliantly coloured, but generally
+display very pale tints; and the antennæ of the males are
+pectinated or feathered.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Brown Tail</i> (<i>Porthesia chrysorrh&oelig;a</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_122" id="FIG_122"></a><a href="images/i_244a.jpg"><img src="images/i_244a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="66" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Brown Tail." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 122.&mdash;The Brown Tail.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The family contains two moths&mdash;the Brown Tail and the Yellow
+Tail&mdash;that are very similar in appearance and habits. Both have<!-- Page 227 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
+white wings, and their bodies also are white with the exception of
+the tuft of coloured hair at the tip of the abdomen, which gives the
+names to the species. Their larvæ may both be found feeding on
+the same trees (whitethorn), and both change to a brown hairy
+chrysalis within a loose cocoon among the leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The larva of <i>Chrysorrh&oelig;a</i> is black,
+with four rows of little wart-like projections
+on each side, from which proceed
+little tufts of hairs. These hairs
+are reddish with the exception of one
+row on each side, which is white. The
+tenth and eleventh segments have each
+a scarlet tubercle, and there are also
+other small spots of the same colour on some of the front segments.</p>
+
+<p>The larva feeds on the blackthorn in addition to the tree
+mentioned above, and is full grown in June. The moth flies in
+August.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Gipsy</i> (<i>Ocneria dispar</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_123" id="FIG_123"></a><a href="images/i_244b.jpg"><img src="images/i_244b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="91" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Gipsy moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 123.&mdash;The Gipsy&mdash;Male.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of the male are smoky brown, with darker
+markings, including a <span class="lettershape">V</span>-shaped black mark near the centre. The
+hind wings are brown, darker near the margin. The female is
+dingy yellowish white, with darker
+markings arranged as in the male.
+The male is much inferior in size,
+and its antennæ are very strongly
+pectinated.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is brownish black,
+finely dotted with yellowish grey.
+There is a grey stripe down the
+middle of the back, and six tubercles
+on each segment give rise to
+tufts of long hair. It feeds on the whitethorn (<i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>),
+blackthorn (<i>Prunus spinosa</i>), and various fruit trees.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is full grown in June, and the moth appears in
+August.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Black Arches</i> (<i>Psilura Monacha</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_124" id="FIG_124"></a><a href="images/i_245a.jpg"><img src="images/i_245a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="83" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Black Arches moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 124.&mdash;The Black Arches&mdash;Male.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of the Black Arches are white, marked with
+zigzag black lines as shown in our illustration. The hind wings<!-- Page 228 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
+are smoky grey. The hinder segments of the abdomen are banded
+with black and rose-pink. The male is much smaller than the
+female, and has the antennæ
+strongly pectinated.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is hairy, and
+of a greyish-white colour. A
+brown stripe runs down the
+back. On the top of the second
+segment are two blue tubercles;
+and there is also a tubercle, of a
+reddish colour, on each of the
+ninth, tenth, and eleventh segments.
+It feeds on the oak, birch, fir, and the apple; and is full
+grown in June or July.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies during July and August.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Vapourer Moth</i> (<i>Orgyia antiqua</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_125" id="FIG_125"></a><a href="images/i_245b.jpg"><img src="images/i_245b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="67" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Male Vapourer Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 125.&mdash;The Vapourer
+Moth&mdash;Male.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_126" id="FIG_126"></a><img src="images/i_245b_2.jpg" width="300" height="150" alt="" title="[Not to scale.]" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 126.&mdash;The Female
+Vapourer.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the hottest summer months, and particularly in August
+and September, a rather small brown moth may be seen almost
+everywhere, flying rapidly and in a very erratic manner in the bright
+rays of the midday sun. This is the common Vapourer Moth,
+which may be known at once by its bright chestnut colour, with
+darker transverse markings, and a white crescent-shaped spot in
+the anal angle of the fore wings. It seems somewhat partial to
+civilised life, for it frequents the streets of our metropolis, even in
+the very densely populated parts; and the larva is one of the
+commonest of the insect forms infesting our gardens and squares.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is variously coloured; but the prevailing tints
+are dark brown, grey, and pink. On the second segment are two
+long tufts of hair directed forward, and on the twelfth segment a
+similar tuft directed backward. On each of the segments five to<!-- Page 229 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>
+eight inclusive is a brush-like tuft of yellowish hairs. It feeds on
+almost every tree usually to be found in parks and gardens.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="FIG_127" id="FIG_127"></a><img src="images/i_246.jpg" width="400" height="156" alt="" title="[Not to scale.]" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 127.&mdash;Larva of the Vapourer Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When fully grown it spins a web on the bark of a tree, or on
+a wall or fence, and
+changes to a hairy
+chrysalis.</p>
+
+<p>The female of this
+species is wingless, and
+never moves away
+from the cocoon out of
+which she has crawled,
+but lays her eggs on
+the outside of the silken web, and there remains to die.</p>
+
+<p>The clusters of eggs may be found in abundance throughout the
+winter months.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bombycidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>This family contains eleven thick-bodied moths, mostly of large
+size, in which the predominating colours are greys and browns.
+Their hind wings are generally paler than the front pair, and less
+distinctly marked; and the antennæ of the males are pectinated.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars are very hairy, but the hairs are uniformly
+distributed, and not arranged in tufts as in the larvæ of the last
+family.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalides are inclosed in silken cocoons, but are not
+hairy.</p>
+
+<p>We shall briefly examine three of the members of this family.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Oak Eggar</i> (<i>Bombyx Quercus</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The male of this species is shown on <a href="#Plate_X">Plate X</a> (fig. 5). The
+female is much larger, and of a pale tawny colour.</p>
+
+<p>The ground colour of the caterpillar is black; but it is so closely
+covered with short yellowish brown hairs that the black is scarcely
+visible, excepting when the creature rolls itself up into a ring,
+which it does when alarmed. The spiracles are white, and there
+is a series of white spots down the middle of the back and along each
+side. It feeds on whitethorn (<i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>), heather
+(<i>Calluna</i>, <i>Erica</i>), poplar (<i>Populus nigra</i>), and various other plants
+and trees.<!-- Page 230 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As a rule the larva hybernates through the winter, is full grown
+in the following May, and the moth appears in July; but in
+Scotland the caterpillar does not spin its cocoon till September,
+hybernates in the chrysalis state, and emerges in the following
+June. The same is true of the Cornish Eggars; but along the
+coast of South Devon both varieties are to be met with.</p>
+
+<p>The male Eggar seems to enjoy the bright sunshine, for I have
+seen large numbers flying over the rugged cliffs of the south-west
+throughout all hours of the day.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Drinker</i> (<i>Odonestis potatoria</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The popular name of this species is applied on account of a
+peculiar feature of the larva, which sucks up the dewdrop that lies
+on its food plant.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_128" id="FIG_128"></a><a href="images/i_247.jpg"><img src="images/i_247_tn.jpg" width="300" height="116" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Drinker moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 128.&mdash;The Drinker&mdash;Male.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The colour of the male is tawny and brown, with a reddish tinge;
+that of the female is yellow.
+The front wing has an oblique
+dark bar passing from the apex
+to the middle of the inner
+margin; also two white spots&mdash;one
+in the middle of the
+wing, and the other between
+it and the costal margin.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>The caterpillar is dark
+bluish grey above, and has a
+line of orange spots on each
+side. Along the spiracles are
+oblique orange streaks, and a series of tufts of white hair. It feeds
+on the annual meadow-grass (<i>Poa annua</i>), and several other grasses.
+It is a hybernator, commencing its caterpillar state in the autumn,
+and reaching its full dimensions about the end of the following May.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies during July and August.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Lappet</i> (<i>Lasiocampa quercifolia</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our last example of the <i>Bombycidæ</i> is the Lappet (<a href="#Plate_X">Plate X</a>,
+fig. 6), a large moth, the female often measuring considerably
+over three inches from tip to tip. The wings are of a rich reddish
+brown, and exhibit a beautiful purplish bloom in a newly emerged
+insect. Scalloped black lines pass transversely across each wing,
+and a small black dot lies near the centre of the fore wings.<!-- Page 231 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is usually grey or
+reddish brown. A deep purple band lies between the second and
+third segments, and another between the third and fourth. On the
+twelfth there is a small hump, and a pale stripe, more or less distinct,
+runs along each side. It feeds on the blackthorn (<i>Prunus spinosa</i>),
+buckthorn (<i>Rhamnus catharticus</i>), and the white willow (<i>Salix
+alba</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The moth is not uncommon, and is on the wing in June.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Endromidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Kentish Glory</i> (<i>Endromis versicolor</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The beautiful Kentish Glory is the only British representative of
+its family. The male is shown in <a href="#Plate_X">Plate X</a> (fig. 7); the female is
+larger and similarly marked, but its colours are not so bright.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is not common, but may be seen occasionally in the
+birch woods of the southern counties. The males fly rapidly in the
+bright sunshine, but the females must be searched for on the bark
+and branches of the trees.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are laid in April on the twigs of the birch (<i>Betula alba</i>),
+and the young caterpillar emerges early in May. It is gregarious
+at first, but loses its social tendencies as it gets older. When full
+grown, it is of a pale green colour, with white spiracles, a dark green
+line down the back, and an oblique white stripe on each side of
+each segment. The sides are dotted with black and brown, and
+there is a conspicuous hump on the top of the twelfth segment.</p>
+
+<p>When fully grown it spins a cocoon among the dead leaves
+beneath the tree, and in this it spends the winter months in the
+chrysalis state.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Saturniidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Emperor Moth</i> (<i>Saturnia pavonia</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Here is another family with but one British member; but in this,
+as in the last case, the only representative is a really beautiful insect.
+The male <i>Pavonia</i> is shown on <a href="#Plate_X">Plate X</a> (fig. 8), and will
+need no written description as an aid to its identification. The
+female is larger, and similarly marked, but the ground colour of the
+wings is pale grey.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is abundant almost everywhere, and may be looked
+for in the neighbourhood of heaths and woods early in the month of
+May.<!-- Page 232 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The larva feeds on a large number of plants and trees, among
+which may be mentioned the willow (<i>Salix alba</i>), blackthorn (<i>Prunus
+spinosa</i>), elder (<i>Sambucus nigra</i>), whitethorn (<i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>),
+bramble (<i>Rubus fruticosus</i>), heaths (<i>Erica tetralix</i> and
+<i>E. cinerea</i>), and the meadow-sweet (<i>Spiræa ulmaria</i>). Its colour
+is a lovely green; and each segment has several pink tubercles, each
+surrounded by a black ring, and giving rise to a tuft of short black
+hairs. The spiracles are orange.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn it spins a pear-shaped cocoon of silk, open at the
+small end (<a href="#FIG_28">fig. 28</a>).</p>
+
+<p>It may here be mentioned in passing that, in the case of some
+of the larger moths of the few preceding families, the young entomologist
+is likely to meet with larvæ more frequently than the perfect
+insect. These moths, however, are mostly very hardy and
+easily reared; and a beginner cannot do better than endeavour to
+obtain either ova or larvæ, in order that he may be able to watch
+the different species through their various stages.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Drepanulidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>We now reach a family containing six small moths that differ
+in many important particulars from those we have just been considering.
+They are of such slender build that a beginner may
+easily mistake them for Geometers. Their wings, though small,
+are broad, and well proportioned to their bodies. In five cases out
+of the six the front wings are more or less hooked at the tips, and
+on this account the moths in question are called the Hook Tips.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ are not hairy, but they all have little fleshy projections
+on their backs. Their bodies also taper to a point behind, and the
+last pair of claspers are wanting, so that they have only fourteen
+walking appendages. When at rest they usually fix themselves by
+their claspers only, their pointed 'tails' being directed slightly upward,
+and all the front segments being also elevated. When about
+to change, they descend to the ground, and spin their cocoons among
+dead leaves.</p>
+
+<p>Two only of this family can receive an individual notice.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Oak Hook Tip</i> (<i>Drepana binaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This can hardly be described as a very common moth, but it is
+fairly plentiful in the woods of the southern counties of England.<!-- Page 233 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_129" id="FIG_129"></a><a href="images/i_250a.jpg"><img src="images/i_250a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="73" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Oak Hook Tip moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 129.&mdash;The Oak
+Hook Tip.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its wings are yellowish brown, marked with two lighter transverse
+lines. There are two black spots between the lines of the
+fore wings. The antennæ of the male are
+pectinated; those of the female simple.
+The latter sex is further distinguished by
+the paler colour of the hind wings.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is brown, with a broad stripe,
+edged with yellow, down the back. There
+are two projections on the back of the
+fourth segment. It feeds on oak (<i>Quercus
+Robur</i>) and birch (<i>Betula alba</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This moth is double-brooded, and may be seen on the wing in
+June and August. The larva may be beaten from the above-mentioned
+trees in June and July, and again in September.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Chinese Character</i> (<i>Cilix glaucata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_130" id="FIG_130"></a><a href="images/i_250b.jpg"><img src="images/i_250b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="87" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of the Cinese Character moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 130.&mdash;The Chinese
+Character.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this species are white, with a broad dark
+blotch from the inner margin to near the costa. The central portion
+of this blotch is marked with silvery
+spots which are said to resemble Chinese
+characters. The hind margin is shaded
+with a dark grey border, inside which is a
+row of dark spots. The hind wings are
+clouded with grey.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is widely distributed, and
+seems to be common throughout England. It is double brooded, the
+first brood appearing in May and June, and the second in August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar, which is brown, with two prominent tubercles
+on each of the third and fourth segments, feeds on the whitethorn
+(<i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>), and the blackthorn (<i>Prunus spinosa</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dicranuridæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>The five British species that represent this family are such
+interesting insects that we should like to have given a detailed description
+of all of them, but our limited space will allow of no more
+than an outline of the general characteristics of the group and a
+selection of two for individual mention.</p>
+
+<p>They are thick-bodied moths, and the prevailing colours are
+white and shades of grey. The antennæ are pectinated in the males,<!-- Page 234 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>
+and, with the exception of the Lobster Moth (<i>Fagi</i>), in the females
+also.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ, like those of the last family, have no anal claspers,
+and stand, when at rest, with both ends of the body raised. They
+have two 'tails' projecting from the last segment. The largest of
+them (the Puss), and three smaller species (Kittens) that closely
+resemble it in habits, all construct hard cocoons to be presently described;
+but the larva of the Lobster Moth spins a light cocoon
+among the leaves of trees.</p>
+
+<p>They all spend the winter in the chrysalis state.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Poplar Kitten</i> (<i>Dicranura bifida</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_131" id="FIG_131"></a><a href="images/i_251.jpg"><img src="images/i_251_tn.jpg" width="300" height="87" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Poplar Kitten moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 131.&mdash;The Poplar Kitten.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our illustration shows the arrangement of the white and grey on
+the wings of this moth, but the other Kittens (<i>Bicuspis</i> and <i>Furcula</i>)
+so closely resemble it that it is necessary to point out a mark of distinction.
+It will be observed that the fore wings are crossed by a
+broad grey band, edged with black. This band, in the present
+species, is almost of the same width throughout, its interior margin
+being almost straight, and the exterior one slightly concave. In
+<i>Furcula</i>, the outer margin of the
+band is generally sharply bent inward
+just below the costa. In <i>Bicuspis</i>
+the grey band varies considerably
+in shape, but both this and the
+dark blotch near the tip of the wing
+are more sharply defined than in
+the other two species.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green, dotted
+with brown, and has a brown stripe on the back. This stripe is
+broken on the third segment, and widens out on the eighth and
+thirteenth segments. It feeds on the Poplar (<i>Populus nigra</i>) and
+Aspen (<i>P. tremula</i>).</p>
+
+<p>When full grown it descends to the trunk of the tree, and constructs
+a very hard cocoon of a glutinous substance from its own body
+mingled with little pieces of the bark that it removes for the
+purpose. Thus made, the cocoon so closely resembles the surrounding
+bark that detection is very difficult. I have frequently
+found these cocoons on the inner surface of loose bark.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is widely distributed, and may be searched for in
+June and July. The larva feeds during August and September.<!-- Page 235 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Puss</i> (<i>Dicranura vinula</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_132" id="FIG_132"></a><a href="images/i_252a.jpg"><img src="images/i_252a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="123" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Puss Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 132.&mdash;The Puss Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>No written description is necessary in this case, the illustration
+easily serving for identification. This beautiful moth flies in May
+and June, and is common everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is a very interesting creature. It is green, with
+a hump on the fourth
+segment, and a patch
+of brown from the
+fourth segment to the
+tail. This patch is
+very wide on the
+eighth segment, but
+tapers to a point on
+the thirteenth. The
+two horns are rather
+long and rough, and
+from each of them a
+very slender pink filament
+is protruded when the caterpillar is irritated.</p>
+
+<p>It constructs a cocoon very similar to that of <i>Bifida</i>, though of
+course larger, on the bark of the tree on which it fed, generally
+three or four feet from the ground. It feeds on sallows, willows,
+and poplars, and may be found during July and August.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Notodontidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Coxcomb Prominent</i> (<i>Lophopteryx camelina</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The family <i>Notodontidæ</i> contains several moths of somewhat
+varied appearance, but foremost among them are the 'Prominents,'
+distinguished by a conspicuous projection
+on the inner margin of the
+fore wings.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_133" id="FIG_133"></a><a href="images/i_252b.jpg"><img src="images/i_252b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="73" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Coxcomb Prominent moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 133.&mdash;The Coxcomb
+Prominent.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our example of this group is the
+Coxcomb Prominent.</p>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are brown, with
+darker markings arranged as shown
+in the illustration; and the hind
+margins are scalloped. The hind
+wings are much paler, with a dark brown patch in the anal angle.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green, with a yellowish line on each side.
+The spiracles are black, and there are two small humps on the<!-- Page 236 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>
+twelfth segment. It feeds during August, September, and October,
+on various trees, including the oak, birch, poplar, hazel, and
+alder.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies from June to August, and is moderately common
+and widely distributed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pygæridæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Buff Tip</i> (<i>Phalera bucephala</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The first of our two examples of this small family is the common
+and destructive Buff Tip. The perfect insect is represented on
+<a href="#Plate_X">Plate X</a>, fig. 9, and is too well known to require a lengthy description.
+During June and July it may be seen resting on the bark of trees
+almost everywhere, with its wings folded closely round its body,
+and its antennæ tucked under the wings, looking just like a piece of
+stick, or a projection of the bark on which it sits.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="FIG_134" id="FIG_134"></a><img src="images/i_253.jpg" width="400" height="216" alt="" title="[Not to scale.]" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 134.&mdash;The Larva of Bucephala.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The caterpillars appear towards the end of June, and may be
+seen in dense clusters on lime and other trees, sometimes twenty
+or thirty huddled together on a single leaf. As they grow larger
+they retain their gregarious tendencies, and often completely strip
+the leaves from large branches. They are of a dull yellow colour,
+hairy, and have seven broken black lines, one along the middle of
+the back, and three on each side. The head and legs are black.</p>
+
+<p>When full grown, they descend to the root of the tree, burrow
+into the soil, and there remain in the chrysalis state till the following
+June. The chief food plants of this species are the lime (<i>Tilia
+vulgaris</i>), elm (<i>Ulmus campestris</i>), and hazel (<i>Corylus Avellana</i>).<!-- Page 237 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Chocolate Tip</i> (<i>Pygæra curtula</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This species is not nearly so common as the last, but is to be
+met with more or less in most of the English counties in the month
+of May.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_135" id="FIG_135"></a><a href="images/i_254a.jpg"><img src="images/i_254a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="85" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Chocolate Tip moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 135.&mdash;The Chocolate
+Tip.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are light greyish brown, crossed with four transverse
+paler streaks, and tipped with a patch of chocolate brown.
+The hind wings are pale yellowish
+grey.</p>
+
+<p>The young caterpillars feed in companies
+between leaves which they have
+spun together, but when nearly full
+grown they cease to be gregarious.
+They are also very different in appearance
+at different ages. When fully
+fed, the larva is of a reddish-grey
+colour, spotted with black, with a double row of orange-coloured
+warts on each side. There is also a little black hump on each of
+the fifth and twelfth segments.</p>
+
+<p>The food plants of this species are sallows (<i>Salix caprea</i> and
+<i>S. cinerea</i>), poplar (<i>Populus nigra</i>), and aspen (<i>P. tremula</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cymatophoridæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>This, the last family of the <i>Bombyces</i>, contains seven species of
+moderate size, the larvæ of which are either quite smooth or have
+small warty prominences. The seven species are grouped into
+three genera, from two of which we shall select a representative.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Peach Blossom</i> (<i>Thyatira Batis</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_136" id="FIG_136"></a><a href="images/i_254b.jpg"><img src="images/i_254b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="92" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Peach Blossom moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 136.&mdash;The Peach Blossom.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The popular name of this pretty little moth is given on account
+of the resemblance of the pink
+patches of its olive-brown fore wings
+to the petals of the peach flower.
+It is a moderately common moth,
+widely distributed in England and
+Ireland, and flies during June and
+July.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is marbled with
+reddish grey and brown, and has
+a hump on the third segment, and a smaller prominence on each<!-- Page 238 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>
+of the segments six to ten inclusive. It feeds on the bramble
+(<i>Rubus fruticosus</i>) during August and September, and spends the
+winter in the chrysalis state, inclosed in a loose cocoon among the
+dead leaves at the root of its food plant.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Yellow-horned</i> (<i>Asphalia flavicornis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This is one of the earliest of our moths, appearing on the
+wing in March, when it may be
+attracted by means of sugar
+placed on the bark of the birch
+(<i>Betula alba</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_137" id="FIG_137"></a><a href="images/i_255.jpg"><img src="images/i_255_tn.jpg" width="300" height="98" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Yellow-horned moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 137.&mdash;The Yellow-horned.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wings are grey, with a decidedly
+greenish tinge, crossed by
+three dark lines near the base,
+and two others, which are zigzag,
+just outside the centre. Between
+these two sets of lines is a conspicuous round pale spot. The
+hind wings are greyish brown, darker along the hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>The larva, which feeds on the above-named tree, is pale greenish,
+with both white and black dots. It rolls itself up in a leaf, and
+seldom ventures out of the retreat thus formed. It is fully fed in
+July or August.<!-- Page 239 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX
+<br />
+<i>THE NOCTUÆ</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>We have already noticed that several of our moths fly by day;
+that some come out of their hiding places at dusk, and settle down
+again to rest before the deepest shadows of night fall; and that
+others prefer the darkest hours of the night. The tribe of moths
+we are next to consider includes the greater number (about three
+hundred) of our truly nocturnal species, hence the name that heads
+this chapter.</p>
+
+<p>They are generally of a somewhat dingy appearance, the prevailing
+colours being dull shades of grey, drab, and brown. So
+closely, in fact, do certain of them resemble each other, that the
+greatest care has to be exercised in the identification of species&mdash;a
+task that is rendered still more difficult by the variations that we
+observe in the tints and markings of certain species.</p>
+
+<p>These moths have generally rather stout bodies. Their fore
+wings are somewhat narrow, and, when the insects are at rest,
+these are brought close to the body, and the hind pair are folded
+up beneath them.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bryophilidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Marbled Beauty</i> (<i>Bryophila Perla</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our first family&mdash;the <i>Bryophilidæ</i>&mdash;contains only four British
+species. These are small and slender-bodied moths, whose larvæ
+feed in early morning on the lichens that cover stones and old
+walls, and conceal themselves by day in holes and chinks and under
+stones.</p>
+
+<p>The Marbled Beauty is the only moth of this family that may<!-- Page 240 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>
+be described as common with us. It is abundant in nearly every
+English county, as well as in parts of Scotland and Ireland.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_138" id="FIG_138"></a><a href="images/i_257a.jpg"><img src="images/i_257a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="77" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Marbled Beauty moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 138.&mdash;The
+Marbled Beauty.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its wings are very pale grey, marked with
+a darker bluish grey, as shown in the engraving.
+These markings are variable, but the
+bases of the fore wings have always a dark
+blotch, followed by a patch of pale grey or
+white, extending the whole width of the
+wing. The moth may be found from the beginning
+of July to the middle of September.</p>
+
+<p>The larva feeds from February to April.
+It is black above, with a broad orange-bordered stripe down the
+back; and its body is covered with small warts, each of which
+bears a single hair.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Bombycoidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>In this family there are sixteen British moths, several of which
+are exceedingly common. They are much larger than the <i>Bryophilidæ</i>,
+and of a much stouter build. The larvæ are covered with
+little hair-bearing warts, and are, indeed, often so hairy that they
+may be mistaken for the caterpillars of the <i>Bombyces</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Grey Dagger</i> (<i>Acronycta Psi</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_139" id="FIG_139"></a><a href="images/i_257b.jpg"><img src="images/i_257b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="108" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Grey Dagger moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 139.&mdash;The Grey Dagger.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is the commonest of all the <i>Bombycoidæ</i>. It may be
+found at rest on tree trunks and palings during the daytime
+throughout the summer. Its fore wings are pale grey, with four
+conspicuous black marks, one of
+which&mdash;that in the anal angle&mdash;resembles
+the Greek letter <i>psi</i> (&#x03C8;)
+placed sideways.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is black or very dark
+grey, with a pale yellow line down
+the back, and a black hump on each
+of the fifth and twelfth segments,
+that on the fifth being much larger
+than the other. It feeds in the
+autumn on lime (<i>Tilia vulgaris</i>), blackthorn (<i>Prunus spinosa</i>),
+whitethorn (<i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>), fruit trees, and various other
+trees, shrubs, and herbs.<!-- Page 241 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The moth called the Dark Dagger (<i>Tridens</i>) is hardly to be distinguished
+from <i>Psi</i>. It is not really any darker, and its markings
+are almost exactly similar; but the larva is very different.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Poplar Grey</i> (<i>Acronycta megacephala</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This is also a very common moth, to be found in all the southern
+and midland counties, wherever poplars abound, during June and
+July.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_140" id="FIG_140"></a><a href="images/i_258a.jpg"><img src="images/i_258a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="92" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Poplar Grey moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 140.&mdash;The Poplar Grey.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are grey, marbled with a very dark grey. A little
+inside the middle of these wings, near the costa, is a round spot
+with a dark centre. This spot is
+represented in a large number of
+the <i>Noctuæ</i>, and is known as the
+<i>orbicular</i>. It will be observed
+that in the present species it is
+very distinct.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is dark grey,
+with a line of black dots down the
+back; and it has a number of
+little warts, bearing hairs. On the back of the eleventh segment
+is a rather large pale spot. It feeds during August on various
+species of poplar, and changes to a chrysalis in a crevice of the
+bark.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Figure of Eight</i> (<i>Diloba cæruleocephala</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_141" id="FIG_141"></a><a href="images/i_258b.jpg"><img src="images/i_258b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="88" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Figure of Eight moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 141.&mdash;The Figure of Eight.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings are brownish grey. Near the middle of the
+wing, but nearer the costa than the inner margin, are two whitish
+spots that resemble the figure 8. The hind wings are dull brownish
+grey, with darker wing rays, and a
+dark spot near the centre.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is common in all parts,
+and flies during September.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar emerges from the
+egg in spring, and is fully grown in
+May or June. It is of a very pale
+colour&mdash;yellowish or greenish&mdash;with a
+broad and broken yellow stripe down
+the back, and a bluish or greenish
+stripe on each side. Its head is blue (hence the specific name)
+with two black spots. It feeds on the hawthorn (<i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>)<!-- Page 242 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>
+and various fruit trees; and on the twigs of these (especially
+the hawthorn) the little clusters of eggs may be seen during
+the winter.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Leucaniidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>In this family we have a number of rather small moths, with,
+generally, no markings on their wings, save, perhaps, a few dots or
+streaks.</p>
+
+<p>Their larvæ feed principally on grasses and reeds, and change to
+the chrysalis state either in a cocoon among the food plants, or
+under the surface of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Several of these insects are very common, and most of them
+abound in fens and marshes.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Brown-line Bright-eye</i> (<i>Leucania conigera</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_142" id="FIG_142"></a><a href="images/i_259.jpg"><img src="images/i_259_tn.jpg" width="300" height="89" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Brown-line Bright-eye moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 142.&mdash;The Brown-line
+Bright-eye.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings are yellowish brown. The 'brown line' is a
+transverse line parallel with the hind margin, and distant from it
+about one-fourth the length of the wing. Another dark brown line,
+describing a sharp bend, passes across the wing near the base.
+The 'bright eye' is a light spot just outside the centre of the wing,
+nearer the costa than the inner margin.
+This is another of those marks that
+occur very constantly in the wings of
+the <i>Noctuæ</i>. It lies beyond the <i>orbicular</i>
+spot, and is usually somewhat
+kidney-shaped, and is consequently
+named the <i>reniform</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is yellowish or greyish,
+with a pale dorsal line edged with
+black. On each side of this is a broad
+black line, below which is a yellow line edged with black, then a
+whitish stripe, next a yellow line edged with black on the upper
+side, and lastly a broad brownish line, just above the spiracles,
+edged with black on both sides. It feeds on couch grass (<i>Agropyron
+repens</i>) and various other grasses, and is fully grown in
+May.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies in July and August, and is common throughout
+the United Kingdom.<!-- Page 243 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Smoky Wainscot</i> (<i>Leucania impura</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This same genus includes a number of moths, very similar in
+general appearance, and popularly known as the 'Wainscots.' Of
+these we shall take two examples.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_143" id="FIG_143"></a><a href="images/i_260a.jpg"><img src="images/i_260a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="94" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Smoky Wainscot moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 143.&mdash;The Smoky
+Wainscot.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first is the Smoky Wainscot,
+so called from the dark smoky tint
+of the hind wings. Its fore wings
+are wainscot brown, with lighter rays;
+and they each have three black dots arranged
+in the form of a triangle, one
+in the centre, and the other two between
+this and the hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is yellowish, with a
+fine white line down the back. The
+spiracles are red, and inclosed in black rings. It feeds on sedges
+(<i>Carex</i>) from March to May.</p>
+
+<p>The moth is on the wing from June to August.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Common Wainscot</i> (<i>Leucania pallens</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_144" id="FIG_144"></a><a href="images/i_260b.jpg"><img src="images/i_260b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="91" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Common Wainscot moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 144.&mdash;The Common
+Wainscot.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This moth is very much like the last. The fore wings exhibit
+the same three dots, but it may be
+distinguished by the pale colour of the
+hind wings.</p>
+
+<p>The larva feeds on various grasses
+in March and April. It is of a pinkish
+grey colour, with two rows of
+black dots on each side of the dorsal
+line. There are also three stripes
+along the side, two of which are
+brownish and the other grey.</p>
+
+<p>The moth is common everywhere from June to August.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Bullrush</i> (<i>Nonagria arundinis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our last example of this family is the Bullrush, a moth that is
+common in all parts where its food plant abounds.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_145" id="FIG_145"></a><a href="images/i_261.jpg"><img src="images/i_261_tn.jpg" width="300" height="166" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Bullrush." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 145.&mdash;The Bullrush.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is much larger than the two preceding species. The fore
+wings are yellowish brown, with three parallel transverse lines of<!-- Page 244 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>
+black spots. The hind wings are whitish, tinged with brown near
+the hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is of a dull pinkish colour, with a shining
+brownish plate on the
+second segment. The
+spiracles are black. It
+feeds inside the stems
+of the reed-mace (<i>Typha
+latifolia</i>), and
+changes to a chrysalis
+within the gallery it
+has excavated, after
+making a hole through
+which it can escape
+when it attains the perfect
+form.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar may
+be found in May and June, the chrysalis in August, and the moth
+in September.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Apameidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>This large family contains no less than forty-four British species,
+many of which are exceedingly common; and of the others only
+about half a dozen can be regarded as rare.</p>
+
+<p>Most of them are of medium size, and with one or two exceptions
+are dressed in rather dingy garbs; but, although the ground
+colours are dull, the various markings of the wings are sharply
+defined. They may be searched for on palings and the bark of trees
+by day, at which time they repose with their wings sloping like the
+sides of the roof of a house. Some are easily attracted by lights,
+and others partake freely of the entomologist's 'sugar.'</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ have small retractile heads, and feed on low-growing
+plants, keeping themselves well concealed on the lower leaves close
+to the ground.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Frosted Orange</i> (<i>Gortyna Ochracea</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_146" id="FIG_146"></a><a href="images/i_262a.jpg"><img src="images/i_262a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="98" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Frosted Orange." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 146.&mdash;The Frosted
+Orange.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We commence with one of the brightest members of the family,
+the Frosted Orange. Its fore wings are dark yellow or ochreous,
+with distinct brown markings, the chief of which are two broad<!-- Page 245 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>
+transverse bands. The orbicular spot is pale yellow and very distinct.
+The hind wings are dingy yellow. This moth flies from July
+to September, and is easily attracted
+by a light at night. It is common
+everywhere.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is yellow, dotted with
+black, with a brownish plate on the
+second segment. It feeds inside the
+stems of a number of plants, including
+the marsh thistle (<i>Cnicus
+palustris</i>), musk thistle (<i>Carduus
+nutans</i>), burdock (<i>Arctium minus</i>),
+mullein (<i>Verbascum thapsus</i>), foxglove
+(<i>Digitalis purpurea</i>), and elder (<i>Sambucus nigra</i>). When
+about to change to the chrysalis it eats <i>nearly</i> to the surface of the
+stem, leaving only a very thin and transparent layer of the epidermis
+to cover the hole through which it is to escape when it
+becomes a moth.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars are to be found in June, and the chrysalides in
+July.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Flame</i> (<i>Axylia putris</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This also is a pretty insect, but much smaller than <i>Ochracea</i>. It
+is common in most parts, and may be seen flying in weedy and
+waste grounds at dusk during June and
+July.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_147" id="FIG_147"></a><a href="images/i_262b.jpg"><img src="images/i_262b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="87" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Flame." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 147.&mdash;The Flame.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings are pale pinkish brown,
+with dark brown along the costa, and two
+patches of the same colour on the hind
+margin. There is also a double line of
+small brown dots parallel with the hind
+margin.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is brown, with one yellow and two white dots on each
+segment. There is also a triangular dark patch on each of the fifth
+and sixth segments. It feeds during August on the stinging nettle
+(<i>Urtica dioica</i>), and various other low herbs.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Light Arches</i> (<i>Xylophasia lithoxylea</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_148" id="FIG_148"></a><a href="images/i_263a.jpg"><img src="images/i_263a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="118" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Light Arches." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 148.&mdash;The Light Arches.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this species are very light ochreous, with a
+light brown patch on the middle of the costa, and patches of the<!-- Page 246 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>
+same colour along the hind margin; also a row of small black dots
+parallel with the same
+margin. The hind wings
+are pale ochreous: they
+are brownish along the
+hind margin, and have
+a light fringe.</p>
+
+<p>The moth is very
+common in waste places,
+and flies in June and
+July.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is of
+a dirty white colour, dotted with black, and has a black head. It
+feeds on the roots of grasses in May.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Flounced Rustic</i> (<i>Luperina testacea</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_149" id="FIG_149"></a><a href="images/i_263b.jpg"><img src="images/i_263b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="93" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Flounced Rustic." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 149.&mdash;The Flounced
+Rustic.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings are greyish brown, with darker umber-brown
+markings. These latter are variable,
+but the most conspicuous is a series
+of dark crescent-shaped spots almost
+parallel with the hind margin, and
+immediately outside these is a series
+of paler crescents.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is dull flesh-colour,
+with a brown head, and a brownish
+plate on the second segment. It feeds
+on the stems of grasses.</p>
+
+<p>The moth is common throughout the British Isles, and flies in
+August and September.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Cabbage Moth</i> (<i>Mamestra Brassicæ</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Whatever be your methods of moth collecting, you are sure to
+meet with <i>Brassicæ</i> in abundance. They swarm round the insect
+hunter's sugar in such numbers as to become a positive nuisance.
+They are also attracted by light. During the day they may be seen
+at rest on palings. The caterpillar is even better known, and with
+reason, for it is fearfully destructive to our vegetables and even our
+flower beds. It burrows into the hearts of cabbages, filling the
+galleries it makes with its excrement, often leaving no very<!-- Page 247 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>
+visible outward signs of its presence within. But its ravages
+are by no means confined to cabbages. It eats with more or less
+relish almost every vegetable
+and flowering plant of our
+gardens, and is equally partial
+to the various herbs of the field.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_150" id="FIG_150"></a><a href="images/i_264a.jpg"><img src="images/i_264a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="97" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Cabbage Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 150.&mdash;The Cabbage Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of the moth
+are dingy brownish grey, marbled
+in a very confused manner
+by darker markings. The
+<i>reniform</i> spot is very distinct,
+the orbicular less so. A light
+zigzag line runs parallel with the hind margin. It flies in June
+and July.</p>
+
+<p>The larva feeds later in the season, and changes to the chrysalis
+beneath the soil in the autumn. It is of a dark grey colour, with a
+darker line on the back, and a lighter one along the spiracles, which
+are white.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Dot</i> (<i>Mamestra Persicariæ</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_151" id="FIG_151"></a><a href="images/i_264b.jpg"><img src="images/i_264b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="101" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Dot." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 151.&mdash;The Dot.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The conspicuous white reniform spot on the very dark marbled
+fore wings is always sufficient for the identification of this species.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is out in June and July; and during the latter month
+lays its eggs on the elder (<i>Sambucus
+nigra</i>), and the various low
+plants that supply the larva with
+food.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is greenish or greyish,
+sometimes with a reddish
+tinge, with a light line down the
+back. The twelfth segment is
+humped, and there are dark <span class="lettershape">V</span>-shaped
+marks on the back of segments
+five to twelve inclusive. It is full grown in September, and
+burrows into the ground to undergo its change to the chrysalis, in
+which state it remains throughout the winter.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Rustic Shoulder-knot</i> (<i>Apamea basilinea</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_152" id="FIG_152"></a><a href="images/i_265a.jpg"><img src="images/i_265a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="94" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Rustic Shoulder knot." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 152.&mdash;The Rustic
+Shoulder knot.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this species are pale ochreous grey, with light
+brown markings; and there is a short dark streak in the middle of<!-- Page 248 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>
+the base, from which feature the specific name (<i>Basilinea</i>) is
+derived. The hind wings are of a similar colour, but shading into
+a dark smoke colour at the hind
+margin.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars feed at first on
+the grains of wheat, on the ears of
+which the moth deposits the eggs
+in June. At harvest time they remain
+hidden among the husks, and
+are often threshed out in large
+numbers by the blows of the flail.
+The cold weather soon overtakes
+them, and they then spin a cocoon in which to pass the winter.
+On the approach of spring they come out again, and feed by night
+on various low plants, hiding themselves among the roots by day.
+In March they are full grown, and change to brown chrysalides
+beneath the surface of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies in June, and is one of the commonest and most
+destructive of our <i>Noctuæ</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Marbled Minor</i> (<i>Miana strigilis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The next three genera (<i>Miana</i>, <i>Phothedes</i>, and <i>Celæna</i>) include
+seven small moths known as the 'Minors.' The commonest of
+them is the Marbled Minor, which is to be
+found in abundance everywhere during June
+and July.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_153" id="FIG_153"></a><a href="images/i_265b.jpg"><img src="images/i_265b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="76" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Marbled Minor." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 153.&mdash;The Marbled
+Minor.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This species is very variable, but the fore
+wings are usually dark brown, marbled with
+a lighter colour&mdash;white or grey. There is
+generally an irregular white or pale grey
+band crossing the wings parallel with the
+hind margin, and two white marks on the inner margin, halfway
+between this band and the base. There is also a deep black blotch
+across the middle of the wing.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is greyish or greenish with paler lines and black
+spiracles. It feeds on grasses in March and April, and changes to
+a chrysalis under the ground in May.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Caradrinidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>There are only ten British species in this family, two of
+which are rare; and most of the others are particularly dingy.<!-- Page 249 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>
+The transverse lines so often seen on the fore wings of Noctuæ are
+generally well marked. The larvæ have short stiff bristles, and
+feed on low plants; they undergo their changes in an earthen
+cocoon under the ground.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Mottled Rustic</i> (<i>Caradrina Morpheus</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>We select as our type of this family the Mottled Rustic&mdash;a
+common moth that may be procured from June to August. Its
+fore wings are brownish grey, with
+darker lines and spots; the hind wings
+are almost white, but darker at the tip.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_154" id="FIG_154"></a><a href="images/i_266.jpg"><img src="images/i_266_tn.jpg" width="300" height="84" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Mottled Rustic." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 154.&mdash;The Mottled
+Rustic.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is brownish grey, with
+a row of triangular spots on each side of
+the back. It is very sluggish, spending
+the greater part of its existence among
+the roots of low plants. It feeds throughout
+the winter, except during severe
+weather, and is full grown in April. The food plants include teasels
+(<i>Dipsacus pilosus</i> and <i>D. sylvestris</i>), hedge bedstraw (<i>Galium Mollugo</i>),
+orpine (<i>Sedum Telephium</i>), sallows (<i>Salix</i>), and various
+other plants.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalis may be dug out in May.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Noctuidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>A glance at our list of British <i>Noctuæ</i> (Appendix I) will show
+that this family contains nearly fifty species and only three genera.
+It includes several very common moths that frequent our gardens
+and are to be met with during almost every summer evening
+ramble.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the species are very dingy, but the half-dozen that
+comprise the genus <i>Triphæna</i> are characterised by the bright
+colouring of the hind wings. The fore wings are narrow and more
+or less glossy, and overlap to a greater or less extent when the
+insects are at rest; and the hind wings are folded and completely
+hidden beneath them.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ are rather thick and smooth, and generally of very
+dingy colours. They feed on low plants, often confining their
+ravages to the roots, and generally lie well concealed close to the
+ground or under the surface.<!-- Page 250 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The pupæ are brown, smooth, and shining, and are usually
+inclosed in earthen cocoons.</p>
+
+<p>We shall briefly notice a few members of each of the three
+genera.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Turnip Moth</i> (<i>Agrotis Segetum</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This is another of those destructive insects that attack vegetable
+and flower gardens, often doing so much damage to our crops as to
+become quite a nuisance to cultivators.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_155" id="FIG_155"></a><a href="images/i_267.jpg"><img src="images/i_267_tn.jpg" width="300" height="90" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Turnip Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 155.&mdash;The Turnip Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The moth is decidedly dingy. Its fore wings are brown, clouded
+with a darker tint. The hind wings are almost white, sometimes
+with a brown hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>In June it lays its eggs on the stems of young plants, generally
+very close to the ground. As soon as the young caterpillars emerge
+they commence feeding on the
+lower parts of the stems, or burrowing
+deeply into the larger succulent
+roots. When the larvæ have completed
+their work of destruction in
+this way, they change to brown
+chrysalides in the ground. Some
+undergo this change in October, and
+shortly after give rise to a second
+brood of moths; but most of them remain in the caterpillar state
+throughout the winter, and, contrary to the general rule with
+hybernating larvæ, continue to feed almost throughout the winter
+months, and change to the chrysalis in the following May.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar grows to a large size. It is of a greyish or
+greenish colour, with a paler line on the back, a light brown line
+on each side of this, black spots between these lines, and black
+spiracles.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Heart and Dart</i> (<i>Agrotis Exclamationis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The destructive work of <i>Segetum</i> is assisted by similar operations
+of the Heart and Dart, the larva of which feeds voraciously
+on the roots of several of our cultivated vegetables, though
+the present species does not entirely confine its ravages to the
+farmer's crops, but attacks the roots of many low-growing herbs.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_156" id="FIG_156"></a><a href="images/i_268a.jpg"><img src="images/i_268a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="108" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Heart and Dart." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 156.&mdash;The Heart and
+Dart.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of the moth are light brown, generally with
+a reddish tinge. The darker markings include a large and very<!-- Page 251 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>
+distinct reniform spot, a less distinct orbicular, and a conspicuous
+longitudinal blackish streak near the base of the wing known as the
+<i>claviform</i>. Beyond the reniform
+a curved and zigzag dark line
+crosses the wing. The hind wings
+of the male are very pale, those
+of the female darker, with a whitish
+fringe.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies from June to
+August, and is common everywhere.
+The caterpillar feeds in
+the autumn, and reaches its full
+size in October; but it is said to
+feed at intervals throughout the winter. Its colour is dingy brown
+or grey, with paler lines on the sides. The spiracles are black, and
+there are black dots on the sides.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Garden Dart</i> (<i>Agrotis nigricans</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This is another dingy moth, whose general appearance is so
+unattractive that the tyro might be inclined to neglect it. But it
+must not be omitted from our selection on that score, for our main
+object here is to give the beginner
+an acquaintance with those species
+that are most likely to be captured
+in the earlier part of his career, and
+this moth is certainly one of those
+that may be described as 'abundant
+everywhere.'</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_157" id="FIG_157"></a><a href="images/i_268b.jpg"><img src="images/i_268b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="95" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Garden Dart." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 157.&mdash;The Garden Dart.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are dull dark brown,
+often tinged with red, and clouded
+with black. The reniform spot is
+pale, the orbicular spot less distinct, and between the two there is
+generally a rhomboidal dark spot. There is also a short dark streak
+near the base of the wing, and a black spot before the orbicular.
+The hind wings are pale, but smoky towards the hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is brown and shining, with a fine pale line on
+the back, and a double white stripe below the spiracles. It is also
+dotted with black. It is exceedingly destructive, feeding on clovers
+(<i>Trifolium pratense</i> and <i>T. repens</i>) and various low plants in May
+and June.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies from June to August.<!-- Page 252 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Flame Shoulder</i> (<i>Noctua plecta</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_158" id="FIG_158"></a><a href="images/i_269a.jpg"><img src="images/i_269a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="85" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Flame Shoulder." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 158.&mdash;The Flame
+Shoulder.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As our example of the next genus we take the Flame
+Shoulder, a rather small moth, easily identified by the broad
+yellowish-white streak along the costa of the reddish-brown fore
+wings. The orbicular and reniform spots
+are margined with white, and a thin white
+streak runs from the base of the wing to
+the former. The hind wings are white.
+This moth flies in July, and is common
+throughout Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is reddish brown, with
+a slender line of white dots on the back,
+and a similar line on each side. The body
+is smooth and velvety, and is netted and dotted all over with dark
+brown. It feeds on the lady's bedstraw (<i>Galium verum</i>), sweet
+woodruff (<i>Asperula odorata</i>), and many other low plants; and
+is full fed early in July.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Lesser Broad Border</i> (<i>Triphæna ianthina</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>We now come to the third and last genus (<i>Triphæna</i>) of this
+extensive family, a genus which includes six interesting moths,
+with bright orange or yellow hind wings. Of these we shall take
+three examples.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_159" id="FIG_159"></a><a href="images/i_269b.jpg"><img src="images/i_269b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="89" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Lesser Broad Border." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 159.&mdash;The Lesser Broad
+Border.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first of them&mdash;the Lesser Broad Border&mdash;has fore wings of
+a rich reddish or violet brown, with paler markings. The hind
+wings are bright orange, with a
+broad marginal band of black.</p>
+
+<p>It is a common moth, particularly
+in the south-western counties,
+and flies during July and August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is of a dingy yellowish
+or greenish grey, with a light
+line down the back, and two black
+spots on each side of segments nine
+to twelve inclusive. It feeds throughout
+the winter by night on dead nettles (<i>Lamium purpureum</i> and
+<i>L. album</i>), primrose (<i>Primula acaulis</i>), whitethorn (<i>Cratægus
+oxyacantha</i>), blackthorn (<i>Prunus spinosa</i>), and various low plants;
+and may sometimes be seen in flower gardens. It is full grown
+in April.<!-- Page 253 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Lesser Yellow Underwing</i> (<i>Triphæna Comes</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_160" id="FIG_160"></a><a href="images/i_270.jpg"><img src="images/i_270_tn.jpg" width="300" height="103" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Lesser Yellow Underwing." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 160.&mdash;The Lesser
+Yellow Underwing.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This insect is very similar to the last, but is larger. The
+fore wings are also of a greyish or ochreous brown, and the black
+margin of the hind wings is proportionately
+narrower.</p>
+
+<p>It is more abundant than <i>Ianthina</i>;
+in fact it is to be found
+everywhere in plenty during the
+month of July.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is yellowish
+brown. On the back of each of
+the eleventh and twelfth segments
+are two conspicuous dark marks.
+The spiracles are white, and below
+them is a pale brown stripe. It feeds on the foxglove (<i>Digitalis
+purpurea</i>), chickweed (<i>Stellaria media</i>), thrift (<i>Armeria maritima</i>),
+and other low plants in the autumn, hybernates during the winter,
+and attacks sallows (<i>Salix Caprea</i> and <i>S. cinerea</i>) and whitethorn
+(<i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>) as soon as the buds appear in the spring.
+It is full grown in April, and then changes to a chrysalis on the
+surface of the earth.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Large Yellow Underwing</i> (<i>Triphæna Pronuba</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This is by far the commonest moth of the genus, and may be
+found everywhere, in town and country, from June to August. It
+is represented on <a href="#Plate_XI">Plate XI</a> (fig. 1), but its fore wings are very variable,
+sometimes a cold dingy grey, but often of an exceedingly rich
+and warm brown. On the costal margin, not far from the tip, there
+is always a small black spot, which will serve to distinguish it from
+<i>Comes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar (<a href="#FIG_21">fig. 21</a>) feeds throughout the winter on the roots
+of almost every plant in our gardens; and, during the warmer
+weather of the autumn and spring, on stems and leaves. It is full
+grown early in the summer, and then changes to a chrysalis in the
+ground. Its colour is dirty yellowish or greenish grey, with a row
+of dark spots on each side.<!-- Page 254 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Amphipyridæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Gothic</i> (<i>Mania typica</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The above family contains only four British species, two of
+which we shall briefly consider.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_161" id="FIG_161"></a><a href="images/i_271a.jpg"><img src="images/i_271a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="129" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Gothic." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 161.&mdash;The Gothic.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first of these is the Gothic&mdash;a very common moth that may
+be seen everywhere about midsummer. Its fore wings are brown
+with darker marblings, and
+there are numerous lighter
+markings which may be easily
+made out by reference to the
+accompanying woodcut.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is smooth
+and velvety, of a dull brown or
+greenish colour, with darker
+dorsal and side stripes. The
+latter are crossed obliquely by
+a series of whitish lines. It
+feeds on fruit and other trees
+in clusters when very young in early autumn, and afterwards
+descends and feeds on low plants. It hybernates in the winter, and
+feeds again on low plants in the spring. When full grown it burrows
+into the soil to undergo its changes.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Old Lady</i> (<i>Mania Maura</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_162" id="FIG_162"></a><a href="images/i_271b.jpg"><img src="images/i_271b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="148" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Old Lady." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 162.&mdash;The Old Lady.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This fine moth is so very different from the last in appearance
+that the reason
+for placing the two
+in the same genus
+is not apparent
+till the earlier
+stages and life history
+have been
+studied. All its
+wings are very
+deep brown; the
+front pair has a
+darker band containing
+the orbicular
+and reniform spots, and the hind pair a lighter band across the
+middle.</p>
+
+<p><!-- Page 255 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is a common moth, often to be found at rest by day in outhouses
+and sheds. It flies in July and August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is dark purple or umber brown, with darker and
+lighter markings. It feeds in the autumn on fruit trees, and
+hybernates during the winter. In the spring it feeds again on low
+plants, and changes to a chrysalis in May under the ground.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Orthosiidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>This is a large family of over thirty species, most of them of
+rather small size, which make their appearance, with two exceptions,
+either in early spring or in late autumn, often attracted in the former
+season by the sallow blossom, and in the latter by ivy bloom.</p>
+
+<p>Several of them are very common insects, that are almost sure
+to be taken by a young collector during his first season.</p>
+
+<p>The fore wings of these moths are more or less pointed at the
+tip, and the usual lines and spots are generally distinct. The males
+may be distinguished from the females by their antennæ, which are
+always more or less ciliated.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars are smooth and velvety, and feed by night; and
+the pupæ are inclosed in cocoons constructed of earth and silk.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Common Quaker</i> (<i>Tæniocampa stabilis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Several of the species of the family are known popularly as
+Quakers, the commonest of which&mdash;<i>Stabilis</i>&mdash;is abundant in all
+parts.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_163" id="FIG_163"></a><a href="images/i_272.jpg"><img src="images/i_272_tn.jpg" width="300" height="92" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Common Quaker." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 163.&mdash;The Common
+Quaker.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are grey, with generally either an ochreous or
+reddish tinge. The orbicular and
+reniform spots are outlined with
+a paler colour, and there is a pale
+transverse line parallel with the
+hind margin, outside which is a row
+of indistinct black spots. The hind
+wings are greyish brown.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green and
+velvety, with a yellowish line on
+the back and on each side; and a
+yellow band crosses the back of the twelfth segment transversely.
+It feeds during June and July on oak (<i>Quercus Robur</i>) and elm
+(<i>Ulmus campestris</i>), and changes to a chrysalis in August on the
+surface of the ground. In this state it remains throughout the
+winter, and the moth emerges in March or April.<!-- Page 256 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Chestnut</i> (<i>Cerastis Vaccinii</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Unfortunately our space will not allow us to notice the whole of
+even the very common moths, so, passing over a few with great reluctance,
+we come to the familiar Chestnut, which may be seen at
+large in October and November, and sometimes even in December,
+and again appears, after a rather short
+period of hybernation, in February
+and March.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_164" id="FIG_164"></a><a href="images/i_273a.jpg"><img src="images/i_273a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="80" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Chestnut." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 164.&mdash;The Chestnut.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings are reddish brown,
+with darker wavy lines. The orbicular
+and reniform spots have pale outlines,
+and the lower half of the latter is very
+dark grey. The hind wings are smoky
+grey, with generally a pale band beyond the middle.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is dark brown, with very indistinct lighter lines.
+The spiracles are black, and inclosed in a yellowish grey stripe. It
+feeds during June and July on the elm (<i>Ulmus campestris</i>), oak
+(<i>Quercus Robur</i>), and sallow (<i>Salix caprea</i>), and various low
+plants.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Pink-barred Sallow</i> (<i>Xanthia Flavago</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This moth is not nearly so common as the preceding species,
+but has been taken more or less in all parts of England.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_165" id="FIG_165"></a>
+<a href="images/i_273b.jpg"><img src="images/i_273b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="78" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Pink-barred Sallow." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 165.&mdash;The Pink-barred Sallow.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are orange yellow,
+with purplish markings arranged as
+represented in <a href="#FIG_165">fig. 165</a>. The hind
+wings are yellowish white.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is brown, with a
+lateral stripe formed by numerous red,
+yellow and white dots. It feeds on
+sallow (<i>Salix caprea</i>) and various low
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>It is full grown in June, and the moth appears in September.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cosmiidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Dun-bar</i> (<i>Calymnia trapezina</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our example of this family is the Dun-bar, common everywhere
+during July and August.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_166" id="FIG_166"></a><a href="images/i_274a.jpg"><img src="images/i_274a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="78" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Dun-bar." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 166.&mdash;The Dun-bar.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are greyish ochreous, with a darker band across
+the middle. On each side of this band is a white line margined with<!-- Page 257 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>
+dark grey, and there is a row of black spots along the hind margin.
+The hind wings are smoky brown, becoming paler towards the base.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on oak (<i>Quercus Robur</i>), hornbeam (<i>Carpinus
+Betulus</i>), and birch (<i>Betula alba</i>),
+and may be found in abundance during
+May and June. It is green, with dark
+spots, and white lines on the back and
+sides. Although it partakes of the leaves
+of the above-named trees, yet its chief
+food seems to be other caterpillars, for it
+devours these with a savage greediness
+that is simply astonishing. It will chase
+an unfortunate caterpillar, seize it by the neck with a fatal grip,
+and rapidly devour it. Its chief prey seems to be the larva of the
+Winter Moth (<i>Brumata</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Hadenidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>Nearly fifty British <i>Noctuæ</i> are included in the family
+<i>Hadenidæ</i>. They are of variable dimensions, and differ much in
+the brightness of their colours, some being very dingy, and others
+gaily tinted. Their antennæ are rather long; and when at rest
+the wings slope from the back like the sides of a roof.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ are smooth, and not very thick; and there is sometimes
+a hump on the twelfth segment. The pupæ are brown and
+shiny, and are inclosed in earthen cocoons beneath the surface of
+the soil.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Broad-barred White</i> (<i>Hecatera serena</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_167" id="FIG_167"></a><a href="images/i_274b.jpg"><img src="images/i_274b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="79" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Broad-barred White." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 167.&mdash;The Broad-barred White.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although not gaily coloured, this is a pretty little moth, there
+being a bright contrast between the white ground and the grey
+markings of the wings. It is common
+in the south of England, and seems to
+be plentiful in and around London.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is of a dingy greenish
+colour, with a yellowish stripe on each
+side of the back; and there are two distinct
+dots on the back of each segment.
+It feeds during July and August on sow-thistles
+(<i>Sonchus oleraceus</i> and <i>S. arvensis</i>),
+sleepwort (<i>Lactuca virosa</i>), and hawkweeds (<i>Hieracia</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies in June and July.<!-- Page 258 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Marvel-du-jour</i> (<i>Agriopis Aprilina</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The Marvel-du-jour is decidedly a beautiful moth&mdash;quite an exception
+among the <i>Noctuæ</i> in this respect, and it is withal both
+common and widely distributed. We need not describe it, since it
+is represented on <a href="#Plate_XI">Plate XI</a> (fig. 2), and can hardly be mistaken for
+any other species.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is dull green, often tinged with red. The dorsal
+line is broad and dark, and interrupted by a series of very light
+lozenge-shaped spots. It feeds on the oak in May and June, and is
+full grown in the latter month. It then burrows into the earth at
+the foot of the tree, and there constructs a fragile earthen cocoon
+previous to changing to a chrysalis.</p>
+
+<p>From July to September the chrysalides may be obtained in
+plenty by breaking up the sods at the roots of oaks, and the perfect
+insect may be found toward the end of September and throughout
+October.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Angle Shades</i> (<i>Euplexia lucipara</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This pretty little moth is represented in fig. 3 of <a href="#Plate_XI">Plate XI</a>. It
+is very common throughout the country, and may be seen in June
+and July.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is thickest on the twelfth segment, and gradually
+tapers from this towards the head. Its colour is pale green, with a
+white stripe just below the spiracles, which are black. On each
+side of the back are a number of oblique lines, which meet in the
+middle line, thus forming a series of <span class="lettershape">V</span>-shaped marks pointing
+towards the tail. It feeds on the common bracken fern (<i>Pteris
+aquilina</i>), foxglove (<i>Digitalis purpurea</i>), and the male fern (<i>Lastræa
+Filix-mas</i>), in August and September.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Angle Shades</i>
+(<i>Phlogophora Meticulosa</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_168" id="FIG_168"></a><a href="images/i_275.jpg"><img src="images/i_275_tn.jpg" width="300" height="113" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Angle Shades." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 168.&mdash;The Angle Shades.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This moth is so common
+and so widely distributed
+that it is almost
+sure to be taken by the
+young collector during
+his first season. Its wings
+are scalloped on the hind margin, and their colour light ochreous,
+often tinged with pink or olive green, and marked with dark<!-- Page 259 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>
+brown as shown in the illustration. It is double brooded, the first
+brood appearing in May and June, and the second in September
+and October.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green or olive brown, and thickly covered
+with white spots. It feeds on groundsel (<i>Senecio vulgaris</i>) and
+many other low plants, the first brood throughout the winter from
+November to April, and the second in July and August.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Grey Arches</i> (<i>Aplecta nebulosa</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_169" id="FIG_169"></a><a href="images/i_276.jpg"><img src="images/i_276_tn.jpg" width="300" height="113" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Grey Arches." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 169.&mdash;The Grey Arches.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this moth vary from greyish white to a rather
+dark smoky tint. The markings are of a darker colour, and are
+also subject to considerable variation. The orbicular and reniform
+spots are large, and paler than the ground colour; and several zigzag
+or scalloped lines,
+more or less distinct,
+cross the wings transversely.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is brown,
+with a lighter line down
+the back. On each of the
+segments five to eleven
+is a dark lozenge-shaped
+spot, bisected by the
+dorsal line; and on the
+second segment is a shining plate and a triangular mark. It feeds
+on the dock (<i>Rumex</i>), and various other low plants during the
+autumn; and, after its hybernation, on the leaves of the sallow
+(<i>Salix Caprea</i>), birch (<i>Betula alba</i>), and whitethorn (<i>Cratægus
+oxyacantha</i>). It is full grown in May, when it burrows into the
+ground to undergo its metamorphoses.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies during June and July, and is common in nearly
+every part of Great Britain. Large numbers may be obtained by
+searching fences and tree trunks about midsummer.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Shears</i> (<i>Hadena dentina</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_170" id="FIG_170"></a><a href="images/i_277a.jpg"><img src="images/i_277a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="86" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Shears." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 170.&mdash;The Shears.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Shears is another very common moth of the same family.
+The ground colour of the fore wings is very variable, but is generally
+a lighter or darker shade of grey. Sometimes, however, it
+has a very decided brownish tinge. Across the centre of the wing<!-- Page 260 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>
+is a darker band, wider on the costal side, containing the orbicular
+and reniform spots, as well as a light patch beneath them, and bordered
+on each side by a pale zigzag
+line. There is another similar line
+near to and parallel with the hind
+margin. The hind wings are smoky
+grey or smoky brown, darker towards
+the hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is greyish, and has
+a series of triangular black spots along
+each side of the back. It feeds on the roots of the dandelion
+(<i>Taraxacum officinale</i>), and changes to a peculiar spiny chrysalis.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insect appears to be abundant everywhere, and is
+on the wing in June and July.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Bright-line Brown-eye</i> (<i>Hadena oleracea</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Every collector is sure to meet with this insect during his first
+season. The moth is abundant everywhere in June, the caterpillar
+may be found feeding in almost every waste and weedy spot in
+August and September, and the chrysalis is certain to be turned
+over by the pupa digger.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_171" id="FIG_171"></a><a href="images/i_277b.jpg"><img src="images/i_277b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="96" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Bright-line Brown-eye." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 171.&mdash;The Bright-line Brown-eye.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of the perfect insect are reddish brown. The
+orbicular spot is usually very indistinct,
+being of almost exactly the
+same tint as the ground colour, and
+surrounded by a very fine whitish
+line. The reniform is generally
+more conspicuous, a portion of it
+being of a light ochreous colour.
+Near the hind margin, and parallel
+with it, is a white line, bent
+sharply into the form of a <span class="lettershape">W</span>, just
+on the anal side of the middle.</p>
+
+<p>The hind wings are greyish brown in the base, and dark smoke
+colour towards the margin.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is pale green or brown, dotted with both black
+and white, and adorned with a bright yellow line just below the
+spiracles. It feeds on the nettle (<i>Urtica dioica</i>), dock (<i>Rumex</i>),
+and many other low plants; and, according to some observers, on
+the elm (<i>Ulmus campestris</i>).<!-- Page 261 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Xylinidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>The next family&mdash;<i>Xylinidæ</i>&mdash;contains twenty British species,
+several of which are local, but two or three are abundant and
+widely distributed.</p>
+
+<p>The transverse lines that so often cross the wings of the <i>Noctuæ</i>
+are nearly or entirely absent in this family, and longitudinal lines
+take their place. When the insects are at rest the wings are folded
+rather closely, the outer pair being arranged like a roof with a very
+gentle slope. The bodies of the perfect insects are very stout,
+particularly in the thorax, and thus present a rather powerful
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ are smooth, and generally brightly coloured, and
+feed principally on low plants. The chrysalides are generally
+inclosed in cocoons on or beneath the ground, and are often provided
+with spines or bristles on the under side.</p>
+
+<p>We shall select two members of this family.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Early Grey</i> (<i>Xylocampa Areola</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>One of the first of the <i>Noctuæ</i> to greet us in the spring is the
+Early Grey, which may be found resting on fences in April, and,
+if the season is mild, in March.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_172" id="FIG_172"></a><a href="images/i_278.jpg"><img src="images/i_278_tn.jpg" width="300" height="90" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Early Grey." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 172.&mdash;The Early Grey.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are light grey, often
+tinged with rose pink, and marked
+with dark grey. The orbicular and
+reniform spots are very distinct, and
+surrounded by a pale line; they are
+both united at their lower edges. Along
+the hind margin is a series of dark
+spots. The hind wings are pale yellowish
+grey, with a darker central
+spot, a central transverse darker line, and a darker line along the
+hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is yellowish grey. The dorsal line is lighter,
+and passes through a brownish spot on the eighth segment. It
+feeds on the honeysuckle (<i>Lonicera Periclymenum</i>) in July and
+August, being full grown towards the end of the latter month.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Shark</i> (<i>Cucullia umbratica</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The Shark is a very common moth, to be found everywhere on
+palings in June, but the colour of its wings so closely resembles<!-- Page 262 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>
+that of oak and other light-wood fences that detection is not so
+easy as with most other moths.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_173" id="FIG_173"></a><a href="images/i_279.jpg"><img src="images/i_279_tn.jpg" width="300" height="138" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Shark." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 173.&mdash;The Shark.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings are grey, and marked with longitudinal dark
+lines, the principal of which is a line from the middle of the base
+to about the centre of
+the wing. The wing
+rays are also darker
+than the ground
+colour. The hind
+wings are greyish
+white or brownish
+grey.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is
+very dark brown, with
+orange spots on the
+back and along the
+spiracles. It feeds on
+sow-thistles (<i>Sonchus oleraceus</i>, <i>S. palustris</i>, and <i>S. arvensis</i>) and
+sleepwort (<i>Lactuca virosa</i>) at night from July to September, and
+hides during the daytime among the leaves that lie close against
+the ground. When disturbed it does not roll into a ring or feign
+death like many others of its kind, but wriggles about most vigorously
+as if to repel its foe.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gonopteridæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Herald Moth</i> (<i>Gonoptera Libatrix</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The above-mentioned family is so called on account of the
+angular margins of the wings, especially the fore pair. It contains
+only one British species, the Herald (<a href="#Plate_XII">Plate XII</a>, fig. 1), a moth
+that is common everywhere in August and September. It hybernates
+in the perfect state, and the hybernated specimens may be
+seen in the spring time, from March up to the end of May or the
+beginning of June.</p>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are reddish grey, thickly spotted and streaked
+with brown. Transverse whitish lines divide the base into three
+parts of nearly equal widths. The basal and central divisions are
+tinged with orange; and there is a small white spot in the base
+close to the thorax, also another near the centre of the wing. The
+hind wings are brownish grey.<!-- Page 263 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green and velvety, with a whitish stripe on
+the side, and yellow spiracles. It feeds on willow (<i>Salix alba</i>)
+and sallow (<i>Salix caprea</i>); and when full grown, about the end
+of June, it spins a white silken cocoon between leaves of its tree,
+and changes to a very dark chrysalis.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Plusiidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>The most peculiar feature of the moths of this family is the
+tufts of hair that stand up perpendicularly on the top of the thorax.
+The abdomen also is crested, and the fore wings of several species
+have smooth patches that display a brilliant metallic lustre.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the larvæ may be described as semi-loopers, for their
+claspers number only three pairs, and when they walk their backs
+are considerably humped, somewhat after the fashion of the <i>Geometræ</i>.
+Some of them further imitate the <i>Geometræ</i> in their
+position of rest, holding on by their claspers only, with body
+straightened out at an angle with the leaf or twig on which they
+support themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike the majority of the <i>Noctuæ</i>, they do not descend to the
+ground when about to change, but spin a silken cocoon among the
+food plants.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Burnished Brass</i> (<i>Plusia Chrysitis</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_174" id="FIG_174"></a><a href="images/i_280.jpg"><img src="images/i_280_tn.jpg" width="300" height="94" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Burnished Brass." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 174.&mdash;The Burnished Brass.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the commonest of the <i>Plusiidæ</i> is the Burnished Brass,
+so called on account of the large patches of bright golden green on
+the fore wings. The hind margin of these wings is very gracefully
+curved, and bordered with brown. A
+brown blotch fills the base of the wing,
+and the remaining area is of a beautiful
+metallic greenish yellow, broken by
+two large brown blotches, one on the
+costal and the other on the inner margin,
+which closely approach each other
+and sometimes meet.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is very common everywhere,
+and is one of the frequent
+visitors to our flower gardens from June to August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers
+from this point. Its colour is pale green. It has no longitudinal
+stripes on the back, but each segment is adorned with four or six<!-- Page 264 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>
+oblique white marks. Just above the spiracles is a white stripe.
+It feeds on the dead nettle (<i>Lamium album</i>), stinging nettle
+(<i>Urtica dioica</i>), and burdock (<i>Arctium minus</i>), and is full grown
+in June.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Silver</i> <span class="lettershape">Y</span> (<i>Plusia Gamma</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_175" id="FIG_175"></a><a href="images/i_281.jpg"><img src="images/i_281_tn.jpg" width="300" height="102" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Silver Y" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 175.&mdash;The Silver <span class="lettershape">Y</span>.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our second example of this family is the Silver <span class="lettershape">Y</span>, which may
+be found in abundance everywhere from June to October. Its fore
+wings are of a shiny grey colour, beautifully marbled with a rich
+dark brown; and just below the orbicular spot is a brilliant silvery
+spot, in form something like the Greek letter &#x03B3; placed obliquely.
+The base of the hind wings is
+grey; along the margin is a
+broad and dark smoky brown
+band, and the fringe is very
+light grey, barred with the dark
+tint of the band. This moth is
+commonly driven out of its
+hiding places among low plants
+as we walk in waste places, and
+when thus disturbed it takes a
+short and rapid flight, generally disappearing so suddenly among
+the herbage that it is difficult to locate it correctly.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers
+gradually from this point towards the head. Its body is green,
+with several thin longitudinal white stripes, and a thin yellow
+stripe along the spiracles. It may be found from June to October,
+feeding on many kinds of low plants.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Euclidiidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Mother Shipton</i> (<i>Euclidia Mi</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Passing over a few small and less important families, we come
+to the <i>Euclidiidæ</i>, which contains only two British moths. One
+of these is the Mother Shipton, a very common insect that flies in
+June.</p>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this species are very dark brown with whitish
+markings. The latter include a peculiarly tortuous line, the character
+of which will be made out more easily from our illustration (<a href="#Plate_XI">Plate
+XI</a>, fig. 4) than from a written description. The hind wings are<!-- Page 265 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>
+also very dark brown, and rather prettily spotted with an ochreous
+tint.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is pale grey, with four white stripes, and has
+only three pairs of claspers. It feeds in May on clovers (<i>Trifolium
+pratense</i> and <i>T. repens</i>) and other plants.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Catocalidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>This family contains only four British species, but these few are
+very striking moths. They are of large size; and, unlike the
+<i>Noctuæ</i> generally, the chief adornment is reserved for the under
+wings. When at rest, the outer or fore wings completely hide the
+other pair, and then their general appearance is dull, though if
+closely examined it will be observed that these outer wings are
+really beautifully marbled with shades of grey.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars of this family are very peculiar creatures. Their
+bodies are convex above and flattened beneath; and if disturbed
+as they rest on the bark of a tree, instead of leaving their hold and
+rolling into a ring like so many other larvæ of <i>Noctuæ</i>, they apply
+themselves the closer, and hold on as if to defy our attempts to
+remove them. Another peculiarity of these larvæ is the possession
+of fleshy projections along the sides, just above the legs. They feed
+on the leaves of trees, and when about to rest they descend to the
+trunk, and there remain protected by their imitative colouring,
+detection being rendered even more difficult by the close application
+of their flattened under surface to the bark. Before changing
+to the chrysalis state, they spin a light cocoon among the leaves or
+on the bark.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Clifden Nonpareil</i> (<i>Catocala Fraxini</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This is the largest of the family, and, indeed, of all British
+<i>Noctuæ</i>. The fore wings and thorax are light grey, dotted and
+marbled with darker grey (see fig. 5, <a href="#Plate_XI">Plate XI</a>); and the thorax
+and abdomen are banded with black and greyish blue.</p>
+
+<p>The young entomologist can hardly expect to meet with this fine
+insect, for it is very rare, and it is only occasionally that a specimen
+is seen in Britain; but its characteristics are so striking that we have
+endeavoured to find it a place here. Reputed British specimens of
+<i>Fraxini</i> command the price of a few pounds each, but specimens
+from the other side of the Channel may be obtained for a few pence.
+With such rarities we should advise a young entomologist to purchase<!-- Page 266 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>
+the foreign specimen rather than adopt the two other alternatives&mdash;give
+an exorbitant price for a supposed Britisher, or else remain a
+stranger to the gem, but all foreign specimens should be labelled
+according to their nationalities.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Red Underwing</i> (<i>Catocala Nupta</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_176" id="FIG_176"></a><a href="images/i_283.jpg"><img src="images/i_283_tn.jpg" width="300" height="147" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Red Underwing." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 176.&mdash;The Red Underwing.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The other three members of the family are very similar in
+appearance, the fore wings of all being marbled with shades of
+grey, relieved by touches of black and brown; and the hind wings,
+red or crimson, give the popular names to the species.</p>
+
+<p>The Red Underwing flies in August and September, and is
+common in the southern counties of England, as well as in some
+of the midland counties; it may be often seen flying by day
+around willows.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is similar in form to that of <i>Fraxini</i>, and when
+at rest by day on the bark of its tree it is very difficult to detect, so
+closely does it apply itself to the surface, and so perfectly does it
+imitate the colour of its surroundings. It feeds on the crack willow
+(<i>Salix fragilis</i>), sallow (<i>S. alba</i>), poplar (<i>Populus</i>), and plum
+(<i>Prunus</i>), and is full grown in June.</p>
+
+<h4><i>The Dark Crimson Underwing</i> (<i>Catocala Sponsa</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This beautiful insect is represented on <a href="#Plate_XI">Plate XI</a> (fig. 6). It will
+be observed that the black band crossing the centre of the hind
+wing is rather broad and sharply bent&mdash;an important feature, since
+it is the most serviceable distinguishing mark between this species
+and the Light Crimson Underwing (<i>C. Promissa</i>).<!-- Page 267 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is similar in form and habits to those of <i>Fraxini</i>
+and <i>Nupta</i>, and feeds on the oak. It is full fed about the beginning
+of June, when it changes to a chrysalis between leaves which it has
+spun together with silk.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies in July and August, and is common only in
+certain oak woods of the southern counties. It is particularly
+abundant in the New Forest, where scores may be taken in a
+single night by judicious sugaring.</p>
+
+<p>There yet remain a few small families of the <i>Noctuæ</i>, but we
+must leave them in order that we may give a proportionate share
+of our space to the other great division of the larger moths&mdash;the
+<i>Geometræ</i>.<!-- Page 268 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX
+<br />
+<i>GEOMETRÆ</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>We have already referred (page 28) to caterpillars that walk by a
+series of strides, alternately looping and extending their long and
+slender bodies. It is this peculiar characteristic of the larvæ of
+the present division that suggested the name <i>Geometræ</i>&mdash;a term
+that signifies 'earth-measurers,' for they appear to measure the
+ground over which they travel in terms of their own length. We
+have also dealt with the peculiarities of structure in the case of
+these caterpillars&mdash;peculiarities which adapt them to this mode of
+progression; and we have now to make a selection from the various
+families of this important division for a more detailed description.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Geometræ</i> include nearly three hundred species and sixteen
+families. The moths have slender bodies and full wings, and
+generally rest with the latter outspread. A few, however, repose
+with wings erect like the butterflies, and a small number conceal
+their hind wings after the manner of the <i>Noctuæ</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uropterygidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Swallow Tail</i> (<i>Uropteryx sambucaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our first family&mdash;<i>Uropterygidæ</i>&mdash;has only one British representative,
+and that is the well-known Swallow Tail, so common in gardens
+and among hedgerows in the south of England. This species
+is shown on <a href="#Plate_XII">Plate XII</a> (fig. 2), and the insect is so readily identified
+by the conspicuous 'tails' on the hind wings that no written description
+will be necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is a most peculiar and interesting creature. Its
+colour is very variable, being either brown, olive, ochreous, or reddish;
+and it is notched or humped in such a manner that it exactly
+resembles a twig. This strange imitation is rendered still more remarkable<!-- Page 269 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>
+by the attitude assumed by the caterpillar when at rest.
+It fixes itself to a twig by means of its two pairs of claspers, with
+its body standing out at an angle in a perfectly straight posture;
+but its head is always supported by means of a very slender and
+almost invisible silk fibre. It feeds on a number of plants and trees,
+including elder (<i>Sambucus nigra</i>), blackthorn (<i>Prunus spinosa</i>),
+whitethorn (<i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>), bramble (<i>Rubus fruticosus</i>),
+honeysuckle (<i>Lonicera Periclymenum</i>), and forget-me-not (<i>Myosotis
+arvensis</i>). It may be found feeding in the autumn, or hybernating
+in the crevices of the bark of trees in winter. In April or
+May it comes out again; and in June, in which month it is full
+grown, it binds together some fragments of leaves, and forms
+them into a little swinging hammock in which it changes to a brown
+chrysalis spotted with black.</p>
+
+<p>Just at this time it seems to be particularly sensitive. In the
+caterpillar state it will strongly resent any kind of disturbance,
+and will give a blow to an intruder by suddenly swaying its
+body right and left; and while in its hammock a gentle irritation,
+such as a puff of wind from the mouth, will set it wriggling in a
+furious manner.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ennomidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>This family contains about twenty species, several of which rank
+among the commonest as well as the most beautiful of the <i>Geometræ</i>.
+Their wings are more or less angulated; and the antennæ
+are generally pectinated in the males.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ are generally humped and twig-like; and, as in the
+last species, the semblance is increased by the position they assume
+when at rest. The number of limbs varies from ten to fourteen, but
+where the claspers exceed two pairs, the additional two or four, as
+the case may be, are seldom used in walking.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Brimstone Moth</i> (<i>Rumia luteolata</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>As soon as the warm evenings of May set in, this lively and
+bright little moth may be seen flitting about among our hedges at
+sunset; and it continues with us throughout the whole of the summer,
+but is particularly plentiful during the month of June.</p>
+
+<p>The moth itself need not be described, since it is shown on <a href="#Plate_XII">Plate
+XII</a> (fig. 3); but the caterpillar (<a href="#FIG_25">fig. 25</a>) must receive a passing
+notice. It varies considerably in colour, being either green, brown,<!-- Page 270 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>
+or marbled with a mixture of shades of both these colours. It has
+a hump on the back of the seventh segment, and two more on the
+ninth, and possesses four pairs of claspers. It feeds on whitethorn
+(<i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>), blackthorn (<i>Prunus spinosa</i>), and the
+apple (<i>Pyrus Malus</i>), and may be found on these trees throughout
+the summer.</p>
+
+<p>Some believe that there are three successive broods of this insect
+each year, but it is doubtful whether this is invariably the rule, since
+both the moth and its larva are to be found without intermission
+throughout the season.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Light Emerald</i> (<i>Metrocampa margaritaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_177" id="FIG_177"></a><a href="images/i_287.jpg"><img src="images/i_287_tn.jpg" width="300" height="99" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Light Emerald." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 177.&mdash;The Light Emerald.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All the wings of this moth are very pale green, and crossed with
+a white band which is bordered with a darker green on the inner
+side. The fore wings have an additional transverse line just halfway
+between the former and the base,
+but this one is not so distinct. It
+flies in July, and is very widely distributed,
+and in some parts is very
+abundant.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds in September,
+and again in May, after hybernation,
+on several of our forest trees, including
+the oak (<i>Quercus Robur</i>), elm
+(<i>Ulmus campestris</i>), birch (<i>Betula
+alba</i>), and beech (<i>Fagus sylvatica</i>). It is of a dingy olive colour,
+with a dark dorsal line, on each side of which is a row of white
+spots; and it has three pairs of claspers.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Scalloped Oak</i> (<i>Crocallis elinguaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This species is common and widely distributed, and may be seen
+flying at dusk towards the end of July and throughout August. It
+is represented in fig. 4 of <a href="#Plate_XII">Plate XII</a>. The antennæ of the male are
+strongly pectinated; those of the female are simple.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar may be found in the autumn, and again in
+spring, feeding on the honeysuckle (<i>Lonicera Periclymenum</i>),
+whitethorn (<i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>), blackthorn (<i>Prunus spinosa</i>),
+beech (<i>Fagus sylvatica</i>), and various fruit trees. It is full grown
+in June, when it turns to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between
+leaves or moss on or near the ground. It is of a greyish-brown or
+greyish-purple colour, and looks very like a piece of twig.<!-- Page 271 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The August Thorn</i> (<i>Eugonia quercinaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_178" id="FIG_178"></a><a href="images/i_288.jpg"><img src="images/i_288_tn.jpg" width="300" height="91" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The August Thorn." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 178.&mdash;The August Thorn.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our last example of this family is the August Thorn, represented
+in the accompanying woodcut. The fore wings are ochreous
+yellow, crossed by two nearly parallel lines of dark brown.
+In order to distinguish between this and one or two similar species
+it must be observed that both these
+lines are angulated near the costa,
+the inner one very sharply so; and
+between the two is a distinct brown
+spot near the costal margin. The
+hind wings are paler, and are crossed
+by an indistinct darker line. The
+antennæ of the male are strongly
+fringed; those of the female are
+simple.</p>
+
+<p>The moth is very common in August and September, and is
+readily attracted by lights in the evening.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is grey, marbled with reddish brown. It has three
+small humps on each of the sixth and seventh segments, two on
+the twelfth, and one larger one on the ninth. It feeds on the oak
+and various other trees during the month of June.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Amphidasydæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>The seven British species of the family <i>Amphidasydæ</i> are
+generally to be distinguished by their rather stout abdomens, and
+the long shaggy hair that covers their thoraces. The antennæ of
+the males are pectinated, and those of the females simple; and in
+three cases the latter sex is wingless.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars have long and slender twig-like bodies, and are
+never provided with more than two pairs of claspers. The chrysalides
+terminate behind in a sharp spine, and are always to be found
+buried in the soil.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Brindled Beauty</i> (<i>Biston hirtaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Early in April, and sometimes in March, this moth may be seen
+in abundance, resting on the lime trees in and around our towns.
+In fact, so strongly marked is its partiality to the haunts of man in
+the neighbourhood of our great metropolis that it has received the
+name of the Cockney. The male is represented in fig. 5 of<!-- Page 272 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
+<a href="#Plate_XII">Plate XII</a>, and the female may be distinguished from it by her
+simple antennæ and larger body.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is coloured with alternate bands of dark purple
+brown and reddish brown. There is a yellow band on the front of
+the second segment, a row of yellow spots on each side, and two
+little bright yellow warts on the back of each segment. It feeds by
+night on lime (<i>Tilia vulgaris</i>), elm (<i>Ulmus campestris</i>), and
+various fruit trees, and often appears in such numbers that the
+foliage is almost completely devoured. During the daytime it may
+be seen resting on the bark, almost invariably fixed longitudinally
+on the trunk, where it looks like a natural ridge of the bark which
+it so closely resembles in colour. It may be found in June and
+July, and in August it changes to a chrysalis at the foot of its tree,
+just below the surface of the soil.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Peppered Moth</i> (<i>Amphidasys betularia</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_179" id="FIG_179"></a><a href="images/i_289.jpg"><img src="images/i_289_tn.jpg" width="300" height="101" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Peppered Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 179.&mdash;The Peppered Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although this common species displays no bright tints, yet it is
+prettily marked, its whitish wings being peppered and blotched all
+over with black or very dark brown. It flies in May and June,
+later than any other species
+of the family, and may generally
+be found on fences and
+tree trunks during the day.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the caterpillar
+is very variable&mdash;drab,
+grey, green, or brown; but
+it may be known by the
+deep notch in the middle of
+the head, and the arrangement
+of its 'humps.' These latter are only small reddish or whitish
+projections, of which there is one on each side of the fifth, sixth,
+seventh, eighth, tenth, and eleventh segments; also two on the
+back of the ninth and twelfth. It feeds in August and September
+on a large number of trees, including, in fact, nearly all our commonest
+forest and fruit trees. In September it enters the soil to
+undergo its change to the chrysalis.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Boarmiidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>In the next family&mdash;<i>Boarmiidæ</i>&mdash;there are about twenty British
+members, most of which are very pretty moths. They differ
+generally from the last family in that their bodies are more slender,<!-- Page 273 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>
+and although some of them bear a resemblance to species of the
+family <i>Ennomidæ</i>, their wings are not angulated. In several
+cases the fore and hind wings are both similarly marked, a feature
+very uncommon with moths.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars of this family usually have humps on the sixth
+and twelfth segments only, and have two pairs of claspers. The
+pupæ are to be found either on the ground, among leaves or moss,
+or beneath the soil.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Waved Umber</i> (<i>Hemerophila abruptaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The most gaily coloured member of this family is the Waved
+Umber, shown in fig. 6 of <a href="#Plate_XII">Plate XII</a>. Like many other <i>Geometræ</i>,
+it rests on fences and tree trunks by day with wings expanded so
+that all four are displayed. It is on the wing in May and early
+June, and again in August, and often frequents our gardens at
+dusk.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is very dark brown, with a white collar on the
+front of the second segment. It feeds in June and July on privet
+(<i>Ligustrum vulgare</i>) and the cultivated rose trees of flower gardens,
+and probably also on the dog rose (<i>Rosa canina</i>). When full
+grown it spins a silken cocoon in a fork of one of the twigs, and
+there undergoes its metamorphoses.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Willow Beauty</i> (<i>Boarmia gemmaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_180" id="FIG_180"></a><a href="images/i_290.jpg"><img src="images/i_290_tn.jpg" width="300" height="92" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Willow Beauty." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 180.&mdash;The Willow Beauty.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our second example of the <i>Boarmiidæ</i> is the Willow Beauty,
+the male of which species is here illustrated. Its wings are
+brownish grey, marked with dark brown lines and streaks. The
+female is generally larger than the
+male, and has simple antennæ. The
+moth is abundant throughout England,
+and may be seen generally
+resting on fences and trees in June
+and July.</p>
+
+<p>The ground colour of the caterpillar
+is much the same as that of
+the moth, and is marked with a
+similar darker tint. It has a yellowish
+line along the spiracles, and is much like a piece of brownish
+twig. It feeds on the oak (<i>Quercus Robur</i>), Birch (<i>Betula alba</i>),
+ivy (<i>Hedera Helix</i>), and other trees, and may be found in September
+and October.<!-- Page 274 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Geometridæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>The next family contains eight moths, mostly of small size, all
+of which have green wings, and are popularly known as the
+'Emeralds.' In most cases the male may be distinguished by its
+pectinated antennæ.</p>
+
+<p>There is no general characteristic by which we may know all
+the larvæ, but some have the head deeply notched.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Large Emerald</i> (<i>Geometra papilionaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_181" id="FIG_181"></a><a href="images/i_291a.jpg"><img src="images/i_291a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="113" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Large Emerald." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 181.&mdash;The Large Emerald.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This species is the largest of the family, and measures over two
+inches when its wings are expanded. The colour is dull green,
+with whitish bands
+and spots, the arrangement
+of which may
+be seen in our engraving.</p>
+
+<p>The moth is out
+in July, and is common
+in most parts
+of England.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar
+feeds on birch (<i>Betula alba</i>), beech (<i>Fagus sylvatica</i>) and hazel
+(<i>Corylus avellana</i>) in the autumn, and hybernates while still
+young. In the spring it feeds again, and is full grown in June,
+when it changes to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Common Emerald</i> (<i>Hemithea strigata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_182" id="FIG_182"></a><a href="images/i_291b.jpg"><img src="images/i_291b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="85" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Common Emerald." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 182.&mdash;The Common Emerald.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the commonest of the Emeralds is <i>Strigata</i>, which may
+be found in June and July in all parts of England, as well as in
+some localities in Scotland and Ireland.
+Its wings are of a dull green colour, the
+front pair being slightly scalloped on the
+hind margin, and crossed by indistinct
+pale lines; and the hind pair are both
+scalloped and angled and crossed in the
+middle by a transverse pale line. The
+fringe is white, dotted with dull reddish
+brown.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is yellowish green, except the second, third, and
+fourth segments which are brownish. It feeds on oak (<i>Quercus Robur</i>)
+and whitethorn (<i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>), and may be found in June.<!-- Page 275 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ephyridæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Maiden's Blush</i> (<i>Zonosoma punctaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The family <i>Ephyridæ</i> contains only six British species, chiefly
+remarkable for the fact that their pupæ generally resemble those of
+butterflies.</p>
+
+<p>We choose for our example the pretty little Maiden's Blush, so
+called on account of the soft reddish patch on the middle of each
+fore wing. It is represented in fig. 7 of <a href="#Plate_XII">Plate XII</a>. It is moderately
+common, occurring more or less in all parts of England, as
+well as certain localities in the sister countries. It is a double-brooded
+moth, and may be caught in May and August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on oak (<i>Quercus Robur</i>), from which it may
+be obtained by beating both in June and September. It is either green
+or tawny yellow, marked with yellow oblique lines on the sides.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Acidaliidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>The moths of this family, over thirty in number, are mostly of
+small size, and have slender bodies. As a rule the wings are not
+in the least angulated or scalloped, but in a few species the hind
+pair are slightly angled on the hind margin; and both fore and hind
+wings are similarly marked. The antennæ are simple in the females,
+and generally only slightly ciliated in the males.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars are long and slender, without projections, and
+feed principally on low plants. The pupæ are to be found in loose
+cocoons among the leaves of the food plants or under the soil.</p>
+
+<p>We shall briefly notice three members of this rather extensive
+family.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Lace Border</i> (<i>Acidalia ornata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_183" id="FIG_183"></a><a href="images/i_292.jpg"><img src="images/i_292_tn.jpg" width="300" height="80" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Lace Border." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 183.&mdash;The Lace Border.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wings of this moth are silvery white, marked along the
+hind margin with a beautiful lace-like border.
+This border consists of delicate black and
+dark grey lines, and includes, in the fore
+wing, two light brown blotches, one near the
+middle and the other in the anal angle. It is
+abundant in England, particularly in chalky
+districts, but does not seem to extend into
+Scotland. It may be seen on the wing from
+June to August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on thyme (<i>Thymus Serpyllum</i>) and
+marjoram (<i>Origanum vulgare</i>).<!-- Page 276 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Riband Wave</i> (<i>A. aversata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_184" id="FIG_184"></a><a href="images/i_293a.jpg"><img src="images/i_293a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="81" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Riband Wave." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 184.&mdash;The Riband Wave.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All the wings of this species are of a pale yellowish or ochreous
+grey. The fore wings are crossed by three transverse dark lines,
+and the hind wings by two. The space between the two outer lines
+of the fore wing and that between the lines of the hind wing are
+usually filled in with a greyish brown, thus forming the 'riband'
+from which the popular name of the
+insect is derived; and when this is the
+case the lines which border the riband
+are scarcely distinguishable. Just inside
+the second line of the fore wings, near
+the costa, is a small but conspicuous
+brown spot.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies in June and July, and
+is common in all parts.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is dark brown except segments ten to thirteen,
+which are grey. The line along the spiracles is whitish, and the
+surface of the body is roughened by a number of minute warts. It
+feeds on various low plants, including the meadow sweet (<i>Spiræa
+ulmaria</i>), water avens (<i>Geum rivale</i>), common avens (<i>G. urbanum</i>),
+and knot-grass (<i>Polygonum aviculare</i>), during April and May.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Blood-vein</i> (<i>Timandra amataria</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our last example of the <i>Acidaliidæ</i> is the Blood-vein, which is
+common in most parts of England in June and July.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_185" id="FIG_185"></a><a href="images/i_293b.jpg"><img src="images/i_293b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="86" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Blood-vein." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 185.&mdash;The Blood-vein.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are pale grey, dusted
+with darker grey, and crossed by an
+oblique red streak which runs from the
+tip of the fore wing to near the inner
+margin of the hind wing. A slender
+dark and wavy line lies outside this one,
+parallel with it in the hind wing, but
+meeting it near the tip of the fore wing.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is grey, with three white longitudinal stripes.
+It feeds in the autumn on dock (<i>Rumex</i>), sorrel (<i>R. acetosa</i>), and
+knot-grass (<i>Polygonum aviculare</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Caberidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>Six species, all of rather small size, constitute the British
+portion of the above family. Their wings are mostly white or pale
+grey, with light markings, and without angles. The moths are<!-- Page 277 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span>
+to be caught with the net at dusk, or they may be seen on
+fences and tree trunks during the day, with their wings fully
+extended and applied closely to the surface on which they rest.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ, which have no humps, feed on trees, and change to
+the chrysalis state in light silken cocoons.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Common Wave</i> (<i>Cabera exanthemata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_186" id="FIG_186"></a><a href="images/i_294a.jpg"><img src="images/i_294a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="83" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Common Wave." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 186.&mdash;The Common Wave.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first of our two examples of this small family is the
+Common Wave, the wings of which are pale grey, almost white,
+dusted all over with small dark dots. The fore wings are crossed
+by three parallel and equidistant darker
+transverse lines, and the hind pair by
+two. The male may be distinguished by
+its ciliated antennæ.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is yellow or greenish
+yellow, with hinder segments slightly
+swollen. It feeds during the latter part
+of the summer on sallows (<i>Salix caprea</i>
+and <i>S. cinerea</i>) and alder (<i>Alnus glutinosa</i>),
+and changes to a chrysalis in a light cocoon among fallen
+leaves. In this state it spends the winter, the perfect insect
+emerging in May or June.</p>
+
+<p>This species is very abundant in most parts.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Clouded Silver</i> (<i>Bapta temerata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_187" id="FIG_187"></a><a href="images/i_294b.jpg"><img src="images/i_294b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="83" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Clouded Silver." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 187.&mdash;The Clouded Silver.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The other example is the Clouded Silver, the wings of which
+are white, and clouded along the hind margin with smoky grey.
+On the hind margin of the fore wings, close to the fringe, is a row
+of black crescent-shaped spots; and on
+the inner side of the cloudings is a waved
+transverse band. In the centre of the
+same wings there is a very distinct dark
+spot.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is not so common as the
+last, but is widely distributed. It flies in
+May and June.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is bright green on the upper side, and has a row
+of orange spots, bordered with brown, down the middle of the back.
+It feeds in the autumn on the blackthorn (<i>Prunus spinosa</i>) and
+the wild cherry (<i>P. Avium</i>), and spends the winter in the chrysalis
+state, inclosed in a light silken cocoon.<!-- Page 278 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Macariidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The</i> <span class="lettershape">V</span> <i>Moth</i> (<i>Halia Vauaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The family <i>Macariidæ</i> contains only five British species, four
+of which have the tip of the fore wings extended more or less into
+an angle, and the hind wings are also angled to a greater or less
+extent.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_188" id="FIG_188"></a><a href="images/i_295.jpg"><img src="images/i_295_tn.jpg" width="300" height="72" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The V Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 188.&mdash;The <span class="lettershape">V</span> Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our only example is the <span class="lettershape">V</span> Moth, so called from the conspicuous
+<span class="lettershape">V</span>-shaped blackish mark on the middle
+of the costa of the fore wings. The ground
+colour of all the wings is grey, with a
+delicate violet tinge. There are other
+dark markings in addition to the one
+mentioned above, and the arrangement of
+these may be seen in the woodcut.</p>
+
+<p>This species is very common in all
+parts, and flies at about midsummer.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally green,
+and is marked with longitudinal wavy lines. On each side is a series
+of yellow blotches, forming a broken lateral stripe, and the body
+is covered with minute black bristle-bearing warts. It feeds in
+May on gooseberry and currant bushes, and changes to a chrysalis
+in a web between the leaves.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fidoniidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>We now come to a family of moths peculiar for their habit of
+flying more or less by day. As is often the case with day-flying
+moths, these are mostly prettily marked, and are consequently
+often mistaken by the uninitiated for butterflies. Most of them
+are to be found on heaths, downs, and open fields; but one&mdash;the
+Bordered White&mdash;is met with only in fir woods.</p>
+
+<p>The wings are not angulated, and the antennæ of the males are
+pectinated.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ are generally to be distinguished by a couple of little
+horns on one or more of the hindermost segments, and in most
+cases they pupate beneath the surface of the soil.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Common Heath</i> (<i>Ematurga atomaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Of this family we shall select two examples, the first of which is
+the Common Heath, often so abundant on heaths and downs that
+they are disturbed at almost every footstep.<!-- Page 279 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_189" id="FIG_189"></a><a href="images/i_296a.jpg"><img src="images/i_296a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="77" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Common Heath." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 189.&mdash;The Common Heath.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ground colour of the wings of the male is a dull yellowish
+grey, and that of the female greyish white. In both cases the
+wings are crossed by irregular dark brown bands. The fringe
+is barred alternately with white and dark
+brown, and the whole of the ground tint
+between the above-mentioned bands is
+thickly dotted with dark brown. The
+female is generally smaller than the male.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is very variable in
+colour, but is generally reddish brown,
+ochreous brown, or greenish, with a light
+line along the spiracles, and a series of lozenge-shaped spots on the
+back. It feeds on trefoils (<i>Lotus corniculatus</i> and <i>L. pilosus</i>)
+and various other plants that grow on heaths.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Bordered White</i> (<i>Bupalus piniaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_190" id="FIG_190"></a>
+<a href="images/i_296b.jpg"><img src="images/i_296b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="90" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Bordered White&mdash;Male." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 190.&mdash;The Bordered White&mdash;Male.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The male of this species is boldly marked with yellowish white
+and dark brown, the arrangement of the two colours being shown
+in <a href="#FIG_190">fig. 190</a>. The female is very different
+in general appearance. Her wings
+are of an almost uniform orange or
+yellowish-brown tint. The fore wings
+are darker near the tip, and there is
+generally a darker transverse band
+across the centre.</p>
+
+<p>The male may often be seen flying
+in the sunshine among the branches
+of fir trees during May and June, but
+his mate is rather less active, and is generally to be secured by
+beating the branches.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is pale green, with whitish stripes and yellow
+spiracles. It feeds during August and September on the leaves of
+the Scotch fir (<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Zerenidæ</span>
+<br /><br />
+<i>The Currant Moth</i> (<i>Abraxas grossulariata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_191" id="FIG_191"></a><a href="images/i_297.jpg"><img src="images/i_297_tn.jpg" width="300" height="109" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Currant Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 191.&mdash;The Currant Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The family <i>Zerenidæ</i> contains only four British moths, and of
+these we select the Currant Moth or Magpie. This insect is
+exceedingly common everywhere, and on account of its general
+brightness of appearance, and also of its diurnal habits, it is often<!-- Page 280 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span>
+taken for a butterfly. The ground colour of the wings is creamy
+white, with a yellow transverse band, and a yellow blotch at the
+base; and the whole surface is more or less blotched with black.</p>
+
+<p>From the end of June to August this moth may be seen in
+abundance in our gardens,
+wherever currant bushes
+exist, flying about both
+during the sunshine and
+at dusk, with rather a
+heavy movement.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is
+white, with a yellow line
+along the spiracles, and
+numerous black dots.
+There are, in addition to
+the dots, two large black blotches on the back of each segment.
+It feeds during May on currant and gooseberry bushes, also on
+the blackthorn (<i>Prunus spinosa</i>). About the end of May it spins
+a light silken cocoon, and changes to a short dumpy chrysalis of
+a glossy black colour with bright yellow bands (fig. 34).</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Hyberniidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>Passing over the family <i>Ligiidæ</i>, which contains only one
+British moth, the Horse-chestnut, we come to the small but
+interesting family, <i>Hyberniidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Of this we have six species, five of which favour us during the
+bleakest months of the year. Two of them visit us in October and
+November, and even remain with us up to Christmas. The others
+follow closely on them, and may be seen from January to March.</p>
+
+<p>The males have slender bodies, and their wings are full and
+without angles; but the females are either perfectly or nearly
+wingless. In three cases there is hardly a trace of wings in this sex,
+so that they look more like spiders than moths.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillars are long and slender and without humps, and
+all feed on the leaves of trees. They change to the chrysalis state
+under the ground.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Spring Usher</i> (<i>Hybernia leucophæaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_192" id="FIG_192"></a><a href="images/i_298.jpg"><img src="images/i_298_tn.jpg" width="300" height="76" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Spring Usher." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 192.&mdash;The Spring Usher.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Early in February, and often even in January, this moth may be
+seen in abundance in almost every oak wood, sitting on the bark of<!-- Page 281 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span>
+the trees, or occasionally taking a short flight in the sunshine. In
+colour it is very variable. The wings have always a whitish ground
+marbled and dotted with dark brown, but in some the fore wings
+are almost entirely dark brown with the exception of a transverse
+central bar. The female has only the
+slightest rudiments of wings.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on the young
+buds and leaves of the oak (<i>Quercus
+Robur</i>) and sycamore (<i>Acer Pseudoplatanus</i>),
+concealing itself among the
+small leaves which it has spun together.
+It is full grown in June, when it
+changes to a chrysalis on the surface
+of the ground, and remains here throughout the summer and part
+of the following winter.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the caterpillar is very variable, but is usually pale
+green with white markings.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Mottled Umber</i> (<i>Hybernia defoliaria</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This very pretty moth is represented in fig. 8 of <a href="#Plate_XII">Plate XII</a>. It
+is very common in most parts, and visits us at the fall of the leaf,
+generally appearing in October, and remaining on the wing till
+November. Our illustration gives the usual appearance of the male,
+but in some specimens the four wings are all of one uniform
+reddish-brown colour, evenly dotted all over with a darker tint.
+The female is quite wingless.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is exceedingly pretty. Its head is large and
+brown. The back is brown, bordered with a fine black line. Below
+this is a broad and bright yellow line, with a red spot on each
+segment. The spiracles are white. It feeds during spring on oak
+(<i>Quercus Robur</i>), whitethorn (<i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>), blackthorn
+(<i>Prunus spinosa</i>), and other trees. When disturbed it always allows
+itself to fall for a foot or two, and then remains swinging at the end
+of a silken fibre till danger is over, or hunger recalls it to its food.
+It changes to a chrysalis on the ground about the middle of
+June.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The March Moth</i> (<i>Anisopteryx æscularia</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_193" id="FIG_193"></a><a href="images/i_299a.jpg"><img src="images/i_299a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="77" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The March Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 193.&mdash;The March Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is another common moth, and should be looked for during
+March and April on the barks of trees in oak and other woods.<!-- Page 282 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>
+The fore wings are of a dingy brown colour, paler near the base,
+and crossed by a pale wavy line. The hind wings are lighter,
+with a central dark spot. But this
+description applies to the male only,
+for the female is wingless, and may
+be known by the tuft of hair that tips
+the abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is pale green,
+clouded with a darker tint, and has
+a white line on each side of the back.
+It feeds in May on the three trees named for the last species, also
+on lime (<i>Tilia vulgaris</i>) and elm (<i>Ulmus campestris</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Larentiidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>This is by far the most extensive family of the <i>Geometræ</i>,
+containing as it does considerably over a hundred species, or well
+nigh a half of the whole group.</p>
+
+<p>The wings of the various species are smooth and more or
+less glossy, and the front pair are generally crossed by several
+wavy lines. Many of the moths, and particularly those known
+popularly as the Pugs, are very small. Representatives of the
+family are to be met with almost throughout the year&mdash;from early
+spring to the middle of the winter.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the caterpillars are rather long and slender, and without
+humps; and green is the prevailing colour. They feed either on trees
+or low plants, often protecting themselves in folded leaves; and some
+of the smaller species show a decided preference for flowers and seeds.</p>
+
+<p>We shall select about a dozen of the commonest members for
+individual description.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The November Moth</i> (<i>Oporabia dilutata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_194" id="FIG_194"></a><a href="images/i_299b.jpg"><img src="images/i_299b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="85" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The November Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 194.&mdash;The November Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our first example is the November
+moth&mdash;a rather dingy and very variable
+species that may be found almost
+everywhere in October and November.
+The ground colour of the fore wings is
+dingy grey, crossed by several darker
+lines, subject to considerable variations.
+The hind wings are paler, with two slender darker lines
+parallel with the hind margin.<!-- Page 283 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on many trees, the principal of which are
+the oak, whitethorn and blackthorn. Like the perfect insect, it is
+very variable in colour, but is generally of a bright green, with
+reddish or purplish spots on the back and sides. The spiracles are
+yellow or orange, and below them is a white stripe. It is full fed
+in June.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Twin-spot Carpet</i> (<i>Larentia didymata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_195" id="FIG_195"></a><a href="images/i_300.jpg"><img src="images/i_300_tn.jpg" width="300" height="74" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Twin-spot Carpet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 195.&mdash;The Twin-spot Carpet.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Twin-spot Carpet is common throughout Great Britain,
+and the beginner is likely to meet with it in June and July
+during his first season. Our illustration represents
+the male, the fore wings of which
+are greyish brown, crossed by several dark
+lines, and with a double dark and conspicuous
+spot near the middle of the hind margin.
+The female is much lighter, and the markings
+are also lighter and less distinct.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is pale green, with a narrow
+whitish line along the spiracles. It feeds in April and May on
+the leaves of the wood anemone (<i>Anemone nemorosa</i>), chervil
+(<i>Chærophyllum temulum</i>), and other plants.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Grass Rivulet</i> (<i>Emmelesia albulata</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>We represent the genus <i>Emmelesia</i> by the Grass Rivulet&mdash;a
+pretty little moth that flies in June, and which is widely distributed
+though not abundant.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_196" id="FIG_196"></a><a href="images/i_300b.jpg"><img src="images/i_300b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="76" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Grass Rivulet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 196.&mdash;The Grass Rivulet.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are pale grey, crossed by
+several white lines, the arrangement of which
+may be seen in our engraving. The hind
+wings are of the same ground colour, but have
+no markings except a white wavy line near
+the hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds during July and
+August on the seeds of the yellow rattle (<i>Rhinanthus Crista-galli</i>),
+protecting itself from its enemies by spinning together the petals
+of the flowers; and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis under
+the same cover.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Netted Pug</i> (<i>Eupithecia venosata</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>We now come to the enormous genus <i>Eupithecia</i>, containing
+about fifty small species, most of which are known as 'Pugs.'<!-- Page 284 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span>
+Many of these are only imperfectly known, there being yet much
+to learn about their earlier stages.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_197" id="FIG_197"></a><a href="images/i_301a.jpg"><img src="images/i_301a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="73" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Netted Pug." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 197.&mdash;The Netted Pug.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Netted Pug flies in May and June,
+and is to be found in most parts of Great
+Britain. Its fore wings are brownish grey,
+crossed by two zigzag light bands, both of
+which are bordered with black, and divided
+throughout by a fine dark line. There are
+also other dark lines, both transverse and
+longitudinal, arranged as here represented.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds during July inside the seed capsules of
+campions (<i>Silene Cucubalis</i>, <i>S. maritima</i>, <i>S. acaulis</i>, and <i>Lychnis
+diurna</i>) and catchfly (<i>Silene gallica</i> and <i>S. nutans</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Narrow-winged Pug</i> (<i>Eupithecia nanata</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Early in May, and frequently in April, this pretty little moth
+may be seen flying about at dusk among the
+heather on our moors. It is one of the first
+Pugs of the season, and is widely distributed,
+and very common in some localities.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_198" id="FIG_198"></a><a href="images/i_301b.jpg"><img src="images/i_301b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="68" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Narrow-winged Pug." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 198.&mdash;The Narrow-winged Pug.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its wings are dark grey, and marked with
+several transverse wavy light lines. The fringe
+is dark grey, spotted with white.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds during August and
+September on the ling (<i>Calluna vulgaris</i>) and heath (<i>Erica cinerea</i>
+and <i>E. Tetralix</i>).</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Brindled Pug</i> (<i>Eupithecia abbreviata</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our last example of the Pugs is the Brindled Pug, another
+early species, appearing on the wing in March and April. It is
+common in most parts, and may generally be
+easily obtained by searching fences and tree
+trunks.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_199" id="FIG_199"></a><a href="images/i_301c.jpg"><img src="images/i_301c_tn.jpg" width="300" height="62" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Brindled Pug." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 199.&mdash;The Brindled Pug.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are very long in proportion.
+The colour is yellowish brown, crossed by darker
+lines. The fore wings have a very broad band
+of the ground colour, broken by two short lines,
+and crossed by a slender angulated stripe.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on the oak in June.<!-- Page 285 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Seraphim</i> (<i>Lobophora sexalisata</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This moth is very much like the Pugs in general appearance,
+and is quite as small and even smaller than some of them; but it
+and the other members of its genus differ from
+the Pugs in that they cover their hind wings
+when at rest.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_200" id="FIG_200"></a><a href="images/i_302a.jpg"><img src="images/i_302a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="68" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Small Seraphim." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 200.&mdash;The Small Seraphim.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings are yellowish or pale brownish
+grey with four paler transverse lines, the two
+median ones of which are divided throughout
+by a darker fine wavy line. The hind wings
+are grey, paler at the base, and crossed centrally
+by a double darker line. This species flies in May and June,
+and though apparently widely distributed, can hardly be described
+as common.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on the white willow (<i>Salix alba</i>) and
+sallow (<i>S. caprea</i>) in August and September; and the chrysalis
+may be found in a silken cocoon among the fallen leaves throughout
+the winter.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Blue-bordered Carpet</i> (<i>Melanthia bicolorata</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This same family (<i>Larentiidæ</i>) is remarkable for its large
+number of pretty moths, popularly known as the 'Carpets,' many
+of which are exceedingly common in our woods
+and gardens.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_201" id="FIG_201"></a><a href="images/i_302b.jpg"><img src="images/i_302b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="64" alt="" title="Linked to larger image of The Blue-bordered Carpet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 201.&mdash;The Blue-bordered Carpet.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our first example of these is the Blue-bordered,
+which is pretty well represented in
+several counties of Great Britain and Ireland.
+Its white fore wings are boldly marked with a
+blotch of greyish brown at the base, and another
+extending from the middle of the costal
+margin more than halfway across. The hind
+margin is marked with two bluish grey bars, separated by a white
+line. The hind wings are white, with a very small dark spot, and
+a bluish grey margin something like that of the fore wings.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green, with longitudinal stripes of a darker
+and lighter shade. It feeds in June on the alder (<i>Alnus glutinosa</i>)
+and blackthorn (<i>Prunus spinosa</i>); and when full grown it changes
+to a brown chrysalis within a light silken web.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies in July and August.<!-- Page 286 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Beautiful Carpet</i> (<i>Melanthia albicillata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_202" id="FIG_202"></a><a href="images/i_303a.jpg"><img src="images/i_303a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="82" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Beautiful Carpet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 202.&mdash;The Beautiful Carpet.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Beautiful Carpet belongs to the same genus as <i>Bicolorata</i>.
+Its wings are of a rich creamy white, clouded with grey along the
+hind margin. The basal blotches of the
+fore wings are large, of a dark brown
+colour, and marbled with a light tint.
+Near the tips of these wings is another
+conspicuous blotch of the same colour,
+from which a delicate wavy dark line runs
+to the inner margin. A small dark spot
+also lies near the middle of the costal
+margin of each of the four wings.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green, with a white
+line along the spiracles, and a triangular reddish spot on the back
+of segments four to ten inclusive. It feeds on the bramble (<i>Rubus
+fruticosus</i>), raspberry (<i>R. Idæus</i>), and wild strawberry (<i>Fragaria
+vesca</i>). It may be found in June and July.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies in June.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Common Carpet</i> (<i>Melanippe sociata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_203" id="FIG_203"></a><a href="images/i_303b.jpg"><img src="images/i_303b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="68" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Common Carpet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 203.&mdash;The Common Carpet.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Melanippe</i> contains twelve species, some of which
+are extremely common. One of these moths&mdash;the Common Carpet&mdash;is
+represented in fig. 203. Its wings are
+all of a smoky-brown colour, crossed by
+numerous white lines, the arrangement of
+which may be gathered from our illustration
+better than from a written description. It
+is a double-brooded insect, appearing first in
+May, and then again about the end of July.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is mottled with shades of
+brown and grey. On the back are five or six
+greyish-white lozenge-shaped marks, and there are a few white dots
+on the back of each segment. It feeds on the hedge bedstraw
+(<i>Galium Mollugo</i>), and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis
+in a light cocoon on the ground.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Silver Ground Carpet</i> (<i>Melanippe montanata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_204" id="FIG_204"></a><a href="images/i_304a.jpg"><img src="images/i_304a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="80" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Silver Ground Carpet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 204.&mdash;The Silver Ground Carpet.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this species the ground colour is silvery white. The bases of
+the fore wings are blotched with pale brown, and a dark brownish-grey<!-- Page 287 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>
+bar, containing a black spot, crosses the middle. The hind
+margins of the fore wings are faintly marked with pale brown,
+and lines of the same tint, more or less distinct, cross the hind
+wings.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is very common in all
+parts of the country, and may be seen
+on the wing throughout the summer.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is light brown, with
+several longitudinal lines of different
+colours. On the back of each of the
+segments seven, eight, and nine is a
+distinct black <span class="lettershape">V</span>-shaped mark, terminating
+behind with a bright red spot. It feeds on the primrose
+(<i>Primula acaulis</i>) in the autumn, hybernates through the winter,
+and is full grown about the beginning of April.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Garden Carpet</i> (<i>Melanippe fluctuata</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our third and last member of this genus is the Garden Carpet&mdash;a
+moth that must be pretty well known to almost everybody, since
+it is the commonest of all the <i>Geometræ</i> that frequent our gardens.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_205" id="FIG_205"></a><a href="images/i_304b.jpg"><img src="images/i_304b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="79" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Garden Carpet." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 205.&mdash;The Garden Carpet.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings are pale grey or brownish,
+with a patch of dark greyish brown
+at the base, another larger one on the
+middle of the costa, and a third near the
+tip. The wing is usually clouded between
+the middle blotch and the inner margin,
+and numerous fine wavy lines, more or
+less distinct, cross the wing.</p>
+
+<p>This moth may be seen throughout
+the summer, from May to September, but is most abundant in
+June and July.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is extremely variable in colour, being either
+green, brown, or grey, or some intermediate tint; and is marbled
+and dotted with dark brown on the back. It feeds on the nasturtium
+(<i>Tropæolum majus</i>), rape (<i>Brassica Napus</i>), and various
+other cruciferous plants; and may be found from April to August.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Yellow Shell</i> (<i>Camptogramma bilineata</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Passing over two smaller genera, we come to the beautiful
+little Yellow Shell. This moth is so abundant in most parts<!-- Page 288 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>
+that we arouse it at almost every stroke while beating low
+bushes.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_206" id="FIG_206"></a><a href="images/i_305a.jpg"><img src="images/i_305a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="78" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Yellow Shell." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 206.&mdash;The Yellow Shell.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All its wings are yellow, and crossed by numerous delicate
+white and brown lines. The most conspicuous
+feature is the two white lines,
+with dark brown edging, crossing the fore
+wings.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds by night, and is
+therefore seldom seen except by those who
+make special nocturnal searches with the
+aid of a lantern or sweep net. It devours
+various grasses, and hides itself among the
+roots or under stones during the daytime. It is full grown in April
+or May. The colour is dull pale green, with a dark green dorsal
+line, and two white stripes on each side.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Ph&oelig;nix</i> (<i>Cidaria silaceata</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Again passing over a few small and less important genera, we
+select the small Ph&oelig;nix as the last example of this very extensive
+family.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_207" id="FIG_207"></a><a href="images/i_305b.jpg"><img src="images/i_305b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="79" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Small Ph&oelig;nix." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 207.&mdash;The Small Ph&oelig;nix.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this species are dark brown, paler toward the
+hind margin. Most of the wing rays are
+generally of a pale yellowish colour, and a
+variable and complicated system of whitish
+lines crosses the wings near the base, and
+another near the hind margin. Among the
+latter there is always a series of dark
+triangular spots, with apices pointing towards
+the hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is moderately common throughout the British Isles,
+and is double brooded, appearing in May and August.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is green, with a row of brown spots along the
+middle of the back. When full grown it changes to a chrysalis in
+a light web.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Family&mdash;<span class="smcap">Euboliidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>This is the last family of the <i>Geometræ</i> we shall notice, and
+contains ten species. Most of these are rather pretty moths, and
+all have the tips of the fore wings more or less pointed. As a rule,
+too, there is a dark streak running from the very tip of the wing for
+a short distance obliquely inward.<!-- Page 289 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>They are generally very light sleepers, and are easily beaten
+from their hiding places during the day.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ are not humped, and may be found feeding on low
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>We shall briefly examine two species.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Mallow</i> (<i>Eubolia limitata</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This moth is pretty abundant in waste places from June to
+August, and is easily obtained by
+lightly beating the foliage of small
+bushes and low plants.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_208" id="FIG_208"></a><a href="images/i_306.jpg"><img src="images/i_306_tn.jpg" width="300" height="82" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Small Mallow." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 208.&mdash;The Small Mallow.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are pale brown
+crossed by a broad central bar, the
+edges of which are darker. The hind
+wings are of a paler brown, and are
+crossed by two or three fine wavy lines.</p>
+
+<p>Although the perfect insect is so
+common, the caterpillar seems to be
+seldom met with. It is a grass feeder, and may be looked for in
+May and June.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Treble Bar</i> (<i>Anaitis plagiata</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>Our last example of the <i>Geometræ</i> is the Treble Bar, a very
+pretty moth, which is illustrated in fig. 9 of Plate XII. It may be
+readily identified by the aid of this coloured picture, and therefore
+need not be described in words. It is pretty generally distributed
+throughout the British Isles, and is in some parts a very abundant
+species, particularly so in the neighbourhood of London.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is brown, with paler spaces between the segments.
+The dorsal line is black and interrupted, and a yellow line runs
+along each side. It feeds on the leaves and flowers of the
+perforated St. John's wort (<i>Hypericum perforatum</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This insect is double brooded, the moth appearing in May and
+August, and remaining with us throughout the month following in
+each case.<!-- Page 290 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI
+<br />
+<i>THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>The butterflies, and all the moths contained in the groups of the
+last four chapters, are commonly spoken of as constituting the
+<i>Macro-lepidoptera</i>; but in addition to these there are many hundreds
+of small British moths that represent what is known as the
+<i>Micro-lepidoptera</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is not usual for young entomologists to have much to do with
+the 'Micros' until they have had a little practical experience with
+the larger species; in fact, a good number of them never seem to
+extend their knowledge beyond the limits of the 'Macros' except that
+they may make an occasional capture of a Micro that happens to fly
+across their path.</p>
+
+<p>Now, since it would be practically impossible to deal fairly, even
+in outline, with both these divisions of the <i>Lepidoptera</i> in a work
+of the present dimensions, I have devoted most space to the larger
+species so as to meet the probable requirements of the majority of
+my readers. But in order that the beginner may also have the
+means of introducing himself intelligently to a study of the 'Micros,'
+I shall set apart this chapter for a simple account of the broad
+principles of their classification, illustrated by means of a few
+types, so that the collector may at least know <i>something</i> of the
+insects he captures, even though he may not be able at once to fix
+on their names.</p>
+
+<p>The young entomologist, thus provided with the broad features
+that enable him to roughly classify the specimens which reach his
+cabinet, may, as his store increases, pay an occasional visit to a
+public museum or the private collection of an entomological friend,
+and so obtain the names and other details he may require.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Micro-lepidoptera</i> are divided into five main groups&mdash;<i>Pyralides</i>,
+<i>Pterophori</i>, <i>Crambi</i>, <i>Tortrices</i>, and <i>Tineæ</i>, each of<!-- Page 291 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>
+which is divided into families and genera, as we have seen in the
+case of the 'Macros.'</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Pyralides</i></h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Pyralides</i> may be easily distinguished by the proportionately
+long fore wings, long legs, and elongated abdomen. Some of
+them have wings of a pearly lustre, and are accordingly known
+popularly as the 'Pearls.' Some species fly in bright sunshine,
+others appear on the wing before sunset, and fly till dusk; others,
+again, are purely nocturnal in their habits. All, however, are
+apparently light sleepers, and may be easily beaten out of their
+resting places and netted by day. Some of these moths are
+common everywhere, but the majority of them are very local,
+though they may be extremely abundant where they occur.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ have a glossy and bristly appearance, and are
+generally gregarious in their habits.</p>
+
+<p>This group contains about eighty species, arranged in five
+families as follows:</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li> <i>Pyralididæ</i>, including about forty species.</li>
+<li> <i>Botydæ</i>, about thirty species.</li>
+<li> <i>Steniiadæ</i>, containing only five species.</li>
+<li> <i>Hydrocampidæ</i>, four species.</li>
+<li> <i>Acentropodidæ</i>, containing only one.</li>
+</ol>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Tabby</i> (<i>Aglossa pinguinalis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The first of these families contains the Tabby or Grease Moth,
+commonly met with both in the larval and perfect states in barns
+and stables.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_209" id="FIG_209"></a><a href="images/i_308.jpg"><img src="images/i_308_tn.jpg" width="300" height="78" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Tabby or Grease Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 209.&mdash;The Tabby or Grease Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are brownish grey,
+crossed with zigzag darker lines, and
+having a black spot near the centre of
+the costal margin. The term 'Tabby'
+has been applied on account of the
+fancied resemblance of the transverse
+markings to the fur of a tabby cat,
+and the other popular name was given
+under the belief that the caterpillar feeds on fatty matter, but it is
+extremely doubtful whether this supposition is correct.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar probably feeds exclusively on the vegetable
+accumulations that lie in the undisturbed corners and crevices of<!-- Page 292 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>
+outhouses and stables, and lives concealed in silken tubes, strengthened
+outside by fragments of hay, chaff &amp;c. that have been spun
+together. It feeds from September to April, except during very
+severe weather, and when full grown it leaves its tube, and changes
+to a chrysalis in a light silken cocoon in some secluded corner.</p>
+
+<p>The moth emerges in July.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Meal Moth</i> (<i>Pyralis farinalis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The same family contains the common Meal Moth, so called
+because in the larval state it feeds on meal and allied substances.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_210" id="FIG_210"></a><a href="images/i_309a.jpg"><img src="images/i_309a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="73" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Meal Moth." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 210.&mdash;The Meal Moth.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings are yellowish grey, with
+reddish basal patches, a broad reddish band
+along the hind margin, and two whitish indented
+transverse lines. The hind wings are
+grey, and are crossed by two lines similar to
+and continuous with those of the front pair.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is to be found in abundance
+throughout the summer months in places
+where corn, meal, and grain are stored in large quantities, sitting
+on walls and rafters during the daytime, and taking to flight in
+the evening.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on corn, meal, grain, bran, &amp;c., and lives
+concealed in a silken tube covered outside with particles of its food
+substance. It is not fully grown till nearly two years old, and
+then changes to a chrysalis in a white silken cocoon.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Small Magpie</i> (<i>Eurrhypara urticata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_211" id="FIG_211"></a><a href="images/i_309b.jpg"><img src="images/i_309b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="81" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Small Magpie." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 211.&mdash;The Small Magpie.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The family <i>Botydæ</i> contains the moths that are popularly
+known as the 'Pearls' on account of the pearly lustre of the wings.
+One of its species&mdash;the Small Magpie&mdash;is
+shown in the accompanying illustration.
+Its fore wings are pearly white, with
+blackish hind margin, a yellow streak at
+the base, and blackish markings, the arrangement
+of which may be seen in the
+figure.</p>
+
+<p>It is a very common moth, flying at
+dusk during June and July in waste places
+where the stinging nettle grows.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is whitish, with a dark dorsal line. It feeds on the<!-- Page 293 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>
+stinging nettle (<i>Urtica dioica</i>), always remaining concealed between
+leaves which it has spun together with silken threads.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Mother-of-Pearl</i> (<i>Botys ruralis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This is another very common species of the family <i>Botydæ</i>,
+abundant almost everywhere, and to
+be found on the wing from June to
+August.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_212" id="FIG_212"></a><a href="images/i_310a.jpg"><img src="images/i_310a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="83" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Mother-of-Pearl." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 212.&mdash;The Mother-of-Pearl.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its wings are whitish, and exhibit
+a very decided pearly lustre, and all
+the markings are of a dull dark grey.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is glossy, and has
+a semi-transparent appearance. It is
+greenish white above, with a darker
+line down the back; and the sides are
+of a brighter green. It feeds on the stinging nettle (<i>Urtica dioica</i>)
+during May.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Garden Pebble</i> (<i>Pionea forficalis</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The same family contains also the Garden Pebble, which is one
+of the commonest frequenters of gardens, both in town and
+country.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_213" id="FIG_213"></a><a href="images/i_310b.jpg"><img src="images/i_310b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="77" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Garden Pebble." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 213.&mdash;The Garden Pebble.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings are pale yellowish grey with brown markings.
+The latter include a fine line from the tip to
+the middle of the inner margin, and another
+paler one inside and parallel with this, having
+a dark spot near its centre. The hind
+wings are lighter, and have a pale and interrupted
+line parallel with the hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is pale greenish, with a
+dark line along the back and on each side.
+It feeds on the cabbage and other cruciferous plants.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies from May to the end of the summer, and the
+caterpillar may be found about midsummer, and again in the
+autumn.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Beautiful China Mark</i> (<i>Hydrocampa stagnata</i>)</h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_214" id="FIG_214"></a><a href="images/i_311.jpg"><img src="images/i_311_tn.jpg" width="300" height="62" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of The Beautiful China Mark." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 214.&mdash;The Beautiful China Mark.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our last example of the <i>Pyralides</i>&mdash;the Beautiful China Mark&mdash;belongs
+to the family <i>Hydrocampidæ</i>. This small family is<!-- Page 294 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span>
+remarkable for the fact that its four species spend their larval state
+in the water, feeding on the under surfaces of the leaves of water
+lilies and other aquatic plants. These curious
+larvæ live either in cases which they construct
+for their protection, something after the fashion
+of the larvæ of caddis flies, or quite free in the
+water, and then they are supplied with special
+breathing organs that enable them to absorb the
+oxygen held in solution in the water.</p>
+
+<p>The moth we have selected for illustration
+is a very common species, and may be seen flying in great numbers
+in the neighbourhood of ponds during June and July.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Pterophori</i></h4>
+
+<p>The members of this remarkable group are easily distinguishable
+from all other moths by the feathery appearance of their wings, a
+feature that has gained for them the popular name of <i>Plume Moths</i>.
+Their fore wings are more or less divided or cleft, and their hind
+wings are generally divided into three distinct feathery plumes.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ are hairy, and when full fed they suspend themselves
+by their anal claspers, and change to the chrysalis state without
+any kind of covering. They are generally to be found in spring
+and early summer, but some of them feed in the autumn.</p>
+
+<p>The chrysalides are often hairy, though some of them are
+perfectly smooth.</p>
+
+<p>Plume moths are to be met with more or less throughout the
+year. Many of the earlier species appear on the wing in spring
+and early summer; but the late feeders emerge in the autumn, and
+hybernate through the winter, often taking to the wing on the mild
+days of our coldest months.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Pterophori</i> include only about forty British species, all of
+which, with two exceptions, belong to the family <i>Pterophoridæ</i>. The
+two exceptions represent as many families&mdash;one the <i>Chrysocorididæ</i>,
+and the other the <i>Alucitidæ</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Platyptilia gonodactyla</i></h4>
+
+<p>This is one of the commonest of the <i>Pterophoridæ</i>, generally
+appearing in our gardens and in waste places towards the end of
+May, and continuing with us for some time. It starts from its
+retreat at or before sunset, and remains on the wing after dark.<!-- Page 295 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_215" id="FIG_215"></a><a href="images/i_312a.jpg"><img src="images/i_312a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="91" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Gonodactyla." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 215.&mdash;Gonodactyla.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are ochreous grey, with a narrow brown costal
+margin, and a triangular brown patch on the costa. Beyond this
+patch the wing is cleft. The hind wings consist
+of three distinct brownish plumes, the
+third of which has a small tuft of black
+scales projecting from the middle of the
+inner margin.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on the flower stalks
+of the coltsfoot during March and April.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Leioptilus osteodactylus</i></h4>
+
+<p>This is another species of the same family.
+It is not uncommon, but is more local than
+the last.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_216" id="FIG_216"></a><a href="images/i_312b.jpg"><img src="images/i_312b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="85" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Osteodactylus." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 216.&mdash;Osteodactylus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are pale yellow, with a
+small brown dot at the commencement of
+the dividing fissure, and a brown blotch on
+the costal margin nearer the tip. The hind
+wings are divided into three distinct plumes
+like those of <i>Gonodactyla</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This is a later species, appearing on the
+wing in July.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Aciptilia pentadactyla</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_217" id="FIG_217"></a><a href="images/i_312c.jpg"><img src="images/i_312c_tn.jpg" width="300" height="87" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Pentadactyla." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 217.&mdash;Pentadactyla.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this species are white,
+frequently with a few greyish scales, and are
+deeply divided into two feathery plumes.
+The hind wings are pure white, and consist
+of three plumes.</p>
+
+<p>This pretty insect is common and widely distributed, and flies
+during June and July.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on the convolvulus in May.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Alucita hexadactyla</i></h4>
+
+<p>Our last example of the <i>Pterophori</i> is the Twelve-plume Moth,
+the only British representative of the family <i>Alucitidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_218" id="FIG_218"></a><a href="images/i_313.jpg"><img src="images/i_313_tn.jpg" width="300" height="67" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Hexadactyla." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 218.&mdash;Hexadactyla&mdash;Enlarged.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This little insect is of a yellowish colour, with two dark bands
+across the fore wings; and both fore and hind wings are divided
+into six distinct feathers. It is a common moth, and frequents<!-- Page 296 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>
+sheltered spots, flying at dusk. It appears in August, remains on
+the wing till October, and then hybernates till the following April.
+During the winter it is commonly met with
+in outhouses and even in dwelling houses.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds during June and July
+on the flower buds of the honeysuckle (<i>Lonicera
+Periclymenum</i>). It is not hairy, like
+most of the larvæ of the last family; and,
+unlike these, it changes to a chrysalis in a
+silken cocoon.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Crambi</i></h4>
+
+<p>The third group of the 'Micros' is the <i>Crambi</i>, and contains
+about eighty species, arranged in four families.</p>
+
+<p>Some of them are common moths with which all must be more
+or less familiar, as they are roused from the grasses on which they
+repose at almost every footstep as we walk through meadows in the
+summer. When at rest, they present a very peculiar appearance.
+Their wings are wrapped closely round their bodies in such a manner
+that they are hardly distinguishable from the stems on which
+they repose.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ have sixteen limbs, and are very variable in their
+habits. Some feed among moss or dry stems in silken tubes, some
+on the stems of reeds, and others inhabit the hives of bees and feed
+on the wax of the honeycomb.</p>
+
+<p>The four families are:</p>
+<ul>
+<li>1. <i>Chilidæ</i>&mdash;five species.</li>
+
+<li>2. <i>Crambidæ</i>&mdash;about thirty species.</li>
+
+<li>3. <i>Phycidæ</i>&mdash;over forty species.</li>
+
+<li>4. <i>Galleridæ</i>&mdash;five species.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><i>Chilo Phragmitellus</i></h4>
+
+<p>This species is one of those moths known as the 'Veneers,' and
+is popularly termed the Wainscot Veneer. It is one of the largest
+of the family <i>Chilidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_219" id="FIG_219"></a><a href="images/i_314a.jpg"><img src="images/i_314a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="95" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Phragmitellus." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 219.&mdash;Phragmitellus&mdash;Enlarged one-half.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are long, narrow, and pointed at the tip. They
+are of a pale ochreous brown colour, with a row of small black dots
+along the hind margin.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is pale grey, with brown stripes; and the head<!-- Page 297 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>
+and second segment are yellowish brown. It feeds on the common
+reed (<i>Phragmites</i>) in the autumn, and hybernates till the following
+spring, when it resumes its
+feeding.</p>
+
+<p>This insect is rather local,
+but may be searched for in all
+marshy places where reeds
+abound.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Crambus hamellus</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_220" id="FIG_220"></a><a href="images/i_314b.jpg"><img src="images/i_314b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="78" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Hamellus." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 220.&mdash;Hamellus&mdash;Slightly enlarged.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The family <i>Crambidæ</i> is represented
+by the above-named
+species, which has the popular title of
+Pearl-streak Veneer. It is not a common
+moth, but is to be obtained in some localities
+by beating low herbage.</p>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are ochreous and glossy,
+with a silvery streak from the base, running
+almost parallel with the costal margin. The
+hind margin is yellow, bordered inside by a
+wavy brown line. The hind wings are pale greyish brown with a
+yellowish margin.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Crambus tristellus</i></h4>
+
+<p>The same family contains the species <i>Tristellus</i>, which, unlike
+the preceding insect, is abundant everywhere.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_221" id="FIG_221"></a><a href="images/i_314c.jpg"><img src="images/i_314c_tn.jpg" width="300" height="81" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Tristellus." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 221.&mdash;Tristellus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are generally yellowish
+brown, but exceedingly variable. A pale
+streak runs from the base to just beyond
+the middle of the wing, and is then forked.
+Near the hind margin is a very indistinct
+brown wavy line. The hind wings are
+dull smoke colour with a light fringe. As
+with the other moths of the family, its labial palpi are very long.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies from July to September.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Crambus hortuellus</i></h4>
+
+<p>This is also an abundant species, to be met with everywhere
+during June and July.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_222" id="FIG_222"></a><a href="images/i_315a.jpg"><img src="images/i_315a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="74" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Hortuellus." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 222.&mdash;Hortuellus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are dull ochreous brown. The wing rays are<!-- Page 298 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>
+whitish near the inner margin, and a brown line with a silvery
+edging crosses near the hind margin. The hind wings are dull
+smoky brown, with a shining surface, and the
+fringe is light.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is pale grey with dark grey spots,
+and may be found among moss in April and
+May.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Galleria mellonella</i></h4>
+
+<p>Our last example of the <i>Crambi</i> is a moth
+that the young entomologist is not likely to meet with unless he
+happens to be in the neighbourhood of one of its haunts, but its
+habits are so peculiar that we are
+tempted to introduce it on that account.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_223" id="FIG_223"></a><a href="images/i_315b.jpg"><img src="images/i_315b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="65" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Mellonella." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 223.&mdash;Mellonella.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It belongs to the family <i>Galleridæ</i>,
+the larvæ of which feed on the wax
+combs in the hives of bees and in the
+nests of wild bees. They are protected
+from the stings of the inmates by silken
+tubes which they construct, and by the hardened covering of their
+heads and front segments&mdash;the only parts that remain exposed while
+they are feeding.</p>
+
+<p>The fore wings of the moth are reddish-grey or brownish,
+sometimes with a greenish tinge, and yellowish along the inner
+margin. The hind wings are greyish brown.</p>
+
+<p>It flies in July and August, and the caterpillar feeds in May and
+June.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Tortrices</i></h4>
+
+<p>This is a large group of moths, deriving their name from the
+peculiar habit of a number of the larvæ of twisting or rolling up
+leaves for their protection. This habit, however, is not common to
+all, for some feed on stems and flowers, and others devour seeds and
+fruits.</p>
+
+<p>The perfect insects may easily be known by the shape of the
+wings. The fore pair are gracefully curved on the costal margin in
+such a way that, when the insect is at rest with its wings closed, its
+outline is much the shape of a bell.</p>
+
+<p>The identification of the various species of this extensive group
+is no easy task, for many of them are so variable in their colouring
+that insects of the same species are often very different from each<!-- Page 299 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>
+other. So puzzling indeed is this tendency to run into varieties
+that many insects, once considered to belong to separate species,
+have been reduced to one; and this has been the case in a number
+of instances.</p>
+
+<p>There are so many of these little moths that we cannot even
+give a representative of each family, but the following outline will
+serve to show the extensiveness of the group.</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Family 1. <i>Tortricidæ</i>, about sixty species.</li>
+<li>&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;2. <i>Penthinidæ</i>,&emsp;"&emsp;twenty&emsp;"</li>
+<li>&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;3. <i>Spilonotidæ</i>,&emsp;"&emsp;twelve&emsp;"</li>
+<li>&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;4. <i>Sericoridæ</i>,&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;twenty-seven species.</li>
+<li>&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;5. <i>Sciaphilidæ</i>,&emsp;"&emsp;twenty-four&emsp;&emsp;"</li>
+<li>&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;6. <i>Grapholithidæ</i>, about one hundred and fifty species.</li>
+<li>&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;7. <i>Pyraloididæ</i>, four species.</li>
+<li>&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;8. <i>Conchylidæ</i>, about fifty species.</li>
+<li>&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;9. <i>Apheliidæ</i>, three species.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>We shall now briefly examine a few of the commonest insects of
+the group.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Tortrix xylosteana</i></h4>
+
+<p>This pretty moth is common in most parts, and may often be
+met with in abundance in wooded localities during July. It belongs
+to the family <i>Tortricidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_224" id="FIG_224"></a><a href="images/i_316.jpg"><img src="images/i_316_tn.jpg" width="300" height="77" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Xylosteana." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 224.&mdash;Xylosteana with wings closed.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are ochreous brown. A very dark
+oblique streak, edged with yellow, runs from the
+inner margin of the base. A reddish patch in the
+centre of the wing, also edged with yellow, is narrow
+on the costa, and expands as it approaches the inner
+margin. Beyond this are another dark patch on the
+costa and two reddish-brown blotches on the hind
+margin.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is greenish brown, marked with white
+spots which have black centres; and it feeds on oak (<i>Quercus
+Robur</i>), honeysuckle (<i>Lonicera Periclymenum</i>), and other plants,
+in the month of May.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Tortrix viridana</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_225" id="FIG_225"></a><a href="images/i_317a.jpg"><img src="images/i_317a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="64" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Viridana." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 225.&mdash;Viridana.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In June and July this pretty but destructive little insect may be
+seen flying in abundance in almost every oak wood. Its fore wings
+are one uniform pale green with the exception of a streak of yellow<!-- Page 300 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>
+along the costal margin; and, when at rest, scores may exist on a
+single twig without being seen unless closely examined. The hind
+wings are of a pale smoky tint, and rather glossy.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is green, with black spots, and
+feeds in May and June on the oak and other
+trees, often almost completely devouring the
+foliage.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Peronea cristana</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_226" id="FIG_226"></a><a href="images/i_317b.jpg"><img src="images/i_317b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="89" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Cristana." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 226.&mdash;Cristana&mdash;Enlarged.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This moth is not so generally abundant, but is very common in
+many of the woods of the south.
+It is remarkable for the large number
+of varieties that have been observed,
+many of which have been regarded
+as distinct species.</p>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are of some shade
+of brown or grey, with a light streak
+of variable colour along the inner
+margin, and a tuft of raised white
+scales in the middle of the wing.</p>
+
+<p>It flies during August and September.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Ptycholoma lecheana</i></h4>
+
+<p>Our last example of the family <i>Tortricidæ</i> is <i>Lecheana</i>, a moth
+that is common in most parts in June and July.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_227" id="FIG_227"></a><a href="images/i_317c.jpg"><img src="images/i_317c_tn.jpg" width="300" height="59" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Lecheana." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 227.&mdash;Lecheana.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are brown, lighter towards the
+base. There are no very distinct markings, but
+there is generally a darker patch in the middle of
+the wing, edged with a silvery streak on each side.</p>
+
+<p>The larva feeds on several trees, including oaks
+and elms, in the month of May.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Penthina pruniana</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_228" id="FIG_228"></a><a href="images/i_317d.jpg"><img src="images/i_317d_tn.jpg" width="300" height="56" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Pruniana." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 228.&mdash;Pruniana.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next family&mdash;<i>Penthinidæ</i>&mdash;contains the
+common species <i>Pruniana</i>, which may be readily
+known by its boldly marked wings. The basal
+portion of the fore wings, to the extent of nearly
+two-thirds of the whole, is very dark brown. The remaining third
+is almost white, and clouded with grey. The hind wings are smoky
+brown with a paler fringe.<!-- Page 301 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar of this species feeds on the blackthorn (<i>Prunus
+spinosa</i>) in May, and the moth flies in June and July.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Antithesia salicella</i></h4>
+
+<p>This moth is not nearly so common as the last species, but is
+fairly plentiful in some localities in the south of England. It
+belongs to the same family as <i>Pruniana</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_229" id="FIG_229"></a><a href="images/i_318a.jpg"><img src="images/i_318a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="74" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Salicella." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 229.&mdash;Salicella.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore wings are whitish at the base
+and along the inner margin, but the light tint
+is dotted and clouded with shades of brown.
+The remainder of the wings is marbled with
+dark brown of different depths, relieved near
+the hind margin with a little blue. The hind
+wings, as is usual with the <i>Tortrices</i>, are dull
+smoky brown.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is reddish brown with black spots, and feeds
+during May in rolled leaves of willows.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies in August and September.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Sciaphila octomaculana</i></h4>
+
+<p>Our single example of the family <i>Sciaphilidæ</i> is the species
+<i>Octomaculana</i>, which, though not
+very abundant, is widely distributed,
+and moderately common in
+parts.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_230" id="FIG_230"></a><a href="images/i_318b.jpg"><img src="images/i_318b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="93" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Octomaculana." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 230.&mdash;Octomaculana&mdash;Enlarged.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are white, dusted
+with grey, and each is marked with
+four dark grey patches which have
+given rise to its specific name&mdash;a
+word which signifies 'eight-spotted.'
+The hind wings are grey.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on thistles and other plants, and the
+moth flies from August to October.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Ephippiphora cirsiana</i></h4>
+
+<p>This insect represents the family <i>Grapholithidæ</i>. It is a
+common moth, and is widely distributed.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_231" id="FIG_231"></a><a href="images/i_319a.jpg"><img src="images/i_319a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="84" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Cirsiana." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 231.&mdash;Cirsiana&mdash;Enlarged.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are greyish brown, with a large white patch on
+the middle of the inner margin; and beyond this white, in the<!-- Page 302 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>
+anal angle, is a pale grey patch containing three or four black
+dots. The tips of the wings are reddish brown.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies in June and July;
+and the larva, which feeds on thistles,
+may be found in the stems from October
+to the following May.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Carpocapsa pomonella</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_232" id="FIG_232"></a><a href="images/i_319b.jpg"><img src="images/i_319b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="132" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Pomonella." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 232.&mdash;Pomonella.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same extensive family contains
+a few moths that are very destructive to
+our fruits, the larvæ burrowing into and
+living entirely within their substance.
+One of these&mdash;<i>Pomonella</i>&mdash;is
+popularly known as the Codlin, as
+its larva is so often found in the
+interior of small apples of the
+same name.</p>
+
+<p>The fore wings of this insect
+are grey, with a number of dark
+transverse lines. The spot in the
+anal angle is edged with a coppery
+tint, and inclosed by a curved
+black line.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is common in all
+parts, flying during June and July; and the larva may be looked
+for in apples and pears in August and September.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Xanthosetia zoegana</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_233" id="FIG_233"></a><a href="images/i_319c.jpg"><img src="images/i_319c_tn.jpg" width="300" height="106" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Zoegana" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 233.&mdash;Zoegana&mdash;Enlarged.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our last example of the <i>Tortrices</i> is <i>Zoegana</i>, which belongs to
+the family <i>Conchylidæ</i>. Its fore
+wings are yellow, with a reddish
+streak along the costa near the base,
+and a small reddish spot opposite this
+near the inner margin. The tip of
+the wings is dark reddish brown, in
+the middle of which is a large yellow
+spot.</p>
+
+<p>This moth is widely distributed,
+and in some parts common. It flies
+from May to August, and the larva feeds on the small scabious
+(<i>Scabiosa columbaria</i>).<!-- Page 303 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>The Tineæ</i></h4>
+
+<p>We have noticed that the <i>Tortrices</i> form a very extensive group
+of moths, but they are far outnumbered by the <i>Tineæ</i>, for of these
+there are over seven hundred known British species.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, among so many species we are sure to find considerable
+variety in form and structure; but notwithstanding this, the
+<i>Tineæ</i> form a well-marked division, and the beginner will find but
+little difficulty in distinguishing between these and the other
+Micros.</p>
+
+<p>The wings are long and narrow, and are remarkable for the
+length of the fringe, particularly that of the hind wings. The bodies,
+too, are long and slender.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ are exceedingly variable. Some have the usual
+number of sixteen limbs, and others have as many as eighteen.
+Again, the larvæ of several genera have only fourteen legs, and
+some are absolutely legless.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to their food and habits, they are equally variable,
+for while some feed exposed, others are always protected in rolled
+leaves. Some construct for themselves portable tubes, so that they
+always remain under cover, and are at the same time perfectly free
+to ramble in search for food. Some, also, are leaf miners; and the
+group includes the so-called 'Clothes Moths,' whose larvæ devour
+our garments, furs, and the upholstering of our furniture.</p>
+
+<p>We shall now briefly notice a few species, in order that we may
+become better acquainted with the general characters of the group.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Diurnea fagella</i></h4>
+
+<p>This moth represents the small family <i>Epigraphiidæ</i>, containing
+only six species, all of which appear in the winter or
+early spring.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_234" id="FIG_234"></a><a href="images/i_320.jpg"><img src="images/i_320_tn.jpg" width="300" height="77" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Fagella." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 234.&mdash;Fagella.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The present species is very common in
+most parts, and may be seen at rest on the
+barks of trees in March and April.</p>
+
+<p>The fore wings are usually pale grey or
+yellowish grey, and dotted with brown;
+but there is a great variety both in the
+depth of the ground colour and the distinctness
+of the markings. Our illustration gives the usual
+appearance of the insect.<!-- Page 304 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar feeds on various trees in September and October,
+always protected between leaves that it has spun together.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Adela cuprella</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_235" id="FIG_235"></a><a href="images/i_321a.jpg"><img src="images/i_321a_tn.jpg" width="300" height="112" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Cuprella." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 235.&mdash;Cuprella.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The family <i>Adelidæ</i> contains ten species, all remarkable
+for the great length of their antennæ. The
+one selected for illustration is a beautiful little moth
+with bright bronzy green fore wings, tinged with a
+rich glossy violet. The hind wings are brown with a
+glossy surface.</p>
+
+<p>This moth does not seem to be widely distributed,
+but is fairly plentiful where it occurs. Wimbledon
+Common and Epping Forest are good localities for it.
+It is on the wing in April and May.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Hyponomeuta Padellus</i></h4>
+
+<p>The family <i>Hyponomeutidæ</i> contains about twenty insects,
+some of which are very common and exceedingly destructive to
+our trees. In May and June hawthorn and
+fruit trees may be seen swarming with the
+gregarious larvæ of some of them, and almost
+entirely stripped of their leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_236" id="FIG_236"></a><a href="images/i_321b.jpg"><img src="images/i_321b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="66" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Padellus." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 236.&mdash;Padellus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The species here figured has grey or white
+fore wings with three rows of black dots. The
+hind wings are darker grey without dots.</p>
+
+<p>The larva feeds on hawthorn, apple, and other trees. The perfect
+insect flies in July and August.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Depressaria nervosa</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_237" id="FIG_237"></a><a href="images/i_321c.jpg"><img src="images/i_321c_tn.jpg" width="300" height="113" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Nervosa" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 237.&mdash;Nervosa&mdash;Twice Natural Size.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next family&mdash;<i>Gelechiidæ</i>&mdash;is
+represented by the species
+Nervosa, which is common in
+many localities.</p>
+
+<p>Its fore wings are reddish
+brown, and are marked by a
+number of short longitudinal
+streaks of a darker colour. The
+hind wings are light grey.</p>
+
+<p>The caterpillar is black, marked with black spots in white rings,
+and having yellow side stripes. It feeds on the flowers of the<!-- Page 305 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
+hemlock water dropwort (<i>&OElig;nanthe crocata</i>) during June and
+July.</p>
+
+<p>The moth flies in August and September.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Harpella Geoffrella</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 320px;">
+<a name="FIG_238" id="FIG_238"></a><a href="images/i_322a.jpg"><img src="images/i_322a_tn.jpg" width="320" height="69" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Geoffrella." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 238.&mdash;Geoffrella.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same extensive family contains the moth Geoffrella, represented
+in the accompanying cut. This is an exceedingly pretty
+insect. The basal portion of its fore wings is
+yellow, with two longitudinal dark streaks, the
+outer one of which is bent towards the inner
+margin near the middle of the wing. The remaining
+portion of the wings is brown, with two
+yellowish triangular spots, one on the costal and
+one on the inner margin. On the middle of the
+costa is a short dark streak.</p>
+
+<p>This moth appears in May and June, and is rather local, but very
+abundant in some parts.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Coleophora ibipennella</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_239" id="FIG_239"></a>
+<a href="images/i_322b.jpg"><img src="images/i_322b_tn.jpg" width="300" height="165" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Ibipennella" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 239.&mdash;Ibipennella&mdash;Enlarged.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The family <i>Coleophoridæ</i> contains about seventy small moths,
+characterised by their very narrow and pointed wings, with long
+fringes, and also, generally, by a little tuft of hair on the first joint
+of the antennæ.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ live in little cases which they construct, and feed on
+various leaves and seeds. They spend the winter within their
+cases, and change to the chrysalis state in spring or early summer.<!-- Page 306 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>One of these moths&mdash;<i>Ibipennella</i>&mdash;is shown in <a href="#FIG_239">fig. 239</a>. Its fore
+wings are white, with a satiny gloss, and brownish towards the
+tips. The 'nervures' are generally of a yellowish tinge. The
+hind wings are dark grey.</p>
+
+<p>The larva feeds on the birch (<i>Betula alba</i>), and may be seen
+walking on the surface of the leaves, carrying, or rather dragging
+after it, the pistol-shaped case in which it lives, nothing protruding
+save its head and front legs. It is full fed in May, and the moth
+flies in July.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Tischeria complanella</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_240" id="FIG_240"></a><a href="images/i_323.jpg"><img src="images/i_323_tn.jpg" width="300" height="138" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Complanella" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 240.&mdash;Complanella&mdash;Enlarged.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This species represents the rather extensive family <i>Elachistidæ</i>,
+the members of which have narrow and pointed wings. Many of
+them are adorned with beautiful metallic tints, but are generally
+so small that a lens is
+necessary to show up
+the splendour of their
+clothing. Most of the
+larvæ are leaf miners,
+and are easily reared.
+All that is necessary is
+to pluck a few twigs,
+the leaves of which,
+when held up to the
+light, reveal the tiny
+larvæ in their burrows,
+and place them in a vessel of water. They do not feed long, and
+it is probable that most of the larvæ so treated will be ready to
+change before the leaves have become dry. The present species
+has bright yellow fore wings, with pale grey cloudings at the hind
+margins. It is very abundant in many parts, and flies during the
+month of June.</p>
+
+<p>The larva is one of the numerous leaf miners, and is of a
+yellowish colour. It feeds in oak leaves during the autumn, and
+its presence is indicated by light blotches on the foliage.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Nepticula aurella</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="FIG_241" id="FIG_241"></a><a href="images/i_324.jpg"><img src="images/i_324_tn.jpg" width="300" height="158" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Aurella" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Fig. 241.&mdash;Aurella&mdash;Enlarged.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The family <i>Nepticulidæ</i>&mdash;the last of the <i>Tineæ</i>&mdash;contains a
+number of little moths, including the smallest of the <i>Lepidoptera</i>.
+Many of them are exceedingly beautiful, being decorated with<!-- Page 307 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span>
+various tints of a splendid metallic lustre, but their beauty is revealed
+only by the use of a magnifying lens, and they are so small
+that very great care and patience is required to set them properly.</p>
+
+<p>They may be recognised by their short and thick antennæ,
+rather large head, broad fore wings, and narrow pointed hind
+wings.</p>
+
+<p>The larvæ have no true legs, but have nine pairs of very
+imperfectly developed claspers. They are leaf miners, and are
+sometimes so abundant that several may be found in a single
+leaf.</p>
+
+<p>The species we have selected has fore wings of a rich golden
+brown, with deep violet tips, and a broad bar of pale golden yellow
+beyond the middle. It may be found throughout the spring and
+summer. The larva excavates long irregular burrows in the leaves
+of the bramble.<!-- Page 309 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span><!-- Page 308 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<h2><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES"></a>APPENDICES</h2>
+
+
+<h3><a name="APPENDIX_I" id="APPENDIX_I"></a>APPENDIX I</h3>
+
+<p>I have previously called the reader's attention to our classified list
+of butterflies and moths, and have hinted at one or two of the
+objects for which it is inserted. It contains the scientific and
+popular names of all the British Butterflies, <i>Sphinges</i>, <i>Bombyces</i>,
+<i>Noctuæ</i>, and <i>Geometræ</i>, arranged in their various families and
+genera; and in cases where two specific names are commonly
+applied to the same insect, both are given.</p>
+
+<p>Its chief uses to the young entomologist are to show the relation
+which the insects bear one to another, and to supply a guide for
+the proper arrangement of the specimens in his cabinet.</p>
+
+<p>The order adopted is that of South's 'Synonymic List of British
+Lepidoptera,' and it has already been mentioned that similar
+lists, printed on one side of the paper only, may be obtained from
+dealers in naturalists' appliances. These, cut up as required, supply
+very neat labels for cabinets or store boxes.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>COMPLETE CLASSIFIED LIST OF BRITISH
+MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA</i></h3>
+
+<h4><b>RHOPALOCERA (BUTTERFLIES).</b></h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>PAPILIONIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Papilio.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Machaon</i>&mdash;Swallow Tail</li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>PIERIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Aporia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cratægi</i>&mdash;Black-veined White</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Pieris.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Brassicæ</i>&mdash;Large White</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rapæ</i>&mdash;Small White</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Napi</i>&mdash;Green-veined White</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Daplidice</i>&mdash;Bath White</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Euchloë.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cardamines</i>&mdash;Orange Tip</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Leucophasia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sinapis</i>&mdash;Wood White</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Colias.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Hyale</i>&mdash;Pale Clouded Yellow</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Edusa</i>&mdash;Clouded Yellow</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Gonopteryx.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rhamni</i>&mdash;Brimstone</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>NYMPHALIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Argynnis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Selene</i>&mdash;Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary
+<!-- Page 310 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Euphrosyne</i>&mdash;Pearl-bordered Fritillary</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Latona</i>&mdash;Queen of Spain</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Aglaia</i>&mdash;Dark Green Fritillary</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Adippe</i>&mdash;High Brown Fritillary</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Paphia</i>&mdash;Silver-washed Fritillary</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Melitæa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Aurinia</i> (<i>Artemis</i>)&mdash;Greasy Fritillary</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cinxia</i>&mdash;Glanville Fritillary</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Athalia</i>&mdash;Heath Fritillary</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Vanessa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>C-Album</i>&mdash;Comma</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Polychloros</i>&mdash;Large Tortoiseshell</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Urticæ</i>&mdash;Small Tortoiseshell</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Io</i>&mdash;Peacock</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Antiopa</i>&mdash;Camberwell Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Atalanta</i>&mdash;Red Admiral</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cardui</i>&mdash;Painted Lady</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Limenitis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sibylla</i>&mdash;White Admiral</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>APATURIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Apatura.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Iris</i>&mdash;Purple Emperor</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>SATYRIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Melanargia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Galatea</i>&mdash;Marbled White</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Erebia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Epiphron</i> (<i>Cassiope</i>)&mdash;Small Ringlet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Æthiops</i> (<i>Blandina</i>)&mdash;Northern Brown (Scotch Argus)</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Pararge.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Egeria</i>&mdash;Speckled Wood</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Megæra</i>&mdash;Wall</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Satyrus.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Semele</i>&mdash;Grayling</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Epinephele.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ianira</i>&mdash;Meadow Brown</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tithonus</i>&mdash;Large Heath (Small Meadow Brown)</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Hyperanthes</i>&mdash;Ringlet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cænonympha.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Typhon</i> (<i>Davus</i>)&mdash;Marsh Ringlet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pamphilus</i>&mdash;Small Heath</li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>LYCÆNIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Thecla.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Betulæ</i>&mdash;Brown Hairstreak</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>W-Album</i>&mdash;White-letter Hairstreak</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pruni</i>&mdash;Dark Hairstreak</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Quercus</i>&mdash;Purple Hairstreak</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rubi</i>&mdash;Green Hairstreak</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Polyommatus.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dispar</i>&mdash;Large Copper</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Phl&oelig;as</i>&mdash;Small Copper</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Lycæna.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bætica</i>&mdash;Tailed Blue</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ægon</i>&mdash;Silver-studded Blue</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Astrarche</i> (<i>Agestis</i>)&mdash;Brown Argus</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Icarus</i> (<i>Alexis</i>)&mdash;Common Blue</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bellargus</i> (<i>Adonis</i>)&mdash;Clifden Blue</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Corydon</i>&mdash;Chalk-hill Blue</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Argiolus</i>&mdash;Azure or Holly Blue</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Semiargus</i> (<i>Acis</i>)&mdash;Mazarine Blue</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Minima</i> (<i>Alsus</i>)&mdash;Small Blue</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Arion</i>&mdash;Large Blue</li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>ERYCINIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Nemeobius.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lucina</i>&mdash;Duke of Burgundy</li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>HESPERIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Syrichthus.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Malvæ</i> (<i>Alveolus</i>)&mdash;Grizzled Skipper</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Nisoniades.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tages</i>&mdash;Dingy Skipper</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hesperia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Thaumas</i> (<i>Linea</i>)&mdash;Small Skipper</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lineola</i>&mdash;New Small Skipper</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Actæon</i>&mdash;Lulworth Skipper
+<!-- Page 311 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sylvanus</i>&mdash;Large Skipper</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Comma</i>&mdash;Silver-spotted Skipper</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Carterocephalus.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Palæmon</i> (<i>Paniscus</i>)&mdash;Chequered Skipper</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h4>HETEROCERA (MOTHS).
+<br /><br />
+<b>SPHINGES.</b></h4>
+
+<ul>
+<li>SPHINGIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Acherontia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Atropos</i>&mdash;Death's Head Hawk Moth</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Sphinx.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Convolvuli</i>&mdash;Convolvulus Hawk</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ligustri</i>&mdash;Privet Hawk</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pinastri</i>&mdash;Pine Hawk</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Deilephila.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Euphorbiæ</i>&mdash;Spurge Hawk</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Galii</i>&mdash;Bedstraw Hawk</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Livornica</i>&mdash;Striped Hawk</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Chærocampa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Celerio</i>&mdash;Silver-striped Hawk</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Porcellus</i>&mdash;Small Elephant</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Elpenor</i>&mdash;Large Elephant</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Smerinthus.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ocellatus</i>&mdash;Eyed Hawk</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Populi</i>&mdash;Poplar Hawk</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tiliæ</i>&mdash;Lime Hawk</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Macroglossa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Stellatarum</i>&mdash;Humming-bird Hawk</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fuciformis</i>&mdash;Broad-bordered Bee Hawk</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bombyliformis</i>&mdash;Narrow-bordered Bee Hawk</li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>SESIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Trochilium.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Apiformis</i>&mdash;Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Crabroniformis</i> (<i>Bembeciformis</i>)&mdash;Hornet Clearwing of Osier</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Sciopteron.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tabaniformis</i> (<i>Vespiforme</i>)&mdash;Dusky Clearwing</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Sesia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Scoliiformis</i>&mdash;Welsh Clearwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sphegiformis</i>&mdash;White-barred Clearwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Andreniformis</i>&mdash;Orange-tailed Clearwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tipuliformis</i>&mdash;Currant Clearwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Asiliformis</i> (<i>Cynipiformis</i>)&mdash;Yellow-legged Clearwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Myopiformis</i>&mdash;Red-belted Clearwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Culiciformis</i>&mdash;Large Red-belted Clearwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Formiciformis</i>&mdash;Red-tipped Clearwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ichneumoniformis</i>&mdash;Six-belted Clearwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Musciformis</i> (<i>Philanthiformis</i>)&mdash;Thrift Clearwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Chrysidiformis</i>&mdash;Fiery Clearwing</li>
+</ul><ul>
+<li>ZYGÆNIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Ino.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Globulariæ</i>&mdash;Scarce Forester</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Statices</i>&mdash;Forester</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Geryon</i>&mdash;Cistus Forester</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Zygæna.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pilosellæ</i> (<i>Minos</i>)&mdash;Transparent Burnet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Exulans</i>&mdash;Scotch Burnet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Meliloti</i>&mdash;New Forest Burnet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Trifolii</i>&mdash;Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Loniceræ</i>&mdash;Narrow-bordered Five-spotted Burnet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Filipendulæ</i>&mdash;Six-spotted Burnet
+<!-- Page 312 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+<h4><b>BOMBYCES.</b></h4>
+
+<ul><li>
+NYCTEOLIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Sarothripus.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Undulanus</i>&mdash;Tortrix Moth</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Earias.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Chlorana</i>&mdash;Cream-bordered Green</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hylophila.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Prasinana</i>&mdash;Green Silver-lined</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bicolorana</i> (<i>Quercana</i>)&mdash;Large Green Silver-lined</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+NOLIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Nola.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cucullatella</i>&mdash;Short-cloaked</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Strigula</i>&mdash;Small Black Arches</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Confusalis</i> (<i>Cristulalis</i>)&mdash;Least Black Arches</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Albulalis</i>&mdash;Kent Arches</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Centonalis</i>&mdash;Scarce Black Arches</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+LITHOSIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Nudaria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Senex</i>&mdash;Round-winged Muslin</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Mundana</i>&mdash;Muslin Moth</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Setina.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Irrorella</i>&mdash;Dew Moth</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Calligenia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Miniata</i>&mdash;Rosy Footman (Red Arches)</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Lithosia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Mesomella</i>&mdash;Four-dotted Footman</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Muscerda</i>&mdash;Dotted Footman</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sororcula</i> (<i>Aureola</i>)&mdash;Orange Footman</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lutarella</i> (<i>Pygmæola</i>)&mdash;Pigmy Footman</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Griseola</i> (<i>Stramineola</i>)&mdash;Pale Footman</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Deplana</i> (<i>Helveola</i>)&mdash;Buff Footman</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lurideola</i> (<i>Complanula</i>)&mdash;Common Footman</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Complana</i>&mdash;Scarce Footman</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sericea</i> (<i>Molybdeola</i>)&mdash;Leaden Footman</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Caniola</i>&mdash;Hoary Footman</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Gnophria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Quadra</i>&mdash;Four-spotted Footman</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rubricollis</i>&mdash;Red-necked Footman</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Emydia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cribrum</i>&mdash;Speckled Footman</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+EUCHELIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Deiopeia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pulchella</i>&mdash;Crimson Speckled</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Euchelia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Jacobææ</i>&mdash;Cinnabar</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Callimorpha.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dominula</i>&mdash;Scarlet Tiger</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Hera</i>&mdash;Jersey Tiger</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+CHELONIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Nemeophila.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Russula</i>&mdash;Clouded Buff</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Plantaginis</i>&mdash;Wood Tiger</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Arctia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Caia</i>&mdash;Tiger</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Villica</i>&mdash;Cream-spot Tiger</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Spilosoma.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fuliginosa</i>&mdash;Ruby Tiger</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Mendica</i>&mdash;Muslin</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lubricipeda</i>&mdash;Buff Ermine</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Menthastri</i>&mdash;White Ermine</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Urticæ</i>&mdash;Water Ermine</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+HEPIALIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hepialus.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Humuli</i>&mdash;Ghost Swift</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sylvanus</i>&mdash;Wood Swift</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Velleda</i>&mdash;Northern Swift</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lupulinus</i>&mdash;Common Swift</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Hectus</i>&mdash;Gold Swift</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+COSSIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cossus.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ligniperda</i>&mdash;Goat</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Zeuzera.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pyrina</i> (<i>Æsculi</i>)&mdash;Leopard</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Macrogaster.</b>
+<!-- Page 313 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Castaneæ</i> (<i>Arundinis</i>)&mdash;Reed Moth</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+COCHLIOPODIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Heterogenea.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Limacodes</i> (<i>Testudo</i>)&mdash;Festoon Moth</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Asella</i> (<i>Asellus</i>)&mdash;Triangle Moth</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+LIPARIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Porthesia</b> (<b>Liparis</b>).</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Chrysorrh&oelig;a</i>&mdash;Brown Tail</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Similis</i> (<i>Auriflua</i>)&mdash;Yellow Tail (Gold Tail)</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Leucoma.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Salicis</i>&mdash;Satin Moth</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Lælia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>C&oelig;nosa</i>&mdash;Reed Tussock</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Ocneria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dispar</i>&mdash;Gipsy</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Psilura.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Monacha</i>&mdash;Black Arches</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Dasychira.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fascelina</i>&mdash;Dark Tussock</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pudibunda</i>&mdash;Pale Tussock</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Orgyia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Gonostigma</i>&mdash;Scarce Vapourer</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Antiqua</i>&mdash;Vapourer</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+BOMBYCIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Trichiura.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cratægi</i>&mdash;Pale Oak Eggar</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>P&oelig;cilocampa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Populi</i>&mdash;December Moth</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Eriogaster.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lanestris</i>&mdash;Small Eggar</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Bombyx.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Neustria</i>&mdash;Lackey</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Castrensis</i>&mdash;Ground Lackey</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rubi</i>&mdash;Fox</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Quercus</i>&mdash;Oak Eggar</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Trifolii</i>&mdash;Grass Eggar</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Odonestis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Potatoria</i>&mdash;Drinker</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Lasiocampa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Quercifolia</i>&mdash;Lappet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ilicifolia</i>&mdash;Small Lappet</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+ENDROMIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Endromis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Versicolor</i>&mdash;Kentish Glory</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+SATURNIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Saturnia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pavonia</i> (<i>Carpini</i>)&mdash;Emperor</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+DREPANULIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Drepana.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lacertinaria</i> (<i>Lacertula</i>)&mdash;Scalloped Hook Tip</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Harpagula</i> (<i>Sicula</i>)&mdash;Scarce Hook Tip</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Falcataria</i> (<i>Falcula</i>)&mdash;Pebble Hook Tip</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Binaria</i> (<i>Hamula</i>)&mdash;Oak Hook Tip</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cultraria</i> (<i>Unguicula</i>)&mdash;Barred Hook Tip</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cilix.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Glaucata</i> (<i>Spinula</i>)&mdash;Chinese Character</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+DICRANURIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Dicranura.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bicuspis</i>&mdash;Alder Kitten</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Furcula</i>&mdash;Sallow Kitten</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bifida</i>&mdash;Poplar Kitten</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Vinula</i>&mdash;Puss</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Stauropus.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fagi</i>&mdash;Lobster</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+NOTODONTIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Glyphisia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Crenata</i>&mdash;Dusky Marbled Brown</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Ptilophora.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Plumigera</i>&mdash;Plumed Prominent</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Pterostoma.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Palpina</i>&mdash;Pale Prominent</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Lophopteryx.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Camelina</i>&mdash;Coxcomb Prominent</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cuculla</i> (<i>Cucullina</i>)&mdash;Maple Prominent</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Carmelita</i>&mdash;Scarce Prominent</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Notodonta.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bicolor</i>&mdash;White Prominent</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dictæa</i>&mdash;Swallow Prominent
+<!-- Page 314 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dictæoides</i>&mdash;Lesser Swallow Prominent</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dromedarius</i>&mdash;Iron Prominent</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Trilophus</i>&mdash;Three-humped Prominent</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ziczac</i>&mdash;Pebble Prominent</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Trepida</i>&mdash;Great Prominent</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Trimacula</i> (<i>Dodonea</i>)&mdash;Marbled Brown</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Chaonia</i>&mdash;Lunar Marbled Brown</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+PYGÆRIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Phalera.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bucephala</i>&mdash;Buff Tip</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Pygæra</b> (<b>Clostera</b>).</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Curtula</i>&mdash;Chocolate Tip</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Anachoreta</i>&mdash;Scarce Chocolate Tip</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pigra</i> (<i>Reclusa</i>)&mdash;Small Chocolate Tip</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+CYMATOPHORIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Thyatira.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Derasa</i>&mdash;Buff Arches</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Batis</i>&mdash;Peach Blossom</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cymatophora.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Octogesima</i> (<i>Ocularis</i>)&mdash;Figure of Eighty</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Or</i>&mdash;Poplar Lutestring</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Duplaris</i>&mdash;Lesser Satin</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fluctuosa</i>&mdash;Satin Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Asphalia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Diluta</i>&mdash;Lesser Lutestring</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Flavicornis</i>&mdash;Yellow-horned</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ridens</i>&mdash;Frosted Green</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><b>NOCTUÆ.</b></h4>
+
+<ul><li>
+BRYOPHILIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Bryophila.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Algæ</i>&mdash;Tree Lichen Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Muralis</i> (<i>Glandifera</i>)&mdash;Marbled (Mottled) Green</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Par</i>&mdash;Scarce Marbled Green</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Perla</i>&mdash;Marbled Beauty</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+BOMBYCOIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Moma</b> (<b>Diphthera</b>).</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Orion</i>&mdash;Scarce Marvel-du-jour</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Demas.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Coryli</i>&mdash;Nut-tree Tussock</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Acronycta.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tridens</i>&mdash;Dark Dagger</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Psi</i>&mdash;Grey Dagger</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Leporina</i>&mdash;Miller</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Aceris</i>&mdash;Sycamore</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Megacephala</i>&mdash;Poplar Grey</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Strigosa</i>&mdash;Grisette</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Alni</i>&mdash;Alder</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ligustri</i>&mdash;Coronet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rumicis</i>&mdash;Knot-grass</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Auricoma</i>&mdash;Scarce Dagger</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Menyanthidis</i>&mdash;Light Knot-grass</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Euphorbiæ</i> (<i>Myricæ</i>)&mdash;Sweet Gale</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Diloba.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cæruleocephala</i>&mdash;Figure of Eight</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Arsilonche.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Albovenosa</i> (<i>Venosa</i>)&mdash;Powdered Wainscot</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+LEUCANIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Synia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Musculosa</i>&mdash;Brighton Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Leucania.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Conigera</i>&mdash;Brown-line Bright-eye</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Vitellina</i>&mdash;Delicate</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Turca</i>&mdash;Double Line</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lithargyria</i>&mdash;Clay</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Albipuncta</i>&mdash;White-point</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Extranea</i>&mdash;American Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Obsoleta</i>&mdash;Obscure Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Putrescens</i>&mdash;Devonshire Wainscot
+<!-- Page 315 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Littoralis</i>&mdash;Shore Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Impudens</i> (<i>Pudorina</i>)&mdash;Striped Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Comma</i>&mdash;Shoulder-striped Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Straminea</i>&mdash;Southern Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Impura</i>&mdash;Smoky Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pallens</i>&mdash;Common Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Calamia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Phragmitidis</i>&mdash;Fen Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Meliana.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Flammea</i>&mdash;Flame Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Senta.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Maritima</i>&mdash;Silky Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>C&oelig;nobia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rufa</i>&mdash;Small Rufous</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Tapinostola.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fulva</i>&mdash;Small Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Hellmanni</i>&mdash;Mere Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Extrema</i> (<i>Concolor</i>)&mdash;Concolorous Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bondii</i>&mdash;Bond's Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Elymi</i>&mdash;Lyme Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Nonagria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cannæ</i>&mdash;Reed Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sparganii</i>&mdash;Iris Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Arundinis</i> (<i>Typhæ</i>)&mdash;Bullrush</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Geminipuncta</i>&mdash;Twin-spotted Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Neurica</i>&mdash;Nerved Wainscot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Brevilinea</i>&mdash;Fenn's Nonagria</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lutosa</i>&mdash;Large Wainscot</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+APAMEIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Gortyna.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ochracea</i> (<i>Flavago</i>)&mdash;Frosted Orange</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hydr&oelig;cia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Nictitans</i>&mdash;Golden Ear</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Petasitis</i>&mdash;Butter-bur</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Micacea</i>&mdash;Rosy Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Axylia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2">Putris&mdash;Flame</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Xylophasia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rurea</i>&mdash;Clouded-border Brindle</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lithoxylea</i>&mdash;Light Arches</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sublustris</i>&mdash;Reddish Light Arches</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Monoglypha</i> (<i>Polyodon</i>)&mdash;Dark Arches</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Hepatica</i>&mdash;Clouded Brindle</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Scolopacina</i>&mdash;Slender Clouded Brindle</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Dipterygia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Scabriuscula</i> (<i>Pinastri</i>)&mdash;Bird's Wing</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cloantha.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Polyodon</i> (<i>Perspicillaris</i>)&mdash;Purple Cloud</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Aporophyla.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Australis</i>&mdash;Feathered Brindle</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Laphygma.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Exigua</i>&mdash;Small Mottled Willow</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Neuria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Reticulata</i> (<i>Saponariæ</i>)&mdash;Bordered Gothic</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Neuronia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Popularis</i>&mdash;Feathered Gothic</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Heliophobus.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Hispidus</i>&mdash;Beautiful Gothic</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Charæas.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Graminis</i>&mdash;Antler</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Pachetra.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Leucophæa</i>&mdash;Feathered Ear</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cerigo.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Matura</i> (<i>Cytherea</i>)&mdash;Straw Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Luperina.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Testacea</i>&mdash;Flounced Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dumerili</i>&mdash;Dumeril's Luperina</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cespitis</i>&mdash;Hedge Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Mamestra.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Abjecta</i>&mdash;Crescent Striped</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sordida</i> (<i>Anceps</i>)&mdash;Large Nutmeg</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Albicolon</i>&mdash;White Colon</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Furva</i>&mdash;Confused</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Brassicæ</i>&mdash;Cabbage
+<!-- Page 316 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Persicariæ</i>&mdash;Dot</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Apamea.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Basilinea</i>&mdash;Rustic Shoulder Knot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Connexa</i>&mdash;Union Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Gemina</i>&mdash;Dusky Brocade</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Unanimis</i>&mdash;Small Clouded Brindle</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ophiogramma</i>&mdash;Double Lobed</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Leucostigma</i> (<i>Fibrosa</i>)&mdash;Crescent</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Didyma</i> (<i>Oculea</i>)&mdash;Common Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Miana.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Strigilis</i>&mdash;Marbled Minor</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fasciuncula</i>&mdash;Middle-barred Minor</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Literosa</i>&mdash;Rosy Minor</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bicoloria</i> (<i>Furuncula</i>)&mdash;Cloaked Minor</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Arcuosa</i>&mdash;Dotted Buff</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Phothedes.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Captiuncula</i>&mdash;Least Minor</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Celæna.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Haworthii</i>&mdash;Haworth's Minor</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+CARADRINIDÆ</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Grammesia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Trigrammica</i> (<i>Trilinea</i>)&mdash;Treble Lines</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Stilbia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Anomala</i>&mdash;Anomalous</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Caradrina.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Morpheus</i>&mdash;Mottled Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Alsines</i>&mdash;Uncertain</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Taraxaci</i> (<i>Blanda</i>)&mdash;Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ambigua</i>&mdash;Ambiguous</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Quadripunctata</i> (<i>Cubicularis</i>)&mdash;Pale Mottled Willow</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Acosmetia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Caliginosa</i>&mdash;Reddish Buff</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hydrilla.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Palustris</i>&mdash;Marsh Moth</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Rusina.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tenebrosa</i>&mdash;Brown Rustic</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+NOCTUIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Agrotis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Vestigialis</i> (<i>Valligera</i>)&mdash;Archer's Dart</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Puta</i>&mdash;Shuttle-shaped Dart</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Suffusa</i>&mdash;Dark Sword Grass</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Saucia</i>&mdash;Pearly Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Segetum</i>&mdash;Common Dart (Turnip Moth)</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lunigera</i>&mdash;Crescent Dart</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Exclamationis</i>&mdash;Heart and Dart</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Corticea</i>&mdash;Heart and Club</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cinerea</i>&mdash;Light Feathered Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ripæ</i>&mdash;Sand Dart</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cursoria</i>&mdash;Coast Dart</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Nigricans</i>&mdash;Garden Dart</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tritici</i>&mdash;White-line Dart</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Aquilina</i>&mdash;Streaked Dart</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Obelisca</i>&mdash;Square-spot Dart</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Agathina</i>&mdash;Heath Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Strigula</i> (<i>Porphyrea</i>)&mdash;True Lover's Knot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Præcox</i>&mdash;Portland</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Obscura</i> (<i>Ravida</i>)&mdash;Stout Dart</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Simulans</i> (<i>Pyrophila</i>)&mdash;Dotted Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lucernea</i>&mdash;Northern Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ashworthii</i>&mdash;Ashworth's Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Noctua.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Glareosa</i>&mdash;Autumn Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Depuncta</i>&mdash;Plain Clay</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Augur</i>&mdash;Double Dot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Plecta</i>&mdash;Flame Shoulder</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Flammatra</i>&mdash;Black Collar</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>C-Nigrum</i>&mdash;Setaceous Hebrew Character</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ditrapezium</i>&mdash;Triple-spotted Clay</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Triangulum</i>&mdash;Double-spotted Square-spot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Stigmatica</i> (<i>Rhomboidea</i>)&mdash;Square-spotted Clay
+<!-- Page 317 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Brunnea</i>&mdash;Purple Clay</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Festiva</i> (<i>Conflua</i>)&mdash;Ingrailed Clay</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dahlii</i>&mdash;Barred Chestnut</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Subrosea</i>&mdash;Rosy Marsh</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rubi</i>&mdash;Small Square-spot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Umbrosa</i>&mdash;Six-striped Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Baia</i>&mdash;Dotted Clay</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sobrina</i>&mdash;Cousin German</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Castanea</i> (<i>Neglecta</i>)&mdash;Grey Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Xanthographa</i>&mdash;Square-spot Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Triphæna.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ianthina</i>&mdash;Lesser Broad Border</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fimbria</i>&mdash;Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Interjecta</i>&mdash;Least Yellow Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Orbona</i> (<i>Subsequa</i>)&mdash;Lunar Yellow Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Comes</i> (<i>Orbona</i>)&mdash;Lesser Yellow Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pronuba</i>&mdash;Large Yellow Underwing</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+AMPHIPYRIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Amphipyra.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pyramidea</i>&mdash;Copper Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tragopogonis</i>&mdash;Mouse</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Mania.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Typica</i>&mdash;Gothic</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Maura</i>&mdash;Old Lady</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+ORTHOSIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Panolis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Piniperda</i>&mdash;Pine Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Pachnobia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Leucographa</i>&mdash;White-marked</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rubricosa</i>&mdash;Red Chestnut</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Hyperborea</i> (<i>Carnica</i>)&mdash;Mountain Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Tæniocampa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Gothica</i>&mdash;Hebrew Character</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Incerta</i> (<i>Instabilis</i>)&mdash;Clouded Drab</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Opima</i>&mdash;Northern Drab</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Populeti</i>&mdash;Lead-coloured Drab</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Stabilis</i>&mdash;Common Quaker</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Gracilis</i>&mdash;Powdered Quaker</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Miniosa</i>&mdash;Blossom Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Munda</i>&mdash;Twin-spotted Quaker</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pulverulenta</i> (<i>Cruda</i>)&mdash;Small Quaker</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Orthosia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Suspecta</i>&mdash;Suspected</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Upsilon</i>&mdash;Dismal</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lota</i>&mdash;Red-lined Quaker</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Macilenta</i>&mdash;Yellow-lined Quaker</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Anchocelis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rufina</i>&mdash;Flounced Chestnut</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pistacina</i>&mdash;Beaded Chestnut</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lunosa</i>&mdash;Lunar Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Litura</i>&mdash;Brown-spot Pinion</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cerastis</b> (<b>Glæa</b>).</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Vaccinii</i>&mdash;Chestnut</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Spadicea</i>&mdash;Dark Chestnut</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Erythrocephala</i>&mdash;Red-headed</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Scopelosoma.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Satellitia</i>&mdash;Satellite</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Dasycampa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rubiginea</i>&mdash;Dotted Chestnut</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Oporina.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Croceago</i>&mdash;Orange Upperwing</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Xanthia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Citrago</i>&mdash;Orange Sallow</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fulvago</i> (<i>Cerago</i>)&mdash;Sallow</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Flavago</i> (<i>Silago</i>)&mdash;Pink-barred Sallow</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Aurago</i>&mdash;Barred Sallow</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Gilvago</i>&mdash;Dusky Lemon Sallow</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Circellaris</i> (<i>Ferruginea</i>)&mdash;Brick</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cirrh&oelig;dia.</b>
+<!-- Page 318 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Xerampelina</i>&mdash;Centre-barred Sallow</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+COSMIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Tethea.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Subtusa</i>&mdash;Olive</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Retusa</i>&mdash;Double Kidney</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cosmia</b> (<b>Euperia</b>).</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Paleacea</i> (<i>Fulvago</i>)&mdash;Angle-striped Sallow</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Dicycla.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Oo</i>&mdash;Heart Moth</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Calymnia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Trapezina</i>&mdash;Dun-bar</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pyralina</i>&mdash;Lunar-spotted Pinion</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Diffinis</i>&mdash;White-spotted Pinion</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Affinis</i>&mdash;Lesser-spotted Pinion</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+HADENIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Eremobia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ochroleuca</i>&mdash;Dusky Sallow</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Dianth&oelig;cia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Luteago</i> (<i>Barretti</i>)&mdash;Barrett's Marbled Coronet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cæsia</i>&mdash;Grey Marbled Coronet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Nana</i> (<i>Conspersa</i>)&mdash;Marbled Coronet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Albimacula</i>&mdash;White Spot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Compta</i>&mdash;The Shears</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Capsincola</i>&mdash;Lychnis</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cucubali</i>&mdash;Campion</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Carpophaga</i>&mdash;Tawny Shears</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Capsophila</i>&mdash;Pod-lover</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Irregularis</i> (<i>Echii</i>)&mdash;Viper's Bugloss</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hecatera.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Chrysozona</i> (<i>Dysodea</i>)&mdash;Small Ranunculus</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Serena</i>&mdash;Broad-barred White</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Polia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Chi</i>&mdash;Grey Chi</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Flavicincta</i>&mdash;Large Ranunculus</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Xanthomista</i> (<i>Nigrocincta</i>)&mdash;Black-banded</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Dasypolia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Templi</i>&mdash;Brindled Ochre</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Epunda.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lichenea</i>&mdash;Feathered Ranunculus</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lutulenta</i>&mdash;Deep-brown Dart</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Nigra</i>&mdash;Black Rustic</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cleoceris.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Viminalis</i>&mdash;Minor Shoulder-knot</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Valeria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Oleagina</i>&mdash;Green-brindled Dot</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Miselia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Oxyacanthæ</i>&mdash;Green-brindled Crescent</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bimaculosa</i>&mdash;Crescent</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Agriopis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Aprilina</i>&mdash;Marvel-du-jour</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Euplexia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lucipara</i>&mdash;Small Angle-shades</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Phlogophora.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Meticulosa</i>&mdash;Angle-shades</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Trigonophora.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Flammea</i> (<i>Empyrea</i>)&mdash;Flame Brocade</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Aplecta.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Prasina</i> (<i>Herbida</i>)&mdash;Green Arches</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Occulta</i>&mdash;Great Brocade</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Nebulosa</i>&mdash;Grey Arches</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tincta</i>&mdash;Silvery Arches</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Advena</i>&mdash;Pale Shining Brown</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Crymodes.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Exulis</i> (<i>Assimilis</i>)&mdash;Northern Arches</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hadena.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Porphyrea</i> (<i>Satura</i>)&mdash;Beautiful Brocade</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Adusta</i>&mdash;Dark Brocade</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Protea</i>&mdash;Brindled Green</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Glauca</i>&mdash;Glaucous Shears</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dentina</i>&mdash;Grey Shears</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Trifolii</i> (<i>Chenopodii</i>)&mdash;Nutmeg</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Atriplicis</i>&mdash;Orache</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dissimilis</i> (<i>Suasa</i>)&mdash;Dog's Tooth</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Oleracea</i>&mdash;Bright-line Brown-eye
+<!-- Page 319 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pisi</i>&mdash;Broom</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Thalassina</i>&mdash;Pale-shouldered Brocade</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Contigua</i>&mdash;Beautiful Brocade</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Genistæ</i>&mdash;Light Brocade</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rectilinea</i>&mdash;Saxon</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+XYLINIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Xylocampa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Areola</i> (<i>Lithoriza</i>)&mdash;Early Grey</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Xylomiges.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Conspicillaris</i>&mdash;Silver Cloud</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Calocampa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Vetusta</i>&mdash;Red Sword Grass</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Exoleta</i>&mdash;Sword Grass</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Solidaginis</i>&mdash;Golden-rod Brindled</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Xylina.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ornithopus</i> (<i>Rhizolitha</i>)&mdash;Grey Shoulder Knot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Semibrunnea</i>&mdash;Tawny Pinion</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Socia</i> (<i>Petrificata</i>)&mdash;Pale Pinion</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Furcifera</i> (<i>Conformis</i>)&mdash;Conformist</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lambda</i>&mdash;Nonconformist</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Asteroscopus.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Nubeculosa</i>&mdash;Rannoch Sprawler</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sphinx</i> (<i>Cassinea</i>)&mdash;Sprawler</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cucullia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Verbasci</i>&mdash;Mullein Shark</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Scrophulariæ</i>&mdash;Betony Shark</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lychnitis</i>&mdash;Lychnis Shark</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Asteris</i>&mdash;Starwort Shark</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Gnaphalii</i>&mdash;Cudweed Shark</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Absinthii</i>&mdash;Wormwood Shark</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Chamomillæ</i>&mdash;Chamomile Shark</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Umbratica</i>&mdash;Shark</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+GONOPTERIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Gonoptera.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Libatrix</i>&mdash;Herald</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+PLUSIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Habrostola.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tripartita</i> (<i>Urticæ</i>)&mdash;Light Spectacle</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Triplasia</i>&mdash;Dark Spectacle</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Plusia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Chryson</i> (<i>Orichalcea</i>)&mdash;Scarce Burnished Brass</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Chrysitis</i>&mdash;Burnished Brass</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bractea</i>&mdash;Gold Spangled</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Festucæ</i>&mdash;Gold Spot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Iota</i>&mdash;Plain Golden <span class="lettershape">Y</span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pulchrina</i>&mdash;Beautiful Golden <span class="lettershape">Y</span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Gamma</i>&mdash;Silver <span class="lettershape">Y</span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Interrogationis</i>&mdash;Scarce Silver <span class="lettershape">Y</span></li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+HELIOTHIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Anarta.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Melanopa</i>&mdash;Broad-bordered White Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cordigera</i>&mdash;Small Dark Yellow Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Myrtilli</i>&mdash;Beautiful Yellow Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Heliaca</b> (<b>Heliodes</b>).</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tenebrata</i> (<i>Arbuti</i>)&mdash;Small Yellow Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Heliothis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dipsacea</i>&mdash;Marbled Clover</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Scutosa</i>&mdash;Rare Marbled Clover</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Peltigera</i>&mdash;Bordered Straw</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Armigera</i>&mdash;Scarce Bordered Straw</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Chariclea.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Umbra</i> (<i>Marginata</i>)&mdash;Bordered Sallow</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+ACONTIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Agrophila.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Trabealis</i> (<i>Sulphuralis</i>)&mdash;Spotted Sulphur</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Acontia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Luctuosa</i>&mdash;Four-spotted</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+ERASTRIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Erastria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fasciana</i> (<i>Fuscula</i>)&mdash;Marbled White Spot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Venustula</i>&mdash;Rosy Marbled</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Bankia.</b>
+<!-- Page 320 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Argentula</i>&mdash;Silver-barred</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hydrelia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Uncula</i> (<i>Unca</i>)&mdash;Silver Hook</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+ANTHOPHILIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Thalpochares</b> (<b>Micra</b>).</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ostrina</i>&mdash;Purple Marbled</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Parva</i>&mdash;Small Marbled</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Paula</i>&mdash;Scarce Marbled</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+POAPHILIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Phytometra.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Viridaria</i> (<i>Ænea</i>)&mdash;Small Purple-barred</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+EUCLIDIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Euclidia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Mi</i>&mdash;Mother Shipton</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Glyphica</i>&mdash;Burnet Noctua</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+OPHIUSIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Ophiodes.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lunaris</i>&mdash;Lunar Double Stripe</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+CATEPHIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Catephia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Alchymista</i>&mdash;Alchymist</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+CATOCALIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Catocala.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fraxini</i>&mdash;Clifden Nonpareil</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Nupta</i>&mdash;Red Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Promissa</i>&mdash;Light Crimson Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sponsa</i>&mdash;Dark Crimson Underwing</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+AVENTIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Aventia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Flexula</i>&mdash;Scallop Barred</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+TOXOCAMPIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Toxocampa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pastinum</i>&mdash;Black Neck</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Craccæ</i>&mdash;New Black Neck</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+BOLETOBIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Boletobia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fuliginaria</i>&mdash;Waved Black</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+HERMINIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Rivula.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sericealis</i>&mdash;Straw Dot</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Zanclognatha.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Grisealis</i>&mdash;Lesser Fan-foot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tarsipennalis</i>&mdash;Fan-foot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Emortualis</i>&mdash;Olive Crescent</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Herminia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cribralis</i>&mdash;Dotted Fan-foot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Derivalis</i>&mdash;Clay Fan-foot</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Pechypogon.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Barbalis</i>&mdash;Common Fan-foot</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+HYPENIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Madopa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Salicalis</i>&mdash;Lesser Belle</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Bomolocha.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fontis</i> (<i>Crassalis</i>)&mdash;Beautiful Snout</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hypena.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rostralis</i>&mdash;Lesser Snout</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Proboscidalis</i>&mdash;Snout</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hypenodes.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Albistrigalis</i>&mdash;White-streak</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Costæstrigalis</i>&mdash;Ribbed-streak</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Tholomiges</b> (<b>Schrankia</b>).</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Turfosalis</i>&mdash;Tiny Snout</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+BREPHIDES.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Brephos.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Parthenias</i>&mdash;Orange Underwing</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Notha</i>&mdash;Light Orange Underwing</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h4><b>GEOMETRÆ.</b></h4>
+
+<ul><li>
+UROPTERYGIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Uropteryx.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sambucaria</i> (<i>Sambucata</i>)&mdash;Swallow Tail</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+ENNOMIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Epione.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Parallelaria</i> (<i>Vespertaria</i>)&mdash;Dark-bordered Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Apiciaria</i>&mdash;Bordered Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Advenaria</i>&mdash;Little Thorn</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Rumia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Luteolata</i> (<i>Cratægata</i>)&mdash;Brimstone</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Venilia.</b>
+<!-- Page 321 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Macularia</i>&mdash;Speckled Yellow</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Angerona.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Prunaria</i>&mdash;Orange Moth</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Metrocampa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Margaritaria</i>&mdash;Light Emerald</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Ellopia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Prosapiaria</i> (<i>Fasciaria</i>)&mdash;Barred Red</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Eurymene.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dolobraria</i>&mdash;Scorched Wing</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Pericallia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Syringaria</i>&mdash;Lilac Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Selenia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bilunaria</i> (<i>Illunaria</i>)&mdash;Early Thorn</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lunaria</i>&mdash;Lunar Thorn</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tetralunaria</i> (<i>Illustraria</i>)&mdash;Purple Thorn</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Odontopera.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bidentata</i>&mdash;Scalloped Hazel</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Crocallis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Elinguaria</i>&mdash;Scalloped Oak</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Eugonia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Autumnaria</i> (<i>Alniaria</i>)&mdash;Large Thorn</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Alniaria</i> (<i>Tiliaria</i>)&mdash;Canary-shouldered Thorn</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fuscantaria</i>&mdash;Dusky Thorn</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Erosaria</i>&mdash;September Thorn</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Quercinaria</i> (<i>Angularia</i>)&mdash;August Thorn</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Himera.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pennaria</i>&mdash;Feathered Thorn</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+AMPHIDASYDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Phigalia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pedaria</i> (<i>Pilosaria</i>)&mdash;Pale Brindled Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Nyssia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Zonaria</i>&mdash;Belted Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Hispidaria</i>&mdash;Small Brindled Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lapponaria</i>&mdash;Rare Brindled Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Biston.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Hirtaria</i>&mdash;Brindled Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Amphidasys.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Strataria</i> (<i>Prodromaria</i>)&mdash;Oak Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Betularia</i>&mdash;Peppered Moth</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+BOARMIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hemerophila.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Abruptaria</i>&mdash;Waved Umber</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cleora.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Angularia</i> (<i>Viduaria</i>)&mdash;Speckled Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Glabraria</i>&mdash;Dotted Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lichenaria</i>&mdash;Brussels Lace</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Boarmia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Repandata</i>&mdash;Mottled Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Gemmaria</i> (<i>Rhomboidaria</i>)&mdash;Willow Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Abietaria</i>&mdash;Satin Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cinctaria</i>&mdash;Ringed Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Roboraria</i>&mdash;Great Oak Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Consortaria</i>&mdash;Pale Oak Beauty</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Tephrosia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Consonaria</i>&mdash;Square Spot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Crepuscularia</i>&mdash;Small Engrailed</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Biundularia</i>&mdash;Engrailed</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Luridata</i> (<i>Extersaria</i>)&mdash;Brindled White-spot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Punctularia</i>&mdash;Grey Birch</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Gnophos.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Obscuraria</i>&mdash;Annulet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Dasydia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Obfuscaria</i>&mdash;Scotch Annulet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Psodos.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Coracina</i> (<i>Trepidaria</i>)&mdash;Black Mountain Moth</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+GEOMETRIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Pseudoterpna.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pruinata</i> (<i>Cytisaria</i>)&mdash;Grass Emerald</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Geometra.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Papilionaria</i>&mdash;Large Emerald</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Vernaria</i>&mdash;Small Emerald</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Phorodesma.</b>
+<!-- Page 322 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pustulata</i> (<i>Bajularia</i>)&mdash;Blotched Emerald</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Smaragdaria</i>&mdash;Essex Emerald</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Nemoria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Viridata</i>&mdash;Small Grass Emerald</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Iodis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lactearia</i>&mdash;Little Emerald</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hemithea.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Strigata</i> (<i>Thymiaria</i>)&mdash;Common Emerald</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+EPHYRIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Zonosoma.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Porata</i>&mdash;False Mocha</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Punctaria</i>&mdash;Maiden's Blush</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Linearia</i> (<i>Trilinearia</i>)&mdash;Clay Triple-lines</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Annulata</i> (<i>Omicronaria</i>)&mdash;Mocha</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Orbicularia</i>&mdash;Dingy Mocha</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pendularia</i>&mdash;Birch Mocha</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+ACIDALIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hyria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Muricata</i> (<i>Auroraria</i>)&mdash;Golden-bordered Purple</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Asthena.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Luteata</i>&mdash;Small Yellow Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Candidata</i>&mdash;Small White Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sylvata</i>&mdash;Waved Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Blomeri</i> (<i>Pulchraria</i>)&mdash;Blomer's Rivulet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Eupisteria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Obliterata</i> (<i>Heparata</i>)&mdash;Dingy Shell</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Venusia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cambrica</i> (<i>Cambricaria</i>)&mdash;Welsh Wave</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Acidalia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Perochraria</i>&mdash;Ochraceous Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ochrata</i>&mdash;Bright Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rubiginata</i> (<i>Rubricata</i>)&mdash;Tawny Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dimidiata</i> (<i>Scutulata</i>)&mdash;Single-dotted Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bisetata</i>&mdash;Small Fan-footed Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Trigeminata</i>&mdash;Treble Brown-spot</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Contiguaria</i>&mdash;Greening's Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rusticata</i>&mdash;Least Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Holosericata</i>&mdash;Silky Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dilutaria</i> (<i>Interjectaria</i>)&mdash;Dark Cream Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Virgularia</i> (<i>Incanaria</i>)&mdash;Small Dusty Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Circellata</i>&mdash;Circellate</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ornata</i>&mdash;Lace Border</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Marginepunctata</i> (<i>Promutata</i>)&mdash;Mullein Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Straminata</i>&mdash;Dotted-bordered Cream Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Subsericeata</i>&mdash;Satin Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Immutata</i>&mdash;Lesser Cream Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Strigaria</i>&mdash;Streaked Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Remutaria</i>&mdash;Cream Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fumata</i>&mdash;Smoky Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Strigilaria</i> (<i>Prataria</i>)&mdash;Sub-angled Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Imitaria</i>&mdash;Small Blood-vein</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Emutaria</i>&mdash;Rosy Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Aversata</i>&mdash;Riband Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Inornata</i>&mdash;Plain Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Degeneraria</i>&mdash;Portland Riband Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Emarginata</i>&mdash;Small Scallop</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Timandra.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Amataria</i>&mdash;Blood-vein</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+CABERIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cabera.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pusaria</i>&mdash;Common White Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rotundaria</i>&mdash;Round-winged Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Exanthemata</i>&mdash;Common Wave</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Bapta.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Temerata</i>&mdash;Clouded Silver
+<!-- Page 323 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bimaculata</i> (<i>Taminata</i>)&mdash;White-pinion Spotted</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Aleucis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pictaria</i>&mdash;Sloe Carpet</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+MACARIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Macaria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Alternata</i>&mdash;Sharp-angled Peacock</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Notata</i>&mdash;Peacock</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Liturata</i>&mdash;Tawny-barred Angle</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Halia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Vauaria</i> (<i>Wavaria</i>)&mdash;<span class="lettershape">V</span> Moth</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Brunneata</i> (<i>Pinetaria</i>)&mdash;Rannoch Geometer</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+FIDONIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Strenia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Clathrata</i>&mdash;Latticed Heath</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Panagra.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Petraria</i>&mdash;Brown Silver-line</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Numeria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pulveraria</i>&mdash;Barred Umber</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Scodiona.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Belgiaria</i>&mdash;Grey Scalloped Bar</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Selidosema.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ericetaria</i> (<i>Plumaria</i>)&mdash;Bordered Grey</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Fidonia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Carbonaria</i>&mdash;Netted Mountain</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Limbaria</i> (<i>Conspicuata</i>)&mdash;Frosted Yellow</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Ematurga.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Atomaria</i>&mdash;Common Heath</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Bupalus.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Piniaria</i>&mdash;Bordered White</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Minoa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Murinata</i> (<i>Euphorbiata</i>)&mdash;Drab Geometer</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Scoria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lineata</i> (<i>Dealbata</i>)&mdash;Black-veined</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Aplasta.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ononaria</i>&mdash;Rest-harrow</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Sterrha.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sacraria</i>&mdash;Vestal</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Lythria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Purpuraria</i>&mdash;Purple-barred Yellow</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Aspilates.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Strigillaria</i>&mdash;Grass Wave</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ochrearia</i> (<i>Citraria</i>)&mdash;Yellow Belle</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Gilvaria</i>&mdash;Straw Belle</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+ZERENIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Abraxas.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Grossulariata</i>&mdash;Currant Moth (Magpie)</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sylvata</i> (<i>Ulmata</i>)&mdash;Clouded Magpie</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Ligdia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Adustata</i>&mdash;Scorched Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Lomaspilis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Marginata</i>&mdash;Clouded Border</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+LIGIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Pachycnemia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Hippocastanaria</i>&mdash;Horse Chestnut</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+HYBERNIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hybernia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rupicapraria</i>&mdash;Early Moth</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Leucophæaria</i>&mdash;Spring Usher</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Aurantiaria</i>&mdash;Scarce Umber</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Marginaria</i> (<i>Progemmaria</i>)&mdash;Dotted Border</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Defoliaria</i>&mdash;Mottled Umber</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Anisopteryx.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Æscularia</i>&mdash;March Moth</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+LARENTIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cheimatobia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Brumata</i>&mdash;Winter Moth</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Boreata</i>&mdash;Northern WinterMoth</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Oporabia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dilutata</i>&mdash;November Moth</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Filigrammaria</i>&mdash;Autumnal Moth</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Autumnaria</i></li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Larentia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Didymata</i>&mdash;Twin-spot Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Multistrigaria</i>&mdash;Mottled Grey
+<!-- Page 324 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cæsiata</i>&mdash;Grey Mountain Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Flavicinctata</i> (<i>Ruficinctata</i>)&mdash;Yellow-ringed Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Salicata</i>&mdash;Striped Twin-spot Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Olivata</i>&mdash;Beech-green Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Viridaria</i> (<i>Pectinitaria</i>)&mdash;Green Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Emmelesia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Affinitata</i>&mdash;Rivulet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Alchemillata</i>&mdash;Small Rivulet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Albulata</i>&mdash;Grass Rivulet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Decolorata</i>&mdash;Sandy Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tæniata</i>&mdash;Barred Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Unifasciata</i>&mdash;Haworth's Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Minorata</i> (<i>Ericetata</i>)&mdash;Heath Rivulet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Adæquata</i> (<i>Blandiata</i>)&mdash;Pretty Pinion</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Eupithecia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Venosata</i>&mdash;Netted Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Consignata</i>&mdash;Pinion-spotted Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Linariata</i>&mdash;Toadflax Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pulchellata</i>&mdash;Foxglove Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Oblongata</i> (<i>Centaureata</i>)&mdash;Lime-speck</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Succenturiata</i>&mdash;Bordered Lime-speck</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Subfulvata</i>&mdash;Tawny-speckled Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Scabiosata</i> (<i>Subumbrata</i>)&mdash;Shaded Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pernotata</i>&mdash;Guenée's Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Plumbeolata</i>&mdash;Lead-coloured Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Isogrammaria</i>&mdash;Haworth's Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pygmæata</i>&mdash;Marsh Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Helveticaria</i>&mdash;Edinburgh Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Egenaria</i>&mdash;Pauper Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Satyrata</i>&mdash;Satyr Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Castigata</i>&mdash;Grey Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Jasioneata</i>&mdash;Jasione Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Trisignaria</i>&mdash;Triple-spotted Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Virgaureata</i>&mdash;Golden-rod Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fraxinata</i>&mdash;Ash-tree Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Extensaria</i>&mdash;Scarce Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pimpinellata</i>&mdash;Pimpinel Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Valerianata</i>&mdash;Valerian Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pusillata</i>&mdash;Dwarf Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Irriguata</i>&mdash;Marbled Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Campanulata</i>&mdash;Campanula Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Innotata</i>&mdash;Long-winged Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Indigata</i>&mdash;Ochreous Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Constrictata</i>&mdash;Wild Thyme Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Nanata</i>&mdash;Narrow-winged Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Subnotata</i>&mdash;Plain Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Vulgata</i>&mdash;Common Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Albipunctata</i>&mdash;White-spotted Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Expallidata</i>&mdash;Bleached Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Absinthiata</i>&mdash;Wormwood Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Minutata</i>&mdash;Ling Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Assimilata</i>&mdash;Currant Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tenuiata</i>&mdash;Slender Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Subciliata</i>&mdash;Maple Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lariciata</i>&mdash;Larch Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Abbreviata</i>&mdash;Brindled Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dodoneata</i>&mdash;Oak-tree Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Exiguata</i>&mdash;Mottled Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ultimaria</i>&mdash;Tamarisk Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sobrinata</i>&mdash;Juniper Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Togata</i>&mdash;Cloaked Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Pumilata</i>&mdash;Double-striped Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Coronata</i>&mdash;<span class="lettershape">V</span> Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rectangulata</i>&mdash;Green Pug</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Debiliata</i>&mdash;Bilberry Pug</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Collix.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sparsata</i>&mdash;Dentated Pug</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Lobophora.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sexalisata</i> (<i>Sexalata</i>)&mdash;Small Seraphim</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Halterata</i> (<i>Hexapterata</i>)&mdash;Seraphim
+<!-- Page 325 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Viretata</i>&mdash;Yellow-barred Brindle</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Carpinata</i> (<i>Lobulata</i>)&mdash;Early Tooth-striped</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Polycommata</i>&mdash;Barred Tooth-striped</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Thera.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Juniperata</i>&mdash;Juniper Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Simulata</i>&mdash;Chestnut-coloured Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Variata</i> (<i>Obeliscata</i>)&mdash;Shaded Broad-bar</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Firmata</i>&mdash;Pine Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Hypsipetes.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ruberata</i>&mdash;Ruddy High-flier</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Trifasciata</i> (<i>Impluviata</i>)&mdash;May High-flier</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sordidata</i> (<i>Elutata</i>)&mdash;July High-flier</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Melanthia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bicolorata</i> (<i>Rubiginata</i>)&mdash;Blue-bordered Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ocellata</i>&mdash;Purple Bar</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Albicillata</i>&mdash;Beautiful Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Melanippe.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Hastata</i>&mdash;Argent and Sable</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tristata</i>&mdash;Small Argent and Sable</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Procellata</i>&mdash;Chalk Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Unangulata</i>&mdash;Sharp-angled Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rivata</i>&mdash;Wood Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sociata</i> (<i>Subtristata</i>)&mdash;Common Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Montanata</i>&mdash;Silver-ground Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Galiata</i>&mdash;Galium Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fluctuata</i>&mdash;Garden Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Anticlea.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cucullata</i> (<i>Sinuata</i>)&mdash;Royal Mantle</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rubidata</i>&mdash;Flame</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Badiata</i>&mdash;Shoulder Stripe</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Nigrofasciaria</i> (<i>Derivata</i>)&mdash;Streamer</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Berberata</i>&mdash;Barberry Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Coremia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Munitata</i>&mdash;Red Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Designata</i> (<i>Propugnata</i>)&mdash;Flame Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Ferrugata</i>&mdash;Red Twin-spot Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Unidentaria</i>&mdash;Dark-barred Twin-spot Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Quadrifasciaria</i>&mdash;Large Twin-spot Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Camptogramma.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bilineata</i>&mdash;Yellow Shell</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fluviata</i>&mdash;Gem</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Phibalapteryx.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Tersata</i>&mdash;Fern</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Lapidata</i>&mdash;Slender-striped Rufous</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Vittata</i> (<i>Lignata</i>)&mdash;Oblique Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Polygrammata</i> (<i>Conjunctaria</i>)&mdash;Many-lined</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Vitalbata</i>&mdash;Small Waved Umber</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Triphosa.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dubitata</i>&mdash;Tissue</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Eucosmia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Certata</i>&mdash;Scarce Tissue</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Undulata</i>&mdash;Scalloped Shell</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Scotosia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Vetulata</i>&mdash;Brown Scallop</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rhamnata</i>&mdash;Dark Umber</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Cidaria.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Siterata</i> (<i>Psittacata</i>)&mdash;Red-green Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Miata</i>&mdash;Autumn Green Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Picata</i>&mdash;Short-cloak Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Corylata</i>&mdash;Broken-barred Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Sagittata</i>&mdash;Marsh Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Truncata</i> (<i>Russata</i>)&mdash;Common Marbled Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Immanata</i>&mdash;Dark Marbled Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Suffumata</i>&mdash;Water Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Reticulata</i>&mdash;Netted Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Silaceata</i>&mdash;Small Ph&oelig;nix</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Prunata</i> (<i>Ribesiaria</i>)&mdash;Ph&oelig;nix
+<!-- Page 326 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Testata</i>&mdash;Chevron</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Populata</i>&mdash;Northern Spinach</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Fulvata</i>&mdash;Barred Yellow</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Dotata</i> (<i>Pyraliata</i>)&mdash;Barred Straw</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Associata</i> (<i>Dotata</i>)&mdash;Spinach</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Pelurga.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Comitata</i>&mdash;Dark Spinach</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+EUBOLIIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Eubolia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Cervinata</i> (<i>Cervinaria</i>)&mdash;Mallow</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Limitata</i> (<i>Mensuraria</i>)&mdash;Small Mallow</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Plumbaria</i> (<i>Palumbaria</i>)&mdash;Belle</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Bipunctaria</i>&mdash;Chalk Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Mesotype.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Virgata</i> (<i>Lineolata</i>)&mdash;Oblique-striped</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Carsia.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Paludata</i> (<i>Imbutata</i>)&mdash;Manchester Treble Bar</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Anaitis.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Plagiata</i>&mdash;Treble Bar</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Lithostege.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Griseata</i>&mdash;Pale Grey Carpet</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Chesias.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Spartiata</i>&mdash;Streak</li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Rufata</i> (<i>Obliquaria</i>)&mdash;Broom Tip</li>
+</ul><ul><li>
+SIONIDÆ.</li>
+<li class="indent1"><b>Tanagra.</b></li>
+<li class="indent2"><i>Atrata</i> (<i>Chærophyllata</i>)&mdash;Chimney Sweep</li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3><a name="APPENDIX_II" id="APPENDIX_II"></a>APPENDIX II
+<br />
+<i>THE LEPIDOPTERIST'S CALENDAR</i></h3>
+
+<p>The success of the country rambles of an expert lepidopterist depends
+greatly on his knowledge of the times at which the various
+butterflies and moths generally appear, and of the localities which
+they are known to frequent. The experiences he has gained in the
+past enable him to calculate on the probabilities of the future, and
+he chooses both time and locality according to his requirements.</p>
+
+<p>As he makes his way to the hunting ground he counts over the
+chances of meeting with a certain insect that is wanted to fill a
+long-standing blank in his cabinet; and we hear him discussing the
+probabilities as to whether this species is yet 'out,' or whether the
+larvæ of that species are feeding.</p>
+
+<p>How different it is with the young and unguided entomologist!
+He rambles promiscuously here and there, having only the faintest
+idea as to what he is likely to see, and perhaps meeting with only
+four or five species when an experienced collector, without covering
+a larger area of ground, would take scores in the same time.</p>
+
+<p>In order to afford some little help to the beginner, I have
+thought it advisable to introduce a calendar of operations to guide
+him in his work. The space at our command would not allow this
+to be carried out in detail, but the general instructions will undoubtedly
+assist most of my readers until the practical experience
+gained by a few years' work has enabled them to run on their own legs.<!-- Page 327 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of course, in making reference to the monthly lists of insects on
+the wing, allowance must be made for the forwardness or backwardness
+of the seasons. Thus, an insect entered in the April list <i>may</i>
+appear in March in an exceptionally warm season, but may not
+emerge till the early part of May if the spring has been unusually
+severe.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that in cases where all the species of a
+certain genus or family appear on the wing in the same month, the
+name of that genus or family is entered on the list instead of the
+names of the individual species; but the latter can easily be obtained
+by reference to <a href="#APPENDIX_I">Appendix I</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h4>JANUARY</h4>
+
+<p>There is not much field work to be done during this month. If
+the weather is very severe, hardly an insect will be found on the
+wing; but a mild January will sometimes entice the Brimstone
+Butterfly (<i>Rhamni</i>) and some of the hybernating Vanessas from
+their winter quarters.</p>
+
+<p>Hybernating moths may also be met with, on the wing if the
+weather is mild, or sleeping in their sheltered nooks during the
+frosts. These include several <i>Noctuæ</i>&mdash;<i>Auricoma</i>, <i>Lithargyria</i>,
+<i>Suffusa</i>, <i>Vaccinii</i>, <i>Spadicea</i>, <i>Erythrocephala</i>, <i>Satellitia</i>, <i>Rubiginea</i>,
+<i>Croceago</i>, <i>Vetusta</i>, <i>Exoleta</i>, <i>Ornithopus</i>, <i>Furcifera</i>, <i>Semibrunnea</i>,
+<i>Socia</i>, and <i>Libatrix</i>; and also a few <i>Geometræ</i>&mdash;<i>Zonaria</i>,
+<i>Fluviata</i>, <i>Dubitata</i>, <i>Siterata</i>, and <i>Miata</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these hybernating insects, the collector may
+examine tree trunks and fences for the Early Moth (<i>Rupicapraria</i>),
+and late specimens of the Winter Moth (<i>Brumata</i>); and towards the
+end of the month he may expect to meet with fresh specimens of
+the Pale Brindled Beauty (<i>Pedaria</i>) and the Spring Usher (<i>Leucophæaria</i>).
+A few of the <i>Tineæ</i> may also be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The net need not be used at all during the colder months of the
+year, as the moths are easily taken in pill boxes from the trunks
+and fences on which they rest.</p>
+
+<p>Pupa digging may be carried on throughout the month if the
+weather is sufficiently mild, but it is of no use attempting this
+during a frost. Hybernating larvæ may also be searched out of
+their winter quarters if the collector does not mind giving them the
+attention they require; but, as a rule, it is better to wait till they
+themselves start out to feed in the spring, at which time all their
+food plants are showing leaf.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FEBRUARY</h4>
+
+<p>Our remarks under 'January' concerning pupa digging and
+other work apply equally well to this month. The same hybernating
+butterflies and moths may be looked for; and, in addition to<!-- Page 328 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span>
+<i>Pedaria</i>, <i>Leucophæaria</i>, and <i>Rupicapraria</i>, which now appear
+more plentifully, the following species will probably be seen:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Small Eggar (<i>Lanestris</i>)</li>
+<li>Small Brindled Beauty (<i>Hispidaria</i>)</li>
+<li>Oak Beauty (<i>Strataria</i>)</li>
+<li>Dotted Border (<i>Marginaria</i>)</li>
+<li>March Moth (<i>Æscularia</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>About half a dozen species of the <i>Tineæ</i> will also have made
+their appearance before the end of the month.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MARCH</h4>
+
+<p>Many of the hybernating larvæ will come out during March if
+the weather is mild, and commence to feed; and the young caterpillars
+will begin to appear from the eggs of the early moths already
+named. This is consequently a good time to commence the search
+for larvæ if you intend to go in for rearing. During the daytime
+some may be beaten from the boughs of trees and shrubs; and those
+which feed on low plants, being generally nocturnal in their habits,
+should be searched for in the evening, after dark, with the aid of a
+lantern.</p>
+
+<p>The hybernating butterflies are now flying more freely than
+before, and, if the weather is bright and warm for the time of year,
+a few freshly emerged species may be seen. These may possibly
+include:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Large White (<i>Brassicæ</i>)</li>
+<li>Small White (<i>Rapæ</i>)</li>
+<li>Green-veined White (<i>Napi</i>)</li>
+<li>Holly Blue (<i>Argiolus</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>As regards moths, several fresh species may be expected to
+appear, while those named as appearing in February are still to be
+found. The new-comers may include:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><b>Bombyces.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Kentish Glory (<i>Versicolor</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow-horned (<i>Flavicornis</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Noctuæ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Pine Beauty (<i>Piniperda</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">White-marked Rustic (<i>Leucographa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red Chestnut (<i>Rubricosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">All species of the genus <i>Tæniocampa</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Early Grey (<i>Areola</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Green-brindled Dot (<i>Oleagina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Orange Underwing (<i>Parthenias</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Light Orange Underwing (<i>Notha</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Geometræ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Early Thorn (<i>Bilunaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Engrailed (<i>Biundularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mottled Grey (<i>Multistrigaria</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Sugaring may be commenced towards the end of March, and
+sallow blossom may be searched in the evening, but it is probable
+that only a few species will be taken by these means.</p>
+
+<p>A few more species of the <i>Tineæ</i> appear in March, and four or
+five of the <i>Tortrices</i> are out before the end of the month.<!-- Page 329 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>APRIL</h4>
+
+<p>This is really a busy month with the entomologist, and it will
+be necessary to put all apparatus and appliances into perfect order
+early. The cyanide bottle should be freshly charged, nets examined
+and repaired if necessary, and all setting boards, breeding cages
+&amp;c. put in perfect trim for the new season's work.</p>
+
+<p>Larvæ are now feeding freely, and a few hours spent in beating,
+sweeping, and searching will enable you to stock your cages
+liberally.</p>
+
+<p>Sugaring may be continued throughout the month, and the
+sallow blossom may be searched as long as it proves attractive.
+Moths may also be attracted by light at night.</p>
+
+<p>The following butterflies are generally out during April, in
+addition to the hybernated species already named:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Large White (<i>Brassicæ</i>)</li>
+<li>Small White (<i>Rapæ</i>)</li>
+<li>Green-veined White (<i>Napi</i>)</li>
+<li>Orange Tip (<i>Cardamines</i>)</li>
+<li>Wood White (<i>Sinapis</i>)</li>
+<li>Pearl-bordered Fritillary (<i>Euphrosyne</i>)</li>
+<li>Speckled Wood (<i>Egeria</i>)</li>
+<li>Green Hairstreak (<i>Rubi</i>)</li>
+<li>Small Copper (<i>Phl&oelig;as</i>)</li>
+<li>Holly Blue (<i>Argiolus</i>)</li>
+<li>Grizzled Skipper (<i>Malvæ</i>)</li>
+<li>Dingy Skipper (<i>Tages</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>The following is a list of the principal moths for April:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><b>Bombyces.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Lappet (<i>Ilicifolia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Kentish Glory (<i>Versicolor</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow Horned (<i>Flavicornis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Frosted Green (<i>Ridens</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Noctuæ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Pine Beauty (<i>Piniperda</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">White-marked Rustic (<i>Leucographa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red Chestnut (<i>Rubricosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">All species of the genus <i>Tæniocampa</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Early Grey (<i>Areola</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mullein Shark (<i>Verbasci</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Orange Underwing (<i>Parthenias</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Light Orange Underwing (<i>Notha</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Geometræ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Brimstone (<i>Luteolata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Early Thorn (<i>Bilunaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Belted Beauty (<i>Zonaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brindled Beauty (<i>Hirtaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Waved Umber (<i>Abruptaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Engrailed (<i>Crepuscularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Engrailed (<i>Biundularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Sloe Carpet (<i>Pictaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Netted Mountain (<i>Carbonaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mottled Grey (<i>Multistrigaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Satyr Pug (<i>Satyrata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marbled Pug (<i>Irriguata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Campanula Pug (<i>Campanulata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brindled Pug (<i>Abbreviata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Oak-tree Pug (<i>Dodoneata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Double-striped Pug (<i>Pumilata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Early Tooth-striped (<i>Carpinata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Shoulder Stripe (<i>Badiata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Many-lined (<i>Polygrammata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Tissue (<i>Dubitata</i>)</li></ul>
+
+<p><!-- Page 330 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to the above, a few species of the <i>Tortrices</i>, several
+of the <i>Tineæ</i>, and one or two of the Plume Moths (<i>Pterophori</i>) are
+out during April.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MAY</h4>
+
+<p>Little or nothing will be obtained by digging during May, yet a
+number of pupæ may be found among grass and leaves under
+trees, and also attached to the leaves and stems of low plants.
+These pupæ include those of several of the butterflies, among which
+may be mentioned <i>Machaon</i>, <i>Selene</i>, <i>Euphrosyne</i>, <i>Aurinia</i>, <i>Megæra</i>,
+<i>Ianira</i>, <i>Rubi</i>, <i>Astrarche</i>, <i>Icarus</i>, <i>Bellargus</i>, <i>Corydon</i>, <i>Lucina</i>, and
+<i>Sylvanus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Larvæ may now be taken in abundance by beating the boughs
+of oaks and other trees, and also by examining low plants.</p>
+
+<p>The hybernating butterflies are still on the wing, and the
+following are also out:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Swallow Tail (<i>Machaon</i>)</li>
+<li>Large White (<i>Brassicæ</i>)</li>
+<li>Small White (<i>Rapæ</i>)</li>
+<li>Green-veined White (<i>Napi</i>)</li>
+<li>Bath White (<i>Daplidice</i>)</li>
+<li>Orange Tip (<i>Cardamines</i>)</li>
+<li>Wood White (<i>Sinapis</i>)</li>
+<li>Small Pearl-bordered (<i>Selene</i>)</li>
+<li>Pearl-bordered (<i>Euphrosyne</i>)</li>
+<li>Greasy Fritillary (<i>Aurinia</i>)</li>
+<li>Glanville Fritillary (<i>Cinxia</i>)</li>
+<li>Speckled Wood (<i>Egeria</i>)</li>
+<li>Wall (<i>Megæra</i>)</li>
+<li>Marsh Ringlet (<i>Typhon</i>)</li>
+<li>Small Heath (<i>Pamphilus</i>)</li>
+<li>Green Hairstreak (<i>Rubi</i>)</li>
+<li>Small Copper (<i>Phl&oelig;as</i>)</li>
+<li>Brown Argus (<i>Astrarche</i>)</li>
+<li>Common Blue (<i>Icarus</i>)</li>
+<li>Clifden Blue (<i>Bellargus</i>)</li>
+<li>Holly Blue (<i>Argiolus</i>)</li>
+<li>Mazarine Blue (<i>Semiargus</i>)</li>
+<li>Grizzled Skipper (<i>Malvæ</i>)</li>
+<li>Chequered Skipper (<i>Palæmon</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>There is a great increase in the number of moths this month,
+and much good work may be done by means of light traps and by
+the examination of fences. Many moths are driven from their
+resting places early in the morning by the direct rays of the rising
+sun, and then seek out a spot where they are better sheltered, and
+where they are consequently less easily found. Hence the advantage
+of searching fences early in the morning.</p>
+
+<p>The May list includes:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><b>Sphinges.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Elephant (<i>Porcellus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">All species of the genera <i>Smerinthus</i> and <i>Macroglossa</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Some of the Clearwings (<i>Apiformis</i>, <i>Sphegiformis</i>, and <i>Culiciformis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Cream-bordered Green (<i>Chlorana</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Green Silver-lined (<i>Prasinana</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Bombyces.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Wood Tiger (<i>Plantaginis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Muslin Moth (<i>Mendica</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Swift (<i>Lupulinus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pale Tussock (<i>Pudibunda</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Lappet (<i>Ilicifolia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Emperor (<i>Pavonia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">All species of family <i>Drepanulidæ</i>
+<!-- Page 331 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent1">Alder Kitten (<i>Bicuspis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Puss (<i>Vinula</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Several of the 'Prominents' (<i>Cuculla</i>, <i>Carmelita</i>, <i>Dictæa</i>, <i>Dictæoides</i>, <i>Trilophus</i>, <i>Ziczac</i>, <i>Trepida</i>, <i>Chaonia</i>, <i>Trimacula</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chocolate Tip (<i>Curtula</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Chocolate Tip (<i>Pigra</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Noctuæ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Knot Grass (<i>Rumicis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Sweet Gale (<i>Myricæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">White Colon (<i>Albicolon</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Cabbage (<i>Brassicæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Treble Lines (<i>Trigrammica</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marsh Moth (<i>Palustris</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Light Brocade (<i>Genistæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mullein Shark (<i>Verbasci</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Betony Shark (<i>Scrophulariæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Starwort Shark (<i>Asteris</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Camomile Shark (<i>Chamomillæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Dark Yellow Underwing (<i>Cordigera</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Yellow Underwing (<i>Tenebrata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bordered Sallow (<i>Umbra</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lunar Double Stripe (<i>Lunaris</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Geometræ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Brimstone (<i>Luteolata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Speckled Yellow (<i>Macularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Purple Thorn (<i>Tetralunaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scalloped Hazel (<i>Bidentata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brindled Beauty (<i>Hirtaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Peppered (<i>Betularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Waved Umber (<i>Abruptaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Ringed Carpet (<i>Cinctaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Square Spot (<i>Consonaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Engrailed (<i>Crepuscularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Engrailed (<i>Biundularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grey Birch (<i>Punctularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Grass Emerald (<i>Viridata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">All species of family <i>Ephyridæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Cream Wave (<i>Remutaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">White Wave (<i>Pusaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Round-winged Wave (<i>Rotundaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Wave (<i>Exanthemata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Clouded Silver (<i>Temerata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">White-pinion Spotted (<i>Bimaculata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Latticed Heath (<i>Clathrata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brown Silver-line (<i>Petraria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Barred Umber (<i>Pulveraria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Netted Mountain (<i>Carbonaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Heath (<i>Atomaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bordered White (<i>Piniaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Rest Harrow (<i>Ononaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow Belle (<i>Ochrearia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Clouded Border (<i>Marginata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Horse Chestnut (<i>Hippocastanaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pretty Pinion (<i>Adæquata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pugs (<i>Venosata</i>, <i>Consignata</i>, <i>Pulchellata</i>, <i>Plumbeolata</i>, <i>Satyrata</i>, <i>Castigata</i>, <i>Pusillata</i>, <i>Irriguata</i>, <i>Indigata</i>, <i>Nanata</i>, <i>Vulgata</i>, <i>Assimilata</i>, <i>Exiguata</i>, <i>Coronata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow-barred Brindle (<i>Viretata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Ruddy High-flier (<i>Ruberata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">May High-flier (<i>Trifasciata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Carpet (<i>Sociata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Silver-ground Carpet (<i>Montanata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Streamer (<i>Nigrofasciaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Barberry Carpet (<i>Berberata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Flame Carpet (<i>Designata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Twin-spot Carpets (<i>Ferrugata</i> and <i>Unidentaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scarce Tissue (<i>Certata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Water Carpet (<i>Suffumata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Ph&oelig;nix (<i>Silaceata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Oblique-striped (<i>Virgata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Broom Tip (<i>Rufata</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>A number of the Micros are also out this month. About twenty
+species of the <i>Pyralides</i>, one or two of the <i>Pterophori</i>, a few
+<i>Crambi</i>, about fifty of the <i>Tortrices</i>, and no less than two hundred
+of the <i>Tineæ</i>. The collector will do well to search fences and<!-- Page 332 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>
+tree trunks for these moths, whenever he has the opportunity; and
+also to use the net freely in wooded country, waste places, and
+along hedgerows, <i>before</i> and at dusk.</p>
+
+
+<h4>JUNE</h4>
+
+<p>There is a marked increase in winged insect life during this
+month. The early butterflies are disappearing, or perhaps have
+quite left us; but new species are taking their place. The
+<i>Sphinges</i> now reach their maximum, as do also the <i>Bombyces</i>; and
+the other groups are almost if not quite up to their highest total.
+The <i>Noctuæ</i> and <i>Geometræ</i> each amount to over a hundred species.
+No less than a hundred and fifty British <i>Tortrices</i> are on the wing;
+the <i>Tineæ</i> make a near approach to three hundred, and the <i>Pyralides</i>
+of the month are not far short of numbering a hundred species.
+It will thus be seen that the net and pill boxes, as well as the setting
+boards, are in constant demand.</p>
+
+<p>Dull days may be well occupied in beating for moths, and in the
+examination of fences and the bark of trees; and on bright days,
+as soon as the butterflies have settled down to rest, the same work
+may be carried on till dusk.</p>
+
+<p>Micros and <i>Geometræ</i> are out early in the evening, when they
+should be taken with the net. Later on the <i>Noctuæ</i> may be seen
+playing round their favourite flowers.</p>
+
+<p>Sugar and light traps are likely to do good service during June,
+and decoy females of the <i>Bombyces</i> group may be called to your
+aid.</p>
+
+<p>Larvæ are also abundant during June, and those of most of the
+butterflies may be taken by carefully searching their food plants.</p>
+
+<p>The following is the list of imagines for the month:</p>
+
+<ul><li>
+<b>Butterflies.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Swallow Tail (<i>Machaon</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Black-veined White (<i>Cratægi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large White (<i>Brassicæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small White (<i>Rapæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Green-veined White (<i>Napi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Pearl-bordered (<i>Selene</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pearl-bordered (<i>Euphrosyne</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Silver-washed Fritillary (<i>Paphia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Greasy Fritillary (<i>Aurinia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Glanville Fritillary (<i>Cinxia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Heath Fritillary (<i>Athalia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Tortoiseshell (<i>Urticæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">White Admiral (<i>Sibylla</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Ringlet (<i>Epiphron</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Meadow Brown (<i>Ianira</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Ringlet (<i>Hyperanthus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marsh Ringlet (<i>Typhon</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Heath (<i>Pamphilus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Green Hairstreak (<i>Rubi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Copper (<i>Phl&oelig;as</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Blue (<i>Icarus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Blue (<i>Minima</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Duke of Burgundy (<i>Lucina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grizzled Skipper (<i>Malvæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dingy Skipper (<i>Tages</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Skipper (<i>Sylvanus</i><i></i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chequered Skipper (<i>Palæmon</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Sphinges.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Privet Hawk (<i>Ligustri</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Spurge Hawk (<i>Euphorbiæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Elephant (<i>Porcellus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Elephant (<i>Elpenor</i>)
+<!-- Page 333 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent1">Eyed Hawk (<i>Ocellatus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Poplar Hawk (<i>Populi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lime Hawk (<i>Tiliæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Humming Bird Hawk (<i>Stellatarum</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">All the Clearwings (Sesiidæ)</li>
+<li class="indent1">The Burnets (Fam. <i>Zygænidæ</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Bombyces.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Nolidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Dew Moth (<i>Irrorella</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Cinnabar (<i>Jacobææ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scarlet Tiger (<i>Dominula</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Cheloniidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Hepialidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Cossidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Cochliopodidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Dark Tussock (<i>Fascelina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pale Tussock (<i>Pudibunda</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scarce Vapourer (<i>Gonostigma</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Fox (<i>Rubi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lappet (<i>Quercifolia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Drepanulidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Dicranuridæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Pale Prominent (<i>Palpina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Coxcomb Prominent (<i>Camelina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Swallow Prominent (<i>Dictæa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lesser Swallow Prominent (<i>Dictæoides</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Iron Prominent (<i>Dromedarius</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pebble Prominent (<i>Ziczac</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Great Prominent (<i>Trepida</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marbled Brown (<i>Trimacula</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Buff Tip (<i>Bucephala</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Peach Blossom (<i>Batis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Cymatophora</i></li>
+<li>
+<b>Noctuæ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Scarce Marvel-du-jour (<i>Orion</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Acronycta</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Powdered Wainscot (<i>Albovenosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Most of the species of genus <i>Leucania</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Flame Wainscot (<i>Flammea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Silky Wainscot (<i>Maritima</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Rufous (<i>Rufa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mere Wainscot (<i>Hellmanni</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Concolorous (<i>Extrema</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Flame (<i>Putris</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Xylophasia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Bird's Wing (<i>Scabriuscula</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Mottled Willow (<i>Exigua</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bordered Gothic (<i>Reticulata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Feathered Ear (<i>Leucophæa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Nutmeg (<i>Sordida</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">White Colon (<i>Albicolon</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Cabbage (<i>Brassicæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dot (<i>Persicariæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Rustic Shoulder Knot (<i>Basilinea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Union Rustic (<i>Connexa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dusky Brocade (<i>Gemina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Double Lobed (<i>Ophiogramma</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Miana</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Treble Lines (<i>Trigrammica</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mottled Rustic (<i>Morpheus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Rustic (<i>Taraxaci</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pale Mottled Willow (<i>Quadripunctata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Reddish Buff (<i>Caliginosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marsh Moth (<i>Palustris</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brown Rustic (<i>Tenebrosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Turnip (<i>Segetum</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Heart and Dart (<i>Exclamationis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Light-feathered Rustic (<i>Cinerea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Sand Dart (<i>Ripæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Garden Dart (<i>Nigricans</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lover's Knot (<i>Strigula</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Double Dot (<i>Augur</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Flame Shoulder (<i>Plecta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Double-spotted Square-spot (<i>Triangulum</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Ingrailed Clay (<i>Festiva</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing (<i>Fimbria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Yellow Underwing (<i>Pronuba</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Gothic (<i>Typica</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Heart Moth (<i>Oo</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Dianth&oelig;cia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Broad-barred White (<i>Serena</i>)
+<!-- Page 334 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Angle Shades (<i>Lucipara</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Angle Shades (<i>Meticulosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Green Arches (<i>Prasina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grey Arches (<i>Nebulosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Silvery Arches (<i>Tincta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pale Shining Brown (<i>Advena</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Northern Arches (<i>Exulis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus Hadena (nearly all)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lychnis Shark (<i>Lychnitis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Starwort Shark (<i>Asteris</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Cudweed Shark (<i>Gnaphalii</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Camomile Shark (<i>Chamomillæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Shark (<i>Umbratica</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Habrostola</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Burnished Brass (<i>Chrysitis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Plain Golden <span class="lettershape">Y</span> (<i>Iota</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Beautiful Golden <span class="lettershape">Y</span> (<i>Pulchrina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Silver <span class="lettershape">Y</span> (<i>Gamma</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scarce Silver <span class="lettershape">Y</span> (<i>Interrogationis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Anarta</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Yellow Underwing (<i>Tenebrata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bordered Straw (<i>Peltigera</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bordered Sallow (<i>Umbra</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Spotted Sulphur (<i>Trabealis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Four-spotted (<i>Luctuosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Erastriidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Purple Marbled (<i>Ostrina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Marbled (<i>Parva</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Purple-barred (<i>Viridaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mother Shipton (<i>Mi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Burnet Noctua (<i>Glyphica</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Black Neck (<i>Pastinum</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Herminiidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Hypenidæ</i></li>
+<li>
+<b>Geometræ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Little Thorn (<i>Advenaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brimstone (<i>Luteolata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Speckled Yellow (<i>Macularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Orange (<i>Prunaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Barred Red (<i>Prosapiaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scorched Wing (<i>Dolobraria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lunar Thorn (<i>Lunaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Peppered (<i>Betularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Speckled Beauty (<i>Angularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Boarmia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Square Spot (<i>Consonaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brindled White-spot (<i>Luridata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grey Birch (<i>Punctularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Blotched Emerald (<i>Pustulata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Grass Emerald (<i>Viridata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Emerald (<i>Strigata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Nearly all the family <i>Acidaliidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Bapta</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Peacock (<i>Notata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Rannoch Geometer (<i>Brunneata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brown Silver-line (<i>Petraria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Barred Umber (<i>Pulveraria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grey Scalloped Bar (<i>Belgiaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Frosted Yellow (<i>Limbaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bordered White (<i>Piniaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Drab Geometer (<i>Murinata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Black-veined (<i>Lineata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grass Wave (<i>Strigillaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Clouded Magpie (<i>Sylvata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scorched Carpet (<i>Adustata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Clouded Border (<i>Marginata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Twin-spot Carpet (<i>Didymata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grey Mountain Carpet (<i>Cæsiata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Striped Twin-spot Carpet (<i>Salicata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Green Carpet (<i>Viridaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Emmelesia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Most of the Pugs (<i>Eupithecia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Seraphim (<i>Sexalisata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Seraphim (<i>Halterata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow-barred Brindle (<i>Viretata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Shaded Broad-bar (<i>Variata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Ruddy High-flier (<i>Ruberata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Purple Bar (<i>Ocellata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Beautiful Carpet (<i>Albicillata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Melanippe</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Royal Mantle (<i>Cucullata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Flame (<i>Rubidata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Coremia</i>
+<!-- Page 335 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow Shell (<i>Bilineata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Fern (<i>Tersata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Oblique Carpet (<i>Vittata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Waved Umber (<i>Vitalbata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scalloped Shell (<i>Undulata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brown Scallop (<i>Vetulata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Short-cloak Carpet (<i>Picata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Broken-barred Carpet (<i>Corylata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Marbled Carpet (<i>Truncata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Ph&oelig;nix (<i>Silaceata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Mallow (<i>Limitata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Belle (<i>Plumbaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Oblique-striped (<i>Virgata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Treble Bar (<i>Plagiata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pale Grey Carpet (<i>Griseata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chimney Sweep (<i>Atrata</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h4>JULY</h4>
+
+<p>The number of species on the wing in July is even greater than
+in June. Butterflies are very numerous, some being second broods
+of double-brooded species, and others late single-brooded insects.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sphinges</i> are beginning to fall off, and so are the <i>Bombyces</i>,
+but the <i>Noctuæ</i> and <i>Geometræ</i> are slightly on the increase.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the Micros, a good number of fresh species may be
+expected, all the groups exhibiting a marked increase in the total
+number on the wing with the exception of the <i>Tineæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Sugaring is likely to pay well this month, and many moths
+may be attracted by light. Tree trunks and fences should be well
+examined.</p>
+
+<p>Pupæ may certainly be taken, but unless the collector is particularly
+desirous of obtaining the pupæ of insects known to be now
+passing through that stage, he will probably do better by looking
+after imagines.</p>
+
+<p>Larvæ, however, may well receive a little attention, providing
+the setting of butterflies and moths leave a little leisure for other
+employments. Beating by day, and searching by both day and
+night, even if carried on only occasionally, will probably supply
+you with as many species as you can accommodate in your glasses
+and cages.</p>
+
+<p>The butterflies of the month are:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Swallow Tail (<i>Machaon</i>)</li>
+<li>Black-veined White (<i>Cratægi</i>)</li>
+<li>Large White (<i>Brassicæ</i>)</li>
+<li>Small White (<i>Rapæ</i>)</li>
+<li>Green-veined White (<i>Napi</i>)</li>
+<li>Wood White (<i>Sinapis</i>)</li>
+<li>Brimstone (<i>Rhamni</i>)</li>
+<li>Dark Green Fritillary (<i>Aglaia</i>)</li>
+<li>High Brown Fritillary (<i>Adippe</i>)</li>
+<li>Silver-washed Fritillary (<i>Paphia</i>)</li>
+<li>Heath Fritillary (<i>Athalia</i>)</li>
+<li>Comma (<i>C-Album</i>)</li>
+<li>Large Tortoiseshell (<i>Polychloros</i>)</li>
+<li>Small Tortoiseshell (<i>Urticæ</i>)</li>
+<li>Peacock (<i>Io</i>)</li>
+<li>Painted Lady (<i>Cardui</i>)</li>
+<li>White Admiral (<i>Sibylla</i>)</li>
+<li>Purple Emperor (<i>Iris</i>)</li>
+<li>Marbled White (<i>Galatea</i>)</li>
+<li>Northern Brown (<i>Æthiops</i>)</li>
+<li>Speckled Wood (<i>Egeria</i>)</li>
+<li>Grayling (<i>Semele</i>)</li>
+<li>Meadow Brown (<i>Ianira</i>)
+<!-- Page 336 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span></li>
+<li>Large Heath (<i>Tithonus</i>)</li>
+<li>Ringlet (<i>Hyperanthes</i>)</li>
+<li>Marsh Ringlet (<i>Typhon</i>)</li>
+<li>Small Heath (<i>Pamphilus</i>)</li>
+<li>Brown Hairstreak (<i>Betulæ</i>)</li>
+<li>White-letter Hairstreak (<i>W-Album</i>)</li>
+<li>Dark Hairstreak (<i>Pruni</i>)</li>
+<li>Purple Hairstreak (<i>Quercus</i>)</li>
+<li>Green Hairstreak (<i>Rubi</i>)</li>
+<li>Small Copper (<i>Phl&oelig;as</i>)</li>
+<li>Silver-studded Blue (<i>Ægon</i>)</li>
+<li>Common Blue (<i>Icarus</i>)</li>
+<li>Chalk-hill Blue (<i>Corydon</i>)</li>
+<li>Holly Blue (<i>Argiolus</i>)</li>
+<li>Mazarine Blue (<i>Semiargus</i>)</li>
+<li>Small Blue (<i>Minima</i>)</li>
+<li>Large Blue (<i>Arion</i>)</li>
+<li>Small Skipper (<i>Thaumas</i>)</li>
+<li>New Small Skipper (<i>Lineola</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>The moths of July include the following species:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><b>Sphinges.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Privet Hawk (<i>Ligustri</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bedstraw Hawk (<i>Galii</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Eyed Hawk (<i>Ocellatus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Poplar Hawk (<i>Populi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Humming Bird Hawk (<i>Stellatarum</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Hornet Clearwing of Poplar (<i>Apiformis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Hornet Clearwing of Osier (<i>Crabroniformis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Welsh Clearwing (<i>Scoliiformis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red-belted Clearwing (<i>Myopiformis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red-tipped Clearwing (<i>Formiciformis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Six-belted Clearwing (<i>Ichneumoniformis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Ino</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Burnets (<i>Trifolii</i>, <i>Loniceræ</i> and <i>Filipendulæ</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Bombyces.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Tortrix (<i>Undulanus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Green Silver-lined (<i>Bicolorana</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Short-cloaked (<i>Cucullatella</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Most of the family <i>Lithosiidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Tiger (<i>Caia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Ruby Tiger (<i>Fuliginosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Buff Ermine (<i>Lubricipeda</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">White Ermine (<i>Menthastri</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Wood Swift (<i>Sylvanus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Northern Swift (<i>Velleda</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Goat Moth (<i>Ligniperda</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Leopard (<i>Pyrina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brown Tail (<i>Chrysorrh&oelig;a</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow Tail (<i>Similis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Satin (<i>Salicis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Reed Tussock (<i>C&oelig;nosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Black Arches (<i>Monacha</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Vapourer (<i>Antiqua</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lackey (<i>Neustria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Ground Lackey (<i>Castrensis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Oak Eggar (<i>Quercus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Drinker (<i>Potatoria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Sallow Kitten (<i>Furcula</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Poplar Kitten (<i>Bifida</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lobster (<i>Fagi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pale Prominent (<i>Palpina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Coxcomb Prominent (<i>Camelina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Buff Tip (<i>Bucephala</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Buff Arches (<i>Derasa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Peach Blossom (<i>Batis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Figure of Eighty (<i>Octogesima</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Poplar Lutestring (<i>Or</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lesser Satin (<i>Duplaris</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Noctuæ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Marbled Green (<i>Muralis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marbled Beauty (<i>Perla</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grey Dagger (<i>Psi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Miller (<i>Leporina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Poplar Grey (<i>Megacephala</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grisette (<i>Strigosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Coronet (<i>Ligustri</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Knot Grass (<i>Rumicis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scarce Dagger (<i>Auricoma</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Light Knot Grass (<i>Menyanthidis</i>)
+<!-- Page 337 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent1">Brown Line Bright Eye (<i>Conigera</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Double Line (<i>Turca</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Clay (<i>Lithargyria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Wainscots (<i>Littoralis</i>, <i>Impudens</i>, <i>Comma</i>, <i>Impura</i>, <i>Pallens</i>, <i>Phragmitidis</i>, <i>Maritima</i>, <i>Rufa</i>, <i>Bondii</i>, <i>Neurica</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Ear Moth (<i>Nictitans</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Flame (<i>Putris</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Xylophasia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Antler (<i>Graminis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Straw Underwing (<i>Matura</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Most of Genus <i>Mamestra</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Miana</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Haworth's Minor (<i>Haworthii</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Treble Lines (<i>Trigrammica</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Caradrina</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Brown Rustic (<i>Tenebrosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Archer's Dart (<i>Vestigialis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pearly Underwing (<i>Saucia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Heart and Dart (<i>Exclamationis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Heart and Club (<i>Corticea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Sand Dart (<i>Ripæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Coast Dart (<i>Cursoria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Garden Dart (<i>Nigricans</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Streaked Dart (<i>Aquilina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">True Lover's Knot (<i>Strigula</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Stout Dart (<i>Obscura</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dotted Rustic (<i>Simulans</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Northern Rustic (<i>Lucernea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Ashworth's Rustic (<i>Ashworthii</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Most of Genus <i>Noctua</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Triphæna</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Copper Underwing (<i>Pyramidea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mouse (<i>Tragopogonis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Old Lady (<i>Maura</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Suspected (<i>Suspecta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dismal (<i>Upsilon</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Olive (<i>Subtusa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Calymnia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Dusky Sallow (<i>Ochroleuca</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marbled Coronet (<i>Nana</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Hecatera</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Minor Shoulder Knot (<i>Viminalis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Angle Shades (<i>Lucipara</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Aplecta</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Dark Brocade (<i>Adusta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Shears (<i>Dentina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Nutmeg (<i>Trifolii</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pale-shouldered Brocade (<i>Thalassina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Silver Cloud (<i>Conspicillaris</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lychnis Shark (<i>Lychnitis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Wormwood Shark (<i>Absinthii</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Plusiidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Beautiful Yellow Underwing (<i>Myrtilli</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marbled Clover (<i>Dipsacea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Four-spotted (<i>Luctuosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Rosy Marbled (<i>Venustula</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marbled White-spot (<i>Fasciana</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Purple-barred (<i>Viridaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red Underwing (<i>Nupta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Light Crimson Underwing (<i>Promissa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dark Crimson Underwing(<i>Sponsa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">New Black-neck (<i>Craccæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Herminiidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Hypenidæ</i></li>
+<li>
+<b>Geometræ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Swallow-tail (<i>Sambucaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dark-bordered Beauty (<i>Parallelaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bordered Beauty (<i>Apiciaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Orange (<i>Prunaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Light Emerald (<i>Margaritaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Barred Red (<i>Prosapiaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lilac Beauty (<i>Syringaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Early Thorn (<i>Bilunaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scalloped Oak (<i>Elinguaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Cleora</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Boarmia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Annulet (<i>Obscuraria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scotch Annulet (<i>Obfuscaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Black Mountain Moth (<i>Coracina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Geometridæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Golden-bordered Purple (<i>Muricata</i>)
+<!-- Page 338 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent1">Waved Carpet (<i>Sylvata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dingy Shell (<i>Obliterata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Welsh Wave (<i>Cambrica</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Most of the <i>Acidaliæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Blood Vein (<i>Amataria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Macariidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Latticed Heath (<i>Clathrata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bordered Grey (<i>Ericetaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Heath (<i>Atomaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Rest Harrow (<i>Ononaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Vestal (<i>Sacraria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grass Wave (<i>Strigillaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Zerenidæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Twin-spot Carpet (<i>Didymata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grey Mountain Carpet (<i>Cæsiata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow-ringed Carpet (<i>Flavicinctata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Beech-green Carpet (<i>Olivata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Green Carpet (<i>Viridaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Emmelesia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Pugs (<i>Linariata</i>, <i>Oblongata</i>, <i>Succenturiata</i>, <i>Pernotata</i>, <i>Isogrammaria</i>, <i>Virgaureata</i>, <i>Innotata</i>, <i>Subnotata</i>, <i>Absinthiata</i>, <i>Tenuiata</i>, <i>Subciliata</i>, <i>Rectangulata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chestnut-coloured Carpet (<i>Simulata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Shaded Broad Bar (<i>Variata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pine Carpet (<i>Firmata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">July High-flier (<i>Sordidata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Melanthia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Melanippe</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Flame (<i>Rubidata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red Carpet (<i>Munitata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Twin-spot Carpet (<i>Quadrifasciaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow Shell (<i>Bilineata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Fern (<i>Tersata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Oblique Carpet (<i>Vittata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Many-lined (<i>Polygrammata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dark Umber (<i>Rhamnata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Short-cloak Carpet (<i>Picata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marsh Carpet (<i>Sagittata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Marbled Carpet (<i>Truncata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dark Marbled Carpet (<i>Immanata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Netted Carpet (<i>Reticulata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Ph&oelig;nix (<i>Prunata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chevron (<i>Testata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Northern Spinach (<i>Populata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Barred Yellow (<i>Fulvata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Barred Straw (<i>Dotata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Spinach (<i>Associata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dark Spinach (<i>Comitata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Mallow (<i>Limitata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Belle (<i>Plumbaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chalk Carpet (<i>Bipunctaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Oblique-striped (<i>Virgata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Manchester Treble Bar (<i>Paludata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Treble Bar (<i>Plagiata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pale Grey Carpet (<i>Griseata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chimney Sweep (Atrata)</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h4>AUGUST</h4>
+
+<p>Although there is a very appreciable falling off in the number
+of species on the wing during August, yet there remains plenty
+of work for the lepidopterist.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the butterflies of July continue to fly during the whole
+or part of this month, and several fresh species commence their
+flight. August, too, may be looked upon as <i>the</i> month for second
+broods, and an opportunity now arises for searching for some of the
+species that were missed at the time of their early appearance in
+May. Clover and lucerne fields should be well worked.</p>
+
+<p>A few <i>Sphinges</i> and a number of the <i>Bombyces</i> are still on the
+wing. The <i>Noctuæ</i> are on the decrease, but there are yet nearly
+a hundred species (including the rarer ones) at large.<!-- Page 339 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These last may be taken at sugar in considerable numbers, and
+it is interesting to note that two of the Vanessas (<i>Atalanta</i> and
+<i>Cardui</i>) may be caught sipping on your baited trees during the
+daytime.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geometræ</i> and Micros fall off very considerably this month, but
+these, as well as moths of the other groups, may be taken from
+tree trunks and palings. Light traps may also be used with much
+success during August.</p>
+
+<p>Fallen fruits should be examined for the larvæ that feed within
+them; and late in the month ripe fruit will supply food to the
+lovers of sweets.</p>
+
+<p>Ivy blossom should be well worked at night; and clover and
+lucerne fields form admirable hunting grounds for moths at night,
+especially just after rain.</p>
+
+<p>Larvæ are to be obtained in abundance by beating and searching,
+the latter process being conducted by night as well as by day.</p>
+
+<p>The following is the list of imagines for August:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><b>Butterflies.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Swallow Tail (<i>Machaon</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large White (<i>Brassicæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small White (<i>Rapæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Green-veined White (<i>Napi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bath White (<i>Daplidice</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Wood White (<i>Sinapis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pale Clouded Yellow (<i>Hyale</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Clouded Yellow (<i>Edusa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brimstone (<i>Rhamni</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Queen of Spain (<i>Latona</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dark Green Fritillary (<i>Aglaia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">High Brown Fritillary (<i>Adippe</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Silver-washed Fritillary (<i>Paphia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Vanessa</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">White Admiral (<i>Sibylla</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Purple Emperor (<i>Iris</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marbled White (<i>Galatea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Northern Brown (<i>Æthiops</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Speckled Wood (<i>Egeria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Wall (<i>Megæra</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grayling (<i>Semele</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Meadow Brown (<i>Ianira</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Heath (<i>Tithonus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Heath (<i>Pamphilus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brown Hairstreak (<i>Betulæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Purple Hairstreak (<i>Quercus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Copper (<i>Phl&oelig;as</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Tailed Blue (<i>Bætica</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Silver-studded Blue (<i>Ægon</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brown Argus (<i>Astrarche</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Blue (<i>Icarus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Clifden Blue (<i>Bellargus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chalk-hill Blue (<i>Corydon</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Holly Blue (<i>Argiolus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mazarine Blue (<i>Semiargus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dingy Skipper (<i>Tages</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">New Small Skipper (<i>Lineola</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lulworth Skipper (<i>Actæon</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Skipper (<i>Sylvanus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Silver-spotted Skipper (<i>Comma</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Sphinges.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Death's-head Hawk (<i>Atropos</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Convolvulus Hawk (<i>Convolvuli</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bedstraw Hawk (<i>Galii</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Striped Hawk (<i>Livornica</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Humming Bird Hawk (<i>Stellatarum</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red-tipped Clearwing (<i>Formiciformis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Six-belted Clearwing (<i>Ichneumoniformis</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Bombyces.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Round-winged Muslin (<i>Senex</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Muslin (<i>Mundana</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Footmen (<i>Muscerda</i>, <i>Lutarella</i>, <i>Griseola</i>)
+<!-- Page 340 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent1">Wood Swift (<i>Sylvanus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brown Tail (<i>Chrysorrh&oelig;a</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow Tail (<i>Similis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Satin (<i>Salicis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Gipsy (<i>Dispar</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Black Arches (<i>Monacha</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Vapourer (<i>Antiqua</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lackey (<i>Neustria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Ground Lackey (<i>Castrensis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Oak Eggar (<i>Quercus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grass Eggar (<i>Trifolii</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Drinker (<i>Potatoria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Hook Tips (<i>Lacertinaria</i>, <i>Falcataria</i>, <i>Binaria</i>, <i>Cultraria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chinese Character (<i>Glaucata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Sallow Kitten (<i>Furcula</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Poplar Kitten (<i>Bifida</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Prominents (<i>Camelina</i>, <i>Trilophus</i>, <i>Ziczac</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lesser Lutestring (<i>Diluta</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Noctuæ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Marbled Green (<i>Muralis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marbled Beauty (<i>Perla</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grey Dagger (<i>Psi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scarce Dagger (<i>Auricoma</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Wainscots (<i>Musculosa</i>, <i>Albipuncta</i>, <i>Impura</i>, <i>Pallens</i>, <i>Fulva</i>, <i>Cannæ</i>, <i>Arundinis</i>, <i>Geminipuncta</i>, <i>Neurica</i>, <i>Lutosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Frosted Orange (<i>Ochracea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Hydr&oelig;cia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Slender Clouded Brindle (<i>Scolopacina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Feathered Brindle (<i>Australis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Feathered Gothic (<i>Popularis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Antler (<i>Graminis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Straw Underwing (<i>Matura</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Luperina</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Confused (<i>Furva</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Clouded Brindle (<i>Unanimis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Crescent (<i>Leucostigma</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Rustic (<i>Didyma</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Anomalous (<i>Anomala</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mottled Rustic (<i>Morpheus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pale Mottled Willow (<i>Quadripunctata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Archer's Dart (<i>Vestigialis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Shuttle-shaped Dart (<i>Puta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pearly Underwing (<i>Saucia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Crescent Dart (<i>Lunigera</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Heart and Dart (<i>Exclamationis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Coast Dart (<i>Cursoria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Garden Dart (<i>Nigricans</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">White-line Dart (<i>Tritici</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Streaked Dart (<i>Aquilina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Square-spot Dart (<i>Obelisca</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Heath Rustic (<i>Agathina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Portland (<i>Præcox</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Stout Dart (<i>Obscura</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dotted Rustic (<i>Simulans</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Plain Clay (<i>Depuncta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Setaceous Hebrew Character (<i>C-Nigrum</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Barred Chestnut (<i>Dahlii</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Square-spot (<i>Rubi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Six-striped Rustic (<i>Umbrosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grey Rustic (<i>Castanea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Square-spot Rustic (<i>Xanthographa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Triphæna</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Mouse (<i>Tragopogonis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Old Lady (<i>Maura</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mountain Rustic (<i>Hyperborea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Suspected (<i>Suspecta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Olive (<i>Subtusa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Double Kidney (<i>Retusa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Angle-striped Sallow (<i>Paleacea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Calymnia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Dusky Sallow (<i>Ochroleuca</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grey Chi (<i>Chi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Ranunculus (<i>Flavicincta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Feathered Ranunculus (<i>Lichenea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Crescent (<i>Bimaculosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Great Brocade (<i>Occulta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Beautiful Brocade (<i>Porphyrea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Golden-rod Brindled (<i>Solidaginis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Herald (<i>Libatrix</i>)
+<!-- Page 341 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent1">Scarce Burnished Brass (<i>Chryson</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Burnished Brass (<i>Chrysitis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Gold Spot (<i>Festucæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scarce Bordered Straw (<i>Armigera</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Four-spotted (<i>Luctuosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Clifden Nonpareil (<i>Fraxini</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red Underwing (<i>Nupta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dark Crimson Underwing (<i>Sponsa</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Geometræ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Dark-bordered Beauty (<i>Parallelaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bordered Beauty (<i>Apiciaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Purple Thorn (<i>Tetralunaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scalloped Oak (<i>Elinguaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Canary-shouldered Thorn (<i>Alniaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dusky Thorn (<i>Fuscantaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">September Thorn (<i>Erosaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">August Thorn (<i>Quercinaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dotted Carpet (<i>Glabraria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Annulet (<i>Obscuraria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scotch Annulet (<i>Obfuscaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Family <i>Ephyridæ</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Dusty Wave (<i>Virgularia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mullein Wave (<i>Marginepunctata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Blood Vein (<i>Imitaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common White Wave (<i>Pusaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Vestal (<i>Sacraria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow Belle (<i>Ochrearia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Straw Belle (<i>Gilvaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Currant (<i>Grossulariata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1"><i>Autumnaria</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Haworth's Carpet (<i>Unifasciata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bordered Lime Speck (<i>Succenturiata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pugs (<i>Virgaureata</i>, <i>Campanulata</i>, <i>Indigata</i>, <i>Constrictata</i>, <i>Expallidata</i>, <i>Sobrinata</i>, <i>Variata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">July High Flier (<i>Sordidata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Carpets (<i>Bicolorata</i>, <i>Montanata</i>, <i>Fluctuata</i>, <i>Berberata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow Shell (<i>Bilineata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Gem (<i>Fluviata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Oblique Carpet (<i>Vittata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Many-lined (<i>Polygrammata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Tissue (<i>Dubitata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Marbled Carpet (<i>Truncata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Ph&oelig;nix (<i>Prunata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chevron (<i>Testata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Northern Spinach (<i>Populata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Barred Yellow (<i>Fulvata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Barred Straw (<i>Dotata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Mallow (<i>Limitata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chalk Carpet (<i>Bipunctaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Treble Bar (<i>Plagiata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Broom Tip (<i>Rufata</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h4>SEPTEMBER</h4>
+
+<p>The number of species on the wing is now considerably lower, yet
+there is a good deal to be done both with butterflies and moths.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the former are worn and ragged, but good fresh
+specimens of some species may be taken. Clover and lucerne
+fields and the flowery borders of corn fields remain very attractive.</p>
+
+<p>Tree trunks and palings should be searched as before. Sugar
+still attracts numbers of the <i>Noctuæ</i>; and ivy blossom should
+be examined at night whenever an opportunity offers itself.</p>
+
+<p>September is a good month for larva hunting. Most of the
+species that pupate in the autumn are now full fed, and will
+undergo the change to the chrysalis state shortly after they have
+been housed, thus giving but little trouble to the entomologist.
+The day feeders may be beaten or swept from their food plants, but,<!-- Page 342 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>
+of course, the nocturnal species are best discovered by searching at
+night.</p>
+
+<p>Some have already 'gone down' for the winter, and, consequently,
+pupa hunting may be started. However, as there is
+yet much to be done with imagines and larvæ, it may, perhaps, be
+better to leave the pupæ alone till about the end of the month,
+especially as many of the larvæ have not yet had time to complete
+their transformation.</p>
+
+<p>The list of imagines for September includes:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><b>Butterflies.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Clouded Yellow (<i>Edusa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brimstone (<i>Rhamni</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Queen of Spain (<i>Latona</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Comma (<i>C-Album</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Tortoiseshell (<i>Polychloros</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Tortoiseshell (<i>Urticæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Peacock (<i>Io</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Camberwell Beauty (<i>Antiopa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red Admiral (<i>Atalanta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Painted Lady (<i>Cardui</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Speckled Wood (<i>Egeria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Wall (<i>Megæra</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Grayling (<i>Semele</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Heath (<i>Tithonus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Heath (<i>Pamphilus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Copper (<i>Phl&oelig;as</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Common Blue (<i>Icarus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Clifden Blue (<i>Bellargus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chalk-hill Blue (<i>Corydon</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Holly Blue (<i>Argiolus</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Sphinges.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Death's-head Hawk (<i>Atropos</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Convolvulus Hawk (<i>Convolvuli</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Humming Bird Hawk (<i>Stellatarum</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Bombyces.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Tortrix (<i>Undulanus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Crimson Speckled (<i>Pulchella</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Vapourer (<i>Antiqua</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pale Oak Eggar (<i>Cratægi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Lesser Lutestring (<i>Diluta</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Noctuæ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Figure of Eight (<i>Cæruleocephala</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Small Wainscot (<i>Fulva</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Bullrush (<i>Arundinis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Wainscot (<i>Lutosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Frosted Orange (<i>Ochracea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Rosy Rustic (<i>Micacea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Feathered Brindle (<i>Australis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Beautiful Gothic (<i>Hispidus</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Antler (<i>Graminis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Flounced Rustic (<i>Testacea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Hedge Rustic (<i>Cespitis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Haworth's Minor (<i>Haworthii</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Anomalous (<i>Anomala</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Shuttle-shaped Dart (<i>Puta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dark Sword Grass (<i>Suffusa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Pearly Underwing (<i>Saucia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Turnip (<i>Segetum</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Heart and Dart (<i>Exclamationis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Autumn Rustic (<i>Glareosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mouse (<i>Tragopogonis</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red-lined Quaker (<i>Lota</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow-lined Quaker (<i>Macilenta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Anchocelis</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Xanthia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Centre-barred Sallow (<i>Xerampelina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Double Kidney (<i>Retusa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Polia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Black Rustic (<i>Nigra</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Green-brindled Crescent (<i>Oxyacanthæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marvel-du-jour (<i>Aprilina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Angle Shades (<i>Meticulosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Flame Brocade (<i>Flammea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brindled Green (<i>Protea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Calocampa</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Xylina</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Herald (<i>Libatrix</i>)
+<!-- Page 343 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent1">Gold Spot (<i>Festucæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Silver <span class="lettershape">Y</span> (<i>Gamma</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scarce Bordered Straw (<i>Armigera</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Clifden Nonpareil (<i>Fraxini</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Buttoned Snout (<i>Rostralis</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Geometræ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Bordered Beauty (<i>Apiciaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brimstone (<i>Luteolata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Eugonia</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">November (<i>Dilutata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Autumnal (<i>Filigrammaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Juniper Pug (<i>Sobrinata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Shaded Broad Bar (<i>Variata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Slender-striped Rufous (<i>Lapidata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Tissue (<i>Dubitata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Carpets (<i>Siderata</i>, <i>Miata</i>, <i>Immanata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chevron (<i>Testata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mallow (<i>Cervinata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Streak (<i>Spartiata</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h4>OCTOBER</h4>
+
+<p>As there is very little winged life this month, and the larvæ have
+nearly all sought out their winter quarters, special attention may be
+given to pupæ. The earlier this work is started after the insects
+have completed their change the better. If left late, many pupæ
+will have been destroyed by floods, moles, &amp;c., and a prolonged
+series of frosty days may render digging unproductive if not impossible.
+Again, it must be remembered that some larvæ are not
+yet down, and by digging at the roots of the trees on which they are
+feeding, you are preparing an acceptable bed for the late species,
+for the pupæ of which you may call again in about a month.</p>
+
+<p>Larvæ may be obtained by beating and searching as before, but
+this work should be done as early in the month as possible, since
+but few are feeding after the first week or so.</p>
+
+<p>Butterfly catching is now practically over, only a few of the late
+species and the hybernators being on the wing, and these only on
+mild days.</p>
+
+<p><i>Noctuæ</i> are still attracted by sugar and ivy blossom, and a few
+may be found at rest. <i>Geometræ</i> and Micros may be taken
+from palings and tree trunks by day, or caught flying at dusk.</p>
+
+<p>The imagines of October may include the following butterflies:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Brimstone (<i>Rhamni</i>)</li>
+<li>Pale Clouded Yellow (<i>Hyale</i>)</li>
+<li>Clouded Yellow (<i>Edusa</i>)</li>
+<li>Comma (<i>C-Album</i>)</li>
+<li>Large Tortoiseshell (<i>Polychloros</i>)</li>
+<li>Small Tortoiseshell (<i>Urticæ</i>)</li>
+<li>Peacock (<i>Io</i>)</li>
+<li>Camberwell Beauty (<i>Antiopa</i>)</li>
+<li>Red Admiral (<i>Atalanta</i>)</li>
+<li>Painted Lady (<i>Cardui</i>)</li>
+<li>Small Copper (<i>Phl&oelig;as</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>And a few late 'Blues.'</p>
+
+<p>The principal moths of the month are:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><b>Sphinges.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Death's-head Hawk (<i>Atropos</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Bombyces.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Plumed Prominent (<i>Plumigera</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Noctuæ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Large Wainscot (<i>Lutosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red-lined Quaker (<i>Lota</i>)
+<!-- Page 344 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span></li>
+<li class="indent1">Yellow-lined Quaker (<i>Macilenta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Beaded Chestnut (<i>Pistacina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brown-spot Pinion (<i>Litura</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Chestnut (<i>Vaccinii</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dark Chestnut (<i>Spadicea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red-headed Chestnut (<i>Erythrocephala</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Satellite (<i>Satellitia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dotted Chestnut (<i>Rubiginea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Orange Upperwing (<i>Croceago</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brick (<i>Circellaris</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brindled Ochre (<i>Templi</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Green Brindled Crescent (<i>Oxyacanthæ</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Marvel-du-jour (<i>Aprilina</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Angle Shades (<i>Meticulosa</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Flame Brocade (<i>Flammea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Red Sword-grass (<i>Vetusta</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Sword-grass (<i>Exolita</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Xylina</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Sprawler (<i>Sphinx</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Silver <span class="lettershape">Y</span> (<i>Gamma</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Geometræ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Feathered Thorn (<i>Pennaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Vestal (<i>Sacraria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scarce Umber (<i>Aurantiaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mottled Umber (<i>Defoliaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Winter (<i>Brumata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Northern Winter (<i>Boreata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">November (<i>Dilutata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Juniper Carpet (<i>Juniperata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Gem (<i>Fluviata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Carpets (<i>Siderata</i>, <i>Miata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mallow (<i>Cervinata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Streak (<i>Spartiata</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h4>NOVEMBER</h4>
+
+<p>No butterflies are to be seen this month with the exception of
+the hybernating species, and even these will not venture on the wing
+unless the weather is mild and bright for the season.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the moths met with are also hybernators, but a few
+species are to be found only at this season, and these should be
+looked for on fences and tree trunks. A few <i>Noctuæ</i> may be taken
+at sugar, and the <i>Geometræ</i> attracted by lights.</p>
+
+<p>The only larvæ now existing are hybernators, and many of these
+may be met with during your pupa-digging operations; but they are
+best left alone till the spring, as a rule.</p>
+
+<p>The chief work of the entomologist in November is certainly
+pupa hunting, and this may be carried on in real earnest whenever
+the weather is favourable, following the instructions given in
+<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chapter VII</a>.</p>
+
+<p>It will be remembered, also, that many of the <i>Lepidoptera</i> pass
+the winter in the egg state, and search may be made for ova when
+time permits.</p>
+
+<p>The November list, besides some of the hybernating species
+previously mentioned, include:</p>
+
+<ul><li>
+<b>Bombyces.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">December (<i>Populi</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Noctuæ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Genus <i>Cerastis</i></li>
+<li class="indent1">Satellite (<i>Satellitia</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Dotted Chestnut (<i>Rubiginea</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Orange Upperwing (<i>Croceago</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Brindled Ochre (<i>Exempli</i>)</li>
+<li>
+<b>Geometræ.</b></li>
+<li class="indent1">Feathered Thorn (<i>Pennaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Scarce Umber (<i>Aurantiaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Mottled Umber (<i>Defoliaria</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Winter (<i>Brumata</i>)</li>
+<li class="indent1">Northern Winter (<i>Boreata</i>)</li>
+</ul>
+<p><!-- Page 345 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>DECEMBER</h4>
+
+<p>Outdoor work is now at a minimum. The weather is too severe,
+as a rule, to allow pupa digging to be carried on with either success
+or comfort, but favourable opportunities should be seized for this
+employment as well as for ova collecting.</p>
+
+<p>Now and again we may meet with <i>P. Populi</i> at rest by day, or
+fluttering round a light at night. <i>Brumata</i> and <i>Defoliaria</i> may
+also be seen, and the Early Moth (<i>Rupicapraria</i>) may appear on
+the wing before the new year; but nothing is likely to be met with
+beyond these save the hybernators, already named in other lists,
+and some of the <i>Tineæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is a good plan to utilise your spare time during the dreary
+months of winter by attending to your cabinet. Rearrange your
+specimens where necessary, and see that all are properly labelled;
+remove all greasy specimens, and deal with them as recommended
+on <a href="#Page_127">page 127</a>; also renew the supply of camphor or naphthaline in
+your drawers and store boxes. Time may also be found for the
+construction of apparatus that is likely to be required next season,
+and for repairing any that has been damaged during the work of
+the last.<!-- Page 346 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr/>
+<p><!-- Page 347 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="COLOURED_PLATES" id="COLOURED_PLATES"></a>COLOURED PLATES</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate I</span> (<i><a href="#Frontispiece">Frontispiece</a></i>)</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li><span class="smcap">Swallow-tail</span> (<i>Papilio Machaon</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Black-veined White</span> (<i>Aporia Cratægi</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Large White</span> (<i>Pieris Brassicæ</i>). Female.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Small White</span> (<i>Pieris Rapæ</i>). Male.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Green-veined White</span> (<i>Pieris Napi</i>). Under side.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Bath White</span> (<i>Pieris Daplidice</i>). Female.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Orange Tip</span> (<i>Euchloë Cardamines</i>). Male.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Orange Tip</span> (<i>Euchloë Cardamines</i>). Male. Under side.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a></span></p>
+
+<ol>
+<li><span class="smcap">Wood White</span> (<i>Leucophasia Sinapis</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Pale Clouded Yellow</span> (<i>Colias Hyale</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Clouded Yellow</span> (<i>Colias Edusa</i>). Male.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Brimstone</span> (<i>Gonopteryx Rhamni</i>). Male.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary</span> (<i>Argynnis Selene</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Pearl-bordered Fritillary</span> (<i>Argynnis Euphrosyne</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Queen of Spain Fritillary</span> (<i>Argynnis Latona</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Dark-green Fritillary</span> (<i>Argynnis Aglaia</i>).</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a></span></p>
+
+<ol>
+<li><span class="smcap">High Brown Fritillary</span> (<i>Argynnis Adippe</i>). Under side.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Silver-washed Fritillary</span> (<i>Argynnis Paphia</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Greasy Fritillary</span> (<i>Melitæa Aurinia</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Glanville Fritillary</span> (<i>Melitæa Cinxia</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Heath Fritillary</span> (<i>Melitæa Athalia</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Heath Fritillary</span> (<i>Melitæa Athalia</i>). Under side.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Comma</span> (<i>Vanessa C-Album</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Large Tortoiseshell</span> (<i>Vanessa Polychloros</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Small Tortoiseshell</span> (<i>Vanessa Urticæ</i>).</li>
+</ol>
+<p><!-- Page 348 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_IV">Plate IV</a></span></p>
+
+<ol>
+<li><span class="smcap">Peacock</span> (<i>Vanessa Io</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Camberwell Beauty</span> (<i>Vanessa Antiopa</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Red Admiral</span> (<i>Vanessa Atalanta</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Painted Lady</span> (<i>Vanessa Cardui</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">White Admiral</span> (<i>Limenitis Sibylla</i>).</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a></span></p>
+
+<ol>
+<li><span class="smcap">Purple Emperor</span> (<i>Apatura Iris</i>). Male.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Marbled White</span> (<i>Melanargia Galatea</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Small Ringlet</span> (<i>Erebia Epiphron</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Northern Brown</span> (<i>Erebia Æthiops</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Wood Argus</span> (<i>Pararge Egeria</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Wall Butterfly</span> (<i>Pararge Megæra</i>).</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Grayling</span> (<i>Satyrus Semele</i>). Female.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Meadow Brown</span> (<i>Epinephele Ianira</i>). Female.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Large Heath</span> (<i>Epinephele Tithonus</i>). Male.</li>
+<li><span class="smcap">Ringlet</span> (<i>Epinephele Hyperanthus</i>).</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a></span></p>
+
+<ol>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Marsh Ringlet</span> (<i>Cænonympha Typhon</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Small Heath</span> (<i>Cænonympha Pamphilus</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Brown Hairstreak</span> (<i>Thecla Betulæ</i>). Under side.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">White-letter Hairstreak</span> (<i>Thecla W-album</i>). Under side.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Dark Hairstreak</span> (<i>Thecla Pruni</i>). Under side.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Purple Hairstreak</span> (<i>Thecla Quercus</i>). Under side.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Green Hairstreak</span>(<i>Thecla Rubi</i>). Under side.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Large Copper</span> (<i>Polyommatus Dispar</i>). Male.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Small Copper</span> (<i>Polyommatus Phlæas</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Tailed Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Bætica</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Silver-studded Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Ægon</i>). Male.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Silver-studded Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Ægon</i>). Female.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Brown Argus</span> (<i>Lycæna Astrarche</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Brown Argus</span> (<i>Lycæna Astrarche</i>). Under side.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Common Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Icarus</i>). Male.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Common Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Icarus</i>). Female.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Clifden Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Bellargus</i>). Male.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Clifden Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Bellargus</i>). Female.</li>
+</ol>
+<p><!-- Page 349 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a></span></p>
+
+<ol>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Chalk-hill Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Corydon</i>). Male.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Chalk-hill Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Corydon</i>). Female.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Holly Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Argiolus</i>). Male.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Holly Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Argiolus</i>). Female.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Mazarine Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Semiargus</i>). Male.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Mazarine Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Semiargus</i>). Female.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Small Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Minima</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Large Blue</span> (<i>Lycæna Arion</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Duke of Burgundy Fritillary</span> (<i>Nemeobius Lucina</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Duke of Burgundy Fritillary</span> (<i>Nemeobius Lucina</i>). Under side.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Grizzled Skipper</span> (<i>Syrichthus Malvæ</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Dingy Skipper</span> (<i>Nisoniades Tages</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Small Skipper</span> (<i>Hesperia Thaumas</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Lulworth Skipper</span> (<i>Hesperia Actæon</i>). Male.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Large Skipper</span> (<i>Hesperia Sylvanus</i>). Male.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Silver-spotted Skipper</span> (<i>Hesperia Comma</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Chequered Skipper</span> (<i>Carterocephalus Palæmon</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">New Small Skipper</span> (<i>Hesperia Lineola</i>).</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a></span></p>
+
+<ol>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Larva of Swallow-tail Butterfly</span> (<i>Papilio Machaon</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Larva of Orange Tip</span> (<i>Euchloë Cardamines</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Larva of Silver-washed Fritillary</span> (<i>Argynnis Paphia</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Larva of Peacock Butterfly</span> (<i>Vanessa Io</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Larva of Purple Emperor</span> (<i>Apatura Iris</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Larva of Duke of Burgundy Fritillary</span> (<i>Nemeobius Lucina</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Pupa of Swallow-tail Butterfly</span> (<i>Papilio Machaon</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Pupa of Orange Tip</span> (<i>Euchloë Cardamines</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Pupa of Silver-washed Fritillary</span> (<i>Argynnis Paphia</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Pupa of Purple Emperor</span> (<i>Apatura Iris</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Pupa of Duke of Burgundy Fritillary</span> (<i>Nemeobius Lucina</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Pupa of Dingy Skipper</span> (<i>Nisoniades Tages</i>).</li>
+</ol>
+<p><!-- Page 350 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_IX">Plate IX</a></span></p>
+
+<ol>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Privet Hawk Moth</span> (<i>Sphinx Ligustri</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Spurge Hawk</span> (<i>Deilephila Euphorbiæ</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Large Elephant Hawk</span> (<i>Ch&oelig;rocampa Elpenor</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Eyed Hawk</span> (<i>Smerinthus Ocellatus</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Lime Hawk</span> (<i>Smerinthus Tiliæ</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Humming-bird Hawk</span> (<i>Macroglossa Stellatarum</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet</span> (<i>Zygæna Trifolii</i>).</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_X">Plate X</a></span></p>
+
+<ol>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Cinnabar Moth</span> (<i>Euchelia Jacobææ</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Wood Tiger</span> (<i>Nemeophila Plantaginis</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Tiger</span> (<i>Arctia Caia</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Cream-spot Tiger</span> (<i>Arctia Villica</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Oak Eggar</span> (<i>Bombyx Quercus</i>). Male.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Lappet</span> (<i>Lasiocampa Quercifolia</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Kentish Glory</span> (<i>Endromis Versicolor</i>). Male.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Emperor Moth</span> (<i>Saturnia Pavonia</i>). Male.</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Buff Tip</span> (<i>Phalera Bucephala</i>).</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XI">Plate XI</a></span></p>
+
+<ol>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Large Yellow Underwing</span> (<i>Triphæna Pronuba</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Marvel-du-jour</span> (<i>Agriopis Aprilina</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Small Angle Shades</span> (<i>Euplexia Lucipara</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Mother Shipton</span> (<i>Euclidia Mi</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Clifden Nonpareil</span> (<i>Catocala Fraxini</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Dark Crimson Underwing</span> (<i>Catocala Sponsa</i>).</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><span class="smcap"><a href="#Plate_XII">Plate XII</a></span></p>
+
+<ol>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Herald</span> (<i>Gonoptera Libatrix</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Swallow-tail Moth</span> (<i>Uropteryx Sambucaria</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Brimstone Moth</span> (<i>Rumia Luteolata</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Scalloped Oak</span> (<i>Crocallis Elinguaria</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Brindled Beauty</span> (<i>Biston Hirtaria</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Waved Umber</span> (<i>Hemerophila Abruptaria</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Maiden's Blush</span> (<i>Zonosoma Punctaria</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Mottled Umber</span> (<i>Hybernia Defoliaria</i>).</li>
+<li> <span class="smcap">Treble Bar</span> (<i>Anaitis Plagiata</i>).</li>
+</ol>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a name="Plate_II" id="Plate_II"></a>
+<a href="images/i_368.jpg"><img src="images/i_368_tn.jpg" width="281" height="400" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Plate II." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate II.</span>
+<p class="center"><i>Danielsson &amp; Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 258px;">
+<a name="Plate_III" id="Plate_III"></a>
+<a href="images/i_370.jpg"><img src="images/i_370_tn.jpg" width="258" height="400" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Plate III." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate III.</span>
+<p class="center"><i>Danielsson &amp; Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 273px;">
+<a name="Plate_IV" id="Plate_IV"></a>
+<a href="images/i_372.jpg"><img src="images/i_372_tn.jpg" width="273" height="400" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Plate IV." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate IV.</span>
+<p class="center"><i>Danielsson &amp; Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;">
+<a name="Plate_V" id="Plate_V"></a>
+<a href="images/i_374.jpg"><img src="images/i_374_tn.jpg" width="279" height="400" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Plate V." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate V.</span>
+<p class="center"><i>Danielsson &amp; Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 273px;">
+<a name="Plate_VI" id="Plate_VI"></a>
+<a href="images/i_376.jpg"><img src="images/i_376_tn.jpg" width="273" height="400" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Plate VI." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate VI.</span>
+<p class="center"><i>Danielsson &amp; Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<a name="Plate_VII" id="Plate_VII"></a>
+<a href="images/i_378.jpg"><img src="images/i_378_tn.jpg" width="263" height="400" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Plate VII." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate VII.</span>
+<p class="center"><i>Danielsson &amp; Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<a name="Plate_VIII" id="Plate_VIII"></a>
+<a href="images/i_380.jpg"><img src="images/i_380_tn.jpg" width="263" height="400" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Plate VIII." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate VIII.</span>
+<p class="center"><i>Danielsson &amp; Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 287px;">
+<a name="Plate_IX" id="Plate_IX"></a>
+<a href="images/i_382.jpg"><img src="images/i_382_tn.jpg" width="287" height="400" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Plate IX." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate IX.</span>
+<p class="center"><i>Danielsson &amp; Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 298px;">
+<a name="Plate_X" id="Plate_X"></a>
+<a href="images/i_384.jpg"><img src="images/i_384_tn.jpg" width="298" height="400" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Plate X." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate X.</span>
+<p class="center"><i>Danielsson &amp; Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 277px;">
+<a name="Plate_XI" id="Plate_XI"></a>
+<a href="images/i_386.jpg"><img src="images/i_386_tn.jpg" width="277" height="400" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Plate XI." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate XI.</span>
+<p class="center"><i>Danielsson &amp; Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 248px;">
+<a name="Plate_XII" id="Plate_XII"></a>
+<a href="images/i_388.jpg"><img src="images/i_388_tn.jpg" width="248" height="400" alt=""
+title="Linked to larger image of Plate XII." /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plate XII.</span>
+<p class="center"><i>Danielsson &amp; Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><!-- Page 351 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+
+<ul><li>Abbreviata, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li>Abraxas, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li>Abruptaria, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li>Acherontia, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Acidalia, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li>Acidaliidæ, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li>Aciptilia, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>Acronycta, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li>Actæon, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Adela, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li>Adippe, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>Admiral, Red, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Admiral, White, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Ægon, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>Æscularia, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li>Æthiops, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Aglaia, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Aglossa, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li>Agriopis, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Agrotis, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li>Albulata, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Alucita, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>Amataria, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li>Amphidasydæ, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Amphidasys, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li>Amphipyridæ, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>Anaitis, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li>Angle Shades, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Anisopteryx, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li>Antennæ, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li>Antiopa, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Antiqua, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li>Antithesia, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li>Apamea, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>Apameidæ, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li>Apatura, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li>Apiformis, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Aplecta, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Aporia, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li>Aprilina, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Arctia, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Areola, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li>Argiolus, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li>Argus, Brown, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>Argus, Wood, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Argynnis, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Arion, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li>Arrangement of specimens, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li>Arundinis, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>Asphalia, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li>Astrarche, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>Atalanta, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Athalia, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li>Atomaria, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Atropos, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>August Thorn, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Aurella, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li>Aurinia, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Aversata, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li>Axylia, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Bætica, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Bapta, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Basilinea, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>Bath White, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li>Batis, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li>Beating for moths, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li>Beautiful Carpet, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li>Beautiful China Mark, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Bellargus, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li>Betulæ, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li>Betularia, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li>Bicolorata, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li>Bifida, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+<li><!-- Page 352 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span>Bilineata, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>Binaria, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li>Biston, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Black Arches, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Black Hairstreak, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li>Black-veined White, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li>Blood Vein, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li>Blue-bordered Carpet, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li>Blue Chalk Hill, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Clifden, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Common, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Holly, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Large, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Mazarine, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Silver-studded, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Small, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Tailed, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Boarmia, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li>Boarmiidæ, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li>Bombyces, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>Bombycidæ, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>Bombycoidæ, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li>Bombyx, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>Bordered White, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li>Botys, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Brassicæ (<i>Pieris</i>), <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li>Brassicæ (<i>Mamestra</i>), <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>Bright-line Brown-eye, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Brimstone Butterfly, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li>Brimstone Moth, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li>Brindled Beauty, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Brindled Pug, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li>Broad-barred White, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; bordered Bee Hawk, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; &mdash;&mdash; Five spotted Burnet, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Brown Argus, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Hairstreak, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; line Bright-eye, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Meadow, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Northern, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Tail, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li>Bryophila, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li>Bryophilidæ, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li>Bucephala, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li>Buff Ermine, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Tip, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li>Bullrush, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>Bupalus, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li>Burnets, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Burnished Brass, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>Butterflies&mdash;British, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; antennæ of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; body, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; catching, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; eye, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; legs, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; proboscis, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; wings, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Cabbage Moth, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>Cabera, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Caberidæ, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li>Cabinets, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>Caia, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Callimorpha, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li>C-Album, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li>Calymnia, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li>Camberwell Beauty, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Camelina, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li>Camptogramma, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>Caradrina, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Caradrinidæ, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li>Cardamines, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Cardui, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Carpocapsa, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li>Carterocephalus, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li>Catching Butterflies, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; moths, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+<li>Caterpillar state, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li>Catocala, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li>Catocalidæ, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li>Cerastis, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li>Chalk-hill Blue, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+<li>Cheloniidæ, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li>Chequered Skipper, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li>Chestnut, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li>Chilo, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li>Chinese Character, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Chloroform bottle, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li>Chocolate Tip, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li>Ch&oelig;rocampa, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Chrysalis state, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li>Chrysitis, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>Chrysorrh&oelig;a, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li>Cidaria, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li>Cilix, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Cinnabar, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li>Cinxia, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Cirsiana, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li>Classification of Lepidoptera, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li>Clearwings, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>Clifden Blue, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+
+<li>Clifden Nonpareil, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li>Clouded Silver, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Clouded Yellow, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li>C&oelig;nonympha, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Coleophora, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li>Colias, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Collecting box, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li>Collecting larvæ, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; ova, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; pupæ, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li>Comes, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li>Comma, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>Common Blue, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li><!-- Page 353 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span>
+&mdash;&mdash; Carpet, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li>Common Emerald, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Footman, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Heath, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Quaker, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Swift, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Wainscot, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Wave, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Complanella, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li>Conigera, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>Copper&mdash;Large, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Small, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Corydon, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+<li>Cosmiidæ, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li>Cossidæ, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Cossus, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Coxcomb Prominent, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li>Crambi, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li>Crambus, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li>Cratægi, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li>Cream-spot Tiger, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Cristana, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Crocallis, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li>Cucullatella, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Cucullia, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li>Cuprella, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li>Currant Clearwing, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Currant Moth, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li>Curtula, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li>Cyanide bottle, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li>Cymatophoridæ, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Daplidice, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li>Dark Crimson Underwing, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li>Dark Dagger, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li>Dark Green Fritillary, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Dark Hairstreak, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>Death's-head Hawk, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Decoys, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Defoliaria, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li>Deilephila, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Dentina, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Depressaria, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li>Dicranura, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li>Dicranuridæ, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Didymata, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Diloba, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li>Dilutata, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Dingy Skipper, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>Dispar, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Diurnea, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li>Dominula, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li>Dot, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>Drepana, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li>Drepanulidæ, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li>Drinker, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Duke of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li>Dun-bar, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Early Grey, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li>Edusa, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li>Egeria, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Eggs, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li>Elephant Hawk, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Elinguaria, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li>Elpenor, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Ematurga, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Emmelesia, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Emperor Moth, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li>Emperor, Purple, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li>Endromidæ, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li>Endromis, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li>Ennomidæ, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li>Entomological pins, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li>Ephippiphora, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li>Ephyridæ, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li>Epinephele, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li>Epiphron, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>Erebia, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>Erycinidæ, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li>Eubolia, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li>Euboliidæ, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li>Euchelia, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li>Eucheliidæ, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li>Euchloë, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Euclidia, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li>Euclidiidæ, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li>Eugonia, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Euphorbiæ, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Euphrosyne, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Eupithecia, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Euplexia, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Eurrhypara, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Exanthemata, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Exclamationis, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li>Eyed Hawk, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Fagella, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li>Farinalis, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Fidoniidæ, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Figure of Eight, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li>Filipendulæ, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Flame, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li>Flame Shoulder, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li>Flavago, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li>Flavicornis, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li>Flounced Rustic, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>Fluctuata, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>Forester, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Forficalis, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Fraxini, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+
+<li>Fritillaries, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Fritillary, Dark Green, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Glanville, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li><!-- Page 354 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span>
+&mdash;&mdash; Greasy, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Heath, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; High Brown, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Pearl-bordered, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Queen of Spain, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Silver-washed, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Small Pearl-bordered, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Galatea, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li>Galleria, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li>Gamma, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li>Garden Carpet, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li>Garden Dart, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li>Garden Pebble, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Gemmaria, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li>Geoffrella, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li>Geometra, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>Geometræ, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li>Geometridæ, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>Ghost Swift, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Gipsy, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Glaucata, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+
+<li>Goat Moth, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Gonodactyla, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>Gonoptera, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li>Gonopteridæ, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li>Gonopteryx, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li>Gortyna, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li>Gothic, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>Grass Rivulet, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Grayling, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li>Grease, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+
+<li>Greasy Fritillary, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Green Hairstreak, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>Green-chequered White, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li>Green Silver-lined, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>Grizzled Skipper, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li>Grey Arches, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Grey Dagger, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li>Grossulariata, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Hadena, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Hadenidæ, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li>Hairstreak, Black, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Brown, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Dark, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Green, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Purple, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; White-letter, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li>Halia, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Hamellus, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li>Harpella, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li>Hawk Moths, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Heart and Dart, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li>Heath, Large, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Moth, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Heath, Small, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Fritillary, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li>Hecatera, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li>Helice, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li>Hemerophila, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li>Hemithea, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>Hepialidæ, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Hepialus, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Herald Moth, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li>Hesperia, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>Hesperiidæ, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li>Hexadactyla, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>High Brown Fritillary, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>Hirtaria, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Holly Blue, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li>Hornet Clearwing of Osier, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Hornet Clearwing of Poplar, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Hortuellus, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li>Humming-bird Hawk, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Humuli, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Hyale, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Hybernia, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li>Hyberniidæ, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li>Hydrocampa, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Hylophila, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>Hyperanthus, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>Hyponomeuta, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Ianira, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li>Ianthina, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li>Ibipennella, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li>Icarus, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li>Ichneumon flies, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li>Impura, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>Ino, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Io, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Iris, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Jacobææ, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Kentish Glory, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li>Killing bottle, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li>Killing box, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Labial palpi, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li>Lace Border, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li>Lappet, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Larentia, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Larentiidæ, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Large Blue, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li>Large Copper, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li>Large Elephant, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li><!-- Page 355 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>
+Large Emerald, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>Large Heath, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Large Skipper, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>Large Tortoiseshell, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+<li>Large White, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li>Large Yellow Underwing, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li>Larvæ, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li>Larvæ Beating, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li>Larvæ, blowpipe for, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>Larva boxes, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li>Larva cage, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li>Larvæ collecting, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li>Larvæ, glass for, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>Larvæ rearing, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li>Lasiocampa, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Latona, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Laurel box, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li>Leaf Miners, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li>Leaf Rollers, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li>Lecheana, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Legs of Lepidoptera, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li>Leioptilus, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>Leopard Moth, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li>Lepidoptera&mdash;antennæ, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; body, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; classification of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; eggs of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; general characteristics, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; legs of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; metamorphoses, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; proboscis, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; wings, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li>Lesser Broad Border, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li>Lesser Yellow Underwing, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li>Leucania, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>Leucaniidæ, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li>Leucophasia, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Leucophæaria, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li>Libatrix, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li>Light Arches, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li>Light Emerald, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li>Light Traps, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li>Ligniperda, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Ligustri, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li>Lime Hawk, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Limenitis, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Limitata, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li>Lineola, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Liparidæ, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li>Lithosia, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Lithosiidæ, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li>Lithoxylea, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li>Lobophora, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li>Lobster Moth, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li>Lophopteryx, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li>Lubricipeda, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Lucina, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li>Lucipara, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Lulworth Skipper, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Luperina, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>Lupulinus, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Luteolata, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li>Lycæna, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Lycænidæ, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Macariidæ, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Machaon, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Macroglossa, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Maiden's Blush, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li>Malvæ, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li>Mamestra, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>Mania, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>Marbled Beauty, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li>Marbled Minor, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li>Margaritaria, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li>Marsh Moth, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li>Marsh Ringlet, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Marvel-du-jour, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Maura, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>Mazarine Blue, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li>Meadow Brown, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li>Meal Moth, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Megacephala, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li>Megæra, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li>Melanargia, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li>Melanthia, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li>Melitæa, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Mellonella, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li>Menthastri, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Meticulosa, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Metrocampa, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li>Mi, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li>Miana, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li>Micro-lepidoptera, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+
+<li>Minima, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li>Monacha, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Montanata, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li>Morpheus, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Mother-of-pearl, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Mother Shipton, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li>Moths, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; antennæ of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; catching, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; traps, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li>Mottled Rustic, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Mottled Umber, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li>Mundana, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Muslin Moth, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Nanata, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li>Napi, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li>Narrow-winged Pug, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+
+<li><!-- Page 356 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span>
+Nebulosa, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Nemeobius, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li>Nemeophila, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li>Nepticula, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li>Nervosa, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li>Nets, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li>Netted Pug, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>New Small Skipper, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Nigricans, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li>Nisoniades, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>Noctua, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li>Noctuæ, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li>Noctuidæ, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li>Nola, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Nolidæ, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Nonagria, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>Northern Brown, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Notodontidæ, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li>November Moth, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Nudaria, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Nupta, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li>Nycteolidæ, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>Nymphalidæ, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Oak Eggar, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>Oak Hook Tip, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li>Ocellatus, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Ochracea, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+
+<li>Ocneria, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Octomaculana, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li>Odonestis, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Old Lady, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li>Oleracea, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li>Oporabia, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li>Orange Tip, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Orgyia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li>Ornata, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li>Orthosiidæ, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+
+<li>Osteodactylus, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>Ova collecting, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Ova preserving, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Padellus, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li>Painted Lady, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>Palæmon, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li>Pale Clouded Yellow, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Pallens, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>Palpi, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li>Pamphilus, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Paphia, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>Papilio, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Papilionaria, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>Papilionidæ, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Pararge, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Pavonia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li>Peach Blossom, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li>Peacock, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Pearl-bordered Fritillary, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Pentadactyla, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li>Penthina, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Peppered Moth, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li>Perla, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li>Peronea, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Persicariæ, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li>Phalera, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li>Phlæas, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Phlogophora, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>Phragmitellus, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li>Pieridæ, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li>Pinguinalis, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li>Piniaria, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li>Pink-barred Sallow, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li>Pins, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li>Pionea, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Plagiata, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li>Plantaginis, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li>Platyptilia, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>Plecta, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li>Plusia, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>Plusiidæ, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li>Polychloros, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+<li>Polyommatus, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li>Poplar Grey, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li>Poplar Hawk, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Poplar Kitten, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li>Populi, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Porcellus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Porthesia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+
+<li>Potatoria, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Prasinana, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>Preserving larvæ, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; ova, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; pupæ, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li>Privet Hawk, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li>Proboscis, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li>Pronuba, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+
+<li>Pruni, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>Pruniana, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Psi, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li>Psilura, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+
+<li>Pterophori, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li>Ptycholoma, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li>Punctaria, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li>Pupa state, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li>Pupæ collecting, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; digging, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; management of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; preserving, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li>Purple Emperor, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li>Purple Hairstreak, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li>Puss Moth, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li>Putris, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li><!-- Page 357 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span>
+Pygæra, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li>Pygæridæ, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li>Pyralides, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li>Pyralis, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>Pyrina, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Queen of Spain, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Quercifolia, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+
+<li>Quercinaria, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li>Quercus (<i>Bombyx</i>), <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+
+<li>Quercus (<i>Thecla</i>), <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Rapæ, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li>Rearing larvæ, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li>Red Admiral, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Red Underwing, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li>Relaxing, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li>Rhamni, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li>Riband Wave, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li>Ringlet, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Marsh, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Small, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>Rubi, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>Rumia, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li>Ruralis, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Rustic Shoulder-knot, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Salicella, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li>Sambucaria, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li>Saturnia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li>Saturniidæ, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li>Satyridæ, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li>Satyrus, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li>Scalloped Oak, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li>Scarlet Tiger, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li>Sciaphila, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li>Segetum, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li>Selene, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Semele, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li>Semiargus, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li>Serena, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li>Sesia, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Sesiidæ, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>Setting boards, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li>Shark, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li>Shears, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li>Short-cloaked, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+
+<li>Sibylla, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Silaceata, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li>Silver-ground Carpet, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li>Silver-spotted Skipper, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>Silver-studded Blue, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li>Silver-washed Fritillary, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>Silver <span class="lettershape">Y</span>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+
+<li>Sinapis, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Six-spot Burnet, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Skippers, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li>Skipper, Chequered, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Dingy, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Grizzled, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Lulworth, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; New Small, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Silver-spotted, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Small, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>Sleeving, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li>Small Angle Shades, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Blue, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Copper, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Elephant, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Heath, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Magpie, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Mallow, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Pearl-bordered Fritillary, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Ph&oelig;nix, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Ringlet, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Seraphim, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Skipper, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Tortoiseshell, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; White, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li>Smerinthus, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Smoky Wainscot, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>Sociata, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li>Speckled Wood, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Sphinges, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Sphingidæ, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Sphinx, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li>Spilosoma, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Sponsa, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li>Spring Usher, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li>Spurge Hawk, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Stabilis, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+
+<li>Stagnata, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li>Statices, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Stellatarum, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Store boxes, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li>Strigata, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li>
+
+<li>Strigilis, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li>Stuffing insects, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li>Sugaring, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li>Sugaring net, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li>Sugar traps, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Swallow-tail Butterfly, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Swallow-tail Moth, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li>Swifts, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Sylvanus, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>Syrichthus, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Tabby, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li>Tæniocampa, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+
+<li>Tages, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li><!-- Page 358 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>
+Tailed Blue, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li>Temerata, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+
+<li>Testacea, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li>Thaumas, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li>Thecla, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li>Thyatira, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+
+<li>Tiger, Common, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Cream-spot, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Scarlet, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Wood, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li>Tiliæ, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Timandra, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+
+<li>Tineæ, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li>Tipuliformis, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Tithonus, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Tortoiseshell, Large, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+<li>Tortoiseshell, Small, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li>Tortrices, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li>Treble Bar, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li>Trifolii, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Triphæna, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+
+<li>Tristellus, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+
+<li>Trochilium, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Turnip Moth, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li>Twin-spot Carpet, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Typhon, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Typica, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Umbratica, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li>Uropterygidæ, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li>Uropteryx, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li>Urticæ, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li>Urticata, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Vaccinii, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li>Vanessa, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li>Vapourer Moth, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+
+<li>Vauaria, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li>Venosata, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+
+<li>Versicolor, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+
+<li>Villica, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Vinula, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+
+<li>Viridana, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="lettershape">V</span> moth, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>W album, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li>Wainscots, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li>Wall Butterfly, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li>Waved Umber, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li>White Admiral, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Bath, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Black-veined, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Ermine, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Green-chequered, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Green-veined, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Large, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li>White-letter Hairstreak, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Marbled, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Small, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li>&mdash;&mdash; Wood, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Willow Beauty, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li>Wings, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li>Wood Argus, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Wood Tiger, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li>Wood White, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Xanthia, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li>Xanthosetia, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li>Xylinidæ, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li>Xylocampa, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li>Xylophasia, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li>Xylosteana, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Yellow-horned, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+<li>Yellow Shell, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>Zerenidæ, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+
+<li>Zeuzera, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li>Zoegana, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li>Zonosoma, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li>Zygæna, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Zygænidæ, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+PRINTED BY<br />
+SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE<br />
+LONDON<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="trans-note">
+<a name="TRANS_NOTES" id="TRANS_NOTES"></a>
+<h4>Transcriber's Note</h4>
+
+<p>Some minor changes have been made to obvious format and punctuation
+inconsistencies. Other inconsistent usages have been retained except
+where obvious typographical errors have been corrected as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Page vii '40' changed to '44' (IV. The Pupa or Chrysalis 44)</p>
+
+<p>Page 97 'dicover' changed to 'discover' (... not being able to discover the 'entrance out,' ...)</p>
+
+<p>Page 188 'Polyommatas' changed to 'Polyommatus' (<i>The Small Copper</i> (<i>Polyommatus Phlæas</i>))</p>
+
+<p>Page 219 'Jacobæa' changed to 'Jacobææ' (<span class="smcap">Fig. 112.&mdash;The Larva of Jacobææ.</span>)</p>
+
+<p>Page 263 'rested' changed to 'crested' (The abdomen also is crested, ...)</p>
+
+<p>Page 334 'Rannock' changed to 'Rannoch' (Rannoch Geometer (<i>Brunneata</i>))</p>
+
+<p>Page 354 'Ibipenella' change to 'Ibipennella' (Ibipennella, 305)</p>
+
+<p>Page 354 missing page reference added (Ichneumon flies, 25)</p>
+
+<p>Page 355 'Leucophearia' changed to 'Leucophæaria' (Leucophæaria, 280)</p>
+
+<p>Page 356 'Octomacularia' changed to 'Octomaculana' (Octomaculana, 301)</p>
+
+<p>Page 358 'Tryphæna' changed to 'Triphæna' and moved to its alphabetical position in the index (Triphæna, 252)</p>
+
+<p>Page 358 'Umbricata' changed to 'Umbratica' (Umbratica, 261)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS***</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Butterflies and Moths, by William S. Furneaux
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Butterflies and Moths
+       (British)
+
+
+Author: William S. Furneaux
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 25, 2010  [eBook #34131]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Simon Gardner, Chris Curnow, and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made
+available by Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 34131-h.htm or 34131-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34131/34131-h/34131-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/34131/34131-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/butterfliesmoths00furn
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      In this Plain Text version of the book only symbols from the
+      ASCII character set have been used.
+
+      Text in italic typeface is enclosed by underscores (_italics)_.
+
+      Text in small capital typeface is displayed as ALL UPPER CASE.
+
+      Text in bold typeface is enclosed by equal symbols (=bold=).
+
+      [OE] and [oe] represent upper and lower case oe ligatures.
+
+      [psi] and [gamma] represent the respective Greek letters of
+      that name.
+
+      An acute accent is represented ['e].
+
+      Diaeresis is represented [:e].
+
+      Instances of distinctive font symbols (T, V, W, Y) which occur
+      in the names and descriptions of several species etc. are shown
+      in upper case.
+
+      Note that numerous taxonomic names have changed since 1894.
+      The formatting of Latin names also differs from current
+      conventions; _e.g._, in this book species names are typically,
+      but not invariably, capitalised. No attempt has been made to
+      update this.
+
+      Some minor changes have been made to obvious format and
+      punctuation inconsistencies, but other inconsistent usages have
+      been retained. Where obvious typographical errors have been
+      corrected, these are listed at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+
+BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS
+
+(British)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+OUT-DOOR WORLD LIBRARY.
+
+    THE OUT-DOOR WORLD; or, Young Collector's Handbook. By W. FURNEAUX,
+    F.R.G.S. With 18 Plates, 16 of which are coloured, and 549
+    Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._
+
+    BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (BRITISH). By W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S. With 12
+    coloured Plates and 241 Illustrations in the Text. 10_s._ 6_d._ net.
+
+_To be followed by_
+
+    BRITISH BIRDS. By W. H. HUDSON, F.Z.S. With a Chapter on Structure
+    and Classification by FRANK E. BEDDARD, F.R.S.
+
+    LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. By W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S.
+
+  BRITISH MAMMALS AND REPTILES.
+  AND OTHER VOLUMES.
+
+  London: LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO.
+  New York: 15 East 16th Street.
+
+[Illustration: Plate I
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS
+
+(British)
+
+by
+
+W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S.
+
+Author of 'The Out-Door World, Or Young Collector's Handbook'
+
+[Illustration]
+
+With Twelve Coloured Plates and Numerous Illustrations in the Text
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+London
+Longmans, Green, and Co.
+And New York. 15 East 16th Street
+1894
+
+All rights reserved
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The favourable reception with which the 'Out-door World' has been
+greeted has encouraged the publishers to issue a series of volumes
+dealing in fuller detail with the various branches of Natural History
+treated of in that work. Necessarily each subject was only briefly
+touched upon, but the study is of so enticing a character that 'appetite
+grows by feeding,' and the students of the 'Out-door World,' having
+tasted the sweetness of companionship with Nature, will not rest
+satisfied with the help afforded by that handbook. Each one will want to
+go deeper into that particular department which most appeals to his own
+inclinations.
+
+The present volume is written expressly for those who desire to extend
+their knowledge of the British Lepidoptera, or, to use the more popular
+names, 'Butterflies and Moths.'
+
+The general characteristics of this interesting order of insects are
+described somewhat fully, but, of course, it would be impossible to give
+an individual account of all the British Lepidoptera in a work of this
+size, so a selection has been made such as will satisfy the requirements
+of the great majority of those who intend to take up this particular
+branch of entomology. The number of British Butterflies, however, is
+so limited that a place has been found for a figure and a description of
+every species; and, of the larger moths, many of the common and typical
+kinds have been included. An introduction to the study of the
+Micro-lepidoptera has also been added.
+
+No trouble has been spared to render this work thoroughly practical. In
+addition to the verbal descriptions of so many species, twelve coloured
+plates and a large number of woodcuts have been specially prepared to
+help the student in his work. It is believed that the extreme care with
+which these have been produced will render them of the greatest
+assistance to the collector in the recognition of his specimens.
+
+But he has not only to recognise his specimens--he must first catch
+them; and here full directions have been given to insure success in this
+part of his work, as well as in the management, preservation, and
+arrangement of his captures.
+
+The Author hopes that this volume may be the means of adding many happy
+hours--hours of the purest enjoyment--to the lives of those whom he has
+succeeded in luring into the fields and lanes and woods of the Out-door
+World.
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+  PART I
+
+  _STRUCTURE AND LIFE HISTORY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+  CHAP.                                                        PAGE
+
+      I.  GENERAL CHARACTERS                                      1
+
+     II.  THE EGG                                                16
+
+    III.  THE LARVA                                              22
+
+     IV.  THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS                                  40
+
+      V.  CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA                      55
+
+
+  PART II
+
+  _WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD_
+
+     VI.  CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS                         63
+
+    VII.  COLLECTING OVA, LARVAE, AND PUPAE                      98
+
+   VIII.  REARING LEPIDOPTERA                                   112
+
+     IX.  SETTING AND PRESERVING                                122
+
+      X.  PRESERVING OVA, LARVAE AND PUPAE                      130
+
+     XI.  THE CABINET--ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS                 134
+
+
+  PART III
+
+  _BRITISH BUTTERFLIES_
+
+    XII.  THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES'                     139
+
+   XIII.  THE FRITILLARIES, VANESSAS, AND THE PURPLE EMPEROR    154
+
+    XIV.  THE BROWNS AND HEATHS                                 173
+
+     XV.  THE HAIRSTREAKS, COPPERS AND BLUES                    183
+
+    XVI.  THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS                 196
+
+
+  PART IV
+
+  _COMMON BRITISH MOTHS_
+
+   XVII. SPHINGES                                               203
+
+  XVIII.  BOMBYCES                                              217
+
+    XIX.  THE NOCTUAE                                           239
+
+     XX.  GEOMETRAE                                             268
+
+    XXI.  THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA                                 290
+
+
+  APPENDICES
+
+      I. COMPLETE CLASSIFIED LIST OF BRITISH MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA  309
+
+     II. THE LEPIDOPTERIST'S CALENDAR                           326
+
+  REFERENCES TO COLOURED PLATES                                 347
+
+  INDEX                                                         351
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+  _COLOURED PLATES_
+
+  1-7. BRITISH BUTTERFLIES                           _Frontispiece_
+    8. LARVAE AND PUPAE OF BRITISH BUTTERFLIES }
+    9. SPHINGES                                }
+   10. BOMBYCES                                }           _At end_
+   11. NOCTUAE                                 }
+   12. NOCTUA AND GEOMETRAE                    }
+
+  _Full references accompany the Plates._
+
+  _ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT_
+
+  FIG.                                                         PAGE
+
+    1. SCALES FROM THE WINGS OF BUTTERFLIES                       1
+    2. PORTION OF THE WING OF A BUTTERFLY FROM WHICH SOME OF THE
+         SCALES HAVE BEEN REMOVED                                 2
+    3. BODY OF A BUTTERFLY--UNDER SIDE                            3
+    4. SECTION OF THE EYE OF AN INSECT                            4
+    5. ANTENNAE OF BUTTERFLIES                                    5
+    6. ANTENNAE OF MOTHS                                          5
+    7. SECTION OF THE PROBOSCIS OF A BUTTERFLY                    7
+    8. DIAGRAM OF THE WINGS OF A BUTTERFLY                        9
+    9. THE UNDEVELOPED FORE LEG OF A BUTTERFLY                   10
+   10. THE FOUR STAGES OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY
+         (_Pieris Brassicae_)                                    14
+   11. EGG OF THE MEADOW BROWN BUTTERFLY                         20
+   12. EGG OF THE SPECKLED WOOD BUTTERFLY                        20
+   13. EGG OF THE VAPOURER MOTH                                  20
+   14. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE CLOUDED YELLOW BUTTERFLY           22
+   15. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY BUTTERFLY    23
+   16. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE PURPLE EMPEROR BUTTERFLY           24
+   17. AN ICHNEUMON FLY (_Cryptus Migrator_)                     25
+   18. ANOTHER ICHNEUMON FLY (_Pimpla Instigator_)               25
+   19. THE CATERPILLAR OF THE ANGLE SHADES MOTH (_Meticulosa_)   26
+   20. WALKING LEG OF A CATERPILLAR                              28
+   21. LARVA OF THE YELLOW UNDERWING MOTH (_Pronuba_)            28
+   22. LARVA OF THE CRIMSON SPECKLED MOTH (_Pulchella_)          28
+   23. LARVA OF THE LOBSTER MOTH (_Fagi_)                        28
+   24. CATERPILLAR OF THE IRON PROMINENT MOTH (_Dromedarius_)    29
+   25. LARVA OF THE BRIMSTONE MOTH (_Luteolata_)                 29
+   26. THE CLASPERS OF A CATERPILLAR                             30
+   27. THE HOMES OF LEAF MINERS AND LEAF ROLLERS                 33
+   28. THE COCOON OF THE EMPEROR MOTH                            40
+   29. THE COCOON OF THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET (_Filipendulae_)     40
+   30. THE PUPA OF THE PRIVET HAWK (_Ligustri_)                  44
+   31. THE CHRYSALIS OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Brassicae_)  44
+   32. THE PUPA OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY (_Aglaia_)          45
+   33. THE PUPA OF THE BLACK-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY (_Crataegi_) 45
+   34. THE PUPA OF THE CURRANT MOTH                              45
+   35. PUPA OF THE PALE TUSSOCK MOTH (_Pudibunda_)               45
+   36. A BUTTERFLY, JUST AFTER EMERGING                          50
+   37. A BUTTERFLY AT REST (LARGE COPPER)                        57
+   38. A MOTH AT REST (GOTHIC)                                   57
+   39. A WIRE FRAME FOR A BUTTERFLY NET                          65
+   40. STICK FOR THE NET                                         65
+   41. THE METAL Y                                               66
+   42. PATTERN FOR THE NET                                       67
+   43. THE CYANIDE BOTTLE                                        68
+   44. SECTION OF THE LAUREL BOX                                 70
+   45. THE CHLOROFORM BOTTLE                                     72
+   46. }
+   47. } FITTINGS FOR THE COLLECTING BOX                         75
+   48. }
+   49. }
+   50. FRAME OF NET FOR COLLECTING INSECTS ON LAMPS AND WINDOWS  87
+   51. A TRAP FOR CATCHING MOTHS                                 88
+   52. METAL JOINT FOR LANTERN AND NET                           91
+   53. NET AND LANTERN FOR TAKING MOTHS FROM HIGH BLOSSOMS       91
+   54. FRAME FOR THE SUGARING NET                                94
+   55. CAGE FOR DECOY FEMALES                                    96
+   56. A SUGAR TRAP                                              96
+   57. A LARVA GLASS                                            114
+   58. A LARVA GLASS                                            114
+   59. A LARVA CAGE                                             115
+   60. SECTION OF A SETTING BOARD                               123
+   61. SECTIONS OF SETTING BOARDS                               123
+   62. A BUTTERFLY ON THE SETTING BOARD                         124
+   63. ANOTHER METHOD OF SETTING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS          126
+   64. A BLOWPIPE FOR LARVAE                                    131
+   65. THE BATH WHITE--UNDER SIDE                               147
+   66. THE CLOUDED YELLOW--FEMALE                               151
+   67. THE SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE          155
+   68. THE PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE                156
+   69. THE QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE                157
+   70. THE DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE                    158
+   71. THE HIGH-BROWN FRITILLARY                                159
+   72. THE SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE                 160
+   73. THE GREASY FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE                        161
+   74. The GLANVILLE FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE                     162
+   75. THE COMMA--UNDER SIDE                                    164
+   76. THE PURPLE EMPEROR--UNDER SIDE                           172
+   77. THE MARBLED WHITE--UNDER SIDE                            174
+   78. THE WOOD ARGUS--UNDER SIDE                               176
+   79. THE GRAYLING--UNDER SIDE                                 178
+   80. THE LARGE HEATH--UNDER SIDE                              179
+   81. THE RINGLET--UPPER SIDE                                  180
+   82. THE MARSH RINGLET--UNDER SIDE                            181
+   83. THE BROWN HAIRSTREAK--MALE                               184
+   84. THE WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK                              184
+   85. THE PURPLE HAIRSTREAK--MALE                              186
+   86. THE GREEN HAIRSTREAK                                     186
+   87. THE TAILED BLUE--UNDER SIDE                              188
+   88. THE SILVER-STUDDED BLUE--UNDER SIDE                      189
+   89. THE COMMON BLUE--UNDER SIDE                              191
+   90. THE CLIFDEN BLUE--UNDER SIDE                             191
+   91. THE CHALK-HILL BLUE--UNDER SIDE                          192
+   92. THE HOLLY BLUE--UNDER SIDE                               193
+   93. THE MAZARINE BLUE--UNDER SIDE                            194
+   94. THE SMALL BLUE--UNDER SIDE                               194
+   95. THE LARGE BLUE--UNDER SIDE                               195
+   96. THE SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER--UNDER SIDE                   201
+   97. THE DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK MOTH                               205
+   98. THE LARVA OF ATROPOS                                     206
+   99. THE CATERPILLAR OF EUPHORBIAE                            207
+  100. THE SMALL ELEPHANT HAWK MOTH                             208
+  101. THE POPLAR HAWK                                          209
+  102. THE BROAD-BORDERED BEE HAWK                              212
+  103. THE HORNET CLEARWING OF THE POPLAR                       213
+  104. THE CURRANT CLEARWING                                    213
+  105. THE FORESTER                                             214
+  106. THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET                                   215
+  107. THE LARVA OF FILIPENDULAE                                215
+  108. THE GREEN SILVER-LINED                                   217
+  109. THE SHORT-CLOAKED MOTH                                   218
+  110. THE MUSLIN MOTH                                          218
+  111. THE COMMON FOOTMAN                                       219
+  112. THE LARVA OF JACOBAEAE                                   219
+  113. THE SCARLET TIGER                                        220
+  114. THE BUFF ERMINE                                          222
+  115. THE WHITE ERMINE                                         222
+  116. THE GHOST SWIFT--FEMALE                                  223
+  117. THE COMMON SWIFT                                         224
+  118. THE GOAT MOTH                                            225
+  119. THE LARVA OF LIGNIPERDA (LESS THAN HALF FULL SIZE)       225
+  120. THE LEOPARD MOTH                                         226
+  121. THE LARVA OF PYRINA (ONLY PARTLY GROWN)                  226
+  122. THE BROWN TAIL                                           227
+  123. THE GIPSY--MALE                                          227
+  124. THE BLACK ARCHES--MALE                                   228
+  125. THE VAPOURER MOTH--MALE                                  228
+  126. THE FEMALE VAPOURER                                      228
+  127. LARVA OF THE VAPOURER MOTH                               229
+  128. THE DRINKER--MALE                                        230
+  129. THE OAK HOOK TIP                                         233
+  130. THE CHINESE CHARACTER                                    233
+  131. THE POPLAR KITTEN                                        234
+  132. THE PUSS MOTH                                            235
+  133. THE COXCOMB PROMINENT                                    235
+  134. THE LARVA OF BUCEPHALA                                   236
+  135. THE CHOCOLATE TIP                                        237
+  136. THE PEACH BLOSSOM                                        237
+  137. THE YELLOW HORNED                                        238
+  138. THE MARBLED BEAUTY                                       240
+  139. THE GREY DAGGER                                          240
+  140. THE POPLAR GREY                                          241
+  141. THE FIGURE OF EIGHT                                      241
+  142. THE BROWN-LINE BRIGHT-EYE                                242
+  143. THE SMOKY WAINSCOT                                       243
+  144. THE COMMON WAINSCOT                                      243
+  145. THE BULLRUSH                                             244
+  146. THE FROSTED ORANGE                                       245
+  147. THE FLAME                                                245
+  148. THE LIGHT ARCHES                                         246
+  149. THE FLOUNCED RUSTIC                                      246
+  150. THE CABBAGE MOTH                                         247
+  151. THE DOT                                                  247
+  152. THE RUSTIC SHOULDER-KNOT                                 248
+  153. THE MARBLED MINOR                                        248
+  154. THE MOTTLED RUSTIC                                       249
+  155. THE TURNIP MOTH                                          250
+  156. THE HEART AND DART                                       251
+  157. THE GARDEN DART                                          251
+  158. THE FLAME SHOULDER                                       252
+  159. THE LESSER BROAD BORDER                                  252
+  160. THE LESSER YELLOW UNDERWING                              253
+  161. THE GOTHIC                                               254
+  162. THE OLD LADY                                             254
+  163. THE COMMON QUAKER                                        255
+  164. THE CHESTNUT                                             256
+  165. THE PINK-BARRED SALLOW                                   256
+  166. THE DUN-BAR                                              257
+  167. THE BROAD-BARRED WHITE                                   257
+  168. THE ANGLE SHADES                                         258
+  169. THE GREY ARCHES                                          259
+  170. THE SHEARS                                               260
+  171. THE BRIGHT-LINE BROWN-EYE                                260
+  172. THE EARLY GREY                                           261
+  173. THE SHARK                                                262
+  174. THE BURNISHED BRASS                                      263
+  175. THE SILVER Y                                             264
+  176. THE RED UNDERWING                                        266
+  177. THE LIGHT EMERALD                                        270
+  178. THE AUGUST THORN                                         271
+  179. THE PEPPERED MOTH                                        272
+  180. THE WILLOW BEAUTY                                        273
+  181. THE LARGE EMERALD                                        274
+  182. THE COMMON EMERALD                                       274
+  183. THE LACE BORDER                                          275
+  184. THE RIBAND WAVE                                          276
+  185. THE BLOOD-VEIN                                           276
+  186. THE COMMON WAVE                                          277
+  187. THE CLOUDED SILVER                                       277
+  188. THE V MOTH                                               278
+  189. THE COMMON HEATH                                         279
+  190. THE BORDERED WHITE--MALE                                 279
+  191. THE CURRANT MOTH                                         280
+  192. THE SPRING USHER                                         281
+  193. THE MARCH MOTH                                           282
+  194. THE NOVEMBER MOTH                                        282
+  195. THE TWIN-SPOT CARPET                                     283
+  196. THE GRASS RIVULET                                        283
+  197. THE NETTED PUG                                           284
+  198. THE NARROW-WINGED PUG                                    284
+  199. THE BRINDLED PUG                                         284
+  200. THE SMALL SERAPHIM                                       285
+  201. THE BLUE-BORDERED CARPET                                 285
+  202. THE BEAUTIFUL CARPET                                     286
+  203. THE COMMON CARPET                                        286
+  204. THE SILVER GROUND CARPET                                 287
+  205. THE GARDEN CARPET                                        287
+  206. THE YELLOW SHELL                                         288
+  207. THE SMALL PH[OE]NIX                                      288
+  208. THE SMALL MALLOW                                         289
+  209. THE TABBY OR GREASE MOTH                                 291
+  210. THE MEAL MOTH                                            292
+  211. THE SMALL MAGPIE                                         292
+  212. THE MOTHER-OF-PEARL                                      293
+  213. THE GARDEN PEBBLE                                        293
+  214. THE BEAUTIFUL CHINA MARK                                 294
+  215. GONODACTYLA                                              295
+  216. OSTEODACTYLUS                                            295
+  217. PENTADACTYLA                                             295
+  218. HEXADACTYLA--ENLARGED                                    296
+  219. PHRAGMITELLUS--ENLARGED ONE-HALF                         297
+  220. HAMELLUS--SLIGHTLY ENLARGED                              297
+  221. TRISTELLUS                                               297
+  222. HORTUELLUS                                               298
+  223. MELLONELLA                                               298
+  224. XYLOSTEANA WITH WINGS CLOSED                             299
+  225. VIRIDANA                                                 300
+  226. CRISTANA--ENLARGED                                       300
+  227. LECHEANA                                                 300
+  228. PRUNIANA                                                 300
+  229. SALICELLA                                                301
+  230. OCTOMACULANA--ENLARGED                                   301
+  231. CIRSIANA--ENLARGED                                       302
+  232. POMONELLA                                                302
+  233. ZOEGANA--ENLARGED                                        302
+  234. FAGELLA                                                  303
+  235. CUPRELLA                                                 304
+  236. PADELLUS                                                 304
+  237. NERVOSA--TWICE NATURAL SIZE                              304
+  238. GEOFFRELLA                                               305
+  239. IBIPENNELLA--ENLARGED                                    305
+  240. COMPLANELLA--ENLARGED                                    306
+  241. AURELLA--ENLARGED                                        307
+
+
+
+
+PART I
+
+STRUCTURE AND LIFE-HISTORY OF THE LEPIDOPTERA
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_GENERAL CHARACTERS_
+
+
+The word _Lepidoptera_, which you see at the head of this page, is the
+name of the order of insects to which this volume is to be devoted. It
+is formed from two Greek words, one (_lepis_) signifying a _scale_, and
+the other (_pteron_) denoting a _wing_; and was applied by the great
+naturalist Linnaeus to the scaly-winged insects popularly known as
+Butterflies and Moths.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--SCALES FROM THE WINGS OF BUTTERFLIES.]
+
+Every one of my readers has undoubtedly handled some of the interesting
+creatures of this group--having been led to do so either by the extreme
+beauty of their clothing, or, perhaps, from a murderous intent in order
+to protect his own garments from the ravages of a supposed marauder. A
+light mealy powder will probably have been observed afterwards on the
+fingers that have touched the victim's wings.
+
+This powder, although it sometimes presents a beautiful glossy surface
+when spread over the skin, does not exhibit any definite form or
+structure without a more minute examination. Yet these are the scales
+that led the immortal naturalist to invent the somewhat long but useful
+term _Lepidoptera_.
+
+The very next time the opportunity offers itself, dust off a little of
+the mealy powder with a small and very soft brush on to a strip of white
+paper or a slip of glass, and examine it with a powerful lens or the low
+power of a compound microscope. What a sight you will then behold! Each
+little particle of dust is a beautifully formed scale, stamped with a
+number of minute rounded projections, and often displaying the most
+gorgeous colours. A great variety of designs and tints are often
+exhibited by the 'dust' from a single wing. Take, for instance, for your
+inspection, scales from the wing of one of our commonest insects, the
+Small Tortoiseshell Butterfly (Plate III), and you will be surprised at
+the pleasing contrasts. But when your curiosity leads you to deal with
+others in the same manner, the varied display of forms and colours is
+simply amazing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PORTION OF THE WING OF A BUTTERFLY FROM WHICH
+SOME OF THE SCALES HAVE BEEN REMOVED.]
+
+In order that we may learn still more of the structure of the wings of
+the _Lepidoptera_, we will examine a portion of one from which some of
+the scales have been removed, again bringing the lens or the microscope
+into our service. We now see that the scales are arranged in rows with
+great regularity on a thin and transparent membrane, which is supported
+by a system of branching rays. And the membrane itself, in parts which
+have been laid bare, is marked with regular rows of dots--the points at
+which the scales were originally attached by means of short hollow rods.
+
+The framework that supports the thin membrane we have spoken of as
+consisting of a system of _rays_, but to these the terms _veins_,
+_nerves_, _nervures_, or _nervules_ are more commonly applied by various
+naturalists. We cannot do better, however, than adhere to the name
+originally used, for the structures in question do not perform the
+functions of veins, though at first they contain blood, nor are they
+themselves parts of the nervous systems of the insects to which they
+belong.
+
+The result of our examination of the wings of butterflies and moths has
+been to justify the application of the term _Lepidoptera_; but we must
+now study other equally important and interesting features of the
+structure of these insects. First, let us note the general form of the
+body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--BODY OF A BUTTERFLY--UNDER SIDE.
+
+1-7, segments of the abdomen; 8, anal extremity; _a_, antennae; _b_,
+tarsus; _c_, tibia; _d_, femur; _e_, palpi; _f_, head; _g_, thorax.]
+
+A cursory glance at this portion of the creature's anatomy will show
+that it consists of three distinct and well-defined parts. In front
+there is the head, the size of which is somewhat small in proportion.
+Two very large eyes make up the greater portion of its bulk. It is
+remarkable, too, that butterflies possess eyes proportionately much
+larger than those of moths. Now, since butterflies always fly by day,
+and moths are, generally speaking, nocturnal insects, we might be led to
+suppose that the reverse of this arrangement would have suited the
+creatures better; for a small eye, we should think, would be able to
+collect sufficient light in the daytime to form a bright image, and a
+larger light-receiving area would be necessary during the darker hours
+for the same purpose. But it is evident that the sense of vision must
+depend on other conditions besides the size of the eye; and as these
+conditions are not understood in relation to the eyes of insects, any
+attempt at an explanation would be quite useless.
+
+The eye of a butterfly or moth is worthy of a closer examination, for it
+is a most beautiful and marvellous structure. The outer globular
+transparent membrane--the _cornea_--is divided into a large number of
+minute polygonal _facets_, each one of which admits light into a small
+conical compartment surrounded by a coloured membrane, and supplied with
+a fibre of the nerve of vision (the _optic_ nerve). Hence the eye is
+often spoken of as _compound_.
+
+If you look closely into the eyes of various butterflies and moths you
+will generally see a ground colour of grey, blue, brown, or black; but
+when viewed at certain angles in a strong light the most gorgeous hues
+of metallic brilliancy--gold, copper, and bronze--are to be observed.
+All such colours are due to the reflection of light from the colouring
+matter that lies between the numerous conical compartments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--SECTION OF THE EYE OF AN INSECT.]
+
+A glance at the section of a compound eye will show you that all the
+little cones radiate from a common centre. And, as each little
+compartment is surrounded by opaque colouring matter, it is clear that
+perpendicular rays only are capable of penetrating to its base and
+exciting the nerve fibre that lies there. Thus each little division of a
+compound eye forms its own image of the object that happens to be
+exactly opposite its facet. But how many facets do we find in a single
+eye? Sometimes only a few hundreds, but sometimes as many as seventeen
+or eighteen thousand! We must not, however, conclude that the nature of
+the vision of butterflies and moths is necessarily very different from
+our own. We have two eyes, but the images formed by them are both
+blended, so that we do not see double. We can understand, therefore,
+that the thousands of images formed in a single eye may be blended
+together so as to form one continuous picture. Still there remains this
+difference: while in our own case the two images formed by the two eyes
+are practically the same, in the case of insects every one of the little
+conical tubes of a compound eye forms an image of an object that cannot
+possibly be formed by any one of the others. Thus, if the lepidopterous
+insect sees a continuous picture of its surroundings, such a picture is
+produced by the overlapping and blending, at their edges, of hundreds or
+thousands of distinct parts.
+
+There is yet another interesting difference between the vision of these
+insects and that of ourselves. As already stated, our two eyes are both
+turned toward the same point at the same time. But look at the
+butterfly's eyes. Here are no movable eyeballs, and the two eyes, placed
+as they are at the _sides_ of the head, are always turned in _opposite_
+directions. The corneae, too, are very convex; and consequently the range
+of vision is vastly wider than ours. A boy is often easily surprised by
+a playmate who approaches him stealthily from behind, but did you ever
+try the same game with a butterfly? I have, many a time. After getting
+cautiously so near to a butterfly at rest as to be able to distinguish
+between its head and its hinder extremity, I have quietly circled round
+it so as to approach it from behind, being at the time under the
+impression that it wouldn't see me under those circumstances. But not
+the slightest advantage did I derive from this stratagem, for the
+position and construction of its eyes enabled it to see almost all ways
+at once.
+
+In addition to the two compound eyes, the _Lepidoptera_, or at least
+most of them, are provided with two small simple eyes; but these are
+generally so hidden among the closely set hair that covers the head,
+that it is doubtful whether they are of much service as organs of
+vision.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ANTENNAE OF BUTTERFLIES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ANTENNAE OF MOTHS.]
+
+The antennae proceed from two points close to the upper borders of the
+eyes. They are jointed organs, and are of very different forms in the
+various species of _Lepidoptera_. They are generally long, slender, and
+clubbed at the extremity in butterflies, but exhibit several minor
+points of difference which we shall have to note later on. In moths the
+antennae are sometimes long, slender, and pointed. Some are thick, and
+more or less prismatic in form; while others are slightly or deeply
+pectinated or comb-like. The antennae of butterflies are always
+straight, or only slightly curved; and, although the insects can sway
+them bodily, they have no power to bend them, or to stow them away in
+any place of shelter. Moths, on the other hand, when at rest, are almost
+invariably found to have their antennae snugly tucked under the wings,
+and brought so closely against the side of the head for this purpose
+that even the uncovered portion is often difficult to find.
+
+There are two other prominent appendages belonging to the heads of the
+_Lepidoptera_. These are the _labial palpi_ or feelers of the lips. They
+are generally easily seen, projecting forward on the under side of the
+head, sometimes so long and conspicuous as to give one the idea of a
+snout or long nose. The palpi are jointed--usually in three parts--are
+covered with scales, and often furnished with hairs or bristles.
+
+If you watch a moth or butterfly when it is feeding on the sweet juices
+of a flower, or on some kind of artificial sweet with which you have
+provided it, you will observe its long trunk or _proboscis_, by which
+food is sucked up. This instrument is so long and slender that it seems
+almost impossible that it can be a tube through which a liquid freely
+passes. But a careful examination will show that this is the case. It is
+composed of two separate pieces--two half tubes, which, when closely
+applied to each other, form a very thin and flexible pipe, perfectly
+air-tight and adapted for suction. Sometimes you can see a butterfly or
+moth manipulating with its proboscis as if it required readjustment in
+some way or other. It has split the tube throughout its length, so that
+it now looks like two exceedingly fine hairs. Then, after a short time,
+the two halves are put together again, and immediately, as if by magic,
+become a single tube in which no kind of seam is to be observed without
+a powerful magnifier.
+
+In order to observe the nature of such a wonderful arrangement we must
+have recourse to the aid of a good microscope. Thus assisted, we can see
+at once how the junction of the two sides of the proboscis is brought
+about so quickly and so perfectly. The inner edges of each half are very
+regularly fringed with lines of closely set hairs--so regular, in fact,
+are they, that they give one the idea of long yet minute beautifully
+formed combs. When the two parts are brought together, the hairs of two
+opposite edges interlock, those on one side exactly filling the spaces
+between those of the other.
+
+The microscope also reveals another interesting fact, viz. that the
+proboscis is not a single tube, but, although so remarkably thin, is
+really a set of three distinct pipes, one lying on each side of the
+central one. It is said that the central tube only is used for sucking
+up the liquid food, and there seems to be some doubt as to the uses of
+the other two. Some naturalists are of opinion that the latter are air
+tubes, and are connected with the respiration of the insect; while
+others say that through these the insects eject a thin watery fluid with
+which to dissolve or dilute those sweetmeats that are not sufficiently
+liquid to be readily sucked up. But possibly both these opinions are
+correct, the proboscis serving all three of the purposes here named. The
+only observation of my own bearing on the subject is this. While a moth
+was feeding on a drop of syrup in a strong light, a powerful lens
+revealed drops, of liquid, mingled with bubbles of air, passing
+alternately _up and down_ the two lateral tubes of the proboscis. At the
+same time the upward current of syrup in the central tube was by no
+means steady and continuous.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--SECTION OF THE PROBOSCIS OF A BUTTERFLY.]
+
+When this organ is not in use, it is beautifully coiled into a close
+spiral which lies between the labial palpi. The length varies
+considerably in different insects, and consequently the number of turns
+in the spiral must differ also. Sometimes there are less than two turns,
+while some of the longer ones form spirals of from six to ten turns.
+
+In concluding our brief account of the head of lepidopterous insects it
+is, I suppose, hardly necessary to add that there is no kind of chewing
+apparatus to be described; all the members of this order, at least in
+the perfect state, deriving the whole of the little nourishment they
+require entirely by suction through the proboscis or 'trunk.'
+
+The second division of the body is the _thorax_. This is much larger
+than the head, and consists of three ring-like segments, joined one
+behind the other so intimately that the lines of junction are hardly
+visible, even after the thick clothing of fine hair has been brushed
+off. Behind the thorax is the abdomen, which is composed of several
+segments, the junctions between the rings often being most distinct.
+
+From the sides of the thorax proceed the two pairs of wings, the general
+structure of which we have already to a certain extent examined. But
+when we are a little farther advanced in our insect studies, we shall
+have to become acquainted with detailed descriptions given as aids to
+the identification of species. Now, such descriptions cannot be
+satisfactory, either to the one who gives or to him who receives, unless
+expressed in such definite terms as render a misunderstanding
+impossible. A botanist cannot give an accurate and concise description
+of a flower without the use of certain names and expressions which have
+gradually become an almost necessary part of his vocabulary; neither can
+an entomologist give a really useful, and, at the same time, a
+_succinct_ description of an insect unless he is acquainted with the
+names of its parts. Therefore, seeing that we distinguish the various
+species of butterflies and moths _mainly_ by the arrangement and colour
+of the markings of their wings, it is really necessary that we should
+know the names of the different parts of these organs. For this reason I
+have inserted drawings of a fore and of a hind wing of a butterfly,
+together with the names of the various parts of the wings, and also the
+names of the principal rays or _nervures_. Yet I would not advise any
+young entomologist to attempt to commit to memory all the names given.
+Rather use the diagram for reference when occasion requires, more
+particularly when you have an insect in your possession that you desire
+to study. In ordinary descriptions of butterflies and moths the names of
+the _nervures_ are not so generally used as those of the _parts_ of the
+wing. Consequently it is exceedingly useful to know what is meant by the
+terms _base_, _costal margin_, _apex_, _hind margin_, _anal angle_,
+_inner margin_, _discoidal cell_ &c. as applied to the wing.
+
+The two pairs of wings are attached to the second and third segments of
+the thorax; but of the _three_ pairs of legs, which we have next to
+consider, one pair arises from each of the three segments. The
+arrangement of these limbs is well shown in the sketch on page 3, as are
+also the names of the different parts of the limb, the latter being
+given for reference by the reader when the need arises.
+
+All insects, in their perfect state, we are told, have three pairs of
+legs; but if you examine the under surface of certain butterflies, such
+as the Marbled White, or any of the Vanessas, Browns, or Heaths, it is
+quite likely that you will raise objection to such a statement; for in
+these you may possibly see only four legs. But this is the result of a
+too cursory observation. Look a little more closely at your specimen,
+and you will see a pair of smaller legs folded up under the fore part of
+the thorax. By means of a blunt needle you can straighten out these
+limbs, and then the difference in length to be observed between them and
+the other four is very striking indeed. They are also thinner than the
+middle and hind legs; and, unlike these, are not provided with claws.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--DIAGRAM OF THE WINGS OF A BUTTERFLY.
+
+I. _Fore wing._--1-5, subcostal nervules; 6, 7, discoidal nervules;
+8-10, median nervules; 11, submedian nervure; 12, internal nervure;
+13-15, disco-cellular nervules; 16, interno-median nervule; 17, median
+nervure; 18, subcostal nervure; _a_, costal nervure; _b_, costa or
+anterior margin; _c_, apex or anterior angle; _d_, posterior or hind
+margin; _e_, posterior or anal angle; _f_, interior or inner margin;
+_g_, base; _h_, discoidal cell.
+
+II. _Hind wing._--1, 2, subcostal nervules; 3, discoidal nervule; 4-6,
+median nervules; 7, submedian nervure; 8, precostal nervure; 9,
+subcostal nervure; 10, median nervure; 11, 12, disco-cellular nervules;
+_a_, costal nervure; _b_, costa or anterior margin; _c_, apex or
+anterior angle; _d_, hind margin; _e_, tail or caudal appendage; _f_,
+anal angle; _g_, abdominal or inner margin; _h_, base.]
+
+These imperfectly developed legs are, of course, quite useless as far as
+walking is concerned; indeed, it is extremely doubtful as to whether
+they are of any service whatever to the owner. On one occasion,
+however, while watching a Peacock Butterfly apparently engaged in
+cleaning its divided proboscis, I observed that this organ was
+frequently passed under the thorax, and that the front pair of legs were
+pressed against it on each side, while it was being drawn outward
+between them. It is probable, therefore, that these limbs constitute a
+pair of brushes by means of which the fine grooves of the divided trunk
+are cleared of any solid or sticky matter that may lodge therein. It is
+certain that moths, and those butterflies that possess six _equal_ legs,
+use the front pair for this same purpose. The former, also, employ them
+for brushing their antennae, which seem to be, by the way, particularly
+sensitive to different kinds of irritation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--THE UNDEVELOPED FORE LEG OF A BUTTERFLY.]
+
+It is a well-known fact that tobacco smoke has a powerful influence on
+certain small insects; and even though it can hardly be regarded as a
+perfect all-round insecticide, it is certainly more or less
+objectionable to the larger and hardier species. A short time since,
+while watching a number of newly emerged moths of the _Sphinx_ group,
+and at the same time enjoying the solace afforded by the luxurious weed,
+a puff of the smoke was accidentally allowed to play into the box in
+which my pets were for the time imprisoned. Immediately they rubbed
+their front legs vigorously over the antennae, as if to remove the
+obnoxious irritant that had thus intruded on their presence. Similar
+observations have led many naturalists to suppose that the antennae are
+the seat of various senses, such as those of touch, hearing, and smell.
+Seeing that insects do not, as far as we know, possess special organs
+for all the five senses which we enjoy (and it is interesting to note
+here that some insects certainly experience other sensations which are
+quite beyond our ken), we can quite understand the common tendency to
+locate the seats of certain of the senses in such easily affected parts
+as the antennae. But little, I believe, has been definitely proved save
+that the antennae are sensitive to touch and to irritants generally.
+
+While speaking of the senses of insects, I cannot refrain from
+mentioning a most remarkable example of a peculiar sensitiveness that
+has been observed in certain moths of the family _Bombyces_ (page
+217)--notably the Oak Eggar, the Emperor, and the Kentish Glory. Take a
+newly emerged female of either of these species, shut her up in a small
+box, conceal the box in your pocket, and then walk about in some
+country spot known to you as being one of the haunts of that species of
+moth. Then, if any of the males of the same species happen to be in the
+neighbourhood, they will settle or hover about close to the female
+which, although still concealed and quite out of their reach, has
+attracted them to the spot.
+
+What a marvellously acute sense this must be, that thus enables the
+insects to scent out, as it were, their mates at considerable distances,
+even when doubly surrounded by a wooden box and the material of a coat
+pocket! You would naturally expect that entomologists have turned this
+wonderful power to account. Many a box has been filled with the
+beautiful Kentish Glories of the male kind, who had been led into the
+snare by the attractions of a virgin Glory that they were never to
+behold. Many an Emperor has also been decoyed from his throne to the
+place of his execution, beguiled by the imaginary charms of an Empress
+on whom he was never to cast one passing glance. And these and other
+similar captures have been made in places where, without the employment
+of the innocent enchantress, perhaps not a single male could have been
+found, even after the most diligent search.
+
+Speaking of this surprising sense, I am again tempted to revert to the
+antennae; for it is a remarkable fact that the males of those species of
+moths which exhibit the power of thus searching out their mates, are
+just those that are also remarkable for their very broad and deeply
+pectinated antennae--a fact that has led to the supposition that the
+power in question is located in the antennae, and is also proportional to
+the amount of surface displayed by these organs.
+
+Up to the present time we have been considering the butterfly and moth
+in their perfect forms, but everybody knows that the former is not
+_always_ a butterfly, nor is the latter always a moth; but that they
+both pass through certain preparatory stages before they attain their
+final winged state.
+
+We shall now notice briefly what these earlier stages are, leaving the
+detailed descriptions of each for the following chapters.
+
+The life of the perfect butterfly or moth is of very short duration,
+often only a few days, nearly the whole of its existence having been
+spent in preparing itself for the brief term to be enjoyed
+
+                      ... in fields of light,
+  And where the flowers of Paradise unfold.
+
+It may be interesting to consider of what use the metamorphoses of
+insects are, and to what extent these metamorphoses render them fit for
+the work they have to do.
+
+It is certain that the chief work of insects, taken as a whole, is to
+remove from the earth the excess of animal and vegetable matter. If they
+are to do this work effectually, it is clear that they must be very
+voracious feeders, and also be capable of multiplying their species
+prodigiously. Now each of these powers requires the special development
+of a certain set of organs, and an abnormal development of one set must
+necessarily be produced at the expense of the other. Hence we find
+insects existing in two distinct stages, with or without an intermediate
+quiescent state, during the first of which the digestive apparatus is
+enormously developed, while the reproductive organs occupy but very
+little space; then, during the other stage, the digestive apparatus is
+of the simplest possible description, and the organs of reproduction are
+in a perfect state of development.
+
+Allowing, then, that the chief work of the insect is the removal of
+surplus organic matter, we can see that a large share of its life should
+be spent in the larval or grub stage, and that the perfect state _need_
+not occupy any more time than is necessary for the fertilisation of the
+eggs that almost completely fill the body of the female at the time of
+her emergence from the chrysalis shell.
+
+Many insects undergo their metamorphoses by slow degrees, but the
+_Lepidoptera_, after existing for some considerable period without any
+important visible change in structure, pass by a rapid transition into
+the next state. Thus, a caterpillar, that has not altered in general
+form for several weeks, changes into a chrysalis within the course of a
+few days; and again, after a period of quiescence that may extend
+throughout the whole of the colder months, becomes a perfect butterfly
+or moth within twenty minutes of the moment of its emergence.
+
+But this suddenness is more apparent than real, as may easily be proved
+by internal examinations of the insect at various stages of growth;
+showing that we are led astray by the rapidity of _external_
+changes--the mere _moultings_ or castings of the skin--while the gradual
+transformations proceeding within are not so readily observed.
+
+We have already said that the life of the perfect butterfly or moth is
+short. A few days after emergence from the chrysalis case, the female
+deposits her eggs on the leaves or stems of the plant that is to sustain
+the larvae. Her work is now accomplished, and the few days more allowed
+her are spent in frolicking among the flowers, and sucking the sweet
+juices they provide. But males and females alike--bedecked with the most
+gorgeous colours and overflowing with sportive mirth when first they
+take to the wing--soon show the symptoms of a fast approaching end.
+Their colours begin to fade, and the beauty-making scales of the wings
+gradually disappear through friction against the petals of hundreds of
+flowers visited and the merry dances with scores and scores of playful
+companions. At last, one bright afternoon, while the sun is still high
+in the heavens, a butterfly, more weary than usual, with heavy and
+laborious flight, seeks a place of rest for the approaching night. Here,
+on a waving stalk, it is soon lulled to sleep by a gentle breeze.
+
+Next morning, a few hours before noon, the blazing sun calls it out for
+its usual frolics. But its body now seems too heavy to be supported by
+the feeble and ragged wings, and, after one or two weak attempts at
+play, incited by the approach of a younger and merrier companion, it
+settles down in its final resting place. On the following morning a dead
+butterfly is seen, still clinging by its claws to a swinging stem, from
+which it is eventually thrown during a storm.
+
+The tale of the perfect moth is very similar to the above, except that
+it is generally summoned to activity by the approach of darkness.
+
+We see, then, that butterflies and moths exhibit none of that quality
+which we term parental affection. Their duty ends with the deposition of
+the eggs, and the parents are dead before the young larvae have
+penetrated the shell that surrounds them.
+
+Yet it is wonderful to see how unmistakably the females generally lay
+their eggs on the very plants that provide the necessary food for their
+progeny, as if they were not only conscious of and careful concerning
+the exact requirements of their offspring, but also possessed such a
+knowledge of botanical science as enabled them to discriminate between
+the plant required and all others.
+
+Has the perfect insect any selfish motive in this apparently careful
+selection of a plant on which to lay its eggs? Does the female herself
+derive any benefit from the particular plant chosen for this purpose? In
+most cases, certainly not. For it often happens that the blossom of this
+plant is not by any means one of those that supply the sweets which
+insects love, and still more frequently does it occur that the eggs are
+deposited either before the flowers have appeared or after they have
+faded.
+
+Neither can we easily impute to the insect an acquired knowledge of the
+nature and wants of her offspring, or an acquaintance with botany
+sufficient to enable her to distinguish plant forms. Our only solution
+of the problem (which is really no solution at all) is to attribute the
+whole thing to that inexplicable quality which we are pleased to term
+_natural instinct_. It is to be observed, however, that it is not _all_
+butterflies and moths that display this unerring power. Some few seem to
+deposit their eggs indiscriminately on all kinds of herbage. But, I
+believe, the larvae of these species are generally grass feeders, and
+would seldom have to travel far from any spot without meeting with an
+acceptable morsel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--THE FOUR STAGES OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY
+(_Pieris Brassicae_). _a_, larva; _b_, pupa; _c_, imago; _d_, egg.]
+
+But we must now pass on to a brief consideration of the other stages of
+the insect's existence. After a time, varying from a few days to several
+months, the young caterpillars or larvae make their appearance. They soon
+commence feeding in right earnest. Their period of existence in this
+state varies from a few weeks to several months, and even, in some
+cases, to years. During this time their growth is generally very rapid,
+and they undergo a series of _moults_ or changes of skin, of which we
+shall have more to say in a future chapter. Then, when fully grown, they
+prepare for an apparently quiescent form, which we speak of as the
+_pupa_ or chrysalis, and in which they again spend a very variable
+period, extending over a few days, weeks, or months. Now, inclosed in a
+protective case, each pupa is undergoing a remarkable change. Some of
+its old organs are disappearing, and others are developing; and, after
+all the parts of the future insect have been developed as far as its
+narrow shell will permit, it bursts forth into the world as a perfect
+insect or _imago_.
+
+Its wings at first are small, shapeless, and crumpled in a most
+unsightly fashion; but it is not long before they assume their full
+size, beautiful form, and gorgeous colouring. Then, in about another
+hour or two, the wings, at first soft and flaccid, have become
+sufficiently dry and stiff to bear their owner rapidly through the air.
+
+We have thus observed some of the more striking features in the
+structure of the butterfly and moth in its most perfect state; and
+alluded in a very brief manner to the various stages through which these
+creatures must necessarily pass before finally reaching this stage. But
+now we must study these earlier stages more closely, and watch the
+insects during the marvellous transitions they are destined to undergo.
+This we shall do in the following chapters.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_THE EGG_
+
+
+I suppose you are all acquainted with the general structure of the hen's
+egg, having dissected several, in your own way, many a time.
+
+Its outer covering, which you speak of as the 'shell,' you have observed
+is hard and brittle. It is composed of a _calcareous_ or limy substance,
+known chemically as _carbonate of lime_. If you put some pieces of it
+into an egg cup, and throw over them a little vinegar or any other
+liquid acid, you will see them gradually dissolve away, and small
+bubbles of carbonic acid gas will rise into the air. Then again, if you
+take a long and narrow strip of the shell, and hold one end of it in a
+gas or lamp flame, after a short time that end will become softer, and
+will glow brightly in the flame, for it is converted into lime--the same
+substance that is used by the builders for making their mortar--and the
+bright glow is really a miniature _lime light_, such as is always
+produced when a piece of lime is made intensely hot.
+
+Just inside this shell you have seen a thin membrane or skin that is
+easily peeled off the substance of the egg itself. Next to this comes
+the 'white' of the egg, which is really colourless while liquid, but
+turns white and more or less solid in the cooking. Last of all, in the
+centre of this, you have noticed the oval yellow mass that is termed the
+'yoke' or 'yolk,' and which contains the embryo of the future chick.
+
+Now if you imagine this egg to be reduced in size till two or three
+dozen of them would be required to form a single line about one inch
+long, the outer calcareous shell to be entirely removed, the skin or
+membrane to be converted into a firmer substance of a horny nature, and,
+finally, the yolk to be absent and the whole internal space to be filled
+with the 'white,' you will then have some idea of the nature of the egg
+of a butterfly or moth.
+
+To put the matter more briefly, then, we will say that the eggs of these
+insects are simply little liquid masses, usually of a colourless
+substance, surrounded by a horny and flexible covering.
+
+Such a description may certainly give you some idea of the nature of the
+eggs of insects, but no amount of book reading will serve the purpose so
+well or be so pleasant as the examination of the eggs themselves. During
+the summer months very little difficulty will be experienced in finding
+some eggs in your own garden. Turn over some leaves and examine their
+under surfaces, choosing especially those plants which show, by their
+partially eaten leaves, that they are favourites with the insect world.
+Or you may amuse yourself by catching a number of butterflies--common
+'Whites' are as good for the purpose as any--and temporarily confine
+them in a wooden or cardboard box, containing a number of leaves from
+various plants, and covered with gauze. In this way you are sure to
+obtain a few females that have not yet laid all their eggs; and if you
+watch your prisoners you will soon see them carefully depositing the
+eggs on the under surfaces of leaves, bending their abdomens round the
+edges if there is not sufficient room to get themselves completely
+under. And then, when you are satisfied with the number of eggs thus
+obtained for your examination, you can have the pleasure of seeing all
+your liberated captives flying joyfully in the free air.
+
+In giving these simple instructions I have assumed that the reader has
+not yet learnt any of the characters by which female butterflies are to
+be distinguished from their lords and masters; but I hope that he will
+know soon, at least with regard to a good many species, from which
+individuals he may most reasonably expect to obtain eggs, and so be able
+to avoid the imprisonment, even though only temporary, of insects which
+cannot satisfy his wants.
+
+Again, it is not necessary, after all, that butterflies should be
+captured for the purpose of obtaining eggs. Watch them as they hover
+about among your flowers. Some, you will observe, are intent on nothing
+but idle frolicking; and you may conclude at once that _these_ have no
+immediate duty to perform. Others are flying without hesitation from
+flower to flower, gorging themselves with the sweets of life: these are
+not the objects of your search. But you will descry certain others,
+flying round about the beds and borders with a steadier and more
+matronly air, taking little or no notice of their more frivolous
+companions, and paying not the slightest heed to the bright
+nectar-producing cups of the numerous flowers. These are seriously
+engaged with family affairs only. Watch one of them carefully, and as
+soon as she has settled herself on a leaf, walk steadily towards her
+till you are near enough to observe her movements. She will not move
+unless you approach too closely, for, like busy folk generally, she has
+no time to worry about petty annoyances. You will now actually witness
+the deposition of the eggs exactly as carried on in the perfect freedom
+of nature; and the eggs themselves may be taken either for examination
+or for the rearing of the caterpillars.
+
+Some species of _Lepidoptera_ lay some hundreds of eggs, and it is
+seldom that the number laid by one female is much below a hundred.
+
+As already stated, the under surfaces of leaves are generally chosen for
+the deposit of eggs, but a few of the insects we are considering always
+select the upper surface for this purpose. Thus the Puss Moth (page
+235), and two or three others resembling it, though much smaller, known
+as the Kittens (page 234), invariably lay them on the upper surface. And
+this is the more surprising since the eggs of these moths are brown or
+black, and consequently so conspicuous on the green leaves as to be in
+danger of being sighted by the numerous enemies of insects.
+
+The Hairstreak Butterflies (page 183) afford another exception to the
+general rule, for their eggs are deposited on the _bark_ of the trees
+and shrubs (birch, sloe, elm, oak, and bramble) on which their larvae
+feed.
+
+At the moment each egg is laid it is covered with a liquid sticky
+substance, so that it is immediately glued to the leaf or stem as soon
+as it is deposited. The sticky substance soon dries, causing the egg to
+be so firmly fastened in its place that it is often impossible to force
+it off without destroying it completely.
+
+Some of the _Lepidoptera_ deposit their eggs singly, or in small
+irregular clusters; but by far the larger number set them very regularly
+side by side, in so compact a mass that it would be impossible to place
+them on a smaller area without piling one on top of another. This is not
+accomplished with the aid of the sight, for the insect performing her
+task with such precision often has her head on one side of a leaf or
+stem while arranging her eggs on the other. If you take the trouble to
+watch her, you will see that she carefully _feels_ out a place for each
+egg by means of the tip of her abdomen immediately before laying it.
+
+The eggs are laid by moths and butterflies at various seasons of the
+year. In some cases they are deposited early in the spring, even before
+the buds of the food plants have burst; and the young larvae, hatched a
+few weeks later, commence to feed on the young and tender leaves. Then,
+throughout the late spring, the whole of the summer and autumn, and even
+till the winter frosts set in, the eggs of various species are being
+laid.
+
+Those deposited during the warm weather are often hatched in a few days,
+but those laid toward the autumn remain unchanged until the following
+spring.
+
+In this latter case the frosts of the most severe winter are not capable
+of destroying the vitality of the eggs. In many instances the perfect
+insect or the larva would be killed by the temperature of an average
+winter day, but the vitality of the eggs is such that they have been
+subjected to a temperature, artificially produced, of fifty degrees
+below the freezing point, and even after this the young larvae walked out
+of their cradles at their appointed time just as if nothing unusual had
+occurred.
+
+Experiments have also been performed on the eggs with a view of
+determining how far their vitality is influenced by high temperatures.
+We know that the scorching midsummer sun has no destructive influence on
+them, but these experiments prove that they are not influenced by a
+temperature only twenty degrees below the boiling point--actually a
+considerably higher temperature than is _necessary_ to properly cook a
+hen's egg.
+
+Let us now examine a number of eggs of different species, that we may
+note some of the many variations in form and colour.
+
+With regard to colour, we have already observed that the eggs of a few
+species are black; but more commonly they are much lighter--pearly
+white, green, yellow, and grey being of frequent occurrence.
+
+The great variety of form, however, will provide a vast amount of
+enjoyment to anyone who possesses a good magnifying lens or a small
+compound microscope. Some are globular, others oval; while many others
+represent cups, basins, and domes. Then we have miniature vases, flasks,
+bottles with short necks, and numerous figures that must remind a
+juvenile admirer of the sweet cakes and ornamental jellies that have so
+often gladdened his longing eyes.
+
+Again, the beautifully sculptured surfaces of a large number are even
+more striking than their general shapes. Some are regularly ribbed from
+top to bottom with parallel or radiating ridges, and at the same time
+marked with delicate transverse lines. Others are beautifully pitted or
+honeycombed, some ornamented with the most faithful representation of
+fine wicker-work, while a few are provided with a cap, more or less
+ornamental, that is raised by the young larva when about to see the
+world for the first time. A few of these beautiful forms are here
+illustrated and named, and another has already appeared on page 14, but
+an enthusiastic young naturalist may easily secure a variety of others
+for his own examination.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--EGG OF THE MEADOW BROWN BUTTERFLY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--EGG OF THE SPECKLED WOOD BUTTERFLY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--EGG OF THE VAPOURER MOTH.]
+
+It may be surmised from the accompanying illustrations that the form of
+the egg is always the same for any one species. This is really the case,
+and consequently an experienced entomologist can often decide on the
+name of the butterfly or moth that deposited a cluster of eggs he
+happens to find in his rambles and searchings; but in such decisions he
+is always greatly assisted by a knowledge of the food plants of the
+various insects, and sometimes also by the manner in which the eggs are
+arranged.
+
+We have seen that the period during which the _Lepidoptera_ remain in
+the egg stage is very variable, and depends largely on the season in
+which they were laid; but it is often possible to tell when to expect
+the young larvae by certain changes which take place in the appearance of
+the egg. As the horny covering of the egg is transparent, the gradual
+development of the caterpillar from the clear fluid can be watched to a
+certain extent; but if you have a microscope, and would like to witness
+this development to perfection, proceed as follows.
+
+Arrange that some butterflies and moths shall lay their eggs on strips
+of glass of convenient dimensions for microscopic work--three inches
+long by one wide is the usual size for this kind of work. This is easily
+accomplished by placing a proper selection of female insects in a rather
+small box temporarily lined with such 'slips.' When a few eggs have thus
+been secured, all you have to do is to examine them at intervals with
+your microscope, always using the reflector so as to direct a strong
+light _through_ the eggs from below.
+
+But even without such an arrangement some interesting changes are to be
+observed. As a rule, the colour of the egg turns darker as the time for
+the arrival of the infant larva approaches, and you will often be able
+to see a little brown or black head moving slightly within the 'shell.'
+You may know then that the hatching is close at hand, and the movements
+of the tiny creature are well worth careful watching. Soon a small hole
+appears in the side of the case, and a little green or dark cap begins
+to show itself. Then, with a magnifier of some kind, you may see a pair
+of tiny jaws, working horizontally, and not with an up-and-down motion
+like our own, gradually gnawing away at the cradle, till at last the
+little creature is perfectly free to ramble in search of food.
+
+Strange to say, the young larva does not waste a particle of the horny
+substance that must necessarily be removed in securing its liberty, but
+devours it with an apparent relish. Indeed, it appreciates the flavour
+of this viand so highly that it often disposes of the whole of its
+little home, with the exception of the small circular patch by which it
+was cemented to the plant. When the whole brood have thus dispensed with
+their empty cradles, there remains on the stem or leaf a glittering
+patch of little pearly plates.
+
+After the performance of this feat the young caterpillar starts off in
+life on its own account with as much briskness and confidence as if it
+had previously spent a term in the world under the same conditions; but
+we must reserve an account of its doings and sufferings for our next
+chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+_THE LARVA_
+
+
+In almost every case the young caterpillar, on quitting the 'shell' of
+the egg, finds itself standing on and surrounded by its natural food,
+and immediately commences to do justice to the abundant supply. It will
+either nibble away at the surface of the leaf, removing the soft
+cellular substance, so that the leaf exhibits a number of
+semi-transparent patches when held up to the light, or it will make
+straight for the edge, and, closing its horizontal jaws on either side,
+bite the leaf completely through, and thus remove a small piece each
+time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE CLOUDED YELLOW
+BUTTERFLY.]
+
+Several naturalists have amused themselves by performing experiments and
+making calculations on the efficiency of the masticating and digesting
+powers of the caterpillar. The illustrious R['e]aumur, for example, proved
+that some of the cabbage eaters disposed of more than twice their own
+weight of food in twenty-four hours, during which time their weight
+increased one-tenth. Let us see what this would be equivalent to in
+human beings: A man weighing eleven stone would devour over three
+hundred pounds of food in a day, and at the end of that day weigh about
+fifteen pounds more than he did at the beginning!
+
+So the young caterpillar eats, and rests, and grows, till, while still
+young, its body has become too large for the already tightened skin. It
+evidently feels very uncomfortable. Its appetite fails, and it remains
+for a time perfectly quiet in one spot, having previously spun a little
+carpet of silk to form a firm foothold during its temporary
+indisposition. Its colours have also become dingy, and anyone, not
+understanding the character of its growth, might easily be led to
+suppose that the poor creature was displaying the earlier symptoms of a
+serious and perhaps fatal illness.
+
+But soon an encouraging symptom is observed. The caterpillar begins to
+get restless. Its front segments are turned alternately right and left,
+and are also made to swell out much beyond their normal size. Then in a
+very short time--often less than a minute from the first appearances of
+restlessness--the skin, which has become somewhat dry and brittle,
+splits along the back over the second, third and fourth segments,
+revealing a new and bright coat beneath. The caterpillar continues its
+struggles and, in addition to the previous movements, causes the
+swelling to move backward along the body. This, acting like a wedge,
+causes the rent in the old coat to extend in that direction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY
+BUTTERFLY.]
+
+The caterpillar now draws its head backward, and, with a few convulsive
+struggles, pulls the front segments out of their old skin, and passes
+its head out of the rent in the back. With its foremost segments thus
+rendered perfectly free, it walks straight out of the old garment, which
+is left still fixed by the legs to the silken carpet.
+
+The larva, although now fresh and smart in its appearance, is exhausted
+by these struggles and its prolonged fast. The new skin, moreover, is
+very soft and tender, even to the cases of the head and legs, which are
+normally very hard. But a short period of rest suffices to dry its skin
+and sharpen its appetite, and then it eats more vigorously than ever.
+
+We will now leave the caterpillar for a moment while we look at its
+cast-off clothes. They are still clinging to a stem so firmly that they
+can scarcely be removed without injury. The hard shell that covered the
+head and jaws is perfect in form, and so are the claws and cases of the
+legs. All the hairs or spines that happened to adorn the previous owner
+still retain their positions; and the whole skin, although always more
+or less shrivelled, is sometimes so slightly altered in form that it
+might be mistaken for a living caterpillar if not closely examined.
+
+But this is not all. For, according to the accounts of some
+authoritative observers, the lining of the digestive organs, which is
+really a continuation of the outer skin, is cast off (or rather cast
+_out_) at the same time, as are also the linings of the larger breathing
+tubes which are presently to be described.
+
+We have seen that some caterpillars, on quitting their egg cases (which
+may really be regarded as the first moult), make their first meal of the
+old covering. So also some of them, in their future moultings, exhibit
+an apparently useless economy (seeing that they are surrounded by an
+abundance of their natural vegetable diet) by devouring their old coats!
+In the face of this fact we can hardly describe them as strict
+vegetarians.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE PURPLE EMPEROR
+BUTTERFLY.]
+
+Having thus passed through its first hardship, the caterpillar has by no
+means seen the end of the troubles and dangers that beset it; for,
+during its existence in the larval state, it has to go through a series
+of three, four, five, or even six moults, all of which are periods of
+considerable inconvenience, and perhaps even pain, and frequently prove
+fatal. And it is by no means an uncommon thing to meet with the lifeless
+body of an unfortunate individual who, as shown by its shabby appearance
+and the silken carpet under its feet, has evidently fallen a victim to
+the dangerous process of ridding itself of an old garment.
+
+But this is only one of the many dangers to which caterpillars are
+exposed. Throughout every hour of the day the sharp and hungry eyes of
+the numerous insect-eating birds are searching the leaves for such
+delicacies to satisfy the wants of themselves and their broods. The
+lively little lizards, too, during the sunny hours are busily engaged in
+searching them out among the foliage of heaths and banks.
+
+Very formidable enemies also exist in the form of Ichneumon and other
+species of flies, which pierce the skins of caterpillars with their
+sharp _ovipositors_, and lay their eggs within the bodies of the
+unfortunate victims. As soon as the young larvae are hatched from these
+eggs, they commence feeding on the fatty substance stored beneath the
+caterpillar's skin. They carefully avoid, at first, attacking the vital
+organs of their host's body, and in this way secure for themselves a
+more lasting supply of fresh food. When the fatty substance is nearly
+all gone, they eat their way into the more important structures, of
+course steadily growing all the time; and so, even though the body of
+the caterpillar is rapidly diminishing, the total bulk shows often no
+very appreciable decrease in size. When the larvae of the flies are fully
+fed, they either change to the pupa within the carcase of their host, or
+eat their way out of its body and construct for themselves a cocoon in
+which to undergo the transformation.
+
+As for the caterpillar itself, it sometimes dies before the time for its
+metamorphosis has arrived; but it often changes to the chrysalis before
+its fate is sealed. In this latter case, a number of flies, having
+undergone their final transformation within the chrysalis shell (there
+being but little else than shell remaining of the victim's body), break
+forth from the remains of the carcase somewhere about the time at which
+the butterfly or moth should have appeared.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--AN ICHNEUMON FLY (_Cryptus Migrator_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--ANOTHER ICHNEUMON FLY (_Pimpla Instigator_).]
+
+Caterpillars have also their nocturnal enemies and devourers, among
+which may be mentioned frogs, toads, newts, and insect-eating mammals.
+
+We must now learn something of the structure of caterpillars; and then
+become acquainted with their habits, and the change to the chrysalis or
+pupa.
+
+Take a caterpillar from your garden, preferably a full-grown one of a
+rather large species, that is not very densely covered with hair, and
+examine it carefully as we note the main points in its structure. The
+first point that strikes our notice is the division of its body into
+segments or rings, separated from each other by a more or less distinct
+line or slight constriction of the body.
+
+There are thirteen of these segments, reckoning, as is usual, the head
+as the first.
+
+The head is usually very hard, and often of a much darker colour than
+the rest of the body. It is also frequently divided into two lobes by a
+couple of oblique lines, between which the parts of the mouth are
+situated. The two powerful horizontal jaws, to which we have already
+referred, are very hard and sharp, and curved like a sickle, and
+therefore splendidly adapted for biting from the edges of leaves. The
+head is also provided with a pair of antennae, usually very short and
+inconspicuous and protected by a horny covering.
+
+Unlike the perfect insect, the caterpillar has no large compound eyes,
+but twelve very small simple eyes, situated on the cheeks, very near the
+mouth--six on each side.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--THE CATERPILLAR OF THE ANGLE SHADES MOTH
+(_Meticulosa_).]
+
+If you examine them with a magnifier, you see that each one is provided
+with a small and very convex lens--a lens of very _short focus_, such as
+would be used for the examination of small objects held very near to the
+eye. From this arrangement we should be inclined to conclude that the
+caterpillar can see only those objects that are close to its mouth; and
+this idea is strengthened if you place one in a box containing a number
+of leaves, one of which is that of its own food plant. It will wander
+about the box, apparently looking at every part of every leaf it passes,
+after the manner of a very short-sighted individual, and never taking a
+general look round. A butterfly or a moth can see a flower in the
+distance, for it flies unhesitatingly from one to another in the
+straightest and shortest path, but if you place a caterpillar in the
+centre of a ring composed of a leaf of its food plant and nine others
+from other plants, the chances are (nine to one) that it will _not_ walk
+towards what it would like to have.
+
+Again, the eyes are situated on the _lower_ part of the cheek, directed
+slightly downward, and are therefore adapted for seeing what is just
+under its jaws as it walks along. Had we no knowledge whatever of the
+caterpillar's twelve little eyes, we should probably have thought that
+it sought out its food by some sense other than that of vision.
+
+Another important and interesting feature of the head is the
+silk-spinning apparatus, situated under cover of the lower lip. This
+consists of two tubular glands, corresponding to our own salivary
+glands, the special purpose of which is to secrete a viscid fluid that
+solidifies on exposure to air. The opening by which the fluid escapes is
+so situated that the caterpillar can easily apply it to the surface of
+any object over which it is walking, and then, by drawing or turning
+away its head, cause a silken fibre to be produced.
+
+Some caterpillars make use of this spinning apparatus only on a few
+special occasions, but others, more especially some of the smaller
+species, seem to have it always in use, so that if at any time you
+suddenly start them into the air by giving a smart tap to the plant or
+twig on which they rest, they invariably fall slowly on the end of a
+growing web, the spinning of which they stop as soon as they consider
+they have fallen far enough. Sometimes, as you are walking through a
+wood, you will see hundreds, nay, thousands of little caterpillars thus
+suspended, swinging gently in the breeze. Not long since, after only a
+few minutes' walk among the trees of Epping Forest, I found I was
+decorated with several dozens of these swingers with which I had come
+into collision--in this case consisting chiefly of the larvae of the
+Green Tortrix Moth (_Tortrix viridana_).
+
+Now let us examine the caterpillar's limbs. Attached to each of the
+second, third, and fourth segments is a pair of true walking legs,
+corresponding with those of the perfect insect. These are covered with a
+hard and shining substance, and are also each provided with a hook. The
+fifth and sixth segments have no limbs at all, nor have the eleventh and
+twelfth, but some or all of the others (seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth,
+and thirteenth) are furnished with a pair of claspers which we shall
+presently describe.
+
+First, as regards the number of claspers, it will be seen from what has
+just been said that this is not always the same. Some caterpillars
+possess five pairs, thus making up the total number of walking
+appendages to sixteen. In fact, we must regard this as the _usual_
+number. But there are at least a few hundred exceptions to the rule.
+Many of the _Bombyces_ (page 217), for example, have only four pairs of
+claspers; and in others of the same group the fifth pair is present, but
+only partially developed, and quite useless for walking.
+
+Look at the peculiar caterpillar of the Lobster Moth (fig. 23)--a
+creature that differs from most other caterpillars not only in its
+claspers, but in many other respects too. Observe its long and slender
+legs, its humped middle segments, and its upturned hindermost segment,
+of enormous size and mounted with a pair of clubbed 'horns.' This last
+segment you will observe, has no claspers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--WALKING LEG OF A CATERPILLAR.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21--LARVA OF THE YELLOW UNDERWING MOTH (_Pronuba_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--LARVA OF THE CRIMSON SPECKLED MOTH
+(_Pulchella_).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--LARVA OF THE LOBSTER MOTH (_Fagi_).]
+
+Another allied caterpillar is that of the Iron Prominent Moth (fig. 24).
+This one also has humped segments, and the claspers of the thirteenth
+segment are imperfectly developed.
+
+A large number of other exceptions to the general rule are to be found
+in the caterpillars of the Geometer Moths (page 268), one of which is
+here represented. These have generally only two pairs of claspers, one
+pair on each of the tenth and last segments, so that there is a distance
+equal to the combined length of six segments between the hindermost true
+leg and the first pair of claspers. But even among the Geometers there
+are variations to be observed in the number of claspers, and some of
+these will be pointed out in our brief descriptions of the commoner
+species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--CATERPILLAR OF THE IRON PROMINENT MOTH
+(_Dromedarius_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--LARVA OF THE BRIMSTONE MOTH (_Luteolata_).]
+
+These limbs which we have been calling claspers are known by several
+other names. Thus they are termed 'pro-legs,' 'temporary legs,' 'false
+legs,' and 'abdominal legs;' but if you watch a caterpillar as it walks
+up a stalk or along the edge of a leaf, you will certainly agree that
+the term 'clasper' is everything that could be desired. But why not call
+them legs, seeing that they are used in walking? The reason is that they
+differ in many respects from the three foremost pairs of limbs as
+regards structure, persistency, and function. The true legs, as we have
+called them, continue to exist, though concealed, in the chrysalis
+state, and again appear, far more perfectly developed, in the butterfly
+or moth, but the claspers are no more to be seen after the caterpillar
+has passed into the quiescent stage. We have noticed, too, that the true
+legs are pointed and clawed, also that they are protected by a hard and
+horny covering; but examine a large caterpillar, holding it between the
+fingers and thumb with its under side uppermost, and you will soon see
+that the claspers are not at all hard, but soft and fleshy; not pointed,
+but often terminating in a broad flat circular surface. You will also
+observe, as the creature struggles to escape from your grasp, and tries
+to get a hold on something with its claspers, that these limbs, if we
+may so call them, are retractile, and are sometimes completely drawn
+into the body. Finally, examine the broad end of a clasper with a
+magnifier, and you will see it surrounded by a circle of little hooks,
+turning in all directions. You will no longer wonder how it is that a
+caterpillar can hold so tenaciously to a piece of twig that it is often
+almost impossible to remove it without injury.
+
+Now put your caterpillar down, so that you may observe its gait. If it
+happens to be one with the full complement of sixteen limbs, you see
+that at each stride it makes but little progress. The segments contract
+and relax alternately and in succession, thus sending a series of
+wave-like motions along the body, and urging onward the front segments
+while the claspers keep the hinder portion firmly fixed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--THE CLASPERS OF A CATERPILLAR.]
+
+But if your caterpillar is one of the Geometers, with only two, or
+perhaps three, pairs of claspers, the mode of procedure is very
+different. The creature stretches its body out at full length, often
+raising its head high in the air, and swinging its long body right and
+left with a most furious motion, as if to hastily scan the
+neighbourhood. Then, having satisfied itself as to the _direction_ of
+its proposed course (which, by the way, is often changed considerably at
+almost every stride), it holds on by the true legs and pulls its hinder
+quarters forward till the body forms almost a closed loop, with the
+fourth segment nearly touching the ninth. The claspers now become the
+holdfasts. The little hooks with which they are provided are firmly
+fixed to the surface on which it is walking; and the body being again
+straightened out to its utmost length, the same man[oe]uvre is repeated.
+So, you see, the insect progresses by strides equal in length to about
+six segments of the body, and these the longest segments generally; and
+the rate at which the strides succeed each other, especially in some of
+the smaller species, is really astonishing.
+
+We have seen the caterpillar in the act of taking its walk, and now we
+will give it a twig of its food plant so that we may see it feed. It
+walks up the twig without hesitation--for caterpillars (excepting those
+which feed on roots) always seem to move upward when in search of
+food--and soon finds itself on a leaf. Over this it walks till it
+reaches the edge; and, grasping the edge firmly between the claspers, so
+as to give perfectly free play to its legs and head, it stretches its
+body at full length, and takes a series of bites as it brings its head
+backward in a curve. When the head has thus been brought close to its
+fore legs, the body is again extended, and the same ground is gone over
+again.
+
+If the caterpillar is a fairly large and hardy one, it will bite through
+the smaller veins, and perhaps even the larger ones; but the smaller
+species often change their position on reaching a moderately thick vein,
+and so devour little else than the soft cellular substance of the leaf.
+In any case, it is astonishing to see how rapidly the leaf disappears
+under the influence of the powerful jaws and marvellous digestive
+apparatus of the hungry grub.
+
+Those who take a delight in watching the _movements_ of caterpillars are
+sure to be interested in observing them when at rest; for at such times
+the various attitudes assumed are as pleasing and instructive as are
+their active moments. And these attitudes are all the more interesting
+on account of the mimicry by which the creatures often baffle their
+numerous enemies. We may profitably spend a little time in studying a
+few cases in point.
+
+Many species, when at rest, fix themselves by means of their claspers to
+a small twig or leaf stalk, or on the midrib of the leaf itself. Here
+they remain perfectly still, with their bodies perfectly straight or
+with head slightly raised. I need hardly say that these generally fix
+themselves on the _under_ side of the leaves and stalks, thus securing
+themselves against the attacks of the feathered foes above. But some
+birds are equal to the caterpillars in this matter; and it is really
+amusing to see them hopping about beneath the leaves in our gardens,
+every now and again slyly turning one eye upward, and smartly plucking
+an unwary grub from its resting place.
+
+The precautions of the caterpillar, however, do not end merely with the
+selection of an under surface. You will find that the bright green
+species invariably settle on a leaf or a _green_ stalk, while the darkly
+coloured insects often choose a twig covered with a brownish bark. Some
+even make for the _trunk_ of the tree on which they feed, and here
+remain quite still in a vertical position, so that they look just like a
+ridge in the bark, the colour of which is faithfully imitated by their
+skin. Further, many of the caterpillars that resort to this stratagem
+have bodies that are notched or knotted and spotted in such a manner
+that the resemblance to their surroundings is so perfect as to defy any
+but the most experienced eye. And even this is not all, for a number of
+these mimics of the insect world never venture to feed by day, but take
+in their quantum of provisions during the dark hours, and practise their
+deceptions throughout the day.
+
+Most of the Geometer caterpillars, of which we have already spoken, are
+well trained in the art of deception. You are out on a caterpillar hunt,
+and engaged in carefully turning over the twigs of the hazel or some
+other shrub, so that you may the more readily examine the under surfaces
+of the leaves. At last you lay hold of a small broken twig for this very
+purpose. To your astonishment it is very soft, and readily bends between
+your fingers. You look more closely at this peculiar piece of stick, and
+find, to your surprise, that you have grasped a looper caterpillar that
+was standing out at an angle just like a broken twig, supported by its
+two pairs of claspers, and coloured and knotted exactly like the little
+branch on which it rested.
+
+At other times you meet with little green caterpillars of the same
+group, supporting themselves in exactly the same manner on a small twig,
+and looking just like a leaf stalk from which the blade had fallen or
+been devoured.
+
+What a wonderful power is exhibited in the grasp of the claspers and the
+tension of the muscles, enabling the caterpillar to fix itself and
+retain its position for so long a time! Imagine an acrobat fixing
+himself by his hands on an upright pole, throwing out his body at an
+angle, and without any further support retaining his position motionless
+for several hours!
+
+Other experiences of the larva hunter are equally interesting and,
+perhaps, even more tantalising. He is engaged in very cautiously turning
+over the leaves of a certain food plant from which he hopes to obtain
+the larva of a much-coveted species. Then, just as his eye catches a
+glimpse of the very object of his search, down falls the caterpillar,
+rolled up into a little ball, among the herbage below. This latter is
+diligently and patiently examined. But no, the anticipated prize is
+nowhere to be seen. It is probably a green one, and this adds to the
+difficulty of the patient entomologist. Then, as he carefully separates
+the low herbs, hoping to find the spot where the larva had fallen, the
+insect, rolled up into a compact little ball, only sinks deeper and
+deeper into the maze.
+
+Many caterpillars avoid capture in this manner, while others seek to
+avoid detection by remaining perfectly motionless, even when roughly
+handled. They allow themselves to drop from their resting place on the
+slightest sign of danger, and, when the alarm is over and all is quiet
+again, they ascend the food plant and resume their position.
+
+Some caterpillars not only rest, but even feed under cover, quite secure
+from most, if not all, of their enemies. Several of them feed on roots,
+and many a farmer can relate sad experiences of the havoc committed by
+these caterpillars on his turnips and other crops. Then there are those
+which feed on flowers and buds, completely burying themselves in the
+dense mass of food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--THE HOMES OF LEAF MINERS AND LEAF ROLLERS.]
+
+We must conclude this brief account of resting and hiding places and
+attitudes of caterpillars by a few observations on the leaf miners and
+leaf rollers.
+
+The former are very small caterpillars--the larvae of certain small
+moths--that eat burrows into leaves without doing any considerable
+injury to the outer _epidermis_, and thus prepare a safe resting place
+within the substance of their food.
+
+The latter, also mostly of small size, make themselves secure by curling
+a leaf or a portion of a leaf into a cylinder, and holding it in
+position by means of a number of silken threads.
+
+If you examine a leaf thus curled you will soon be convinced that a
+considerable number of the extremely delicate threads must be necessary
+to hold it in position; but, if you would like to know how a very small
+and feeble caterpillar can manage to roll up a comparatively large and
+rigid leaf, you must watch the little creature at its work.
+
+You need have but little difficulty in finding a willing worker, for
+such caterpillars are extremely numerous. Take a few out of their
+self-made homes, place them on a sprig of the food plant, and you will
+soon have the pleasure of seeing one start its extraordinary work.
+
+At first it spins a number of threads stretching from the edge of a leaf
+to about the middle of the surface. These threads are not tight by any
+means, and the leaf is, as yet, unchanged in position. But now the
+little mechanic exhibits a tact that almost seems to prove a knowledge
+of the principles of its art. Each thread in turn is pulled _at right
+angles_ at its middle, and then fastened by means of the creature's
+spinneret. Each time this is done the edge of the leaf is bent round _a
+little_; and when at last the cylinder is completed, a number of other
+threads are stretched across from the scroll to the flat part of the
+leaf to secure it firmly in its place.
+
+Many caterpillars are solitary in their habits: that is, they are always
+found singly, whether walking, resting, or feeding. But a large number
+of species are gregarious, living in dense clusters either throughout
+their larval state or, perhaps, only while young. In many such cases it
+is difficult or even impossible to find any reason for this gregarious
+tendency--to discover any advantage that the insects may derive from the
+habit. Many species, however, are true co-operators in the defence of
+their communities. The caterpillars of such live in clusters, sometimes
+several scores in each, and all help in the spinning of a complicated
+mass of silk fibres, which, with the leaves and twigs they join
+together, form a safe home in which they can rest, feed, or change to
+the chrysalis state. In early summer hundreds of such caterpillar
+'nests' are to be seen in many of our hawthorn and other hedgerows.
+
+Before closing our general account of the caterpillar we must have a
+word to say about the breathing apparatus, more especially as in our
+future descriptions we shall frequently have to mention the colours and
+markings which surround the openings in its body through which the air
+supply is admitted.
+
+If you examine the sides of the segments of a caterpillar, using a lens
+if the insect is a small one, you will observe some little round holes,
+often inclosed in a ring or a patch of some prominent colour. These are
+the _spiracles_ or openings of a series of air tubes called _tracheae_.
+These latter divide and subdivide within the body of the caterpillar,
+the branches of one often uniting with those of another, thus forming a
+really complicated arrangement of air pipes by which the supply of
+oxygen is distributed.
+
+A microscopic examination of a portion of one of the tracheae will show
+that its walls are supported by an elastic spiral of a firm substance.
+This arrangement serves to keep the air passages open, and secures for
+the caterpillar a free supply of air at times when a contraction of the
+segments would otherwise cause the tubes to collapse.
+
+There are nine spiracles on each side of the caterpillar's body, and
+never more than one in the side of the same segment. The head, which we
+have been regarding as the first segment, has no spiracles. The second
+segment has a pair--one on each side. There are none in the third and
+fourth; but all the segments, from the fifth to the twelfth inclusive,
+have each a pair; the last (thirteenth) segment has none.
+
+We have already observed the general arrangement of the caterpillar's
+limbs; but perhaps it may be interesting and even convenient to the
+reader to give here a little table that will show at a glance the
+disposition of both limbs and spiracles.
+
+  First segment--head        Two short antennae, two jaws,
+                               and twelve eyes.
+  Second      "              Legs and spiracles.
+  Third       "              Legs only.
+  Fourth      "              Legs only.
+  Fifth       "              Spiracles only.
+  Sixth       "              Spiracles only.
+  Seventh     "              Spiracles, and sometimes
+                               claspers.
+  Eighth      "              Spiracles, and sometimes
+                               claspers.
+  Ninth       "              Spiracles, and sometimes
+                               claspers.
+  Tenth       "              Spiracles, and generally
+                               claspers.
+  Eleventh    "              Spiracles only.
+  Twelfth     "              Spiracles only.
+  Thirteenth  "              Claspers only, and these
+                               occasionally absent.
+
+We must now watch the caterpillar through its later days, to see how it
+prepares for passing into the pupal stage, and to witness the various
+interesting changes that take place at this period.
+
+When fully grown, it ceases to eat, and begins to wander about in search
+of a convenient spot for the coming event. Its colours fade, and the
+body becomes appreciably smaller, especially in length, as it ejects the
+whole contents of its digestive apparatus. According to some accounts,
+it even evacuates the lining of the intestines with their contents.
+
+A great variety of situations are chosen by the different species at
+this time. Some will fix themselves on their own food plant, and there
+remain till they finally emerge in the perfect state, suspending
+themselves from a silken carpet, hiding themselves in a rolled leaf, or
+constructing a cocoon of some kind. A large number walk down the food
+plants, and undergo their changes in moss that happens to lie at the
+foot; or construct a cocoon on the surface of the ground, utilising for
+the purpose any decayed leaves, fragments of vegetable matter, or pieces
+of earth or small stones. Many seek a further protection than this, and
+burrow into the soil, where they either lie in a little oval cell that
+they prepare, or in a cocoon constructed by spinning together some
+particles of earth. Again, there are those caterpillars, chiefly of
+butterflies that frequent our gardens, which find their way to the
+nearest wall or fence, and there secure themselves in a sheltered nook.
+We will watch a few of these varied methods of procedure, taking as our
+first instance the caterpillar of the common Large White or Cabbage
+Butterfly.
+
+When fully fed, this larva seeks out a sheltered spot, generally
+selecting the under surface of some object, or of the ledge of a wall or
+fence. Sometimes it will not even leave its food plant, though it
+generally walks some considerable distance before a suitable shelter is
+found. Having satisfied itself as to the site of the temporary abode, it
+sets to work at spinning a silken carpet. At first the threads spread
+over a rather wide area, and seem to be laid in a somewhat irregular and
+aimless manner; but after a little time its labours are concentrated on
+one small spot, where it spins several layers of silk fibres.
+
+This done, it fixes the little hooks of the claspers firmly in its
+carpet bed, and then proceeds with a highly interesting movement. It is
+not satisfied with only the one mode of suspension. In fact, this alone
+would hardly be safe, for when it casts its skin, as it is shortly about
+to do, its claspers will all disappear; and although it afterwards
+secures itself by the 'tail,' it would be dangling in such a manner as
+to swing with every breeze--a very unsatisfactory state of affairs,
+especially with those that pupate late in the summer and remain in the
+pupal state throughout the winter storms.
+
+Its next procedure, then, is to make a strong silk band round the middle
+of its body, so as to keep it close to the surface against which it
+rests. But how is this to be done? It bends its head round till the
+spinning organ can be applied to a point close beside the middle of its
+body. Here it fixes one end of a thread; and then, gradually twisting
+its body, brings its head round to the other side, still keeping it
+close to the same segment, and fastens the other end of the thread
+exactly opposite the point at which it started.
+
+The head is now brought back to its former position, thus adding another
+thread to the band; and the process is repeated several times, till at
+last the caterpillar is satisfied with the thickness and strength of the
+cord formed.
+
+Now it straightens out its body as if to rest from its labours; but the
+work is not yet complete. Soon it exhibits much restlessness. Its
+foremost segments are seen to shorten, and consequently become thicker.
+Then the skin splits, and the last moult of the caterpillar commences.
+The movements that follow are exactly similar to those we have already
+described in connection with one of the earlier moults: the alternate
+and successive contractions of all the segments gradually force back the
+old coat, and this is finally thrown entirely off by a somewhat vigorous
+wriggling of the 'tail.'
+
+Then, for a moment, the creature is supported only by its silken cord.
+But this lasts _only_ for a moment. For, as soon as it is quite free
+from the old garment, it applies its tail to the densest part of the
+carpet it had prepared at the start, and secures its hinder extremity by
+means of little hooks.
+
+But what a change has now come over the creature! It is no longer a
+caterpillar. Its head is no longer distinct, although we can readily
+make out the positions of the eyes. Its mouth and jaws have quite
+disappeared, and the legs and claspers are apparently gone. The three
+segments that bore the legs are no longer distinctly separable, though
+in reality they still exist. The head and thorax are peculiarly shaped;
+and, instead of being cylindrical, are angled and ridged; but, beneath
+the soft greenish skin--the new garment--we can discern the outline of
+a pair of small wings, and see a proboscis and a pair of long antennae.
+Also the six long legs of the future butterfly can be traced with care.
+
+The abdomen is conical in form, coming to a sharp point at the end, and
+its segments are quite distinct.
+
+No stranger to the metamorphoses of insects would connect the present
+form with that of a caterpillar; they are so very unlike. And yet the
+time occupied in the whole change, from the spinning of the carpet, does
+not occupy more than about thirty or thirty-five hours.
+
+The apparent suddenness of this change is really surprising, but in
+reality the transformation is not nearly so sudden as it appears.
+Dissection of a caterpillar a few days before the final moult is due
+will show that the changes are already going on. In fact, a simple
+removal of the skin will prove that the organs of the future butterfly
+are developing. Still, in proportion to the short time occupied, the
+change is extremely great; and it may reasonably be inquired, Why so
+great a change within so short a space of time?--why is not the change
+continued steadily and equally through the larval existence? The reason
+has already been hinted at. Caterpillars are living eating machines,
+whose office is to remove excess of vegetable matter. Consequently they
+must have their jaws and bulky digestive apparatus in full development
+to the end. If these organs were to _gradually_ disappear as the
+caterpillar reaches its non-eating stages, it would simply be starved to
+death. So the change from the larval to the pupal state, which we may
+regard as the final moult of the caterpillar, is a far greater change
+than any of the preceding ones, and occupies a proportionately longer
+time, although it is principally confined to the last few days of the
+caterpillar life.
+
+A number of caterpillars, and especially those of the butterflies,
+suspend themselves when about to change; and the peculiarities of the
+modes adopted must be left for our descriptions of species in a future
+chapter; but we will find room here for one more interesting example,
+taking this time the larva of one of the commonest of the Vanessas (page
+166)--the Small Tortoiseshell Butterfly.
+
+The caterpillars of this insect are gregarious when young; and if ever
+you meet with one, you are almost sure to be able to obtain a hundred or
+so without much searching. But as they grow older they feed singly, yet
+generally without straying very far from their birthplace.
+
+When full grown they sometimes stray to a neighbouring plant or fence to
+undergo the change to a chrysalis, but more commonly they are perfectly
+satisfied with the protection afforded by the leaves of their food
+plant. We will now watch one of these as we did the larva of the Large
+White Butterfly.
+
+Of course the under side of the leaf is chosen. Here a silken carpet is
+spun as before described; but the caterpillar, instead of clinging with
+_all_ its claspers, suspends itself in a vertical position by its
+hindermost pair only.
+
+Here it hangs, head downwards, awaiting the coming events. The splitting
+and casting of the skin goes on just as in the case of the Large White,
+but there is this puzzle to be solved: how can the insect shuffle itself
+out of its old coat without falling to the ground, leaving the cast-off
+garments still hanging by the hooks of the claspers? This really seems a
+matter of impossibility, since the little hooks which alone suspend the
+insect are thrown off with the skin of the claspers.
+
+The thing is managed in this way. As the skin slowly splits through the
+wrigglings of the apparently uncomfortable occupant, it is gradually
+pushed backward--that is, upward--till it is in a shrivelled condition,
+and the body of the insect is nearly free. But the chrysalis thus
+brought to light is provided with little hooks on the end of its 'tail'
+by which it can attach itself to the irregularities of the crumpled
+coat. Its conical abdomen is also very flexible, and it can, by bending
+this, seize hold of a ridge in the skin, holding it between the
+segments. Thus, although practically quite free from the old garb, it
+never falls to the ground.
+
+There is now, however, another point to be attended to. The newly formed
+chrysalis desires to be entirely independent of its cast-off skin, and
+to suspend itself directly from the silky carpet it has prepared. To
+this end it works steadily for a time, alternately bending its supple
+abdomen from side to side, gripping the folds of the skin between the
+segments, pulling its body a little higher at each movement, and
+securing itself at each step by the little hooks at its extremity.
+
+So it climbs, and at last it reaches the network of silk fibres, and
+thrusts the tip of its abdomen among them till some of the hooks have
+taken hold. Not satisfied with this, it turns its body round and round
+to get the little hooks so entangled between the silk fibres that a fall
+is impossible, and in so doing it frequently pushes the old skin out of
+its place so that it falls to the ground.
+
+Although the caterpillars of this species do not show any great
+gregarious tendency when nearly full fed, yet it is not an uncommon
+thing to find several hanging from the under surface of one leaf, all
+being attached to the one common carpet at which all had worked. And
+when bred in confinement, a number will often spin in company in a
+corner of their cage. I have thus obtained a cluster of thirty-seven
+pupae, all hanging by the 'tails' to the same mass of silk, which was so
+small that they formed quite a compact mass of beings with their tails
+close together.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--THE COCOON OF THE EMPEROR MOTH.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--THE COCOON OF THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET
+(_Filipendulae_).]
+
+We have seen that the Large White Butterfly makes itself secure by a
+silk band round its middle, while the 'Tortoiseshell' is fixed only by
+its tail. But the extra provision for the safety of the former is not so
+necessary in the case of the latter, as it never spends more than two or
+three weeks in the pupal state. Here it is the perfect insect that
+braves the winter, and not the chrysalis.
+
+There is a great variety in the means taken by the caterpillars of moths
+to protect themselves during their metamorphoses, but we shall have
+space for only a few illustrations.
+
+A clever cocoon is spun by the larva of the Emperor Moth (_Pavonia_). It
+is pear-shaped, and composed of a brownish silk; and is so constructed
+that the newly emerged moth can easily walk out of the small end without
+breaking a fibre, while the entry of an insect enemy from without is
+impossible.
+
+This is managed as follows. A number of rather stiff threads are made to
+project from the small end of the cocoon, and these converge as they
+pass outward so that the ends are all near together. The other portions
+of the cocoon are of compact silk, and any insect intruder that ventures
+to enter by what we may almost term the _open_ end is met by a number of
+spikes, as it were, that play on it at every attempt. Many of these
+wonderful cocoons may be found during the winter months attached to the
+food plants of this insect.
+
+Of the silken cocoons spun by various caterpillars some are so thin and
+light that the chrysalis can easily be seen through them, and others are
+so densely woven as to be quite opaque. A great difference is also to be
+observed in the adhesive power of the silk fibres. In some cases little
+threads of silk can be pulled off the cocoon; but some of them, that of
+the Oak Eggar (page 229) for example, look as if they had been
+constructed of paper rather than of silk, because, at the time of
+spinning, the moist silk fibres stuck so closely together.
+
+An extreme case of this character is to be met with in the cocoon of the
+Puss Moth (page 235); for here the fluid from the spinneret of the
+caterpillar does not harden at once on exposure to air, and so the
+threads become thoroughly united together, thus forming a solid gluey
+cocoon.
+
+When the Puss caterpillar is about to change, it descends the tree
+(poplar, willow, or sallow) till it is within a few feet of the ground.
+Then it commences gnawing away at the bark, at the same time cementing
+all the pieces together with the gluey substance from its spinning
+glands. In this way it surrounds itself with a very hard cocoon, which
+so closely resembles the surrounding bark in colour that detection is
+difficult indeed.
+
+But how will the caterpillar proceed if it is removed from its native
+tree and has no bark to gnaw? That you can easily answer for yourself,
+or rather Puss will answer it for you. Go and search among the poplars,
+willows and sallows in the month of July. You may possibly come across a
+caterpillar that is just in the act of creeping down the bark in search
+of a resting place; but if not you may be successful in obtaining a few
+either by examining the twigs, or you may start them from their hiding
+places by smartly tapping the smaller branches with a strong stick.
+
+Having secured one or more larvae, take them home, and they will give
+some rather novel performances. If they are not fully grown, you must
+supply them with fresh leaves every day till they refuse to eat; and
+then is the time for your experiments. Shut one in a little wooden box,
+and you will have the pleasure of watching it construct a cocoon of
+chips of wood that it has bitten out with its powerful jaws, all joined
+together into a hard shell by means of transparent glue. Shut another
+Puss in a glass vessel--a tumbler, for instance--either by placing it
+under the inverted vessel, or by covering over the top. Perhaps it will
+not be superfluous to mention that, should you place it under an
+inverted vessel, this vessel should not stand on a polished table, for,
+whatever be the material, unless _extremely_ hard, it is sure to be
+utilised in the manufacture of the cocoon.
+
+Let us suppose, then, that the caterpillar is under an inverted tumbler
+that stands on a plate or saucer. Now it is for _you_ to decide what
+material shall be used in the construction of the new home. Give Puss
+some fine strips of brightly coloured ribbon, and it will construct a
+very gaudy house by gluing them together. Or, provide it with sawdust,
+pieces of rag, glass beads, sand, paper, anything in fact; and the
+material will be 'made up' into a cocoon more or less ornamental
+according to the nature of the supply.
+
+But what if you give it _nothing_ with which to work, and so inclose it
+that nothing its jaws can pierce is within its reach? For instance, shut
+it in with tumbler and saucer as before, inverting the former on the
+latter, and give it no material whatever. What will it do now? We will
+watch and see.
+
+At first it is very restless, and walks round and round the edge of the
+tumbler, evidently a little dissatisfied with the prospects. Then, after
+a little while, the events of nature transpiring in their fixed order
+regardless of trivial mishaps, the glutinous fluid begins to flow from
+the creature's spinning glands, and it moves about in a somewhat aimless
+fashion, applying the transparent adhesive matter both to tumbler and
+saucer.
+
+It seems now to become a little more reconciled to its unnatural
+surroundings; and, making the best of bad matters, keeps its body in one
+place, and starts the construction of a ridge or barrier all round
+itself. By the continued application of the creature's spinneret this
+barrier is made gradually thicker and higher, till at last the
+overhanging sides meet and the caterpillar is inclosed in its
+self-constructed prison. But the walls of this prison are so transparent
+that every movement can be watched; and, after the insect has spent a
+few days in completing the cocoon, we can see it cast off its old skin,
+and appear in the new garb of a fine greenish chrysalis.
+
+Its soft green skin soon hardens and turns to a rich dark brown colour,
+and it settles down for a long rest lasting till the following May or
+June.
+
+When the whole operation of building is completed, lift up the tumbler,
+and up will come the saucer too. The two are firmly glued together by
+the substance secreted; and the power of this as a cementing material
+will be well illustrated if you endeavour by mere pulling force to
+separate the two articles.
+
+The Puss is not the only caterpillar that works up a foreign material
+with the contents of the spinning organs. There are several others, in
+fact, that use for this purpose fragments of wood or other parts of the
+food plants; and a still larger number bind together leaves, fresh or
+dead, or particles of earth or other matter. Several such cocoons will
+be described in our accounts of individual species in another chapter.
+We shall now devote a little space to a few general remarks on the
+chrysalides and the final metamorphosis of butterflies and moths.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+_THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS_
+
+
+As soon as the last moult of the caterpillar is over, the chrysalis that
+had already been developing under the cover of the old skin is exposed
+to full view; and although the perfect insect is not to be liberated for
+some time to come, yet some of its parts are apparently fully formed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--THE PUPA OF THE PRIVET HAWK (_Ligustri_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--THE CHRYSALIS OF THE LARGE WHITE BUTTERFLY
+(_Brassicae_).]
+
+The newly exposed skin of the chrysalis is very soft and moist, but as
+it hardens it forms a membranous or horny covering that protects and
+holds firmly in place the trunk and the various limbs and appendages
+that are distinctly to be traced on the under surface.
+
+If, however, you examine a chrysalis directly after the moult is over,
+you will often find that the wings, antennae, proboscis, and legs of the
+future butterfly can be easily separated from the trunk of the body on
+which they lie by means of a blunt needle, and can be spread out so as
+to be quite free from that surface.
+
+In form the chrysalides of butterflies and moths are as variable as the
+caterpillars. Many of the former are sharply angular like that of the
+'Small Tortoiseshell' already mentioned; but some of the
+butterflies--the Skippers (page 197)--have smooth and tapering
+chrysalides, and so have most of the moths.
+
+In colour they are equally variable. Some are beautifully tinted with
+delicate shades of green, some spotted on a light ground, some striped
+with bands more or less gaudy and distinct, but the prevailing tint,
+especially among the moths, is a reddish brown, often so deep that it is
+almost a black.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--THE PUPA OF THE DARK GREEN FRITILLARY
+(_Aglaia_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--THE PUPA OF THE BLACK-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY
+(_Crataegi_).]
+
+As a rule there is no marked resemblance between the different stages of
+the same insect. Thus, a brilliantly coloured caterpillar may change to
+a dull and unattractive chrysalis, from which may emerge a butterfly or
+moth that partakes of the colours of neither. But in a few cases there
+_are_ colours or other features that remain persistent throughout the
+three stages, or show themselves prominently in two.
+
+An interesting example in point is that of the Magpie or Currant Moth
+(page 279). The caterpillar of this moth is cream-coloured, with orange
+stripes along the sides, and very bold black markings down the back. The
+chrysalis, which is at first entirely yellow, afterwards turns black
+with the exception of some yellow transverse bands. Then, the moth
+exhibits the same colours as these two earlier stages, with the same
+degree of boldness; for its pale cream-coloured wings, tinted with
+patches of yellow, are marked with numerous deep black spots. Thus, in
+this case, we find the same general character of the colouring
+throughout the insect's existence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--THE PUPA OF THE CURRANT MOTH.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--PUPA OF THE PALE TUSSOCK MOTH (_Pudibunda_).]
+
+Another interesting example, though not so striking as the last, is to
+be found in the case of a group of moths known as the _Liparidae_. The
+caterpillars of these are remarkable for their very hairy bodies, often
+ornamented by several bold brush-like tufts. The chrysalides are also
+hairy; and several of the moths themselves are not only thickly clad
+with shaggy hair, but a bold tuft often tips the abdomen.
+
+We must not leave these few remarks on the characters of chrysalides
+without a mention of the brilliant spots of burnished gold that decorate
+the pupae of certain butterflies. This is the feature that led to the
+invention of the term _chrysalis_, which is derived from the Greek word
+_chrysos_, meaning _gold_. For the same reason the term _aurelia_ has
+been applied to the pupae of _Lepidoptera_, this being derived from
+_aurum_--the Latin name for gold.
+
+Strictly, then, these two terms apply only to the pupae of a certain
+number of the butterflies; but the former is now generally used to
+designate the pupae of all the _Lepidoptera_, and is even extended to the
+corresponding stages of insects of other orders.
+
+If you examine one of these gold-speckled chrysalides, the brilliant
+metallic lustre seems to belong to the outer surface, just as if certain
+spots had been tipped with real gold; but after the butterfly has
+quitted its case the beautiful golden spots are gone. This proves that
+the metallic appearance is not due to reflection from the outer surface
+of the chrysalis, but to a reflection from some structure beneath it.
+This latter is a very thin membrane which lies just under the outer
+transparent covering of the chrysalis.
+
+The period during which the _Lepidoptera_ remain in the chrysalis state
+varies very considerably in different species, and also depends more or
+less on the temperature. As a rule, when a caterpillar pupates before
+the end of the summer, it remains dormant in the pupal condition for
+only a few weeks; but, if late in the summer or in the autumn, it
+remains in this condition throughout the winter, and emerges in the
+following spring or early summer.
+
+Both these conditions are illustrated in the life history of the Large
+White or Cabbage Butterfly--an insect with which we have already become
+acquainted. We get two distinct broods of this butterfly every year, the
+first appearing in May and the second in August. The eggs of the first
+brood hatch in about a fortnight, and the larvae are full grown about
+four weeks later. These then change to chrysalides, from which the
+perfect insects (the second brood) emerge in a few weeks--the period
+varying slightly with the temperature of the season. From the eggs of
+this second brood we get another invading army of cabbage eaters that
+change to pupae late in the summer. These remain dormant till the
+following April, and may be found in numbers throughout the winter,
+attached to the walls and fences of kitchen and market gardens.
+
+If, then, the pupae of the same species are so influenced by the
+temperatures of the seasons, can we limit or prolong the period of
+quiescence by subjecting them to high or low temperatures artificially
+produced? Most certainly we can; and every practical entomologist knows
+how to obtain the perfect butterflies and moths of certain species long
+before their appointed times, or, if he desires it, to compel them to
+remain in their dormant stage long after the natural period has
+terminated.
+
+Sometimes an enthusiastic insect hunter obtains a large number of what
+we may term 'winter pupae,' by collecting and breeding various species.
+He also anticipates a number of successful captures of perfect insects
+during the following summer. Thus, from two distinct sources, he obtains
+a goodly assortment of butterflies and moths, the setting, preserving,
+and arranging of which entails an immense amount of home work.
+
+Under such circumstances he will sometimes endeavour to cause some of
+his pupae to emerge before their accustomed time, so that he may get some
+of his insects 'on the boards' before his field work is in full swing,
+and so avoid a rush, or prevent the loss of insects that will be spoiled
+before he has time to take them in hand.
+
+This process of hurrying up his pupae he calls 'forcing,' and simply
+consists in keeping them for a time in a warm room or hothouse where the
+high temperature is pretty constant.
+
+On the other hand, the entomologist may desire to try the effect of a
+continued _low_ temperature on his pupae. This he can do by placing his
+pupae in an ice house. Such experiments have often been performed, and
+the results are very interesting. In some cases the emergence of the
+perfect insect has been delayed for many months, and even years; and
+then, after an exposure to a normal temperature lasting only a week or
+two, the winged insect has made its appearance just as if nothing
+unusual had happened.
+
+Such are the effects of _extreme_ temperatures on the duration of the
+chrysalis state; and we naturally infer, from such results, that the
+pupa under natural conditions is influenced, though in a lesser degree,
+by the variations experienced with the seasons, especially in such a
+fickle climate as our own.
+
+The insect hunter has always to bear this in mind, and particularly so
+when he sets out on a search for certain desired species. Suppose, for
+example, he has set his mind on the capture of a certain butterfly that
+_usually_ appears in the _first_ week in May. Before finally naming the
+day, he has to consider what the weather has been during the last few
+weeks, and if he finds that this has been much warmer than the average
+for the corresponding periods in the past, he selects a day in _April_,
+earlier or later according to the difference between the present season
+and the average.
+
+If he does not pay due attention to such considerations, he will
+sometimes find that all the insects netted are shabby and much worn,
+even though, under average conditions, he would be catching newly
+emerged and brilliant specimens. This, then, will explain how it is that
+we so often see in entomologists' periodicals startling accounts of
+'early captures,' and of the appearance of certain insects late in the
+season that _ought_ not to have emerged till the following summer.
+
+I will give just one illustration of these variations. The beautiful
+Orange Tip Butterfly (Plate I, fig. 7) generally appears about the
+middle of May in the southern counties. Farther north it is of course a
+little later. In the north of England it has been taken in June; and in
+Scotland as late as July. On the other hand, I have taken it in
+Gloucestershire as early as March, on a rather bleak day with a cold
+east wind; and, withal, in a field on the slope of the Cotswolds fully
+exposed to the unfavourable breeze; but it was evident that, in this
+case, the butterfly had been enticed from its winter quarters by the
+milder weather of the few previous weeks.
+
+It may be as well, in passing, to observe that it is not only the pupa
+that is influenced by temperature. The hatching of eggs may be forced by
+high temperatures, or be retarded by exposure to cold; and in nature the
+period of incubation varies with the seasons. The larvae, too, grow
+faster or more slowly, or pupate earlier or later from similar causes.
+And so no very definite date or period can be assigned to any one stage
+of any insect.
+
+Now let us return to one of the chrysalides that we have already watched
+through the earlier stages of its existence, and follow it in its future
+development.
+
+It is now, as we say, in its quiescent or dormant condition, but we must
+not suppose that it is always in a profound sleep, nor can we say that
+it is insensible to its surroundings. Touch it gently or surprise it
+with a puff of air from your mouth, and it will begin to wag its pointed
+tail, sometimes with such vigour as to send the body rolling round and
+round in its box. Lay it on a bed of cocoa-nut fibre or finely sifted
+soil and let it remain _quite undisturbed_ for a few hours or days, and
+you will probably find that, by occasional movements of its body, it has
+made a slight depression in its bed, and lies partly submerged. I have
+known some chrysalides to completely bury themselves in this way during
+the course of a day or two, and others to partly expose themselves after
+having been lightly covered. Others again, I have observed, will move
+smartly if a strong light is suddenly turned on them. Many, too,
+certainly appear to have a strong objection to exposure to the direct
+rays of a hot sun; for, when thus exposed, they will struggle
+persistently, as if to work their bodies into some shady corner. I would
+not advise a young entomologist to try this experiment, however, if he
+values the pupae he possesses, for direct sunlight is undoubtedly very
+harmful to many species, and perhaps it is to all.
+
+Some chrysalides are not nearly so active as has just been represented;
+in fact, there are many which seem to show no signs of life during the
+greater part of the time spent in that state. But in all, whether
+apparently active or not, certain important internal changes are at
+work. We have already noticed that, even in the last days of the
+_larval_ existence, some of the organs of the future imago are to be
+traced. But these are as yet imperfectly developed. We have also
+observed that a continuation of these changes, gradually carried on,
+would be impossible in a voracious feeder; so the insect, now fully
+grown, and no longer requiring a supply of food, settles down in perfect
+quiet, submitting itself quite passively to any further changes that
+nature may demand.
+
+It has already suffered the loss of its claspers. Its wonderful jaws
+that did so much damage (for good or evil as the case may be) to the
+vegetable world are now gone, and the bulky digestive apparatus has
+rapidly dwindled to useless dimensions. These and other changes, already
+in progress, have to be perfected while the creature is in a restful and
+helpless condition, though they may often be retarded or even suspended
+during cold weather when progress would certainly bring it to an
+untimely end.
+
+But now the grandest of all these transformation scenes is nigh at hand.
+The protective skin is already loosening from the almost perfect imago,
+and consequently feels softer and far more yielding than it did when in
+close contact with the body: the swaddled butterfly or moth (for such
+the pupa is) is slowly preparing to throw off its imprisoning garb. The
+wings and large compound eyes are assuming their final colours, which
+now begin to show themselves through the more or less transparent skin,
+and the long legs, the perfectly formed antennae, and the slender
+proboscis, all of which are folded closely under the creature's thorax,
+now begin to move within their loosened sheaths.
+
+Now let us watch it closely, for one of the most wonderful sights ever
+witnessed by a naturalist is about to be presented to our view. We think
+we can observe slight movements; and, it may be, we can actually see the
+struggling insect endeavouring to set itself free. The legs and
+proboscis are moving within the loosened skin; and lo! as we watch these
+motions, the prison wall bursts with a slight snapping noise (at least,
+such is the case with some of the larger species), and in a moment out
+pop a few long legs which immediately struggle for a foothold. The
+proboscis also appears, alternately lengthening itself out and coiling
+into a spiral, as if impatient to reach the sweet nectar from the bottom
+of some fragrant flower cup.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36--A BUTTERFLY, JUST AFTER EMERGING.]
+
+All this takes place in less time than one requires to describe it; and,
+before many seconds have passed, the struggling insect has quite
+completed its last moult, and is bidding good-bye to the rent garment
+that has done it good service for so long a time.
+
+But how dreadfully disappointing! Did we not say only a few minutes
+since, that a beautiful butterfly or moth was about to emerge? How,
+then, is this? Here is an odd-looking creature, such as we have never
+seen before! True, it has the right kind of body, though even that is so
+soft and heavy that it is fairly dragged along as the insect walks. Its
+antennae, too, seem to be just the right thing--that is, just what we
+were expecting to see. But oh! the wings! Are we looking at a
+deformity?--a failure on the part of Nature to produce what she ought?
+
+We will not judge hastily, but continue to watch it a little longer. It
+seems very restless at first, and, with the fluttering apologies for
+wings, drags its heavy body along till it reaches some surface up which
+it can climb. If nothing of the kind is close at hand you may place a
+_rough_ upright stick in its path, and it will immediately begin to
+ascend. Its motto is now 'Excelsior!' and its ambition to rise may be so
+great that, on reaching the very top of the stick provided for it, it
+struggles for a still higher position in life till, failing to get a
+foothold in the air itself, it falls to the ground and has to retrace
+its steps.
+
+I once thought I would like to test the perseverance of a large moth in
+performing its first upward journey; and as it was one from a chrysalis
+to be found in nature at the foot of a tree that attains some
+considerable height, I was, of course, prepared to exercise a little
+patience myself.
+
+As soon as the moth had emerged, I placed it at the bottom of a window
+curtain that hung from about eight feet high to the floor. In less than
+half a minute it had reached the top, and was struggling hard to get
+still higher. I took it down, and again placed it at the bottom. Up it
+went as fast as before; and this was repeated nine times with exactly
+the same result. For the tenth time I placed the persevering creature at
+the bottom of the curtain; and, after it had walked about halfway up, it
+_suddenly_ stopped, apparently quite satisfied with having travelled a
+distance of over seventy feet in an upward direction. Its six legs were
+immediately arranged symmetrically in a business-like manner, and there
+it settled quite still, as if it had some definite object in stopping
+just exactly in that spot.
+
+But we must now return to our own insect, which has by this time settled
+itself in a similar manner on the stick we provided for it. The peculiar
+organs which represent the wings, though so very small, show distinctly,
+in miniature, the colour and pattern of the fully developed wings of the
+species. An interesting change is just now commencing. These wings are
+apparently growing larger, but the development is very unequal, so that
+they become curled and crumpled till they are even more unsightly than
+before. All seems to be going amiss. But this lasts only for a short
+time. The fluid from the body steadily rushes into the _nervures_,
+causing the wings to expand, and in a few minutes the beautiful pinions
+are stretched to the full extent, assume their normal shape, and expose
+the full glory of their brilliant colours.
+
+It may be interesting if I give an example showing the exact time taken
+for the full development of the wings of a certain insect. So I will
+here quote an entry from my note book; and, by the way, let me strongly
+advise all my young readers who follow up this subject to habitually
+enter in a book kept specially for the purpose all facts which strike
+them as they pursue their study of nature. The note to which I refer
+runs as follows:
+
+'Early on the evening of the 22nd [April] I selected a few chrysalides
+of Populi [the Poplar Hawk Moth, page 209] which, from the looseness of
+their cases, were thought to be just on the point of emerging. At 8.46
+one of them showed signs of restlessness; and, after a few vigorous
+movements, during which it rolled itself over on the glass [I had placed
+the pupae on a piece of plate glass so that slight movements might be
+more easily detected], the front of its case was suddenly thrust off
+with considerable force; and in _less than four seconds_ the imago was
+quite free and crawling on the table. After trying hard to reach a
+higher point than was provided for about four minutes, it rested to
+expand its wings--now about seven-sixteenths of an inch long, or
+one-third the total length of the body. At 9 o'clock the wings reached
+half the length of the body, and were much curled. At 9.12 they were
+fully expanded and straightened out.'
+
+From this extract we see that the whole period from the bursting of the
+case to the full expansion of the wings was only twenty-six minutes; and
+it will be well to remind the reader that the process occupies even a
+much shorter time than this with many species, both of butterflies and
+moths. It will be observed, also, that the _evening_ was chosen as the
+time for the observation. There was a reason for this. The Poplar Hawk
+Moth, as is the case with many others, almost invariably emerges from
+the chrysalis in the evening--usually after dark. But it may be
+mentioned in passing that a far larger number of the _Lepidoptera_ as
+invariably emerge in the morning.
+
+Again we will return to our newly emerged insect, for there are still
+one or two interesting points to observe. The wings have fully expanded,
+it is true, but how very limp they are! Take the creature on the tip of
+your finger and hold it so that its body is in a horizontal position.
+Immediately the wings bend downward with their own weight, so soft and
+flexible are they. The body, too, is still very soft, and apparently
+much too heavy for flight. Then, if you place it on a flat surface, it
+will immediately try to find some perpendicular or overhanging surface
+from which it can suspend itself by means of its legs, so that the
+pendant and straightened wings are in the best possible position for
+drying. As the insect walks away in search of such a resting place, the
+body still drags as it did before, and the wings bend over, either both
+on one side or one on each side of the body.
+
+It is some time before the wings are sufficiently dry and rigid for
+flight, but the period varies greatly with different species. Some of
+the small butterflies and moths take to flight long before an hour has
+passed, but in many cases several hours elapse before the creature
+starts from its first resting place. Butterflies that emerge in the
+morning spend their first day actively on the wing; but the nocturnal
+moths that emerge early in the day do not fly till evening twilight.
+When, however, the time arrives, the insect flutters its wings as if to
+test their power before committing itself to the air; and frequently,
+after only a few seconds spent in this preparatory exercise, off it
+darts with astonishing rapidity. But others seem far more cautious. They
+vibrate their wings, sometimes with such rapidity that they are lost in
+a kind of mist, and with such power that their bodies would be carried
+suddenly into the air were they not firmly anchored by three pairs of
+hooked claws. Then, continuing the rapid vibration, they move slowly
+along, always holding on firmly by one or more legs, as if to still
+further satisfy themselves concerning the efficiency of their wings.
+Then they venture on a few short trial trips from one neighbouring
+object to another, and at last gain sufficient confidence for a long
+voyage.
+
+How strange must be the feelings of a winged insect during its first
+flight! After a long period during which it was a helpless, crawling
+grub, and this followed by a term of imprisonment during which it was
+almost or quite shut off from the world, it now suddenly acquires such
+great powers of locomotion that it is often a match for ourselves.
+
+But, alas! this life is short. A few days spent in sporting with those
+it meets and in sucking the sweet juices of many flowers; then a day or
+two during which the female deposits its eggs; again a few days employed
+in pleasures that become less and less attractive, till, at last, the
+creature becomes weary of life and settles down to die.
+
+We have now traced the complete life history of the _Lepidoptera_ from
+the egg to the perfect insect, avoiding descriptions that apply only to
+certain species as far as possible, excepting where such are useful as
+illustrations.
+
+Only one thing more remains to be done before we start in real earnest
+with our practical work. We shall shortly be giving hints on the modes
+of capture, the 'setting' and the preservation of butterflies and moths.
+And in so doing we shall often have to observe important points in which
+our dealings with these two great divisions of the order will differ
+very materially. Hence we must not consider ourselves ready to proceed
+with the practical portion of the entomologist's labours till we are
+perfectly satisfied that we know the main features that enable us to
+distinguish between the butterflies and the moths, and also know just a
+little concerning the subdivisions on each side.
+
+This, then, shall form the subject of the next short chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+_CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+
+The _Lepidoptera_ are divided into two very unequal groups, to which we
+have so frequently alluded as 'Butterflies' and 'Moths.' And, although
+these two terms are popularly applied in a fairly accurate manner, yet,
+strange to say, very few persons indeed have any definite knowledge of
+the differences that entomologists recognise between the two groups.
+
+Every entomologist has his circle of sympathetic and, perhaps, even
+admiring friends. Consequently, many a little package is sent round to
+his abode 'with great care,' accompanied by a note or a message
+concerning the fine 'butterfly I have just caught, and thought you would
+like to add to your collection.'
+
+The 'butterflies' that so frequently reach us through these channels
+nearly always turn out to be _brightly coloured_ moths, and this
+naturally gives one the idea that the popular notion as to the
+classification of the _Lepidoptera_ is based on colour or brilliancy of
+design, the term 'butterfly' being applied to the gayer species, and
+'moth' to the more dingy members of the race.
+
+There is really some shadow of a reason in this method of nomenclature,
+for butterflies _are usually_ more brightly clad than moths; but the
+scientific classification, at least as far as the main divisions and
+subdivisions are concerned, has nothing whatever to do with colour or
+design; and we must at once acquaint ourselves with the fact that there
+_are_ very dingy butterflies, and most beautiful and highly coloured
+moths.
+
+How shall we account for the fact that the specimens so kindly sent us
+by our friends are generally moths? Is it because moths are more
+numerous and more frequently seen? They are certainly more numerous;
+for, while our butterflies do not number seventy species, the other
+division contains about two thousand. Yet, in spite of this fact, moths
+are not generally observed as much as butterflies, for the former are
+nearly all night-fliers, and the latter _always_ fly by day and rest by
+night.
+
+Still our question remains unanswered. The reason is this. The captives
+sent us are seldom caught on the wing. Most of our grown-up friends,
+even though they admire our own pluck and general carelessness
+concerning the remarks of the spectators of our entomological antics,
+would not themselves like to be seen, hat in hand, chasing a butterfly;
+and the night-flying moths are, of course, less frequently observed. But
+they often, in the course of their daily employments, meet with a large
+moth fast asleep in some corner of a dwelling house, workshop, or
+outhouse. Such moths are easily caught while in the midst of their
+slumbers, and, as they often make no attempt to fly by day, are as
+easily transferred to a box suitable for transmission by messenger or by
+post.
+
+In the above few remarks we have alluded to some features by which the
+two great groups of the _Lepidoptera_ may be distinguished; but we have
+already referred (page 5) to a far more important one in our description
+of the various forms of antennae. All butterflies--at least all _British_
+butterflies--have knobbed or clubbed antennae, while the corresponding
+organs of all our moths terminate in a sharp point.
+
+This distinction obtains in all British _Lepidoptera_, and is so far
+regarded as the most important basis of classification that naturalists
+have derived from it the two Greek terms that are synonymous with our
+two popular names--butterflies and moths. The scientific name for the
+former group is _Rhopalocera_--a term derived from two Greek words, one
+signifying a horn, and the other a club, and thus meaning 'club-horned.'
+The corresponding name for moths is _Heterocera_, derived from the same
+source, and meaning 'variously horned.'
+
+But, although we find embodied in these two long and formidable names an
+unerring mark of distinction between British butterflies and moths, we
+must not neglect other less important facts which, though less
+distinctive, are not without interest.
+
+Observe a butterfly at rest. Its wings are turned vertically over its
+back, and brought so closely together that they often touch. In this
+position the 'upper' surfaces of the 'upper' wings are completely hidden
+from view, and the 'under' surfaces are exposed on the two sides,
+except that those of the 'upper' pair are partly hidden by the other
+pair.
+
+Now look at a moth under the same circumstances, and you will generally
+find the wings lying over its body, which is almost or completely hidden
+beneath them. As a rule the upper pair together form a triangular
+figure, and entirely cover the second pair; but in some cases a portion
+of each of the under wings extends beyond the margin of those above
+them, and in others the upper pair extend so far forward that nearly the
+whole of the under wings is exposed behind them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--A BUTTERFLY AT REST (LARGE COPPER).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--A MOTH AT REST (GOTHIC).]
+
+Again, the wings of butterflies are so rigid that they can never be
+folded; but you will observe that the under wings of moths are generally
+very thin, soft, and pliant, and are neatly pleated lengthwise when not
+in use.
+
+Another feature deserving notice is a slight difference to be often
+observed in the form of the body. The butterfly, which generally has a
+slender body, has a distinct constriction or waist between the thorax
+and abdomen. This is not so apparent with moths, and especially with the
+thick-bodied species.
+
+The _Rhopalocera_ or Butterflies are divided into _Families_, each of
+which contains insects that possess certain features in common by which
+they may all be distinguished from the members of any other family.
+
+The British species represent eight families. They are as follows:
+
+1. _Papilionidae._--Containing only one British species--the beautiful
+Swallow-tail (Plate I, fig. 1).
+
+2. _Pieridae._--Containing ten species. These are often known
+collectively as the 'Whites,' but include four butterflies that are
+distinguished by beautiful shades of yellow and orange.
+
+3. _Nymphalidae._--This family contains seventeen insects, among them
+being several splendid species. It includes the Fritillaries and
+Vanessas.
+
+4. _Apaturidae._--Of this we have only one representative--the Purple
+Emperor (Plate V, fig. 1).
+
+5. _Satyridae._--Including the 'Browns' and 'Heaths,' and numbering
+eleven species.
+
+6. _Lycaenidae._--Including the Hairstreaks, 'Coppers,' and 'Blues,' in
+all seventeen species.
+
+7. _Erycinidae._--Containing only the 'Duke of Burgundy.'
+
+8. _Hesperiidae._--This family contains seven British butterflies
+commonly known as the 'Skippers.'
+
+Although all the members of the same family resemble each other in
+certain points of structure, or in their habits, yet we can often find
+among them a smaller group differing from all the others in one or two
+minor particulars. Such smaller groups are called _Genera_.
+
+To make this all quite clear we will take an example.
+
+The Brimstone Butterfly (Plate II, fig. 4) belongs to the second
+family--_Pieridae_, _all_ the members of which are distinguished from
+those of the other families by the characteristics mentioned on page
+141.
+
+But our Brimstone Butterfly possesses another very prominent feature in
+which it differs from all the other British _Pieridae_, and that is the
+conspicuous projecting angles of both fore and hind wings. Among the
+foreign species of the family we are considering there are several that
+possess these angles; but as there are no others among our own members,
+the 'Brimstone' is placed by itself in the list of British _Lepidoptera_
+as the only member of the genus _Gonopteryx_ or 'angle-winged'
+butterflies.
+
+Thus the full relationship of this butterfly to other insects may be
+shown in the following manner:
+
+  _The Brimstone Butterfly._
+
+  =ORDER.=--_Lepidoptera_
+  =Section.=--_Rhopalocera_
+  FAMILY.--_Pieridae_
+  _Genus._--_Gonopteryx_
+  Species.--_Rhamni_
+
+Now, every butterfly has a Latin or Greek name in addition to that by
+which it is popularly known. I should have said _two_ Latin or Greek
+names. The first of these is always the _generic_ name, and the second
+is the one by which we denote the particular member or _species_ of that
+genus. Thus, the scientific name of the Brimstone Butterfly is
+_Gonopteryx Rhamni_.
+
+'But,' the reader may be inclined to ask, 'why should we not be
+satisfied with the one popular name only?' And, 'If we _must_ have a
+separate scientific name, could we not find suitable terms among our
+English words to build up such a name--one that might express the
+principal characteristics of the insect, and also serve all the purposes
+of classification?'
+
+Such questions sound very reasonable, and so they are. But the
+entomologist's answer is this. We ourselves may get on well without the
+help of the dead languages, but we have brother naturalists all over the
+world, speaking a great variety of different languages. We endeavour to
+help one another--to exchange notes and generally to assist one another
+in our labours; and this can be greatly facilitated if we all adopt the
+same system of nomenclature. The educated of most of the great nations
+generally know something of Latin and Greek, and consequently the
+adoption of these languages is generally acceptable to all.
+
+This sounds well, but for my own part I believe that if we are to make
+any branch of natural history a popular study, especially with the
+young, we must to a certain extent avoid anything that may prove
+distasteful. There is no doubt whatever that many a youngster has been
+turned away from the pursuit of the study of nature by the formidable
+array of almost unpronounceable names that stretch nearly halfway across
+a page; and those who desire to make such a study pleasant to beginners
+should be very cautious with the use of these necessary evils. One would
+think, on glancing over some of the scientific manuals that are written
+'especially for the young,' that the authors considered our own too mean
+a language for so exalted a purpose, for in such works we find all or
+nearly all the popular names by which the schoolboy knows certain
+creatures he has seen entirely omitted, and the description of a species
+appended to a long Latin term that conveys no idea whatever to the
+reader, who is studying the description of a well-known animal or plant
+and doesn't know it.
+
+Our plan will be to give the popular names throughout, except in the
+case of those few species that are not so well known as to have
+received one; but the scientific names will always be given as well for
+the benefit of those readers who would like to know them. And the short
+description of the method of classification just given will enable the
+more ambitious of my readers to thoroughly understand the table of
+British butterflies and moths toward the end of the book.
+
+This table includes _all_ the British species of butterflies and of the
+larger moths; and the arrangement is such as to show clearly the
+divisions into sections, families, &c. It will therefore be of great
+value for reference, and as a guide for the arrangement of the specimens
+in the cabinet.
+
+In the foregoing description of the method of classification butterflies
+only are mentioned; but the division and arrangement of moths is carried
+out in just the same manner except that the system is a little more
+complicated. The number of moths is so large in comparison, that we are
+able to select from them some very large groups the species of which
+possess features in common. These groups are termed _tribes_, and are
+again divided into families just like the butterflies. Thus the
+arrangement of moths includes _tribes_, _families_, _genera_ and
+_species_. We will take an example by way of illustration as we did
+before, and ask the reader to verify the same by comparison with our
+table:
+
+  _Example._--The 'Common Tiger' (Plate X, fig. 3).
+
+  =ORDER.=--_Lepidoptera_
+  =Section.=--_Heterocera_
+  TRIBE.--_Bombyces_
+  FAMILY.--_Cheloniidae_
+  _Genus._--_Arctia_
+  Species.--_Caia_
+  Scientific Name.--_Arctia Caia._
+
+I have already said that the Latin and Greek names of butterflies and
+moths are not at all necessary to the young entomologist. It is quite
+possible to be well acquainted with the natural history of these
+creatures, and to derive all the pleasure and benefits that the study of
+them can afford without the knowledge of such names; but most
+entomologists go in for them, often to the entire exclusion of the
+popular English terms.
+
+There are those who consider themselves (or would have us consider them)
+expert entomologists because they have the power to vomit forth a long
+list of scientific names of butterflies and moths which (to them) have
+no meaning whatever; and it is astonishing that we meet with so many
+youngsters who can rattle away such terms, and, at the same time, are
+totally ignorant of the real nature of the creatures they name.
+
+If you wish to be a naturalist in the true sense of the term, study your
+_specimens_, and take but little pains to commit their hard names to
+memory; and you will then find that the latter will gradually become
+your own property without any special effort on your part. Your
+continued reference to illustrated works and museum collections will
+bring them to you almost unconsciously, and you will generally find your
+entomological vocabulary extending as rapidly as your cabinet becomes
+filled.
+
+Again, with regard to the _meanings_ of the scientific terms, don't
+trouble much about them. It unfortunately happens that in a very large
+number of cases these names are ill chosen, and do not in any way refer
+to the distinguishing characteristics of the species to which they are
+applied. You will observe, too, if you look at the table, that many
+insects have _two_ scientific names applied to the species, one being
+placed in brackets after the other. In such cases both these names are
+in common use, having both been applied by independent authorities, and
+the insertion of the two will prove an assistance at times.
+
+It is a common practice with entomologists, in their communications, to
+use only the second or _specific_ name of insects. Thus, they would
+speak of the Brimstone Butterfly as _Rhamni_, and not _Gonopteryx
+Rhamni_. When _writing_ a communication, however, they very commonly
+place in front of the specific name the initial letter of the first or
+_generic_ name. Thus the full title of the butterfly just mentioned
+would be abbreviated to _G. Rhamni_.
+
+Having said so much concerning the principles of classification and
+nomenclature, we will pass on to the practical portion of the
+entomologist's work.
+
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+_CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS_
+
+
+It is not at all surprising that entomology should prove such a
+fascinating study to the young, and more especially that portion which
+deals with the department we are now considering. Butterflies and moths
+are among the most beautiful and most interesting of living creatures.
+The study of their life history is enchanting, and the creatures
+themselves are of such a size as to be conveniently handled and
+preserved, and withal occupy so little space that anyone with only
+moderate accommodation may possess a fairly typical collection.
+
+Compare the work of the entomologist with that of one whose hobby is the
+study of mammals. The latter has to deal with large and cumbersome
+objects, a collection of which requires an enormous amount of space;
+and, unless he has the time and means to travel in foreign countries, he
+cannot get together a good typical collection of specimens representing
+his particular branch, for the few British mammals contain no
+representatives of several of the orders into which the class is
+divided.
+
+Entomology is undoubtedly, _par excellence_, _the_ study for youngsters.
+It is equally suited to the studious and to those of an adventurous turn
+of mind. It leads its follower into the bright sunshine and the flowery
+meadows; and with body and mind pleasantly occupied, the joy of living
+is deeply felt. The necessary apparatus can be made by anyone. No
+dangerous gun is required, and there are no precipitous rocks to scale.
+When the autumn flowers fade the year's work of the entomologist is not
+done, for the arranging of his cabinet and the demands of his living
+specimens keep him more or less actively engaged until the flowers of
+the following spring call both him and the insects he loves once more
+into the field. And so, season after season, and year after year, he
+finds himself engrossed in labours so fascinating that idleness--the
+curse of so many of our youths--is with him an impossibility.
+
+I assume that the readers of this book have a desire to take up the
+study of one branch of entomology--that of butterflies and moths--in
+real earnest; that they intend not only to _read_ about these
+interesting insects, but to _know_ them. And there is only one way in
+which one may really get to know living creatures; that is by searching
+them out in their haunts, observing their growth and habits, and by an
+occasional close examination in order to become acquainted with their
+structure.
+
+Hence I shall in this, the practical portion of the work, give such
+information as will assist the beginner in catching, preserving,
+rearing, breeding, and arranging the specimens that are to form his
+collection.
+
+
+_Catching Butterflies_
+
+There was a time when we would try to capture a butterfly at rest on a
+flower by a quick sweep of the hand, or, more commonly, by a sharp
+downward stroke of the cap. We were led to this action by a mere
+childish love of sport, or by a desire to possess an insect simply
+because it was pretty. When we succeeded in securing our prize, we
+handled it somewhat carelessly, often passing it from one hand to the
+other, or boxing it in our closed and perspiring fist till our fingers
+were dusted with the pretty microscopic scales of the creature's wings,
+and the wings themselves, stripped of all their beautiful clothing, were
+merely transparent and veined membranes. Having thus carelessly but
+unintentionally deprived the creature of its greatest beauty, we set it
+free, often in such a damaged or exhausted condition that the poor thing
+could scarcely fly.
+
+But our childish ideas and inclinations have vanished. Now we would
+rather watch the insect than catch it, for we find much pleasure and
+interest in its varied movements. And if for purposes of study we
+occasionally require to make one captive, we proceed in such a manner as
+to preserve its beauty unimpaired. The cap now gives place to a
+well-made and suitable net; and we are careful to provide ourselves with
+sufficient and proper accommodation for our captives.
+
+It is probable that many of my readers are as yet unacquainted with the
+nature of an entomologist's requirements for field work, so we shall
+describe them, confining ourselves at first to those that are required
+for a butterfly hunt.
+
+First and foremost comes the net. This essential portion of your
+equipment may be either purchased or constructed by yourself. Very
+little skill is required to enable you to do the former. Provided your
+pocket is well charged, you may start off at once to the dealer in
+naturalists' appliances, and treat yourself to a complete outfit. But
+even in this case a little advice may not be out of place. See that what
+you purchase is very _strongly_ made. You can get nicely finished nets
+constructed on the most convenient principles, made to fold and go in an
+ordinary coat pocket, but with _weak joints_. See that you have the most
+convenient form of net by all means, but do not go in for convenience
+and appearance at the expense of strength and durability. Nothing is
+more annoying than to find your net give way just when you are in the
+midst of a good day's sport.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--A WIRE FRAME FOR A BUTTERFLY NET.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.]
+
+The folding net is certainly very convenient, for you can conceal it in
+your pocket while you are walking through town or travelling in a
+railway carriage, and thus avoid that contemptuous gaze which certain of
+the public are prone to cast on a poor 'bug hunter.' And although such
+nets are generally purchased, yet they _may_ be constructed by anyone
+who has had experience in the working of metals. But other forms of
+nets, equally useful and even stronger, can be made by anybody; and I
+will give a few hints on two or three different ways of putting them
+together.
+
+A very simple and strong frame for a net may be made as follows: Get a
+piece of stout iron or brass wire about forty inches in length, and bend
+it into a circle with the two ends, turned out about two inches each, at
+right angles to the circumference as shown in the accompanying sketch.
+
+Now take a good tough stick, the length of an ordinary walking stick,
+and cut out two grooves opposite each other at the end, just large
+enough to take the straight ends of the wire. The end of the stick will
+now resemble fig. 40 in shape. Place the ends in their grooves, and bind
+them tightly to the stick by a good many turns of rather fine wire.
+
+A frame well made after this fashion is as strong as anything you could
+desire, but it has the disadvantage of being always fixed to the handle,
+thus preventing the use of the latter as a walking stick when you are
+not directly engaged in your entomological work.
+
+A much more convenient frame may be made by thrusting the ends of a
+piece of cane into the two narrow arms of a metal Y. You may purchase
+the Y at any of the naturalists' stores, or you can make one yourself if
+you know how to perform the operation of soldering. I have always made
+mine with odds and ends of brass tubing such as old gas pipes. One piece
+must be just the size to fix on the stick; and the other two must fit
+the cane tightly. The three pieces must be filed off at the proper
+angles, and the doubly bevelled end of the wider tube must then be
+flattened down to the width of the smaller ones before soldering. If you
+decide to buy one, give the preference to strong brass rather than the
+cheaper and more fragile ones made of tinned iron.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41. THE METAL Y.]
+
+The advantage of such an arrangement over the last frame is evident at
+once. The cane, with net attached, can be pulled out of the Y when not
+in use, and bent small enough to go in the pocket or a satchel; and the
+Y can also be separated from the stick, thus allowing the latter to be
+used as a walking stick.
+
+Some entomologists speak very favourably of what is known as the
+'umbrella net'--a large and light net that will shut up like an
+umbrella, and may even be made to look very much like this useful
+protector, but the possession of such an imitation is somewhat
+tantalising in a pelting shower. The ring of this net consists of two
+steel springs attached to a couple of brass hinges, one of which is
+fixed near one end of the handle, while the other slides up and down in
+the gamp fashion.
+
+One other form of net--'the clap net'--although still occasionally seen,
+has had its best days. Two sticks are provided to this one, so that the
+two sides of the net may be brought together on the insect; but as both
+hands are required to manage it, it is almost surprising that it ever
+had any advocates at all.
+
+When your frame is completed, sew round it a strip of strong calico, to
+which the net itself may be afterwards sewn, for the lighter material of
+the net is too delicate to stand the constant friction against the metal
+or cane frame.
+
+The material usually employed in making the 'bag' is called leno. It can
+be purchased at most of the drapers' shops, and three colours--white,
+yellow and green--are usually kept in stock. Measure the circumference
+of your net frame, and see that you get sufficient leno to make a good
+full net. Suppose, for instance, that the circle of your frame measures
+thirty-six inches round, then your leno should be at least forty inches
+in length. Fold this double, and then cut out two pieces of the shape
+shown in fig. 42, letting the depth of the net be nearly or quite equal
+to the width of the material. There is nothing to be done now but to
+stitch the bag together and sew it to the calico on the ring.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+At first you will find the leno rather stiff and harsh, but a damping
+and good rubbing between the hands will soften it down; or, if you
+prefer it, you may soften the material by a slight washing before
+cutting out the net. The latter is perhaps the better plan, for the
+washing will remove the objectionable 'dressing' that renders the
+material rather hard and stiff.
+
+Of the three colours mentioned above, green is the one most generally
+chosen, because it is more in harmony with the surroundings of a
+butterfly catcher; but many prefer the white leno to the green, as the
+insects are more easily seen in a net of this colour. Yellow is
+certainly not a desirable tint.
+
+As a rule it will be necessary to kill an insect as soon as it is
+captured. This is always the case with butterflies unless you require to
+keep them alive either to watch their movements or to obtain eggs. For
+this purpose you will require a killing bottle or box containing some
+volatile substance.
+
+The selection of this necessary piece of apparatus is a point deserving
+of much consideration, for so many different forms are in use by
+different entomologists, and so many advocates each declare that his own
+plan is far superior to that of any of the others, that the final
+decision is not to be worked out in a moment. The best thing for a
+beginner is to try as many as he can, and then, after some considerable
+experience of his own, he will be able to decide which apparatus suits
+himself best.
+
+I recommend this because it is impossible to say of any one plan that it
+is the best, for that which gives perfect satisfaction to one individual
+will often fail to give anything but annoyance in the hands of another.
+
+To enable my young readers to follow the advice I have just given, I
+will describe some of the commonly used killing arrangements and show
+how they should be used.
+
+I will take first the 'cyanide bottle.' This is a wide-mouthed bottle,
+containing a very poisonous substance called _cyanide of potassium_. It
+is fitted with a good sound cork. The 'cyanide' is a solid substance,
+and must be fixed in some way or other at the bottom of the bottle so
+that it cannot shake about and damage the butterflies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--THE CYANIDE BOTTLE.]
+
+A cyanide bottle can be purchased ready for use at the cost of a
+shilling or thereabouts; but if you are old enough to be trusted with
+deadly poisons, you may buy the 'cyanide' of a chemist who knows you
+well and is satisfied as to your intentions, and then prepare your own.
+Every entomologist should know how to do this, for the poison loses its
+power after some time, and it is not always convenient to leave your
+bottle in the hands of a chemist or a 'naturalist' to have it recharged.
+This will cost you more than it would to do it yourself, but that is
+nothing compared with the annoyance that may result when, the night
+before an anticipated butterfly hunt, you are calmly told that 'your
+bottle will be ready in a few days.' You can charge it yourself in a few
+minutes if you can manage to keep a small supply of 'cyanide' in stock,
+and it is ready for use very shortly after.
+
+Here is the _modus operandi_.--Purchase an ounce or two of the cyanide
+of potassium, and immediately put it into a stoppered or well-corked
+bottle. Label it at once, not only with the name, but also with the word
+POISON in very large and conspicuous letters. This dangerous chemical is
+often sold in sticks that look much like certain 'sugar sticks' I was
+acquainted with in my younger days; but whether this is or is not the
+case with your cyanide, see that the bottle is kept quite out of the
+reach of the inquisitive and sugar-loving juveniles of the house.
+
+The quantity above mentioned is more than you will require for the first
+'charge,' but you will soon experience the convenience of having a
+supply always at hand for recharging when your cyanide bottle fails to
+do its work expeditiously, or when an accident calls for the somewhat
+sudden appearance of a new one.
+
+Now procure a bottle for your work. Its mouth must be wide enough to
+take the largest insect you hope to catch, and the widest part of the
+bottle need not be much larger. Get a perfectly sound cork to fit it
+tightly; and, to insure the more perfect exclusion of air, paint over
+the top of the cork with melted paraffin wax.
+
+Dissolve a few drams of the cyanide in a little water, using a glass rod
+to stir up the mixture till the solid has all disappeared; and be
+careful that neither the solid nor the solution touches the skin if it
+should be in the slightest degree scratched or broken. Now sprinkle
+plaster of Paris into the solution, a little at a time, and stir all the
+while. As soon as the mixture begins to set, pour it into your bottle as
+cleanly as you can--that is, without touching the sides--and press it
+down with the flat end of a stick if it is not level. Now cork it, and
+put the bottle away in a cool place till required for use.
+
+This is, I think, the best way of charging the bottle; but there are two
+other common methods that may, perhaps, be regarded as a little more
+simple. One is this: put a few small lumps of the 'cyanide' into your
+bottle, and then cover them with a stiff mixture of plaster of Paris and
+water, and press down as before. The other plan is to cover the
+'cyanide' with a few thicknesses of blotting paper, cut just a little
+larger than the inside of the bottle. The first of these two methods is
+fairly satisfactory, but I have always found that the charge, when made
+in this way, has a tendency to become wet and pasty, in which condition
+it will spoil the wings of the insects. The other is very objectionable,
+especially for field work, for the blotting paper fails to keep its
+place while you are on the chase. If the plaster is used, the mixing
+must be done quickly and without hesitation, or the mixture will become
+solid before you can press it into your bottle.
+
+We will not enter now into the _pros_ and _cons_ of the cyanide bottle,
+but will consider the advantages and disadvantages of the various
+methods of killing the insects after we have noticed a few more.
+
+The 'laurel box' has had many devoted advocates, although it does not
+seem to be much in use now. It is a very good arrangement, however, but
+is a little more troublesome than the cyanide bottle, as it requires
+frequent replenishing.
+
+A very good laurel box may be prepared as follows. Get a small tin box
+of cylindrical form, measuring about five inches by two, and cut a
+circle of perforated zinc or wood just the size to fit it snugly as a
+false bottom without any danger of falling out of its place. Now gather
+some of the young leaves of the green laurel bush, and beat them almost
+to a pulp with a mallet or hammer. Place this in your tin box, and press
+down the perforated false bottom on it. The bruised laurel leaves give
+off a very powerful odour, which stupefies butterflies immediately.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--SECTION OF THE LAUREL BOX.
+
+_a_, space for insects; _b_, perforated partition; _c_, bruised laurel
+leaves.]
+
+Of course the reader may be able to think of various other ways in which
+the laurel box may be made. Any arrangement will do providing the vapour
+can come to the insects without allowing the leaves to touch their
+wings; and any ingenious youth could manufacture a more satisfactory
+article than the one I have mentioned. My desire is, as far as possible,
+to give instructions that may easily be carried out by anyone, even if
+he has not the slightest mechanical skill, leaving the clever youth,
+sometimes, the opportunity of displaying his own inventive power. But in
+this case I will give a few suggestions concerning other ways in which a
+laurel killer may be constructed. A firm and _fixed_ false bottom is a
+decided advantage. This is easily managed by fixing a circular piece of
+perforated zinc or 'tin' by means of a little solder; or even a wood
+partition may be used, fixed with a few brads, driven into it from the
+outside. With the fixed partition, however, you must have a lid at each
+end of the box. This is easily managed if you get two tins of the same
+size, knock out the bottom of one, and fit the lid of the other in its
+place.
+
+I have heard of laurel boxes without any partition save a piece of rag
+in which the bruised leaves are wrapped. The whole is _pressed_ into the
+box so firmly that it is not likely to be displaced while you are on the
+chase. I do not recommend this, for in addition to the chance of its
+slipping there is a danger of the sap of the leaves exuding through the
+rag and spoiling the insects' wings. But if the reader should prefer to
+try this on account of its simplicity, it will probably occur to him
+that a bottle may be used instead of a tin box.
+
+A well-made laurel box, with a fixed metal partition, is a piece of
+apparatus strongly to be recommended to all young entomologists who
+desire to test the relative value of the various poisons that are used
+by the different experts; for with it any one of these substances can be
+used. In the poison compartment you can place pieces of 'cyanide'
+wrapped in blotting paper, or any kind of porous substance moistened
+with liquid ammonia, chloroform, benzole, or any other volatile liquid
+insecticide. All the above-named substances are declared to be 'the
+best,' so they must all be worth the trial.
+
+'Cyanide' is valued on account of its lasting powers. A cyanide bottle
+well charged will retain its efficiency throughout a whole season. I
+always recharge two in the spring, one for active service in the field
+and the other as a reserve force; and these kept in a cool place do good
+execution throughout the year. If they should exhibit a slight failing,
+a few minutes' warming before a fire will improve them; but for field
+work it is better to recharge. At the same time see that the corks are
+in good condition.
+
+Next to the 'cyanide,' the bruised laurel takes the first rank for
+permanency; but you must not expect this to last many days. For a few
+days' continuous work one charge will suffice, but if the laurel box has
+not been in use for some time you must have a fresh supply.
+
+The liquid poisons, such as ammonia, chloroform, and benzole, are so
+volatile that they are very powerful for a short time, but so much
+vapour is lost each time the box is opened that it is absolutely
+necessary to carry a bottle of the one you use into the field with you.
+Also see that you have sufficient of the blotting paper or other
+absorbent to prevent the liquid from leaking through the perforations of
+the partition.
+
+If you choose ammonia--a substance that is not regarded as a poison, and
+is therefore easily obtained from any chemist--always get the strongest,
+and see that it is labelled 'Liq. Ammonia, S.G. .880' as a guarantee. A
+small bottle such as you can conveniently carry in the waistcoat pocket
+will contain sufficient for a day's work. Use only a few drops at a
+time, but renew frequently. Although the ammonia corrodes cork, yet a
+good cork is far preferable for the pocket to a glass stopper, for its
+elasticity prevents it from losing its hold, and the liquid from
+saturating your pocket and its surroundings; but a glass stopper is
+certainly better for the stock solution kept at home.
+
+Most of the above remarks apply equally well to benzole and to
+chloroform, but the latter is so powerful a poison that a very little is
+required for a day's work, and consequently a very small bottle is more
+convenient. The dealers in naturalist's appliances supply metal
+'chloroform bottles' with screw stoppers and a small nozzle that will
+allow the liquid to run out only in drops. This is a very good
+arrangement, since it enables you to avoid the 'drop too much' which is
+not only unnecessary and therefore wasteful, but saves you from
+experiencing the disappointment of an empty bottle before your work is
+half done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--THE CHLOROFORM BOTTLE.]
+
+Some entomologists recommend the solid carbonate of ammonium instead of
+liquid ammonia, but this is not so powerful. It must be remembered that
+we have the butterflies to consider, as well as our own convenience, in
+the selection of the poisons we use. It is the opinion of many
+well-known entomologists that 'insects cannot feel pain,' and that we
+are therefore at liberty to deal with them in any way we please. Still
+it is as well to save all possible suffering, and be satisfied with no
+killing box that is not practically instantaneous in its effects.
+
+Among other poisons used by entomologists I may mention sulphur fumes
+and tobacco smoke. The former may be obtained by burning a little
+sulphur or a sulphured lucifer match under the perforations of a killing
+box of the pattern described, and the latter--well, every smoker knows
+that. I should at once condemn the former method, at least for field
+work, as troublesome and inconvenient; and as to the other, I have tried
+the effect of a puff (and many puffs) of tobacco smoke on an imprisoned
+insect, but was so dissatisfied with the result that I am not likely to
+do so again.
+
+We have now considered a good many insecticides more or less suitable to
+our purpose, but there still remains the unsolved problem as to which is
+the best. Each one has its advantages. For _convenience_ nothing beats
+the cyanide bottle. It is very speedy in its action, and the use of a
+bottle is a little preferable to a metal box, for you can always satisfy
+yourself as to its efficiency without opening it. Cyanide, chloroform,
+benzole, and some others render the insects more or less brittle and
+stiff, so that it is not so easy to 'set' them for the cabinet. Perhaps,
+if you happen to have a supply of growing laurel close at hand, you
+cannot do better than stick to the laurel box. The time taken in
+bruising up a few leaves is inconsiderable, and the moisture given off
+from them will keep your insects moist and supple, or will even 'relax'
+them if they have become rigid. But try various plans for yourself, and
+you will be able to settle a question which all the entomologists in the
+world cannot answer for you--which method answers best in _your_ hands.
+
+The next item for our consideration is the 'collecting box.' This is
+merely a box in which the butterflies are pinned as soon as they are
+dead. Here, again, we shall note a few variations from which a selection
+can be made according to the means or the ingenuity of the reader. For a
+couple of shillings you can obtain a good zinc collecting box, lined
+with cork, of oval form (a most convenient shape for the pocket), and
+quite large enough for one day's captures; and half that modest sum will
+purchase a wooden box, also lined with cork, adapted to the same
+purpose.
+
+As with many other things, so with collecting boxes, the cheapest is
+often the dearest in the end. You may feel inclined to save a shilling
+by buying a wooden box, but you are sure to discard it after a little
+practical experience for a metal one. We shall speak a little later on
+concerning the advisability of 'setting' the butterflies as soon as
+possible after capture; but this is not always practicable, especially
+after a good day's catch. Now, if the insects are pinned in a wooden
+box, they soon become dry and rigid, and consequently cannot be 'set'
+till they have been put through the more or less tedious process of
+'relaxing.' If you use a wooden collecting box you will often find, on a
+hot and dry day, that all or nearly all your butterflies are rigid
+before you arrive home; but a metal box will keep them moist and supple,
+so that you can even put off the setting till the following day if you
+are unable to do it immediately after your return.
+
+Another point worth considering is the best economy of space. If your
+collecting box is only about one inch deep inside, you have room for
+only one layer of pinned insects; but a box only a little deeper may be
+lined with cork both at top and bottom, and thus be made to accommodate
+double the number. The zinc boxes sold by the dealers are generally
+lined with cork in this manner, and are, of course, deep enough for the
+double layer of specimens; but the wooden boxes are sometimes lined on
+the bottom only. After these few remarks you will at once see the
+economy of expending the extra shilling on the former.
+
+Although the prices of collecting boxes are low, yet there are many who
+would prefer making their own, and there is much to be said in favour of
+this. A great deal of pleasure is to be derived from the construction of
+your own apparatus, especially when that apparatus is afterwards to be
+used in the pursuit of a delightful hobby. During the whole of the time
+thus engaged, you are looking forward with the most pleasurable feelings
+to the glorious treat before you, and every joint you make seems to
+bring you nearer to the realisation of your joys. During the bleak
+winter months there is no better employment for an entomologist who has
+a little spare time than the preparation for the next outing. It is just
+one of those artful schemes by which he seeks to get as much pleasure
+out of life as it is capable of affording. How many there are who, for
+the lack of a pleasant and instructive hobby, find their leisure hours
+the most dismal of all, and who complain of the toil and wearisomeness
+of their lot! The mournful thought with them is, 'Is life worth living?'
+but who ever heard such an expression from the lips of an active
+entomologist?
+
+But I must have done with moralising and proceed to business. The
+question is--How shall we set to work about the construction of a
+collecting box? If it is to be a wooden one, select or make a box of
+such a size as to suit your pocket or satchel, and cover the bottom, and
+lid too if the depth allows of it, with sheet cork or slices of good
+wine corks, about one-eighth of an inch thick, fixed on with glue.
+
+The metal box is not quite so easy, but even here you may save yourself
+much work by keeping your eyes open. Very neat little collecting boxes
+can be made out of the flat metal boxes in which are sold certain
+favourite brands of tobacco. Some of these are just the right depth, and
+also of a very convenient size for the coat pocket. Beg one of these
+boxes from a smoking friend, and if the lid is not held by a hinge (a
+great advantage, by the way), you can easily solder on a brass one.
+
+All that remains now is the fixing of the cork. Buy a sheet of cork at a
+naturalist's shop, this being a commodity always in stock, and cut out
+two pieces just the size to cover the bottom and the lid.
+
+Gum and glue are not very satisfactory as fixing agents, for, as you
+will presently learn, there are times when it will be necessary to keep
+the box moist, and moisture softens both these substances. The cork must
+be fixed by means of little strips of metal. Here are two ways of doing
+this:
+
+First.--Cut a few little strips of sheet tin, each about two inches long
+and one-eighth wide. Double and bend them as shown in fig. 46, and
+solder them to the surfaces which the cork is to cover (fig. 47). As the
+cork is pushed in its place, these little slips are allowed to force
+themselves through slits in it made by means of a penknife, and then the
+ends are bent over as shown in fig. 48. Two or three such fasteners will
+be quite sufficient to hold down each sheet of cork.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+Second.--Put the sheets of cork in their places _first_, then make a few
+little slits through both metal and cork with the point of a penknife,
+and then bind the two together with a few ordinary paper fasteners. This
+arrangement is shown in section in fig. 49.
+
+Just one point more concerning the metal collecting box. You will often
+call moisture to your aid in keeping the butterflies flexible and soft.
+This will have but little action on zinc, but will sooner or later cause
+the 'tin' (really tinned iron) box to rust. Here, then, is a point in
+favour of zinc, but still a home-made 'tin' collector will last a long
+time if kept dry when not in use.
+
+As already hinted, there are times when it is desirable to take home
+certain butterflies alive, either for a study of their movements or for
+the purpose of securing eggs for breeding. To this end you must provide
+yourself either with a number of 'chip boxes' with a few small holes
+pricked in the cover, or with some metal boxes with perforations for the
+admission of air. If the latter, you will have no difficulty in
+securing a few 'tin' boxes of suitable size, but, as the surface of the
+metal is very smooth, you should always introduce a few leaves or
+something else that will provide a foothold for the inmates.
+
+The last item of the outfit is the pins. Ordinary draper's pins are
+quite out of the question. They are far too thick and clumsy for the
+collector's work. If you are not already acquainted with the
+'entomological pins,' you had better ask a dealer to give you a sample
+card. This will be very useful for reference until you become well
+acquainted with the various lengths, thicknesses, numbers and prices.
+The card will contain one of each kind, with price and number attached.
+
+If you fix a butterfly with the ordinary pin, you may find the latter
+partly covered over with verdigris after a time. This bright green
+substance is formed by the action of decomposing animal matter on the
+copper of the pin, and gives a very unsightly appearance to the
+specimen. To avoid this the entomological pins are either silvered,
+blackened or gilded. The silvered pins tarnish after a time, but the two
+other kinds keep their colour well, and are therefore better. The gilded
+ones are rather expensive and unnecessary, and perhaps the black ones
+are to be preferred to the silvered, although they are rather more
+costly.
+
+Most dealers will supply you with a box of mixed pins, each box
+containing about six different sizes. This is very convenient for those
+who work in a rather small way; but if you intend to make entomology a
+prolonged study you had better get an ounce or so of each of the more
+useful sizes.
+
+Butterflies vary much in size, and Nos. 3 to 8 are the most useful sizes
+of pins to fix them; No. 3 being for the largest, and 8 for the
+smallest.
+
+Supposing all the foregoing requisites to be quite ready, still you are
+really by no means prepared for all your work. The butterflies captured
+should be set as soon as possible after your return, and everything
+required for _this_ part of the work must be in perfect trim. Yet I
+think it will be more convenient just now to confine our attention to
+the subject of 'Catching Butterflies,' leaving all the indoor work to
+form the substance of another chapter. Our next point, then, shall be
+the consideration of seasons, times, and localities.
+
+The earliest of the butterflies make their appearance on the wing in
+April, or, if the weather is mild, towards the end of March; and from
+this time you can find employment up to the end of September or the
+beginning of October--a period of about seven months. But it must not be
+supposed that all parts of this long season are equally prolific, and
+will yield equally valuable catches. Remember the short term of a
+butterfly's life, and bear in mind that each one has its own regular
+season in which to spend the winged state; you will then see that anyone
+who wishes to 'work' as many species as possible must arrange his
+outings in accordance with the insects' own times.
+
+Some butterflies are double-brooded, and the two broods may not come
+forth at certain fixed times. Hence they seem to be on the wing almost
+without cessation for several months together, and therefore need not
+have a special day set apart for them. But others are more uniform in
+their date of appearance, and die off at about the same time. To catch
+such as these you must be careful to watch the weather, make allowance
+for any severities that may tend to cause a delay, or an unusually high
+temperature that may hasten their emergence, and then select a day in
+which you may expect to find them fresh and unworn. A week too early,
+and none are to be seen; a week too late, and nearly all you catch are
+worn and worthless.
+
+A glance at our Calendar (Appendix II) will give you a few illustrations
+in point. Thus you will observe that May is a month for the 'Whites,'
+early 'Blues' and certain of the Fritillaries; July for most of the
+Hairstreaks and Browns, and so on. Before you have been long collecting
+you will have captured the very common species, and then you will find
+that your butterfly hunts are very unproductive unless you make it a
+point to try for certain species at the proper times.
+
+Time, however, is not the only thing to take into account when preparing
+for a day with the butterflies. It is equally important that we should
+carefully select our locality in accordance with the known haunts of the
+various species. As long as you are simply working up the common kinds,
+you may wander almost at random in waste places, flowery meadows, corn
+fields, railway banks, &c.; but when you have secured a few specimens of
+each of these, you must search out the favoured resorts of the more
+local and the rarer species. For instance, wooded spots must be visited
+if you are to take certain of the Fritillaries, oak woods for the Purple
+Emperor and the Purple Hairstreak, fenny districts for the beautiful
+Swallow-tail, and so forth. In some cases the butterflies are closely
+restricted to certain isolated localities, to which you must travel if
+determined to obtain them.
+
+There yet remains another important matter to consider, and that is the
+kind of day you shall select for your outing. Butterflies are not only
+strictly day-fliers, but most of them venture out only on bright days.
+Always choose as hot a day as possible, with a very bright sun. If you
+are to be out for a full day's collecting, manage to be on the hunting
+ground at about ten o'clock in the morning. As a rule there are not many
+out before this time, and some do not appear to stir till an hour later:
+still there are a few 'early birds' among them, one of which--the Wall
+Butterfly--I have seen on the wing before eight.
+
+If your season, your day, and your locality are all well chosen, you may
+reckon on a good six hours' work. At about four the butterflies begin to
+lag, and then drop into their hiding places, one by one, till only a few
+of the late stragglers remain on the wing.
+
+So far I have furnished some general instructions that may be regarded
+as preparatory to the start; but I will now give a few hints as to the
+mode of procedure when the day for field work has come.
+
+First, see that you have secured _all_ your apparatus, and that it is in
+perfect condition. What is more annoying than to find, after you have
+travelled some miles to get to your hunting ground, that you have left
+your screw ferrule at home, or that the soldering of your metal Y is
+just giving way? If you are troubled with a short memory, it will be
+advisable to make out a list of every requisite for your field work, and
+keep this for reference on all field days.
+
+Here is a list of your equipment for a day with the butterflies. Net,
+ferrule or Y, stick, collecting box (the cork of which should be damped
+if the box is a metal one), a few 'chip boxes' for live insects, killing
+apparatus, a good supply of pins of several sizes, a piece of string,
+needle and cotton, and your penknife.
+
+You observe in this list one or two items not previously mentioned,
+since they hardly come under the category of apparatus, but a moment's
+thought will convince you of their usefulness, especially in the case of
+a breakdown. If your net catches in a thorn--a very common
+occurrence--and a big rent is made, the needle and cotton will save you
+a deal of agony, and perhaps loss of temper. If your stick breaks under
+your exertions, the knife or the string may prove a most valuable
+companion. Your pins may be stuck in the cork of your collecting box,
+certainly the most convenient spot for immediate use; but you may also
+have a reserve store in a small pocket cushion, or arranged neatly on a
+strip of flannel which can be rolled up in the waistcoat pocket.
+
+At last you are on the hunting ground, fully equipped but inexperienced,
+and at first find yourself just a little awkward in the use of your new
+gear. Your experience with the cap has been a very wide one, and you are
+possibly an expert at knocking down 'Whites' in the streets and in your
+neighbour's kitchen gardens. Now you have to wield the net, and coax
+your captives into your killing bottle; hence a slight feeling of
+incompetence at first.
+
+You soon get over this, however, and within five minutes you may be seen
+furiously slashing away at all the poor butterflies that come within
+range, common 'Whites' and dingy 'Browns' receiving as much attention at
+your hands as any rare gem that may happen to cross your path.
+
+How different are the movements of an experienced collector! He walks
+stealthily along the route he has chosen, apparently taking but little
+notice of the majority of butterflies that approach and pass him. He has
+already secured his 'series' of nearly all the species, and is carefully
+on the watch for the gems that are required to complete his cabinet. His
+actions are slow and deliberate rather than rash; and he trusts more to
+his eyes than his legs.
+
+The beginner may take to his field work quite to his own satisfaction,
+and may travel homeward with a feeling of great pride over his first
+day's catch; but yet there are a few points in which a little advice may
+not be quite out of place, particularly so with regard to the management
+of the net, and the killing and pinning of the insects.
+
+Most of the butterflies may be caught on the wing, and it is far better
+to net them in the air than to sweep them off the herbage and flowers.
+If these are rather low, you should strike the net smartly _upwards_
+from below them, but of course this movement is impossible with insects
+that happen to be almost above your reach. If a butterfly is busily
+engaged in searching out its sweet food, flying from flower to flower,
+don't think of giving chase, but follow it up stealthily, and you will
+sooner or later get an opportunity of striking at it while in the air.
+Sometimes, however, you will see a powerful flier making a straight dash
+across your field, taking no notice whatever of the fragrant blossoms,
+but evidently engaged on some important errand. If such happens to be a
+species you require, then you must run for it, but you will probably be
+satisfied with only a few chases of this kind, particularly if the sun
+is very hot, and the ground diversified with clumps of furze, heather,
+'molehills,' and ditches.
+
+There are times when your only plan of netting a butterfly is to sweep
+it from a flower or leaf on which it has settled. If the vegetation is
+very low, you have simply to bring the net down upon it, and then,
+holding up the apex of the net with the other hand so as to give it room
+to fly, you can inclose it by grasping the lower part of the net as soon
+as the butterfly has fluttered upward. If the herbage is tall it is
+advisable to strike either upward or sideways at the insect, starting it
+from the leaf or flower on which it rests; for if you bring _down_ the
+net you will have to inclose the whole or part of the plant on which the
+butterfly has settled--a procedure that often ends in a torn net, or in
+the insect becoming damaged through being rubbed against the plant.
+
+Whenever you capture a butterfly by a sweep of the net through the air,
+you immediately turn the ring into a horizontal position, so that the
+bag of the net closes itself as it falls over the edge. This gives you
+an opportunity of examining the insect before you introduce your killing
+bottle. This is a very necessary precaution, for you are generally
+unable to judge of the condition of a butterfly while on the wing, and
+in some cases you cannot even be certain of the species. If, then, you
+were to call the killing bottle into requisition for every capture you
+make, you would certainly find yourself taking the life of many an
+insect that is of no use whatever to you. Always examine your specimens
+at the moment they have been secured, at least as far as it is possible
+to do so, by looking through the gauze; and let your examination be as
+brief as possible, or some of the butterflies that were at first in
+splendid condition will render themselves useless to you during their
+struggles to get away.
+
+When satisfied that an insect is likely to be of value to you, keep it
+in the apex of the net by grasping the bag beneath it with the left
+hand, and then introduce the opened killing bottle with the other hand.
+As a rule you will experience not the slightest difficulty in coaxing it
+into its trap, and then you quickly cover the mouth of the killing
+bottle with the gauze, then apply your left hand, using it as a
+temporary stopper for a few seconds, and now, the insect having been
+quieted, replace the cork.
+
+A good killing bottle is almost instantaneous in its action, not only
+stupefying, but immediately killing the insects; and as soon as you are
+sure that each specimen is quite dead, you may pin it in your collecting
+box.
+
+You must be cautious, however, on the one hand, that you do not take it
+out too soon. If you do you may find that it recovers from the mere
+stupefying effect of the poison, even after it has been pinned, and when
+you open your collecting box for the next butterfly, you are horrified
+at the sight of the poor victim struggling to free itself.
+
+On the other hand, don't keep the insects in the killing bottle too
+long. If you do you will soon have a number, one lying on another, and
+all tumbled about together while you are on the chase. Of course, under
+such circumstances you are sure to damage them more or less.
+
+Many collectors, although they may always use a killing bottle for
+moths, never employ one for butterflies, but kill them by pinching the
+thorax. It is well to know how to do this, for it sometimes turns out to
+be a really quicker process than that we have just been considering;
+and, more than this, you can resort to it should you break or lose your
+bottle while in the field. It is done in this manner: Bring the two
+opposite sides of the net together, closing them on the insect so that
+it cannot flutter. If now the wings are brought together over the back,
+all is right, but if not, give it just a little room to flutter till you
+have the opportunity of closing the gauze upon it with the wings in the
+desired position. Now pinch the thorax smartly between the finger and
+the thumb, applying the pressure outside the net, but be careful not to
+squeeze the abdomen. In a moment you will find the insect quite dead,
+and not in the least damaged unless you performed the operation
+clumsily.
+
+Now as to pinning. Hold the dead butterfly between the finger and thumb
+of the left hand, and pass a pin of convenient size through the centre
+of the thorax above, and push it through so that the point appears
+centrally on the under surface. It is now ready for your collecting box.
+
+So you work on till the sun begins to get low, and the butterflies
+become fewer and fewer, till only a few stragglers of common species are
+to be seen. Still there are a few hours of daylight and perhaps even of
+bright sunshine before you, and if you are not weary with the work done,
+you may very profitably spend these hours in the collection and study of
+the habits of moths.
+
+
+_Catching Moths by Day_
+
+The reason for choosing the sunny hours for butterfly collecting is
+obvious, all these lovers of brightness being then actively on the wing;
+and although many may be driven out of their hiding places by beating
+the herbage with the handle of your net, or even be searched out as they
+rest on stalks and leaves during dull days or at morning and evening
+twilight, yet such methods are comparatively tedious and unproductive.
+
+Some moths also are lovers of sunshine, and while engaged in butterfly
+hunting you will often meet with a moth flying briskly from flower to
+flower and taking its fill of both sweetness and brightness. Again, as
+you wade among flowery herbs in quest of butterflies you will certainly
+disturb a number of moths, causing them to take a short flight in search
+of a safer spot. Thus you will almost invariably find a few moths among
+the contents of your collecting box even though you made no special
+effort to seek them out. But we shall now see how we may set to work to
+obtain a successful catch of moths at times when butterflies are not so
+much in demand, or during the less brilliant hours of the day, when
+butterflies are at rest.
+
+The apparatus required for this work need not differ in any important
+respect from that recommended for butterflies. The same net is used, any
+reliable killing bottle will do, and the pins and collecting box used
+for butterflies are equally serviceable. But your mode of procedure is
+very different.
+
+As you walk towards your proposed hunting ground you will do well to
+examine the trunks of trees, old walls, and wooden fences. In this way
+you will meet with moths fast asleep, which are consequently easily
+taken. All you have to do is to hold the open killing bottle obliquely
+just below the insect, and then push it gently downward with a small
+twig or stalk. As a rule the moth will drop direct into the bottle and
+make no attempt to fly away; but some are very light sleepers, ready to
+take flight at the slightest disturbance; and when dealing with these
+you must be careful to bring the mouth of the killing bottle so closely
+round them that there is no room for flight except into the bottle
+itself. It is well, however, not to take long at this kind of searching,
+but to reserve as much as possible of your time for what you consider to
+be a very favourable locality.
+
+Speaking generally, a good locality for butterflies is a favourable one
+also for moths, and you will do well to give special attention to
+well-grown hedges, especially those that surround clover fields; also
+overgrown banks, the borders of woods, open spaces in woods, the trunks
+of isolated trees, gravel pits, and old chalk quarries.
+
+Walk beside or among the undergrowth of woods, or among the tall herbage
+of waste places, tapping the branches and twigs with the handle of your
+net as you go. Then, if your locality is well selected, you will rouse
+moths to flight at almost every stroke. Some of these will shoot upward
+among the lofty branches and disappear quite beyond your reach; others
+will fly rather low and somewhat heavily, giving you favourable
+opportunities to try your skill with the net; others, again, will fly
+only a yard or so, and alight on a neighbouring leaf, often remaining so
+quiet that the killing bottle is easily made to inclose them.
+
+There are moths that show a decided preference for large trees. These
+may be seen hovering about high branches during the evening twilight,
+and sometimes even in sunshine. In many such cases the chance of a
+capture seems hopeless, but occasionally one will descend so low that a
+watchful collector is able to secure it by a sweep of the net.
+
+If at any time you are in a locality by day where you suspect the
+presence of certain species of moths at rest among the upper branches of
+trees, such branches should be beaten if possible to dislodge the
+insects they may shelter. A long stick will often serve this purpose
+well, and, failing this, a few stones thrown among the branches may
+prove effectual. In the case of small and rather slender trees, a kick
+against the trunk will set the whole in vibration sufficient to surprise
+all the lodgers; and the same effect may be produced with larger trees
+by giving each a good sound blow with a mallet or some other suitable
+implement.
+
+This or any other plan of 'beating' for moths is much more conveniently
+worked by two collectors together than by one alone; for one engaged in
+beating the herbage cannot be at the same time fully on the alert with
+the net. If two persons are together, one may take the lead, armed with
+the beating stick only, while the other, only very slightly in the rear,
+is always ready to strike.
+
+We have said that butterflies should always be killed in the field, but
+this plan is not so universally adopted with moths. Many collectors
+carry a large supply of pill boxes when going out for the latter and
+then take as many as they possibly can by boxing them direct in these.
+This method of 'pill-boxing' is very simple in the case of the lazy and
+soundly sleeping moths. It is only necessary to hold the open box below
+the insect, and then cause it to fall by pressing the lid down gently on
+it from above.
+
+Many of the moths so caught will remain quiet in the boxes and can be
+taken home alive without much fear of damage. All may then be killed at
+the same time by packing all the pill boxes in some vessel of sufficient
+accommodation, and shutting them in with a little chloroform, ammonia,
+benzole, or other suitable poison. The vapour will soon find its way
+through the pores of the pill boxes, but, in order to make its action
+speedy, each one should have a few perforations in the lid.
+
+Whatever advantages this method may give to the collector who works at
+night, when the process of pinning would be more or less tedious, there
+is no necessity for its adoption during the day. The large number of
+pill boxes required is certainly far more bulky than the single
+collecting box that would accommodate all the day's captures; and
+although most of the insects boxed alive may be none the worse for the
+shaking they get, and may not damage themselves by fluttering in their
+small prisons, yet there is often a little loss on this score.
+
+If you do adopt the pill-boxing method, be very careful that you do not
+mix the occupied boxes with the empties; and unless you fix on some
+definite plan for the prevention of such an occurrence, you will often
+find yourself releasing a prisoner from a box you have just opened to
+receive a new-comer.
+
+Suppose that you start with all your empties in your right pocket. Then
+each one, as soon as it is tenanted, might be placed in the _left_, with
+the name of the insect, or any particular concerning it you would wish
+to note, pencilled on the lid.
+
+When examining the trunks of trees you will be continually meeting with
+specimens of very small Moths--_Pyralides_, _Crambi_, _Tortrices_, and
+_Tineae_--and at first may find some difficulty in boxing or bottling
+such small and delicate creatures. A grass stalk will enable you to tip
+some of them into your killing bottle, but some are so snugly packed in
+crevices of the bark that it is almost impossible to get them out
+without damage, even with a thin and slender stalk. But a sudden puff of
+wind from your mouth will often be sufficient to dislodge them and blow
+them into your net, and from this they are easily transferred to a box
+or bottle.
+
+These few hints will prove sufficient to start you on moth-hunting
+expeditions during the daytime, and will enable you to make good use of
+the dull days and cloudy hours when the butterflies are quiet; but we
+must now turn our attention to the night work of the entomologist, and
+see how we may attract and catch moths during their hours of work and
+play.
+
+
+_Searching for Moths at Night._
+
+It is a well-known fact that the night-flying moths are attracted by
+lights, a characteristic of these insects that it is difficult to
+explain. Their love of darkness is in many instances so decided that
+they absolutely refuse to take flight while the fading light of day
+still lingers on the horizon, and even display a great aversion to the
+rays of the moon; and yet these very same species will often rush madly
+into the fierce glare of a naked artificial light, or fly with an energy
+almost amounting to fury against the glass of a street lamp or lighted
+window.
+
+Puzzling as this peculiar tendency is, we can profitably turn it to our
+own account by making it a means of luring a number of moths into our
+presence.
+
+The simplest way of putting this mode of capture into effect is to post
+yourself at your open window, with net and cyanide bottle at hand, while
+the brightest light you can command casts its rays as far and as wide as
+possible into darkness outside. If you use an oil lamp for the purpose,
+let it stand just inside the window frame, or, if a jointed gas bracket
+happens to be situated beside the window, bend it round so that the rays
+may pass over a wide area outside.
+
+Two such lights are sometimes a very decided advantage--one quite
+outside the window to attract the moths from all possible points, and
+then another near the middle of the room to invite them inside. Whether
+you use either one or two lights, always see that it or they are so
+surrounded by a screen that the moths cannot by any possibility rush
+into the flame. There is nothing better for this purpose than a covering
+of light gauze, for this is not only a barrier for the prevention of the
+suicidal tendencies of the insects, but it also gives a good foothold to
+those who would like to rest and enjoy the luminous feast.
+
+You will soon begin to learn that moths, like ourselves, exhibit great
+differences in their ways of enjoying their festal moments. Some will
+satisfy themselves by flying _near_ the light in almost a straight
+course, hardly slackening their speed as they pass; or will, perhaps,
+make a hurried curve round the light and then pass on at once about
+other business. To catch these you must be always on the alert, with net
+in hand, ready to make a dash at the right moment. But many will make
+straight for the flame, and then, finding a barrier in the form of gauze
+or glass, will either flutter round and round as if dissatisfied with
+your attempt to save them from an untimely end, or else settle quietly
+on the screen to enjoy the brightness for a long period. The flutterers
+are usually easily covered by a glass or the open cyanide bottle, and as
+for those that settle down quietly, you can take them at your leisure.
+
+It will not do for a collector to depend solely on this method of
+obtaining moths, but at times when either his duties or the bad weather
+keeps him at home it affords him a means of capturing a few specimens
+that otherwise would have been missed. He may be even so busily engaged
+in other matters that he cannot afford the time to stand and watch with
+net in hand, but the insects that fly into his room and dance round the
+gas jet or inquisitively examine the white surface of the ceiling are
+easily netted or boxed without much loss of time.
+
+The chances of success at this kind of work will vary considerably with
+the aspect, the season, and the weather. If your window opens on a large
+flower or fruit garden, on a patch of wooded country with plenty of
+underwood, a piece of waste ground overgrown with rank vegetation, or a
+stretch of heath or moor, then you may expect a very large number of
+visitors; but if you are situated on a level and barren country, or in
+the dense atmosphere of a thickly populated district, you must not
+reckon on many intruders.
+
+As regards the season, this is more extended than that of the
+butterflies. A few species of moths may give you a call during the bleak
+nights of October and November, and also during the somewhat less dismal
+nights of February and March; but from April to September you may rely
+on a goodly number of captures. Of course you will not expect many of
+the 'rarities' and 'gems' to find you out; these are to be searched for
+in the open field in the manner to be presently described; but your
+lights will attract a large number of the commoner species of _Geometrae_
+and _Noctuae_, the former _chiefly_ during the early summer, and the
+latter more or less throughout the season.
+
+A little experience will show you that the atmospheric conditions form a
+very important consideration. The dark and warm nights are the most
+productive. Very little luck is to be anticipated when the full moon is
+throwing down her silvery rays from a clear sky; nor will you see many
+while a cold east or north-east wind is blowing. Under these conditions
+many moths prefer to keep in the sheltered nooks where they slept away
+the sunny hours of the day. They love a warm and moist air such as calls
+forth the odours of the fragrant blossoms that provide their sweets, and
+show no dislike to a fine drizzling rain that you yourself would prefer
+to avoid. A pelting shower will generally keep them under cover, but
+they delight in the fresh and moist air that immediately succeeds the
+passing storm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--FRAME OF NET FOR COLLECTING INSECTS ON LAMPS
+AND WINDOWS.]
+
+If you reside on the outskirts of a town an occasional tour of
+inspection of street lamps may add a few specimens to your collection,
+and some entomologists attach so much importance to the value of these
+luminaries that they provide themselves with a special net for the
+removal of moths from the glass and rails (fig. 50). The straight side
+marked _a_ is applied to the panes of glass when flutterers or settlers
+are to be taken, and the bend on the opposite side is to secure those
+that rest on the rail. Such a frame is easily made by bending a piece of
+stout wire to the required shape, and then soldering it to a ferrule to
+receive a long stick. The net itself should not be deep.
+
+Many different forms of traps are now made for catching moths, and these
+are deservedly coming rapidly into favour. They are generally
+constructed on a 'catch-'em-alive-oh' principle, and have the advantage
+that, after having been set, they may be left alone all night without
+any watching, and give an ambitious collector the opportunity of taking
+insects in his garden and searching in the open field both at the same
+time.
+
+One of these traps may be constructed as follows at the cost of only a
+few pence over the price of a small paraffin lamp. Put together a square
+box, the sides about two feet and the front open, or procure a suitable
+one from your grocer. Place a paraffin lamp with a bright tin reflector
+at the back of this, and make a hole in the top just over the chimney to
+allow the heated air to pass out freely. Three sheets of glass are now
+to be placed as shown in the sketch (fig. 51), one upright piece
+completely shutting off the lamp, and two others placed obliquely with a
+space between them just large enough to allow admission. These must be
+exactly the width of the box, and should not be permanently fixed, but
+simply resting on small wooden supports nailed on to the sides. When
+required for use, it is only necessary to light up the lamp, strew some
+dead leaves on the bottom of the box, and put the sheets in their
+places. It will be seen at once that the angles at which they are placed
+will direct all light-seekers into the lower compartment, whence they
+are not at all likely to find their way out again; and after vain
+endeavours to reach the light they finally settle down on the sides of
+the box or seek shelter among the dead leaves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--A TRAP FOR CATCHING MOTHS.]
+
+Occasionally it happens that an entomologist is lucky enough to claim
+the friendship of a person who, from the nature of his calling, is
+peculiarly well qualified to render him great assistance. Thus a
+friendly lamplighter, expert and patient in the use of the cyanide
+bottle or pill box, is capable of giving valuable aid at times; and the
+keeper of a lighthouse has it in his power to capture many a gem that is
+seldom seen on the wing; but, although much may be done by means of
+these and other stationary lights, this kind of work does not compare
+favourably with the night rambles of a naturalist in the very haunts of
+the objects of his search.
+
+For such out-door work in search of moths a good lantern is essential.
+An ordinary 'bull's-eye' is almost useless, for, although it
+concentrates a good light on certain objects, the narrow range of its
+rays constitutes a strong objection to its use for entomological work.
+For this purpose it is necessary that the rays of light not only pass in
+front of you, but also shoot off right and left to warn you of the
+approach of a moth before it is too late to wield the net. This wide
+range may be obtained by means of three flat glass sides, or, better
+still, by a bent plate glass front.
+
+In addition to this you must go out provided with your net, killing
+bottle, and a number of pill boxes. Choose your night according to the
+hints already given, and if you are on the look-out for any particular
+species, be careful that the date of your outing is well timed, making
+any necessary allowances for the forwardness or backwardness of the
+season, for a moth that is generally due on a certain _average_ time of
+the year may appear some weeks sooner if the preceding weeks have been
+unusually warm, or its emergence may be delayed considerably by the
+prevalence of cold east winds or a late frost.
+
+Make up your mind as to the field of your operations before you start,
+and if possible choose a route that will carry you through a variety of
+situations, so that you may pass the favourite haunts of a number of
+different species. Clearings in woods with an abundant undergrowth,
+waste places with plenty of tall and rank vegetation, overgrown railway
+banks, clover fields, the flowery borders of corn fields, plantations in
+parks, heaths and moors, sheltered and overgrown hollows such as chalk
+pits and old disused quarries, reed and marsh land, all these are good
+localities, each one inhabited by its own peculiar species, and if your
+route runs through a fair variety of such places you may, other things
+being equally favourable, depend on a good catch.
+
+See that your time also is well chosen. Of course you cannot say exactly
+what the night will be till it actually comes, and, as you have to start
+off before it is dark, you must consider the probabilities of the future
+from the present condition of the air. Let it be a night when a bright
+moon is not due, and if it follow a warm and moist day with a south or
+south-west wind, or if drizzly, so much the better; but let your feet be
+shod with boots that will permit you to wade through moist herbage
+without danger, and take a waterproof if necessary.
+
+It is always advisable to be on your hunting ground before twilight sets
+in, as a number of moths venture out before the sun has disappeared; and
+then you can work on till midnight if you feel inclined, or even extend
+your labours till the early hours of the morning.
+
+Before dusk you will meet with many of the little _Tortrices_ (page 298)
+in sheltered spots, and a little later the _Geometrae_ and Hawks will be
+on the wing. Thus, before dark, you may make good use of your net,
+dealing with your captures just in the same way as recommended in the
+case of butterflies.
+
+After a time, however, the lantern will have to be brought to your
+assistance in making known the whereabouts of the later species,
+consisting chiefly of the _Noctuae_, many of which do not make their
+appearance till it is quite dark. If now you carry your lantern in your
+left hand, your work will be rendered somewhat difficult and tedious,
+for, although one hand is sufficient to manage the net properly, you are
+compelled to rest your light on the ground every time you make a
+capture, as it is impossible to box your specimens unless both hands are
+quite free. This difficulty is easily overcome by suspending the lantern
+by means of a string or strap placed round your neck, allowing it to
+hang on your chest; and a further advantage is gained by having a second
+strap round your chest to prevent it from swaying about with every
+movement of your body. This arrangement gives you both hands perfectly
+free during the whole time, and also prevents the necessity of
+continually bringing yourself into a stooping or kneeling posture while
+you are examining or boxing the specimens you have netted.
+
+There are now two courses open to you. Either you can kill and pin the
+moths as you catch them, fixing each one securely in the collecting box,
+or you may simply shut each one in a separate pill box and leave the
+remainder of the work to be done at home. If the ordinary collecting box
+only is used, a little of your time is necessarily occupied in pinning
+and transferring, and if many insects are about such an occupation may
+appear to you to be a waste of valuable time. But this is not all. Often
+and often will you find that while thus engaged a splendid moth will
+come and flutter round your light; and, before you have time to drop
+your collecting box and pick up the net, the fine creature you would
+have prized has darted off again. This certainly seems to speak in
+favour of the pill-boxing method, but it must be remembered that a few
+of the moths will continue to flutter after they have been boxed, so
+that when you arrive home they are more or less damaged, a large number
+of the scales that once adorned the wings now lying on the sides and
+bottom of the boxes. Perhaps the best plan is to take both the
+collecting box and also a quantity of pill boxes, and a little
+experience will soon show you which is the better accommodation for
+certain kinds.
+
+Particular attention must be paid to flowers, some of which are very
+attractive to the _Noctuae_ especially. Sallow blossom in spring and ivy
+bloom in autumn should be carefully and frequently watched, and at
+other times the blossoms of heather, ragwort, bramble, clover, and
+various other flowers must be searched.
+
+As you cast the rays of the lantern on the feasting moths some will
+prove themselves very wary, and dart away at your approach; but others
+will take but little notice of your advance, and will continue to suck
+the sweet nectar, their eyes glaring like living sparks.
+
+As a rule the _Noctuae_ thus engaged are easily pill-boxed or caught
+direct in the cyanide bottle; but a few of the more restless species are
+to be made sure of only by a sweep of the net. Some will feign death as
+soon as disturbed, and allow themselves to drop among the foliage, where
+further search is generally fruitless.
+
+Another common difficulty arises from the inconvenient height of many of
+the attractive blossoms--often so great that it is impossible to reach
+them with the net, and very difficult to direct the rays of your lantern
+on them. This is particularly the case with sallow and ivy, the flowers
+of which are two rich sources of supply to the entomologist.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--NET AND LANTERN FOR TAKING MOTHS FROM HIGH
+BLOSSOMS.]
+
+Those who intend giving special attention to these blossoms should be
+provided with some form of apparatus that will enable them to extend
+their operations as high as possible. Perhaps the most effective
+arrangement is the well-known combination here figured. It consists of a
+long and stout stick, at the top of which is a tubular joint (fig. 52)
+that might be termed a T-piece were it not that the smaller part does
+not stand out at right angles to the other. In this is fixed, in a
+straight line with the stick, a short rod on which hangs a lantern--an
+ordinary bull's-eye answers well here; and in the smaller tube is
+another short rod carrying a shallow basin-shaped net, and of such a
+length that the net is just in advance of the lantern.
+
+At first sight this arrangement will strike you as being very
+unsatisfactory, there being no kind of trap to prevent the escape of the
+insects. But it must be remembered that moths are more or less addicted
+to habits of intemperance--that they will hold on to the supply of the
+sweet fluid they enjoy till they are ready to drop with intoxication.
+This being the case, some will fall into your net as soon as they are
+startled by the sudden and near approach of the glare of your lamp, and
+others are easily _made_ to fall therein by gently tapping the
+flower-bearing stems from below with the edge of the ring.
+
+Having become acquainted with this very sad propensity, which thus
+brings ruin to so many unfortunate moths, can we not yet further turn
+their evil doings to our own profit in our endeavours to become
+acquainted with their structure and history? Most certainly we can. All
+we have to do is to distribute in their haunts a bountiful supply of
+some artificial intoxicant such as they love, and then lie in wait for
+the victims that fall a prey to our snare. This process is known to
+entomologists as 'sugaring,' and is a splendid means of securing an
+abundance of species, often including some rare ones that are scarcely
+to be obtained by any other plan. Let us now inquire into the _modus
+operandi_ of this interesting operation.
+
+The first thing to do is to prepare the luring sweetmeat. Supply
+yourself with a quantity of strong, dark treacle, and also some dark
+brown sugar; always remembering, in the selection of these viands, that
+odour rather than purity is to be the guide. The best kinds of sugar are
+those very dark and moist brands imported in a raw state from the West
+Indies, nothing being better than that known as 'Jamaica Foots.'
+
+Mix about equal quantities of these with a little stale beer, and boil
+and stir till all the sugar is dissolved. The consistency of the mixture
+should be such that it will work well with a brush when used as a
+paint--not too thick, nor so thin that it is easily absorbed by the
+substance on which it is 'painted,' nor must it be in such a fluid
+condition that it easily runs.
+
+When satisfied on these points, transfer the mixture to a tin canister,
+see it properly covered, and set it aside as your 'stock' from which you
+can draw supplies as required. Now secure an ordinary painter's brush of
+convenient size, and a number of strips of linen or other rag, each one
+of which is fastened to a hook formed of bent wire. These items,
+together with the usual lantern, collecting box, pill boxes, and killing
+bottle, complete your outfit for the sugaring expedition.
+
+When the selected time for operations has arrived, take sufficient
+'sugar' for your night's work, mix it well with sufficient strong rum to
+give it a very decided odour, and start off at dusk with this and the
+other requisites just mentioned.
+
+The night chosen should be warm and calm, with a rather damp atmosphere,
+and no moon preferred. Let your locality be a well-wooded one;
+abounding, if possible, with giant oaks and other trees, and containing
+open spaces with plenty of underwood and rank herbage. Such localities
+are to be met with at their best in forest lands, and if you would do
+wonders at sugaring you cannot do better than arrange for spending your
+holidays in such a spot as the New Forest, taking with you sufficient
+'sugar' for several nights' work.
+
+Having reached a likely spot of no very great extent, you prepare for
+real work. Light up the lamp, and get out your sugaring tin and brush
+ready for action. Take your course along some definite track that you
+are sure to remember, painting vertical strips of sugar, about a foot
+long, on the trunks of trees or on palings, and hanging strips of rag
+that have just been steeped in the sugar on the branches of small trees
+and shrubs where you do not find good surfaces for the brush.
+
+After satisfying yourself concerning the amount of sugar distributed,
+retrace your steps, examining every patch of sugar as you go. It will
+not be long before signs of life appear. Earwigs, spiders, centipedes
+and slugs will soon search out the luscious feast, but unless the time
+and the locality are ill chosen, the lantern will soon reveal a goodly
+number of moths, with eyes glaring like little balls of fire, greedily
+devouring the bounteous repast. These will consist chiefly of _Noctuae_,
+but _Sphinges_, _Geometrae_ and numerous small species also join the
+company.
+
+Some will exhibit a restless disposition, either darting off before you
+make a close approach, or keeping their wings in rapid vibration as if
+to be fully prepared for a hasty retreat when occasion demands. These
+must receive your attention first; and, having secured them, proceed to
+box as many as you require of the more lazy and gluttonous species.
+
+As a rule, moths thus engaged are easily pill-boxed, but the livelier
+ones will not submit to such treatment without attempting to escape. The
+best way to secure these is either to cover them with the opened cyanide
+bottle (or its substitute), and replace the cork as soon as a favourable
+opportunity occurs; or to perform the same feat with a glass-bottomed
+pill box.
+
+The advantage of the latter over the ordinary boxes will be seen at
+once. After the insect is covered, its movements can be watched, and so
+a favourable opportunity can be seized for snapping on the lid.
+
+As already stated, some moths feign death when in danger, allowing
+themselves to fall in places where they are often quite safe from
+capture. Others allow themselves to fall simply because they have so
+gorged themselves with the intoxicating sweet that they can no longer
+maintain their hold. Both these classes of sugar seekers may easily be
+secured by means of a net commonly known as the 'sugaring net.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--FRAME FOR THE SUGARING NET.]
+
+This implement is so simple in its construction that anyone can easily
+make his own. The frame may consist of two straight wires or canes fixed
+in a metal Y, and the other ends joined by a piece of strong string or
+catgut as shown in fig. 54. The net itself need not be deep. As soon as
+you reach a tree where moths are feeding on the sugar, press the string
+of the net against the bark just below them. The string at once assumes
+the form of the trunk so well that you may be sure of every insect that
+falls while you are boxing.
+
+For this work both hands must be free, and this is easily managed in
+spite of the number of appliances called into service. The lantern is
+slung round your neck and secured by a strap round the chest. The
+'sugaring net' has a very short stick, and just while you are engaged in
+boxing specimens, it may be gently held against the trunk by a slight
+pressure of the body. But such precautions as these are necessary only
+when the night worker is out alone. There are many circumstances,
+however, that render the work of two or more in company much more
+enjoyable than that of a single-handed entomologist. The labours are
+considerably expedited where a division enables each one of the night
+ramblers to take a particular portion of the work; and if there is such
+a person as a nervous entomologist, that individual should on no account
+go a sugaring in lonely spots on dark nights. Every rustling leaf gives
+such a one a start; all footsteps are those of approaching disturbers of
+the peace; and when at last the invisible landowner or his keeper,
+attracted by the mysterious movements of the lamp, greets him with his
+gruff 'What's your business here?' then for the moment he forgets his
+enchanting hobby and wishes he were safely at home.
+
+It is certainly advisable to take a friend, whether an entomologist or
+not, on such expeditions; and if you intend working on private grounds,
+always make previous arrangements with the property owner, that you may
+fear no foes and dread no surprises; for a sugarer is far more sure of
+success in his work if he keeps a cool head and has nothing to think
+about for the time being but his moths and his boxes.
+
+A few hours at this interesting employment pass away very rapidly, and
+when midnight arrives there is often no great desire to leave off,
+especially when it is known that some species of moths are not very busy
+till very late at night. Still it is not advisable to surfeit oneself
+with even the sweets of life. Perhaps it is better as a rule to work the
+early species only on one night, and reserve another for the later ones.
+The searchings are then always carried on with vigour throughout, and
+the labours that are thus never made laborious ever retain their
+attractiveness in the future.
+
+It has often been observed that, when sugaring has been carried on for a
+few successive nights in the same locality, the success is greater each
+night than on the one preceding it. Hence it is a common practice to
+work a chosen 'run' for two, three, or more nights in succession; and
+some collectors even go so far as to lay on the bait for a night or two
+previous to starting work. For the same reason it is often advisable to
+continue the use of a fairly productive beat rather than to wander in
+search of a new one.
+
+In the neighbourhood of large towns one may often meet with patches of
+sugared bark that mark the course and extent of a brother entomologist's
+beat, and such are valuable to an inexperienced amateur in that they
+give him some idea of the nature of the localities that are chosen by
+more expert collectors. But it must be remembered that each entomologist
+has a moral right to a run he has baited, and that it is considered
+ungentlemanly, if not unjust, to take insects from sugar laid by
+another. I have sometimes seen cards, bearing the names of the
+collectors and the date of working, tacked on to baited trees and
+fences, thus establishing their temporary exclusive rights to the use of
+their runs. Such precautions are not necessary in large tracts of forest
+land, where the choice of runs is practically unlimited.
+
+There are two other modes of capture available to the moth
+collector--the use of decoy females, and the employment of 'sugar
+traps'--and both these may be used on the sugaring run, or at other
+times either in the woods or in your own garden.
+
+The wonderful acuteness of the sense by which the males of certain
+species are enabled to seek out the females has already been alluded to,
+and the possession of a suitable decoy will often bring you a number of
+beautiful admirers without the least trouble, except that taken in
+securing the decoy and preparing her temporary abode. It is absolutely
+necessary that the female moth be one that has recently emerged, and
+consequently you had better secure her in one of her earlier stages,
+either by previous rearing or by collecting the pupae.
+
+A little cage composed of a framework of wire covered with gauze must
+now be made. Perhaps the simplest pattern is that illustrated. Here the
+gauze is attached to two wire rings, only a few inches in diameter, and
+suspended by a string. Such a cage answers every purpose in the field,
+and has the advantage of folding into an exceedingly small space when
+not in use. It may be suspended in your garden or taken into the field
+whenever you have a suitable decoy at your disposal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--CAGE FOR DECOY FEMALES.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--A SUGAR TRAP.]
+
+The sugar trap may be of much the same pattern as that in which a light
+is used, but if intended for field work it should be of a convenient
+size for portability. A lighter and far more convenient form may be
+constructed as follows:
+
+Procure a large cylindrical tin box, and cut a circular piece of
+perforated zinc just small enough to drop into it. Then make two wire
+rings, one a _little larger_ than the top of the tin, and the other only
+about an inch in diameter. Next make a conical net of leno, open at both
+ends, and of such a size that the two rings may form the frames of its
+two extremities. When the trap is required for use, cut a circular
+piece of flannel or other absorbent, steep it in sugar that has just
+been flavoured with rum, and place it in the bottom of the tin. Then
+place a few pebbles of equal size around the sides to support the zinc
+partition, drop in the partition, and then allow the net to hang on the
+rim as shown in the sketch.
+
+This arrangement will explain itself. The moths, attracted by the sweet
+perfume, flutter about in the net till at last they find their way
+through the small ring. Once in, they make further attempts to reach the
+sugar; and, at last, finding all efforts fruitless, and, like Paddy at
+the fair, not being able to discover the 'entrance out,' they finally
+settle down in a disappointed mood awaiting your pleasure.
+
+Perhaps another word of explanation is necessary here. Why not allow the
+poor creatures to reach the sugar that attracted them to the spot? The
+reason is this. They sometimes gorge themselves to such an extent that
+their bodies, dilated to the fullest capacity with syrup, are a bit
+troublesome when the insects are placed in the cabinet. It is therefore
+advisable to see that the zinc is so far above the sugar that the moths
+are unable to reach the latter by thrusting their extended proboscides
+through the perforations. A few dead leaves scattered on the zinc is
+also a useful addition, since it affords shelter to such of the insects
+as prefer it.
+
+This is a very useful trap to keep in one's garden throughout the
+season. It may not attract large numbers, but it has the advantage that
+it requires no watching. It is simply necessary to set it at dusk, and
+remove the captives in the morning or at your leisure.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+_COLLECTING OVA, LARVAE, AND PUPAE_
+
+
+We have already observed that insects should, as a rule, be set as soon
+as possible after their capture; and it would therefore seem that this
+is the proper place for instructions in this part of the work. But it so
+happens that butterflies and moths are to be obtained by means other
+than those already described, and we shall therefore consider these
+previous to the study of the various processes connected with the
+setting and preserving of our specimens.
+
+Were we to confine our attention to the capture of the perfect forms
+only, our knowledge of the _Lepidoptera_ would be scanty indeed, for we
+should then be ignorant of the earlier stages of the creatures' lives,
+and have no opportunity of witnessing the wonderful transformations
+through which they have to pass.
+
+Such an imperfect acquaintance with butterflies and moths will, I hope,
+not satisfy the readers of these pages; so it is intended, in the next
+two chapters, to give a little assistance to those who would like to
+know how to set to work at the collection of their eggs and larvae, how
+to search for the pupae, and how to rear the insects from the stage at
+which they are acquired till they finally emerge in the perfect form.
+
+These portions of an entomologist's work certainly take up a great deal
+of his time, and also require much patience and perseverance; but the
+advantages derived cannot be over-estimated, for in addition to the
+knowledge gained of the early stages of insect life, this kind of work
+will enable him to place in his cabinet a number of gems he would
+otherwise have not and probably know not. Occasionally a prize may be
+obtained in the form of a cluster of eggs (_ova_) of a rare species, in
+many instances the larvae are to be obtained with comparative ease, while
+the perfect insects of the same species are not often seen or not easily
+captured, and many a rare pupa has been dug out of its hiding place
+during a season when the entomologist had but little other work to
+occupy his time.
+
+These and other similar subjects we shall now consider in turn.
+
+
+_Collecting Ova_
+
+The collection of ova may be carried on more or less throughout the
+year. A number of moths are out in February, and even in January if the
+weather is mild. These soon lay their eggs, which are hatched about the
+time that the buds of the food plant are breaking. From this time till
+late in the summer the ova of various species are being deposited, the
+average period from laying to hatching being from two to three weeks.
+Then, during the autumn, when the leaves of food plants are turning
+brown and crisp, ova are still being laid, but these remain unchanged
+till the new buds of the following spring are bursting.
+
+Of course if you intend searching for the ova of particular species you
+must previously ascertain the favourite haunts of those species, become
+acquainted with their food plants, and also with the season or seasons
+during which the eggs are laid. But the few following hints will suffice
+as general instructions for the search.
+
+In nearly all cases we must expect to find ova on the food plants of the
+respective species, but at times, especially with certain moths, we may
+come across them in the most unlikely spots. Thus, it sometimes happens
+that a moth settles on a street lamp, and lays her eggs on the framework
+round the glass, or even on the glass itself. The same thing may take
+place on the sash or glass of a brightly lighted window.
+
+Such occurrences, however, we must regard as accidental and
+comparatively rare, and therefore we confine our searchings for ova to
+the food plants of the species we require.
+
+As a rule the under sides of the leaves will yield the most, but we have
+already noticed (page 18) that some moths leave their eggs exposed on
+the upper surface. Again, some larvae feed on flowers and seeds and
+fruit, and the eggs of such are deposited on these parts. Those insects
+which feed on the leaves of shrubs and trees often lay their eggs on
+trunks, branches and twigs. Sometimes these are laid singly, sometimes
+in dense clusters; and it is not unusual to find them arranged in rings
+or spirals with great regularity. When examining the trunks of trees for
+ova it is necessary to look well into the crevices of the bark, for some
+insects take particular care to lay them in deep sheltered chinks; but
+others take no such precautions, and deposit them on exposed ridges or
+plain surfaces where they are easily discovered.
+
+One difficulty of the ova collector lies in the fact that many insects
+lay on the upper branches of large trees. Of course a search for these
+is out of the question; but in places where the trees have been cut down
+a few years previously, and where a consequent undergrowth has
+developed, there are considerable chances of success with these species.
+Young saplings of trees often yield well, especially in places where
+tall trees of the same species are absent. It may be mentioned, too,
+that some moths (page 294) actually lay their eggs beneath the surface
+of water, depositing them on the under surfaces of floating pond weeds;
+and others (page 298) even enter the nests of wasps and bees for the
+same purpose. It is clear, then, from these few remarks, that the work
+of an ambitious collector of insects' eggs is by no means a monotonous
+task; for his employment takes him into the meadows and woods, leads him
+to the banks of ponds, and even compels him to tear down banks and
+hedges for the nests of _Hymenoptera_ at the risk of a sting or two.
+
+One of the most productive sources of eggs is undoubtedly the possession
+of captured females. When you are out netting butterflies you often see
+a female that is evidently engaged in her matronly duties. Instead of
+seeking food from the various flowers in her path, she pays attention
+only to the foliage, looking out a suitable leaf on which to deposit her
+eggs. Should you meet with an insect thus engaged which you would like
+to rear at home, or of which you would like to know the egg, secure it
+in a perforated pill box with a leaf of the proper plant; and it will
+often supply you with abundance of eggs for your purpose, in many cases
+depositing them in the box before you arrive home. The eggs of numerous
+species of moths are also to be easily obtained from captured females.
+
+Some insects do not seem inclined to deposit their eggs in captivity as
+freely as when at large, and in order to induce them to do so we must,
+as far as possible, put them in their natural conditions. Let them have
+plenty of room, and supply them with fresh twigs of their food plants,
+kept green by standing them in vessels of water. It is also advisable,
+supposing you are not well acquainted with the dispositions of the
+species you have, to keep a portion of the box well shaded from direct
+sunlight, and allow another part to be as bright as possible; for some
+species will not lay in a bright light, while others will not do so
+without it.
+
+Again, while some deposit their eggs within a few hours of quitting the
+pupa case, others do not lay for several days. With regard to the
+latter, it is frequently necessary to feed them while in captivity, by
+placing in the box a piece of rag or sponge that has been dipped in
+honey or syrup.
+
+Each batch of ova should be carefully examined with a view to knowing
+them by sight on a future occasion. A sketch should be made in your note
+book, showing every detail that you can make out with the aid of a good
+lens. Then observations concerning the season, colour of the eggs, the
+situation in which deposited, arrangement, and any other useful
+particulars, should be entered.
+
+In the next chapter some hints will be given concerning the management
+of ova and the rearing of the larvae from the time of hatching.
+
+
+_Collecting Larvae_
+
+This occupation is generally far more productive to the entomologist
+than searching for ova. The latter are very small, usually well
+concealed, and to be detected only by a careful scrutinising use of the
+eyes; but the superior size of the larvae, the frequent bright colouring,
+and the fact that they are easily beaten from their hold, render the
+searchings of their hunters comparatively easy and fruitful.
+
+Before setting out on a larva-hunting expedition, there are a few
+requisites to prepare. These include not only the implements for your
+work in the field, but also the cages in which you intend to rear your
+little captives. The latter are described a little later on under the
+head 'Rearing Lepidoptera,' and the former we will now briefly
+summarise.
+
+The outfit must consist of a quantity of suitable boxes, a stout hooked
+stick, a strong net, and a white material to place under the herbage
+while you are 'beating.'
+
+'Larva boxes' are usually made of zinc, and have little sliding doors in
+the lids, so that the lids need not be removed while out of doors after
+the fragment of the required food plant has been inserted. Such boxes
+are not by any means essential. Small tin boxes will answer all purposes
+nearly as well, providing a number of small holes be made in them for
+the admission of air. Chip boxes are also fairly satisfactory, but these
+also should be perforated. The best way to do this is to push a red-hot
+iron wire through the chip, making about half a dozen small holes in
+each box. This method will give you clean holes of a uniform size
+without otherwise injuring the boxes.
+
+Metal boxes possess the advantage that they keep the food plants moist
+for a long time, while chip boxes allow them to dry rather rapidly. Yet
+there are some larvae that do far better in the latter, since such a
+quantity of moisture exudes through their skins that they soon become
+uncomfortably wet if their apartment is not well ventilated. Under these
+circumstances perhaps it is better to take a supply of both, so that
+changes may be made as found necessary.
+
+One grave objection to chip boxes, however, is the weakness of the
+material. They are easily crushed by pressure, and a bottom or a top
+disc of wood often falls out; but this is easily overcome by gluing
+narrow strips of calico round the top and bottom edges. Chip boxes
+should always be treated in this way, and they will then last five or
+six times as long.
+
+Your supply of boxes should always include one large one of metal in
+which to bring home a supply of food for the larvae. If you have a
+botanist's vasculum, by all means take it, for nothing can serve this
+purpose better. If not, any rather large square tin box will do, and
+this may be carried in your satchel, or a couple of hooks may be
+soldered to it so that a leather strap can be fixed for slinging it over
+your shoulder.
+
+The net required is that commonly known as the 'sweep net.' It must be
+very strong, for it has to submit to rather rough usage. The frame must
+be made of thick wire; and the bag, which need not be more than a foot
+deep, should be of strong calico or holland.
+
+Now with regard to the white material previously mentioned. This may be
+a square of calico, hemmed round the edges. Nothing is more convenient
+than this, as it occupies but little room in the pocket when not in use,
+if neatly folded. The material need not be thick, but the larger it is
+the better. Many prefer a white umbrella or an ordinary umbrella with a
+white lining, but as this is only a matter of taste and convenience you
+must decide for yourself as to which you will use.
+
+If your field of operations is only a little way from your head
+quarters, and quantity of luggage therefore not a serious consideration,
+you may provide yourself with a heavy mallet, loaded if necessary with a
+pound or two of lead. This will prove very useful in shaking larvae from
+trees and large branches. Lastly, take a pencil and a note book or
+writing paper for your observations in the field.
+
+Now for the choice of the season. Larvae are to be found all the year
+round. Early in the spring, as soon as the buds are bursting, some break
+out of the eggs recently laid by the moths that appear in February and
+March. Later on, during April and May, a host of both butterflies and
+moths are busy arranging for their broods. Then, throughout the whole of
+the summer, thousands of caterpillars of all sorts and sizes are to be
+met with everywhere. And finally, during the bleak winter months, you
+may amuse yourself by digging the hybernators out of their hiding places
+where they rest themselves till the spring sun again calls them out to
+refresh them with the young and tender leaves of a new year. Thus,
+unless you are merely intending to search out certain species you happen
+to require, there is not much difficulty in settling on the season.
+
+The day selected should be dry, for your work lies among the herbage of
+banks, meadows, and woods, and nothing is more unpleasant than wading
+through a wet and dense vegetation, or beating down on yourself a shower
+of large drops from the branches of trees and shrubs.
+
+Having reached the hunting ground, the first thing to do is to look out
+for _signs_ of the presence of larvae rather than for the larvae
+themselves. Healthy vegetation with sound leaves must be passed by as
+untenanted; but the presence of partly eaten foliage immediately arouses
+suspicion.
+
+A little experience will soon enable you to distinguish between the
+ravages of larvae and of slugs, snails, wasps, &c. Some of the smaller
+larvae certainly eat out clean holes like those cut by _Hymenopterous_
+insects, but as a rule they bite away at the edges, leaving the midrib
+and the larger veins standing out almost naked.
+
+By looking well into the edges of the eaten leaves, it is easy to see
+whether the marauders have been recently at work. If they are dried up
+and discoloured, it is not of much use to search; but if still green and
+moist, you may feel almost sure that the hungry larvae are not far off.
+
+In this case you will carefully turn over the leaves to examine the
+under sides, and also the leaf stalks and branches or stems; but you
+must be prepared for all kinds of protective mimicry. Little green
+caterpillars will be seen lying on the midrib or veins, so straight and
+so still that they are scarcely perceptible. Others are snugly tucked in
+a depression of a leaf with the same result. Then we must also be
+prepared for the artful little tricks of the larvae of _Geometrae_ (p.
+268), by which they imitate stalks and twigs so closely that a sharp eye
+is necessary to discriminate between the two.
+
+While thus searching we may meet with the cast skin of a caterpillar.
+This gives us fresh hopes, and so we continue our careful examination.
+At last, on grasping a leaf in order to turn it over for inspection, we
+feel something hairy or something soft and smooth. But lo! it is gone.
+It is one of those numerous caterpillars that feign death and drop to
+the ground on the slightest sign of danger. We search below for it, but
+the density of the vegetation renders this hopeless, and we are just
+about to start off in search of a more productive locality when we espy
+a quantity of the excrement of larvae lying on a little bare patch of
+ground close by. This gives us a new idea. Here is another indication of
+the presence of the creatures we require, one that we can put into
+practice; and by-and-by we learn that in many cases this is really the
+surest sign of their whereabouts.
+
+We look at these little pellets of excrement, and gain at once some idea
+of the _size_ of the larvae that produce them. Then we observe whether
+they are fresh and moist, or dry and stale. If the latter, it is not of
+much use to examine the leaves above; but if otherwise, there is little
+doubt of our meeting with larvae, as the present position they occupy is
+so truly marked. The leaves just over them are carefully examined,
+either by turning them over as before described, or, if the height of
+the foliage admits of it, by placing our heads below and looking upward.
+
+If we find that the larvae are some of those that endeavour to escape by
+feigning death and allowing themselves to drop at the slightest
+disturbance, the net is always kept beneath the leaves we are touching
+in order to intercept them in their downward journey.
+
+Continuing the search, we meet with leaves that are rolled up and bound
+with silk threads, and others that are drawn together and similarly
+bound. These are carefully uncurled and pulled asunder with the result
+that active little larvae are exposed to view, or, it may be, pupae are
+discovered. In some cases flowers are drawn together in just the same
+way, and an examination reveals one or more of the species that prefer
+petals and other parts of flowers to the green leaves.
+
+Silken threads always arouse our suspicions. These may be seen lying on
+the surfaces of leaves, and passing from one leaf to another, or they
+may be hanging perpendicularly from the branches of trees above. In the
+latter case a larva may be frequently seen on the lower extremity of the
+fibre, swinging gently in the breeze, and, should we require it, we have
+only to place the open box below for its reception.
+
+Hawthorn and other trees are sometimes seen almost devoid of leaves,
+nearly every bit of green having been greedily devoured by a host of
+small larvae. In such cases we often meet with dense clusters of silk
+fibres that may easily be mistaken for spiders' nests. But when we look
+more closely into the structure we observe that we have discovered
+instead nests of gregarious larvae, such a large number being in each
+little community that the deplorable appearance of the tree is at once
+explained.
+
+A little farther on we meet with a sickly-looking plant in the midst of
+a number of flourishing individuals of the same species, and stop to
+make inquiries into the cause of this strange occurrence. Is it due to a
+poorness of the soil? No, this cannot be the case; for intermingled with
+its roots are those of its flourishing companions. We pluck a stunted
+and half-shrivelled leaf and examine it. At first we do not notice the
+cause of its peculiar condition; but, holding it up to the light, and
+looking _through_ it, we see a number of little galleries that have been
+eaten out of its internal soft substance, leaving the thin skin
+(_epidermis_) almost entirely intact. But nothing more is to be seen.
+Another leaf is examined in exactly the same way; and here we see the
+little destroyer, lying motionless in its burrow till a gentle pressure
+applied against it from outside causes it to wriggle along its narrow
+passage. This is the larva of one of the little leaf miners mentioned
+again on page 303.
+
+Reaching a little marshy spot we see a number of water-loving reeds,
+most of them beautifully green and in a flourishing condition, but here
+and there in their midst is a poor stunted specimen--another result of
+the ravages of the larvae of one or more moths. An examination of the
+blades reveals nothing; but on splitting open the stalk we discover some
+larvae that have already devoured a quantity of the internal pith, and
+thus endangered the life of the plant. On inspecting other similar reeds
+we are at first puzzled as to how the larvae could get inside the stems
+without damaging the outer portion; but at last we see in each one a
+little discoloured hole that was eaten out by the young caterpillar
+just after its escape from the egg. Once within the reed, it found a
+plentiful supply of food, and there grew at the expense of the plant
+without doing any further external damage save by causing a stunted
+growth.
+
+It may be that the stem eaters we have found are just about full grown.
+If so we examine a number of the stems with a hope that we may find one
+or two that are just about to change to the chrysalis state, or even a
+pupa already formed. By this means we may secure one of the perfect
+insects without the necessity of feeding larvae at home. Such a
+consideration becomes a most important one when it happens that the
+required food plant is one that cannot be easily obtained.
+
+Close by the reeds is another water-loving plant in the form of an old
+willow tree. This is always an attractive object to the entomologist, so
+it comes in for a share of our inspection. On its leaves we may find
+several species of the larvae of _Lepidoptera_, including those of some
+of our largest insects. But a strange feature catches our eyes as we
+happen to glance at the bark of the tree. Here we see a few holes of
+different sizes, about which are a number of little fragments of wood
+that remind us of 'sawdust;' and, examining the ground below, we see
+quite a little heap of this dust, looking just as if a carpenter had
+been at work on the spot.
+
+This is not the effect of a saw, however; it is a sure sign of the
+ravages of wood-eating larvae (p. 224), whose powerful jaws gain them
+admittance into the very hearts of trees, and the application of the
+nose to one of the larger holes leaves no doubt of the presence of the
+large and beautiful caterpillar of the Goat Moth (p. 224).
+
+If we require any of these wood-eaters, either for rearing or for
+preservation, we must be prepared for a little rather heavy work. A
+strong pocket knife is not sufficient, but with a good chisel the wood
+can be gradually cut away, and the galleries traced, till at last we
+come to the larvae snugly resting in their burrows.
+
+It often happens that the tree thus tenanted is half decayed, and
+consequently the work is rendered much easier. Also, while tearing away
+the wood, we often meet with a number of cocoons that have been
+constructed by the caterpillars for their winter quarters, or as a
+resting place while undergoing their transformations. These are composed
+of the wood dust bound together by strong silk fibres, and are often in
+such a good state of preservation that they form useful illustrations
+for the cabinet.
+
+As further aids to larvae searching we may mention that many
+species--chiefly of the _Noctuae_--hide under the surface of the ground
+or among dense and low herbage during the day, and come out to feed only
+by night; that many others feed on roots, and are therefore seldom seen
+above the surface of the soil; also that a good number burrow into
+fruits, in the interior of which they spend the whole of their larval
+stage. The best way to secure the latter is to examine the 'windfalls'
+that lie scattered on orchard lands, for it is a well-known fact that
+the fruits that are infested with larvae generally fall earlier than
+others--a result that must be attributed to the damaging work of the
+larvae themselves.
+
+All the larvae collected should be carefully boxed at once, a separate
+compartment being used for each species, and a few fragments of the food
+plant being introduced in each case. It is also a good plan to have each
+box previously lined with moss as a further addition to the comfort of
+the captives. Without such a precaution some of the more delicate
+species are liable to injury during their transmission from field to
+home.
+
+Hitherto we have obtained our larvae by _searching_ only, but there are
+times and occasions when our boxes may be far more rapidly filled by
+methods that are not such a tax on our time and patience. Suppose, for
+instance, that we reach a bush, the mutilated leaves of which seem to
+show that larvae are present on its branches. We spread our white cloth
+or open out the white-lined umbrella just under a selected branch, and
+then tap that branch very smartly with our stick.
+
+Down comes a host of living creatures! Spiders, larvae, beetles, aphides,
+earwigs, and what not, struggling and running about on our white fabric
+in all directions, and all mingled with bits of stick, leaves, and
+fragments of all kinds. We leave the cloth or the umbrella, as the case
+may be, quite still for a few seconds to allow all the living creatures
+to get a good foothold, and then, raising it into a vertical position,
+allow all the rubbish to drop off.
+
+We can now put the cloth down again, and select as many of the larvae as
+we require, giving our first attention to the nimble runners and loopers
+that are already near the edge and just on the point of making their
+escape. This productive method of larva hunting is known as 'beating,'
+and is particularly applicable to tall herbs and the lower branches of
+trees and shrubs.
+
+The same principle may be employed in the case of branches that are
+quite out of the reach of the stick, but the blows are here applied to
+the trunk, a mallet or some other rather heavy implement taking the
+place of the stick.
+
+Another splendid method of securing larvae where mere searching would be
+tedious and unproductive, lies in the use of the sweep net described on
+page 102. This implement comes into service in waste places that are
+covered with rank vegetation, in clover and hayfields, and in all spots
+covered with low herbs.
+
+Walking among the vegetation, the net is swept right and left before
+you, and the contents examined at frequent intervals. It is advisable to
+work the different species of herbs separately as far as possible,
+otherwise there may be some difficulty in the determination of the food
+plants of the mixed larvae that the net will contain. If, however, this
+plan is impracticable, you may save time by turning out all the
+'sweepings' into one large box, leaving the sorting to be done at home
+in leisure hours.
+
+
+_Collecting Pupae_
+
+We have seen that ova and larvae may be obtained in greater or less
+abundance at all times of the year, so variable are the seasons of the
+different butterflies and moths. The same remark applies equally well to
+pupae; but so many of the Lepidoptera spend the winter months in the
+chrysalis state that this period may be regarded as the harvest time of
+the pupa hunter.
+
+A large number of caterpillars undergo their change to the quiescent
+state during the months of August and September, and, of course, remain
+in this state until the warm days of the following spring or summer. And
+as insects even in the pupal stage have a number of enemies and dangers
+to contend with, it is advisable to start your search for them as soon
+as possible after they have changed.
+
+If you set your mind on searching for particular species, you should
+endeavour to ascertain the _usual_ time at which such species pupate;
+make any necessary allowances for the forwardness or backwardness of the
+season, and then allow a week or two for the change to be completed, for
+insects should never be disturbed at times when their metamorphoses are
+in progress.
+
+For general pupa hunting the best season is undoubtedly from the end of
+August to the end of October, but there is no reason why the work should
+not be carried on throughout the winter. If, however, you continue your
+work so late, you must not expect nearly as much success as time
+advances. You must remember that entomologists are not the only pupa
+hunters. Many hungry birds are always on the look-out for insects, and
+seem to enjoy them equally well in all their stages. Those that
+hybernate on or under the ground are liable to fall a prey to moles and
+beetles. In addition to these dangers, all pupae are subject to the
+effects of extreme cold, dampness, or floods.
+
+As regards the choice of a day, very little need be said. Any day that
+is sufficiently genial for yourself will do for your work, except that
+periods of hard frost render the ground too hard for digging--the most
+profitable part of the pupa hunter's task.
+
+The apparatus required is extremely simple: A satchel or large pockets
+full of small metal or chip boxes, a small garden trowel, and a strong
+chisel.
+
+If metal boxes are used they should be perforated; in fact, nothing is
+better than the ordinary larva boxes of the dealers. All the boxes, of
+whatever kind, should be lined with moss previous to starting work.
+
+The trowel and chisel do not pack well with a number of small boxes,
+therefore it is a good plan to fix them in a couple of leather sheaths
+attached to your belt. In this position they are far more handy for use,
+and the boxes are also in less danger of being crushed or damaged, as
+they probably would be if in contact with hard and heavy tools.
+
+A note book is also a valuable addition to your outfit, as it enables
+you to make memoranda concerning the trees and localities from which you
+obtain your pupae.
+
+The best localities for pupa hunting are clearings in woods, parks with
+numerous large timber trees, and meadows in which large isolated trees
+are scattered; and the best trees include willows, poplars, oaks,
+beeches, birches, elms, and hawthorns.
+
+The best thing you can do on arriving at the selected hunting ground is
+to make at once for isolated trees of large size, and work each one as
+follows:
+
+First examine well the crevices of the bark, for many caterpillars
+descend the tree to within a short distance of the ground, and then seek
+out a snug little crevice in which to spend the winter, often protecting
+themselves with silken cocoons, or constructing a neat little shelter of
+gnawed fragments of the wood cemented together.
+
+If there is any loose bark, very carefully force it out with your
+chisel, and examine both its inner surface and the wood from which it
+was removed. The wood thus exposed may reveal openings of the galleries
+of wood-eating larvae, in which case, unless the material is too hard to
+be broken up with the chisel, you may be able to trace out a few pupae.
+Where these exist, they are usually to be found very near the entrance,
+sometimes even protruding slightly from the opening, for the larvae
+generally place themselves in this position of easy escape when about to
+change.
+
+Next give your attention to the moss, if any, covering the lower portion
+of the trunk. This affords a very favourite shelter to many species.
+Tear it off very carefully, beginning at the top, and watch for loose
+pupae and cocoons as you do so. Then hold the clumps you have removed
+over a patch of bare ground or over a spread handkerchief, and pull it
+to pieces, in order that any pupae it contains may fall out; also examine
+the fragments carefully for others that may remain attached.
+
+This done, the surface of the ground must be examined. Remove all dead
+leaves, and watch for pupae that may be sheltered beneath them. If any
+loose stones lie on the ground, turn them over. Search well into the
+angles between the roots, and if there are any holes or hollows beneath
+them or in the trunk itself, pull out all loose matter within, and
+_feel_ gently above and around for cocoons.
+
+After all loose matter has been removed, there still remains the soil
+for examination. If this is very hard and clayey, it is probably useless
+to carry the search any farther; also if very wet you need not expect
+much; but if comparatively dry and friable there are more hopes of
+success.
+
+As a general rule the north and east sides of the trunk are drier than
+those which are exposed to the heavy rains brought by the south and
+south-west winds, and are consequently more favoured by larvae that are
+seeking a resting place for the winter.
+
+Most larvae seek shelter in the angles between the roots of the trees on
+which they fed, but a few species seem to prefer the edges rather than
+the corners; and in cases where no such angles are formed at the
+surface, you will do well to examine the earth and turf all round the
+trunk; but it is generally useless to extend the search more than a few
+inches from the tree.
+
+After having searched every available nook and corner as far as possible
+without digging, thrust the trowel obliquely into the soil a few inches
+from the tree, turn over the sod, and then examine the spot from which
+it was removed. Now give your attention to the sod itself. If loose and
+friable, break it up gently, keeping a sharp eye for falling pupae, and
+also for earthen cocoons that are easily mistaken for little lumps of
+soil.
+
+If the soil is held together by roots, it must be pulled to pieces, and
+the fragments shaken over a bare piece of ground where the fall of a
+pupa or cocoon could be easily seen; and if you have removed a grassy
+turf, it will be necessary to look between the bases of the blades as
+well as among the roots.
+
+In this way you may search round tree after tree, wherever the soil is
+of such a character as to allow of the admittance and shelter of larvae.
+But the variability of your success will be quite beyond your
+comprehension. Sometimes you will sight a grand old oak with the most
+favourable anticipations, and consider yourself quite certain of a good
+find when you discover, on a nearer approach, the liberal coating of
+moss that clothes its trunk and the dry sandy soil at its foot; and yet
+the most careful search ends in nothing but disappointment. At other
+times you try your luck at tree after tree without ever seeing a single
+pupa or even a cast-off case, and then, when just on the point of
+despairing, you search round another that is apparently much less
+promising, and, to your great surprise and delight, a dozen or two are
+turned out in a few minutes. Such an occurrence as this is not at all
+uncommon, and cannot be satisfactorily explained, but we must take
+things as they come and make the best of them, remembering that pupa
+searching is one of the best of all entomological operations wherewith
+to test one's perseverance and patience.
+
+It may be mentioned, in conclusion, that the pupae of _Lepidoptera_ are
+never to be found far below the surface of the soil. Generally they
+exist, if buried at all, only an inch or two down, and very rarely at a
+greater depth than four inches.
+
+In our next chapter we shall learn how to rear the perfect insects from
+the earlier stages we have been considering.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+_REARING LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+
+_Management of Ova_
+
+In the management of insects in all stages the strictest attention must
+always be paid to one general rule on which the success of the work
+almost entirely depends; and that is--keep every specimen as far as
+possible under the same conditions as those in which you find it in
+nature.
+
+Applying this principle to ova, we store them in airy and light places,
+protected from the direct rays of the sun, and avoid handling and rough
+treatment of any kind. It is also advisable in most cases to maintain a
+slight amount of dampness corresponding with that of the open air at the
+particular season of the year.
+
+They do not require much space, and it is certainly desirable not to
+give much, otherwise the newly hatched larvae, when their time arrives,
+will actively wander all round their premises in search of food, and
+give you no end of trouble in gathering them up.
+
+Chip boxes are, as a rule, very good and very convenient receptacles for
+ova. After placing the eggs in these, cover them over with very fine
+muslin, held in place by elastic bands; and label each as far as you can
+with the name of the species contained, and other particulars worth
+remembering. The boxes may then be put in front of a window facing
+north, or in any situation within or out of doors where rain and sun
+cannot reach them. A greenhouse is an admirable place in which to keep
+them, the natural dampness of the atmosphere being apparently a
+considerable assistance to the tiny larvae just as they are striving to
+escape from their shell.
+
+Whatever place is selected, it is absolutely necessary that the ova be
+carefully watched, so that each brood may be supplied with the required
+food plant within a few hours of quitting the shells.
+
+When ova are kept in a warm room, very great inconvenience and even loss
+is sometimes caused by the appearance of larvae before the necessary food
+plant shows its buds. Yet, on the other hand, it is sometimes a great
+gain to the entomologist to get certain broods off early in the season,
+providing the food is at hand; for in this way he can not only get some
+of his work over during a slack season, but also, if he desires it,
+secure an additional brood; that is, one brood more than the usual
+number. Thus, supposing a certain species he is rearing is naturally
+double-brooded, he can, by judicious management, secure three successive
+broods before the food plant casts its last leaves.
+
+This hastening of the natural events of insect life is known as
+_forcing_, and merely consists in subjecting the species concerned to a
+reasonable amount of artificial heat, such as that of a room in which a
+fire is always kept, or of a hothouse.
+
+It is interesting at all times to note the dates on which eggs are laid
+or collected, and the times at which the young larvae appear. In addition
+to this all changes that take place in the colours or forms of eggs
+should be carefully observed; for such changes will assist you in
+distinguishing between fertile and sterile ova, and also enable you to
+judge approximately as to the date of the appearance of future broods.
+
+
+_Rearing Larvae_
+
+The main point in connection with the rearing of larvae is certainly the
+selection and construction of the cages or their substitutes. For newly
+hatched and all very small caterpillars a small bottle with a wide mouth
+makes a very fair abode. Put a layer of sand or sifted soil in the
+bottom, fix in this a small twig of the food plant or lay a few leaves
+on the top, and then, after the larvae have been introduced, cover the
+top with a piece of muslin, held in place by an elastic band.
+
+The great drawback with this arrangement is the lack of any provision
+for keeping the food moist and fresh, thus rendering a change necessary
+at very frequent intervals; but this may be obviated by using damp sand
+as a foundation for the little twig of food plant. With this
+improvement, if you cover the top of the bottle with apiece of glass, a
+saucer, or any impermeable substance, you may keep the twig fresh for
+several days, generally until the disappearance of the last leaf calls
+for a fresh supply; but it is very doubtful whether the damp atmosphere
+resulting from this inclosure is not injurious to the larvae. It
+certainly does not seem to have much influence on some, but the
+unhealthy conditions that result must be detrimental to the inmates. It
+must also be remembered that many species require a _dry_ soil in which
+to burrow when about to change.
+
+When the time comes for the change of food, great care must be taken not
+to injure young and small larvae. In many cases they need never be
+touched, for if a fresh twig be placed beside the stale one, they will
+readily find their way to it; and to facilitate this, and also to afford
+a convenient foothold to those larvae that accidentally fall from the
+twig, the layer of sand at the bottom of the bottle should be covered
+with moss or cocoa-nut fibre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--A LARVA GLASS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--A LARVA GLASS.]
+
+If you find it necessary to move the larvae yourself from the stale food,
+never touch them with your fingers, but lift them gently by means of a
+small camel-hair brush. Larger larvae need never be moved at all. They
+will always search out fresh food for themselves, and the stale may be
+removed after they have quitted it.
+
+For rearing larger species ordinary bottles are hardly satisfactory, and
+we must either use large jars or construct cages of some kind.
+
+An ordinary bell jar such as is used for covering ferns or for aquaria
+makes a very useful 'larva glass.' Place a small bottle of water at the
+bottom, and then introduce sufficient dry clean sand or sifted soil to
+reach up to its neck. On the top of this place a layer of moss or
+cocoa-nut fibre. Next introduce the food plant, fixing it firmly in the
+bottle of water, and plugging up the space between the stem and the rim
+with cotton wool. This precaution is to prevent the larvae from falling
+into the water as they attempt to pass up or down the stem, and the wool
+also helps to keep the twig in a vertical position. The glass is now
+ready for the caterpillars, but it is advisable to keep a covering of
+muslin or gauze over the top in all cases even though the larvae
+contained are unable to creep up the surface of glass, for the great
+enemies of caterpillars--the ichneumon flies--are always on the alert,
+and will often take advantage of an open window to 'sting' the larva
+rearer's pets.
+
+Another form of larva glass can easily be made out of a large glass jar
+if you know how to cut off the bottom, or of a chemist's bell jar which
+is open both at top and bottom. In this case the bottle of water and the
+soil are arranged as before in a pan of unglazed earthenware, and then
+covered over with the glass. This is shown in fig. 58, and is an
+exceedingly convenient larva house, since the lifting of the glass
+enables you to get at the insects without any trouble.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--A LARVA CAGE.]
+
+Wood larva cages are very commonly used for the larger species after
+they have attained a fair size and require more food than can be stocked
+in bottles and glasses. These cages have glass fronts, either sliding or
+in the form of a hinged door, and sides of perforated zinc. They are
+kept in stock by all dealers in entomologists' requisites, but equally
+useful ones are easily constructed. If you select a box of suitable size
+at the grocer's, cut out large pieces from the lid and sides with a fret
+saw, and fix in the glass and zinc, you will have a cage that will
+answer all purposes.
+
+The internal arrangements consist of a shallow tray filled with soil, in
+which stands the bottle of water for the food, and a layer of moss
+sufficiently high to cover the bottle completely.
+
+A series of such boxes standing on end on a shelf, or hanging on a wall,
+will form a very satisfactory nursery for your pets, and will occupy but
+little space.
+
+We have already observed that some larvae burrow into soil when about to
+change, while others creep to a sheltered corner, or suspend themselves
+from the food plant itself. It will be seen that the larva cage just
+described supplies all these demands, and care must be taken not to
+disturb the occupants while they are undergoing their metamorphoses.
+Those that suspend themselves on the food plant should be allowed to
+remain where they have fixed themselves, and when it is necessary to
+remove the stale food in order to give a fresh supply to the later
+larvae, let it be fixed in an airy place where it can be watched till the
+perfect insects emerge. Those which suspend themselves on the sides or
+top of the cage, or spin cocoons in the corners, should never be
+disturbed unless you are greatly in want of the same cage for the
+accommodation of another brood; and even then it is possible that their
+presence will not in any way interfere with the new species. But if
+their removal becomes a necessity, let it be carried out as carefully as
+possible, and not until the change to the pupal stage is known to be
+complete.
+
+The species that burrow into the soil or bury themselves in the moss
+need never be disturbed till the rearing season is quite over, and then
+they may be transferred to a box specially kept for the accommodation of
+pupae.
+
+There is yet another method of rearing larvae to which we must refer--a
+method known as 'sleeving'--particularly useful when you happen to have
+the required food plants in your own garden. The ova or larvae are placed
+on the plant, the whole or part of which is then covered with a bag or
+'sleeve' of gauze. The larvae thus imprisoned have the full benefit of
+fresh air and light, and are also free from the attacks of ichneumon
+flies. They have a fair amount of liberty, and yet cannot get beyond
+your reach; also abundance of fresh food without further trouble on the
+part of the rearer.
+
+But even this arrangement is not perfection. It will not suit the night
+feeders that like to hide beneath the soil during the day, and it
+interferes somewhat with the burrowing tendencies of those which pupate
+underground. These little difficulties, however, can be overcome by
+placing the food plants in large pots or tubs of soil, and tying the
+mouth of the 'sleeve' round the outside of this utensil. If this cannot
+be done, those insects that pupate underground must be removed from the
+plant when their restless disposition shows that the changing time has
+arrived, and then be transferred to a box of soil where they can find
+the seclusion they seek.
+
+The larvae that hybernate throughout the winter are rather more
+troublesome, especially those which are inclined to take a ramble on
+certain mild days in search of food when none is at hand. Still there is
+no reason why even a beginner should not attempt the rearing of these.
+They will require food in the autumn until the cold weather sets in, and
+again early in spring as soon as the new leaves appear; but this is not
+of much consequence to those who reside in districts where the required
+food plants abound.
+
+Wood feeders also require some special treatment and precautions, and
+the successful rearing of some is a matter of no little difficulty. A
+wooden cage is, of course, quite out of the question with these, unless
+you wish to test the power of their jaws. They must be kept in large
+pots or jars, covered over with wire gauze or perforated zinc, and
+supplied with fresh stems or logs of wood, or with moist sawdust fresh
+from their favourite tree. A few of them--the 'Goat' (page 224), for
+example--will eat dead and rotting wood, and may be fed on old palings
+and other waste providing the right kind is selected.
+
+The troubles and disappointments of larva rearers are numerous and
+varied, and commence with the earliest moments of the young insects.
+Even the hatching period sometimes proves a trial, for it occasionally
+happens that the young larva has not sufficient strength to bite its way
+through the shell that surrounds it, and dies with nothing but the
+surface of its head exposed to view. This may be the result of keeping
+the ova in too dry a spot, the shell having become too hard and horny
+for the little creature's jaws.
+
+Then the moulting seasons are always periods of trial to the larvae, and
+often of loss to the rearer. Some of the hardier species may pass
+through all their moults without appearing to suffer anything more than
+a slight inconvenience at each, but in other cases the greater part of a
+brood may fall victims to these ailments of the growing stage.
+
+Apart from these sources of loss, however, larvae are subject to numerous
+diseases, infectious and otherwise, about which we know but little. A
+fever may rage in one of our cages; a fungoid growth may establish
+itself on the bodies of our pets, or we may see them cut down, one by
+one, through a fatal attack of diarrh[oe]a.
+
+In many such cases we are at a loss as to what to do. Blue pills and
+black draughts are not to be prescribed, and the modern practices of
+surgery and inoculation have not yet been applied to insect patients
+with very great success; but we must do our best to adopt hygienic
+principles, paying the greatest attention to proper means of ventilation
+and to a regular and wholesome dieting. In the case of diarrh[oe]a--a
+very common insect malady--the best we can do is to avoid the young and
+juicy leaves of the food plant, and substitute the older, and drier
+foliage.
+
+Ichneumon flies have already been mentioned as great enemies of larvae.
+These flies either deposit their eggs on the skins of caterpillars, or
+thrust their sharp _ovipositors_ into the creature's flesh and lay their
+eggs beneath the skin. When the young ichneumons are hatched, they
+immediately begin to feed on the fatty matter that is usually stored in
+comparative abundance under the skin of the caterpillar, and thus they
+grow at the expense of their host, within whose body they lie completely
+hidden from view.
+
+The poor caterpillar, though being eaten alive, often shows no external
+signs of the mischief wrought within, and, even though its substance is
+really decreased by the hungry internal parasites, yet the rapid growth
+of these robbers maintains the general plumpness of a healthy larva. But
+the ichneumons, having at last devoured the store of fat, and avoided
+the vital organs of the caterpillar, as if with a view to preserve their
+living home to the latest moment, now commence to attack the latter,
+speedily reducing the vitality of their host to the lowest ebb, and
+finally causing its death.
+
+This untimely end may come before the caterpillar is full grown, or the
+insect may change to the pupa before the ichneumons have done their
+worst, but it rarely occurs that the unfortunate creature has sufficient
+strength to carry it on to the final stage.
+
+A large number of the collected larvae will have been 'stung,' much to
+the disgust and disappointment of the rearer; and hence the advantage of
+rearing your specimens from ova wherever possible, providing you keep
+them so well under cover that the ichneumons cannot visit your broods.
+
+
+_The Management of Pupae_
+
+The disappointments connected with the rearing of _Lepidoptera_ are by
+no means at an end when all have passed successfully into the pupal
+condition, and the number of perfect insects obtained will often fall
+far short of the number of pupae in your boxes; but we must now see what
+can be done to minimise the death rate of the captives.
+
+One or more suitable boxes must be prepared for the reception of the
+pupae, and the following suggestion will answer all purposes:
+
+Get a wooden box, quite rough and unplaned inside, large enough to
+accommodate your pupae with ease, and not less than eight inches deep.
+Make several holes in the bottom, or else knock the bottom completely
+out, and nail in its place a sheet of perforated zinc. Also make a lid
+consisting of gauze attached to a light wood frame.
+
+Place a layer of clean gravel, about an inch deep, in the bottom, and
+over this a few inches of sifted soil or cocoa-nut fibre.
+
+Now take all the pupae that are 'earthed' in your cages, and arrange them
+on the prepared bed; also add to them the pupae you may have dug out
+during your various excursions. Cover all with a layer of the material
+selected for the bed, and then add a layer of moss.
+
+Next come the pupae that are suspended by silky fibres, or are inclosed
+in cocoons. These should be fixed with pins around the sides of the box,
+running the pins either through the tuft of silk at the 'tail,' or the
+outer layer of the cocoon, or through the portion of the dried food
+plant to which they are attached.
+
+Here your pupae will remain till they emerge, and the box may be kept in
+any airy place where it is not likely to be forgotten, for it is
+essential that the perfect insects should be removed as soon as possible
+after quitting their cases. It does not matter much whether the pupae be
+kept in or out of doors, providing they are sheltered from rain and very
+severe frosts; but of course, if the former, the imagines will emerge a
+little earlier, even if the room in which your specimens are stored has
+no fire.
+
+Even when protected in boxes such as that described the pupae are subject
+to enemies and dangers. The soil and moss employed may contain slugs,
+mites, or other creatures which prey on insects, and the amount of
+moisture present in these materials and in the atmosphere may prove too
+little for some species or too much for others.
+
+The remedy for the former evil is a simple one. Bake the soil or fibre
+well before fitting up the box, and boil and afterwards dry the moss.
+You may then be sure that all life previously contained is quite
+destroyed.
+
+But the degree of humidity is a point not so easily settled, and so
+variable are the experiences and opinions of different entomologists
+that it is difficult to advise a beginner on the subject. The fact that
+some strongly advise a perennial dampness, while others recommend no
+attempt at the application of water, would seem to show that there are
+probably important points to be urged on both sides.
+
+Nothing can be better than a very careful observation of pupae in their
+natural conditions. When engaged in pupa digging you will observe that
+the larger number are to be found on the east and north sides of trees
+where the soil is protected from the heaviest rains; on the other hand a
+good many are certainly found in very moist and sometimes even in wet
+situations.
+
+Particular notice should be taken of such experiences, making every
+allowance for the exceptions that prove the rule, and then let the
+natural conditions be maintained in your nurseries at home. To carry
+this out two pupa boxes should be kept, one for those species that seem
+to require dry situations, and the other for the species that apparently
+do best with moist surroundings.
+
+But when it is desired to maintain the pupae in a moist condition, great
+care must be taken not to allow any accumulation of stagnant water. The
+box we have described, with its bottom of perforated zinc, is well
+adapted for this purpose. Let it stand on a couple of strips of wood, so
+that any excess of moisture may readily drain through. The perforated
+bottom will also allow of a free circulation of air, thus securing the
+ventilation that is desirable in all boxes, whether wet or dry.
+
+If you have any insects that have pupated within moist stems, they
+should be kept in a moist condition till they emerge. The simplest way
+of doing this is to support the stems in a layer of wetted but
+well-drained silver sand.
+
+Forcing may be resorted to when it is required to obtain the imagines
+for early setting in order to get them in the cabinet before the busy
+season begins. The method is simple. Place the pupa box on a shelf in a
+room where a fire is kept every day. By this means you may get all your
+specimens out within a few weeks, even when you start the forcing at the
+beginning or middle of the winter. If, however, you require the imagines
+for breeding, you must be careful that the eggs are not laid long before
+the buds of the necessary food plants are due.
+
+When you are expecting the appearance of perfect insects, the pupa
+boxes should be examined every day. A morning visit to your pupae (for
+most insects emerge in the morning) may reward you with the sight of a
+newly emerged imago, clinging to the rough surface of the box, thus
+affording you an opportunity of observing the wonderful expansion of the
+wings. But the greeting is not always of such a pleasant character, for
+your disappointed eyes will sometimes be cast on a host of horrid
+ichneumons that have just quitted a shell from which you were expecting
+a prize of some specially valued species.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+_SETTING AND PRESERVING_
+
+
+_Setting and Preserving Butterflies and Moths_
+
+Up to the present we have been dealing only with living forms--learning
+how to catch and rear the Lepidoptera that fall to our lot; but now we
+have to become acquainted with the methods of preparing our dead
+specimens in such a way that they may form a useful collection for
+future study and reference. Our first attention shall be given to the
+apparatus necessary for this work.
+
+The most important requirement is the setting boards, of which several
+are necessary, the sizes varying according to the dimensions of the
+different insects to be 'set.' The _lengths_ of all the boards should be
+the same, not only for the convenience of packing when not in use, but
+also in order that they may, if required, be arranged neatly in the
+'drying house' to be presently described. The widths only will vary, and
+in this respect the boards must be adapted to the measurements of the
+insects from tip to tip when the wings are fully expanded. Thus, a set
+of a dozen boards, ten or twelve inches long, and from one to five
+inches wide, will do for a good start. Of course you may commence with a
+smaller number than twelve, but if you really mean to do the thing well,
+you will eventually require a good stock of boards.
+
+Here, again, it may be mentioned that all the necessary requisites may
+be purchased ready for use, a set of boards and a drying house complete
+costing from ten to twenty shillings according to size and quality; but
+as the reader, like myself, may prefer to construct his own, I will
+supply him with hints and suggestions sufficient for the work.
+
+Each board is constructed in this way. Cut out and plane up a piece of
+wood of the required length and breadth, and about one-eighth of an inch
+thick. Glue on the top of this a layer of cork about half an inch in
+thickness, leaving the whole under a moderate pressure until the glue is
+quite hard. The sheets of cork for this purpose may be bought at any
+naturalist's stores; but slices cut from good large bottle corks may be
+made to answer equally well if you don't mind the extra time expended in
+cutting and fixing.
+
+When the glue has well set, trim off the edges of the cork flush with
+the sides of the wood, and then cut out a groove down the whole length
+of the cork, of course in the middle, and of such a size that it will
+just contain the bodies of the insects for which it is intended.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--SECTION OF A SETTING BOARD.]
+
+The satisfactory cutting of this groove is not a very easy matter, but
+if its position is first carefully marked, a long rat-tail file may be
+made to plough it out neatly and regularly. As an alternative the
+following plan is good. First cover the wood with a layer of cork about
+a _quarter_ of an inch thick, and then glue on the top of this _two_
+narrower strips, about as thick as the bodies of the insects for which
+the board is intended, leaving a space of the required size between
+them, as shown in fig. 60. In this way you get a groove of square
+section, that is in some respects preferable to the round one cut out by
+means of the rat-tail file.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--SECTIONS OF SETTING BOARDS.]
+
+Now comes a question about which there is a difference in the tastes or
+fancies of entomologists. Shall the boards be perfectly flat on the top,
+or shall the sides slope from the groove, or shall the surface be
+rounded? A glance at the three sections of setting boards will show
+clearly what is meant. The rounded board is most commonly used, and the
+graceful curve thus given to a butterfly or moth set on such is
+certainly attractive; but it is not natural. The wings of these insects
+are rigid, and are never seen bent into such curves in a living
+specimen. For this reason I much prefer a perfectly plane surface on
+each side of the groove. Then, as to whether there shall be a slope or
+not, this is a matter of less importance. A very decided sloping of the
+wings is certainly not so convenient for future examination; nor does
+it, to my mind, look nearly so well as both sides in the same plane, or
+at a very gentle inclination. But perhaps this subject had better be
+left to the taste of the reader, remembering, however, that, whatever
+plan be adopted, all the boards should be alike in this respect, so that
+there may be a degree of uniformity in the cabinet.
+
+The surface of the cork must, in all cases, be nicely smoothed down with
+glass paper, and then covered with thin white paper, fixed to its
+surface with ordinary paste.
+
+When insects are on the boards, they should be placed in an airy spot,
+as free as possible from dust, while they are drying. Hence the
+advisability of some form of 'drying house.' This is simply a box,
+standing on end, and provided with a hinged door consisting of a sheet
+of perforated zinc in a wooden frame. The boards may slide in this on
+little slips of wood nailed or glued on to the sides, or the wooden
+bases of the boards may project beyond the cork at the ends, and slide
+into grooves in the side of the house.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--A BUTTERFLY ON THE SETTING BOARD.]
+
+Beyond these requirements nothing is wanted save a good stock of pins,
+thin card or ordinary writing paper, and a 'setting needle.' The
+last-named item is simply a needle mounted in a handle, and a good one
+may be made by thrusting the head of a darning needle into a piece of
+twig. The pins used for setting--that is, for fixing the pieces of paper
+or card to keep the parts in position--may be of the ordinary kind; but
+entomological pins are far preferable, even for this purpose; for, being
+much thinner, they do not damage and disfigure the setting boards so
+much.
+
+Now as to the setting. First see that the pin with which you are to fix
+your dead insect passes centrally through the thorax. Then fix it firmly
+on the setting board, its body lying neatly in the groove of the cork.
+Cut out some little pointed strips of card or paper, and, after bringing
+the wings into position with the setting needle, fix each one by a
+pinned strip. In spreading out the wings, care must be taken not to
+pierce them at all, but simply to push them into their place by pressing
+the needle at their bases, or by putting the needle beneath and
+_lifting_ them out.
+
+Instead of pointed pieces of card, uniform strips of paper may be used,
+as shown in fig. 63, each strip passing over both wings.
+
+After the four wings have been properly arranged, a few extra pins may
+be used to keep other parts in position. Thus, the antennae may be placed
+at equal angles, the proboscis may be extended, and a couple of pins may
+be used to support the abdomen if it is inclined to bend downward.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--ANOTHER METHOD OF SETTING BUTTERFLIES AND
+MOTHS.]
+
+As before mentioned, insects should be set soon after they are dead,
+while the parts are still soft and supple. But where this cannot be
+done, and the specimens have become stiff, brittle, and rigid, they must
+be 'relaxed' before any attempt is made at setting them out.
+
+This process of relaxing consists in placing the specimens in a very
+moist atmosphere for a few days. There are several simple ways of doing
+this, many of which will readily suggest themselves to the reader. Your
+collecting box, if a zinc one, may also be used as a relaxer. Pin your
+stiff insects in it, after well moistening the cork, and simply shut
+them up for a day or two. Any metal box will serve the same purpose
+providing you put into it a piece of sheet cork on which to fix the
+insects, and this cork may rest on a bed of moist sand.
+
+Another plan is to float the pinned specimens on corks in a shallow
+vessel of water, and cover them over with a bell glass.
+
+Insects that are being relaxed should be examined from time to time, and
+the degree of flexibility acquired tested by a gentle pressure of the
+setting needle or by blowing on them. If not sufficiently supple, give
+another day in the damp cell, but never allow them to be forgotten till
+they are covered with mildew.
+
+The time occupied in thoroughly drying butterflies and moths will vary
+considerably according to their sizes and the condition of the
+atmosphere. In hot and dry summer weather four or five days will prove
+quite sufficient for the _very_ small and thin-bodied species. From one
+to two weeks, however, may be looked upon as the average period; but the
+large and thick-bodied moths may require more than this.
+
+Perhaps the best test of their condition is the gentle pressing of the
+setting needle against the abdomen--the last part of the body to become
+dry and stiff. If the abdomen seems quite firm and rigid, you are pretty
+safe in removing the specimen from the board; but if it bends at all
+under a slight pressure of the needle let it remain for a day or two
+longer.
+
+If your cabinet is quite ready for the reception of new-comers, the
+insects may be put in their proper places immediately after their
+removal from the setting boards; but if not, they may be pinned
+temporarily in a 'store box' till the time comes when you have proper
+accommodation provided. The full consideration of these matters will be
+dealt with in another chapter.
+
+It is possible that the setting of some of your specimens will not
+exactly please you. If such is the case, put them in a relaxing box for
+a day or two, and then reset them more to your fancy.
+
+We have now to deal with a matter that applies more particularly to
+moths, especially the very large and thick-bodied species. The abdomens
+of these become more or less contracted and shrivelled on drying,
+sometimes to such an extent as to look most unsightly.
+
+There is a remedy for this, and the time and patience required in
+working it out will be well repaid by the superior results obtained.
+
+While the abdomen is still in a soft condition, make a slit throughout
+its length with a very sharp knife or a sharp-pointed pair of scissors.
+This slit should be made down the centre of the under surface, or, if
+the insect is to be placed in the cabinet with the under side exposed,
+down the middle line of the back. Then remove all the contents of the
+abdomen, scraping them out with a piece of hooked wire, or removing them
+with a fine pair of forceps, and leaving the skin as clean as possible
+both within and without. Now introduce a packing of cotton wool, just
+sufficient in quantity to maintain the natural form of the body as the
+specimen dries.
+
+There is another good method of stuffing moths that possesses a decided
+advantage over the one just described, since it leaves the specimen in
+such a perfect condition that it shows no appearance of having been
+stuffed when viewed from either side. This consists in snipping off the
+abdomen at the waist, clearing out the contents with a hooked wire,
+lightly stuffing it with cotton wool pushed in at the waist, and then
+setting it aside to dry, while the other part of the insect is
+undergoing the same process on the setting board. When both parts of the
+moth are thoroughly dry, the stuffed abdomen is easily fixed in its
+place with a little coaguline; and this, if neatly done, will not show
+the slightest sign of the treatment to which the insect has been
+submitted.
+
+Even after your insects are finally housed in the cabinet, they are
+subject to two other dangers, both of which are more destructive to
+moths than to butterflies. One is technically known as 'grease,' and the
+other is the invasion of certain museum pests that feed on the
+specimens, causing them to fall to pieces.
+
+Examine the moths that have been for a time in the cabinet, and some are
+sure to exhibit an oily or greasy appearance, the hairs of the abdomen,
+and perhaps also of the thorax, being clogged together just as if the
+specimen had been dipped in oil, the same miserable condition perhaps
+being shared also by parts of the wings.
+
+This is due to the gradual oozing out of the fatty matter that is always
+present to a greater or less extent in the bodies of the insects, and
+which must necessarily show itself more sparingly in specimens that have
+been carefully stuffed.
+
+The old saying, 'Prevention is better than cure,' applies well in the
+present case; but as there are times when a knowledge of the 'cure' is
+the only means of saving a valuable specimen from destruction, we will
+study both.
+
+To deal with the two in the order of the well-worn proverb, we will
+consider the prevention first. Always carefully clean out and stuff the
+abdomens of large-bodied insects; and as a rule, treat them with some
+substance that will either absorb or dissolve out all oily matter. I
+think the best plan is to remove the abdomen, clean it out if its size
+permits of such an operation, and then, after labelling it to prevent
+its future application to the wrong body, either let it remain in a
+bottle of magnesia for several weeks, or soak it in benzole or ether for
+a few hours or longer.
+
+If magnesia has been employed as an absorbent, you have simply to blow
+or lightly brush off the loose powder that clings to the body, and then
+fix it in its place with coaguline. A body dipped in ether or benzole
+will look as if completely spoilt at first, for the furry coat that
+clothes it will lie matted and almost entirely robbed of its beautiful
+colours, reminding one forcibly of the proverbial 'drowned rat.' But
+take no notice of this change. Let the body have at least a few hours in
+the liquid, extending the time to a day or two in the case of very large
+ones and those which experience has proved to be particularly liable to
+'grease;' and, immediately on withdrawing it, fix it with a pin in a
+good strong draught, such as you may obtain by opening a window about an
+inch, or, if a breezy day, in the open air.
+
+These liquids are so volatile (and for that reason should never be left
+exposed in an open vessel) that they rapidly evaporate, leaving the dry
+hair to be loosened by the breeze, thus bringing back the natural
+appearance almost perfectly.
+
+It is probable that many of the smaller insects that were not considered
+to require the stuffing or grease-removing operations will sooner or
+later exhibit a greasy tendency in the cabinet. At first the abdomen is
+affected, and the oily matter then gradually creeps over the rest of the
+body, finally spreading over the wings, and giving the insect a most
+deplorable aspect. But these are not irreparably lost, and the following
+cure will often bring them back to their former beauty.
+
+If the abdomen only shows signs of grease, cut it off and soak it in one
+of the above-named liquids for a day or so, replacing it as above after
+the drying operation. If, however, the oily matter has spread to the
+thorax and the bases of the wings, the whole specimen must be soaked,
+using a basin or jar of suitable size, covered with a plate of glass. A
+good draught during the drying operation will do much to prevent the
+hair from sticking in matted tufts close against the surface of the body
+and wings, and a gentle brushing with a very soft camel-hair brush will
+loosen and reset the fur.
+
+The other danger to which we have referred is the invasion of certain
+'mites' and other museum pests that pay periodical visits to our cabinet
+drawers and store boxes, often committing such havoc as to severely try
+the patience of an interested naturalist.
+
+The way to prevent such intrusions is to make the atmosphere of the
+compartments so obnoxious (to them) that they dare not enter; and,
+further, to so spice up your specimens that they are no longer safely
+edible to the invaders.
+
+The first object can be attained by always keeping camphor or
+naphthaline (albo-carbon) in each division. A lump of either substance
+may be secured by pins or a little perforated cell in the corner of each
+drawer or box, or the bottom of each may be dusted with finely powdered
+naphthaline; but as both these solids are volatile, care must be taken
+to renew the supply as occasion requires.
+
+Then, with regard to the second precaution, perhaps nothing is more
+effectual than corrosive sublimate. A little of this may be dissolved in
+a small bottle of alcohol (spirits of wine), labelled with the name and
+the word POISON, and kept ready for use. All the skins of stuffed
+specimens should be painted with this solution, and the stuffing itself
+may be moistened with it before insertion.
+
+There is yet another circumstance that renders a watchful care of your
+cabinet specimens necessary, if you happen to possess many that were
+captured 'at sugar.' Some of these will have so gorged themselves with
+syrup that they are literally full of it, and this will sometimes find
+its way to the outside, often dropping on the surface beneath. In such
+cases the sugar should be removed as completely as possible, and the
+bodies stuffed, before they are quite dry; but if the specimens have
+been in the cabinet so long that they are stiff and hard, the under
+sides of the abdomens may be completely cut out with a very sharp knife
+and thrown away, and then the sugar cleaned out from the upper shell as
+neatly as possible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+_PRESERVING OVA, LARVAE AND PUPAE_
+
+
+Many young entomologists give their attention almost solely to the
+perfect forms of insects, often collecting and studying a very large
+number of species without regard to their earlier stages and
+metamorphoses. This is decidedly a very great mistake. Although the
+lifeless form pinned in a cabinet may be a most beautiful object in
+itself, yet a study of this alone is uninteresting compared with that of
+the wonderful changes it has undergone since the time it was a very
+young larva.
+
+The different stages of the insects should be known as far as possible,
+and these, as well as the perfect forms, should be included in the
+collection for future study and reference. A good cabinet, according to
+my own opinion, is one that possesses, among other good features, a
+number of complete sets illustrative of the life history of at least the
+more typical forms; and as it is not a difficult matter to preserve the
+earlier stages, there is really no excuse for their omission from the
+collection.
+
+The empty shells of ova are in themselves sometimes interesting objects,
+especially when they illustrate some peculiar instinct on the part of
+the parent. Sterile eggs, also, often fall into the hands of breeders
+and rearers, and these, though in other respects unprofitable, are
+useful in the cabinet.
+
+If fertile eggs are to be prepared for a collection, they must be
+killed. This is easily done by thrusting into each one the point of a
+very fine needle, or by immersing them for a moment in boiling water, or
+by shutting them up in a bottle with camphor. In drying they often
+contract more or less, and frequently change their colour; still these
+are useful, providing notes have been taken of the characters thus lost.
+The larger eggs are capable of special treatment where the owner has the
+necessary time and patience, and where the highest results are desired.
+By means of a surgeon's injector of small size the contents of the eggs
+can be removed; and then, by the same instrument, a warm solution of
+gelatine, coloured in such a way as to restore the natural tint, may be
+forced into the empty shell. As the gelatine cools and hardens, it
+prevents any shrinking of the shell, and thus both form and colour are
+well preserved.
+
+For the preservation of larvae you will require one or two simple
+appliances.
+
+The first of these is a suitable glass blowpipe, one form of which is
+here illustrated. It consists of a glass tube, one end of which has been
+drawn out very fine; a piece of watch spring tied to it in such a manner
+that it will hold the skin of a larva at the small end, and a piece of
+india-rubber tubing at the other end, pressed by means of a brass spring
+clip.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--A BLOWPIPE FOR LARVAE.]
+
+A little drying oven is also very useful, but not absolutely necessary.
+If you decide to have one, any square box of sheet iron (not soldered
+tinned iron) may be readily converted into one. It must be provided with
+a hinged door in the front with a ventilator at the bottom, a hole for
+the escape of hot air at the top, and a tripod wire stand inside on
+which to rest the specimens while drying. The whole should be supported
+on a wire stand, so that heat may be applied below.
+
+Each larva to be preserved should be dealt with in this way. First kill
+it by means of any one of the killing bottles or boxes already
+described, or by immersion in spirit of wine. When quite dead, enlarge
+the anal orifice by thrusting a needle into it, and then lay it on a
+piece of blotting paper with its head toward you. Now take a round
+ruler, previously covered with blotting paper, and roll the larva gently
+from head to tail till all the contents of the skin have been expelled.
+Next fix the skin on the fine end of the blowpipe, by thrusting the
+point of the latter into the opening, and allowing the spring to press
+gently on its edge. Gently blow into the skin till it is inflated just
+to a _little below_ natural size, then either hold it near a fire or
+rest it in the drying oven till it is quite dry and rigid.
+
+If you have done your work neatly, the skin and blowpipe will both be
+quite air-tight when the clip is closed; and the air, finding no outlet,
+will still further inflate the skin when it expands on exposure to heat.
+This is the reason why you are directed to blow it out to something
+short of the natural dimensions. If you find that this expansion causes
+the skin to stretch beyond its normal size, a little of the air must be
+allowed to escape while it is yet soft and flexible.
+
+The front of the larva is generally the last portion to become dry, and
+when this is quite rigid the skin may be removed from the blowpipe. This
+is a matter that requires the greatest care; for the skin is so very
+thin and brittle that a little rough handling will break it to pieces.
+As a rule it may be easily pushed off the pipe by a slight pressure
+behind, or a gentle twisting motion will loosen its hold; but this
+latter method can hardly be applied to hairy larvae without breaking off
+the hairs, now rendered very brittle by the heat.
+
+If you find the slightest difficulty in detaching the skin of a valuable
+specimen, it is far better to damage the blowpipe than to risk spoiling
+the skin. Supposing your blowpipe is a glass one, you can easily break
+off the end of it after making a cut with a very small triangular file,
+and the portion thus removed may be left attached to the skin. Then,
+after softening the glass blowpipe in a gas flame or the flame of a
+spirit lamp, it can be drawn out thin again for future work. Those who
+can manipulate glass tubing in this way will find it far better to lay
+in a stock of suitable material, drawing it out when required, than to
+purchase blowpipes ready made at the naturalist's shop.
+
+Very fine hollow stems, such as those of the bamboo cane, may be used
+instead of glass; and these possess the advantage of being easily cut
+with a sharp knife when there is any difficulty in removing the skin.
+Again, whether glass or fine stems are used, a little grease of any kind
+placed previously on the end will allow the dried skin to be slid off
+with less difficulty.
+
+Preserved larvae should preferably be mounted on small twigs or
+artificial imitations of the leaves of the proper food plants. A little
+coaguline applied to the claspers will fix them very firmly on these
+twigs or leaves, which are then secured in the cabinet by means of one
+or two small pins.
+
+It is much to be regretted that the natural colours of many caterpillars
+cannot be preserved in the blown skins. Some are rendered much lighter
+in colour on account of the withdrawal of the contents, while others
+turn dark during the drying. In the smooth-skinned species the natural
+tints may be restored by painting or by staining with suitable aniline
+dyes, but these artificial imitations of the natural colours are always
+far less beautiful than the hues of the living larvae.
+
+Very few words need be said on the preservation of pupae. Many of them do
+not alter much in form and colour, and therefore they require no special
+preparation.
+
+If a pupa has to be killed for the purpose of adding to the value of the
+collection, simply plunge it into boiling water, and it is ready to be
+fixed in the cabinet as soon as it is quite dry.
+
+The empty pupa cases, too, from which the perfect insects have emerged,
+are often worth preserving, especially if the damage done by the imago
+on forcing its way out is repaired with the aid of a little coaguline.
+
+Let all larvae and pupae be preserved in their characteristic attitudes
+and positions as far as possible, so that each one tells some
+interesting feature of the life history of the living being it
+represents. Further, enrich your collection by numerous specimens of the
+various kinds of cocoons constructed by the larvae, pinning each one
+beside its proper species; and never refuse a place to any object that
+relates something of the life history of the creatures you are
+studying.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+_THE CABINET_--_ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS_
+
+
+The selection of a cabinet or other storehouse for the rapidly
+increasing specimens of insect forms is often a matter of no small
+difficulty to a youthful entomologist. Indeed, there are very many
+points of considerable importance to be considered before any final
+decision is made. Freedom from dust, the exclusion of pests, the
+convenience of the collector, the depth of his pocket, and the general
+appearance of the storehouse must be considered, and it is impossible,
+therefore, to describe a form that is equally suitable to all.
+
+If it is absolutely necessary that the cabinet (or its substitute) be of
+a very inexpensive character, and if, at the same time, the collector
+has not the mechanical skill necessary for its construction, then
+perhaps the best thing he can do is to procure a number of shallow
+(about an inch and a half deep) cardboard, glass-topped boxes, such as
+are to be obtained at drapers' shops. For the sake of uniformity and
+convenience in packing, have them all of one size. Glue in small slices
+of cork just where the insects are to be pinned, and see that each box
+is supplied with either camphor or naphthaline. All the boxes may be
+packed in a cupboard or in a case made specially to contain them; and a
+label on the front of each will enable you to select any one when
+required without disturbing the others.
+
+It may be mentioned here that glass is not necessary, though it is
+certainly convenient at times, especially when you are exhibiting your
+specimens to admiring non-entomological friends, who have almost always
+a most alarming way of bringing the tip of the first finger dangerously
+near as they are pointing out their favourite colours. 'Isn't _that_ one
+a beauty?' is a common remark, and therewith off snaps a wing of one of
+your choicest insects. When glass is used, however, see that the
+specimens are excluded from light, or the colours will soon lose their
+natural brilliancy.
+
+Anyone who has a set of carpenter's tools and the ability to use them
+well will be able to construct for himself either a set of store boxes
+or a cabinet of many drawers in which to keep his natural treasures. In
+this case a few considerations are necessary before deciding on the form
+which the storehouse is to take.
+
+A cabinet, if nicely made, forms a very sightly article of furniture;
+and, if space can be found for it, is the best and most convenient
+receptacle. One of about twelve to twenty drawers will be quite
+sufficient for a time; and the few following hints and suggestions may
+be useful.
+
+The wood used should be well seasoned, and free from resin. The drawers
+should fit well, and slide without the least danger of shaking. Each one
+should be lined with sheet cork, about one-eighth of an inch thick,
+glued to the bottom, nicely levelled with sand paper, and then covered
+with thin, pure white paper, laid on with thin paste. It is also
+advisable to cover each with glass, inclosed in a light wood frame that
+fits so closely as to prevent the intrusion of mites.
+
+The drawers may be arranged in a single vertical tier if the cabinet is
+to stand on the floor, or in two tiers if it is to be shorter for
+placing on the top of another piece of furniture; and glass doors,
+fastened by a lock and key, may be made to cover the front if such are
+desired as a matter of fancy, or as a precaution against the meddlesome
+habits of juvenile fingers.
+
+Store boxes are sometimes chosen in preference to cabinets because they
+are more portable, and because they can be arranged on shelves--an
+important consideration when floor space is not available.
+
+These boxes should be cork-lined and glazed like the cabinet drawers;
+and if they are made in two equal portions, lined with cork on both
+sides, and closing up like a book, they may be arranged on shelves like
+books, in which position they will collect but little dust.
+
+Both store boxes and cabinets are always kept in stock by the dealers,
+the former ranging from a few shillings each, and the latter from
+fifteen shillings to a guinea per drawer. Knowing this, you can decide
+for yourself between the two alternatives--making and purchasing.
+
+We have now to consider the manner in which our specimens should be
+arranged and labelled.
+
+The table forming Appendix I contains the names of _all_ the British
+butterflies and larger moths, and shows their division into _Sections_,
+_Tribes_, _Families_, and _Genera_. This table is the result of most
+careful study on the part of leading entomologists, and shows how, in
+their opinion, the insects can best be arranged to show their relation
+to one another; and you cannot do better than adopt the same order in
+your collection.
+
+  RHOPALOCERA
+  PAPILIONIDAE                   _Euchlo[:e]_                 NYMPHALIDAE
+   _Papilio_         O              O              O          _Argynnis_
+      O              O              O              O              O
+      O              O              O              O              O
+      O              O              O              O              O
+   Machaon          Rapae        Cardamines       Edusa            O
+                                                                Selene
+   PIERIDAE          O         _Leucophasia_       O
+   _Aporia_          O              O              O              O
+      O              O              O           v. Helice         O
+      O              O           Sinapis                          O
+  Crataegi          Napi                        _Gonopteryx_       O
+                                 _Colias_          O           Euphrosyne
+   _Pieris_          O              O              O
+      O              O              O              O              O
+      O          Daplidice          O              O            Latona
+      O                             O            Rhamni
+      O                           Hyale
+  Brassicae
+
+Complete label lists can be purchased, printed on one side of the paper
+only. These, when cut up, supply you with neat labels for your
+specimens.
+
+If you intend to study the British _Lepidoptera_ as completely as
+possible, you may as well start at once with a sufficiently extensive
+cabinet, and arrange all the labels of your list before you introduce
+the insects. You will thus have a place provided ready for each specimen
+as you acquire it, and the introduction of species obtained later on
+will not compel you to be continually moving and rearranging the
+drawers.
+
+Probably the number of blank spaces will at first suggest an almost
+hopeless task, but a few years of careful searching and rearing will
+give you heart to continue your interesting work.
+
+Arrange all the insects in perpendicular rows. Put the names of each
+section, tribe, family, and genus _at the head_ of their respective
+divisions, and the names of the species below each insect or series of
+insects. The opposite plan, in which the circles represent the insects
+themselves, will make this clear.
+
+Three or four specimens of each species are generally sufficient, except
+where variations in colouring are to be exhibited. Wherever differences
+exist in the form or markings of the sexes, both should appear; and one
+specimen of each species should be pinned so as to exhibit the under
+side.
+
+Finally, each drawer or box should have a neat label _outside_ giving
+the name or names of the divisions of insects that are represented
+within. This will enable you to find anything you may require without
+the necessity of opening drawer after drawer or box after box.
+
+
+
+
+PART III
+
+BRITISH BUTTERFLIES
+
+
+We have now treated in detail of the changes through which butterflies
+and moths have to pass, and have studied the methods by which we may
+obtain and preserve the insects in their different stages. I shall now
+give such a brief description of individual species as will enable the
+reader to recognise them readily. We will begin with the butterflies.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+_THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES'_
+
+
+Family--PAPILIONIDAE
+
+_The Swallow-tail_ (_Papilio Machaon_)
+
+Our first family (_Papilionidae_) contains only one British species--the
+beautiful Swallow-tail (_Papilio Machaon_), distinguished at once from
+all other British butterflies by its superior size and the 'tails'
+projecting from the hind margin of the hind wings.
+
+This beautiful insect is figured on Plate I, where its bold black
+markings on a yellow ground are so conspicuous as to render a written
+description superfluous. Attention may be called, however, to the yellow
+scales that dot the dark bands and blotches, making them look as if they
+had been powdered; also to the blue clouds that relieve the black bands
+of the hind wings, and the round reddish orange spot at the anal angle
+of each of the same wings.
+
+It appears that this butterfly was once widely distributed throughout
+England, having been recorded as common in various counties, and has
+also been taken in Scotland and Ireland; but it is now almost
+exclusively confined to the fens of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire,
+and Norfolk. Occasionally we hear of the capture of single specimens
+quite outside these localities, sometimes even in most unlikely spots,
+where its food plant does not abound. But we know that _Machaon_ is a
+general favourite with entomologists, and that it is sent in the pupal
+state, by post, to all parts of the kingdom; so that the occasional
+capture of the insect far beyond the borders of its haunts is probably
+the outcome of an escape from prison, or of the tender-heartedness of
+some lover of nature who could not bear to see such a beautiful creature
+deprived of its short but joyous, sunny flight.
+
+You cannot hope to see this splendid butterfly on the wing unless you
+visit its haunts during its season--May to August; but the pupae may be
+purchased for a few pence each from most of the entomological dealers;
+and if you obtain a few of these and watch them closely, you may be
+fortunate enough to see the perfect insect emerge from its case, and
+witness the gradual expansion of its beautiful wings.
+
+The pupa (Plate VIII, fig. 7) itself is a most beautiful object. Its
+colour is a pale green, and it is fixed to its support by the tail, and
+further secured by a very strong silk band.
+
+The larva (Plate VIII, fig. 1), too, is exceedingly beautiful. Its
+ground colour is a lovely green, and twelve velvety black rings mark the
+divisions between the segments. Between these are also black bars, all
+spotted with bright orange except the one on the second segment.
+
+A remarkable feature of this larva is the possession of a forked,
+Y-shaped 'horn,' that is projected from the back, just behind the head,
+when the creature is alarmed. If it is gently pressed or irritated in
+any way, this horn is thrust out just as if it were an important weapon
+of defence. And perhaps it is, for it is the source of a powerful odour
+of fennel--one of the food plants of the caterpillar--that may possibly
+prove objectionable to some of its numerous enemies.
+
+The food plants of _Machaon_ are the milk parsley or hog's fennel
+(_Peucedanum palustre_), cow-parsnip (_Heracleum sphondylium_), and the
+wild angelica (_Angelica sylvestris_); but in confinement it will also
+partake of rue and carrot leaves.
+
+The caterpillar of this species may be found in the fens during the
+greater part of the summer. It turns to a chrysalis in the autumn, and
+remains in this state throughout the winter, attached to the stems of
+reeds in the vicinity of its food plants. The perfect insect is first
+seen in May, and is more or less abundant from this time to the month of
+August.
+
+
+Family--PIERIDAE
+
+This family, though known commonly as the 'Whites,' contains four
+British species that display beautiful tints of bright yellow or orange.
+
+In many respects the _Pieridae_ resemble the last species. Thus the
+perfect insects have six fully developed legs; the caterpillars are
+devoid of bristles or spines; and the chrysalides are attached by means
+of silky webs at the 'tails,' and strong cords of the same material
+round the middle.
+
+All the larvae are also cylindrical or wormlike in shape; and their skins
+are either quite smooth, or are covered with very short and fine hairs,
+that sometimes impart a soft, velvety appearance.
+
+The members of this family are remarkable for their partiality for
+certain of our cultivated plants and trees; and are, in some cases, so
+abundant and so voracious, that they are exceedingly destructive to
+certain crops.
+
+
+_The Black-veined White_ (_Aporia Crataegi_)
+
+This butterfly may now be regarded as one of our rarities. At one time
+it was rather abundant in certain localities in England, among which may
+be mentioned the neighbourhoods of Cardiff and Stroud, also parts of
+Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, Huntingdonshire, and the Isle of Thanet; but it
+is to be feared that this species is nearly or quite extinct in this
+country. It is well, however, not to give up the search for it, and if
+you happen to be in one of its favoured localities of former days, you
+might net all the doubtful 'Whites' of large size that arouse your
+suspicions, liberating them again if, on inspection, they do not answer
+to the description of the species 'wanted.' This course becomes
+absolutely necessary, since the Black-veined White is hardly to be
+distinguished from the Common Large White while on the wing.
+
+If you examine a number of British butterflies you will observe that in
+nearly all species the wings are bordered by a fringe of hair, more or
+less distinct. But the case is different with _Crataegi_. Here they are
+bordered by a black nervure, without any trace of fringe, thus giving an
+amount of rigidity to the edges (see Plate I, fig. 2).
+
+The wing rays, or nervures, are very distinct--a feature that gave rise
+to the popular name of the butterfly. In the male they are quite or
+nearly black, but those of the fore wings of the female are decidedly
+brown in colour. At the terminations of the wing rays there are
+triangular patches of dark scales, the bases of which unite on the outer
+margins of the wings.
+
+Another peculiar feature of this insect is the scanty distribution of
+scales on the wings. This is particularly so in the case of the female,
+whose wings are semi-transparent in consequence.
+
+The butterfly is on the wing during June and July, at which time its
+eggs are laid on the hawthorn (_Crataegus Oxyacantha_) or on fruit
+trees--apple, pear and plum.
+
+A vigorous search of these trees in the proper localities _may_ reveal
+to you a nest of the gregarious larvae, all resting under the cover of a
+common web of silk. These remain thus under their silken tent throughout
+the hottest hours of the day, and venture out to feed only during the
+early morning and in the evening.
+
+When the leaves begin to fall in the autumn, they construct a more
+substantial web to protect themselves from the dangers of the winter,
+and in this they hybernate till the buds burst in the following spring.
+They now venture out, at first during the mildest days only, and feed
+voraciously on the young leaves, returning to their homes to rest. Soon,
+however, they gradually lose their social tendencies, till at last, when
+about half or three-quarters fed, they become quite solitary in their
+habits.
+
+In May they are fully grown, and change to the chrysalis state on the
+twigs of their food trees.
+
+The larva is black above, with two reddish stripes. The sides and under
+surface are grey, the former being relieved by black spiracles.
+
+The pupa (page 45) is greenish or yellowish white, striped with bright
+yellow, and spotted with black.
+
+It is probable that the reader will never meet with this insect in any
+of its stages. But, though it may have left us, it is still very
+abundant on the Continent, where it does great damage to fruit trees;
+and the foreign pupae may be purchased of English dealers.
+
+
+_The Large White_ (_Pieris Brassicae_)
+
+We pass now from one of the rarest to one of the most abundant of
+British butterflies. Everybody has seen the 'Large White,' though we
+doubt whether everybody knows that this insect is not of the same
+species as the two other very common 'Whites.' The three--Large, Small,
+and Green-veined--are so much alike in general colour and markings, and
+so similar in their habits and in the selection of their food plants,
+that the non-entomological, not knowing that insects do not grow in
+their perfect state, may perhaps regard the larger and the smaller as
+older and younger members of the same species. But no--they are three
+distinct species, exhibiting to a careful observer many important marks
+by which each may be known from the other two.
+
+On Plate I (fig. 3) will be seen a picture of the female _Brassicae_, in
+which the following markings are depicted: On each fore wing--a blotch
+at the tip, a round spot near the centre, another round one nearer the
+inner margin, and a tapering spot on the inner margin with its point
+toward the base of the wing. On the hind wings there is only one spot,
+situated near the middle of the costal margin.
+
+The male may be readily distinguished by the absence of the black
+markings on the fore wings, with the exception of those at the tips. He
+is also a trifle smaller than his mate.
+
+This butterfly is double-brooded. The first brood appears in April and
+May, the second in July and August; and the former--the spring
+brood--which emerges from the chrysalides that have hybernated during
+the winter, have _grey_ rather than black tips to the front wings.
+
+The ova of _Brassicae_ may be found on the leaves of cabbages in every
+kitchen garden, also on the nasturtium, during May and July. They are
+pretty objects (see fig. 10), something like little bottles or
+sculptured vases standing on end, and are arranged either singly or in
+little groups.
+
+As soon as the young larvae are out--from ten to fifteen days after the
+eggs are deposited--having devoured their shells, they start feeding on
+the selfsame spot, and afterwards wander about, dealing out destruction
+as they go, till little remains of their food plant save the mere stumps
+and skeletons of the leaves.
+
+The ground colour of the caterpillar is bluish green. It has a narrow
+yellow stripe down the middle of the back, and two similar but wider
+stripes along the sides; and the surface of the body is rendered
+somewhat rough by a number of small black warty projections, from each
+of which arises a short hair.
+
+When fully grown, it creeps to some neighbouring wall or fence, up which
+it climbs till it reaches a sheltering ledge. Here it constructs its
+web and silken cord as already described (page 36), and then changes to
+a bluish-white chrysalis, dotted with black. The butterflies of the
+summer brood emerge shortly after, but the chrysalides of the next brood
+hybernate till the following spring.
+
+It is remarkable that we are so plagued with 'Whites' seeing that they
+have so many enemies. Many of the insect-feeding birds commit fearful
+havoc among their larvae, and often chase the perfect insects on the
+wing, but perhaps their greatest enemy is the ichneumon fly.
+
+Look under the ledges of a wall of any kitchen garden, and you will see
+little clusters of oval bodies of a bright yellow colour. Most gardeners
+know that these are in some way or other connected with the caterpillars
+that do so much damage to their vegetables. They are often considered to
+be eggs laid by the larvae, and are consequently killed out of pure
+revenge, or with a desire to save the crops from the future marauders.
+
+No greater mistake could be made. These yellow bodies are the silken
+cocoons of the caterpillar's own foes. They contain the pupae of the
+little flies whose larvae have lived within the body of an unfortunate
+grub, and, having flourished to perfection at the expense of their host,
+left its almost empty and nearly lifeless carcase to die and drop to the
+ground just at the time when it ought to be working out its final
+changes. Often you may see the dying grub beside the cluster of cocoons
+just constructed by its deadly enemies. Should you wish to test the
+extent of the destructive work of these busy flies, go into your garden
+and collect a number of larvae, and endeavour to rear them under cover.
+The probability is that only a small proportion will ever reach the
+final state, the others having been fatally 'stung' before you took
+them.
+
+
+_The Small White_ (_P. Rapae_)
+
+This butterfly closely resembles the last species except in point of
+size. The male, represented on Plate I (fig. 4), has a dark grey blotch
+at the tip of each fore wing, a round spot of the same colour beyond the
+centre of that wing, and another on the costal margin of the hind wing.
+The female may be distinguished by an additional spot near the anal
+angle of the fore wing.
+
+Although this and the two other common butterflies (_Brassicae_ and
+_Napi_) that frequent our kitchen gardens are usually spoken of as
+'Whites,' a glance at a few specimens will show that they are not really
+white at all, but exhibit delicate shades of cream and yellow, inclining
+sometimes to buff. The under surfaces are particularly noticeable in
+this respect, for here the hind wings and the tips of the fore wings
+display a very rich yellow.
+
+The species we are now considering is also very variable both in its
+ground colour and the markings of the wings. The former is in some cases
+a really brilliant yellow; and the latter are in some cases entirely
+wanting.
+
+_Rapae_ is double-brooded, the first brood appearing in April and May,
+and the other in July and August.
+
+During these months the eggs may be seen in plenty on its numerous food
+plants, which include the cabbages and horse-radish of our gardens, also
+water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_), rape (_Brassica Napus_), wild
+mustard (_B. Sinapis_), wild mignonette (_Reseda lutea_), and nasturtium
+(_Tropaeolum majus_).
+
+The eggs are conical in form--something like a sugar loaf, with ridges
+running from apex to base, and very delicate lines from ridge to ridge
+transversely.
+
+The young larvae often make their first meal of the shell, and then
+attack the food plant so voraciously that they are fully grown in about
+three or four weeks. In colour they are of a beautiful glaucous green,
+hardly distinguishable at times from the leaves on which they rest. A
+yellow stripe runs along the middle of the back, and lines of yellow
+spots adorn the sides; and the whole body is covered with very short
+hairs, each one arising from a minute warty projection.
+
+The pupae may be found during the same seasons and in the same situations
+as those of _Brassicae_. They are very variable in colour. Some are of a
+very pale grey or putty colour, some are decidedly brown, and others of
+a greenish tinge; and they are often spotted and striped with dark grey
+or black.
+
+
+_The Green-veined White_ (_P. Napi_)
+
+A non-observant beginner at entomological work may easily mistake this
+insect for the last species, for the ground colour and markings are very
+similar, even to the features by which the sexes are distinguished from
+each other; but an inspection of the under surface will give a ready
+means of identification, for here the wing rays are bordered with black
+scales which, by contrast with the rich yellow around them, often
+appear of a greenish hue. The butterfly receives its popular name from
+this circumstance.
+
+A careful observer, however, will readily find distinguishing marks on
+the upper side, for here also the chief 'veins' are more or less
+accompanied with black scales, especially the extremities of those of
+the fore wings, where little triangular blotches are often distinctly
+formed; and the dark veining of the under surface of the hind wings
+frequently shows through. The under side of this insect is shown on
+Plate I (fig. 5).
+
+This butterfly is not so abundant as the two preceding, but is widely
+distributed throughout England, and is in most parts decidedly
+plentiful.
+
+The first brood (for it also is double-brooded) appears during April and
+May, and the second in July and August.
+
+The eggs are very similar to those of _Rapae_, resembling ribbed and
+striated sugar loaves; and the larvae are of the same rich glaucous
+green, but may be identified by the black spiracles surrounded by yellow
+rings. In our gardens we may find both eggs and larvae on mignonette and
+horse-radish; the other food plants of this species include the
+water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_), winter cress (_Barbarea
+vulgaris_), rape (_Brassica Napus_), cuckoo-flower (_Cardamine
+pratensis_), and Jack-by-the-hedge (_Sisymbrium Alliaria_).
+
+The pupa is greenish, and marked with small black dots.
+
+
+_The Bath or Green-chequered White_ (_P. Daplidice_)
+
+There is no doubt that many butterflies migrate from one country to
+another across the seas; and as the Bath White is very common on the
+other side of the Channel, and has been taken very sparingly in England
+almost exclusively in the south-east, it is highly probable that the
+majority of those that have been captured here are specimens that have
+taken a voluntary trip across the water, or have been blown over during
+rough weather.
+
+This butterfly is one of our greatest rarities, and the capture of a
+specimen in England is an event that must necessarily be recorded in our
+entomological literature. It seems that _Daplidice_ has bred in England,
+for its caterpillars have been found at large on one or two occasions,
+so I will give a short description of the various stages of the insect,
+with a hope that some of my readers may be fortunate enough to meet with
+it.
+
+The female butterfly is shown on Plate I, fig. 6. From this it will be
+observed that each of the fore wings is tipped with a rather large
+smoky-black blotch, in which are four white spots. A double spot of the
+same colour also occupies a place near the centre of the wing, and
+another smaller and round one lies near the anal angle. The hind wings
+are clouded with grey, and bordered along the hind margin with distinct
+smoky-black spots.
+
+The male may be distinguished from the female by the absence of the spot
+near the anal angle of the fore wings, and of all the clouds and spots
+of the hind wings. Nevertheless the latter have a decidedly clouded
+appearance, but this is due to the markings of the under surface showing
+through them.
+
+The under side of both sexes is most beautifully marked--the fore wings
+resembling the upper sides, but the hind pair chequered with a beautiful
+soft green on a pale yellow ground.
+
+The eggs of this insect are deposited during April and May, and again in
+August or September--for it is, like the other 'Whites,'
+double-brooded--on two species of Wild Mignonette (_Reseda lutea_ and
+_R. luteola_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--THE BATH WHITE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The caterpillars, which are of a bluish colour, with two yellow stripes
+down the back, and two others along the sides, may be _looked_ for in
+June and September. Those of the first brood only have been taken in
+this country, while the others on the Continent change to the chrysalis
+in the autumn, and hybernate in this state throughout the winter.
+
+The chrysalis is of a brownish colour, and closely resembles that of the
+Small White in form.
+
+Those in search of this rare British insect should wander along the
+south-east coast, and net all the doubtful slow-flying small Whites
+(_Daplidice_ is rather slow and heavy on the wing), and their
+perseverance _may_ be rewarded with a prize that will ever be a reminder
+of a glorious catch and an eventful day. If you fail in this, and most
+probably you will, rather than remain a stranger to this beautiful and
+interesting insect, fill up the blank in your cabinet with a foreign
+specimen, which can be obtained at any time for a few pence, but be
+careful to label it 'not British,' in order that your brother
+collectors may not be deceived, or be led to make any unnecessary
+inquiries.
+
+
+_The Orange Tip_ (_Euchlo[:e] Cardamines_)
+
+No one could possibly mistake the male of this species for any other
+British butterfly, the popular name alone giving quite sufficient
+information for its identification, but the female Orange Tip is _not_
+tipped with orange, and its markings, both above and beneath, resemble
+those of _Daplidice_ so nearly that the same written description might
+apply almost equally well to both.
+
+On Plate I (fig. 7) is shown the upper side of the male, and just
+opposite it (fig. 8) the under surface of the same. The female is
+usually a little larger than her mate, and is marked similarly on both
+sides except that the bright orange blotch is entirely wanting. She may
+always be distinguished from _Daplidice_ by the smaller size of the
+white spots that break the dark blotch at the tip of the fore wing; also
+by the very small size of the dark spot in the centre of the same wing.
+The green chequerings of the under side of the hind wings are also more
+sharply defined, and the insect is generally of a lighter build.
+
+Like many other butterflies, the Orange Tip is subject to variations in
+colouring. Sometimes a pale but bright yellow takes the place of the
+white ground, and the orange blotch of the male is occasionally present
+on the upper or lower surface only.
+
+_Cardamines_ is a single-brooded insect, and is essentially a creature
+of the spring, at which time it may be found in abundance in lanes,
+meadows, and clearings in woods throughout the British Isles. Its flight
+is so light and airy that even the female may easily be distinguished
+from other Whites when on the wing, while the brilliant orange of the
+male, intensified by the bright rays of the spring sun, may be
+identified at some considerable distance.
+
+The food plants of _Cardamines_ include the cuckoo-flower (_Cardamine
+pratensis_) and the bitter cress (_C. impatiens_), after which the
+insect is named, also water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_), winter
+cress (_Barbarea vulgaris_), rock cress (_Arabis perfoliata_), hedge
+mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_), Jack-by-the-hedge (_S. Alliaria_),
+wild mustard (_Brassica Sinapis_), &c., and the eggs of the butterfly
+may be found on these during May and June.
+
+The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 2) is green, with a white stripe on
+each side, and its body is covered with short hair. In July it is fully
+grown, and ascends a stem of the food plant to prepare itself for its
+long winter sleep.
+
+The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 8) is a very peculiar object. Both ends
+are much elongated and sharply pointed; and the foremost extremity
+stands out at an angle with the stem to which it is attached.
+
+This butterfly should be looked for during April and May, but in mild
+seasons it may often be met with in March.
+
+
+_The Wood White_ (_Leucophasia Sinapis_)
+
+The distinguishing feature of this butterfly (see Plate II, fig. 1) is
+the extreme lightness and delicacy of its build. Its wings are narrow,
+and rounded at the tips; and the only mark to relieve the white ground
+of the upper side is a squarish blotch at the tip of the fore wing, and
+even this is either very indistinct or entirely absent in the female.
+The under surface is clouded with a pale greenish tint.
+
+This insect may be looked for in May and again in August, in paths and
+clearings in woods, where it moves along with a slow but steady flight,
+hardly ever seeming to rest for a moment. It is not by any means a
+common butterfly, but is very widely distributed, and sometimes appears
+in considerable numbers in certain favoured spots. Among the localities
+recorded may be mentioned Torquay, Exeter, Plymouth, South Dorset, New
+Forest, Reading, Darent Woods, Morecambe Bay, Haslemere, Windermere, &c.
+
+The caterpillar is of a beautiful green colour, and is covered with
+short whitish hairs. A darker green stripe runs down the middle of the
+back, and a bright yellow stripe along each side. Its food plants are
+the tufted vetch (_Vicia Cracca_), bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus
+corniculatus_ and _L. pilosus_), bitter vetch (_Lathyrus tuberosus_),
+and the everlasting pea (_L. sylvestris_).
+
+The chrysalis is a very beautiful object. Its colour is a delicate
+green, tinged with pink; and the wing-cases project in beautiful curves
+much beyond the general surface.
+
+
+_The Pale Clouded Yellow_ (_Colias Hyale_)
+
+The ground colour of this butterfly (Plate II, fig. 2) is very variable.
+It is usually a sulphury yellow, and on this account the insect is
+commonly known as the Clouded Brimstone; but sometimes the yellow is
+exceedingly pale--almost white--and tinged with green.
+
+A very large black blotch, broken by indefinite patches of the ground
+colour, fills up the tip of each fore wing, and extends to the anal
+angle, becoming narrower as it approaches this point. A black oval spot
+lies just above the middle of this wing.
+
+The hind wings are bordered with black, and a conspicuous spot of deep
+yellow lies very near the centre of each.
+
+The antennae are rather short, compared with those of the preceding
+members of this family, and are distinguished by their reddish-brown
+colour.
+
+The male and female of this species are similarly marked, but the ground
+colour of the latter is commonly paler.
+
+This is not by any means a very common butterfly with us, though it is
+very plentiful on the other side of the Channel; but it has a way of
+taking us by surprise in certain seasons, and then almost neglecting us
+for several years together.
+
+Its head quarters are certainly the coasts of Kent and Sussex, but it
+has been taken in considerable numbers as far west as Cornwall, and also
+to a less extent in some of the midland and northern counties. It is
+particularly fond of lucerne and clover fields, especially those that
+are situated close to the sea cliffs; and often it may be seen flying
+over the beach, sometimes even flitting over the breakers away from land
+till at last it disappears in the distance. This maritime tendency of
+_Hyale_ makes it probable that a large number of those that are seen on
+our south-east coasts have made a passage across the narrow end of the
+Channel.
+
+The eggs are laid in spring, by females that have hybernated throughout
+the winter, on various leguminous plants, including the lucerne
+(_Medicago sativa_), black medick (_M. lupulina_), purple and Dutch
+clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_), and the bird's-foot
+trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and on these plants you may search for
+the larva, though it can scarcely be said that you are likely to find
+it.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with black dots, and a yellowish stripe on
+each side. When fully grown it ascends a stem of its food plant and
+changes to a green chrysalis with yellow stripes.
+
+_Hyale_ is single-brooded in England, although two broods regularly
+appear on the Continent. In our country the perfect insects emerge
+during July and August. Many of these die before the approach of winter;
+but, as we have already observed, some hybernate and deposit their eggs
+in the following spring.
+
+
+_The Clouded Yellow_ (_Colias Edusa_)
+
+Not only are this and the last species similarly named, but a glance at
+the figures will show that they much resemble each other in appearance;
+and we shall also learn presently that in their habits and life history
+they have much in common.
+
+The male _Edusa_ is shown on Plate II (fig. 3), and when we compare it
+with its relative on the opposite side, we are at once struck with the
+superior richness of the brilliant orange or saffron of the ground
+colour. The black border of both fore and hind wings is also denser,
+wider, and more extensive. The whole of the yellow area of the hind
+wings is dusted more or less with black scales, with the exception of a
+round central spot of deep orange, corresponding with the orange spots
+on the hind wings of _Hyale_.
+
+The female, which is shown in the accompanying woodcut, is generally
+larger than the male, and is further distinguished by the very pale
+yellow spots that break the black border of both pairs of wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--THE CLOUDED YELLOW--FEMALE.]
+
+_Edusa_ further resembles _Hyale_ in the reddish colour of the antennae;
+and, in both the species, the red legs form a pleasing contrast with the
+yellow furry surface of the under side of the thorax.
+
+There is a variety of the female of this butterfly, in which the ground
+colour is a _very pale_ yellow, almost white. The hind wings are more
+thickly dusted with black scales than in the normal insect, and the
+orange spots of these wings show up much more conspicuously from the
+contrast with their surroundings.
+
+It is usual to apply distinct names to constant varieties of
+species--names that are to be added to the ordinary title. In this
+particular case the distinguishing name is _Helice_, so that we should
+speak of the variety of _Edusa_ above mentioned as:
+
+
+_Colias Edusa_, var. _Helice_
+
+Like _Hyale_, _Edusa_ is particularly capricious in its appearance. In
+certain summers it absolutely swarms in favourite localities, while
+during the intervals between such remarkable appearances--usually
+several years--it is positively scarce. The last favoured season was the
+summer of '92, during which (from the beginning of August to the end of
+the summer) dozens might easily have been caught in an hour or two; in
+fact, so plentiful were they in many places, that they were continuously
+in sight, often several at one time.
+
+Those in search of this insect should repair to the south coast,
+especially the south-east, and where lucerne and clover fields are in
+flower. It has very decided maritime tendencies, and may often be seen
+flying over the cliffs and beaches, and even skipping over the breakers;
+but, at the same time, it is more or less plentiful in many inland
+districts. It has been taken in many parts of Ireland and Scotland,
+particularly along the southern coasts of these countries; but its head
+quarters are undoubtedly the southern cliffs of England, from Cornwall
+to Kent, and also the hilly inland districts of the south-eastern
+counties.
+
+_Edusa_ catching is very lively sport, and is likely to prove sufficient
+for any lover of outdoor exercise under a scorching sun; for this
+butterfly is not only very powerful on the wing, but its flights are
+usually long, so that a good run is often absolutely necessary in order
+to capture it. On very hilly ground, such as _Edusa_ loves, chase is
+often hopeless, and then it is necessary to resort to stratagem. In such
+a case the best plan is to make a very cautious approach when the insect
+has been observed to settle, and then secure it with a sudden
+down-stroke of the net.
+
+The eggs are laid during May and June by a few females that have
+survived the winter.
+
+The caterpillar may be found in June and July on its food plants, the
+chief of which are the bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and
+the purple and Dutch clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_). Its
+colour is grass-green, and it is marked with a narrow whitish stripe on
+each side, which is broken by the yellow of the spiracles.
+
+The chrysalis is of a pale yellowish green, and is marked with yellow
+stripes and reddish-brown dots.
+
+
+_The Brimstone_ (_Gonopteryx Rhamni_)
+
+This, the last member of the present family, is remarkable for the
+graceful outline of its wings. The costal margins of the fore pair are
+most beautifully arched, and both pairs are sharply angled on the hind
+margins. This latter characteristic is quite unique among British
+butterflies, though we shall presently meet with instances of angular
+projections on hind wings only.
+
+The ground colour of the male (Plate II, fig. 4) is a rich sulphury
+yellow, with a greenish tinge. That of the female is a very pale
+greenish yellow. The only conspicuous markings are small saffron spots,
+one near the centre of each wing. The antennae are red, short, and
+beautifully curved; but, unlike the two preceding species, the legs are
+almost white.
+
+The eggs of this butterfly are laid in April on the two species of
+buckthorn (_Rhamnus catharticus_ and _R. Frangula_) by the females that
+have successfully weathered the winter. They are of a bright yellow
+colour, and are usually hatched in about a fortnight.
+
+The body of the caterpillar is green, and it is thickly covered with
+little black wart-like projections. A pale stripe also runs along each
+side. During May and June it may be found on its food plants, and toward
+the end of the latter month it attaches itself by a silken carpet and
+belt to the under side of one of the leaves.
+
+The chrysalis is of a very peculiar shape, the body being curved, and
+the wing cases standing out prominently beyond the general surface. Its
+colour is a bright apple green marked with yellow, and it is so
+transparent that certain of the structures can be seen through its skin.
+
+The perfect insect emerges in about three weeks after the change to the
+chrysalis; and may be looked for from July to the end of the summer.
+This period may be regarded as the best time in which to hunt for
+_Rhamni_, but it is to be noted that this butterfly makes its appearance
+during all months of the year, even though it is single-brooded.
+
+A large number seem to hybernate, and their winter sleep is so light
+that the welcome rays of the sun on a mild day, even during the bleak
+months of November to February, will often call them out from their
+hiding places. Then, as a rule, the hybernating butterflies do not live
+long after depositing their eggs for the future brood; but the Brimstone
+often lives on till its offspring have themselves attained the perfect
+state, so that it is possible to capture the insects of two different
+years both on the same day. In such a case it is generally easy to
+distinguish between the two, for the newly emerged specimens are
+beautifully bright and fresh in colour, while those of the previous year
+are more or less faded and worn, their wings being often
+semi-transparent through the loss of scales, and frequently disfigured
+by the stains of mildew.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+_THE FRITILLARIES, VANESSAS, AND THE PURPLE EMPEROR_
+
+
+Family--NYMPHALIDAE
+
+We now come to a rather large family, which contains some of our largest
+and most brilliant butterflies. Some of them display the most gaudy
+colours, and others exhibit patches of a beautiful metallic lustre.
+
+If you were to see all the members of this family side by side, they
+might strike you as being so varied in their appearance that you would
+wonder why they are all placed in one family group. But, were you to
+see, in addition to the perfect insects, all their larvae and
+chrysalides, the reason would be made clear at once, for these earlier
+stages are seen to resemble each other in certain points at the very
+first glance. The former are all provided with peculiar spines, and the
+latter are all more or less angular, and are all suspended to a silken
+carpet by means of hooks at the tip of the abdomen, and have no belt as
+we have observed in the case of the _Pieridae_.
+
+The perfect insects, too, although so varied in colouring, are alike in
+that they have only four walking legs, the first pair being so
+imperfectly developed as to be useless for this purpose.
+
+This family includes the Fritillaries and the Vanessas.
+
+
+_The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Selene_)
+
+The interesting group of butterflies known as the Fritillaries vary
+considerably in size, but are remarkably uniform in the ground colour of
+the wings, which, in all cases, is a rich golden or sienna brown; and
+this ground is chequered with darker colours in such a manner as to
+remind one of the petals of the wild flower known as the Snake's Head
+or Fritillary--hence the popular name of the group.
+
+The Small Pearl-bordered, our first example, is one of the lesser
+Fritillaries, and is shown in Plate II (fig. 5).
+
+The arrangement of the black markings on the upper surface will be
+readily made out from the coloured plate, but the pattern of the under
+side will require a little special notice, for it is here, as with the
+other Fritillaries, that we find the chief marks by which we identify
+the species. On this side (fig. 67) the fore wings are light orange
+brown, with a patch of darker brown near the tips, and spotted with a
+dull black. The hind wings have the light brown displaced by a very warm
+chestnut tint, some yellow, and bright silvery spots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--THE SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER
+SIDE.]
+
+Seven silvery spots of triangular form border the hind margin. A large
+one occupies the centre of the wing, and ten others are somewhat
+irregularly scattered over other parts of the wing--five between the
+central spot and the hind margin, and five between it and the costa.
+
+All the spots on these wings, whether yellow, chestnut, or silver, are
+bordered by a narrow black line.
+
+_Selene_ is not a very abundant butterfly, but is widely distributed in
+England, and is also found in parts of Scotland. Its favourite resorts
+are clearings in woods, especially those of Kent and other southern
+counties.
+
+It appears in May and June, in which latter month it deposits its eggs
+on the dog violet (_Viola canina_).
+
+The caterpillar is not fully grown at the end of the summer, and
+hybernates during the winter among the roots of its food plant. In the
+following spring it emerges again, and feeds till May, when it changes
+to the chrysalis on a stem. It is less than an inch long when fully
+grown, and is of a dark-brown colour. Six rows of hairy spines are
+arranged longitudinally on its body.
+
+The chrysalis is greyish brown, and has a number of very short
+projections corresponding with the spines of the caterpillar.
+
+
+_The Pearl-bordered Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Euphrosyne_)
+
+There is very little difference in the size of this and that of the last
+species, but _Euphrosyne_ (Plate II, fig. 6) is generally a trifle
+larger. The two butterflies are also very similar in appearance; indeed,
+they are so much alike on the upper side that it is impossible to decide
+on the name of either without an examination of the under surface.
+
+_Euphrosyne_ has a border of seven triangular silver spots on each hind
+wing, exactly corresponding with those of _Selene_. It has also the
+large central spot of silver. But, beside these, there is _only one_
+other, and that is situated in the basal angle. Thus there are only nine
+silvery or pearly spots on each hind wing of _Euphrosyne_, while there
+are seventeen on _Selene_. This will form a ready means of
+distinguishing between the two species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--THE PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The seasons and localities of this butterfly correspond very closely
+with those of the last species, but it is much more common, and may be
+found in abundance in nearly all our southern woods during May and June.
+
+The caterpillar, also, feeds on the same plant (dog violet) as _Selene_.
+It is black, with whitish lines along the sides; and is provided with a
+number of bristly spines.
+
+The chrysalis is of a grey-brown colour, with small dots of a paler tint
+on the wing cases; and its body has a number of short conical
+projections exactly corresponding with the spines of the caterpillar.
+
+
+_The Queen of Spain Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Latona_)
+
+We now pass from the commonest to the rarest and most prized of our wood
+butterflies--The Queen of Spain (Plate II, fig. 7). This royal personage
+is not easily mistaken for any of the meaner Fritillaries even when the
+upper surface only is examined, as the concave hind margins of the fore
+wings serve as an almost conclusive mark of distinction. The rich tawny
+brown of this side is boldly marked with black, and the long hairs and
+scales of the bases of the wings are tinged with green.
+
+The under side presents a most beautiful appearance. Here the ground
+colour is paler than that of the upper side. The fore wings are spotted
+with black, and have a few small patches of silver at the tips. Each
+hind wing has no fewer than twenty-four bright silvery spots. Seven of
+these, mostly of large size, adorn the hind margin, and above each of
+these is a small one in the middle of a little patch of dark brown. The
+arrangement of the others is not quite so easily described, but may be
+readily made out from our illustration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--THE QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This rare gem among British butterflies has been taken in many
+localities, but in very small numbers. Seeing that it is a common insect
+on the other side of the Channel, and that the British captures have
+been made chiefly in the Isle of Wight and on the south coast, I am
+inclined to believe that many of the highly valued genuine Britishers
+have no right to their title, but are visitors that have spent only a
+few days within our shores, having flown or been blown across the sea.
+
+It is not likely that many of my readers will ever meet with _Latona_
+during their rambles in our own country, and if they are anxious to have
+the species represented in their collections, they will probably have to
+purchase either a British or a foreign specimen, the former of which
+will command a very high price, while the latter may be obtained for
+three or four pence.
+
+The perfect insect may be looked for in August and September, during
+which time the eggs are laid on the leaves of violets and the heartsease
+(_Viola canina_, _V. odorata_, and _V. tricolor_).
+
+The caterpillar is brown, with numerous yellowish spines, and has three
+whitish or yellowish stripes--one down the middle of the back and one
+along each side. It hybernates during the winter, and is fully grown in
+the following June or July. I hope that my reader will be so fortunate
+as to secure either this or some other stage of this rare and beautiful
+insect. The chances are decidedly against him, but that is no reason
+why he should abstain from a vigorous search when he happens to be
+'doing' the southern counties.
+
+
+_The Dark-green Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Aglaia_)
+
+This butterfly is larger than _Latona_, as will be seen by reference to
+Plate II, fig. 8. Its colour is, as usual with the Fritillaries, a tawny
+brown with black markings. The female is usually larger than the male,
+and she is further distinguished by the ground colour being darker and
+the black markings larger.
+
+The under side of the fore wings is very similar in colour and markings
+to the upper, but there are silvery spots near the tips. The hind wings
+are beautifully tinted with olive green and brown, and studded with
+silver. The arrangement of the latter is not easily described, but is
+accurately represented in the accompanying woodcut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--THE DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The favourite resorts of this insect are wooded spots, and also heaths
+and downs clad with heather or ferns, where its food plant (the dog
+violet) lies scattered; but it seems to be less partial to woods than
+the other Fritillaries. It is very widely distributed throughout
+England, and is common in parts of Scotland and Ireland.
+
+The perfect insect is on the wing in July and early August.
+
+The caterpillar first appears toward the end of August, and commences
+its period of hybernation among the roots of its food plant before it
+has grown to any considerable size. It comes out again in the spring,
+and continues to feed till the beginning or middle of July, and then
+changes to the chrysalis state, after protecting itself by binding three
+or four leaves together.
+
+Its colour is a velvety black, with dark and glossy grey between the
+segments. There is a double yellow line along the back, and a thin line
+of orange yellow on each side below the spiracles. It has a number of
+black hairy spines, arranged in six longitudinal rows.
+
+The chrysalis is of a shiny black colour, with brownish abdomen; and the
+conical projections are black with yellow tips.
+
+
+_The High-brown Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Adippe_)
+
+The upper side of this butterfly is so much like that of _Aglaia_ that
+it would be difficult indeed to give a written description of one that
+did not almost equally well apply to the other; so we look to the under
+surface for the chief marks by which we can distinguish between them.
+
+On this side (Plate III, fig. 1) the fore wings are much the same as
+those of _Aglaia_. The hind wings, too, are very similarly coloured and
+marked, but here we have a distinguishing feature in a row of rust-red
+spots with silvery centres, just inside the silver border of the hind
+margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--THE HIGH-BROWN FRITILLARY.]
+
+This butterfly is common in open spaces of woods in many parts of
+England, more particularly in the south, and seems to be also fond of
+hilly heaths and moors.
+
+It is on the wing in July, and, towards the end of this month and in the
+beginning of August, the eggs are laid on the leaves of the dog violet
+(_Viola canina_) and heartsease (_V. tricolor_).
+
+The young caterpillar emerges about two weeks later, and feeds only for
+a short time before it seeks out its winter quarters among the dead
+leaves at the root of its food plant. The feeding is resumed in the
+spring, and continued till the month of June, when it is fully grown. At
+this time it is about an inch and a half long. Its head is black, and
+its body pinkish brown. A white line extends down the back, but is
+interrupted by several black marks. The spines, of which there are six
+rows, are white, with pinkish tips.
+
+
+_The Silver-washed Fritillary_ (_Argynnis Paphia_)
+
+This beautiful and noble butterfly is the largest of the Fritillaries,
+and the most powerful on the wing. During the latter part of June and
+throughout July it may be seen gracefully sweeping through the trees and
+undergrowth of woods, often settling down on a favourite flower for a
+short time. So strong is its flight that it is useless to attempt to
+pursue it for any distance. Sometimes it will sail along a wooded path,
+followed at short intervals by others of its species, and may be taken
+in the net as it passes. But perhaps the most successful method of
+netting _Paphia_ is to wait till it has settled, and then secure it by a
+quick upward or side stroke of the net. If then you miss your aim, off
+it will dart, sailing over the tree tops till, in a very short time, it
+is quite out of sight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--THE SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The upper side of this butterfly is shown in Plate III, fig. 2, where
+the general arrangement of the black spots on the rich orange-brown
+ground is carefully marked. There is a considerable difference between
+the male and female of this species. The figure on Plate III represents
+the male. The female does not possess the broad black lines that follow
+the course of the veins of the fore wings; the basal portions of all
+four wings are also tinged with a rich olive-brown colour, often with a
+decided tendency to green; and the black spots of all the wings are
+larger.
+
+The under side is particularly rich in its decorations. The front wings
+are of the usual orange brown, chequered with black. The hind wings are
+partly brown and partly orange, and exhibit beautiful greenish
+reflections. They have also two bars of silver, and a silvery spot in
+the basal angle, all with rather indefinite outlines.
+
+The female lays her eggs late in July on the food plants (_Viola canina_
+and _V. odorata_) or on the moss that surrounds them.
+
+About two weeks later the young caterpillar is out and feeding; and
+then, after a few more weeks, while it is yet very small, it hides among
+the dead leaves at the roots. Early in the spring it resumes its
+feeding, and is full grown at the end of May.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 3) is black, and there
+are two yellow lines along the back, separated by a black stripe, also
+one yellowish line on each side. Its body is adorned with reddish-brown
+spines, two of which, situated just behind the head, are longer than the
+others.
+
+The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 9) is greyish, marked with metallic
+spots, and has a number of angular projections representing the spines
+of the larva.
+
+_Paphia_ is to be met with in woods in all parts of England and Wales.
+It has also been observed in Ireland, but is rarely seen in Scotland.
+
+
+_The Greasy Fritillary_ (_Melitaea Aurinia_)
+
+Unlike the other Fritillaries, this species (Plate III, fig. 3) exhibits
+a variety of shades on the upper surface. A broad band of sienna brown
+stretches across each wing, near to and parallel with the hind margin.
+The other parts of the wings are marked with patches of sienna, orange,
+and yellow, separated by black lines and bands. The margins are all
+black, and inside the broader margin of the hind wing is a row of six
+very pale yellow spots. The broad sienna band of the hind wing is also
+divided by narrow black lines into seven parts, six of which have black
+centres.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--THE GREASY FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under surface of the fore wings has indefinite yellowish and tawny
+patches, which look as if they had been greased and smeared. The hind
+wings are marked with pale yellow and deep orange; a broad band of the
+latter, near the hind margin, is divided into segments, each of which
+has a yellow spot with black in the centre.
+
+This is a very local insect, although it is widely distributed
+throughout England and Wales. It also occurs sparingly in Scotland and
+Ireland. Its food plants are the honeysuckle (_Lonicera_
+_Periclymenum_), devil's-bit scabious (_Scabiosa succisa_), and the
+plantain (_Plantago_); and its chief resorts are damp meadows and marshy
+places, where these plants (more especially the scabious) abound.
+
+The butterfly appears about the end of April or in June.
+
+The caterpillars emerge from the eggs towards the end of the latter
+month, and always feed in groups under the cover of a silken web. Like
+the preceding species they hybernate during the winter, and commence
+feeding again in the spring. They are fully grown about the end of
+April.
+
+In colour the caterpillar is velvety black, dotted with white, and its
+body is covered with short bristly spines. When fully fed it seeks the
+shelter of a curled leaf or dense herbage, suspends itself by the hind
+claspers to a silken carpet, and then changes to a creamy white
+chrysalis with black dots.
+
+
+_The Glanville Fritillary_ (_Melitaea Cinxia_)
+
+The pattern of the upper side of this Fritillary (Plate III, fig. 4) is
+very similar to that of _Aurinia_, but the ground colour is a uniform
+tawny brown, and the fringes of the wings are of a very pale straw
+colour, barred with black.
+
+The under side of the fore wings is tawny brown, with straw-coloured
+tips bearing black markings. The hind wings have four alternate bands of
+brown and straw colour, and a patch of straw colour at the base. The
+marginal yellow band has six or seven black spots. The brown band next
+to it is divided into six segments with black borders, each with a black
+spot. The next yellow band has also a row of black spots. The inner
+fulvous band is very irregular; and inside this is the yellow base with
+six spots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--THE GLANVILLE FRITILLARY--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This is another local insect--very local indeed, for it seems to have
+been found only in a few spots outside its head quarters, the Isle of
+Wight. Those in search of it should carefully scan the rough cliffy
+parts of the island, wherever the species of plantain (_Plantago
+Coronopus_ and _P. maritima_) are plentiful, these being the food plants
+of the larvae. It first appears on the wing in May, but may be found till
+the end of June.
+
+The caterpillars, which are black and spiny, with reddish head and legs,
+begin to feed in August, and as soon as the chilly weather sets in they
+hybernate in groups under the cover of a tent constructed by binding
+together leaves or blades of grass. In the spring they start out again,
+and feed till the end of April, at which time they change to dark
+brownish and smooth chrysalides.
+
+
+_The Heath Fritillary_ (_Melitaea Athalia_)
+
+Both the upper and under sides of this butterfly are shown on Plate III
+(figs. 5 and 6), and it will be observed from these that its general
+appearance is very similar to that of _Cinxia_.
+
+The upper surface is of the same tawny brown, barred and striped with
+black, and the fringes of the wings are pale yellow, interrupted by
+small patches of black.
+
+The under surface of the fore wings has the same ground colour with the
+exception of the tips, which are yellow; and the whole is marked with
+black, as in the illustration. The hind wings are pale yellow, with two
+broad bands of brown corresponding with those of _Cinxia_; but a series
+of black double arches along the hind margin and the _absence_ of rows
+of black spots serve to distinguish this species from the last.
+
+_Athalia_ is another local butterfly, but is sometimes found in
+abundance in the spots which it frequents. It is met with chiefly in the
+open spaces of woods along the south coast and for some distance inland.
+Devon, Cornwall, Sussex, and Kent seem to be the most favoured counties;
+and London entomologists would do well to search for it in Epping
+Forest.
+
+The butterfly deposits its eggs during June and July, on several
+different food plants, the chief of which are the greater and
+narrow-leaved plantains (_Plantago major_ and _P. lanceolata_), foxglove
+(_Digitalis purpurea_), two species of cow-wheat (_Melampyrum pratense_
+and _M. sylvaticum_), wood sage (_Teucrium Scorodonia_), and the
+germander speedwell (_Veronica Chamaedrys_), and the young caterpillars,
+after feeding for only a week or two, commence their period of
+hybernation. They resume their feeding in April, and change to the pupal
+state about the end of May.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is velvety black, finely dotted with
+white, and the spines are yellow or orange, tipped with white.
+
+The chrysalis is creamy white, banded and patched with orange and
+black, and is suspended by anal hooks from a silken, carpet which the
+caterpillar had spun on the leaf of the food plant.
+
+
+_The Comma_ (_Vanessa C-Album_)
+
+Leaving the Fritillaries, we now come to a genus (Vanessa) that includes
+seven most beautiful butterflies, some of which are so common as to be
+known to almost everybody.
+
+It will be observed that this genus belongs to the same family as the
+Fritillaries, and we may therefore expect to find that the two groups
+possess features in common. A slight examination of a few in their
+different stages will show that this is so. Thus, the perfect insects
+have only four walking legs, the caterpillars are all spiny, and the
+chrysalides are angular.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--THE COMMA--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+There is another feature concerning the chrysalides worthy of note. Like
+some of the pupae of the Fritillaries, they are adorned more or less with
+brilliant metallic spots, sometimes of a rich golden hue, and sometimes
+resembling burnished silver. Now the word 'chrysalis,' which, as we have
+already seen, is derived from a Greek word meaning 'gold,' was
+originally applied to the pupae of some of the Vanessas, on account of
+their metallic decorations, but it has since been extended to the pupae
+of all the Lepidoptera, and also to other orders of insects, even though
+the greater number of them display no tints of the precious metal.
+
+The first member for our consideration is the Comma Butterfly, of which
+an illustration is given in Plate III, fig. 7. No one could mistake this
+beautiful butterfly for any other British species, for its wings of rich
+orange brown, with black and dark-brown markings, are so irregularly
+scalloped on the hind margins that they present a somewhat ragged
+appearance. Its name is derived from the fact that a white mark
+something like the letter C, or, as some have it, like a comma, is
+distinctly painted on the dark brown of the under side.
+
+This butterfly generally emerges from the chrysalis late in the
+summer--August and September, but it is often seen earlier, and
+frequently as late as October. It is a great lover of sweets, and may be
+found settled on various flowers and fruits. Its chief food plants are
+the hop (_Humulus Lupulus_), red currant (_Ribes rubrum_), stinging
+nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and the Elm (_Ulmus campestris_).
+
+It is very abundant in certain districts where hops are grown, but seems
+to avoid those counties that border the sea. It is widely distributed in
+the midland counties, and extends to the north of England and into
+Scotland, but is very capricious in its appearance in many parts.
+
+The eggs are laid in May by females that have hybernated through the
+winter, and the caterpillars may be found feeding during July and
+August.
+
+The caterpillar is coloured grey and brown, with a black head, and a
+broad white stripe down the back of the hindermost segments. The body is
+armed with a number of spines, some of which are white, and others pale
+brown.
+
+The chrysalis is a very peculiar object, having two ear-like projections
+extending forwards from the sides of the head. It has a number of
+angular projections, and is of an umber-brown colour, finely netted with
+black lines, and having several spots of a brilliant metallic lustre.
+
+
+_The Large Tortoiseshell_ (_Vanessa Polychloros_)
+
+Our two tortoiseshells--large and small--are very similar in their
+colour and markings, and moreover are not always to be distinguished by
+their size, for specimens of the larger species are sometimes even
+inferior in this respect to the largest of the smaller species; so, to
+avoid all risks of mistaken identity, we must look for more reliable
+marks of distinction between them.
+
+The present species is figured on Plate III (fig. 8), where it will be
+seen that the ground colour of dark tawny brown is spotted and bordered
+with black. The border of the hind wings contains a row of
+crescent-shaped blue spots. The costal margin of the fore wings, between
+the black patches, is decidedly lighter than the general ground, and is
+yellow rather than brown. It will be noticed, too, that a black spot
+lies very near the anal angle of these wings.
+
+The under surface, though by no means brilliant, exhibits a rich
+blending of various shades of brown.
+
+This butterfly is not known to occur in either Scotland or Ireland, and
+is by no means common in England. Its chief localities are in the
+midland and eastern counties.
+
+The perfect insect generally appears about the middle of July, and after
+spending a month or six weeks on the wing, seeks out a sheltered spot in
+which to spend the winter. In the spring--April or May--it again takes
+to flight, and during the latter month the females are busily engaged in
+the deposition of their eggs.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the two species of elm (_Ulmus campestris_ and
+_U. montana_), willow (_Salix alba_), sallow (_S. Caprea_), osier (_S.
+viminalis_), aspen (_Populus tremula_), and certain fruit trees; and is
+full grown about midsummer. It is of a tawny grey colour, with a black
+stripe on each side, and is covered with very small wart-like
+projections, and the spines are branched.
+
+The chrysalis is of a dull pinkish colour, and may be found on tree
+trunks, palings, and walls, about the end of June, suspended from a
+silken carpet by means of its anal hooks.
+
+
+_The Small Tortoiseshell_ (_Vanessa Urticae_)
+
+_Urticae_ (Plate III, fig. 9) may be distinguished from _Polychloros_ by
+the _absence_ of the black spot in the anal angle of the fore wings of
+the latter. It has also a white spot near the tip of each fore
+wing-between the black border and the first black costal patch. The
+whole of the base of the hind wing is also black, and the ground colour
+is decidedly brighter.
+
+It is one of the commonest of all British butterflies, and is to be
+found more or less abundantly in nearly all parts of the British Isles.
+
+The hybernated perfect insects come out early in the spring, and lay
+their eggs in close irregular clusters on nettles (_Urtica dioica_ and
+_U. urens_). Shortly after the gregarious caterpillars may be found on
+these plants in dense masses. They change to the chrysalis state about
+the end of May, and from this time there is a continuous succession of
+butterflies till the end of the summer.
+
+The later specimens, which do not emerge till September or October,
+spend only a short time on the wing, and then hybernate till the spring,
+giving rise to the first brood of the following season.
+
+The caterpillar of this species is black above and greyish beneath. It
+is thickly covered with yellow dots, which are so close together on the
+back as to form two yellowish stripes, separated only by a fine black
+line. There are also two yellowish stripes along each side; and the
+body, as with the rest of this genus, is spiny, the spines in this case
+being black or very dark green.
+
+The chrysalis is brownish, and spotted with burnished gold in variable
+quantity--sometimes so plentifully as to cover the greater part of the
+surface.
+
+
+_The Peacock_ (_Vanessa Io_)
+
+This is another of our commonest and most beautiful butterflies. Its
+general appearance is such that it cannot possibly be mistaken for any
+other. The upper side (Plate IV, fig. 1) is rendered conspicuous by the
+beautiful eye-like marks at the costal angles of all four wings; and the
+under surface is very richly decorated with a fine arrangement of black
+and dark-brown patches and streaks.
+
+Io is very abundant in all parts of England, and is well known in many
+parts of Scotland and Ireland, but seems to be rare in the extreme north
+of both of these countries.
+
+Its food plant is the stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and on this the
+eggs are laid in April by females that have hybernated during the
+winter.
+
+The caterpillar is full grown at the end of June or beginning of July.
+It is black, with numerous minute white wart-like projections. Its
+spines also are black, and its claspers brown.
+
+The chrysalis may be found suspended by the tail on some object in the
+neighbourhood of the food plant, or sometimes on the food plant itself.
+It is of a greenish colour, with yellowish patches, but turns darker as
+the time approaches for the emerging of the perfect insect.
+
+This event takes place in August, and the butterfly, after a brief
+period on the wing, seeks out a sheltered spot for its winter nap.
+
+
+_The Camberwell Beauty_ (_Vanessa Antiopa_)
+
+The reader will be fortunate if he succeeds in netting a specimen of
+this highly prized British butterfly. It derives its popular name from
+the fact that a few were taken in Camberwell about a hundred and fifty
+years ago; and since that time it has been seen and taken in variable
+numbers in several parts of England. So widely distributed, indeed, are
+its localities, and so few, comparatively, its appearances, that it
+would be useless to attempt to give any hints as to where it may be
+looked for. It is, however, a very common butterfly in many continental
+countries, and foreign specimens may be obtained from any dealer in
+entomological wares for a few pence each.
+
+This rare British gem is illustrated in fig. 2 of Plate IV. Here it will
+be seen that nearly the whole of the surface is covered with a rich
+velvety purple brown, bordered with a black band containing blue spots;
+and outside this is a border of white, finely dotted and streaked with
+black. The continental specimens may be easily distinguished from the
+genuine Britishers by a darker border with a decidedly yellow tinge.
+
+The eggs of this species are generally laid on the young leaves of the
+willow (_Salix alba_), in the spring, by females that have hybernated,
+but sometimes the nettle (_Urtica dioica_) and the birch (_Betula alba_)
+are selected for the food of the larvae.
+
+The caterpillar is black and spiny, and has a row of seven rather large
+reddish-brown spots on the back, commencing at the fifth segment.
+
+The chrysalis, like those of the other members of this family, is
+angular and suspended by the 'tail.' The perfect insect appears in
+August, and may be seen from that month till October.
+
+
+_The Red Admiral_ (_Vanessa Atalanta_)
+
+There seems to be a tendency with many to under-estimate the beauty of
+certain natural objects because they happen to be so very common, and
+this is particularly the case with some of our most familiar
+butterflies. The beautiful Red Admiral (Plate IV, fig. 3) may possibly
+suffer in this respect; for, not only is it one of the commonest of our
+butterflies, but it fearlessly hovers among the flowers of our gardens,
+often venturing into the very heart of thickly populated towns.
+
+The bright scarlet bands and white blotches of this gorgeous insect
+stand out boldly on the rich velvety black ground of the wings, and the
+additional touches of blue in the anal angles of the hind wings add to
+the effect. The under side of the fore wings is somewhat similar to the
+upper surface, but is relieved by brown and blue; and this side of the
+hind wings presents most beautiful and indescribable blendings of
+various shades of brown, grey, and pink. The female may be
+distinguished by the presence of a small white spot on the scarlet band
+of the fore wing.
+
+The eggs are deposited singly on the nettle (_Urtica dioica_) in spring
+by females that have hybernated through the winter.
+
+The caterpillar always feeds under the cover of a tent made by drawing
+leaves together. It is spiny, and its colour is usually a greenish or
+yellowish grey, spotted with black, and striped along the sides with
+white or yellow. When fully grown it bites the stem of the nettle nearly
+through a few inches from the top, so that the upper part of the plant
+bends over the withers. It then constructs a commodious tent by binding
+the leaves of this drooping portion together, and suspends itself from
+the roof of this strange home to undergo its metamorphoses.
+
+The change to the chrysalis state takes place in July or August, and the
+perfect insect may be seen during August, September, and October in
+almost every part of the British Isles.
+
+
+_The Painted Lady_ (_Vanessa Cardui_)
+
+Although the time of appearance of this butterfly generally corresponds
+with that of the last species, yet it is exceedingly variable, so much
+so that it is impossible to give any fixed period as its season. It is,
+moreover, very capricious with regard to its localities and its numbers.
+Sometimes it will turn up unexpectedly in positive abundance in certain
+localities where previously it had been a mere straggler; and then, for
+some unaccountable reason, become comparatively scarce for several
+successive seasons.
+
+The upper surface of this beauty (Plate IV, fig. 4) is adorned with pale
+red, orange, and black, and with five white spots near the tip of each
+fore wing. The under side of the fore wings is marked something like the
+upper, but much of the black is replaced by shades of brown. The hind
+wings are beautifully variegated beneath with greys and browns, and have
+a row of eye-like spots near the hind margin.
+
+The eggs of this butterfly are laid singly on various species of
+thistles, particularly the common field thistle (_Cnicus arvensis_),
+generally in the month of June.
+
+The caterpillar, which is black above and red beneath, with yellowish
+stripes along the back and sides, feeds under the cover of a silken web
+which it constructs among the leaves. It is full grown in July or
+August, when it suspends itself after the manner of the other Vanessas
+previous to undergoing its changes.
+
+The chrysalis is angular, coloured with brown and grey, and adorned with
+brilliant gold spots.
+
+The perfect insect may be seen at large throughout late summer and the
+autumn, and the eggs are laid by females that survive the winter.
+
+
+_The White Admiral_ (_Limenitis Sibylla_)
+
+The White Admiral (Plate IV, fig. 5) is neither so pretty nor so common
+as its red namesake, but it is nevertheless a fine insect, although the
+chief beauty is reserved for the under surface. Above, the ground colour
+is a very dark rusty brown, relieved by bands and spots of white. The
+under surface is beautifully marked with silvery blue, bright orange
+brown, and white, the latter being arranged just like the corresponding
+colour on the upper side.
+
+It will be observed that this butterfly does not belong to the _Vanessa_
+genus; so, while we may look for _family_ resemblances, we shall observe
+a few features in which it differs from the preceding species.
+
+It is not by any means abundant, being unknown in Scotland and Ireland,
+and confined in England almost exclusively to the oak woods of the
+south, where its food plant--the honeysuckle (_Lonicera
+Periclymenum_)--abounds. Here it may be seen during July, gracefully
+sailing among the trees and across the open spaces.
+
+The caterpillar is very different from those of the Vanessas. Its colour
+is dark green, with a narrow white stripe along each side. There are
+very conspicuous branched spines on the third and two following
+segments, also on the eleventh and twelfth; and smaller spines on most
+of the others. All the spines are of a brownish colour, with pink tips.
+While it is yet very small it prepares its winter quarters by bending
+round the remains of a leaf on which it has been feeding, securing the
+edges by silken threads, and then binding it to the stem of the plant.
+Soon after, the petiole becomes detached from the stem, and the little
+caterpillar then rests suspended in its snug swinging cradle, where it
+remains perfectly secure till the following April, when the warm sun
+calls it out to feed on the opening leaves. It continues at this till
+about the beginning of June, and then changes to a beautiful angular and
+eared chrysalis, of a bright green colour, marked with brown, and having
+brilliant silvery spots and streaks.
+
+
+Family--APATURIDAE
+
+_The Purple Emperor_ (_Apatura Iris_)
+
+This grand insect is the only British member of its family, and richly
+deserves its popular title. The male, which is figured on Plate V (fig.
+1), exhibits a most gorgeous imperial purple, which is reflected at
+certain angles only from the upper surface of his large and powerful
+wings. His flight is lofty and vigorous, and among the topmost branches
+of majestic oaks, where he defies the efforts of would-be capturers.
+Unlike our other butterflies, he is also a very quarrelsome creature,
+and will not hesitate to fiercely attack a brother Emperor who dares
+approach the branch he has selected for his throne.
+
+Many attempts have been made to capture this prized creature by means of
+a large net mounted on the end of a pole twenty or thirty feet in
+length, but the wielding of such a cumbersome implement against so
+powerful an insect is no mean task, and but few fall a prey to such a
+snare. But it so happens that this imperial personage has a very
+depraved appetite, the indulgence in which has often brought him to
+ruin. Instead of searching out the sweets so bounteously supplied by the
+blossoms that are so attractive to other lepidopterous insects, he
+delights in sipping the waters of the filthiest puddles, and imbibing
+the odoriferous moisture of dung and the decomposing carcases of
+animals. So deeply seated is this depravity of taste that the Emperor
+may be netted with ease while indulging in his sumptuous feast, and is
+even to be taken at times with the fingers.
+
+The knowledge of this peculiarity of the imperial palate has led
+entomologists to abandon the awkward net, and to bait the woods with
+viands that alone can entice his highness from his lofty seat; and many
+a splendid specimen has been easily captured while enjoying the
+luxurious juice of a dead cat, stoat, or rabbit, or of a seething mass
+of pig's dung.
+
+The female is larger than her mate, and does not display the beautiful
+purple reflections that adorn the male. She is very different, too, in
+her habits, for she sits nearly all day on high branches of trees,
+giving her attention to the graver duties of an imperial mother, and is
+consequently but seldom seem. She lays her eggs in July on the sallow
+(_Salix Caprea_) or the poplar (_Populus_), and in less than a fortnight
+the young caterpillars are hatched. They feed on till the leaves are
+falling, and then fix themselves by their claspers to a silken carpet
+which they construct on a twig. Here they remain, exposed to all the
+wintry blasts and frosts, till the new leaves are out in the spring,
+when they again commence feeding, and continue to do so till they are
+full grown--in May or June.
+
+The under side of this species is shown in fig. 76, in which will also
+be observed the eye-like spots of the fore wings which have given rise
+to its specific name (_Iris_).
+
+The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 5) is a very peculiar creature. Its
+body is green, with seven oblique yellowish stripes on each side, and it
+has a pair of horns attached to its head.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--THE PURPLE EMPEROR--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 10) may be found in June, suspended to
+the under side of a leaf. It is of an apple-green colour, and still
+exhibits the oblique stripes which we observed in the caterpillar.
+
+This insect is not to be found in either Scotland or Ireland, but is
+more or less abundant in many of the oak woods of the midland and
+southern counties of England. Among the numerous favoured localities, we
+may mention Colchester, Forest of Dean, Northamptonshire, Ipswich,
+Huntingdonshire, Buckinghamshire, Epping, Lyndhurst, and the Isle of
+Wight.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+_THE BROWNS AND HEATHS_
+
+
+Family--SATYRIDAE
+
+This family contains eleven British species, often spoken of
+collectively as the 'Browns,' since in most of them the prevailing tints
+are various shades of brown. They are decidedly dingy in comparison with
+the beautiful butterflies we have been previously observing; but to this
+statement we must allow one marked exception, for the family includes
+the beautiful Marbled White, which stands out prominently among its
+fellows for brilliancy and boldness of colour.
+
+The caterpillars of the 'Satyrs' have no spines, but their bodies are
+covered with very minute hair-bearing warts that give them a soft
+velvety appearance. The hinder extremity tapers off considerably, and
+terminates in two points.
+
+The chrysalides are not angular like those of the preceding species, and
+though generally suspended by the tail, are sometimes found quite free
+among leaves and grasses on the ground.
+
+The perfect insects are rather feeble fliers, and generally take so
+little notice of intruders that they are easily caught in the hand.
+Their wings are devoid of angles, and they have only four perfectly
+developed legs.
+
+
+_The Marbled White_ (_Melanargia Galatea_)
+
+Our first member of this family is the exception to which we have
+already alluded as a relief to the general dinginess of the 'Browns.'
+Its colours above are cream and black, arranged as shown in Plate V,
+fig. 2. The under side (fig. 77) is marked with white, black, and
+greenish grey, with a row of eye-like spots parallel with the hind
+margin of the hind wings.
+
+This butterfly is not known in Scotland or Ireland, nor is it to be
+found in several of the northern counties of England. Its chief haunts
+are the waste cliffy grounds of the southern and some of the midland
+counties of England, where it is usually restricted to certain small
+districts. In some places it is really a common insect, and among these
+may be mentioned Brighton, Horsham, Dover, Folkestone, Margate,
+Gravesend, New Forest, parts of Gloucestershire, Cambridgeshire, and
+Devonshire, also in the Isle of Wight and South Wales.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--THE MARBLED WHITE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The perfect insect is out in July, during which month the eggs are
+deposited on various grasses, or indiscriminately on leaves and stems in
+grassy spots.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on grasses; and, being still small at the end of
+the autumn, hybernates during the winter among the stems of grass. It
+feeds again in April, and is fully grown by the end of May. Its colour
+is a dull green or brownish, with a darker stripe down the back, and
+lighter stripes along the sides. Its spiracles are black.
+
+The chrysalis is pale brown, marked with lines of a slightly darker
+shade. It may be found among grass stems, without any attachment, during
+the month of June.
+
+
+_The Small Ringlet_ (_Erebia Epiphron_)
+
+On account of the very limited range of this butterfly, only those who
+have the opportunity of visiting its haunts can have any practical
+acquaintance with its natural history. It is almost exclusively confined
+to the lake district in England, to a few mountainous localities in
+Scotland, and to one or two similar localities in Ireland. Its strong
+partiality for elevated situations has earned for it the popular name of
+Mountain Ringlet.
+
+The colour of the upper surface (Plate V, fig. 3) is a dark brown, with
+a broad band of rusty brown, parallel with the hind margin of each wing,
+and broken by the wing rays. Each division of these bands has often a
+black central spot, but frequently these are entirely absent. The
+colouring of the under side is very similar but less defined, and the
+rusty spots of the hind wings are very small.
+
+The butterfly is out in June and July. The caterpillars, which are
+green, with white stripes along the sides, feed on various grasses. They
+hybernate during the winter, and change to the chrysalis state in the
+following May or June.
+
+
+_The Northern Brown_ (_Erebia AEthiops_)
+
+The colour of this species (Plate V, fig. 4) is a rich dark brown, with
+rust-coloured and black spotted bands arranged something like those of
+the last. The markings, however, are very variable. There are usually
+four black spots on the band of the fore wings, but the first two of
+these are always united, and centred with white. The third is often very
+small or entirely wanting.
+
+The under side of the fore wings is marked something like the upper, but
+the hind wings on this side are grey, with two broad bands of a darker
+colour.
+
+As its popular name implies, this butterfly is a northerner. It is
+common in Scotland, where it flies in elevated spots. In England it is
+confined to the mountainous districts of the north.
+
+The perfect insect is at large in July and August, during which time the
+eggs are deposited on various grasses or on low-growing herbage in
+grassy spots.
+
+The caterpillar is of a brown colour, and has a narrow black stripe down
+the middle of the back, and two other stripes, lighter than the ground
+colour, one on each side. At about the end of June it turns to a
+chrysalis of a brownish colour.
+
+The food plants of this species include a number of common grasses.
+
+
+_The Speckled Wood or Wood Argus_ (_Pararge Egeria_)
+
+Most of our butterflies delight in the hot sun, and are to be seen on
+the wing only when it is shining brightly. This fact is particularly
+noticeable on a bright day with occasional heavy clouds. While the sun's
+rays are pouring uninterruptedly on the landscape, numbers of these
+light-lovers are to be observed flitting about; but when the dense
+shadow of a passing cloud creeps over the ground they rapidly disappear
+from view, having settled down to rest on leaves and stems. Then, as
+soon as the shadow passes away, the air is again enlivened with their
+sports and flittings.
+
+The Wood Argus is a marked exception to this rule. It delights in the
+cool shade of the narrow paths of woods, where it slowly flies up and
+down the lonely footpath, taking but little heed of strangers that
+intrude on its haunts, and seldom venturing into the full blaze of the
+sun unless pursued. Even on dull days it continues its solitary flight,
+and may even be seen on the wing while a soft rain is bathing the
+dripping foliage.
+
+The upper surface of this pretty butterfly is shown on Plate V, fig. 5,
+and the under side in the accompanying woodcut. Both sides are prettily
+marked with various shades of brown and buff, and adorned with
+white-centred dark eye-spots which have earned for it the name of Argus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--THE WOOD ARGUS--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+It first appears on the wing in April, and may be seen from this month
+continuously to the end of August.
+
+The food plants probably consist of many species of grasses, the
+cock's-foot (_Dactylis glomerata_) and couch grass (_Agropyron repens_)
+being among the number, and the eggs are laid on or in the neighbourhood
+of these during the summer months.
+
+The caterpillar of this species is of a dull greenish or brownish
+colour, and it has two whitish stripes (sometimes three) down the middle
+of the back, and similar stripes along each side. It hybernates during
+the winter, and is full grown in March, when it changes to a dull green
+or brownish chrysalis, which is streaked with black, and has a few white
+dots on the back.
+
+It has been stated that the butterfly is on the wing from April to
+August, and, according to some authorities, there are no less than three
+broods during this time, following each other in rapid succession. It is
+common throughout England and Ireland, and is known in parts of
+Scotland.
+
+
+_The Wall Butterfly_ (_Pararge Megaera_)
+
+Belonging to the same genus is another very familiar butterfly--the
+Wall--which receives its popular title from its peculiar habit of
+frequently resting on walls and stony banks. It is one of the first, if
+not _the_ first, to take to the wing in the morning, and is generally
+the last to seek its hiding place in the evening. I have seen it
+actively flying about during August, as early as 7.30 in the morning,
+and found it still flitting from one spot to another along the western
+side of a wall as late as 8 in the evening, as if in search of a
+convenient shelter for the fast approaching night.
+
+This pretty 'Brown' must be familiar to the reader, and the coloured
+drawing on Plate V (fig. 6) will at once serve for purposes of
+identification without the necessity of a wordy description. It may be
+mentioned, however, that the male (the sex figured) is smaller than the
+female, and is further distinguished by a broad dark oblique band
+passing across each fore wing.
+
+The Wall is a double-brooded butterfly, the first brood appearing in
+May, and the second in August. The caterpillars which produce the latter
+may be found on the cock's foot (_Dactylis glomerata_) and other grasses
+in June, while those of the former are hybernators; and the chrysalides
+of the two broods may be found in April and July respectively.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is green, with a slightly darker stripe
+down the middle of the back, a pale stripe along each side, and another
+similar stripe about midway between these two.
+
+The chrysalis is green with the exception of the more prominent parts of
+its surface, which are almost white.
+
+This species is very common in almost every locality in Britain.
+
+
+_The Grayling_ (_Satyrus Semele_)
+
+The Grayling is the largest of our 'Browns,' and, although a powerful
+flier, it seldom takes long flights. The female, which is shown in fig.
+7, Plate V, is really a beautiful creature, the light markings of which
+stand out in bold contrast with the deep brown ground colour; but the
+male is comparatively dingy, there being much less contrast between the
+ground and the markings. He is also smaller than his mate.
+
+The under side of both sexes is similar (fig. 79), the pattern of the
+fore wings being much like that of the other side, but considerably
+lighter, and the hind wings are beautifully marbled with various greys
+and browns.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--THE GRAYLING--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This species is not nearly so common as the two preceding, but it is
+very widely distributed, and is exceedingly abundant in some parts. On
+some of the heathery cliffs and downs of the south and south-west coasts
+it is so plentiful that the butterflies are started into the air at
+almost every step, for it seldom flies except when disturbed. It is a
+common insect in Ireland, and also in parts of Scotland.
+
+The caterpillar is a hybernator, and may be found feeding on grasses in
+the autumn and the spring. It changes to the chrysalis in June, and the
+perfect insect is on the wing from June to the beginning of September.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is pinkish drab above, and greenish drab
+beneath. A dark brown stripe, edged with a lighter colour, passes down
+the middle of the back, and a dark line on each side. It changes to a
+dark reddish-brown chrysalis on the surface of the ground, or, according
+to some observers, a little beneath the surface.
+
+
+_The Meadow Brown_ (_Epinephele Janira_)
+
+Although this very common butterfly is usually considered to be the
+dingiest of its family, yet it must be admitted that the colour of a
+freshly emerged specimen is really very rich.
+
+The male is of a dark brown colour, with an indistinct patch of a
+lighter tawny brown near the outer margin of the fore wings, and a
+white-centred black eye-spot near the costal angle of the same wings.
+The female (Plate V, fig. 8) is of a lighter colour, the eye-spot on her
+fore wings is larger and far more conspicuous, and an irregular patch of
+light orange brown occupies a large area of each of the same wings. She
+is, moreover, larger than her mate, and in every way a more attractive
+insect.
+
+The Meadow Brown abounds everywhere, from June to September, and may be
+seen on grass land and waste grounds where other butterflies are seldom
+found.
+
+The caterpillar is green, and is rendered slightly rough by a number of
+minute warts. There is also a white stripe on each side. It feeds on
+various grasses in the autumn, hybernates during the winter, and is full
+grown in May.
+
+The chrysalis is apple green, spotted with a lighter green, and has
+several black markings.
+
+
+_The Large Heath_ (_Epinephele Tithonus_)
+
+This butterfly is sometimes called the 'Small Meadow Brown,' and is
+certainly much like the last species, both in colouring and habits.
+
+The fore wings of the male (Plate V, fig. 9) are light orange brown,
+bordered with dark brown, and having a broad patch of the same across
+the middle; and near the costal angle is a round black spot with two
+white dots. The hind wings are dark brown with a patch of light orange
+brown near the centre, and a small eye-spot near the anal angle. The
+female is exactly similar, except that she does not possess the broad
+bar on the fore wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--THE LARGE HEATH--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under side is shown in fig. 80, and is coloured with various shades
+of brown.
+
+This is a very common butterfly, and may be seen during July in most
+English counties, also in the south of Scotland, and in a few localities
+in the south of Ireland. It frequents meadows, heaths, downs, and lanes,
+like _Janira_, but is not nearly so abundant as that species.
+
+The young caterpillar is hatched in August, and is still very small when
+it seeks its winter shelter among the stems of grasses. It resumes
+feeding in the following May, and is full grown towards the end of June.
+Its colour is very variable--pale green, olive green, or dull brown,
+with five longitudinal stripes at about equal distances from each other.
+These consist of a dark one down the middle of the back, a pale line
+along each side, and another pale line midway between these.
+
+The chrysalis may be found at the end of June, attached by the tail to
+blades of grass. It is of a very light colour, almost white, but adorned
+with numerous black lines and patches.
+
+
+_The Ringlet_ (_Epinephele Hyperanthus_)
+
+This is another rather plainly dressed insect, though somewhat prettily
+adorned on the under side. The upper surface is of a very deep sepia
+brown, almost black, with a few indistinct black eye-like spots near the
+margins. The under side (Plate V, fig. 10) is of a lighter umber brown,
+with corresponding eye-spots generally very conspicuous. These spots are
+black, with white centres, and generally surrounded by light rings. They
+are subject, however, to considerable variation. Those on the upper
+surface are sometimes quite absent in the male, but are nearly always
+readily perceptible in the female. On the under side, too, they are
+occasionally quite absent, while in other varieties they are minute
+white-centred dots, without any surrounding light ring. Our coloured
+drawing represents the most usual form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--THE RINGLET--UPPER SIDE.]
+
+The favourite haunts of the Ringlet are the borders of woods, and the
+sheltered sides of flowery hedgerows. It is not so widely distributed as
+some of the common 'Browns,' but is usually very abundant where it
+occurs, sometimes appearing in such numbers that several may be taken
+with a single stroke of the net. It does not seem to be a frequenter of
+Scotland, and is known in Ireland only in the south. Its head quarters
+are the southern and south-midland counties of England.
+
+The eggs are laid in July on various grasses, on which the young
+caterpillars feed from about the middle of August till the cold weather
+sets in. They hybernate at the roots of the grasses till the beginning
+of the following May, and change to the chrysalis state about the middle
+of June, suspending themselves to grass blades by means of their anal
+hooks.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is dull green or brown, and is marked with
+five longitudinal stripes much like those of the Large Heath.
+
+The chrysalis is pale brown, spotted and striped with a darker shade of
+the same colour.
+
+
+_The Marsh Ringlet_ (_Caenonympha Typhon_)
+
+The upper surface of this butterfly is shown in the first figure of
+Plate VI, and the under side in the accompanying woodcut; but it must be
+remembered that the species is a very variable one, so much so that it
+is almost impossible to give anything like a short and, at the same
+time, a satisfactory description. The female may usually be
+distinguished by a pale patch across the middle of the fore wings; and
+the eye spots of the same wings, always more or less indistinct when
+present, are sometimes entirely wanting. The markings of the under side
+are even more variable, the transverse bars and the eye spots being
+often particularly conspicuous, and at other times hardly discernible.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--THE MARSH RINGLET--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This is generally spoken of as a northerner, its chief localities being
+in the mountainous parts of Scotland and the elevated districts of the
+north of England, but in Ireland it extends to the southern ranges. Its
+haunts are elevated moors and marshy heaths, where its food plant--the
+beak-rush (_Rhyncospora alba_)--abounds, and it is on the wing from the
+end of June to August or September.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with five longitudinal stripes--one dark one,
+bordered with yellow, down the middle of the back, and two pale yellow
+ones on each side. It is a hybernator, and is full grown about the end
+of May, when it suspends itself by the hindmost claspers to a silken
+carpet, and changes to a green chrysalis with pale brown wing cases.
+
+
+_The Small Heath_ (_Caenonympha Pamphilus_)
+
+The last member of the family _Satyridae_ is the well-known Small Heath,
+that may be seen almost all over the British Isles on heaths, meadows
+and moors, from May to September.
+
+The upper surface of this butterfly (Plate VI, fig. 2) is a tawny
+yellow, with a dark brown border, and a spot of the same dark tint near
+the tip of each fore wing. The under side is much like that of the last
+species, but there are no eye spots on the hind wings.
+
+The eggs of the first brood are laid during May and June on the various
+grasses on which the caterpillar feeds.
+
+The caterpillars that emerge from these are fully grown in July or early
+August, and go through their changes during the latter month; but the
+later ones hybernate during the winter, and are not full fed till the
+following May.
+
+The colour of the larva is pale apple green, with a wide darker stripe
+down the back, two others along the sides, and two more between the
+latter and the dorsal stripe. All these five stripes are bordered with a
+whitish colour.
+
+The chrysalis is bright apple green, dotted with white, and the wing
+cases are striped with a purple-brown line edged with white.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+_THE HAIRSTREAKS, COPPERS AND BLUES_
+
+
+Family--LYCAENIDAE
+
+This is a large family, including as it does no less than nineteen of
+the British species. These are all of small size, and are characterised
+by their short and jerky flights. They seldom rise much above the
+ground, and are consequently very easily caught.
+
+The caterpillars of this family have all short and rather thick bodies,
+shaped very much like that of the wood louse--flattened beneath and very
+convex above.
+
+The chrysalides are generally attached by the 'tail,' and further
+secured by a silken cord round the body, as we have already observed in
+the case of the _Pieridae_.
+
+The perfect insects differ from the preceding species in that all six
+legs are perfectly developed and adapted for walking.
+
+There are only three genera in this large family:
+
+  1. _Thecla_--The Hairstreaks, with 'tailed' wings.
+  2. _Polyommatus_--The 'Coppers.'
+  3. _Lycaena_--The 'Blues,' with wings either blue or brown.
+
+
+_The Brown Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Betulae_)
+
+The five Hairstreaks which constitute the genus _Thecla_ are all pretty
+insects, characterised by hair-like streaks on the under surface.
+
+_Betulae_ is the largest of these. Its upper surface is of a deep brown
+colour, with orange-brown marks at the anal angles of the hind wings,
+and, in the female, a large patch of orange on the fore wings. The under
+side (Plate VI, fig. 3) is orange brown, much lighter in the male than
+in the female. On the fore wings are two white lines, the inner one of
+which is indistinct; and on the hind wings are two others, the outer one
+being longer and more distinct than the inner.
+
+This butterfly is by no means an abundant insect, though it is widely
+distributed, and in some places plentiful. Its chief haunts are woods,
+and we may mention among its favoured localities Epping Forest, Monk's
+Wood in Cambridgeshire, the wooded parts of South Devon and Dorset, New
+Forest, Colchester, and Peterborough.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--THE BROWN HAIRSTREAK--MALE.]
+
+The perfect insect is on the wing from July to October, and the eggs are
+deposited in the autumn on the twigs of its food plant--the blackthorn
+(_Prunus spinosa_). These do not hatch till the following spring. Toward
+the end of June the caterpillar is fully fed.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is light green, with two white stripes
+down the back, and two others along the sides. There are also two small
+oblique whitish lines on each side of each segment.
+
+The chrysalis is smooth, and of a pale brown colour.
+
+
+_The Black Hairstreak, or White-letter Hairstreak_ (_Thecla W-album_)
+
+The first of the above two popular names has been applied to this
+species on account of the very deep brown colour of the upper side,
+which colour is often a near approach to black. The second is due to the
+W-shaped bend of the white streak of the hind wings. The ground colour
+of the under side (Plate VI, fig. 4) is greyish brown, with a bright
+orange band, spotted with black near the hind margin of the hind wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK.]
+
+_W-album_ is a somewhat rare insect, but is occasionally seen in plenty
+in a few localities, Cambridgeshire, Berkshire, Epping, Colchester and
+Suffolk being among its chief resorts. It is out on the wing in July,
+and should be looked for in wooded country where the common elm (_Ulmus
+campestris_) and the wych elm (_U. montana_), its food plants, exist.
+
+The eggs are laid on the twigs of these trees late in the summer, and
+the young caterpillars do not appear till the following spring. The
+chrysalis may be found attached to an elm twig or leaf about the end of
+June.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green. The ridges along the back are tinged with
+yellow, and there are two fine oblique white lines on each side of each
+segment.
+
+
+_The Dark Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Pruni_)
+
+The upper side of this butterfly is very much like that of _W-album_,
+but it may be distinguished by the presence of a few orange spots near
+the anal angle of the hind wings. The colouring of the under side (Plate
+VI, fig. 5) is also very similar, except that the white lines of the
+wings are thinner and less distinct than in the last species, and do not
+exhibit the W-shaped bend. The orange band of this surface is bordered
+on each side with a row of black spots, each of which is touched with a
+bluish white or a metallic blue.
+
+This insect is not by any means common, but has been seen in
+considerable numbers in certain localities. It is not found in either
+Scotland or Ireland, and its chief haunts in England seem to be in
+Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire. It frequents
+wooded country, and flies during June and July.
+
+The eggs are laid late in the summer on the twigs of the blackthorn
+(_Prunus spinosa_), and are not hatched till the following spring.
+
+The caterpillar, which is pale green, with rows of yellow spots, may be
+found in May.
+
+
+_The Purple Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Quercus_)
+
+This pretty butterfly, by far the commonest of the Hairstreaks, though
+comparatively very small, reminds one forcibly of the noble Purple
+Emperor. Its haunts are the same oak woods, and its upper surface,
+though only a dull dark brown in certain lights, exhibits the same
+imperial purple reflections when viewed at certain angles. The purple of
+the male extends over the whole of the wings, but that of the female is
+confined to a V-shaped patch at the base of the fore wings. In the
+latter case, however, the purple is much richer than in the male sex.
+
+The under side (Plate VI, fig. 6) is coloured with a delicate grey
+ground, adorned with a white streak on each wing, and a couple of orange
+spots near the anal angle of the hind wings.
+
+This species is very widely distributed, being common in oak woods in
+most parts of England, and also in many parts of Scotland and Ireland.
+It flies around the branches of the trees, and often disappoints the
+collector by keeping far beyond the reach of his net.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--THE PURPLE HAIRSTREAK--MALE.]
+
+Those in search of this pretty insect should ramble in oak woods,
+preferably in the south of England, during July and August. The eggs may
+be found glued to the twigs throughout the winter, and the larvae may be
+beaten from the branches of the oak in June.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is brownish or pinkish green, with a row
+of V-shaped marks down the back.
+
+The chrysalis is of a brown colour, short and thick, and may be found
+either attached to oak leaves, or under the surface of the earth at the
+foot of the tree on which the caterpillar fed.
+
+
+_The Green Hairstreak_ (_Thecla Rubi_)
+
+Next to _Quercus_, this is the most plentiful of the genus. It frequents
+woods and heaths in nearly every county in England, and is also found in
+parts of Scotland and Ireland. It is peculiar among British butterflies
+as being the only one that exhibits a bright green colour. It also
+differs from the other Hairstreaks in two important particulars, for the
+hind wings, though angled at the hind margin, are not 'tailed,' and the
+characteristic hairstreak which gives the popular name to the genus is
+here represented only by a series of white dots across the wings, or, in
+some cases, by one or two dots on the hind wings only.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--THE GREEN HAIRSTREAK.]
+
+The upper side is dark brown, displaying metallic reflections when
+viewed in a strong light. The under side is represented in fig. 7 of
+Plate VI.
+
+The chief food plants of this species are the bramble (_Rubus
+fruticosus_), the birch (_Betula alba_), and the broom (_Cytisus
+scoparius_).
+
+The perfect insect flies in May and June, and the eggs are deposited
+during the latter month on the above plants. The caterpillars are full
+fed in July, and change to the chrysalis state towards the end of the
+summer.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is pale green, with a yellow stripe and
+several white oblique lines along the sides, also a yellowish stripe
+down the back.
+
+The chrysalis is short and thick, and of a dark brown colour.
+
+
+_The Large Copper_ (_Polyommatus Dispar_)
+
+Our next genus contains only two British species. The first of
+these--the Large Copper--was once a common insect at Whittlesea in
+Cambridgeshire, and in some of the fens of Huntingdonshire, but is now
+feared to be quite extinct, as none have been seen for many years. The
+last capture was made in 1847 in Huntingdonshire. However, it _may_ turn
+up again; and even if it does not, it would be a pity to allow the
+memory of so fine an insect to die out; so we find room to figure it
+(Plate VI, fig. 8), and append a few remarks.
+
+There is a very great difference between the male and the female. The
+former is of a brilliant copper hue, and all the wings have a black
+margin and a black streak near the middle. The female is larger; and the
+coppery colour is much redder. The black border of the fore wings is
+wider, and there are also several large black spots on these wings. The
+hind wings are almost entirely covered with black, with the exception of
+a broad coppery band near the hind margin.
+
+The food plant of the caterpillar appears to have been the water dock
+(_Rumex Hydrolapathum_), on which the eggs were laid late in the summer.
+It is probable that the caterpillar was a hybernator, seeking its winter
+shelter while still very young; and it was full fed in June.
+
+Its colour was green, with a darker stripe of the same colour on the
+back; and the chrysalis was attached by anal hooks and a cord round the
+body.
+
+
+_The Small Copper_ (_Polyommatus Phlaeas_)
+
+The only other British member of the genus _Polyommatus_--the Small
+Copper--is one of the commonest of our butterflies. It may be found in
+nearly all parts of the British Isles from April to September, more
+particularly in April, June, _and_ August, for it is apparently triple
+brooded.
+
+This brilliant and lively little insect is shown on Plate VI (fig. 9),
+and, being so very familiar, needs no description.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on different species of dock--the broad-leaved
+dock (_Rumex obtusifolius_), the fiddle dock (_R. pulcher_), the sorrel
+(_R. acetosa_), and the sheep sorrel (_R. acetosella_); also on the
+ragwort (_Senecio Jacobaea_). It is full fed about three weeks after
+hatching, and then changes to a small and stout chrysalis, of a pale
+brown colour, on the leaf of its food plant.
+
+The caterpillar itself is green, with a reddish line on the back and on
+each side; and it glides over the surface of the leaves something after
+the manner of a slug, without exhibiting any very apparent motion of its
+short legs and claspers.
+
+
+_The Tailed Blue_ (_Lycaena Baetica_)
+
+We now come to a genus containing no less than ten species of beautiful
+little butterflies, known commonly as the 'Blues;' but one of them
+exhibits no trace of the colour so characteristic of the group, although
+it resembles the others in structure and habits.
+
+Our first example is the Tailed Blue, known also as the Pea-pod Argus.
+The upper side of this insect (Plate VI, fig. 10) is of a dull smoke
+colour, exhibiting purple-blue reflections, which are, in the female,
+confined to distinct blotches on the bases of the wings, but in the male
+are less noticeable, and extend over the whole surface. The hind margin
+of the hind wings has a row of spots, more or less distinct, and much
+more prominent in the female than in the male. The under side is
+beautifully marked with bands of fawn and grey, and with two spots of
+brilliant metallic green in the anal angle of the hind wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--THE TAILED BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This butterfly abounds in the countries of South Europe, where the
+caterpillar feeds on the pods of certain leguminous plants; but only a
+few stragglers have been taken in England, so that its reputation as a
+true Britisher is very uncertain. It is highly probable that the two or
+three specimens caught on our south coast were blown over from the
+Continent, and that the insect has never bred on this side of the
+Channel.
+
+
+_The Silver-studded Blue_ (_Lycaena AEgon_)
+
+The upper surface of the male (Plate VI, fig. 11) of this species is
+purple blue, with a black border on the hind margins of all wings. The
+female (fig. 12 of the same plate) is of a very dark smoky-brown colour,
+often with a bluish tinge, and has generally a row of orange spots near
+the hind margin of the hind wings.
+
+The under side of both sexes is similar, and is illustrated in the
+accompanying woodcut. The ground colour is bluish grey, and is marked
+with a number of black spots surrounded by light rings. Along the hind
+margin of the hind wings is a row of orange spots, each bordered with
+black on the inner side, and with a silvery blue on the outer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88. THE SILVER-STUDDED BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This insect appears in July, and is common in many dry, sandy, or chalky
+spots in various parts of England, and also in a few localities in
+Scotland and Ireland. It has been reported as abundant at Darlington and
+in certain localities in Lancashire, but its head quarters are
+undoubtedly the chalk downs and dry gravelly banks of the southern
+counties.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_), and
+is full grown towards the end of June. Its colour is yellow or grey,
+with a brown dorsal stripe, a white line on each side, and pale oblique
+lines near the former. About the end of June it changes to a dull green
+chrysalis, with projecting wing cases.
+
+
+_The Brown Argus_ (_Lycaena Astrarche_)
+
+Neither male nor female of this species exhibits any trace of blue. The
+upper surface, shown in fig. 13 of Plate VI, is coloured with a warm
+brown, and all four wings have a row of orange spots near the hind
+margin. The fore wings have also a central black spot. The under
+surface, drawn on the same plate (fig. 14), is bluish grey, with a
+border of orange spots on each hind margin as on the other side. There
+are also numerous black spots in light rings, the arrangement of which
+will be seen in the figure.
+
+Some species of butterflies and moths are so variable in their colouring
+and markings that varieties have often been mistaken for distinct
+species; and, in other cases, distinct species are sometimes so similar
+in character that they are looked upon as identical.
+
+A butterfly that closely resembles the normal Brown Argus in many
+points, and named _Artaxerxes_, has often been described as a distinct
+species, but is now, I believe, recognised by most entomologists as a
+constant variety of the present species.
+
+It differs from the normal type in having a _white_ instead of a _black_
+spot in the centre of the fore wings, and the border of orange spots is
+often very indistinct. On the under side, too, instead of black spots in
+white rings, it has white spots, with little or no trace of a black
+centre.
+
+The ordinary Brown Argus is a southerner, and is particularly abundant
+on the chalk downs of the south coast and the Isle of Wight, but
+_Artaxerxes_ is to be found only in Scotland and the north of England;
+and it is interesting to note that, between these northern and southern
+districts, intermediate varieties are to be met with.
+
+Again, _Astrarche_ is a double-brooded butterfly, appearing on the wing
+in May and August; while _Artaxerxes_ is single brooded, flying at
+midsummer. This fact has lent support to the opinion that the two are
+distinct species; but it must be remembered that several insects that
+are single brooded in one country are double brooded in a warmer
+climate.
+
+The caterpillar of _Astrarche_ feeds on the hemlock stork's-bill
+(_Erodium cicutarium_). It is of a pale yellow colour, with a brownish
+line on the back; and is full fed in April and July.
+
+
+_The Common Blue_ (_Lycaena Icarus_)
+
+Although this pretty little butterfly is so common that it is almost
+sure to be known to all who take any interest in insect life, yet it is
+important to observe it carefully, since it is an easy matter to
+confound it with other species of the same genus.
+
+The upper surfaces of the two sexes are very different, that of the male
+(Plate VI, fig. 15) being a beautiful lilac blue; and that of the
+female (Plate VI, fig. 16) a dark brown, powdered with blue at the bases
+of the wings, and having _generally_ a border of orange spots, more or
+less defined, on the hind margins of all wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--THE COMMON BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under side, shown in the accompanying woodcut, is ashy brown; warm
+in the female, but paler in the male. The hind wings, and sometimes all
+four, are bordered with orange spots; and this species may be
+distinguished from _Astrarche_ by the presence of two black spots, in
+white rings, near the base of the fore wings.
+
+There will be no need to name localities for this insect, as it is
+abundant everywhere, frequenting meadows, heaths, and all waste places.
+It is double brooded, and is on the wing continuously from May to
+September, the first brood enduring from May to July, and the second
+from July to the end of the warm weather.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with a dorsal line of a darker tint, and a row
+of white spots on each side. It feeds on clover (_Trifolium pratense_
+and _T. repens_), bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_), bird's-foot
+trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and the rest-harrow (_Ononis spinosa_).
+
+The chrysalis is short and rounded, of a dull green colour, tinged with
+brown on the under surface.
+
+
+_The Clifden Blue_ (_Lycaena Bellargus_)
+
+Our coloured representations of this beautiful blue (Plate VI, figs. 17
+and 18) show that here also there is a great difference between the male
+and female. The former is a most lovely and brilliant sky blue, bordered
+by a fine black line; and the latter is a dull dark brown, with a more
+or less distinct border of orange spots, and the bases of the wings are
+powdered with scales of a tint corresponding with those of the male. In
+both sexes the fringe is very distinctly barred with dark brown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--THE CLIFDEN BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under side (fig. 90) is similar in both sexes--greyish brown, with
+a border of reddish spots, and a number of black spots in white rings,
+the arrangement of which is here represented.
+
+The butterfly frequents chalky downs, chiefly in the south of England,
+and seems to be unknown in Scotland and Ireland. The Isle of Wight, and
+the chalky downs and banks of Sussex, Surrey, and Kent, are its
+favourite localities; and even in these it is generally very local,
+sometimes swarming on a grassy bank of no great extent, when the
+surrounding neighbourhood, though apparently equally suitable to its
+requirements, does not harbour a single specimen. It is on the wing in
+May and June, and again in August.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with two rows of yellow streaks on the back,
+and a yellow stripe on each side. It feeds on the Dutch clover
+(_Trifolium repens_), horse-shoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_), and
+various other leguminous plants.
+
+
+_The Chalk-Hill Blue_ (_Lycaena Corydon_)
+
+The male of this species (Plate VII, fig. 1) is readily to be
+distinguished from all other members of the genus by its pale glossy
+blue, but the female (fig. 2 of Plate VII) so closely resembles that of
+_Bellargus_ that it is often a somewhat difficult matter to discriminate
+between them. The following, however, are a few points worthy of
+observation: The upper side of the female _Corydon_ has the bases of the
+wings more or less sprinkled with the pale silky blue that characterises
+the male; and the black bars of the fringe are _usually_ broader in
+_Corydon_ than in _Bellargus_. The black-centred spots of the under side
+are also usually more conspicuous in the former species than in the
+latter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--THE CHALK HILL BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The difficulty of identification is increased by the fact that both
+these butterflies frequent similar localities, and are often on the wing
+at the same time; but although _Corydon_ is certainly a frequenter of
+chalky districts, yet it is often found plentifully in districts far
+removed from the chalk, notably at Arnside in Lancashire, and in Epping
+Forest.
+
+The butterfly is out in June and July. The caterpillar is green, with
+two rows of short yellow streaks on the back, and a yellow stripe on
+each side. It feeds on the purple and Dutch clovers (_Trifolium
+pratense_ and _T. repens_), bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_),
+horse-shoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_), and lady's fingers (_Anthyllis
+vulneraria_).
+
+
+_The Holly Blue_ (_Lycaena Argiolus_)
+
+While all the other Blues delight to sport on low flowery banks in the
+full blaze of the summer's sun, the Holly Blue prefers to flit among the
+branches of trees, often many feet from the ground. The larva feeds on
+the flowers of the holly (_Ilex Aquifolium_) in the spring, and on those
+of the ivy (_Hedera Helix_) late in the summer; also on the alder
+buckthorn (_Rhamnus Frangula_); and it is in localities where these grow
+that we may find this lovely Blue sporting among the branches, or
+resting on a leaf with its wings folded together, thus making itself
+conspicuous among the dark foliage by exposing the pale silvery blue of
+its under surface.
+
+The upper sides of both the male and female are shown on Plate VII
+(figs. 3 and 4 respectively), where the beautiful lilac blue will be
+seen to have a border of black, wider in the latter than in the former.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--THE HOLLY BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The under surface is spotted with black, as shown in fig. 92, and has no
+border of orange spots.
+
+This is a double-brooded butterfly, appearing first in April and May,
+and then again in August. It is not at all uncommon in the south of
+England, and extends northward as far as the Lake District, but is not
+found in Scotland. It is generally distributed throughout Ireland.
+
+The caterpillar may be looked for in June and October. It is light
+green, with a line of dark green down the back.
+
+
+_The Mazarine Blue_ (_Lycaena Semiargus_)
+
+The male (Plate VII, fig. 5) is deep purple blue, with a narrow
+dark-brown border, and the female (fig. 6 of the same plate) dark brown.
+The under side of both sexes is light greyish-brown or drab, with a row
+of black spots in white rings parallel with the hind margin of each
+wing, and no reddish or orange spots.
+
+This pretty butterfly seems to have been plentiful in several localities
+some years since, but has not been seen for a long time; and it is
+probable that its reckless slaughter by those who catch all the pretty
+butterflies they can secure either for ornament or for gain has caused
+its name to be permanently removed from our list of natives.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--THE MAZARINE BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+It was formerly abundant in Dorset, Hereford, Glamorganshire, and near
+Shirley, and was on the wing in June and July, but it disappeared from
+our view before a full account of its life history had been prepared.
+
+
+_The Small Blue_ (_Lycaena Minima_)
+
+We now come to the smallest of all British butterflies--a little insect
+that measures less than one inch from tip to tip when its wings are
+expanded. Its upper surface is of a dull and dark-brown colour, the
+bases of the wings being dusted with blue in the case of the male. The
+under side is pale drab, tinged with greenish blue at the bases of the
+wings, and marked with black spots in light rings as shown in the
+accompanying figure. The upper side is represented in fig. 7 of Plate
+VII.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--THE SMALL BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+This butterfly is on the wing in May and June, and during the latter
+month the eggs are deposited on the flowers of the lady's fingers
+(_Anthyllis vulneraria_).
+
+The caterpillars are hatched in about a week, and commence feeding on
+the calyx of the buds, and soon burrow into them till they are quite
+concealed.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is brownish, with a darker stripe on the
+back, and a row of oblique brown streaks on each side.
+
+This species is widely distributed in England, and is plentiful in most
+chalky and limestone districts. It is also found in parts of Scotland
+and Ireland.
+
+
+_The Large Blue_ (_Lycaena Arion_)
+
+The last of our Blues is the largest of the genus, and is, with the
+exception of _Semiargus_, the rarest. It is a very local insect,
+appearing in small numbers, during June and July, in parts of South
+Devon, Gloucestershire, Northamptonshire, and a few other counties.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--THE LARGE BLUE--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+The colour of the upper side is a dark and rich blue, with a broad dark
+border on the hind margins, and a group of black spots near the centre
+of the fore wings. The under side (fig. 95) is of a pearly grey, without
+any red spots, but having a double border of black spots, and also an
+irregular row of black spots in white rings across the middle of each
+wing.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_), on which plant the
+eggs are laid singly, generally on the flower heads.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+_THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS_
+
+
+Family--ERYCINIDAE
+
+_The Duke of Burgundy_ (_Nemeobius Lucina_)
+
+The family _Erycinidae_ has only one British representative, commonly
+known as the Duke of Burgundy Fritillary, but although this butterfly
+certainly resembles the Fritillaries in general appearance (see figs. 9
+and 10 of Plate VII), its habits and life history present many points of
+difference from these.
+
+The upper side is chequered with black and tawny brown, the fringe is
+white and barred with dark brown, and a row of tawny spots with black
+centres border the hind margins. The under side has two rows of white
+spots, one near the base, and the other across the centre of each wing.
+
+The male has only four legs adapted for walking, but the female has six.
+
+The butterfly is out in May and June, and frequents the paths and open
+spaces of woods, chiefly in the south of England, but it has been taken
+in some of the northern counties.
+
+The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 6) is not spiny like those of the true
+Fritillaries, but more closely resembles those of the Blues, being
+somewhat of the form of a woodlouse. It is reddish brown, with tufts of
+hair, black spiracles, and a dark line down the back. It feeds on the
+primrose (_Primula acaulis_) and the cowslip (_P. veris_), and may be
+found during June, July and August.
+
+When fully grown, the caterpillar secures itself to a leaf or stem by
+means of its anal claspers and a silken cord round its body, and changes
+to a short, thick, hairy and light-coloured chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig.
+11), which is marked with several black spots. In this state it spends
+the winter, and emerges early in the following summer.
+
+
+Family--HESPERIIDAE--THE SKIPPERS
+
+This family contains eight small species, none of which are remarkable
+for brilliancy of color. They are, nevertheless, very interesting
+creatures, for they exhibit peculiarities of structure and habit that
+render them singular among the butterflies, and seem to show a sort of
+cousin relationship with the moths. They have thick bodies that remind
+us somewhat of the _Noctuae_. Their heads are broad, so that the antennae,
+which are slightly hooked at the tips, are rather wide apart at the
+bases. When at rest, they neither press their wings together over their
+back like the other butterflies, nor do they set them horizontally after
+the manner of the moths, but seem to lay claim to an intermediate
+position in the scale of Lepidopterous insects by holding them in a half
+elevated position. Their flight, too, is not graceful like that of most
+other butterflies, nor even so steady as that of the little flitting
+blues, but brisk and erratic, and resembling the fitful motions of moths
+disturbed from their slumberings at unwonted hours. Thus they have
+earned their popular title of skippers from their habit of skipping
+rather than flying from flower to flower. All the three pairs of legs of
+these butterflies are fully developed for walking.
+
+The caterpillars have rather large heads, and their bodies taper from
+the middle toward both extremities. Like the larvae of many moths, they
+hide themselves in leaves which they have rolled and secured with silken
+threads; and when about to change to the chrysalis state, they also spin
+silken cocoons for their further protection.
+
+
+_The Grizzled Skipper_ (_Syrichthus Malvae_)
+
+The ground color of this species is a very dark brown, relieved by a
+number of square white spots arranged as shown in fig. 11 of Plate VII.
+The fringe is wide, and barred with the same two colours, arranged
+alternately. The pattern of the under side is similar, but the dark
+brown of the upper surface is replaced by a lighter olive tint.
+
+The butterfly may be looked for in May in the open spaces of woods,
+particularly in damp places. It is common all over England, and is found
+also in the south of Scotland.
+
+The caterpillar is either green or brownish, with a darker dorsal stripe
+of the same color, and two white lines on each side. It feeds on the
+raspberry (_Rubus idaeus_), the bramble (_R. fruticosus_), and the
+strawberry-leaved cinquefoil (_Potentilla Fragariastrum_), and is full
+fed about the end of June.
+
+The chrysalis is greyish, spotted with black. It is rather elongated,
+and without angles, but has a short and sharp projection extending
+backwards from the 'tail.'
+
+
+_The Dingy Skipper_ (_Nisoniades Tages_)
+
+Colour--a dingy brown, indistinctly barred and spotted with a darker
+tint, and having a row of small white spots just inside the fringe of
+the hind margins. Under side--a paler brown, with rows of small white
+spots.
+
+This butterfly is common in all parts of England, and is found in a few
+localities in Scotland and Ireland. It frequents dry banks, and is
+particularly partial to the chalky districts of the south-eastern
+counties. It is on the wing in May, and a second brood appears in lesser
+numbers in August.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, with two yellow stripes on each side, and
+a row of black spots above each stripe. It feeds on the bird's-foot
+trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), and may be found in June, and again in
+September.
+
+The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 12) is shaped something like that of the
+last species, and is coloured green on the front segments, and a rose
+red on the abdomen.
+
+The perfect insect is represented in fig. 12 of Plate VII.
+
+
+_The Small Skipper_ (_Hesperia Thaumas_)
+
+In briefly describing the various British butterflies no mention has
+been made, except in a few cases, of the shape of the wings, this matter
+having been left to the reader's own observations of our illustrations.
+We will, however, call attention to the somewhat square-cut form of the
+wings of _Thaumas_ and the following species.
+
+The above-named butterfly (Plate VII, fig. 13) is a lively-looking
+little insect, its wings being of a bright tawny orange colour, bordered
+with black, beyond which is a light fringe. The male, which is the sex
+figured, is distinguished from the female by an oblique black streak
+across the middle of the front wings. The under side is orange, with a
+decidedly greenish tinge.
+
+The butterfly is out in July, and is very abundant and widely
+distributed. It lays its eggs on various grasses, particularly the
+meadow soft-grass (_Holcus lanatus_).
+
+The caterpillar hybernates through the winter, and is full fed in the
+following June, when it changes to a green chrysalis after spinning a
+light silken cocoon among the blades of grass. The colour of the
+caterpillar is green, with six longitudinal white stripes--two on the
+back, and two on each side.
+
+
+_The New Small Skipper_ (_Hesperia Lineola_)
+
+A few years since (1888) a butterfly was taken in one of our
+south-eastern counties that closely resembled the well-known _Thaumas_
+(or _Linea_), but which turned out to be a species not previously known
+in Britain. When, however, the distinguishing features of the new
+butterfly were made known, several entomologists discovered that they
+had already secured the new prize, but that, being ignorant of its
+characteristics, they had placed it in their series over the label
+_Thaumas_.
+
+Since the above date, this new insect (Plate VII, fig. 18), which is
+named _Lineola_, has been taken in considerable numbers at Leigh,
+Harwich, Southend, and near Shoeburyness in Suffolk, as well as in the
+Fens of Huntingdonshire; and it is highly probable that it may turn up
+in various other localities where it has not yet been observed.
+
+It appears on the wing about the first week of July, a little later than
+_Thaumas_, but the two kindred species are often found flying together.
+
+The chief points by which we distinguish _Lineola_ from the last species
+are these: The general appearance of the wings is a bit dingier than in
+_Thaumas_; the inner portion of the hind wings is of a bright tawny
+colour in _Thaumas_ but not in _Lineola_; the tips of the antennae are
+yellow beneath in _Thaumas_, but black in _Lineola_; and the black
+streak across the fore wings of the latter species is short and
+generally broken.
+
+The eggs of _Lineola_ are laid at the end of July or beginning of August
+on various grasses, chiefly the various species of _Triticum_, but do
+not hatch till the following April.
+
+The larva is full fed about the end of June or beginning of July, and
+then changes to a long yellowish-green chrysalis, from which the perfect
+insect emerges in two or three weeks.
+
+
+_The Lulworth Skipper_ (_Hesperia Actaeon_)
+
+Although this species is somewhat similar to the two preceding, it may
+be readily distinguished by the heavy clouding of dull greenish brown
+that almost covers the wings. The male, which is shown in fig. 14 of
+Plate VII, has a black streak across the fore wings, and the female
+possesses a semicircular row of tawny spots near the tip of the same
+wings, and also a tawny streak near the centre.
+
+This is a very local species, having been found only in a few
+localities. At Lulworth Cove and 'Burning Cliff' in Dorset it has been
+met with in profusion. In Devon it frequents the rough ground near the
+cliffs at Sidmouth and Torquay; and it has also been reported as
+appearing at Stratford-on-Avon, Shenstone near Lichfield, and the
+neighbourhoods of Swanage and Tyneham.
+
+One can scarcely hope to see this insect at large without making a
+special trip to one of its favourite haunts, in which case a day should
+be chosen toward the end of July or early in August.
+
+
+_The Large Skipper_ (_Hesperia Sylvanus_)
+
+During May, June, and August this butterfly may be seen on grassy banks
+in nearly every part of England, as well as in certain localities of
+Scotland and Ireland.
+
+The wings are all of a bright orange-brown colour, with a narrow black
+border, inside which is a broad shading of brown. The latter colour
+usually completely covers the hind wings with the exception of about
+half a dozen squarish spots; and the same colour, together with the dark
+brown wing rays, breaks up the light ground of the fore wings, often
+forming several squarish and triangular patches, most distinct near the
+tips. The male (Plate VII, fig. 15) may be readily distinguished from
+the female by the presence of a thick dark brown streak across the fore
+wings.
+
+The under side of both sexes is pale tawny brown, with a greenish tinge;
+and has several rather indistinct yellowish spots.
+
+The larva is of a dull green colour, with a dark line on the back. Its
+upper surface is dotted with black, and there are white spots on the
+under side of the tenth and eleventh segments. It feeds on several kinds
+of grasses, some of its favourites being the meadow soft grass (_Holcus
+lanatus_), the cock's-foot (_Dactylis glomerata_), and couch grass
+(_Agropyron repens_).
+
+
+_The Silver-spotted Skipper_ (_Hesperia Comma_)
+
+This species is very similar on the upper side to the last, except that
+the squarish spots of both fore and hind wings are much paler and much
+more distinct; and here, too, the male (Plate VII, fig. 16) is to be
+distinguished from the female by a black streak crossing the front wings
+obliquely. The under surface has a greenish tinge, more particularly on
+the hind wings; and this side is conspicuously marked with a number of
+_white_ square spots with sharp outlines, arranged as shown in fig. 96.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--THE SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER--UNDER SIDE.]
+
+Although common in some localities, this butterfly is not widely
+distributed. It is confined to some of the southern and midland counties
+of England, and is particularly partial to the chalk districts of the
+south-east. On the chalk downs of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex it is
+moderately common. It is on the wing during July and August.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on certain leguminous plants, among which are the
+bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_) and the bird's-foot trefoil
+(_Lotus corniculatus_).
+
+
+_The Chequered Skipper_ (_Carterocephalus Palaemon_)
+
+This is another local insect, more so even than the last, but it
+sometimes appears in profusion in certain limited districts. Kettering,
+Oundle in Northamptonshire, and Monk's Wood in Huntingdonshire are
+places where it has been taken freely. It appears in June.
+
+The wings are chequered with very dark brown and orange. The fore wings
+are bordered with small rounded yellow spots, and beside these there are
+about nine very conspicuous yellow spots on the fore wing and three on
+the hind wing. The arrangement of these markings may be seen in fig. 17
+of Plate VII.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the greater plantain (_Plantago major_).
+
+
+
+
+PART IV
+
+COMMON BRITISH MOTHS
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+_SPHINGES_
+
+
+We have already observed the chief features by which we are able to
+distinguish between butterflies and moths (page 56), so we shall devote
+the present division to a description of the characteristics and life
+histories of some of the latter insects.
+
+The number of British butterflies is so limited that space could be
+found for a brief description of every species, but with moths the case
+is very different. There are about two thousand known British species of
+this division of the Lepidoptera, and every year adds some newly
+discovered insects to this long list; we shall therefore have to content
+ourselves with making a selection of these for individual mention.
+
+In doing this I shall endeavour to provide the young entomologist with a
+fairly representative list--one that will enable him to become more or
+less intimately acquainted with all the principal divisions of the
+_Heterocera_; and his attention will be drawn especially to many which
+may be described as 'common' or 'generally distributed,' so that during
+his first few seasons at collecting he may be enabled to identify and
+study a fair proportion of his captures. Occasionally, however, one of
+the rarer species will be described in order to illustrate some striking
+characteristic.
+
+We shall commence with the tribe of _Sphinges_ or _Hawk Moths_.
+
+This group consists of three families--the _Sphingidae_, including the
+largest of the 'Hawks,' and the 'Bee Hawks,' the _Sesiidae_ or
+'Clearwings,' and the _Zygaenidae_, including the 'Foresters' and the
+'Burnets'--numbering in all about forty species.
+
+
+Family--SPHINGIDAE
+
+This family is named from a fancied resemblance of the larvae to the
+celebrated Egyptian sphinx. The perfect insects have very thick bodies,
+generally tapering toward the tail, and their wings are rather narrow in
+proportion to the length, but are exceedingly powerful, and the flight
+is, with one or two exceptions, very rapid. The antennae terminate in a
+small and thin hook.
+
+Most of these insects fly at dusk, but a few delight in the brightness
+and heat of the midday sun. In either case the velocity of their flight
+is generally so great that it is a difficult matter to follow them with
+the eye, and a still more difficult matter to secure the insects in the
+net; consequently, the best way to study them is to search out the larvae
+on their food plants, and rear them till they attain their perfect form.
+
+The larvae of the _Sphingidae_ are large and smooth, and most of them have
+a horn projecting from the top of the last segment but one. They all
+undergo their metamorphoses under the surface of the ground.
+
+
+_The Death's-Head Hawk_ (_Acherontia Atropos_)
+
+Our first example of the Sphinges is the beautiful Death's-Head Hawk
+Moth--an insect that often attains a breadth of five inches from tip to
+tip when the wings are fully expanded. Its popular title has been
+applied on account of the peculiar markings of the thorax, which are
+said to resemble a human skull; and this feature has certainly some
+connection with the superstitious beliefs of ignorant country folk
+concerning this moth. But this characteristic is probably not the only
+one that has caused the creature to be regarded with superstitious
+alarm. Both its superior dimensions and nocturnal habits serve to
+intensify the unfounded fear; but, what is particularly striking and
+unique about it is its power of uttering a squeaking sound, which it
+does when disturbed. Even the earlier stages of the insect possess this
+strange power. The caterpillar makes a peculiar snapping noise when
+irritated, and the chrysalis has been observed to squeak shortly before
+the emergence of the perfect form.
+
+The fore wings of this moth are of a very rich dark brown, beautifully
+mottled with lighter tawny shades, and with a small but conspicuous
+yellow dot near the centre. The hind wings are yellow, with a black band
+and margin; and the body is yellow, with six broad black bands, and six
+large blue spots down the middle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--THE DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK MOTH.]
+
+The moth is rather widely distributed, and even common in some parts,
+but is not nearly so often met with as the larva. It is on the wing
+during August and September.
+
+It is probable that the reader will never have an opportunity of
+capturing the perfect form of this remarkable species, but he may with a
+little perseverance obtain some caterpillars and rear them. These larvae
+feed on the potato, the deadly nightshade (_Atropa Belladonna_), and the
+woody nightshade (_Solanum Dulcamara_); and they are well known to
+potato growers in some parts of the country.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is generally pale yellow, with numerous
+small black dots, and seven oblique violet stripes on each side. The
+horn is yellowish and rough, and is bent downward, but recurved again at
+the tip.
+
+It feeds during the night, and remains hidden throughout the daytime. In
+August it is fully grown, and then retires into the ground to undergo
+its transformations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--THE LARVA OF ATROPOS.]
+
+
+_The Privet Hawk_ (_Sphinx Ligustri_)
+
+This is another fine moth, measuring nearly four and a half inches from
+tip to tip. It is represented in the centre of Plate IX in its natural
+colours, so that it need not be described.
+
+The perfect insect flies in June and July, and, although common, is not
+frequently seen at large. The larvae, however, are to be met with in
+abundance in privet hedges. Even in the centres of large towns we may
+see them resting on the topmost twigs of a privet hedge, their beautiful
+green tint closely resembling that of the surrounding leaves. After a
+little experience they may be readily discerned by a careful observer,
+but there are certain signs by which their presence may be proved before
+they have been actually seen. Sometimes a number of the twigs are
+completely stripped of their leaves, even the midribs and the leaf
+stalks being almost or entirely devoured; and beneath the bushes are
+the large black masses of excrement that tell of the marauders above.
+When found, these larvae should always be removed on a piece of the twig
+to which they are attached, for they hold on so firmly by their claspers
+that it is sometimes almost impossible to remove them from their hold
+without injury.
+
+These caterpillars may easily be distinguished from those of the other
+'hawks' by the seven oblique stripes which adorn the sides. These are
+each composed of two colours, white and lilac, and form a pretty
+contrast with the bright green of the rest of the body. The horn is
+smooth and curved, and is black with the exception of part of the under
+side, which is yellow.
+
+They are fully grown in August, and from the end of this month till the
+following June the chrysalides may be dug out from under privet and
+lilac bushes, both of which are attacked by the larva.
+
+
+_The Spurge Hawk_ (_Deilephila Euphorbiae_)
+
+This is a very rare British species; in fact, it has never been seen in
+this country in its perfect state, but the larva has been found
+plentifully at Appledore and Braunton Burrows, in North Devon, feeding
+on the sea spurge (_Euphorbia Paralias_).
+
+The perfect insect is shown on Plate IX (fig. 2).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.--THE CATERPILLAR OF EUPHORBIAE.]
+
+The caterpillar is black, with a large number of small yellowish white
+dots, and two rows of spots of the same colour on each side. There is
+also a red line on each side, and another down the middle of the back.
+The horn is rough and red with a black tip. It feeds during August and
+September.
+
+
+_The Small Elephant Hawk_ (_Chaerocampa Porcellus_)
+
+This pretty insect is one of the smallest of our hawk moths. It is
+widely distributed, being met with in many parts of England and in the
+south of Scotland. It flies in June.
+
+The fore wings are of a dull yellow colour, with rosy-red hind margins,
+and a broad border of the same tint on the costal margin. The hind wings
+have also a rosy-red hind margin, and are smoky black along the costae,
+and yellow in the anal angle. The body is coloured with bright rose-red,
+tinged with olive on the foremost and hindmost segments.
+
+The popular name of this and the following species has been applied
+because of the power which the caterpillar has of extending and
+retracting its front segments, a peculiarity which has given the idea of
+a semblance to the elephant's proboscis. The colour of the caterpillar
+is light-brown or green, mottled with dark-brown, dark-green, or black.
+It has a conspicuous eye-like spot on each side of the fifth and sixth
+segments, and has no horn.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.--THE SMALL ELEPHANT HAWK MOTH.]
+
+This larva may be found in July and August, feeding on species of
+bedstraw (_Galium verum_, _G. Mollugo_, and _G. palustre_), willow herb
+(_Epilobium hirsutum_), or the purple loosestrife (_Lythrum Salicaria_).
+
+
+_The Large Elephant_ (_Chaerocampa Elpenor_)
+
+This species (Plate IX, fig. 3) is very similar to the last in form and
+markings; but is, as its name implies, larger.
+
+The caterpillar, too, is very like that of the last species, but may be
+distinguished from it by the possession of a short black horn, tipped
+with white, on the 'tail.' Its colour is green or brown, mottled and
+spotted with black. The eye-like spots on its fifth and sixth segments
+are black, and each contains a brown spot surrounded by a white line.
+
+Its chief food plants are the hairy willow herb (_Epilobium hirsutum_),
+three species of bedstraw (_Galium verum_, _G. Mollugo_ and _G.
+palustre_), the purple loosestrife (_Lythrum Salicaria_), and the
+enchanter's nightshade (_Circaea lutetiana_). It will also feed on the
+vine and the apple in confinement.
+
+
+_The Eyed Hawk_ (_Smerinthus Ocellatus_)
+
+Our next genus (_Smerinthus_) contains three well-known moths, all of
+which have the hind margin of the fore wings angulated or indented.
+
+The first is the Eyed Hawk, represented in fig. 4 of Plate IX and named
+after the beautiful and conspicuous eye-like spot near the anal angle of
+each hind wing.
+
+The caterpillar has a rough green skin, sprinkled with white dots, and
+marked with seven oblique white lines on each side, each of which is
+bordered with dark green above. The spiracles are pinkish, surrounded by
+violet rings; and the horn is blue.
+
+The moth flies during May, June, and July; and the caterpillar may be
+found in plenty during August, feeding on the apple, willow (_Salix
+alba_), sallow (_S. cinerea_ and _S. Caprea_), poplar (_Populus alba_
+and _P. nigra_), aspen (_P. tremula_), and the blackthorn (_Prunus
+spinosa_).
+
+As with many other _Sphinges_, the larvae are much more commonly seen
+than the perfect insects; but the latter may often be met with resting
+on tree trunks and fences in the neighbourhood of their food plants.
+
+
+_The Poplar Hawk_ (_Smerinthus Populi_)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.--THE POPLAR HAWK.]
+
+This moth is very common and very widely distributed, and may be easily
+found in any of its stages. The perfect insect flies during May, June,
+and July; and being rather heavy on the wing, it is easily taken with a
+net as it hovers round the branches of its favourite trees or among the
+flowers of gardens at dusk. The larva may be beaten from the boughs of
+poplars and sallows during August and September, and during the latter
+month may often be seen creeping down and around the trunks of these
+trees, searching for a suitable spot in which to undergo its changes.
+The pupa may be dug out of the soil at the foot of the same trees
+during the autumn, winter, and spring months.
+
+The fore wings are ashy grey or greyish brown, marbled with darker
+tints, with a conspicuous white spot near the centre. The hind wings are
+similarly coloured except at the base, where there is a large patch of
+brick-red.
+
+The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour dotted with yellow,
+with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. The spiracles are white,
+edged with red; and the horn is yellow on the upper, and reddish on the
+under side. Its chief food plants are the poplar, the Lombardy poplar
+(_Populus pyramidalis_), aspen (P_. tremula_), and sallow (_Salix
+Caprea_ and _S. cinerea_).
+
+
+_The Lime Hawk_ (_Smerinthus Tiliae_)
+
+This beautiful moth (fig. 5, Plate IX) is easily identified by its rich
+olive green and brown wings, the fore pair of which have very
+conspicuous patches of deep olive, sometimes uniting to form a
+continuous central bar. It flies in May and June.
+
+The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour, dotted with yellow,
+with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. Thus it is very like the
+larva of _Populi_, but may be distinguished from that species by the
+orange spiracles, and by the horn, which is rough, blue above, and
+yellow beneath. Behind the horn, too, there is a flat purple or violet
+scale with an edging of orange.
+
+The food plants of this species are the lime (_Tilia vulgaris_), elm
+(_Ulmus campestris_), and the hazel (_Corylus Avellana_), from which the
+larvae may be beaten in August and September, and from under these the
+pupae may be dug out during the winter months.
+
+
+_The Humming-Bird Hawk_ (_Macroglossa Stellatarum_)
+
+The genus to which this insect belongs contains three interesting
+British species. Their antennae are thickened toward the end, but
+terminate in a small curved bristle. Their wings are rather short and
+broad; their bodies are very thick, terminating in a broad tuft of hair;
+and the perfect insects fly during the daytime, delighting in the
+hottest sunshine. The larvae feed principally on low-growing plants, and
+undergo their metamorphoses on the ground among the foliage.
+
+On Plate IX (fig. 6) one of these pretty moths is shown. It is the
+Humming-bird Hawk, so called on account of its exceedingly rapid
+humming-bird-like flight, accompanied by a soft humming sound.
+
+This insect is very common; and, being very partial to the attractions
+offered by many of our favourite garden flowers, it ought to be well
+known to all observers of nature.
+
+Take your stand near a bed of petunias or verbenas, or close to a
+honeysuckle in bloom, on any hot summer's day, and you are almost sure
+to be rewarded by a peep at the wonderful flight and interesting ways of
+this moth. It makes its appearance so suddenly that you first view it as
+an apparently motionless insect, suspended in the air, and thrusting its
+long proboscis into the tube of an attractive flower. Its wings vibrate
+so rapidly that they are quite invisible, and give rise to the soft hum
+already mentioned. Then it darts from one flower to another, making a
+similar brief stay before each while it sucks the grateful sweets. Raise
+your hand as if to strike, and suddenly it vanishes you know not where.
+But it is as bold as it is wary, and will often return to the selfsame
+flower as if to defy your power. A sharp sweep of your net in a
+horizontal direction, or a sudden downward stroke, _may_ secure it; but
+if you miss it, as you probably will, it will disappear like a phantom,
+and give you no opportunity of making a second attempt.
+
+This moth is on the wing throughout the hottest months of the year--May
+to September, and will often greet you as you roam over flowery banks in
+search of butterflies.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the lady's bedstraw (_Galium verum_), hedge
+bedstraw (_G. Mollugo_), and the goose grass (_G. Aparine_), and may be
+searched for in August and September. It is rough, green or brownish,
+and dotted with white. Along each side are two light lines. The horn is
+thin and short, rough, and points upwards.
+
+
+_The Broad-bordered Bee Hawk_ (_Macroglossa Fuciformis_)
+
+The two other moths of this genus are called Bee Hawks from their
+resemblance to the humble bee. They are very much alike, but may be
+distinguished by a difference in the width of the dark border of the
+wings; and are named Broad-bordered and Narrow-bordered respectively.
+
+The former is illustrated in the woodcut appended. The fore wings are
+transparent like those of bees, with a dark central spot and a broad
+reddish-brown hind margin. The base and costa are black and tinged with
+green. The hind wings are similarly coloured, but have no central spot.
+The body is olive-brown, with a broad reddish belt, and behind are tufts
+of hair, which are spread out when the insect flies, just after the
+manner of the tail feathers of a bird. The moth flies in May.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.--THE BROAD-BORDERED BEE HAWK.]
+
+The larva resembles that of _Stellatarum_, but exhibits a violet tint
+above the legs. Its horn, too, is curved, and of a reddish or brownish
+colour. It feeds on the honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_), ragged
+robin (_Lychnis Flos-cuculi_), evening campion (_L. vespertina_), red
+campion (_L. diurna_), lady's bedstraw (_Galium verum_), and the field
+scabious (_Scabiosa arvensis_), during the month of July.
+
+
+Family SESIIDAE--THE CLEARWINGS
+
+This family contains fourteen very pretty British insects that differ
+very much from other moths in many important and interesting
+particulars.
+
+Their antennae, like those of the _Sphingidae_, are thickest beyond the
+middle, and those of the males are slightly _ciliated_ or hairy. Their
+bodies are slender, and terminate behind in tufts of hair. The hind
+wings in all cases are transparent, margined and veined with black or
+brown; and the fore wings also, in most cases, have transparent bases.
+
+These moths delight in the hottest sunshine, and may be seen gracefully
+hovering over the flowers in our gardens, looking more like gnats, bees,
+and wasps, than moths.
+
+The larvae of these insects are all wood-eaters, and spend their time
+within the stems of shrubs and trees, eating out galleries in the
+material that forms both their food and their home. Within these they
+also undergo their changes, and do not expose themselves to the free air
+and light till they reach their perfect stage.
+
+
+_The Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar_ (_Trochilium Apiformis_)
+
+We can find space for a mention of only two of the clearwings, the first
+of which is an insect that closely resembles the dreaded hornet, and
+whose larva feeds in the stems of poplars--features which will account
+for the above name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.--THE HORNET CLEARWING OF THE POPLAR.]
+
+The head of this species is yellow, its thorax brown with a large yellow
+patch on each side, its abdomen yellow with two brown belts, and its
+legs reddish orange. The front wings are transparent, with brown costae,
+and all the wings are margined with brown.
+
+The caterpillar, when full fed, makes a cocoon with silk and the chips
+of wood that it has bitten off; and in this undergoes its metamorphoses.
+It is fully grown in April, and the moth flies from the end of May to
+the end of July.
+
+There is another 'Hornet Clearwing,' the larva of which feeds on the
+stems of osiers. It may be distinguished from the species just described
+by a yellow 'collar' between the head and thorax, both of which are
+blackish.
+
+
+_The Currant Clearwing_ (_Sesia Tipuliformis_)
+
+This is by far the commonest of all the Clearwings, and only too well
+known to those who grow currants. Examine the shoots of _Ribes rubrum_
+(red currant) and _R. nigrum_ (black currant), especially those that
+present a withered or half-withered appearance, and you will almost
+certainly meet with signs of the presence of this intruder. Little
+wriggling larvae occupy the pithless stems throughout the winter and
+spring. These are full grown in April, and in June the pretty little
+moth emerges through a hole in the side of a shoot, leaving the empty
+pupa case within its former home.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.--THE CURRANT CLEARWING.]
+
+The fore wings of this moth have black margins, and a black transverse
+bar beyond the middle. The body is black, with three pale yellow belts,
+and black tufts of hair at the tip.
+
+
+Family--ZYGAENIDAE
+
+The remaining family of the _Sphinges_--the _Zygaenidae_--includes seven
+British species, three of which are known popularly as the Foresters and
+the others as the Burnets.
+
+Their antennae are thickest beyond the middle, but do not terminate in a
+hook. Their wings are narrow and completely covered with scales.
+
+These moths are very sluggish creatures, spending the greater part of
+their time at rest on the stems of low-growing plants. When they do fly,
+their flight is short and heavy, and their pretty wings glisten in the
+sunshine (for they are lovers of the sun), giving them the appearance of
+bees rather than of moths. On account of this natural sluggishness, they
+are exceedingly local, for they never move far from the spots where
+their food plants abound, and where they had previously spent the
+earlier stages of their existence. Thus we often come across a very
+limited piece of ground actually alive with them, and outside which not
+a single specimen is to be seen.
+
+The larvae, too, are sluggish creatures, with soft and plump cylindrical
+bodies and no horns. I will briefly describe three members of this
+family.
+
+
+_The Forester_ (_Ino Statices_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are semi-transparent, and of a beautiful
+glossy green. The hind wings also are semi-transparent, but of a dull
+smoky tint. The thorax and abdomen are both of a brilliant metallic
+green colour. The tips of the antennae are blunt, and the male may be
+distinguished from his mate by these organs being slightly fringed or
+ciliated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.--THE FORESTER.]
+
+The caterpillar is dingy grey or greenish, with a row of black spots
+down the back, and a whitish stripe on each side. It feeds on the common
+sorrel (_Rumex acetosa_) and the sheep sorrel (_R. acetosella_), and
+when fully grown it spins a cocoon on the stem of its food plant, and
+there changes to a chrysalis.
+
+The larva may be found during May and early June. The chrysalis state
+lasts only a few days, and the moth is on the wing during June and
+July.
+
+
+_The Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet_ (_Zygaena Trifolii_)
+
+On Plate IX (fig. 7) will be found a coloured representation of this
+Burnet. The two crimson spots in the base of the fore wing are very
+close together, and often touch. The same remark also applies to the two
+spots on the middle of the wing. A glance at the list of British Moths
+(Appendix I) will show that we have also a _Narrow_-bordered
+Five-spotted Burnet. This insect is very similar to the species now
+under consideration, but may be identified by the narrower purplish
+margin on the hind wings, and also by the shape of the antennae, which
+are not thickened so much near the end as they are in _Trifolii_.
+
+The larva of the present species is yellowish or greenish, with a row of
+black spots on the back and a row on each side. It feeds on the
+bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), hop trefoil (_Trifolium
+procumbens_), and the horse-shoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_) in May.
+Late in May or in early June the chrysalis may be found in a silken
+cocoon attached to a stem or leaf; and the perfect insect flies during
+June and July.
+
+
+_The Six-spotted Burnet_ (_Zygaena Filipendulae_)
+
+So common is this moth, and so conspicuous when it flies in the blazing
+sun, that it must be familiar to almost everybody. On a bright midsummer
+day hundreds may often be started from their grassy beds from one little
+patch of ground.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.--THE SIX-SPOTTED BURNET.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.--THE LARVA OF FILIPENDULAE.]
+
+The colouring of the wings is much the same as in the last species, but
+there are two crimson spots instead of one near the tips of the fore
+pair.
+
+The larvae may be seen in vast numbers during May and June, feeding on
+clovers (_Trifolium pratense_ and _T. repens_), and the bird's-foot
+trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_); and in the latter month thousands of the
+chrysalides, inclosed in shuttle-shaped cocoons on grass stems, may be
+seen on downs and sunny banks in almost every part of the country.
+
+The caterpillar, which is yellow, may be known by the two rows of black
+spots that adorn each segment of the body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+_BOMBYCES_
+
+
+This tribe is an important one, inasmuch as it contains those few moths
+whose silk is of present or anticipated commercial value. Many of the
+British members, even, make silken cocoons of moderate compactness, but
+none of them yield a quantity and quality of silk to justify any attempt
+to utilise it in the arts.
+
+There are more than a hundred British species in this group, and these
+represent no less than seventeen families, which exhibit a great variety
+in their general appearance and habits.
+
+
+Family--NYCTEOLIDAE
+
+_The Green Silver-lined_ (_Hylophila prasinana_)
+
+This family, under the name of _Chloephoridae_, is included by some
+authors among the _Tortrices_ (page 298), which they somewhat resemble
+in habits. It contains only four species, of which we will take one
+example--the Green Silver-lined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.--THE GREEN SILVER-LINED.]
+
+The fore wings of this insect are pale green, with three oblique silvery
+white lines, the middle one of which is far more distinct than the other
+two. The hind wings are silvery white in the female, and yellow in the
+male. It flies in May, and is common in the wooded districts of the
+south-eastern counties.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, dotted and striped with yellow, and has a
+reddish transverse band on the second segment. It feeds on oak (_Quercus
+Robur_), birch (_Betula alba_), hazel (_Corylus_ _Avellana_), beech
+(_Fagus sylvatica_), and alder (_Alnus glutinosa_), from which trees it
+may be beaten in July and August.
+
+
+Family--NOLIDAE
+
+_The Short-cloaked Moth_ (_Nola cucullatella_)
+
+We select this common moth as a representative of the small family
+_Nolidae_, which contains only five British species. These are all small
+insects. They are nocturnal in their habits, and may be found at rest on
+the trunks of trees during the daytime. The caterpillars are hairy, and
+undergo their metamorphoses within silken cocoons.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.--THE SHORT-CLOAKED MOTH.]
+
+The fore wings of _Cucullatella_ are pearly grey, with a dark patch at
+the base, a triangular spot on the middle of the costal margin, and wavy
+lines beyond this, parallel with the hind margin. The hind wings are
+grey, and devoid of any markings.
+
+The caterpillar is of a brownish colour, with a line of lighter patches
+down the back, and it is covered with little tufts of hair. It feeds on
+the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_),
+and also on plum trees in our gardens during the month of May. The moth
+is on the wing during June and July.
+
+
+Family--LITHOSIIDAE
+
+_The Muslin Moth_ (_Nudaria mundana_)
+
+The family _Lithosiidae_ contains several small moths, distinguished from
+the other _Bombyces_ by the narrowness of their fore wings. When the
+insects are at rest, all the wings are wrapped closely round the body.
+They fly at dusk on summer evenings, but may be obtained during the
+daytime by beating the boughs of trees. If an open net be held under the
+boughs during this operation, the moths will generally feign death and
+allow themselves to fall into it when they are disturbed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.--THE MUSLIN MOTH.]
+
+Most of the larvae of this family feed on the lichens that cover walls
+and the bark of trees, and they conceal themselves so artfully among
+this peculiar vegetation that it is no easy matter to search them out;
+probably many still remain unknown to entomologists.
+
+Our first example--the Muslin Moth--has light brownish-grey and semi
+transparent wings, the front pair of which have darker markings arranged
+as shown in the illustration. It is a common moth, and may be met with
+in July and August.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on lichens in June. It is of a dull grey colour,
+with a yellow stripe down the back, and has numerous little tufts of
+light hair.
+
+
+_The Common Footman_ (_Lithosia lurideola_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are of a leaden grey, with a bright
+yellow costal stripe which dwindles to a point just before it reaches
+the tip. The hind wings are very pale yellow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.--THE COMMON FOOTMAN.]
+
+The larva is black, with a reddish line on each side just above the
+feet. It may be found during May and June among the lichens of oaks,
+blackthorns, and firs, especially in the woods of the south of England.
+
+The perfect insect flies during July and August.
+
+
+Family--EUCHELIIDAE
+
+_The Cinnabar_ (_Euchelia Jacobaeae_)
+
+The family _Eucheliidae_ contains only four British species, two of which
+must receive a share of our attention. The first of these is the
+Cinnabar Moth, which is common in all localities where its food
+plants--the groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_) and the ragwort (_S.
+Jacobaea_)--abound.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.--THE LARVA OF JACOBAEAE.]
+
+Its colours are so striking that a glance at its representation (fig. 1
+of Plate X) will render a written description quite unnecessary.
+
+The caterpillar is a very familiar and conspicuous object. Its colour is
+bright orange, broken by several broad black rings; and its body is
+thinly covered with hair. When fully grown (July or August) it descends
+to the ground, and there changes to a smooth and shining reddish-brown
+chrysalis.
+
+The moth appears in June or early in July.
+
+
+_The Scarlet Tiger_ (_Callimorpha Dominula_)
+
+This is certainly one of the most beautiful of all our moths. Its fore
+wings are dark olive green, with a lovely metallic lustre, and boldly
+marked with large white and yellow spots. These spots are arranged
+generally like those in the illustration, but are subject to great
+variation. The hind wings are crimson, with large black patches, chiefly
+distributed near the hind margin. The thorax is black, with two white
+streaks; and the abdomen crimson, with a black line down the back.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.--THE SCARLET TIGER.]
+
+This moth is a common one. It may be taken in June and July. I have seen
+it flying somewhat freely while the sun was still shining brightly.
+
+The caterpillar is very dark lead colour, nearly black; and is covered
+with little wart-like projections, from each of which protrudes a short
+black hair. There is a broad yellow broken line down the back, and two
+others on the sides. It feeds on the hound's-tongue (_Cynoglossum
+officinale_) and many other low-growing plants, hybernates through the
+winter, and is fully grown in May. Like the other members of this
+family, it spins a light silken cocoon, in which the hairs from its body
+are interwoven.
+
+
+Family--CHELONIIDAE
+
+_The Wood Tiger_ (_Nemeophila Plantaginis_)
+
+The _Cheloniidae_ are popularly known as the Tigers--a title suggested by
+the tiger-like colouring of some of the prominent species. They differ
+from the Scarlet Tiger and the other members of the _Eucheliidae_ in that
+the males have ciliated or fringed antennae. The larvae, too, are more
+densely covered with hair.
+
+The Wood Tiger (fig. 2, Plate X) is a beautiful insect, somewhat
+variable in its markings, but so conspicuously coloured that our
+illustration cannot fail to lead to its identification. It may be found
+commonly among the undergrowth of our southern woods during May and
+June.
+
+The caterpillar is dark brown or brownish black, covered with little
+hair-bearing warts. The hairs are long and black on the foremost and
+hind segments, but shorter and of a brown colour on the middle of the
+body. It issues from the egg in September, feeds for a week or two on
+the leaves of violets (_Viola canina_ and _V. odorata_), heartsease (_V.
+tricolor_), plantain (_Plantago_), or groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_),
+and then hybernates till the following March. It is fully grown in May,
+and then spins a light cocoon, with which its hairs are interwoven,
+among the leaves of its food plant.
+
+
+_The Tiger_ (_Arctia caia_)
+
+This splendid moth is exceedingly variable in its colour and markings,
+but its usual appearance corresponds closely with that of the
+illustration on Plate X (fig. 3). In some specimens the cream colour
+almost entirely covers the fore wings, while in others all four of the
+wings are completely covered with shades of brown. This insect is
+probably known to all my readers, for it is abundant everywhere.
+
+The larva is as well known as the perfect insect. It is a kind of
+universal feeder, partaking readily of almost every low-growing plant,
+with perhaps a special partiality for dead nettles (_Lamium album_ and
+_L. purpureum_). It feeds also on the lime tree (_Tilia vulgaris_), and
+is commonly met with on apple trees and on the various plants of our
+flower beds. The young caterpillar makes its appearance in the autumn,
+and hybernates after feeding for two or three weeks only. It is full
+grown in June, when it spins a silken cocoon, and changes to a shiny
+black chrysalis.
+
+The ground colour of the larva is black, but it is covered all over with
+long hairs, those down the middle of the back being grey, and the others
+brown. This familiar larva is known popularly as the Woolly Bear.
+
+
+_The Cream-spot Tiger_ (_Arctia villica_)
+
+There is yet another Tiger--the Cream-spot--too beautiful and too common
+to be excluded from our list. It is represented on Plate X (fig. 4);
+and, like the others of its genus, is so boldly marked that mistaken
+identity is impossible.
+
+It is a very sluggish moth, more often seen at rest than on the wing,
+and will suffer itself to be roughly handled without making any attempt
+to escape.
+
+The caterpillar may be observed on sunny banks, generally feeding on
+chickweed (_Stellaria media_) but sometimes on various other low-growing
+weeds, including the dock and the dandelion. Its colour is black, with
+red head and legs, and its body is covered with long brown hairs. It
+commences to feed in the autumn, hybernates throughout the winter, and
+is full grown in May, towards the end of which month it changes to a
+black chrysalis within a light silken web.
+
+The perfect insect appears in June.
+
+
+_The Buff Ermine_ (_Spilosoma lubricipeda_)
+
+The _Cheloniidae_ also include three moths that are popularly known as
+the Ermines, two of which--the Buff and the White--are exceedingly
+common, and are among the constant visitors to our gardens during June
+and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114.--THE BUFF ERMINE.]
+
+The Buff Ermine has all four wings of a buff or ochreous tint, and
+spotted with black as here represented.
+
+The caterpillar is whitish, with a white line down the middle of the
+back, and its body is covered with long light brown hairs. It feeds on
+the dock (_Rumex_) and many other low-growing plants during August and
+September, and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, lying within a
+loose cocoon on the surface of the ground.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115.--THE WHITE ERMINE.]
+
+
+_The White Ermine_ (_Spilosoma Menthastri_)
+
+In this species the wings are of a pale cream colour, and the dots of
+the fore wings are more uniformly distributed than in the last. Its
+habits and life history closely correspond with those of _Lubricipeda_,
+and its larva may be found feeding on the same plants.
+
+This latter may be distinguished from the caterpillar of the last
+species by the dark brown or black colour of the body, and the presence
+of an orange line down the back. It is covered with long brown hairs.
+
+
+Family--HEPIALIDAE
+
+The five species which compose this family are known as the Swifts, a
+title which they have earned by their rather rapid flight. Their wings
+are narrow, and the antennae very short.
+
+In the larval state they are long, naked and unsightly grubs, that live
+under the surface of the ground and feed on the roots of plants. The
+chrysalides are armed with short spines projecting from the segments.
+
+
+_The Ghost Swift_ (_Hepialus Humuli_)
+
+One of the commonest of these moths is the Ghost Swift, which may be
+seen in hundreds on waste places in the south of England during the
+month of June. The wings of the male are white, with a silky gloss, and
+a very narrow brown margin. The fore wings of the female are yellow,
+marked with irregular reddish lines. The hind wings are of a dull smoke
+colour.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116.--THE GHOST SWIFT--FEMALE.]
+
+The larva is pale yellow, with a brown head, and a brown horny plate on
+the front of the second segment. It feeds throughout the winter on the
+roots of numerous plants, including the dock, dandelion, burdock, white
+dead nettle, black horehound, and the hop.
+
+
+_The Common Swift_ (_Hepialus lupulinus_)
+
+The fore wings of the male of this species are brown, with a bent
+whitish streak, sometimes broken, passing from the base to the middle of
+the inner margin, and then to the apex. The hind wings are smoke
+coloured, with a light brownish fringe. The female is much less
+distinctly marked, and presents a rather dingy appearance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.--THE COMMON SWIFT.]
+
+The larva is dingy white, with brown horny plates on the second, third
+and fourth segments. It feeds on the roots of dead nettles (_Lamium
+album_ and _L. purpureum_), black horehound (_Ballota nigra_), and
+various other herbaceous plants, throughout the winter months, and is
+full grown in April.
+
+This insect is abundant everywhere in waste places, and may be seen on
+the wing in May and June.
+
+
+Family--COSSIDAE
+
+The members of this family have longer antennae than the _Hepialidae_, and
+the females are provided with extended ovipositors which enable them to
+place their eggs in the deep crevices of the bark of trees.
+
+The larvae are naked or only very slightly hairy, and have a plate on the
+second segment. They feed on the wood of trees or the interior of the
+stems of reeds. The pupae have spiny projections on each segment.
+
+
+_The Goat Moth_ (_Cossus ligniperda_)
+
+There are only three British species of this family, the largest of
+which is the Goat Moth, so called on account of the characteristic odour
+of the larva, an odour said to resemble that emitted by the goat.
+
+The fore wings of this fine moth are pale brown, clouded with white, and
+marked by numerous wavy transverse lines. The hind wings are somewhat
+similar, but of a duller tint, and the markings are less distinct. Its
+average breadth from tip to tip is over three inches, and it sometimes
+reaches nearly four inches.
+
+The larva is a most interesting creature. It is dark reddish brown on
+the back, and flesh colour beneath; and its head is intensely black. It
+feeds on the solid wood of the willow, poplar, oak, elm, and other
+trees. The infected trees are often so riddled with the burrows of these
+larvae that they are completely destroyed, and the presence of the
+intruders is frequently indicated by a heap of small chips of wood lying
+on the ground near the roots. The odour of the larvae, too, is so
+powerful, that there is generally no difficulty in ascertaining their
+whereabouts by it alone.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118.--THE GOAT MOTH.]
+
+It is not always in living trees, however, that we find these creatures,
+for they often feed on rotting wood, such as the remains of old palings
+and posts, that lie on the ground in damp places.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.--THE LARVA OF LIGNIPERDA (LESS THAN HALF FULL
+SIZE).]
+
+When fully grown they construct a strong cocoon of chips of wood, bound
+together by silk, and within this they change to the chrysalis.
+
+The moth emerges in June or July, and is commonly found resting on the
+bark of willows and poplars during the daytime.
+
+
+_The Leopard Moth_ (_Zeuzera pyrina_)
+
+The wings of this species are white and semi-transparent, and marked
+with numerous bluish-black spots in such a way as to remind one of the
+skin of the leopard. Its body is very long, and the antennae of the male
+are doubly fringed for about half their length from the base.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120.--THE LEOPARD MOTH.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the wood of various trees--elm, apple, pear,
+ash, alder, poplar, horse chestnut, birch, lilac, and several others. It
+is yellowish, with black shiny spots, and a black plate on the second
+segment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121.--THE LARVA OF PYRINA (ONLY PARTLY GROWN).]
+
+The moth appears in July, and is widely distributed. It is attracted by
+bright lights, but the best way to obtain it is to search the trunks and
+branches of trees that are known to harbour the larvae early in the
+morning, and so obtain newly emerged specimens.
+
+
+Family--LIPARIDAE
+
+Passing over the two small species which are the only British
+representatives of the family _Cochliopodidae_, we come to the
+interesting _Liparidae_, the remarkable feature of which is that most of
+the caterpillars are adorned with brush-like tufts of hair, and even the
+chrysalides are hairy.
+
+The perfect insects are not brilliantly coloured, but generally display
+very pale tints; and the antennae of the males are pectinated or
+feathered.
+
+
+_The Brown Tail_ (_Porthesia chrysorrh[oe]a_)
+
+The family contains two moths--the Brown Tail and the Yellow Tail--that
+are very similar in appearance and habits. Both have white wings, and
+their bodies also are white with the exception of the tuft of coloured
+hair at the tip of the abdomen, which gives the names to the species.
+Their larvae may both be found feeding on the same trees (whitethorn),
+and both change to a brown hairy chrysalis within a loose cocoon among
+the leaves.
+
+The larva of _Chrysorrh[oe]a_ is black, with four rows of little
+wart-like projections on each side, from which proceed little tufts of
+hairs. These hairs are reddish with the exception of one row on each
+side, which is white. The tenth and eleventh segments have each a
+scarlet tubercle, and there are also other small spots of the same
+colour on some of the front segments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 122.--THE BROWN TAIL.]
+
+The larva feeds on the blackthorn in addition to the tree mentioned
+above, and is full grown in June. The moth flies in August.
+
+
+_The Gipsy_ (_Ocneria dispar_)
+
+The fore wings of the male are smoky brown, with darker markings,
+including a V-shaped black mark near the centre. The hind wings are
+brown, darker near the margin. The female is dingy yellowish white, with
+darker markings arranged as in the male. The male is much inferior in
+size, and its antennae are very strongly pectinated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 123.--THE GIPSY--MALE.]
+
+The larva is brownish black, finely dotted with yellowish grey. There is
+a grey stripe down the middle of the back, and six tubercles on each
+segment give rise to tufts of long hair. It feeds on the whitethorn
+(_Crataegus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and various
+fruit trees.
+
+The caterpillar is full grown in June, and the moth appears in August.
+
+
+_The Black Arches_ (_Psilura Monacha_)
+
+The fore wings of the Black Arches are white, marked with zigzag black
+lines as shown in our illustration. The hind wings are smoky grey. The
+hinder segments of the abdomen are banded with black and rose-pink. The
+male is much smaller than the female, and has the antennae strongly
+pectinated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 124.--THE BLACK ARCHES--MALE.]
+
+The caterpillar is hairy, and of a greyish-white colour. A brown stripe
+runs down the back. On the top of the second segment are two blue
+tubercles; and there is also a tubercle, of a reddish colour, on each of
+the ninth, tenth, and eleventh segments. It feeds on the oak, birch,
+fir, and the apple; and is full grown in June or July.
+
+The moth flies during July and August.
+
+
+_The Vapourer Moth_ (_Orgyia antiqua_)
+
+During the hottest summer months, and particularly in August and
+September, a rather small brown moth may be seen almost everywhere,
+flying rapidly and in a very erratic manner in the bright rays of the
+midday sun. This is the common Vapourer Moth, which may be known at once
+by its bright chestnut colour, with darker transverse markings, and a
+white crescent-shaped spot in the anal angle of the fore wings. It seems
+somewhat partial to civilised life, for it frequents the streets of our
+metropolis, even in the very densely populated parts; and the larva is
+one of the commonest of the insect forms infesting our gardens and
+squares.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 125.--THE VAPOURER MOTH--MALE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 126.--THE FEMALE VAPOURER.]
+
+The caterpillar is variously coloured; but the prevailing tints are dark
+brown, grey, and pink. On the second segment are two long tufts of hair
+directed forward, and on the twelfth segment a similar tuft directed
+backward. On each of the segments five to eight inclusive is a
+brush-like tuft of yellowish hairs. It feeds on almost every tree
+usually to be found in parks and gardens.
+
+When fully grown it spins a web on the bark of a tree, or on a wall or
+fence, and changes to a hairy chrysalis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 127.--LARVA OF THE VAPOURER MOTH.]
+
+The female of this species is wingless, and never moves away from the
+cocoon out of which she has crawled, but lays her eggs on the outside of
+the silken web, and there remains to die.
+
+The clusters of eggs may be found in abundance throughout the winter
+months.
+
+
+Family--BOMBYCIDAE
+
+This family contains eleven thick-bodied moths, mostly of large size, in
+which the predominating colours are greys and browns. Their hind wings
+are generally paler than the front pair, and less distinctly marked; and
+the antennae of the males are pectinated.
+
+The caterpillars are very hairy, but the hairs are uniformly
+distributed, and not arranged in tufts as in the larvae of the last
+family.
+
+The chrysalides are inclosed in silken cocoons, but are not hairy.
+
+We shall briefly examine three of the members of this family.
+
+
+_The Oak Eggar_ (_Bombyx Quercus_)
+
+The male of this species is shown on Plate X (fig. 5). The female is
+much larger, and of a pale tawny colour.
+
+The ground colour of the caterpillar is black; but it is so closely
+covered with short yellowish brown hairs that the black is scarcely
+visible, excepting when the creature rolls itself up into a ring, which
+it does when alarmed. The spiracles are white, and there is a series of
+white spots down the middle of the back and along each side. It feeds on
+whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_), heather (_Calluna_, _Erica_), poplar
+(_Populus nigra_), and various other plants and trees.
+
+As a rule the larva hybernates through the winter, is full grown in the
+following May, and the moth appears in July; but in Scotland the
+caterpillar does not spin its cocoon till September, hybernates in the
+chrysalis state, and emerges in the following June. The same is true of
+the Cornish Eggars; but along the coast of South Devon both varieties
+are to be met with.
+
+The male Eggar seems to enjoy the bright sunshine, for I have seen large
+numbers flying over the rugged cliffs of the south-west throughout all
+hours of the day.
+
+
+_The Drinker_ (_Odonestis potatoria_)
+
+The popular name of this species is applied on account of a peculiar
+feature of the larva, which sucks up the dewdrop that lies on its food
+plant.
+
+The colour of the male is tawny and brown, with a reddish tinge; that of
+the female is yellow. The front wing has an oblique dark bar passing
+from the apex to the middle of the inner margin; also two white
+spots--one in the middle of the wing, and the other between it and the
+costal margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 128.--THE DRINKER--MALE.]
+
+The caterpillar is dark bluish grey above, and has a line of orange
+spots on each side. Along the spiracles are oblique orange streaks, and
+a series of tufts of white hair. It feeds on the annual meadow-grass
+(_Poa annua_), and several other grasses. It is a hybernator, commencing
+its caterpillar state in the autumn, and reaching its full dimensions
+about the end of the following May.
+
+The moth flies during July and August.
+
+
+_The Lappet_ (_Lasiocampa quercifolia_)
+
+Our last example of the _Bombycidae_ is the Lappet (Plate X, fig. 6), a
+large moth, the female often measuring considerably over three inches
+from tip to tip. The wings are of a rich reddish brown, and exhibit a
+beautiful purplish bloom in a newly emerged insect. Scalloped black
+lines pass transversely across each wing, and a small black dot lies
+near the centre of the fore wings.
+
+The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is usually grey or
+reddish brown. A deep purple band lies between the second and third
+segments, and another between the third and fourth. On the twelfth there
+is a small hump, and a pale stripe, more or less distinct, runs along
+each side. It feeds on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), buckthorn
+(_Rhamnus catharticus_), and the white willow (_Salix alba_).
+
+The moth is not uncommon, and is on the wing in June.
+
+
+Family--ENDROMIDAE
+
+_The Kentish Glory_ (_Endromis versicolor_)
+
+The beautiful Kentish Glory is the only British representative of its
+family. The male is shown in Plate X (fig. 7); the female is larger and
+similarly marked, but its colours are not so bright.
+
+This moth is not common, but may be seen occasionally in the birch woods
+of the southern counties. The males fly rapidly in the bright sunshine,
+but the females must be searched for on the bark and branches of the
+trees.
+
+The eggs are laid in April on the twigs of the birch (_Betula alba_),
+and the young caterpillar emerges early in May. It is gregarious at
+first, but loses its social tendencies as it gets older. When full
+grown, it is of a pale green colour, with white spiracles, a dark green
+line down the back, and an oblique white stripe on each side of each
+segment. The sides are dotted with black and brown, and there is a
+conspicuous hump on the top of the twelfth segment.
+
+When fully grown it spins a cocoon among the dead leaves beneath the
+tree, and in this it spends the winter months in the chrysalis state.
+
+
+Family--SATURNIIDAE
+
+_The Emperor Moth_ (_Saturnia pavonia_)
+
+Here is another family with but one British member; but in this, as in
+the last case, the only representative is a really beautiful insect. The
+male _Pavonia_ is shown on Plate X (fig. 8), and will need no written
+description as an aid to its identification. The female is larger, and
+similarly marked, but the ground colour of the wings is pale grey.
+
+This moth is abundant almost everywhere, and may be looked for in the
+neighbourhood of heaths and woods early in the month of May.
+
+The larva feeds on a large number of plants and trees, among which may
+be mentioned the willow (_Salix alba_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_),
+elder (_Sambucus nigra_), whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_), bramble
+(_Rubus fruticosus_), heaths (_Erica tetralix_ and _E. cinerea_), and
+the meadow-sweet (_Spiraea ulmaria_). Its colour is a lovely green; and
+each segment has several pink tubercles, each surrounded by a black
+ring, and giving rise to a tuft of short black hairs. The spiracles are
+orange.
+
+In the autumn it spins a pear-shaped cocoon of silk, open at the small
+end (fig. 28).
+
+It may here be mentioned in passing that, in the case of some of the
+larger moths of the few preceding families, the young entomologist is
+likely to meet with larvae more frequently than the perfect insect. These
+moths, however, are mostly very hardy and easily reared; and a beginner
+cannot do better than endeavour to obtain either ova or larvae, in order
+that he may be able to watch the different species through their various
+stages.
+
+
+Family--DREPANULIDAE
+
+We now reach a family containing six small moths that differ in many
+important particulars from those we have just been considering. They are
+of such slender build that a beginner may easily mistake them for
+Geometers. Their wings, though small, are broad, and well proportioned
+to their bodies. In five cases out of the six the front wings are more
+or less hooked at the tips, and on this account the moths in question
+are called the Hook Tips.
+
+The larvae are not hairy, but they all have little fleshy projections on
+their backs. Their bodies also taper to a point behind, and the last
+pair of claspers are wanting, so that they have only fourteen walking
+appendages. When at rest they usually fix themselves by their claspers
+only, their pointed 'tails' being directed slightly upward, and all the
+front segments being also elevated. When about to change, they descend
+to the ground, and spin their cocoons among dead leaves.
+
+Two only of this family can receive an individual notice.
+
+
+_The Oak Hook Tip_ (_Drepana binaria_)
+
+This can hardly be described as a very common moth, but it is fairly
+plentiful in the woods of the southern counties of England.
+
+Its wings are yellowish brown, marked with two lighter transverse lines.
+There are two black spots between the lines of the fore wings. The
+antennae of the male are pectinated; those of the female simple. The
+latter sex is further distinguished by the paler colour of the hind
+wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 129.--THE OAK HOOK TIP.]
+
+The larva is brown, with a broad stripe, edged with yellow, down the
+back. There are two projections on the back of the fourth segment. It
+feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_) and birch (_Betula alba_).
+
+This moth is double-brooded, and may be seen on the wing in June and
+August. The larva may be beaten from the above-mentioned trees in June
+and July, and again in September.
+
+
+_The Chinese Character_ (_Cilix glaucata_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are white, with a broad dark blotch from
+the inner margin to near the costa. The central portion of this blotch
+is marked with silvery spots which are said to resemble Chinese
+characters. The hind margin is shaded with a dark grey border, inside
+which is a row of dark spots. The hind wings are clouded with grey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 130.--THE CHINESE CHARACTER.]
+
+This moth is widely distributed, and seems to be common throughout
+England. It is double brooded, the first brood appearing in May and
+June, and the second in August.
+
+The caterpillar, which is brown, with two prominent tubercles on each of
+the third and fourth segments, feeds on the whitethorn (_Crataegus
+oxyacantha_), and the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_).
+
+
+Family--DICRANURIDAE
+
+The five British species that represent this family are such interesting
+insects that we should like to have given a detailed description of all
+of them, but our limited space will allow of no more than an outline of
+the general characteristics of the group and a selection of two for
+individual mention.
+
+They are thick-bodied moths, and the prevailing colours are white and
+shades of grey. The antennae are pectinated in the males, and, with the
+exception of the Lobster Moth (_Fagi_), in the females also.
+
+The larvae, like those of the last family, have no anal claspers, and
+stand, when at rest, with both ends of the body raised. They have two
+'tails' projecting from the last segment. The largest of them (the
+Puss), and three smaller species (Kittens) that closely resemble it in
+habits, all construct hard cocoons to be presently described; but the
+larva of the Lobster Moth spins a light cocoon among the leaves of
+trees.
+
+They all spend the winter in the chrysalis state.
+
+
+_The Poplar Kitten_ (_Dicranura bifida_)
+
+Our illustration shows the arrangement of the white and grey on the
+wings of this moth, but the other Kittens (_Bicuspis_ and _Furcula_) so
+closely resemble it that it is necessary to point out a mark of
+distinction. It will be observed that the fore wings are crossed by a
+broad grey band, edged with black. This band, in the present species, is
+almost of the same width throughout, its interior margin being almost
+straight, and the exterior one slightly concave. In _Furcula_, the outer
+margin of the band is generally sharply bent inward just below the
+costa. In _Bicuspis_ the grey band varies considerably in shape, but
+both this and the dark blotch near the tip of the wing are more sharply
+defined than in the other two species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 131.--THE POPLAR KITTEN.]
+
+The caterpillar is green, dotted with brown, and has a brown stripe on
+the back. This stripe is broken on the third segment, and widens out on
+the eighth and thirteenth segments. It feeds on the Poplar (_Populus
+nigra_) and Aspen (_P. tremula_).
+
+When full grown it descends to the trunk of the tree, and constructs a
+very hard cocoon of a glutinous substance from its own body mingled with
+little pieces of the bark that it removes for the purpose. Thus made,
+the cocoon so closely resembles the surrounding bark that detection is
+very difficult. I have frequently found these cocoons on the inner
+surface of loose bark.
+
+This moth is widely distributed, and may be searched for in June and
+July. The larva feeds during August and September.
+
+
+_The Puss_ (_Dicranura vinula_)
+
+No written description is necessary in this case, the illustration
+easily serving for identification. This beautiful moth flies in May and
+June, and is common everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 132.--THE PUSS MOTH.]
+
+The caterpillar is a very interesting creature. It is green, with a hump
+on the fourth segment, and a patch of brown from the fourth segment to
+the tail. This patch is very wide on the eighth segment, but tapers to a
+point on the thirteenth. The two horns are rather long and rough, and
+from each of them a very slender pink filament is protruded when the
+caterpillar is irritated.
+
+It constructs a cocoon very similar to that of _Bifida_, though of
+course larger, on the bark of the tree on which it fed, generally three
+or four feet from the ground. It feeds on sallows, willows, and poplars,
+and may be found during July and August.
+
+
+Family--NOTODONTIDAE
+
+_The Coxcomb Prominent_ (_Lophopteryx camelina_)
+
+The family _Notodontidae_ contains several moths of somewhat varied
+appearance, but foremost among them are the 'Prominents,' distinguished
+by a conspicuous projection on the inner margin of the fore wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 133.--THE COXCOMB PROMINENT.]
+
+Our example of this group is the Coxcomb Prominent.
+
+Its fore wings are brown, with darker markings arranged as shown in the
+illustration; and the hind margins are scalloped. The hind wings are
+much paler, with a dark brown patch in the anal angle.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with a yellowish line on each side. The
+spiracles are black, and there are two small humps on the twelfth
+segment. It feeds during August, September, and October, on various
+trees, including the oak, birch, poplar, hazel, and alder.
+
+The moth flies from June to August, and is moderately common and widely
+distributed.
+
+
+Family--PYGAERIDAE
+
+_The Buff Tip_ (_Phalera bucephala_)
+
+The first of our two examples of this small family is the common and
+destructive Buff Tip. The perfect insect is represented on Plate X, fig.
+9, and is too well known to require a lengthy description. During June
+and July it may be seen resting on the bark of trees almost everywhere,
+with its wings folded closely round its body, and its antennae tucked
+under the wings, looking just like a piece of stick, or a projection of
+the bark on which it sits.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 134.--THE LARVA OF BUCEPHALA.]
+
+The caterpillars appear towards the end of June, and may be seen in
+dense clusters on lime and other trees, sometimes twenty or thirty
+huddled together on a single leaf. As they grow larger they retain their
+gregarious tendencies, and often completely strip the leaves from large
+branches. They are of a dull yellow colour, hairy, and have seven broken
+black lines, one along the middle of the back, and three on each side.
+The head and legs are black.
+
+When full grown, they descend to the root of the tree, burrow into the
+soil, and there remain in the chrysalis state till the following June.
+The chief food plants of this species are the lime (_Tilia vulgaris_),
+elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and hazel (_Corylus Avellana_).
+
+
+_The Chocolate Tip_ (_Pygaera curtula_)
+
+This species is not nearly so common as the last, but is to be met with
+more or less in most of the English counties in the month of May.
+
+Its fore wings are light greyish brown, crossed with four transverse
+paler streaks, and tipped with a patch of chocolate brown. The hind
+wings are pale yellowish grey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 135.--THE CHOCOLATE TIP.]
+
+The young caterpillars feed in companies between leaves which they have
+spun together, but when nearly full grown they cease to be gregarious.
+They are also very different in appearance at different ages. When fully
+fed, the larva is of a reddish-grey colour, spotted with black, with a
+double row of orange-coloured warts on each side. There is also a little
+black hump on each of the fifth and twelfth segments.
+
+The food plants of this species are sallows (_Salix caprea_ and _S.
+cinerea_), poplar (_Populus nigra_), and aspen (_P. tremula_).
+
+
+Family--CYMATOPHORIDAE
+
+This, the last family of the _Bombyces_, contains seven species of
+moderate size, the larvae of which are either quite smooth or have small
+warty prominences. The seven species are grouped into three genera, from
+two of which we shall select a representative.
+
+
+_The Peach Blossom_ (_Thyatira Batis_)
+
+The popular name of this pretty little moth is given on account of the
+resemblance of the pink patches of its olive-brown fore wings to the
+petals of the peach flower. It is a moderately common moth, widely
+distributed in England and Ireland, and flies during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 136.--THE PEACH BLOSSOM.]
+
+The caterpillar is marbled with reddish grey and brown, and has a hump
+on the third segment, and a smaller prominence on each of the segments
+six to ten inclusive. It feeds on the bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_)
+during August and September, and spends the winter in the chrysalis
+state, inclosed in a loose cocoon among the dead leaves at the root of
+its food plant.
+
+
+_The Yellow-horned_ (_Asphalia flavicornis_)
+
+This is one of the earliest of our moths, appearing on the wing in
+March, when it may be attracted by means of sugar placed on the bark of
+the birch (_Betula alba_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 137.--THE YELLOW-HORNED.]
+
+The wings are grey, with a decidedly greenish tinge, crossed by three
+dark lines near the base, and two others, which are zigzag, just outside
+the centre. Between these two sets of lines is a conspicuous round pale
+spot. The hind wings are greyish brown, darker along the hind margin.
+
+The larva, which feeds on the above-named tree, is pale greenish, with
+both white and black dots. It rolls itself up in a leaf, and seldom
+ventures out of the retreat thus formed. It is fully fed in July or
+August.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+_THE NOCTUAE_
+
+
+We have already noticed that several of our moths fly by day; that some
+come out of their hiding places at dusk, and settle down again to rest
+before the deepest shadows of night fall; and that others prefer the
+darkest hours of the night. The tribe of moths we are next to consider
+includes the greater number (about three hundred) of our truly nocturnal
+species, hence the name that heads this chapter.
+
+They are generally of a somewhat dingy appearance, the prevailing
+colours being dull shades of grey, drab, and brown. So closely, in fact,
+do certain of them resemble each other, that the greatest care has to be
+exercised in the identification of species--a task that is rendered
+still more difficult by the variations that we observe in the tints and
+markings of certain species.
+
+These moths have generally rather stout bodies. Their fore wings are
+somewhat narrow, and, when the insects are at rest, these are brought
+close to the body, and the hind pair are folded up beneath them.
+
+
+Family--BRYOPHILIDAE
+
+_The Marbled Beauty_ (_Bryophila Perla_)
+
+Our first family--the _Bryophilidae_--contains only four British species.
+These are small and slender-bodied moths, whose larvae feed in early
+morning on the lichens that cover stones and old walls, and conceal
+themselves by day in holes and chinks and under stones.
+
+The Marbled Beauty is the only moth of this family that may be
+described as common with us. It is abundant in nearly every English
+county, as well as in parts of Scotland and Ireland.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 138.--THE MARBLED BEAUTY.]
+
+Its wings are very pale grey, marked with a darker bluish grey, as shown
+in the engraving. These markings are variable, but the bases of the fore
+wings have always a dark blotch, followed by a patch of pale grey or
+white, extending the whole width of the wing. The moth may be found from
+the beginning of July to the middle of September.
+
+The larva feeds from February to April. It is black above, with a broad
+orange-bordered stripe down the back; and its body is covered with small
+warts, each of which bears a single hair.
+
+
+Family--BOMBYCOIDAE
+
+In this family there are sixteen British moths, several of which are
+exceedingly common. They are much larger than the _Bryophilidae_, and of
+a much stouter build. The larvae are covered with little hair-bearing
+warts, and are, indeed, often so hairy that they may be mistaken for the
+caterpillars of the _Bombyces_.
+
+
+_The Grey Dagger_ (_Acronycta Psi_)
+
+This is the commonest of all the _Bombycoidae_. It may be found at rest
+on tree trunks and palings during the daytime throughout the summer. Its
+fore wings are pale grey, with four conspicuous black marks, one of
+which--that in the anal angle--resembles the Greek letter _psi_ ([psi])
+placed sideways.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 139.--THE GREY DAGGER.]
+
+The larva is black or very dark grey, with a pale yellow line down the
+back, and a black hump on each of the fifth and twelfth segments, that
+on the fifth being much larger than the other. It feeds in the autumn on
+lime (_Tilia vulgaris_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), whitethorn
+(_Crataegus oxyacantha_), fruit trees, and various other trees, shrubs,
+and herbs.
+
+The moth called the Dark Dagger (_Tridens_) is hardly to be
+distinguished from _Psi_. It is not really any darker, and its markings
+are almost exactly similar; but the larva is very different.
+
+
+_The Poplar Grey_ (_Acronycta megacephala_)
+
+This is also a very common moth, to be found in all the southern and
+midland counties, wherever poplars abound, during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 140.--THE POPLAR GREY.]
+
+Its fore wings are grey, marbled with a very dark grey. A little inside
+the middle of these wings, near the costa, is a round spot with a dark
+centre. This spot is represented in a large number of the _Noctuae_, and
+is known as the _orbicular_. It will be observed that in the present
+species it is very distinct.
+
+The caterpillar is dark grey, with a line of black dots down the back;
+and it has a number of little warts, bearing hairs. On the back of the
+eleventh segment is a rather large pale spot. It feeds during August on
+various species of poplar, and changes to a chrysalis in a crevice of
+the bark.
+
+
+_The Figure of Eight_ (_Diloba caeruleocephala_)
+
+The fore wings are brownish grey. Near the middle of the wing, but
+nearer the costa than the inner margin, are two whitish spots that
+resemble the figure 8. The hind wings are dull brownish grey, with
+darker wing rays, and a dark spot near the centre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 141.--THE FIGURE OF EIGHT.]
+
+This moth is common in all parts, and flies during September.
+
+The caterpillar emerges from the egg in spring, and is fully grown in
+May or June. It is of a very pale colour--yellowish or greenish--with a
+broad and broken yellow stripe down the back, and a bluish or greenish
+stripe on each side. Its head is blue (hence the specific name) with two
+black spots. It feeds on the hawthorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_) and
+various fruit trees; and on the twigs of these (especially the hawthorn)
+the little clusters of eggs may be seen during the winter.
+
+
+Family--LEUCANIIDAE
+
+In this family we have a number of rather small moths, with, generally,
+no markings on their wings, save, perhaps, a few dots or streaks.
+
+Their larvae feed principally on grasses and reeds, and change to the
+chrysalis state either in a cocoon among the food plants, or under the
+surface of the ground.
+
+Several of these insects are very common, and most of them abound in
+fens and marshes.
+
+
+_The Brown-line Bright-eye_ (_Leucania conigera_)
+
+The fore wings are yellowish brown. The 'brown line' is a transverse
+line parallel with the hind margin, and distant from it about one-fourth
+the length of the wing. Another dark brown line, describing a sharp
+bend, passes across the wing near the base. The 'bright eye' is a light
+spot just outside the centre of the wing, nearer the costa than the
+inner margin. This is another of those marks that occur very constantly
+in the wings of the _Noctuae_. It lies beyond the _orbicular_ spot, and
+is usually somewhat kidney-shaped, and is consequently named the
+_reniform_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 142.--THE BROWN-LINE BRIGHT-EYE.]
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish or greyish, with a pale dorsal line edged
+with black. On each side of this is a broad black line, below which is a
+yellow line edged with black, then a whitish stripe, next a yellow line
+edged with black on the upper side, and lastly a broad brownish line,
+just above the spiracles, edged with black on both sides. It feeds on
+couch grass (_Agropyron repens_) and various other grasses, and is fully
+grown in May.
+
+The moth flies in July and August, and is common throughout the United
+Kingdom.
+
+
+_The Smoky Wainscot_ (_Leucania impura_)
+
+This same genus includes a number of moths, very similar in general
+appearance, and popularly known as the 'Wainscots.' Of these we shall
+take two examples.
+
+The first is the Smoky Wainscot, so called from the dark smoky tint of
+the hind wings. Its fore wings are wainscot brown, with lighter rays;
+and they each have three black dots arranged in the form of a triangle,
+one in the centre, and the other two between this and the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 143.--THE SMOKY WAINSCOT.]
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish, with a fine white line down the back. The
+spiracles are red, and inclosed in black rings. It feeds on sedges
+(_Carex_) from March to May.
+
+The moth is on the wing from June to August.
+
+
+_The Common Wainscot_ (_Leucania pallens_)
+
+This moth is very much like the last. The fore wings exhibit the same
+three dots, but it may be distinguished by the pale colour of the hind
+wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 144.--THE COMMON WAINSCOT.]
+
+The larva feeds on various grasses in March and April. It is of a
+pinkish grey colour, with two rows of black dots on each side of the
+dorsal line. There are also three stripes along the side, two of which
+are brownish and the other grey.
+
+The moth is common everywhere from June to August.
+
+
+_The Bullrush_ (_Nonagria arundinis_)
+
+Our last example of this family is the Bullrush, a moth that is common
+in all parts where its food plant abounds.
+
+It is much larger than the two preceding species. The fore wings are
+yellowish brown, with three parallel transverse lines of black spots.
+The hind wings are whitish, tinged with brown near the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 145.--THE BULLRUSH.]
+
+The caterpillar is of a dull pinkish colour, with a shining brownish
+plate on the second segment. The spiracles are black. It feeds inside
+the stems of the reed-mace (_Typha latifolia_), and changes to a
+chrysalis within the gallery it has excavated, after making a hole
+through which it can escape when it attains the perfect form.
+
+The caterpillar may be found in May and June, the chrysalis in August,
+and the moth in September.
+
+
+Family--APAMEIDAE
+
+This large family contains no less than forty-four British species, many
+of which are exceedingly common; and of the others only about half a
+dozen can be regarded as rare.
+
+Most of them are of medium size, and with one or two exceptions are
+dressed in rather dingy garbs; but, although the ground colours are
+dull, the various markings of the wings are sharply defined. They may be
+searched for on palings and the bark of trees by day, at which time they
+repose with their wings sloping like the sides of the roof of a house.
+Some are easily attracted by lights, and others partake freely of the
+entomologist's 'sugar.'
+
+The larvae have small retractile heads, and feed on low-growing plants,
+keeping themselves well concealed on the lower leaves close to the
+ground.
+
+
+_The Frosted Orange_ (_Gortyna Ochracea_)
+
+We commence with one of the brightest members of the family, the Frosted
+Orange. Its fore wings are dark yellow or ochreous, with distinct brown
+markings, the chief of which are two broad transverse bands. The
+orbicular spot is pale yellow and very distinct. The hind wings are
+dingy yellow. This moth flies from July to September, and is easily
+attracted by a light at night. It is common everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 146.--THE FROSTED ORANGE.]
+
+The larva is yellow, dotted with black, with a brownish plate on the
+second segment. It feeds inside the stems of a number of plants,
+including the marsh thistle (_Cnicus palustris_), musk thistle (_Carduus
+nutans_), burdock (_Arctium minus_), mullein (_Verbascum thapsus_),
+foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), and elder (_Sambucus nigra_). When
+about to change to the chrysalis it eats _nearly_ to the surface of the
+stem, leaving only a very thin and transparent layer of the epidermis to
+cover the hole through which it is to escape when it becomes a moth.
+
+The caterpillars are to be found in June, and the chrysalides in July.
+
+
+_The Flame_ (_Axylia putris_)
+
+This also is a pretty insect, but much smaller than _Ochracea_. It is
+common in most parts, and may be seen flying in weedy and waste grounds
+at dusk during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 147.--THE FLAME.]
+
+The fore wings are pale pinkish brown, with dark brown along the costa,
+and two patches of the same colour on the hind margin. There is also a
+double line of small brown dots parallel with the hind margin.
+
+The larva is brown, with one yellow and two white dots on each segment.
+There is also a triangular dark patch on each of the fifth and sixth
+segments. It feeds during August on the stinging nettle (_Urtica
+dioica_), and various other low herbs.
+
+
+_The Light Arches_ (_Xylophasia lithoxylea_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are very light ochreous, with a light
+brown patch on the middle of the costa, and patches of the same colour
+along the hind margin; also a row of small black dots parallel with the
+same margin. The hind wings are pale ochreous: they are brownish along
+the hind margin, and have a light fringe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 148.--THE LIGHT ARCHES.]
+
+The moth is very common in waste places, and flies in June and July.
+
+The caterpillar is of a dirty white colour, dotted with black, and has a
+black head. It feeds on the roots of grasses in May.
+
+
+_The Flounced Rustic_ (_Luperina testacea_)
+
+The fore wings are greyish brown, with darker umber-brown markings.
+These latter are variable, but the most conspicuous is a series of dark
+crescent-shaped spots almost parallel with the hind margin, and
+immediately outside these is a series of paler crescents.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 149.--THE FLOUNCED RUSTIC.]
+
+The caterpillar is dull flesh-colour, with a brown head, and a brownish
+plate on the second segment. It feeds on the stems of grasses.
+
+The moth is common throughout the British Isles, and flies in August and
+September.
+
+
+_The Cabbage Moth_ (_Mamestra Brassicae_)
+
+Whatever be your methods of moth collecting, you are sure to meet with
+_Brassicae_ in abundance. They swarm round the insect hunter's sugar in
+such numbers as to become a positive nuisance. They are also attracted
+by light. During the day they may be seen at rest on palings. The
+caterpillar is even better known, and with reason, for it is fearfully
+destructive to our vegetables and even our flower beds. It burrows into
+the hearts of cabbages, filling the galleries it makes with its
+excrement, often leaving no very visible outward signs of its presence
+within. But its ravages are by no means confined to cabbages. It eats
+with more or less relish almost every vegetable and flowering plant of
+our gardens, and is equally partial to the various herbs of the field.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 150.--THE CABBAGE MOTH.]
+
+The fore wings of the moth are dingy brownish grey, marbled in a very
+confused manner by darker markings. The _reniform_ spot is very
+distinct, the orbicular less so. A light zigzag line runs parallel with
+the hind margin. It flies in June and July.
+
+The larva feeds later in the season, and changes to the chrysalis
+beneath the soil in the autumn. It is of a dark grey colour, with a
+darker line on the back, and a lighter one along the spiracles, which
+are white.
+
+
+_The Dot_ (_Mamestra Persicariae_)
+
+The conspicuous white reniform spot on the very dark marbled fore wings
+is always sufficient for the identification of this species.
+
+This moth is out in June and July; and during the latter month lays its
+eggs on the elder (_Sambucus nigra_), and the various low plants that
+supply the larva with food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 151.--THE DOT.]
+
+The larva is greenish or greyish, sometimes with a reddish tinge, with a
+light line down the back. The twelfth segment is humped, and there are
+dark V-shaped marks on the back of segments five to twelve inclusive. It
+is full grown in September, and burrows into the ground to undergo its
+change to the chrysalis, in which state it remains throughout the
+winter.
+
+
+_The Rustic Shoulder-knot_ (_Apamea basilinea_)
+
+The fore wings of this species are pale ochreous grey, with light brown
+markings; and there is a short dark streak in the middle of the base,
+from which feature the specific name (_Basilinea_) is derived. The hind
+wings are of a similar colour, but shading into a dark smoke colour at
+the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 152.--THE RUSTIC SHOULDER KNOT.]
+
+The caterpillars feed at first on the grains of wheat, on the ears of
+which the moth deposits the eggs in June. At harvest time they remain
+hidden among the husks, and are often threshed out in large numbers by
+the blows of the flail. The cold weather soon overtakes them, and they
+then spin a cocoon in which to pass the winter. On the approach of
+spring they come out again, and feed by night on various low plants,
+hiding themselves among the roots by day. In March they are full grown,
+and change to brown chrysalides beneath the surface of the ground.
+
+The moth flies in June, and is one of the commonest and most destructive
+of our _Noctuae_.
+
+
+_The Marbled Minor_ (_Miana strigilis_)
+
+The next three genera (_Miana_, _Phothedes_, and _Celaena_) include seven
+small moths known as the 'Minors.' The commonest of them is the Marbled
+Minor, which is to be found in abundance everywhere during June and
+July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 153.--THE MARBLED MINOR.]
+
+This species is very variable, but the fore wings are usually dark
+brown, marbled with a lighter colour--white or grey. There is generally
+an irregular white or pale grey band crossing the wings parallel with
+the hind margin, and two white marks on the inner margin, halfway
+between this band and the base. There is also a deep black blotch across
+the middle of the wing.
+
+The caterpillar is greyish or greenish with paler lines and black
+spiracles. It feeds on grasses in March and April, and changes to a
+chrysalis under the ground in May.
+
+
+Family--CARADRINIDAE
+
+There are only ten British species in this family, two of which are
+rare; and most of the others are particularly dingy. The transverse
+lines so often seen on the fore wings of Noctuae are generally well
+marked. The larvae have short stiff bristles, and feed on low plants;
+they undergo their changes in an earthen cocoon under the ground.
+
+
+_The Mottled Rustic_ (_Caradrina Morpheus_)
+
+We select as our type of this family the Mottled Rustic--a common moth
+that may be procured from June to August. Its fore wings are brownish
+grey, with darker lines and spots; the hind wings are almost white, but
+darker at the tip.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 154.--THE MOTTLED RUSTIC.]
+
+The caterpillar is brownish grey, with a row of triangular spots on each
+side of the back. It is very sluggish, spending the greater part of its
+existence among the roots of low plants. It feeds throughout the winter,
+except during severe weather, and is full grown in April. The food
+plants include teasels (_Dipsacus pilosus_ and _D. sylvestris_), hedge
+bedstraw (_Galium Mollugo_), orpine (_Sedum Telephium_), sallows
+(_Salix_), and various other plants.
+
+The chrysalis may be dug out in May.
+
+
+Family--NOCTUIDAE
+
+A glance at our list of British _Noctuae_ (Appendix I) will show that
+this family contains nearly fifty species and only three genera. It
+includes several very common moths that frequent our gardens and are to
+be met with during almost every summer evening ramble.
+
+Most of the species are very dingy, but the half-dozen that comprise the
+genus _Triphaena_ are characterised by the bright colouring of the hind
+wings. The fore wings are narrow and more or less glossy, and overlap to
+a greater or less extent when the insects are at rest; and the hind
+wings are folded and completely hidden beneath them.
+
+The larvae are rather thick and smooth, and generally of very dingy
+colours. They feed on low plants, often confining their ravages to the
+roots, and generally lie well concealed close to the ground or under the
+surface.
+
+The pupae are brown, smooth, and shining, and are usually inclosed in
+earthen cocoons.
+
+We shall briefly notice a few members of each of the three genera.
+
+
+_The Turnip Moth_ (_Agrotis Segetum_)
+
+This is another of those destructive insects that attack vegetable and
+flower gardens, often doing so much damage to our crops as to become
+quite a nuisance to cultivators.
+
+The moth is decidedly dingy. Its fore wings are brown, clouded with a
+darker tint. The hind wings are almost white, sometimes with a brown
+hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 155.--THE TURNIP MOTH.]
+
+In June it lays its eggs on the stems of young plants, generally very
+close to the ground. As soon as the young caterpillars emerge they
+commence feeding on the lower parts of the stems, or burrowing deeply
+into the larger succulent roots. When the larvae have completed their
+work of destruction in this way, they change to brown chrysalides in the
+ground. Some undergo this change in October, and shortly after give rise
+to a second brood of moths; but most of them remain in the caterpillar
+state throughout the winter, and, contrary to the general rule with
+hybernating larvae, continue to feed almost throughout the winter months,
+and change to the chrysalis in the following May.
+
+The caterpillar grows to a large size. It is of a greyish or greenish
+colour, with a paler line on the back, a light brown line on each side
+of this, black spots between these lines, and black spiracles.
+
+
+_The Heart and Dart_ (_Agrotis Exclamationis_)
+
+The destructive work of _Segetum_ is assisted by similar operations of
+the Heart and Dart, the larva of which feeds voraciously on the roots of
+several of our cultivated vegetables, though the present species does
+not entirely confine its ravages to the farmer's crops, but attacks the
+roots of many low-growing herbs.
+
+The fore wings of the moth are light brown, generally with a reddish
+tinge. The darker markings include a large and very distinct reniform
+spot, a less distinct orbicular, and a conspicuous longitudinal blackish
+streak near the base of the wing known as the _claviform_. Beyond the
+reniform a curved and zigzag dark line crosses the wing. The hind wings
+of the male are very pale, those of the female darker, with a whitish
+fringe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 156.--THE HEART AND DART.]
+
+The moth flies from June to August, and is common everywhere. The
+caterpillar feeds in the autumn, and reaches its full size in October;
+but it is said to feed at intervals throughout the winter. Its colour is
+dingy brown or grey, with paler lines on the sides. The spiracles are
+black, and there are black dots on the sides.
+
+
+_The Garden Dart_ (_Agrotis nigricans_)
+
+This is another dingy moth, whose general appearance is so unattractive
+that the tyro might be inclined to neglect it. But it must not be
+omitted from our selection on that score, for our main object here is to
+give the beginner an acquaintance with those species that are most
+likely to be captured in the earlier part of his career, and this moth
+is certainly one of those that may be described as 'abundant
+everywhere.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 157.--THE GARDEN DART.]
+
+Its fore wings are dull dark brown, often tinged with red, and clouded
+with black. The reniform spot is pale, the orbicular spot less distinct,
+and between the two there is generally a rhomboidal dark spot. There is
+also a short dark streak near the base of the wing, and a black spot
+before the orbicular. The hind wings are pale, but smoky towards the
+hind margin.
+
+The caterpillar is brown and shining, with a fine pale line on the back,
+and a double white stripe below the spiracles. It is also dotted with
+black. It is exceedingly destructive, feeding on clovers (_Trifolium
+pratense_ and _T. repens_) and various low plants in May and June.
+
+The moth flies from June to August.
+
+
+_The Flame Shoulder_ (_Noctua plecta_)
+
+As our example of the next genus we take the Flame Shoulder, a rather
+small moth, easily identified by the broad yellowish-white streak along
+the costa of the reddish-brown fore wings. The orbicular and reniform
+spots are margined with white, and a thin white streak runs from the
+base of the wing to the former. The hind wings are white. This moth
+flies in July, and is common throughout Great Britain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 158.--THE FLAME SHOULDER.]
+
+The caterpillar is reddish brown, with a slender line of white dots on
+the back, and a similar line on each side. The body is smooth and
+velvety, and is netted and dotted all over with dark brown. It feeds on
+the lady's bedstraw (_Galium verum_), sweet woodruff (_Asperula
+odorata_), and many other low plants; and is full fed early in July.
+
+
+_The Lesser Broad Border_ (_Triphaena ianthina_)
+
+We now come to the third and last genus (_Triphaena_) of this extensive
+family, a genus which includes six interesting moths, with bright orange
+or yellow hind wings. Of these we shall take three examples.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 159.--THE LESSER BROAD BORDER.]
+
+The first of them--the Lesser Broad Border--has fore wings of a rich
+reddish or violet brown, with paler markings. The hind wings are bright
+orange, with a broad marginal band of black.
+
+It is a common moth, particularly in the south-western counties, and
+flies during July and August.
+
+The caterpillar is of a dingy yellowish or greenish grey, with a light
+line down the back, and two black spots on each side of segments nine to
+twelve inclusive. It feeds throughout the winter by night on dead
+nettles (_Lamium purpureum_ and _L. album_), primrose (_Primula
+acaulis_), whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus
+spinosa_), and various low plants; and may sometimes be seen in flower
+gardens. It is full grown in April.
+
+
+_The Lesser Yellow Underwing_ (_Triphaena Comes_)
+
+This insect is very similar to the last, but is larger. The fore wings
+are also of a greyish or ochreous brown, and the black margin of the
+hind wings is proportionately narrower.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 160.--THE LESSER YELLOW UNDERWING.]
+
+It is more abundant than _Ianthina_; in fact it is to be found
+everywhere in plenty during the month of July.
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish brown. On the back of each of the eleventh
+and twelfth segments are two conspicuous dark marks. The spiracles are
+white, and below them is a pale brown stripe. It feeds on the foxglove
+(_Digitalis purpurea_), chickweed (_Stellaria media_), thrift (_Armeria
+maritima_), and other low plants in the autumn, hybernates during the
+winter, and attacks sallows (_Salix Caprea_ and _S. cinerea_) and
+whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_) as soon as the buds appear in the
+spring. It is full grown in April, and then changes to a chrysalis on
+the surface of the earth.
+
+
+_The Large Yellow Underwing_ (_Triphaena Pronuba_)
+
+This is by far the commonest moth of the genus, and may be found
+everywhere, in town and country, from June to August. It is represented
+on Plate XI (fig. 1), but its fore wings are very variable, sometimes a
+cold dingy grey, but often of an exceedingly rich and warm brown. On the
+costal margin, not far from the tip, there is always a small black spot,
+which will serve to distinguish it from _Comes_.
+
+The caterpillar (fig. 21) feeds throughout the winter on the roots of
+almost every plant in our gardens; and, during the warmer weather of the
+autumn and spring, on stems and leaves. It is full grown early in the
+summer, and then changes to a chrysalis in the ground. Its colour is
+dirty yellowish or greenish grey, with a row of dark spots on each
+side.
+
+
+Family--AMPHIPYRIDAE
+
+_The Gothic_ (_Mania typica_)
+
+The above family contains only four British species, two of which we
+shall briefly consider.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 161.--THE GOTHIC.]
+
+The first of these is the Gothic--a very common moth that may be seen
+everywhere about midsummer. Its fore wings are brown with darker
+marblings, and there are numerous lighter markings which may be easily
+made out by reference to the accompanying woodcut.
+
+The caterpillar is smooth and velvety, of a dull brown or greenish
+colour, with darker dorsal and side stripes. The latter are crossed
+obliquely by a series of whitish lines. It feeds on fruit and other
+trees in clusters when very young in early autumn, and afterwards
+descends and feeds on low plants. It hybernates in the winter, and feeds
+again on low plants in the spring. When full grown it burrows into the
+soil to undergo its changes.
+
+
+_The Old Lady_ (_Mania Maura_)
+
+This fine moth is so very different from the last in appearance that the
+reason for placing the two in the same genus is not apparent till the
+earlier stages and life history have been studied. All its wings are
+very deep brown; the front pair has a darker band containing the
+orbicular and reniform spots, and the hind pair a lighter band across
+the middle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 162.--THE OLD LADY.]
+
+It is a common moth, often to be found at rest by day in outhouses and
+sheds. It flies in July and August.
+
+The caterpillar is dark purple or umber brown, with darker and lighter
+markings. It feeds in the autumn on fruit trees, and hybernates during
+the winter. In the spring it feeds again on low plants, and changes to a
+chrysalis in May under the ground.
+
+
+Family--ORTHOSIIDAE
+
+This is a large family of over thirty species, most of them of rather
+small size, which make their appearance, with two exceptions, either in
+early spring or in late autumn, often attracted in the former season by
+the sallow blossom, and in the latter by ivy bloom.
+
+Several of them are very common insects, that are almost sure to be
+taken by a young collector during his first season.
+
+The fore wings of these moths are more or less pointed at the tip, and
+the usual lines and spots are generally distinct. The males may be
+distinguished from the females by their antennae, which are always more
+or less ciliated.
+
+The caterpillars are smooth and velvety, and feed by night; and the pupae
+are inclosed in cocoons constructed of earth and silk.
+
+
+_The Common Quaker_ (_Taeniocampa stabilis_)
+
+Several of the species of the family are known popularly as Quakers, the
+commonest of which--_Stabilis_--is abundant in all parts.
+
+Its fore wings are grey, with generally either an ochreous or reddish
+tinge. The orbicular and reniform spots are outlined with a paler
+colour, and there is a pale transverse line parallel with the hind
+margin, outside which is a row of indistinct black spots. The hind wings
+are greyish brown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 163.--THE COMMON QUAKER.]
+
+The caterpillar is green and velvety, with a yellowish line on the back
+and on each side; and a yellow band crosses the back of the twelfth
+segment transversely. It feeds during June and July on oak (_Quercus
+Robur_) and elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and changes to a chrysalis in
+August on the surface of the ground. In this state it remains throughout
+the winter, and the moth emerges in March or April.
+
+
+_The Chestnut_ (_Cerastis Vaccinii_)
+
+Unfortunately our space will not allow us to notice the whole of even
+the very common moths, so, passing over a few with great reluctance, we
+come to the familiar Chestnut, which may be seen at large in October and
+November, and sometimes even in December, and again appears, after a
+rather short period of hybernation, in February and March.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 164.--THE CHESTNUT.]
+
+The fore wings are reddish brown, with darker wavy lines. The orbicular
+and reniform spots have pale outlines, and the lower half of the latter
+is very dark grey. The hind wings are smoky grey, with generally a pale
+band beyond the middle.
+
+The caterpillar is dark brown, with very indistinct lighter lines. The
+spiracles are black, and inclosed in a yellowish grey stripe. It feeds
+during June and July on the elm (_Ulmus campestris_), oak (_Quercus
+Robur_), and sallow (_Salix caprea_), and various low plants.
+
+
+_The Pink-barred Sallow_ (_Xanthia Flavago_)
+
+This moth is not nearly so common as the preceding species, but has been
+taken more or less in all parts of England.
+
+Its fore wings are orange yellow, with purplish markings arranged as
+represented in fig. 165. The hind wings are yellowish white.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 165.--THE PINK-BARRED SALLOW.]
+
+The caterpillar is brown, with a lateral stripe formed by numerous red,
+yellow and white dots. It feeds on sallow (_Salix caprea_) and various
+low plants.
+
+It is full grown in June, and the moth appears in September.
+
+
+Family--COSMIIDAE
+
+_The Dun-bar_ (_Calymnia trapezina_)
+
+Our example of this family is the Dun-bar, common everywhere during July
+and August.
+
+Its fore wings are greyish ochreous, with a darker band across the
+middle. On each side of this band is a white line margined with dark
+grey, and there is a row of black spots along the hind margin. The hind
+wings are smoky brown, becoming paler towards the base.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 166.--THE DUN-BAR.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), hornbeam (_Carpinus
+Betulus_), and birch (_Betula alba_), and may be found in abundance
+during May and June. It is green, with dark spots, and white lines on
+the back and sides. Although it partakes of the leaves of the
+above-named trees, yet its chief food seems to be other caterpillars,
+for it devours these with a savage greediness that is simply
+astonishing. It will chase an unfortunate caterpillar, seize it by the
+neck with a fatal grip, and rapidly devour it. Its chief prey seems to
+be the larva of the Winter Moth (_Brumata_).
+
+
+Family--HADENIDAE
+
+Nearly fifty British _Noctuae_ are included in the family _Hadenidae_.
+They are of variable dimensions, and differ much in the brightness of
+their colours, some being very dingy, and others gaily tinted. Their
+antennae are rather long; and when at rest the wings slope from the back
+like the sides of a roof.
+
+The larvae are smooth, and not very thick; and there is sometimes a hump
+on the twelfth segment. The pupae are brown and shiny, and are inclosed
+in earthen cocoons beneath the surface of the soil.
+
+
+_The Broad-barred White_ (_Hecatera serena_)
+
+Although not gaily coloured, this is a pretty little moth, there being a
+bright contrast between the white ground and the grey markings of the
+wings. It is common in the south of England, and seems to be plentiful
+in and around London.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 167.--THE BROAD-BARRED WHITE.]
+
+The caterpillar is of a dingy greenish colour, with a yellowish stripe
+on each side of the back; and there are two distinct dots on the back of
+each segment. It feeds during July and August on sow-thistles (_Sonchus
+oleraceus_ and _S. arvensis_), sleepwort (_Lactuca virosa_), and
+hawkweeds (_Hieracia_).
+
+The moth flies in June and July.
+
+
+_The Marvel-du-jour_ (_Agriopis Aprilina_)
+
+The Marvel-du-jour is decidedly a beautiful moth--quite an exception
+among the _Noctuae_ in this respect, and it is withal both common and
+widely distributed. We need not describe it, since it is represented on
+Plate XI (fig. 2), and can hardly be mistaken for any other species.
+
+The caterpillar is dull green, often tinged with red. The dorsal line is
+broad and dark, and interrupted by a series of very light lozenge-shaped
+spots. It feeds on the oak in May and June, and is full grown in the
+latter month. It then burrows into the earth at the foot of the tree,
+and there constructs a fragile earthen cocoon previous to changing to a
+chrysalis.
+
+From July to September the chrysalides may be obtained in plenty by
+breaking up the sods at the roots of oaks, and the perfect insect may be
+found toward the end of September and throughout October.
+
+
+_The Small Angle Shades_ (_Euplexia lucipara_)
+
+This pretty little moth is represented in fig. 3 of Plate XI. It is very
+common throughout the country, and may be seen in June and July.
+
+The caterpillar is thickest on the twelfth segment, and gradually tapers
+from this towards the head. Its colour is pale green, with a white
+stripe just below the spiracles, which are black. On each side of the
+back are a number of oblique lines, which meet in the middle line, thus
+forming a series of V-shaped marks pointing towards the tail. It feeds
+on the common bracken fern (_Pteris aquilina_), foxglove (_Digitalis
+purpurea_), and the male fern (_Lastraea Filix-mas_), in August and
+September.
+
+
+_The Angle Shades_ (_Phlogophora Meticulosa_)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 168.--THE ANGLE SHADES.]
+
+This moth is so common and so widely distributed that it is almost sure
+to be taken by the young collector during his first season. Its wings
+are scalloped on the hind margin, and their colour light ochreous, often
+tinged with pink or olive green, and marked with dark brown as shown in
+the illustration. It is double brooded, the first brood appearing in May
+and June, and the second in September and October.
+
+The caterpillar is green or olive brown, and thickly covered with white
+spots. It feeds on groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_) and many other low
+plants, the first brood throughout the winter from November to April,
+and the second in July and August.
+
+
+_The Grey Arches_ (_Aplecta nebulosa_)
+
+The fore wings of this moth vary from greyish white to a rather dark
+smoky tint. The markings are of a darker colour, and are also subject to
+considerable variation. The orbicular and reniform spots are large, and
+paler than the ground colour; and several zigzag or scalloped lines,
+more or less distinct, cross the wings transversely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 169.--THE GREY ARCHES.]
+
+The larva is brown, with a lighter line down the back. On each of the
+segments five to eleven is a dark lozenge-shaped spot, bisected by the
+dorsal line; and on the second segment is a shining plate and a
+triangular mark. It feeds on the dock (_Rumex_), and various other low
+plants during the autumn; and, after its hybernation, on the leaves of
+the sallow (_Salix Caprea_), birch (_Betula alba_), and whitethorn
+(_Crataegus oxyacantha_). It is full grown in May, when it burrows into
+the ground to undergo its metamorphoses.
+
+The moth flies during June and July, and is common in nearly every part
+of Great Britain. Large numbers may be obtained by searching fences and
+tree trunks about midsummer.
+
+
+_The Shears_ (_Hadena dentina_)
+
+The Shears is another very common moth of the same family. The ground
+colour of the fore wings is very variable, but is generally a lighter or
+darker shade of grey. Sometimes, however, it has a very decided brownish
+tinge. Across the centre of the wing is a darker band, wider on the
+costal side, containing the orbicular and reniform spots, as well as a
+light patch beneath them, and bordered on each side by a pale zigzag
+line. There is another similar line near to and parallel with the hind
+margin. The hind wings are smoky grey or smoky brown, darker towards the
+hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 170.--THE SHEARS.]
+
+The caterpillar is greyish, and has a series of triangular black spots
+along each side of the back. It feeds on the roots of the dandelion
+(_Taraxacum officinale_), and changes to a peculiar spiny chrysalis.
+
+The perfect insect appears to be abundant everywhere, and is on the wing
+in June and July.
+
+
+_The Bright-line Brown-eye_ (_Hadena oleracea_)
+
+Every collector is sure to meet with this insect during his first
+season. The moth is abundant everywhere in June, the caterpillar may be
+found feeding in almost every waste and weedy spot in August and
+September, and the chrysalis is certain to be turned over by the pupa
+digger.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 171.--THE BRIGHT-LINE BROWN-EYE.]
+
+The fore wings of the perfect insect are reddish brown. The orbicular
+spot is usually very indistinct, being of almost exactly the same tint
+as the ground colour, and surrounded by a very fine whitish line. The
+reniform is generally more conspicuous, a portion of it being of a light
+ochreous colour. Near the hind margin, and parallel with it, is a white
+line, bent sharply into the form of a W, just on the anal side of the
+middle.
+
+The hind wings are greyish brown in the base, and dark smoke colour
+towards the margin.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green or brown, dotted with both black and
+white, and adorned with a bright yellow line just below the spiracles.
+It feeds on the nettle (_Urtica dioica_), dock (_Rumex_), and many other
+low plants; and, according to some observers, on the elm (_Ulmus
+campestris_).
+
+
+Family--XYLINIDAE
+
+The next family--_Xylinidae_--contains twenty British species, several of
+which are local, but two or three are abundant and widely distributed.
+
+The transverse lines that so often cross the wings of the _Noctuae_ are
+nearly or entirely absent in this family, and longitudinal lines take
+their place. When the insects are at rest the wings are folded rather
+closely, the outer pair being arranged like a roof with a very gentle
+slope. The bodies of the perfect insects are very stout, particularly in
+the thorax, and thus present a rather powerful appearance.
+
+The larvae are smooth, and generally brightly coloured, and feed
+principally on low plants. The chrysalides are generally inclosed in
+cocoons on or beneath the ground, and are often provided with spines or
+bristles on the under side.
+
+We shall select two members of this family.
+
+
+_The Early Grey_ (_Xylocampa Areola_)
+
+One of the first of the _Noctuae_ to greet us in the spring is the Early
+Grey, which may be found resting on fences in April, and, if the season
+is mild, in March.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 172.--THE EARLY GREY.]
+
+Its fore wings are light grey, often tinged with rose pink, and marked
+with dark grey. The orbicular and reniform spots are very distinct, and
+surrounded by a pale line; they are both united at their lower edges.
+Along the hind margin is a series of dark spots. The hind wings are pale
+yellowish grey, with a darker central spot, a central transverse darker
+line, and a darker line along the hind margin.
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish grey. The dorsal line is lighter, and
+passes through a brownish spot on the eighth segment. It feeds on the
+honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_) in July and August, being full
+grown towards the end of the latter month.
+
+
+_The Shark_ (_Cucullia umbratica_)
+
+The Shark is a very common moth, to be found everywhere on palings in
+June, but the colour of its wings so closely resembles that of oak and
+other light-wood fences that detection is not so easy as with most other
+moths.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 173.--THE SHARK.]
+
+The fore wings are grey, and marked with longitudinal dark lines, the
+principal of which is a line from the middle of the base to about the
+centre of the wing. The wing rays are also darker than the ground
+colour. The hind wings are greyish white or brownish grey.
+
+The caterpillar is very dark brown, with orange spots on the back and
+along the spiracles. It feeds on sow-thistles (_Sonchus oleraceus_, _S.
+palustris_, and _S. arvensis_) and sleepwort (_Lactuca virosa_) at night
+from July to September, and hides during the daytime among the leaves
+that lie close against the ground. When disturbed it does not roll into
+a ring or feign death like many others of its kind, but wriggles about
+most vigorously as if to repel its foe.
+
+
+Family--GONOPTERIDAE
+
+_The Herald Moth_ (_Gonoptera Libatrix_)
+
+The above-mentioned family is so called on account of the angular
+margins of the wings, especially the fore pair. It contains only one
+British species, the Herald (Plate XII, fig. 1), a moth that is common
+everywhere in August and September. It hybernates in the perfect state,
+and the hybernated specimens may be seen in the spring time, from March
+up to the end of May or the beginning of June.
+
+Its fore wings are reddish grey, thickly spotted and streaked with
+brown. Transverse whitish lines divide the base into three parts of
+nearly equal widths. The basal and central divisions are tinged with
+orange; and there is a small white spot in the base close to the thorax,
+also another near the centre of the wing. The hind wings are brownish
+grey.
+
+The caterpillar is green and velvety, with a whitish stripe on the side,
+and yellow spiracles. It feeds on willow (_Salix alba_) and sallow
+(_Salix caprea_); and when full grown, about the end of June, it spins a
+white silken cocoon between leaves of its tree, and changes to a very
+dark chrysalis.
+
+
+Family--PLUSIIDAE
+
+The most peculiar feature of the moths of this family is the tufts of
+hair that stand up perpendicularly on the top of the thorax. The abdomen
+also is crested, and the fore wings of several species have smooth
+patches that display a brilliant metallic lustre.
+
+Most of the larvae may be described as semi-loopers, for their claspers
+number only three pairs, and when they walk their backs are considerably
+humped, somewhat after the fashion of the _Geometrae_. Some of them
+further imitate the _Geometrae_ in their position of rest, holding on by
+their claspers only, with body straightened out at an angle with the
+leaf or twig on which they support themselves.
+
+Unlike the majority of the _Noctuae_, they do not descend to the ground
+when about to change, but spin a silken cocoon among the food plants.
+
+
+_The Burnished Brass_ (_Plusia Chrysitis_)
+
+One of the commonest of the _Plusiidae_ is the Burnished Brass, so called
+on account of the large patches of bright golden green on the fore
+wings. The hind margin of these wings is very gracefully curved, and
+bordered with brown. A brown blotch fills the base of the wing, and the
+remaining area is of a beautiful metallic greenish yellow, broken by two
+large brown blotches, one on the costal and the other on the inner
+margin, which closely approach each other and sometimes meet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 174.--THE BURNISHED BRASS.]
+
+This moth is very common everywhere, and is one of the frequent visitors
+to our flower gardens from June to August.
+
+The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers from this
+point. Its colour is pale green. It has no longitudinal stripes on the
+back, but each segment is adorned with four or six oblique white marks.
+Just above the spiracles is a white stripe. It feeds on the dead nettle
+(_Lamium album_), stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and burdock
+(_Arctium minus_), and is full grown in June.
+
+
+_The Silver_ Y (_Plusia Gamma_)
+
+Our second example of this family is the Silver Y, which may be found in
+abundance everywhere from June to October. Its fore wings are of a shiny
+grey colour, beautifully marbled with a rich dark brown; and just below
+the orbicular spot is a brilliant silvery spot, in form something like
+the Greek letter [gamma] placed obliquely. The base of the hind wings is
+grey; along the margin is a broad and dark smoky brown band, and the
+fringe is very light grey, barred with the dark tint of the band. This
+moth is commonly driven out of its hiding places among low plants as we
+walk in waste places, and when thus disturbed it takes a short and rapid
+flight, generally disappearing so suddenly among the herbage that it is
+difficult to locate it correctly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 175.--THE SILVER Y.]
+
+The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers gradually
+from this point towards the head. Its body is green, with several thin
+longitudinal white stripes, and a thin yellow stripe along the
+spiracles. It may be found from June to October, feeding on many kinds
+of low plants.
+
+
+Family--EUCLIDIIDAE
+
+_The Mother Shipton_ (_Euclidia Mi_)
+
+Passing over a few small and less important families, we come to the
+_Euclidiidae_, which contains only two British moths. One of these is the
+Mother Shipton, a very common insect that flies in June.
+
+The fore wings of this species are very dark brown with whitish
+markings. The latter include a peculiarly tortuous line, the character
+of which will be made out more easily from our illustration (Plate XI,
+fig. 4) than from a written description. The hind wings are also very
+dark brown, and rather prettily spotted with an ochreous tint.
+
+The caterpillar is pale grey, with four white stripes, and has only
+three pairs of claspers. It feeds in May on clovers (_Trifolium
+pratense_ and _T. repens_) and other plants.
+
+
+Family--CATOCALIDAE
+
+This family contains only four British species, but these few are very
+striking moths. They are of large size; and, unlike the _Noctuae_
+generally, the chief adornment is reserved for the under wings. When at
+rest, the outer or fore wings completely hide the other pair, and then
+their general appearance is dull, though if closely examined it will be
+observed that these outer wings are really beautifully marbled with
+shades of grey.
+
+The caterpillars of this family are very peculiar creatures. Their
+bodies are convex above and flattened beneath; and if disturbed as they
+rest on the bark of a tree, instead of leaving their hold and rolling
+into a ring like so many other larvae of _Noctuae_, they apply themselves
+the closer, and hold on as if to defy our attempts to remove them.
+Another peculiarity of these larvae is the possession of fleshy
+projections along the sides, just above the legs. They feed on the
+leaves of trees, and when about to rest they descend to the trunk, and
+there remain protected by their imitative colouring, detection being
+rendered even more difficult by the close application of their flattened
+under surface to the bark. Before changing to the chrysalis state, they
+spin a light cocoon among the leaves or on the bark.
+
+
+_The Clifden Nonpareil_ (_Catocala Fraxini_)
+
+This is the largest of the family, and, indeed, of all British _Noctuae_.
+The fore wings and thorax are light grey, dotted and marbled with darker
+grey (see fig. 5, Plate XI); and the thorax and abdomen are banded with
+black and greyish blue.
+
+The young entomologist can hardly expect to meet with this fine insect,
+for it is very rare, and it is only occasionally that a specimen is seen
+in Britain; but its characteristics are so striking that we have
+endeavoured to find it a place here. Reputed British specimens of
+_Fraxini_ command the price of a few pounds each, but specimens from the
+other side of the Channel may be obtained for a few pence. With such
+rarities we should advise a young entomologist to purchase the foreign
+specimen rather than adopt the two other alternatives--give an
+exorbitant price for a supposed Britisher, or else remain a stranger to
+the gem, but all foreign specimens should be labelled according to their
+nationalities.
+
+
+_The Red Underwing_ (_Catocala Nupta_)
+
+The other three members of the family are very similar in appearance,
+the fore wings of all being marbled with shades of grey, relieved by
+touches of black and brown; and the hind wings, red or crimson, give the
+popular names to the species.
+
+The Red Underwing flies in August and September, and is common in the
+southern counties of England, as well as in some of the midland
+counties; it may be often seen flying by day around willows.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 176.--THE RED UNDERWING.]
+
+The caterpillar is similar in form to that of _Fraxini_, and when at
+rest by day on the bark of its tree it is very difficult to detect, so
+closely does it apply itself to the surface, and so perfectly does it
+imitate the colour of its surroundings. It feeds on the crack willow
+(_Salix fragilis_), sallow (_S. alba_), poplar (_Populus_), and plum
+(_Prunus_), and is full grown in June.
+
+
+_The Dark Crimson Underwing_ (_Catocala Sponsa_)
+
+This beautiful insect is represented on Plate XI (fig. 6). It will be
+observed that the black band crossing the centre of the hind wing is
+rather broad and sharply bent--an important feature, since it is the
+most serviceable distinguishing mark between this species and the Light
+Crimson Underwing (_C. Promissa_).
+
+The caterpillar is similar in form and habits to those of _Fraxini_ and
+_Nupta_, and feeds on the oak. It is full fed about the beginning of
+June, when it changes to a chrysalis between leaves which it has spun
+together with silk.
+
+The moth flies in July and August, and is common only in certain oak
+woods of the southern counties. It is particularly abundant in the New
+Forest, where scores may be taken in a single night by judicious
+sugaring.
+
+There yet remain a few small families of the _Noctuae_, but we must leave
+them in order that we may give a proportionate share of our space to the
+other great division of the larger moths--the _Geometrae_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+_GEOMETRAE_
+
+
+We have already referred (page 28) to caterpillars that walk by a
+series of strides, alternately looping and extending their long and
+slender bodies. It is this peculiar characteristic of the larvae of
+the present division that suggested the name _Geometrae_--a term that
+signifies 'earth-measurers,' for they appear to measure the ground
+over which they travel in terms of their own length. We have also
+dealt with the peculiarities of structure in the case of these
+caterpillars--peculiarities which adapt them to this mode of
+progression; and we have now to make a selection from the various
+families of this important division for a more detailed description.
+
+The _Geometrae_ include nearly three hundred species and sixteen
+families. The moths have slender bodies and full wings, and generally
+rest with the latter outspread. A few, however, repose with wings erect
+like the butterflies, and a small number conceal their hind wings after
+the manner of the _Noctuae_.
+
+
+Family--UROPTERYGIDAE
+
+_The Swallow Tail_ (_Uropteryx sambucaria_)
+
+Our first family--_Uropterygidae_--has only one British representative,
+and that is the well-known Swallow Tail, so common in gardens and among
+hedgerows in the south of England. This species is shown on Plate XII
+(fig. 2), and the insect is so readily identified by the conspicuous
+'tails' on the hind wings that no written description will be necessary.
+
+The caterpillar is a most peculiar and interesting creature. Its colour
+is very variable, being either brown, olive, ochreous, or reddish; and
+it is notched or humped in such a manner that it exactly resembles a
+twig. This strange imitation is rendered still more remarkable by the
+attitude assumed by the caterpillar when at rest. It fixes itself to a
+twig by means of its two pairs of claspers, with its body standing out
+at an angle in a perfectly straight posture; but its head is always
+supported by means of a very slender and almost invisible silk fibre. It
+feeds on a number of plants and trees, including elder (_Sambucus
+nigra_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), whitethorn (_Crataegus
+oxyacantha_), bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_), honeysuckle (_Lonicera
+Periclymenum_), and forget-me-not (_Myosotis arvensis_). It may be found
+feeding in the autumn, or hybernating in the crevices of the bark of
+trees in winter. In April or May it comes out again; and in June, in
+which month it is full grown, it binds together some fragments of
+leaves, and forms them into a little swinging hammock in which it
+changes to a brown chrysalis spotted with black.
+
+Just at this time it seems to be particularly sensitive. In the
+caterpillar state it will strongly resent any kind of disturbance, and
+will give a blow to an intruder by suddenly swaying its body right and
+left; and while in its hammock a gentle irritation, such as a puff of
+wind from the mouth, will set it wriggling in a furious manner.
+
+
+Family--ENNOMIDAE
+
+This family contains about twenty species, several of which rank among
+the commonest as well as the most beautiful of the _Geometrae_. Their
+wings are more or less angulated; and the antennae are generally
+pectinated in the males.
+
+The larvae are generally humped and twig-like; and, as in the last
+species, the semblance is increased by the position they assume when at
+rest. The number of limbs varies from ten to fourteen, but where the
+claspers exceed two pairs, the additional two or four, as the case may
+be, are seldom used in walking.
+
+
+_The Brimstone Moth_ (_Rumia luteolata_)
+
+As soon as the warm evenings of May set in, this lively and bright
+little moth may be seen flitting about among our hedges at sunset; and
+it continues with us throughout the whole of the summer, but is
+particularly plentiful during the month of June.
+
+The moth itself need not be described, since it is shown on Plate XII
+(fig. 3); but the caterpillar (fig. 25) must receive a passing notice.
+It varies considerably in colour, being either green, brown, or marbled
+with a mixture of shades of both these colours. It has a hump on the
+back of the seventh segment, and two more on the ninth, and possesses
+four pairs of claspers. It feeds on whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_),
+blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and the apple (_Pyrus Malus_), and may be
+found on these trees throughout the summer.
+
+Some believe that there are three successive broods of this insect each
+year, but it is doubtful whether this is invariably the rule, since both
+the moth and its larva are to be found without intermission throughout
+the season.
+
+
+_The Light Emerald_ (_Metrocampa margaritaria_)
+
+All the wings of this moth are very pale green, and crossed with a white
+band which is bordered with a darker green on the inner side. The fore
+wings have an additional transverse line just halfway between the former
+and the base, but this one is not so distinct. It flies in July, and is
+very widely distributed, and in some parts is very abundant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 177.--THE LIGHT EMERALD.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds in September, and again in May, after hybernation,
+on several of our forest trees, including the oak (_Quercus Robur_), elm
+(_Ulmus campestris_), birch (_Betula alba_), and beech (_Fagus
+sylvatica_). It is of a dingy olive colour, with a dark dorsal line, on
+each side of which is a row of white spots; and it has three pairs of
+claspers.
+
+
+_The Scalloped Oak_ (_Crocallis elinguaria_)
+
+This species is common and widely distributed, and may be seen flying at
+dusk towards the end of July and throughout August. It is represented in
+fig. 4 of Plate XII. The antennae of the male are strongly pectinated;
+those of the female are simple.
+
+The caterpillar may be found in the autumn, and again in spring, feeding
+on the honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_), whitethorn (_Crataegus
+oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), beech (_Fagus sylvatica_),
+and various fruit trees. It is full grown in June, when it turns to a
+chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves or moss on or near the ground.
+It is of a greyish-brown or greyish-purple colour, and looks very like a
+piece of twig.
+
+
+_The August Thorn_ (_Eugonia quercinaria_)
+
+Our last example of this family is the August Thorn, represented in the
+accompanying woodcut. The fore wings are ochreous yellow, crossed by two
+nearly parallel lines of dark brown. In order to distinguish between
+this and one or two similar species it must be observed that both these
+lines are angulated near the costa, the inner one very sharply so; and
+between the two is a distinct brown spot near the costal margin. The
+hind wings are paler, and are crossed by an indistinct darker line. The
+antennae of the male are strongly fringed; those of the female are
+simple.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 178.--THE AUGUST THORN.]
+
+The moth is very common in August and September, and is readily
+attracted by lights in the evening.
+
+The larva is grey, marbled with reddish brown. It has three small humps
+on each of the sixth and seventh segments, two on the twelfth, and one
+larger one on the ninth. It feeds on the oak and various other trees
+during the month of June.
+
+
+Family--AMPHIDASYDAE
+
+The seven British species of the family _Amphidasydae_ are generally to
+be distinguished by their rather stout abdomens, and the long shaggy
+hair that covers their thoraces. The antennae of the males are
+pectinated, and those of the females simple; and in three cases the
+latter sex is wingless.
+
+The caterpillars have long and slender twig-like bodies, and are never
+provided with more than two pairs of claspers. The chrysalides terminate
+behind in a sharp spine, and are always to be found buried in the soil.
+
+
+_The Brindled Beauty_ (_Biston hirtaria_)
+
+Early in April, and sometimes in March, this moth may be seen in
+abundance, resting on the lime trees in and around our towns. In fact,
+so strongly marked is its partiality to the haunts of man in the
+neighbourhood of our great metropolis that it has received the name of
+the Cockney. The male is represented in fig. 5 of Plate XII, and the
+female may be distinguished from it by her simple antennae and larger
+body.
+
+The caterpillar is coloured with alternate bands of dark purple brown
+and reddish brown. There is a yellow band on the front of the second
+segment, a row of yellow spots on each side, and two little bright
+yellow warts on the back of each segment. It feeds by night on lime
+(_Tilia vulgaris_), elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and various fruit trees,
+and often appears in such numbers that the foliage is almost completely
+devoured. During the daytime it may be seen resting on the bark, almost
+invariably fixed longitudinally on the trunk, where it looks like a
+natural ridge of the bark which it so closely resembles in colour. It
+may be found in June and July, and in August it changes to a chrysalis
+at the foot of its tree, just below the surface of the soil.
+
+
+_The Peppered Moth_ (_Amphidasys betularia_)
+
+Although this common species displays no bright tints, yet it is
+prettily marked, its whitish wings being peppered and blotched all over
+with black or very dark brown. It flies in May and June, later than any
+other species of the family, and may generally be found on fences and
+tree trunks during the day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 179.--THE PEPPERED MOTH.]
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is very variable--drab, grey, green, or
+brown; but it may be known by the deep notch in the middle of the head,
+and the arrangement of its 'humps.' These latter are only small reddish
+or whitish projections, of which there is one on each side of the fifth,
+sixth, seventh, eighth, tenth, and eleventh segments; also two on the
+back of the ninth and twelfth. It feeds in August and September on a
+large number of trees, including, in fact, nearly all our commonest
+forest and fruit trees. In September it enters the soil to undergo its
+change to the chrysalis.
+
+
+Family--BOARMIIDAE
+
+In the next family--_Boarmiidae_--there are about twenty British members,
+most of which are very pretty moths. They differ generally from the last
+family in that their bodies are more slender, and although some of them
+bear a resemblance to species of the family _Ennomidae_, their wings are
+not angulated. In several cases the fore and hind wings are both
+similarly marked, a feature very uncommon with moths.
+
+The caterpillars of this family usually have humps on the sixth and
+twelfth segments only, and have two pairs of claspers. The pupae are to
+be found either on the ground, among leaves or moss, or beneath the
+soil.
+
+
+_The Waved Umber_ (_Hemerophila abruptaria_)
+
+The most gaily coloured member of this family is the Waved Umber, shown
+in fig. 6 of Plate XII. Like many other _Geometrae_, it rests on fences
+and tree trunks by day with wings expanded so that all four are
+displayed. It is on the wing in May and early June, and again in August,
+and often frequents our gardens at dusk.
+
+The caterpillar is very dark brown, with a white collar on the front of
+the second segment. It feeds in June and July on privet (_Ligustrum
+vulgare_) and the cultivated rose trees of flower gardens, and probably
+also on the dog rose (_Rosa canina_). When full grown it spins a silken
+cocoon in a fork of one of the twigs, and there undergoes its
+metamorphoses.
+
+
+_The Willow Beauty_ (_Boarmia gemmaria_)
+
+Our second example of the _Boarmiidae_ is the Willow Beauty, the male of
+which species is here illustrated. Its wings are brownish grey, marked
+with dark brown lines and streaks. The female is generally larger than
+the male, and has simple antennae. The moth is abundant throughout
+England, and may be seen generally resting on fences and trees in June
+and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 180.--THE WILLOW BEAUTY.]
+
+The ground colour of the caterpillar is much the same as that of the
+moth, and is marked with a similar darker tint. It has a yellowish line
+along the spiracles, and is much like a piece of brownish twig. It feeds
+on the oak (_Quercus Robur_), Birch (_Betula alba_), ivy (_Hedera
+Helix_), and other trees, and may be found in September and October.
+
+
+Family--GEOMETRIDAE
+
+The next family contains eight moths, mostly of small size, all of which
+have green wings, and are popularly known as the 'Emeralds.' In most
+cases the male may be distinguished by its pectinated antennae.
+
+There is no general characteristic by which we may know all the larvae,
+but some have the head deeply notched.
+
+
+_The Large Emerald_ (_Geometra papilionaria_)
+
+This species is the largest of the family, and measures over two inches
+when its wings are expanded. The colour is dull green, with whitish
+bands and spots, the arrangement of which may be seen in our engraving.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 181.--THE LARGE EMERALD.]
+
+The moth is out in July, and is common in most parts of England.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on birch (_Betula alba_), beech (_Fagus
+sylvatica_) and hazel (_Corylus avellana_) in the autumn, and hybernates
+while still young. In the spring it feeds again, and is full grown in
+June, when it changes to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves.
+
+
+_The Common Emerald_ (_Hemithea strigata_)
+
+One of the commonest of the Emeralds is _Strigata_, which may be found
+in June and July in all parts of England, as well as in some localities
+in Scotland and Ireland. Its wings are of a dull green colour, the front
+pair being slightly scalloped on the hind margin, and crossed by
+indistinct pale lines; and the hind pair are both scalloped and angled
+and crossed in the middle by a transverse pale line. The fringe is
+white, dotted with dull reddish brown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 182.--THE COMMON EMERALD.]
+
+The caterpillar is yellowish green, except the second, third, and fourth
+segments which are brownish. It feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_) and
+whitethorn (_Crataegus oxyacantha_), and may be found in June.
+
+
+Family--EPHYRIDAE
+
+_The Maiden's Blush_ (_Zonosoma punctaria_)
+
+The family _Ephyridae_ contains only six British species, chiefly
+remarkable for the fact that their pupae generally resemble those of
+butterflies.
+
+We choose for our example the pretty little Maiden's Blush, so called on
+account of the soft reddish patch on the middle of each fore wing. It is
+represented in fig. 7 of Plate XII. It is moderately common, occurring
+more or less in all parts of England, as well as certain localities in
+the sister countries. It is a double-brooded moth, and may be caught in
+May and August.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), from which it may be
+obtained by beating both in June and September. It is either green or
+tawny yellow, marked with yellow oblique lines on the sides.
+
+
+Family--ACIDALIIDAE
+
+The moths of this family, over thirty in number, are mostly of small
+size, and have slender bodies. As a rule the wings are not in the least
+angulated or scalloped, but in a few species the hind pair are slightly
+angled on the hind margin; and both fore and hind wings are similarly
+marked. The antennae are simple in the females, and generally only
+slightly ciliated in the males.
+
+The caterpillars are long and slender, without projections, and feed
+principally on low plants. The pupae are to be found in loose cocoons
+among the leaves of the food plants or under the soil.
+
+We shall briefly notice three members of this rather extensive family.
+
+
+_The Lace Border_ (_Acidalia ornata_)
+
+The wings of this moth are silvery white, marked along the hind margin
+with a beautiful lace-like border. This border consists of delicate
+black and dark grey lines, and includes, in the fore wing, two light
+brown blotches, one near the middle and the other in the anal angle. It
+is abundant in England, particularly in chalky districts, but does not
+seem to extend into Scotland. It may be seen on the wing from June to
+August.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 183.--THE LACE BORDER.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_) and marjoram
+(_Origanum vulgare_).
+
+
+_The Riband Wave_ (_A. aversata_)
+
+All the wings of this species are of a pale yellowish or ochreous grey.
+The fore wings are crossed by three transverse dark lines, and the hind
+wings by two. The space between the two outer lines of the fore wing and
+that between the lines of the hind wing are usually filled in with a
+greyish brown, thus forming the 'riband' from which the popular name of
+the insect is derived; and when this is the case the lines which border
+the riband are scarcely distinguishable. Just inside the second line of
+the fore wings, near the costa, is a small but conspicuous brown spot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 184.--THE RIBAND WAVE.]
+
+The moth flies in June and July, and is common in all parts.
+
+The caterpillar is dark brown except segments ten to thirteen, which are
+grey. The line along the spiracles is whitish, and the surface of the
+body is roughened by a number of minute warts. It feeds on various low
+plants, including the meadow sweet (_Spiraea ulmaria_), water avens
+(_Geum rivale_), common avens (_G. urbanum_), and knot-grass (_Polygonum
+aviculare_), during April and May.
+
+
+_The Blood-vein_ (_Timandra amataria_)
+
+Our last example of the _Acidaliidae_ is the Blood-vein, which is common
+in most parts of England in June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 185.--THE BLOOD-VEIN.]
+
+Its fore wings are pale grey, dusted with darker grey, and crossed by an
+oblique red streak which runs from the tip of the fore wing to near the
+inner margin of the hind wing. A slender dark and wavy line lies outside
+this one, parallel with it in the hind wing, but meeting it near the tip
+of the fore wing.
+
+The caterpillar is grey, with three white longitudinal stripes. It feeds
+in the autumn on dock (_Rumex_), sorrel (_R. acetosa_), and knot-grass
+(_Polygonum aviculare_).
+
+
+Family--CABERIDAE
+
+Six species, all of rather small size, constitute the British portion of
+the above family. Their wings are mostly white or pale grey, with light
+markings, and without angles. The moths are to be caught with the net
+at dusk, or they may be seen on fences and tree trunks during the day,
+with their wings fully extended and applied closely to the surface on
+which they rest.
+
+The larvae, which have no humps, feed on trees, and change to the
+chrysalis state in light silken cocoons.
+
+
+_The Common Wave_ (_Cabera exanthemata_)
+
+The first of our two examples of this small family is the Common Wave,
+the wings of which are pale grey, almost white, dusted all over with
+small dark dots. The fore wings are crossed by three parallel and
+equidistant darker transverse lines, and the hind pair by two. The male
+may be distinguished by its ciliated antennae.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 186.--THE COMMON WAVE.]
+
+The caterpillar is yellow or greenish yellow, with hinder segments
+slightly swollen. It feeds during the latter part of the summer on
+sallows (_Salix caprea_ and _S. cinerea_) and alder (_Alnus glutinosa_),
+and changes to a chrysalis in a light cocoon among fallen leaves. In
+this state it spends the winter, the perfect insect emerging in May or
+June.
+
+This species is very abundant in most parts.
+
+
+_The Clouded Silver_ (_Bapta temerata_)
+
+The other example is the Clouded Silver, the wings of which are white,
+and clouded along the hind margin with smoky grey. On the hind margin of
+the fore wings, close to the fringe, is a row of black crescent-shaped
+spots; and on the inner side of the cloudings is a waved transverse
+band. In the centre of the same wings there is a very distinct dark
+spot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 187.--THE CLOUDED SILVER.]
+
+This moth is not so common as the last, but is widely distributed. It
+flies in May and June.
+
+The caterpillar is bright green on the upper side, and has a row of
+orange spots, bordered with brown, down the middle of the back. It feeds
+in the autumn on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_) and the wild cherry
+(_P. Avium_), and spends the winter in the chrysalis state, inclosed in
+a light silken cocoon.
+
+
+Family--MACARIIDAE
+
+_The_ V _Moth_ (_Halia Vauaria_)
+
+The family _Macariidae_ contains only five British species, four of which
+have the tip of the fore wings extended more or less into an angle, and
+the hind wings are also angled to a greater or less extent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 188.--THE V MOTH.]
+
+Our only example is the V Moth, so called from the conspicuous V-shaped
+blackish mark on the middle of the costa of the fore wings. The ground
+colour of all the wings is grey, with a delicate violet tinge. There are
+other dark markings in addition to the one mentioned above, and the
+arrangement of these may be seen in the woodcut.
+
+This species is very common in all parts, and flies at about midsummer.
+
+The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally green, and
+is marked with longitudinal wavy lines. On each side is a series of
+yellow blotches, forming a broken lateral stripe, and the body is
+covered with minute black bristle-bearing warts. It feeds in May on
+gooseberry and currant bushes, and changes to a chrysalis in a web
+between the leaves.
+
+
+Family--FIDONIIDAE
+
+We now come to a family of moths peculiar for their habit of flying more
+or less by day. As is often the case with day-flying moths, these are
+mostly prettily marked, and are consequently often mistaken by the
+uninitiated for butterflies. Most of them are to be found on heaths,
+downs, and open fields; but one--the Bordered White--is met with only in
+fir woods.
+
+The wings are not angulated, and the antennae of the males are
+pectinated.
+
+The larvae are generally to be distinguished by a couple of little horns
+on one or more of the hindermost segments, and in most cases they pupate
+beneath the surface of the soil.
+
+
+_The Common Heath_ (_Ematurga atomaria_)
+
+Of this family we shall select two examples, the first of which is the
+Common Heath, often so abundant on heaths and downs that they are
+disturbed at almost every footstep.
+
+The ground colour of the wings of the male is a dull yellowish grey, and
+that of the female greyish white. In both cases the wings are crossed by
+irregular dark brown bands. The fringe is barred alternately with white
+and dark brown, and the whole of the ground tint between the
+above-mentioned bands is thickly dotted with dark brown. The female is
+generally smaller than the male.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 189.--THE COMMON HEATH.]
+
+The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally reddish
+brown, ochreous brown, or greenish, with a light line along the
+spiracles, and a series of lozenge-shaped spots on the back. It feeds on
+trefoils (_Lotus corniculatus_ and _L. pilosus_) and various other
+plants that grow on heaths.
+
+
+_The Bordered White_ (_Bupalus piniaria_)
+
+The male of this species is boldly marked with yellowish white and dark
+brown, the arrangement of the two colours being shown in fig. 190. The
+female is very different in general appearance. Her wings are of an
+almost uniform orange or yellowish-brown tint. The fore wings are darker
+near the tip, and there is generally a darker transverse band across the
+centre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 190.--THE BORDERED WHITE--MALE.]
+
+The male may often be seen flying in the sunshine among the branches of
+fir trees during May and June, but his mate is rather less active, and
+is generally to be secured by beating the branches.
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, with whitish stripes and yellow
+spiracles. It feeds during August and September on the leaves of the
+Scotch fir (_Pinus sylvestris_).
+
+
+Family--ZERENIDAE
+
+_The Currant Moth_ (_Abraxas grossulariata_)
+
+The family _Zerenidae_ contains only four British moths, and of these we
+select the Currant Moth or Magpie. This insect is exceedingly common
+everywhere, and on account of its general brightness of appearance, and
+also of its diurnal habits, it is often taken for a butterfly. The
+ground colour of the wings is creamy white, with a yellow transverse
+band, and a yellow blotch at the base; and the whole surface is more or
+less blotched with black.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 191.--THE CURRANT MOTH.]
+
+From the end of June to August this moth may be seen in abundance in our
+gardens, wherever currant bushes exist, flying about both during the
+sunshine and at dusk, with rather a heavy movement.
+
+The caterpillar is white, with a yellow line along the spiracles, and
+numerous black dots. There are, in addition to the dots, two large black
+blotches on the back of each segment. It feeds during May on currant and
+gooseberry bushes, also on the blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_). About the
+end of May it spins a light silken cocoon, and changes to a short dumpy
+chrysalis of a glossy black colour with bright yellow bands (fig. 34).
+
+
+Family--HYBERNIIDAE
+
+Passing over the family _Ligiidae_, which contains only one British moth,
+the Horse-chestnut, we come to the small but interesting family,
+_Hyberniidae_.
+
+Of this we have six species, five of which favour us during the bleakest
+months of the year. Two of them visit us in October and November, and
+even remain with us up to Christmas. The others follow closely on them,
+and may be seen from January to March.
+
+The males have slender bodies, and their wings are full and without
+angles; but the females are either perfectly or nearly wingless. In
+three cases there is hardly a trace of wings in this sex, so that they
+look more like spiders than moths.
+
+The caterpillars are long and slender and without humps, and all feed on
+the leaves of trees. They change to the chrysalis state under the
+ground.
+
+
+_The Spring Usher_ (_Hybernia leucophaearia_)
+
+Early in February, and often even in January, this moth may be seen in
+abundance in almost every oak wood, sitting on the bark of the trees,
+or occasionally taking a short flight in the sunshine. In colour it is
+very variable. The wings have always a whitish ground marbled and dotted
+with dark brown, but in some the fore wings are almost entirely dark
+brown with the exception of a transverse central bar. The female has
+only the slightest rudiments of wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 192.--THE SPRING USHER.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the young buds and leaves of the oak (_Quercus
+Robur_) and sycamore (_Acer Pseudoplatanus_), concealing itself among
+the small leaves which it has spun together. It is full grown in June,
+when it changes to a chrysalis on the surface of the ground, and remains
+here throughout the summer and part of the following winter.
+
+The colour of the caterpillar is very variable, but is usually pale
+green with white markings.
+
+
+_The Mottled Umber_ (_Hybernia defoliaria_)
+
+This very pretty moth is represented in fig. 8 of Plate XII. It is very
+common in most parts, and visits us at the fall of the leaf, generally
+appearing in October, and remaining on the wing till November. Our
+illustration gives the usual appearance of the male, but in some
+specimens the four wings are all of one uniform reddish-brown colour,
+evenly dotted all over with a darker tint. The female is quite wingless.
+
+The caterpillar is exceedingly pretty. Its head is large and brown. The
+back is brown, bordered with a fine black line. Below this is a broad
+and bright yellow line, with a red spot on each segment. The spiracles
+are white. It feeds during spring on oak (_Quercus Robur_), whitethorn
+(_Crataegus oxyacantha_), blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), and other trees.
+When disturbed it always allows itself to fall for a foot or two, and
+then remains swinging at the end of a silken fibre till danger is over,
+or hunger recalls it to its food. It changes to a chrysalis on the
+ground about the middle of June.
+
+
+_The March Moth_ (_Anisopteryx aescularia_)
+
+This is another common moth, and should be looked for during March and
+April on the barks of trees in oak and other woods. The fore wings are
+of a dingy brown colour, paler near the base, and crossed by a pale wavy
+line. The hind wings are lighter, with a central dark spot. But this
+description applies to the male only, for the female is wingless, and
+may be known by the tuft of hair that tips the abdomen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 193.--THE MARCH MOTH.]
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, clouded with a darker tint, and has a
+white line on each side of the back. It feeds in May on the three trees
+named for the last species, also on lime (_Tilia vulgaris_) and elm
+(_Ulmus campestris_).
+
+
+Family--LARENTIIDAE
+
+This is by far the most extensive family of the _Geometrae_, containing
+as it does considerably over a hundred species, or well nigh a half of
+the whole group.
+
+The wings of the various species are smooth and more or less glossy, and
+the front pair are generally crossed by several wavy lines. Many of the
+moths, and particularly those known popularly as the Pugs, are very
+small. Representatives of the family are to be met with almost
+throughout the year--from early spring to the middle of the winter.
+
+Most of the caterpillars are rather long and slender, and without humps;
+and green is the prevailing colour. They feed either on trees or low
+plants, often protecting themselves in folded leaves; and some of the
+smaller species show a decided preference for flowers and seeds.
+
+We shall select about a dozen of the commonest members for individual
+description.
+
+
+_The November Moth_ (_Oporabia dilutata_)
+
+Our first example is the November moth--a rather dingy and very variable
+species that may be found almost everywhere in October and November. The
+ground colour of the fore wings is dingy grey, crossed by several darker
+lines, subject to considerable variations. The hind wings are paler,
+with two slender darker lines parallel with the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 194.--THE NOVEMBER MOTH.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on many trees, the principal of which are the oak,
+whitethorn and blackthorn. Like the perfect insect, it is very variable
+in colour, but is generally of a bright green, with reddish or purplish
+spots on the back and sides. The spiracles are yellow or orange, and
+below them is a white stripe. It is full fed in June.
+
+
+_The Twin-spot Carpet_ (_Larentia didymata_)
+
+The Twin-spot Carpet is common throughout Great Britain, and the
+beginner is likely to meet with it in June and July during his first
+season. Our illustration represents the male, the fore wings of which
+are greyish brown, crossed by several dark lines, and with a double dark
+and conspicuous spot near the middle of the hind margin. The female is
+much lighter, and the markings are also lighter and less distinct.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 195.--THE TWIN-SPOT CARPET.]
+
+The caterpillar is pale green, with a narrow whitish line along the
+spiracles. It feeds in April and May on the leaves of the wood anemone
+(_Anemone nemorosa_), chervil (_Chaerophyllum temulum_), and other
+plants.
+
+
+_The Grass Rivulet_ (_Emmelesia albulata_)
+
+We represent the genus _Emmelesia_ by the Grass Rivulet--a pretty little
+moth that flies in June, and which is widely distributed though not
+abundant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 196.--THE GRASS RIVULET.]
+
+Its fore wings are pale grey, crossed by several white lines, the
+arrangement of which may be seen in our engraving. The hind wings are of
+the same ground colour, but have no markings except a white wavy line
+near the hind margin.
+
+The caterpillar feeds during July and August on the seeds of the yellow
+rattle (_Rhinanthus Crista-galli_), protecting itself from its enemies
+by spinning together the petals of the flowers; and when full grown it
+changes to a chrysalis under the same cover.
+
+
+_The Netted Pug_ (_Eupithecia venosata_)
+
+We now come to the enormous genus _Eupithecia_, containing about fifty
+small species, most of which are known as 'Pugs.' Many of these are
+only imperfectly known, there being yet much to learn about their
+earlier stages.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 197.--THE NETTED PUG.]
+
+The Netted Pug flies in May and June, and is to be found in most parts
+of Great Britain. Its fore wings are brownish grey, crossed by two
+zigzag light bands, both of which are bordered with black, and divided
+throughout by a fine dark line. There are also other dark lines, both
+transverse and longitudinal, arranged as here represented.
+
+The caterpillar feeds during July inside the seed capsules of campions
+(_Silene Cucubalis_, _S. maritima_, _S. acaulis_, and _Lychnis diurna_)
+and catchfly (_Silene gallica_ and _S. nutans_).
+
+
+_The Narrow-winged Pug_ (_Eupithecia nanata_)
+
+Early in May, and frequently in April, this pretty little moth may be
+seen flying about at dusk among the heather on our moors. It is one of
+the first Pugs of the season, and is widely distributed, and very common
+in some localities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 198.--THE NARROW-WINGED PUG.]
+
+Its wings are dark grey, and marked with several transverse wavy light
+lines. The fringe is dark grey, spotted with white.
+
+The caterpillar feeds during August and September on the ling (_Calluna
+vulgaris_) and heath (_Erica cinerea_ and _E. Tetralix_).
+
+
+_The Brindled Pug_ (_Eupithecia abbreviata_)
+
+Our last example of the Pugs is the Brindled Pug, another early species,
+appearing on the wing in March and April. It is common in most parts,
+and may generally be easily obtained by searching fences and tree
+trunks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 199.--THE BRINDLED PUG.]
+
+Its fore wings are very long in proportion. The colour is yellowish
+brown, crossed by darker lines. The fore wings have a very broad band of
+the ground colour, broken by two short lines, and crossed by a slender
+angulated stripe.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the oak in June.
+
+
+_The Small Seraphim_ (_Lobophora sexalisata_)
+
+This moth is very much like the Pugs in general appearance, and is quite
+as small and even smaller than some of them; but it and the other
+members of its genus differ from the Pugs in that they cover their hind
+wings when at rest.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 200.--THE SMALL SERAPHIM.]
+
+The fore wings are yellowish or pale brownish grey with four paler
+transverse lines, the two median ones of which are divided throughout by
+a darker fine wavy line. The hind wings are grey, paler at the base, and
+crossed centrally by a double darker line. This species flies in May and
+June, and though apparently widely distributed, can hardly be described
+as common.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the white willow (_Salix alba_) and sallow (_S.
+caprea_) in August and September; and the chrysalis may be found in a
+silken cocoon among the fallen leaves throughout the winter.
+
+
+_The Blue-bordered Carpet_ (_Melanthia bicolorata_)
+
+This same family (_Larentiidae_) is remarkable for its large number of
+pretty moths, popularly known as the 'Carpets,' many of which are
+exceedingly common in our woods and gardens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 201.--THE BLUE-BORDERED CARPET.]
+
+Our first example of these is the Blue-bordered, which is pretty well
+represented in several counties of Great Britain and Ireland. Its white
+fore wings are boldly marked with a blotch of greyish brown at the base,
+and another extending from the middle of the costal margin more than
+halfway across. The hind margin is marked with two bluish grey bars,
+separated by a white line. The hind wings are white, with a very small
+dark spot, and a bluish grey margin something like that of the fore
+wings.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with longitudinal stripes of a darker and
+lighter shade. It feeds in June on the alder (_Alnus glutinosa_) and
+blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_); and when full grown it changes to a brown
+chrysalis within a light silken web.
+
+The moth flies in July and August.
+
+
+_The Beautiful Carpet_ (_Melanthia albicillata_)
+
+The Beautiful Carpet belongs to the same genus as _Bicolorata_. Its
+wings are of a rich creamy white, clouded with grey along the hind
+margin. The basal blotches of the fore wings are large, of a dark brown
+colour, and marbled with a light tint. Near the tips of these wings is
+another conspicuous blotch of the same colour, from which a delicate
+wavy dark line runs to the inner margin. A small dark spot also lies
+near the middle of the costal margin of each of the four wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 202.--THE BEAUTIFUL CARPET.]
+
+The caterpillar is green, with a white line along the spiracles, and a
+triangular reddish spot on the back of segments four to ten inclusive.
+It feeds on the bramble (_Rubus fruticosus_), raspberry (_R. Idaeus_),
+and wild strawberry (_Fragaria vesca_). It may be found in June and
+July.
+
+The moth flies in June.
+
+
+_The Common Carpet_ (_Melanippe sociata_)
+
+The genus _Melanippe_ contains twelve species, some of which are
+extremely common. One of these moths--the Common Carpet--is represented
+in fig. 203. Its wings are all of a smoky-brown colour, crossed by
+numerous white lines, the arrangement of which may be gathered from our
+illustration better than from a written description. It is a
+double-brooded insect, appearing first in May, and then again about the
+end of July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 203.--THE COMMON CARPET.]
+
+The caterpillar is mottled with shades of brown and grey. On the back
+are five or six greyish-white lozenge-shaped marks, and there are a few
+white dots on the back of each segment. It feeds on the hedge bedstraw
+(_Galium Mollugo_), and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis in a
+light cocoon on the ground.
+
+
+_The Silver Ground Carpet_ (_Melanippe montanata_)
+
+In this species the ground colour is silvery white. The bases of the
+fore wings are blotched with pale brown, and a dark brownish-grey bar,
+containing a black spot, crosses the middle. The hind margins of the
+fore wings are faintly marked with pale brown, and lines of the same
+tint, more or less distinct, cross the hind wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 204.--THE SILVER GROUND CARPET.]
+
+This moth is very common in all parts of the country, and may be seen on
+the wing throughout the summer.
+
+The caterpillar is light brown, with several longitudinal lines of
+different colours. On the back of each of the segments seven, eight, and
+nine is a distinct black V-shaped mark, terminating behind with a bright
+red spot. It feeds on the primrose (_Primula acaulis_) in the autumn,
+hybernates through the winter, and is full grown about the beginning of
+April.
+
+
+_The Garden Carpet_ (_Melanippe fluctuata_)
+
+Our third and last member of this genus is the Garden Carpet--a moth
+that must be pretty well known to almost everybody, since it is the
+commonest of all the _Geometrae_ that frequent our gardens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 205.--THE GARDEN CARPET.]
+
+The fore wings are pale grey or brownish, with a patch of dark greyish
+brown at the base, another larger one on the middle of the costa, and a
+third near the tip. The wing is usually clouded between the middle
+blotch and the inner margin, and numerous fine wavy lines, more or less
+distinct, cross the wing.
+
+This moth may be seen throughout the summer, from May to September, but
+is most abundant in June and July.
+
+The caterpillar is extremely variable in colour, being either green,
+brown, or grey, or some intermediate tint; and is marbled and dotted
+with dark brown on the back. It feeds on the nasturtium (_Tropaeolum
+majus_), rape (_Brassica Napus_), and various other cruciferous plants;
+and may be found from April to August.
+
+
+_The Yellow Shell_ (_Camptogramma bilineata_)
+
+Passing over two smaller genera, we come to the beautiful little Yellow
+Shell. This moth is so abundant in most parts that we arouse it at
+almost every stroke while beating low bushes.
+
+All its wings are yellow, and crossed by numerous delicate white and
+brown lines. The most conspicuous feature is the two white lines, with
+dark brown edging, crossing the fore wings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 206.--THE YELLOW SHELL.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds by night, and is therefore seldom seen except by
+those who make special nocturnal searches with the aid of a lantern or
+sweep net. It devours various grasses, and hides itself among the roots
+or under stones during the daytime. It is full grown in April or May.
+The colour is dull pale green, with a dark green dorsal line, and two
+white stripes on each side.
+
+
+_The Small Ph[oe]nix_ (_Cidaria silaceata_)
+
+Again passing over a few small and less important genera, we select the
+small Ph[oe]nix as the last example of this very extensive family.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 207.--THE SMALL PH[OE]NIX.]
+
+The fore wings of this species are dark brown, paler toward the hind
+margin. Most of the wing rays are generally of a pale yellowish colour,
+and a variable and complicated system of whitish lines crosses the wings
+near the base, and another near the hind margin. Among the latter there
+is always a series of dark triangular spots, with apices pointing
+towards the hind margin.
+
+This moth is moderately common throughout the British Isles, and is
+double brooded, appearing in May and August.
+
+The caterpillar is green, with a row of brown spots along the middle of
+the back. When full grown it changes to a chrysalis in a light web.
+
+
+Family--EUBOLIIDAE
+
+This is the last family of the _Geometrae_ we shall notice, and contains
+ten species. Most of these are rather pretty moths, and all have the
+tips of the fore wings more or less pointed. As a rule, too, there is a
+dark streak running from the very tip of the wing for a short distance
+obliquely inward.
+
+They are generally very light sleepers, and are easily beaten from their
+hiding places during the day.
+
+The larvae are not humped, and may be found feeding on low plants.
+
+We shall briefly examine two species.
+
+
+_The Small Mallow_ (_Eubolia limitata_)
+
+This moth is pretty abundant in waste places from June to August, and is
+easily obtained by lightly beating the foliage of small bushes and low
+plants.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 208.--THE SMALL MALLOW.]
+
+Its fore wings are pale brown crossed by a broad central bar, the edges
+of which are darker. The hind wings are of a paler brown, and are
+crossed by two or three fine wavy lines.
+
+Although the perfect insect is so common, the caterpillar seems to be
+seldom met with. It is a grass feeder, and may be looked for in May and
+June.
+
+
+_The Treble Bar_ (_Anaitis plagiata_)
+
+Our last example of the _Geometrae_ is the Treble Bar, a very pretty
+moth, which is illustrated in fig. 9 of Plate XII. It may be readily
+identified by the aid of this coloured picture, and therefore need not
+be described in words. It is pretty generally distributed throughout the
+British Isles, and is in some parts a very abundant species,
+particularly so in the neighbourhood of London.
+
+The caterpillar is brown, with paler spaces between the segments. The
+dorsal line is black and interrupted, and a yellow line runs along each
+side. It feeds on the leaves and flowers of the perforated St. John's
+wort (_Hypericum perforatum_).
+
+This insect is double brooded, the moth appearing in May and August, and
+remaining with us throughout the month following in each case.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+_THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+
+The butterflies, and all the moths contained in the groups of the last
+four chapters, are commonly spoken of as constituting the
+_Macro-lepidoptera_; but in addition to these there are many hundreds of
+small British moths that represent what is known as the
+_Micro-lepidoptera_.
+
+It is not usual for young entomologists to have much to do with the
+'Micros' until they have had a little practical experience with the
+larger species; in fact, a good number of them never seem to extend
+their knowledge beyond the limits of the 'Macros' except that they may
+make an occasional capture of a Micro that happens to fly across their
+path.
+
+Now, since it would be practically impossible to deal fairly, even in
+outline, with both these divisions of the _Lepidoptera_ in a work of the
+present dimensions, I have devoted most space to the larger species so
+as to meet the probable requirements of the majority of my readers. But
+in order that the beginner may also have the means of introducing
+himself intelligently to a study of the 'Micros,' I shall set apart this
+chapter for a simple account of the broad principles of their
+classification, illustrated by means of a few types, so that the
+collector may at least know _something_ of the insects he captures, even
+though he may not be able at once to fix on their names.
+
+The young entomologist, thus provided with the broad features that
+enable him to roughly classify the specimens which reach his cabinet,
+may, as his store increases, pay an occasional visit to a public museum
+or the private collection of an entomological friend, and so obtain the
+names and other details he may require.
+
+The _Micro-lepidoptera_ are divided into five main groups--_Pyralides_,
+_Pterophori_, _Crambi_, _Tortrices_, and _Tineae_, each of which is
+divided into families and genera, as we have seen in the case of the
+'Macros.'
+
+
+_Pyralides_
+
+The _Pyralides_ may be easily distinguished by the proportionately long
+fore wings, long legs, and elongated abdomen. Some of them have wings of
+a pearly lustre, and are accordingly known popularly as the 'Pearls.'
+Some species fly in bright sunshine, others appear on the wing before
+sunset, and fly till dusk; others, again, are purely nocturnal in their
+habits. All, however, are apparently light sleepers, and may be easily
+beaten out of their resting places and netted by day. Some of these
+moths are common everywhere, but the majority of them are very local,
+though they may be extremely abundant where they occur.
+
+The larvae have a glossy and bristly appearance, and are generally
+gregarious in their habits.
+
+This group contains about eighty species, arranged in five families as
+follows:
+
+  1. _Pyralididae_, including about forty species.
+  2. _Botydae_, about thirty species.
+  3. _Steniiadae_, containing only five species.
+  4. _Hydrocampidae_, four species.
+  5. _Acentropodidae_, containing only one.
+
+
+_The Tabby_ (_Aglossa pinguinalis_)
+
+The first of these families contains the Tabby or Grease Moth, commonly
+met with both in the larval and perfect states in barns and stables.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 209.--THE TABBY OR GREASE MOTH.]
+
+Its fore wings are brownish grey, crossed with zigzag darker lines, and
+having a black spot near the centre of the costal margin. The term
+'Tabby' has been applied on account of the fancied resemblance of the
+transverse markings to the fur of a tabby cat, and the other popular
+name was given under the belief that the caterpillar feeds on fatty
+matter, but it is extremely doubtful whether this supposition is
+correct.
+
+The caterpillar probably feeds exclusively on the vegetable
+accumulations that lie in the undisturbed corners and crevices of
+outhouses and stables, and lives concealed in silken tubes, strengthened
+outside by fragments of hay, chaff &c. that have been spun together. It
+feeds from September to April, except during very severe weather, and
+when full grown it leaves its tube, and changes to a chrysalis in a
+light silken cocoon in some secluded corner.
+
+The moth emerges in July.
+
+
+_The Meal Moth_ (_Pyralis farinalis_)
+
+The same family contains the common Meal Moth, so called because in the
+larval state it feeds on meal and allied substances.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 210.--THE MEAL MOTH.]
+
+The fore wings are yellowish grey, with reddish basal patches, a broad
+reddish band along the hind margin, and two whitish indented transverse
+lines. The hind wings are grey, and are crossed by two lines similar to
+and continuous with those of the front pair.
+
+This moth is to be found in abundance throughout the summer months in
+places where corn, meal, and grain are stored in large quantities,
+sitting on walls and rafters during the daytime, and taking to flight in
+the evening.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on corn, meal, grain, bran, &c., and lives
+concealed in a silken tube covered outside with particles of its food
+substance. It is not fully grown till nearly two years old, and then
+changes to a chrysalis in a white silken cocoon.
+
+
+_The Small Magpie_ (_Eurrhypara urticata_)
+
+The family _Botydae_ contains the moths that are popularly known as the
+'Pearls' on account of the pearly lustre of the wings. One of its
+species--the Small Magpie--is shown in the accompanying illustration.
+Its fore wings are pearly white, with blackish hind margin, a yellow
+streak at the base, and blackish markings, the arrangement of which may
+be seen in the figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 211.--THE SMALL MAGPIE.]
+
+It is a very common moth, flying at dusk during June and July in waste
+places where the stinging nettle grows.
+
+The caterpillar is whitish, with a dark dorsal line. It feeds on the
+stinging nettle (_Urtica dioica_), always remaining concealed between
+leaves which it has spun together with silken threads.
+
+
+_The Mother-of-Pearl_ (_Botys ruralis_)
+
+This is another very common species of the family _Botydae_, abundant
+almost everywhere, and to be found on the wing from June to August.
+
+Its wings are whitish, and exhibit a very decided pearly lustre, and all
+the markings are of a dull dark grey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 212.--THE MOTHER-OF-PEARL.]
+
+The caterpillar is glossy, and has a semi-transparent appearance. It is
+greenish white above, with a darker line down the back; and the sides
+are of a brighter green. It feeds on the stinging nettle (_Urtica
+dioica_) during May.
+
+
+_The Garden Pebble_ (_Pionea forficalis_)
+
+The same family contains also the Garden Pebble, which is one of the
+commonest frequenters of gardens, both in town and country.
+
+The fore wings are pale yellowish grey with brown markings. The latter
+include a fine line from the tip to the middle of the inner margin, and
+another paler one inside and parallel with this, having a dark spot near
+its centre. The hind wings are lighter, and have a pale and interrupted
+line parallel with the hind margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 213.--THE GARDEN PEBBLE.]
+
+The caterpillar is pale greenish, with a dark line along the back and on
+each side. It feeds on the cabbage and other cruciferous plants.
+
+The moth flies from May to the end of the summer, and the caterpillar
+may be found about midsummer, and again in the autumn.
+
+
+_The Beautiful China Mark_ (_Hydrocampa stagnata_)
+
+Our last example of the _Pyralides_--the Beautiful China Mark--belongs
+to the family _Hydrocampidae_. This small family is remarkable for the
+fact that its four species spend their larval state in the water,
+feeding on the under surfaces of the leaves of water lilies and other
+aquatic plants. These curious larvae live either in cases which they
+construct for their protection, something after the fashion of the larvae
+of caddis flies, or quite free in the water, and then they are supplied
+with special breathing organs that enable them to absorb the oxygen held
+in solution in the water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 214.--THE BEAUTIFUL CHINA MARK.]
+
+The moth we have selected for illustration is a very common species, and
+may be seen flying in great numbers in the neighbourhood of ponds during
+June and July.
+
+
+_The Pterophori_
+
+The members of this remarkable group are easily distinguishable from all
+other moths by the feathery appearance of their wings, a feature that
+has gained for them the popular name of _Plume Moths_. Their fore wings
+are more or less divided or cleft, and their hind wings are generally
+divided into three distinct feathery plumes.
+
+The larvae are hairy, and when full fed they suspend themselves by their
+anal claspers, and change to the chrysalis state without any kind of
+covering. They are generally to be found in spring and early summer, but
+some of them feed in the autumn.
+
+The chrysalides are often hairy, though some of them are perfectly
+smooth.
+
+Plume moths are to be met with more or less throughout the year. Many of
+the earlier species appear on the wing in spring and early summer; but
+the late feeders emerge in the autumn, and hybernate through the winter,
+often taking to the wing on the mild days of our coldest months.
+
+The _Pterophori_ include only about forty British species, all of which,
+with two exceptions, belong to the family _Pterophoridae_. The two
+exceptions represent as many families--one the _Chrysocorididae_, and the
+other the _Alucitidae_.
+
+
+_Platyptilia gonodactyla_
+
+This is one of the commonest of the _Pterophoridae_, generally appearing
+in our gardens and in waste places towards the end of May, and
+continuing with us for some time. It starts from its retreat at or
+before sunset, and remains on the wing after dark.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 215.--GONODACTYLA.]
+
+Its fore wings are ochreous grey, with a narrow brown costal margin, and
+a triangular brown patch on the costa. Beyond this patch the wing is
+cleft. The hind wings consist of three distinct brownish plumes, the
+third of which has a small tuft of black scales projecting from the
+middle of the inner margin.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the flower stalks of the coltsfoot during March
+and April.
+
+
+_Leioptilus osteodactylus_
+
+This is another species of the same family. It is not uncommon, but is
+more local than the last.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 216.--OSTEODACTYLUS.]
+
+Its fore wings are pale yellow, with a small brown dot at the
+commencement of the dividing fissure, and a brown blotch on the costal
+margin nearer the tip. The hind wings are divided into three distinct
+plumes like those of _Gonodactyla_.
+
+This is a later species, appearing on the wing in July.
+
+
+_Aciptilia pentadactyla_
+
+The fore wings of this species are white, frequently with a few greyish
+scales, and are deeply divided into two feathery plumes. The hind wings
+are pure white, and consist of three plumes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 217.--PENTADACTYLA.]
+
+This pretty insect is common and widely distributed, and flies during
+June and July.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on the convolvulus in May.
+
+
+_Alucita hexadactyla_
+
+Our last example of the _Pterophori_ is the Twelve-plume Moth, the only
+British representative of the family _Alucitidae_.
+
+This little insect is of a yellowish colour, with two dark bands across
+the fore wings; and both fore and hind wings are divided into six
+distinct feathers. It is a common moth, and frequents sheltered spots,
+flying at dusk. It appears in August, remains on the wing till October,
+and then hybernates till the following April. During the winter it is
+commonly met with in outhouses and even in dwelling houses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 218.--HEXADACTYLA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds during June and July on the flower buds of the
+honeysuckle (_Lonicera Periclymenum_). It is not hairy, like most of the
+larvae of the last family; and, unlike these, it changes to a chrysalis
+in a silken cocoon.
+
+
+_Crambi_
+
+The third group of the 'Micros' is the _Crambi_, and contains about
+eighty species, arranged in four families.
+
+Some of them are common moths with which all must be more or less
+familiar, as they are roused from the grasses on which they repose at
+almost every footstep as we walk through meadows in the summer. When at
+rest, they present a very peculiar appearance. Their wings are wrapped
+closely round their bodies in such a manner that they are hardly
+distinguishable from the stems on which they repose.
+
+The larvae have sixteen limbs, and are very variable in their habits.
+Some feed among moss or dry stems in silken tubes, some on the stems of
+reeds, and others inhabit the hives of bees and feed on the wax of the
+honeycomb.
+
+The four families are:
+
+1. _Chilidae_--five species.
+
+2. _Crambidae_--about thirty species.
+
+3. _Phycidae_--over forty species.
+
+4. _Galleridae_--five species.
+
+
+_Chilo Phragmitellus_
+
+This species is one of those moths known as the 'Veneers,' and is
+popularly termed the Wainscot Veneer. It is one of the largest of the
+family _Chilidae_.
+
+Its fore wings are long, narrow, and pointed at the tip. They are of a
+pale ochreous brown colour, with a row of small black dots along the
+hind margin.
+
+The caterpillar is pale grey, with brown stripes; and the head and
+second segment are yellowish brown. It feeds on the common reed
+(_Phragmites_) in the autumn, and hybernates till the following spring,
+when it resumes its feeding.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 219.--PHRAGMITELLUS--ENLARGED ONE-HALF.]
+
+This insect is rather local, but may be searched for in all marshy
+places where reeds abound.
+
+
+_Crambus hamellus_
+
+The family _Crambidae_ is represented by the above-named species, which
+has the popular title of Pearl-streak Veneer. It is not a common moth,
+but is to be obtained in some localities by beating low herbage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 220.--HAMELLUS--SLIGHTLY ENLARGED.]
+
+Its fore wings are ochreous and glossy, with a silvery streak from the
+base, running almost parallel with the costal margin. The hind margin is
+yellow, bordered inside by a wavy brown line. The hind wings are pale
+greyish brown with a yellowish margin.
+
+
+_Crambus tristellus_
+
+The same family contains the species _Tristellus_, which, unlike the
+preceding insect, is abundant everywhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 221.--TRISTELLUS.]
+
+Its fore wings are generally yellowish brown, but exceedingly variable.
+A pale streak runs from the base to just beyond the middle of the wing,
+and is then forked. Near the hind margin is a very indistinct brown wavy
+line. The hind wings are dull smoke colour with a light fringe. As with
+the other moths of the family, its labial palpi are very long.
+
+The moth flies from July to September.
+
+
+_Crambus hortuellus_
+
+This is also an abundant species, to be met with everywhere during June
+and July.
+
+Its fore wings are dull ochreous brown. The wing rays are whitish near
+the inner margin, and a brown line with a silvery edging crosses near
+the hind margin. The hind wings are dull smoky brown, with a shining
+surface, and the fringe is light.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 222.--HORTUELLUS.]
+
+The larva is pale grey with dark grey spots, and may be found among moss
+in April and May.
+
+
+_Galleria mellonella_
+
+Our last example of the _Crambi_ is a moth that the young entomologist
+is not likely to meet with unless he happens to be in the neighbourhood
+of one of its haunts, but its habits are so peculiar that we are tempted
+to introduce it on that account.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 223.--MELLONELLA.]
+
+It belongs to the family _Galleridae_, the larvae of which feed on the wax
+combs in the hives of bees and in the nests of wild bees. They are
+protected from the stings of the inmates by silken tubes which they
+construct, and by the hardened covering of their heads and front
+segments--the only parts that remain exposed while they are feeding.
+
+The fore wings of the moth are reddish-grey or brownish, sometimes with
+a greenish tinge, and yellowish along the inner margin. The hind wings
+are greyish brown.
+
+It flies in July and August, and the caterpillar feeds in May and June.
+
+
+_The Tortrices_
+
+This is a large group of moths, deriving their name from the peculiar
+habit of a number of the larvae of twisting or rolling up leaves for
+their protection. This habit, however, is not common to all, for some
+feed on stems and flowers, and others devour seeds and fruits.
+
+The perfect insects may easily be known by the shape of the wings. The
+fore pair are gracefully curved on the costal margin in such a way that,
+when the insect is at rest with its wings closed, its outline is much
+the shape of a bell.
+
+The identification of the various species of this extensive group is no
+easy task, for many of them are so variable in their colouring that
+insects of the same species are often very different from each other.
+So puzzling indeed is this tendency to run into varieties that many
+insects, once considered to belong to separate species, have been
+reduced to one; and this has been the case in a number of instances.
+
+There are so many of these little moths that we cannot even give a
+representative of each family, but the following outline will serve to
+show the extensiveness of the group.
+
+  Family 1. _Tortricidae_, about sixty species.
+    "    2. _Penthinidae_,   "  twenty    "
+    "    3. _Spilonotidae_,  "  twelve    "
+    "    4. _Sericoridae_,   "  twenty-seven species.
+    "    5. _Sciaphilidae_,  "  twenty-four     "
+    "    6. _Grapholithidae_, about one hundred and fifty species.
+    "    7. _Pyraloididae_, four species.
+    "    8. _Conchylidae_, about fifty species.
+    "    9. _Apheliidae_, three species.
+
+We shall now briefly examine a few of the commonest insects of the
+group.
+
+
+_Tortrix xylosteana_
+
+This pretty moth is common in most parts, and may often be met with in
+abundance in wooded localities during July. It belongs to the family
+_Tortricidae_.
+
+Its fore wings are ochreous brown. A very dark oblique streak, edged
+with yellow, runs from the inner margin of the base. A reddish patch in
+the centre of the wing, also edged with yellow, is narrow on the costa,
+and expands as it approaches the inner margin. Beyond this are another
+dark patch on the costa and two reddish-brown blotches on the hind
+margin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 224.--XYLOSTEANA WITH WINGS CLOSED.]
+
+The larva is greenish brown, marked with white spots which have black
+centres; and it feeds on oak (_Quercus Robur_), honeysuckle (_Lonicera
+Periclymenum_), and other plants, in the month of May.
+
+
+_Tortrix viridana_
+
+In June and July this pretty but destructive little insect may be seen
+flying in abundance in almost every oak wood. Its fore wings are one
+uniform pale green with the exception of a streak of yellow along the
+costal margin; and, when at rest, scores may exist on a single twig
+without being seen unless closely examined. The hind wings are of a pale
+smoky tint, and rather glossy.
+
+The larva is green, with black spots, and feeds in May and June on the
+oak and other trees, often almost completely devouring the foliage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 225.--VIRIDANA.]
+
+
+_Peronea cristana_
+
+This moth is not so generally abundant, but is very common in many of
+the woods of the south. It is remarkable for the large number of
+varieties that have been observed, many of which have been regarded as
+distinct species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 226.--CRISTANA--ENLARGED.]
+
+Its fore wings are of some shade of brown or grey, with a light streak
+of variable colour along the inner margin, and a tuft of raised white
+scales in the middle of the wing.
+
+It flies during August and September.
+
+
+_Ptycholoma lecheana_
+
+Our last example of the family _Tortricidae_ is _Lecheana_, a moth that
+is common in most parts in June and July.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 227.--LECHEANA.]
+
+Its fore wings are brown, lighter towards the base. There are no very
+distinct markings, but there is generally a darker patch in the middle
+of the wing, edged with a silvery streak on each side.
+
+The larva feeds on several trees, including oaks and elms, in the month
+of May.
+
+
+_Penthina pruniana_
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 228.--PRUNIANA.]
+
+The next family--_Penthinidae_--contains the common species _Pruniana_,
+which may be readily known by its boldly marked wings. The basal portion
+of the fore wings, to the extent of nearly two-thirds of the whole, is
+very dark brown. The remaining third is almost white, and clouded with
+grey. The hind wings are smoky brown with a paler fringe.
+
+The caterpillar of this species feeds on the blackthorn (_Prunus
+spinosa_) in May, and the moth flies in June and July.
+
+
+_Antithesia salicella_
+
+This moth is not nearly so common as the last species, but is fairly
+plentiful in some localities in the south of England. It belongs to the
+same family as _Pruniana_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 229.--SALICELLA.]
+
+The fore wings are whitish at the base and along the inner margin, but
+the light tint is dotted and clouded with shades of brown. The remainder
+of the wings is marbled with dark brown of different depths, relieved
+near the hind margin with a little blue. The hind wings, as is usual
+with the _Tortrices_, are dull smoky brown.
+
+The caterpillar is reddish brown with black spots, and feeds during May
+in rolled leaves of willows.
+
+The moth flies in August and September.
+
+
+_Sciaphila octomaculana_
+
+Our single example of the family _Sciaphilidae_ is the species
+_Octomaculana_, which, though not very abundant, is widely distributed,
+and moderately common in parts.
+
+Its fore wings are white, dusted with grey, and each is marked with four
+dark grey patches which have given rise to its specific name--a word
+which signifies 'eight-spotted.' The hind wings are grey.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 230.--OCTOMACULANA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The caterpillar feeds on thistles and other plants, and the moth flies
+from August to October.
+
+
+_Ephippiphora cirsiana_
+
+This insect represents the family _Grapholithidae_. It is a common moth,
+and is widely distributed.
+
+Its fore wings are greyish brown, with a large white patch on the middle
+of the inner margin; and beyond this white, in the anal angle, is a
+pale grey patch containing three or four black dots. The tips of the
+wings are reddish brown.
+
+The moth flies in June and July; and the larva, which feeds on thistles,
+may be found in the stems from October to the following May.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 231.--CIRSIANA--ENLARGED.]
+
+
+_Carpocapsa pomonella_
+
+The same extensive family contains a few moths that are very destructive
+to our fruits, the larvae burrowing into and living entirely within their
+substance. One of these--_Pomonella_--is popularly known as the Codlin,
+as its larva is so often found in the interior of small apples of the
+same name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 232.--POMONELLA.]
+
+The fore wings of this insect are grey, with a number of dark transverse
+lines. The spot in the anal angle is edged with a coppery tint, and
+inclosed by a curved black line.
+
+This moth is common in all parts, flying during June and July; and the
+larva may be looked for in apples and pears in August and September.
+
+
+_Xanthosetia zoegana_
+
+Our last example of the _Tortrices_ is _Zoegana_, which belongs to the
+family _Conchylidae_. Its fore wings are yellow, with a reddish streak
+along the costa near the base, and a small reddish spot opposite this
+near the inner margin. The tip of the wings is dark reddish brown, in
+the middle of which is a large yellow spot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 233.--ZOEGANA--ENLARGED.]
+
+This moth is widely distributed, and in some parts common. It flies from
+May to August, and the larva feeds on the small scabious (_Scabiosa
+columbaria_).
+
+
+_The Tineae_
+
+We have noticed that the _Tortrices_ form a very extensive group of
+moths, but they are far outnumbered by the _Tineae_, for of these there
+are over seven hundred known British species.
+
+Of course, among so many species we are sure to find considerable
+variety in form and structure; but notwithstanding this, the _Tineae_
+form a well-marked division, and the beginner will find but little
+difficulty in distinguishing between these and the other Micros.
+
+The wings are long and narrow, and are remarkable for the length of the
+fringe, particularly that of the hind wings. The bodies, too, are long
+and slender.
+
+The larvae are exceedingly variable. Some have the usual number of
+sixteen limbs, and others have as many as eighteen. Again, the larvae of
+several genera have only fourteen legs, and some are absolutely legless.
+
+With regard to their food and habits, they are equally variable, for
+while some feed exposed, others are always protected in rolled leaves.
+Some construct for themselves portable tubes, so that they always remain
+under cover, and are at the same time perfectly free to ramble in search
+for food. Some, also, are leaf miners; and the group includes the
+so-called 'Clothes Moths,' whose larvae devour our garments, furs, and
+the upholstering of our furniture.
+
+We shall now briefly notice a few species, in order that we may become
+better acquainted with the general characters of the group.
+
+
+_Diurnea fagella_
+
+This moth represents the small family _Epigraphiidae_, containing only
+six species, all of which appear in the winter or early spring.
+
+The present species is very common in most parts, and may be seen at
+rest on the barks of trees in March and April.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 234.--FAGELLA.]
+
+The fore wings are usually pale grey or yellowish grey, and dotted with
+brown; but there is a great variety both in the depth of the ground
+colour and the distinctness of the markings. Our illustration gives the
+usual appearance of the insect.
+
+The caterpillar feeds on various trees in September and October, always
+protected between leaves that it has spun together.
+
+
+_Adela cuprella_
+
+The family _Adelidae_ contains ten species, all remarkable for the great
+length of their antennae. The one selected for illustration is a
+beautiful little moth with bright bronzy green fore wings, tinged with a
+rich glossy violet. The hind wings are brown with a glossy surface.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 235.--CUPRELLA.]
+
+This moth does not seem to be widely distributed, but is fairly
+plentiful where it occurs. Wimbledon Common and Epping Forest are good
+localities for it. It is on the wing in April and May.
+
+
+_Hyponomeuta Padellus_
+
+The family _Hyponomeutidae_ contains about twenty insects, some of which
+are very common and exceedingly destructive to our trees. In May and
+June hawthorn and fruit trees may be seen swarming with the gregarious
+larvae of some of them, and almost entirely stripped of their leaves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 236.--PADELLUS.]
+
+The species here figured has grey or white fore wings with three rows of
+black dots. The hind wings are darker grey without dots.
+
+The larva feeds on hawthorn, apple, and other trees. The perfect insect
+flies in July and August.
+
+
+_Depressaria nervosa_
+
+The next family--_Gelechiidae_--is represented by the species Nervosa,
+which is common in many localities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 237.--NERVOSA--TWICE NATURAL SIZE.]
+
+Its fore wings are reddish brown, and are marked by a number of short
+longitudinal streaks of a darker colour. The hind wings are light grey.
+
+The caterpillar is black, marked with black spots in white rings, and
+having yellow side stripes. It feeds on the flowers of the hemlock
+water dropwort (_[OE]nanthe crocata_) during June and July.
+
+The moth flies in August and September.
+
+
+_Harpella Geoffrella_
+
+The same extensive family contains the moth Geoffrella, represented in
+the accompanying cut. This is an exceedingly pretty insect. The basal
+portion of its fore wings is yellow, with two longitudinal dark streaks,
+the outer one of which is bent towards the inner margin near the middle
+of the wing. The remaining portion of the wings is brown, with two
+yellowish triangular spots, one on the costal and one on the inner
+margin. On the middle of the costa is a short dark streak.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 238.--GEOFFRELLA.]
+
+This moth appears in May and June, and is rather local, but very
+abundant in some parts.
+
+
+_Coleophora ibipennella_
+
+The family _Coleophoridae_ contains about seventy small moths,
+characterised by their very narrow and pointed wings, with long fringes,
+and also, generally, by a little tuft of hair on the first joint of the
+antennae.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 239.--IBIPENNELLA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The larvae live in little cases which they construct, and feed on various
+leaves and seeds. They spend the winter within their cases, and change
+to the chrysalis state in spring or early summer.
+
+One of these moths--_Ibipennella_--is shown in fig. 239. Its fore wings
+are white, with a satiny gloss, and brownish towards the tips. The
+'nervures' are generally of a yellowish tinge. The hind wings are dark
+grey.
+
+The larva feeds on the birch (_Betula alba_), and may be seen walking on
+the surface of the leaves, carrying, or rather dragging after it, the
+pistol-shaped case in which it lives, nothing protruding save its head
+and front legs. It is full fed in May, and the moth flies in July.
+
+
+_Tischeria complanella_
+
+This species represents the rather extensive family _Elachistidae_, the
+members of which have narrow and pointed wings. Many of them are adorned
+with beautiful metallic tints, but are generally so small that a lens is
+necessary to show up the splendour of their clothing. Most of the larvae
+are leaf miners, and are easily reared. All that is necessary is to
+pluck a few twigs, the leaves of which, when held up to the light,
+reveal the tiny larvae in their burrows, and place them in a vessel of
+water. They do not feed long, and it is probable that most of the larvae
+so treated will be ready to change before the leaves have become dry.
+The present species has bright yellow fore wings, with pale grey
+cloudings at the hind margins. It is very abundant in many parts, and
+flies during the month of June.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 240.--COMPLANELLA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The larva is one of the numerous leaf miners, and is of a yellowish
+colour. It feeds in oak leaves during the autumn, and its presence is
+indicated by light blotches on the foliage.
+
+
+_Nepticula aurella_
+
+The family _Nepticulidae_--the last of the _Tineae_--contains a number of
+little moths, including the smallest of the _Lepidoptera_. Many of them
+are exceedingly beautiful, being decorated with various tints of a
+splendid metallic lustre, but their beauty is revealed only by the use
+of a magnifying lens, and they are so small that very great care and
+patience is required to set them properly.
+
+They may be recognised by their short and thick antennae, rather large
+head, broad fore wings, and narrow pointed hind wings.
+
+The larvae have no true legs, but have nine pairs of very imperfectly
+developed claspers. They are leaf miners, and are sometimes so abundant
+that several may be found in a single leaf.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 241.--AURELLA--ENLARGED.]
+
+The species we have selected has fore wings of a rich golden brown, with
+deep violet tips, and a broad bar of pale golden yellow beyond the
+middle. It may be found throughout the spring and summer. The larva
+excavates long irregular burrows in the leaves of the bramble.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES
+
+
+APPENDIX I
+
+I have previously called the reader's attention to our classified list
+of butterflies and moths, and have hinted at one or two of the objects
+for which it is inserted. It contains the scientific and popular names
+of all the British Butterflies, _Sphinges_, _Bombyces_, _Noctuae_, and
+_Geometrae_, arranged in their various families and genera; and in cases
+where two specific names are commonly applied to the same insect, both
+are given.
+
+Its chief uses to the young entomologist are to show the relation which
+the insects bear one to another, and to supply a guide for the proper
+arrangement of the specimens in his cabinet.
+
+The order adopted is that of South's 'Synonymic List of British
+Lepidoptera,' and it has already been mentioned that similar lists,
+printed on one side of the paper only, may be obtained from dealers in
+naturalists' appliances. These, cut up as required, supply very neat
+labels for cabinets or store boxes.
+
+
+_COMPLETE CLASSIFIED LIST OF BRITISH MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA_
+
+=RHOPALOCERA (BUTTERFLIES).=
+
+  PAPILIONIDAE.
+    =Papilio.=
+      _Machaon_--Swallow Tail
+
+  PIERIDAE.
+    =Aporia.=
+      _Crataegi_--Black-veined White
+    =Pieris.=
+      _Brassicae_--Large White
+      _Rapae_--Small White
+      _Napi_--Green-veined White
+      _Daplidice_--Bath White
+    =Euchlo[:e].=
+      _Cardamines_--Orange Tip
+    =Leucophasia.=
+      _Sinapis_--Wood White
+    =Colias.=
+      _Hyale_--Pale Clouded Yellow
+      _Edusa_--Clouded Yellow
+    =Gonopteryx.=
+      _Rhamni_--Brimstone
+
+  NYMPHALIDAE.
+    =Argynnis.=
+      _Selene_--Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary
+      _Euphrosyne_--Pearl-bordered Fritillary
+      _Latona_--Queen of Spain
+      _Aglaia_--Dark Green Fritillary
+      _Adippe_--High Brown Fritillary
+      _Paphia_--Silver-washed Fritillary
+    =Melitaea.=
+      _Aurinia_ (_Artemis_)--Greasy Fritillary
+      _Cinxia_--Glanville Fritillary
+      _Athalia_--Heath Fritillary
+    =Vanessa.=
+      _C-Album_--Comma
+      _Polychloros_--Large Tortoiseshell
+      _Urticae_--Small Tortoiseshell
+      _Io_--Peacock
+      _Antiopa_--Camberwell Beauty
+      _Atalanta_--Red Admiral
+      _Cardui_--Painted Lady
+    =Limenitis.=
+      _Sibylla_--White Admiral
+
+  APATURIDAE.
+    =Apatura.=
+      _Iris_--Purple Emperor
+
+  SATYRIDAE.
+    =Melanargia.=
+      _Galatea_--Marbled White
+    =Erebia.=
+      _Epiphron_ (_Cassiope_)--Small Ringlet
+      _AEthiops_ (_Blandina_)--Northern Brown (Scotch Argus)
+    =Pararge.=
+      _Egeria_--Speckled Wood
+      _Megaera_--Wall
+    =Satyrus.=
+      _Semele_--Grayling
+    =Epinephele.=
+      _Ianira_--Meadow Brown
+      _Tithonus_--Large Heath (Small Meadow Brown)
+      _Hyperanthes_--Ringlet
+    =Caenonympha.=
+      _Typhon_ (_Davus_)--Marsh Ringlet
+      _Pamphilus_--Small Heath
+
+  LYCAENIDAE.
+    =Thecla.=
+      _Betulae_--Brown Hairstreak
+      _W-Album_--White-letter Hairstreak
+      _Pruni_--Dark Hairstreak
+      _Quercus_--Purple Hairstreak
+      _Rubi_--Green Hairstreak
+    =Polyommatus.=
+      _Dispar_--Large Copper
+      _Phl[oe]as_--Small Copper
+    =Lycaena.=
+      _Baetica_--Tailed Blue
+      _AEgon_--Silver-studded Blue
+      _Astrarche_ (_Agestis_)--Brown Argus
+      _Icarus_ (_Alexis_)--Common Blue
+      _Bellargus_ (_Adonis_)--Clifden Blue
+      _Corydon_--Chalk-hill Blue
+      _Argiolus_--Azure or Holly Blue
+      _Semiargus_ (_Acis_)--Mazarine Blue
+      _Minima_ (_Alsus_)--Small Blue
+      _Arion_--Large Blue
+
+  ERYCINIDAE.
+    =Nemeobius.=
+      _Lucina_--Duke of Burgundy
+
+  HESPERIIDAE.
+    =Syrichthus.=
+      _Malvae_ (_Alveolus_)--Grizzled Skipper
+    =Nisoniades.=
+      _Tages_--Dingy Skipper
+    =Hesperia.=
+      _Thaumas_ (_Linea_)--Small Skipper
+      _Lineola_--New Small Skipper
+      _Actaeon_--Lulworth Skipper
+      _Sylvanus_--Large Skipper
+      _Comma_--Silver-spotted Skipper
+    =Carterocephalus.=
+      _Palaemon_ (_Paniscus_)--Chequered Skipper
+
+
+HETEROCERA (MOTHS).
+
+=SPHINGES.=
+
+  SPHINGIDAE.
+    =Acherontia.=
+      _Atropos_--Death's Head Hawk Moth
+    =Sphinx.=
+      _Convolvuli_--Convolvulus Hawk
+      _Ligustri_--Privet Hawk
+      _Pinastri_--Pine Hawk
+    =Deilephila.=
+      _Euphorbiae_--Spurge Hawk
+      _Galii_--Bedstraw Hawk
+      _Livornica_--Striped Hawk
+    =Chaerocampa.=
+      _Celerio_--Silver-striped Hawk
+      _Porcellus_--Small Elephant
+      _Elpenor_--Large Elephant
+    =Smerinthus.=
+      _Ocellatus_--Eyed Hawk
+      _Populi_--Poplar Hawk
+      _Tiliae_--Lime Hawk
+    =Macroglossa.=
+      _Stellatarum_--Humming-bird Hawk
+      _Fuciformis_--Broad-bordered Bee Hawk
+      _Bombyliformis_--Narrow-bordered Bee Hawk
+
+  SESIIDAE.
+    =Trochilium.=
+      _Apiformis_--Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar
+      _Crabroniformis_ (_Bembeciformis_)--Hornet Clearwing of Osier
+    =Sciopteron.=
+      _Tabaniformis_ (_Vespiforme_)--Dusky Clearwing
+    =Sesia.=
+      _Scoliiformis_--Welsh Clearwing
+      _Sphegiformis_--White-barred Clearwing
+      _Andreniformis_--Orange-tailed Clearwing
+      _Tipuliformis_--Currant Clearwing
+      _Asiliformis_ (_Cynipiformis_)--Yellow-legged Clearwing
+      _Myopiformis_--Red-belted Clearwing
+      _Culiciformis_--Large Red-belted Clearwing
+      _Formiciformis_--Red-tipped Clearwing
+      _Ichneumoniformis_--Six-belted Clearwing
+      _Musciformis_ (_Philanthiformis_)--Thrift Clearwing
+      _Chrysidiformis_--Fiery Clearwing
+
+  ZYGAENIDAE.
+    =Ino.=
+      _Globulariae_--Scarce Forester
+      _Statices_--Forester
+      _Geryon_--Cistus Forester
+    =Zygaena.=
+      _Pilosellae_ (_Minos_)--Transparent Burnet
+      _Exulans_--Scotch Burnet
+      _Meliloti_--New Forest Burnet
+      _Trifolii_--Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet
+      _Lonicerae_--Narrow-bordered Five-spotted Burnet
+      _Filipendulae_--Six-spotted Burnet
+
+=BOMBYCES.=
+
+  NYCTEOLIDAE.
+    =Sarothripus.=
+      _Undulanus_--Tortrix Moth
+    =Earias.=
+      _Chlorana_--Cream-bordered Green
+    =Hylophila.=
+      _Prasinana_--Green Silver-lined
+      _Bicolorana_ (_Quercana_)--Large Green Silver-lined
+
+  NOLIDAE.
+    =Nola.=
+      _Cucullatella_--Short-cloaked
+      _Strigula_--Small Black Arches
+      _Confusalis_ (_Cristulalis_)--Least Black Arches
+      _Albulalis_--Kent Arches
+      _Centonalis_--Scarce Black Arches
+
+  LITHOSIIDAE.
+    =Nudaria.=
+      _Senex_--Round-winged Muslin
+      _Mundana_--Muslin Moth
+    =Setina.=
+      _Irrorella_--Dew Moth
+    =Calligenia.=
+      _Miniata_--Rosy Footman (Red Arches)
+    =Lithosia.=
+      _Mesomella_--Four-dotted Footman
+      _Muscerda_--Dotted Footman
+      _Sororcula_ (_Aureola_)--Orange Footman
+      _Lutarella_ (_Pygmaeola_)--Pigmy Footman
+      _Griseola_ (_Stramineola_)--Pale Footman
+      _Deplana_ (_Helveola_)--Buff Footman
+      _Lurideola_ (_Complanula_)--Common Footman
+      _Complana_--Scarce Footman
+      _Sericea_ (_Molybdeola_)--Leaden Footman
+      _Caniola_--Hoary Footman
+    =Gnophria.=
+      _Quadra_--Four-spotted Footman
+      _Rubricollis_--Red-necked Footman
+    =Emydia.=
+      _Cribrum_--Speckled Footman
+
+  EUCHELIIDAE.
+    =Deiopeia.=
+      _Pulchella_--Crimson Speckled
+    =Euchelia.=
+      _Jacobaeae_--Cinnabar
+    =Callimorpha.=
+      _Dominula_--Scarlet Tiger
+      _Hera_--Jersey Tiger
+
+  CHELONIIDAE.
+    =Nemeophila.=
+      _Russula_--Clouded Buff
+      _Plantaginis_--Wood Tiger
+    =Arctia.=
+      _Caia_--Tiger
+      _Villica_--Cream-spot Tiger
+    =Spilosoma.=
+      _Fuliginosa_--Ruby Tiger
+      _Mendica_--Muslin
+      _Lubricipeda_--Buff Ermine
+      _Menthastri_--White Ermine
+      _Urticae_--Water Ermine
+
+  HEPIALIDAE.
+    =Hepialus.=
+      _Humuli_--Ghost Swift
+      _Sylvanus_--Wood Swift
+      _Velleda_--Northern Swift
+      _Lupulinus_--Common Swift
+      _Hectus_--Gold Swift
+
+  COSSIDAE.
+    =Cossus.=
+      _Ligniperda_--Goat
+    =Zeuzera.=
+      _Pyrina_ (_AEsculi_)--Leopard
+    =Macrogaster.=
+      _Castaneae_ (_Arundinis_)--Reed Moth
+
+  COCHLIOPODIDAE.
+    =Heterogenea.=
+      _Limacodes_ (_Testudo_)--Festoon Moth
+      _Asella_ (_Asellus_)--Triangle Moth
+
+  LIPARIDAE.
+    =Porthesia= (=Liparis=).
+      _Chrysorrh[oe]a_--Brown Tail
+      _Similis_ (_Auriflua_)--Yellow Tail (Gold Tail)
+    =Leucoma.=
+      _Salicis_--Satin Moth
+    =Laelia.=
+      _C[oe]nosa_--Reed Tussock
+    =Ocneria.=
+      _Dispar_--Gipsy
+    =Psilura.=
+      _Monacha_--Black Arches
+    =Dasychira.=
+      _Fascelina_--Dark Tussock
+      _Pudibunda_--Pale Tussock
+    =Orgyia.=
+      _Gonostigma_--Scarce Vapourer
+      _Antiqua_--Vapourer
+
+  BOMBYCIDAE.
+    =Trichiura.=
+      _Crataegi_--Pale Oak Eggar
+    =P[oe]cilocampa.=
+      _Populi_--December Moth
+    =Eriogaster.=
+      _Lanestris_--Small Eggar
+    =Bombyx.=
+      _Neustria_--Lackey
+      _Castrensis_--Ground Lackey
+      _Rubi_--Fox
+      _Quercus_--Oak Eggar
+      _Trifolii_--Grass Eggar
+    =Odonestis.=
+      _Potatoria_--Drinker
+    =Lasiocampa.=
+      _Quercifolia_--Lappet
+      _Ilicifolia_--Small Lappet
+
+  ENDROMIDAE.
+    =Endromis.=
+      _Versicolor_--Kentish Glory
+
+  SATURNIIDAE.
+    =Saturnia.=
+      _Pavonia_ (_Carpini_)--Emperor
+
+  DREPANULIDAE.
+    =Drepana.=
+      _Lacertinaria_ (_Lacertula_)--Scalloped Hook Tip
+      _Harpagula_ (_Sicula_)--Scarce Hook Tip
+      _Falcataria_ (_Falcula_)--Pebble Hook Tip
+      _Binaria_ (_Hamula_)--Oak Hook Tip
+      _Cultraria_ (_Unguicula_)--Barred Hook Tip
+    =Cilix.=
+      _Glaucata_ (_Spinula_)--Chinese Character
+
+  DICRANURIDAE.
+    =Dicranura.=
+      _Bicuspis_--Alder Kitten
+      _Furcula_--Sallow Kitten
+      _Bifida_--Poplar Kitten
+      _Vinula_--Puss
+    =Stauropus.=
+      _Fagi_--Lobster
+
+  NOTODONTIDAE.
+    =Glyphisia.=
+      _Crenata_--Dusky Marbled Brown
+    =Ptilophora.=
+      _Plumigera_--Plumed Prominent
+    =Pterostoma.=
+      _Palpina_--Pale Prominent
+    =Lophopteryx.=
+      _Camelina_--Coxcomb Prominent
+      _Cuculla_ (_Cucullina_)--Maple Prominent
+      _Carmelita_--Scarce Prominent
+    =Notodonta.=
+      _Bicolor_--White Prominent
+      _Dictaea_--Swallow Prominent
+      _Dictaeoides_--Lesser Swallow Prominent
+      _Dromedarius_--Iron Prominent
+      _Trilophus_--Three-humped Prominent
+      _Ziczac_--Pebble Prominent
+      _Trepida_--Great Prominent
+      _Trimacula_ (_Dodonea_)--Marbled Brown
+      _Chaonia_--Lunar Marbled Brown
+
+  PYGAERIDAE.
+    =Phalera.=
+      _Bucephala_--Buff Tip
+    =Pygaera= (=Clostera=).
+      _Curtula_--Chocolate Tip
+      _Anachoreta_--Scarce Chocolate Tip
+      _Pigra_ (_Reclusa_)--Small Chocolate Tip
+
+  CYMATOPHORIDAE.
+    =Thyatira.=
+      _Derasa_--Buff Arches
+      _Batis_--Peach Blossom
+    =Cymatophora.=
+      _Octogesima_ (_Ocularis_)--Figure of Eighty
+      _Or_--Poplar Lutestring
+      _Duplaris_--Lesser Satin
+      _Fluctuosa_--Satin Carpet
+    =Asphalia.=
+      _Diluta_--Lesser Lutestring
+      _Flavicornis_--Yellow-horned
+      _Ridens_--Frosted Green
+
+=NOCTUAE.=
+
+  BRYOPHILIDAE.
+    =Bryophila.=
+      _Algae_--Tree Lichen Beauty
+      _Muralis_ (_Glandifera_)--Marbled (Mottled) Green
+      _Par_--Scarce Marbled Green
+      _Perla_--Marbled Beauty
+
+  BOMBYCOIDAE.
+    =Moma= (=Diphthera=).
+      _Orion_--Scarce Marvel-du-jour
+    =Demas.=
+      _Coryli_--Nut-tree Tussock
+    =Acronycta.=
+      _Tridens_--Dark Dagger
+      _Psi_--Grey Dagger
+      _Leporina_--Miller
+      _Aceris_--Sycamore
+      _Megacephala_--Poplar Grey
+      _Strigosa_--Grisette
+      _Alni_--Alder
+      _Ligustri_--Coronet
+      _Rumicis_--Knot-grass
+      _Auricoma_--Scarce Dagger
+      _Menyanthidis_--Light Knot-grass
+      _Euphorbiae_ (_Myricae_)--Sweet Gale
+    =Diloba.=
+      _Caeruleocephala_--Figure of Eight
+    =Arsilonche.=
+      _Albovenosa_ (_Venosa_)--Powdered Wainscot
+
+  LEUCANIIDAE.
+    =Synia.=
+      _Musculosa_--Brighton Wainscot
+    =Leucania.=
+      _Conigera_--Brown-line Bright-eye
+      _Vitellina_--Delicate
+      _Turca_--Double Line
+      _Lithargyria_--Clay
+      _Albipuncta_--White-point
+      _Extranea_--American Wainscot
+      _Obsoleta_--Obscure Wainscot
+      _Putrescens_--Devonshire Wainscot
+      _Littoralis_--Shore Wainscot
+      _Impudens_ (_Pudorina_)--Striped Wainscot
+      _Comma_--Shoulder-striped Wainscot
+      _Straminea_--Southern Wainscot
+      _Impura_--Smoky Wainscot
+      _Pallens_--Common Wainscot
+    =Calamia.=
+      _Phragmitidis_--Fen Wainscot
+    =Meliana.=
+      _Flammea_--Flame Wainscot
+    =Senta.=
+      _Maritima_--Silky Wainscot
+    =C[oe]nobia.=
+      _Rufa_--Small Rufous
+    =Tapinostola.=
+      _Fulva_--Small Wainscot
+      _Hellmanni_--Mere Wainscot
+      _Extrema_ (_Concolor_)--Concolorous Wainscot
+      _Bondii_--Bond's Wainscot
+      _Elymi_--Lyme Wainscot
+    =Nonagria.=
+      _Cannae_--Reed Wainscot
+      _Sparganii_--Iris Wainscot
+      _Arundinis_ (_Typhae_)--Bullrush
+      _Geminipuncta_--Twin-spotted Wainscot
+      _Neurica_--Nerved Wainscot
+      _Brevilinea_--Fenn's Nonagria
+      _Lutosa_--Large Wainscot
+
+  APAMEIDAE.
+    =Gortyna.=
+      _Ochracea_ (_Flavago_)--Frosted Orange
+    =Hydr[oe]cia.=
+      _Nictitans_--Golden Ear
+      _Petasitis_--Butter-bur
+      _Micacea_--Rosy Rustic
+    =Axylia.=
+      Putris--Flame
+    =Xylophasia.=
+      _Rurea_--Clouded-border Brindle
+      _Lithoxylea_--Light Arches
+      _Sublustris_--Reddish Light Arches
+      _Monoglypha_ (_Polyodon_)--Dark Arches
+      _Hepatica_--Clouded Brindle
+      _Scolopacina_--Slender Clouded Brindle
+    =Dipterygia.=
+      _Scabriuscula_ (_Pinastri_)--Bird's Wing
+    =Cloantha.=
+      _Polyodon_ (_Perspicillaris_)--Purple Cloud
+    =Aporophyla.=
+      _Australis_--Feathered Brindle
+    =Laphygma.=
+      _Exigua_--Small Mottled Willow
+    =Neuria.=
+      _Reticulata_ (_Saponariae_)--Bordered Gothic
+    =Neuronia.=
+      _Popularis_--Feathered Gothic
+    =Heliophobus.=
+      _Hispidus_--Beautiful Gothic
+    =Charaeas.=
+      _Graminis_--Antler
+    =Pachetra.=
+      _Leucophaea_--Feathered Ear
+    =Cerigo.=
+      _Matura_ (_Cytherea_)--Straw Underwing
+    =Luperina.=
+      _Testacea_--Flounced Rustic
+      _Dumerili_--Dumeril's Luperina
+      _Cespitis_--Hedge Rustic
+    =Mamestra.=
+      _Abjecta_--Crescent Striped
+      _Sordida_ (_Anceps_)--Large Nutmeg
+      _Albicolon_--White Colon
+      _Furva_--Confused
+      _Brassicae_--Cabbage
+      _Persicariae_--Dot
+    =Apamea.=
+      _Basilinea_--Rustic Shoulder Knot
+      _Connexa_--Union Rustic
+      _Gemina_--Dusky Brocade
+      _Unanimis_--Small Clouded Brindle
+      _Ophiogramma_--Double Lobed
+      _Leucostigma_ (_Fibrosa_)--Crescent
+      _Didyma_ (_Oculea_)--Common Rustic
+    =Miana.=
+      _Strigilis_--Marbled Minor
+      _Fasciuncula_--Middle-barred Minor
+      _Literosa_--Rosy Minor
+      _Bicoloria_ (_Furuncula_)--Cloaked Minor
+      _Arcuosa_--Dotted Buff
+    =Phothedes.=
+      _Captiuncula_--Least Minor
+    =Celaena.=
+      _Haworthii_--Haworth's Minor
+
+  CARADRINIDAE
+    =Grammesia.=
+      _Trigrammica_ (_Trilinea_)--Treble Lines
+    =Stilbia.=
+      _Anomala_--Anomalous
+    =Caradrina.=
+      _Morpheus_--Mottled Rustic
+      _Alsines_--Uncertain
+      _Taraxaci_ (_Blanda_)--Rustic
+      _Ambigua_--Ambiguous
+      _Quadripunctata_ (_Cubicularis_)--Pale Mottled Willow
+    =Acosmetia.=
+      _Caliginosa_--Reddish Buff
+    =Hydrilla.=
+      _Palustris_--Marsh Moth
+    =Rusina.=
+      _Tenebrosa_--Brown Rustic
+
+  NOCTUIDAE.
+    =Agrotis.=
+      _Vestigialis_ (_Valligera_)--Archer's Dart
+      _Puta_--Shuttle-shaped Dart
+      _Suffusa_--Dark Sword Grass
+      _Saucia_--Pearly Underwing
+      _Segetum_--Common Dart (Turnip Moth)
+      _Lunigera_--Crescent Dart
+      _Exclamationis_--Heart and Dart
+      _Corticea_--Heart and Club
+      _Cinerea_--Light Feathered Rustic
+      _Ripae_--Sand Dart
+      _Cursoria_--Coast Dart
+      _Nigricans_--Garden Dart
+      _Tritici_--White-line Dart
+      _Aquilina_--Streaked Dart
+      _Obelisca_--Square-spot Dart
+      _Agathina_--Heath Rustic
+      _Strigula_ (_Porphyrea_)--True Lover's Knot
+      _Praecox_--Portland
+      _Obscura_ (_Ravida_)--Stout Dart
+      _Simulans_ (_Pyrophila_)--Dotted Rustic
+      _Lucernea_--Northern Rustic
+      _Ashworthii_--Ashworth's Rustic
+    =Noctua.=
+      _Glareosa_--Autumn Rustic
+      _Depuncta_--Plain Clay
+      _Augur_--Double Dot
+      _Plecta_--Flame Shoulder
+      _Flammatra_--Black Collar
+      _C-Nigrum_--Setaceous Hebrew Character
+      _Ditrapezium_--Triple-spotted Clay
+      _Triangulum_--Double-spotted Square-spot
+      _Stigmatica_ (_Rhomboidea_)--Square-spotted Clay
+      _Brunnea_--Purple Clay
+      _Festiva_ (_Conflua_)--Ingrailed Clay
+      _Dahlii_--Barred Chestnut
+      _Subrosea_--Rosy Marsh
+      _Rubi_--Small Square-spot
+      _Umbrosa_--Six-striped Rustic
+      _Baia_--Dotted Clay
+      _Sobrina_--Cousin German
+      _Castanea_ (_Neglecta_)--Grey Rustic
+      _Xanthographa_--Square-spot Rustic
+    =Triphaena.=
+      _Ianthina_--Lesser Broad Border
+      _Fimbria_--Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing
+      _Interjecta_--Least Yellow Underwing
+      _Orbona_ (_Subsequa_)--Lunar Yellow Underwing
+      _Comes_ (_Orbona_)--Lesser Yellow Underwing
+      _Pronuba_--Large Yellow Underwing
+
+  AMPHIPYRIDAE.
+    =Amphipyra.=
+      _Pyramidea_--Copper Underwing
+      _Tragopogonis_--Mouse
+    =Mania.=
+      _Typica_--Gothic
+      _Maura_--Old Lady
+
+  ORTHOSIIDAE.
+    =Panolis.=
+      _Piniperda_--Pine Beauty
+    =Pachnobia.=
+      _Leucographa_--White-marked
+      _Rubricosa_--Red Chestnut
+      _Hyperborea_ (_Carnica_)--Mountain Rustic
+    =Taeniocampa.=
+      _Gothica_--Hebrew Character
+      _Incerta_ (_Instabilis_)--Clouded Drab
+      _Opima_--Northern Drab
+      _Populeti_--Lead-coloured Drab
+      _Stabilis_--Common Quaker
+      _Gracilis_--Powdered Quaker
+      _Miniosa_--Blossom Underwing
+      _Munda_--Twin-spotted Quaker
+      _Pulverulenta_ (_Cruda_)--Small Quaker
+    =Orthosia.=
+      _Suspecta_--Suspected
+      _Upsilon_--Dismal
+      _Lota_--Red-lined Quaker
+      _Macilenta_--Yellow-lined Quaker
+    =Anchocelis.=
+      _Rufina_--Flounced Chestnut
+      _Pistacina_--Beaded Chestnut
+      _Lunosa_--Lunar Underwing
+      _Litura_--Brown-spot Pinion
+    =Cerastis= (=Glaea=).
+      _Vaccinii_--Chestnut
+      _Spadicea_--Dark Chestnut
+      _Erythrocephala_--Red-headed
+    =Scopelosoma.=
+      _Satellitia_--Satellite
+    =Dasycampa.=
+      _Rubiginea_--Dotted Chestnut
+    =Oporina.=
+      _Croceago_--Orange Upperwing
+    =Xanthia.=
+      _Citrago_--Orange Sallow
+      _Fulvago_ (_Cerago_)--Sallow
+      _Flavago_ (_Silago_)--Pink-barred Sallow
+      _Aurago_--Barred Sallow
+      _Gilvago_--Dusky Lemon Sallow
+      _Circellaris_ (_Ferruginea_)--Brick
+    =Cirrh[oe]dia.=
+      _Xerampelina_--Centre-barred Sallow
+
+  COSMIIDAE.
+    =Tethea.=
+      _Subtusa_--Olive
+      _Retusa_--Double Kidney
+    =Cosmia= (=Euperia=).
+      _Paleacea_ (_Fulvago_)--Angle-striped Sallow
+    =Dicycla.=
+      _Oo_--Heart Moth
+    =Calymnia.=
+      _Trapezina_--Dun-bar
+      _Pyralina_--Lunar-spotted Pinion
+      _Diffinis_--White-spotted Pinion
+      _Affinis_--Lesser-spotted Pinion
+
+  HADENIDAE.
+    =Eremobia.=
+      _Ochroleuca_--Dusky Sallow
+    =Dianth[oe]cia.=
+      _Luteago_ (_Barretti_)--Barrett's Marbled Coronet
+      _Caesia_--Grey Marbled Coronet
+      _Nana_ (_Conspersa_)--Marbled Coronet
+      _Albimacula_--White Spot
+      _Compta_--The Shears
+      _Capsincola_--Lychnis
+      _Cucubali_--Campion
+      _Carpophaga_--Tawny Shears
+      _Capsophila_--Pod-lover
+      _Irregularis_ (_Echii_)--Viper's Bugloss
+    =Hecatera.=
+      _Chrysozona_ (_Dysodea_)--Small Ranunculus
+      _Serena_--Broad-barred White
+    =Polia.=
+      _Chi_--Grey Chi
+      _Flavicincta_--Large Ranunculus
+      _Xanthomista_ (_Nigrocincta_)--Black-banded
+    =Dasypolia.=
+      _Templi_--Brindled Ochre
+    =Epunda.=
+      _Lichenea_--Feathered Ranunculus
+      _Lutulenta_--Deep-brown Dart
+      _Nigra_--Black Rustic
+    =Cleoceris.=
+      _Viminalis_--Minor Shoulder-knot
+    =Valeria.=
+      _Oleagina_--Green-brindled Dot
+    =Miselia.=
+      _Oxyacanthae_--Green-brindled Crescent
+      _Bimaculosa_--Crescent
+    =Agriopis.=
+      _Aprilina_--Marvel-du-jour
+    =Euplexia.=
+      _Lucipara_--Small Angle-shades
+    =Phlogophora.=
+      _Meticulosa_--Angle-shades
+    =Trigonophora.=
+      _Flammea_ (_Empyrea_)--Flame Brocade
+    =Aplecta.=
+      _Prasina_ (_Herbida_)--Green Arches
+      _Occulta_--Great Brocade
+      _Nebulosa_--Grey Arches
+      _Tincta_--Silvery Arches
+      _Advena_--Pale Shining Brown
+    =Crymodes.=
+      _Exulis_ (_Assimilis_)--Northern Arches
+    =Hadena.=
+      _Porphyrea_ (_Satura_)--Beautiful Brocade
+      _Adusta_--Dark Brocade
+      _Protea_--Brindled Green
+      _Glauca_--Glaucous Shears
+      _Dentina_--Grey Shears
+      _Trifolii_ (_Chenopodii_)--Nutmeg
+      _Atriplicis_--Orache
+      _Dissimilis_ (_Suasa_)--Dog's Tooth
+      _Oleracea_--Bright-line Brown-eye
+      _Pisi_--Broom
+      _Thalassina_--Pale-shouldered Brocade
+      _Contigua_--Beautiful Brocade
+      _Genistae_--Light Brocade
+      _Rectilinea_--Saxon
+
+  XYLINIDAE.
+    =Xylocampa.=
+      _Areola_ (_Lithoriza_)--Early Grey
+    =Xylomiges.=
+      _Conspicillaris_--Silver Cloud
+    =Calocampa.=
+      _Vetusta_--Red Sword Grass
+      _Exoleta_--Sword Grass
+      _Solidaginis_--Golden-rod Brindled
+    =Xylina.=
+      _Ornithopus_ (_Rhizolitha_)--Grey Shoulder Knot
+      _Semibrunnea_--Tawny Pinion
+      _Socia_ (_Petrificata_)--Pale Pinion
+      _Furcifera_ (_Conformis_)--Conformist
+      _Lambda_--Nonconformist
+    =Asteroscopus.=
+      _Nubeculosa_--Rannoch Sprawler
+      _Sphinx_ (_Cassinea_)--Sprawler
+    =Cucullia.=
+      _Verbasci_--Mullein Shark
+      _Scrophulariae_--Betony Shark
+      _Lychnitis_--Lychnis Shark
+      _Asteris_--Starwort Shark
+      _Gnaphalii_--Cudweed Shark
+      _Absinthii_--Wormwood Shark
+      _Chamomillae_--Chamomile Shark
+      _Umbratica_--Shark
+
+  GONOPTERIDAE.
+    =Gonoptera.=
+      _Libatrix_--Herald
+
+  PLUSIIDAE.
+    =Habrostola.=
+      _Tripartita_ (_Urticae_)--Light Spectacle
+      _Triplasia_--Dark Spectacle
+    =Plusia.=
+      _Chryson_ (_Orichalcea_)--Scarce Burnished Brass
+      _Chrysitis_--Burnished Brass
+      _Bractea_--Gold Spangled
+      _Festucae_--Gold Spot
+      _Iota_--Plain Golden Y
+      _Pulchrina_--Beautiful Golden Y
+      _Gamma_--Silver Y
+      _Interrogationis_--Scarce Silver Y
+
+  HELIOTHIDAE.
+    =Anarta.=
+      _Melanopa_--Broad-bordered White Underwing
+      _Cordigera_--Small Dark Yellow Underwing
+      _Myrtilli_--Beautiful Yellow Underwing
+    =Heliaca= (=Heliodes=).
+      _Tenebrata_ (_Arbuti_)--Small Yellow Underwing
+    =Heliothis.=
+      _Dipsacea_--Marbled Clover
+      _Scutosa_--Rare Marbled Clover
+      _Peltigera_--Bordered Straw
+      _Armigera_--Scarce Bordered Straw
+    =Chariclea.=
+      _Umbra_ (_Marginata_)--Bordered Sallow
+
+  ACONTIIDAE.
+    =Agrophila.=
+      _Trabealis_ (_Sulphuralis_)--Spotted Sulphur
+    =Acontia.=
+      _Luctuosa_--Four-spotted
+
+  ERASTRIIDAE.
+    =Erastria.=
+      _Fasciana_ (_Fuscula_)--Marbled White Spot
+      _Venustula_--Rosy Marbled
+    =Bankia.=
+      _Argentula_--Silver-barred
+    =Hydrelia.=
+      _Uncula_ (_Unca_)--Silver Hook
+
+  ANTHOPHILIDAE.
+    =Thalpochares= (=Micra=).
+      _Ostrina_--Purple Marbled
+      _Parva_--Small Marbled
+      _Paula_--Scarce Marbled
+
+  POAPHILIDAE.
+    =Phytometra.=
+      _Viridaria_ (_AEnea_)--Small Purple-barred
+
+  EUCLIDIIDAE.
+    =Euclidia.=
+      _Mi_--Mother Shipton
+      _Glyphica_--Burnet Noctua
+
+  OPHIUSIDAE.
+    =Ophiodes.=
+      _Lunaris_--Lunar Double Stripe
+
+  CATEPHIIDAE.
+    =Catephia.=
+      _Alchymista_--Alchymist
+
+  CATOCALIDAE.
+    =Catocala.=
+      _Fraxini_--Clifden Nonpareil
+      _Nupta_--Red Underwing
+      _Promissa_--Light Crimson Underwing
+      _Sponsa_--Dark Crimson Underwing
+
+  AVENTIIDAE.
+    =Aventia.=
+      _Flexula_--Scallop Barred
+
+  TOXOCAMPIDAE.
+    =Toxocampa.=
+      _Pastinum_--Black Neck
+      _Craccae_--New Black Neck
+
+  BOLETOBIIDAE.
+    =Boletobia.=
+      _Fuliginaria_--Waved Black
+
+  HERMINIIDAE.
+    =Rivula.=
+      _Sericealis_--Straw Dot
+    =Zanclognatha.=
+      _Grisealis_--Lesser Fan-foot
+      _Tarsipennalis_--Fan-foot
+      _Emortualis_--Olive Crescent
+    =Herminia.=
+      _Cribralis_--Dotted Fan-foot
+      _Derivalis_--Clay Fan-foot
+    =Pechypogon.=
+      _Barbalis_--Common Fan-foot
+
+  HYPENIDAE.
+    =Madopa.=
+      _Salicalis_--Lesser Belle
+    =Bomolocha.=
+      _Fontis_ (_Crassalis_)--Beautiful Snout
+    =Hypena.=
+      _Rostralis_--Lesser Snout
+      _Proboscidalis_--Snout
+    =Hypenodes.=
+      _Albistrigalis_--White-streak
+      _Costaestrigalis_--Ribbed-streak
+    =Tholomiges= (=Schrankia=).
+      _Turfosalis_--Tiny Snout
+
+  BREPHIDES.
+    =Brephos.=
+      _Parthenias_--Orange Underwing
+      _Notha_--Light Orange Underwing
+
+=GEOMETRAE.=
+
+  UROPTERYGIDAE.
+    =Uropteryx.=
+      _Sambucaria_ (_Sambucata_)--Swallow Tail
+
+  ENNOMIDAE.
+    =Epione.=
+      _Parallelaria_ (_Vespertaria_)--Dark-bordered Beauty
+      _Apiciaria_--Bordered Beauty
+      _Advenaria_--Little Thorn
+    =Rumia.=
+      _Luteolata_ (_Crataegata_)--Brimstone
+    =Venilia.=
+      _Macularia_--Speckled Yellow
+    =Angerona.=
+      _Prunaria_--Orange Moth
+    =Metrocampa.=
+      _Margaritaria_--Light Emerald
+    =Ellopia.=
+      _Prosapiaria_ (_Fasciaria_)--Barred Red
+    =Eurymene.=
+      _Dolobraria_--Scorched Wing
+    =Pericallia.=
+      _Syringaria_--Lilac Beauty
+    =Selenia.=
+      _Bilunaria_ (_Illunaria_)--Early Thorn
+      _Lunaria_--Lunar Thorn
+      _Tetralunaria_ (_Illustraria_)--Purple Thorn
+    =Odontopera.=
+      _Bidentata_--Scalloped Hazel
+    =Crocallis.=
+      _Elinguaria_--Scalloped Oak
+    =Eugonia.=
+      _Autumnaria_ (_Alniaria_)--Large Thorn
+      _Alniaria_ (_Tiliaria_)--Canary-shouldered Thorn
+      _Fuscantaria_--Dusky Thorn
+      _Erosaria_--September Thorn
+      _Quercinaria_ (_Angularia_)--August Thorn
+    =Himera.=
+      _Pennaria_--Feathered Thorn
+
+  AMPHIDASYDAE.
+    =Phigalia.=
+      _Pedaria_ (_Pilosaria_)--Pale Brindled Beauty
+    =Nyssia.=
+      _Zonaria_--Belted Beauty
+      _Hispidaria_--Small Brindled Beauty
+      _Lapponaria_--Rare Brindled Beauty
+    =Biston.=
+      _Hirtaria_--Brindled Beauty
+    =Amphidasys.=
+      _Strataria_ (_Prodromaria_)--Oak Beauty
+      _Betularia_--Peppered Moth
+
+  BOARMIIDAE.
+    =Hemerophila.=
+      _Abruptaria_--Waved Umber
+    =Cleora.=
+      _Angularia_ (_Viduaria_)--Speckled Beauty
+      _Glabraria_--Dotted Carpet
+      _Lichenaria_--Brussels Lace
+    =Boarmia.=
+      _Repandata_--Mottled Beauty
+      _Gemmaria_ (_Rhomboidaria_)--Willow Beauty
+      _Abietaria_--Satin Carpet
+      _Cinctaria_--Ringed Carpet
+      _Roboraria_--Great Oak Beauty
+      _Consortaria_--Pale Oak Beauty
+    =Tephrosia.=
+      _Consonaria_--Square Spot
+      _Crepuscularia_--Small Engrailed
+      _Biundularia_--Engrailed
+      _Luridata_ (_Extersaria_)--Brindled White-spot
+      _Punctularia_--Grey Birch
+    =Gnophos.=
+      _Obscuraria_--Annulet
+    =Dasydia.=
+      _Obfuscaria_--Scotch Annulet
+    =Psodos.=
+      _Coracina_ (_Trepidaria_)--Black Mountain Moth
+
+  GEOMETRIDAE.
+    =Pseudoterpna.=
+      _Pruinata_ (_Cytisaria_)--Grass Emerald
+    =Geometra.=
+      _Papilionaria_--Large Emerald
+      _Vernaria_--Small Emerald
+    =Phorodesma.=
+      _Pustulata_ (_Bajularia_)--Blotched Emerald
+      _Smaragdaria_--Essex Emerald
+    =Nemoria.=
+      _Viridata_--Small Grass Emerald
+    =Iodis.=
+      _Lactearia_--Little Emerald
+    =Hemithea.=
+      _Strigata_ (_Thymiaria_)--Common Emerald
+
+  EPHYRIDAE.
+    =Zonosoma.=
+      _Porata_--False Mocha
+      _Punctaria_--Maiden's Blush
+      _Linearia_ (_Trilinearia_)--Clay Triple-lines
+      _Annulata_ (_Omicronaria_)--Mocha
+      _Orbicularia_--Dingy Mocha
+      _Pendularia_--Birch Mocha
+
+  ACIDALIIDAE.
+    =Hyria.=
+      _Muricata_ (_Auroraria_)--Golden-bordered Purple
+    =Asthena.=
+      _Luteata_--Small Yellow Wave
+      _Candidata_--Small White Wave
+      _Sylvata_--Waved Carpet
+      _Blomeri_ (_Pulchraria_)--Blomer's Rivulet
+    =Eupisteria.=
+      _Obliterata_ (_Heparata_)--Dingy Shell
+    =Venusia.=
+      _Cambrica_ (_Cambricaria_)--Welsh Wave
+    =Acidalia.=
+      _Perochraria_--Ochraceous Wave
+      _Ochrata_--Bright Wave
+      _Rubiginata_ (_Rubricata_)--Tawny Wave
+      _Dimidiata_ (_Scutulata_)--Single-dotted Wave
+      _Bisetata_--Small Fan-footed Wave
+      _Trigeminata_--Treble Brown-spot
+      _Contiguaria_--Greening's Wave
+      _Rusticata_--Least Carpet
+      _Holosericata_--Silky Wave
+      _Dilutaria_ (_Interjectaria_)--Dark Cream Wave
+      _Virgularia_ (_Incanaria_)--Small Dusty Wave
+      _Circellata_--Circellate
+      _Ornata_--Lace Border
+      _Marginepunctata_ (_Promutata_)--Mullein Wave
+      _Straminata_--Dotted-bordered Cream Wave
+      _Subsericeata_--Satin Wave
+      _Immutata_--Lesser Cream Wave
+      _Strigaria_--Streaked Wave
+      _Remutaria_--Cream Wave
+      _Fumata_--Smoky Wave
+      _Strigilaria_ (_Prataria_)--Sub-angled Wave
+      _Imitaria_--Small Blood-vein
+      _Emutaria_--Rosy Wave
+      _Aversata_--Riband Wave
+      _Inornata_--Plain Wave
+      _Degeneraria_--Portland Riband Wave
+      _Emarginata_--Small Scallop
+    =Timandra.=
+      _Amataria_--Blood-vein
+
+  CABERIDAE.
+    =Cabera.=
+      _Pusaria_--Common White Wave
+      _Rotundaria_--Round-winged Wave
+      _Exanthemata_--Common Wave
+    =Bapta.=
+      _Temerata_--Clouded Silver
+      _Bimaculata_ (_Taminata_)--White-pinion Spotted
+    =Aleucis.=
+      _Pictaria_--Sloe Carpet
+
+  MACARIIDAE.
+    =Macaria.=
+      _Alternata_--Sharp-angled Peacock
+      _Notata_--Peacock
+      _Liturata_--Tawny-barred Angle
+    =Halia.=
+      _Vauaria_ (_Wavaria_)--V Moth
+      _Brunneata_ (_Pinetaria_)--Rannoch Geometer
+
+  FIDONIIDAE.
+    =Strenia.=
+      _Clathrata_--Latticed Heath
+    =Panagra.=
+      _Petraria_--Brown Silver-line
+    =Numeria.=
+      _Pulveraria_--Barred Umber
+    =Scodiona.=
+      _Belgiaria_--Grey Scalloped Bar
+    =Selidosema.=
+      _Ericetaria_ (_Plumaria_)--Bordered Grey
+    =Fidonia.=
+      _Carbonaria_--Netted Mountain
+      _Limbaria_ (_Conspicuata_)--Frosted Yellow
+    =Ematurga.=
+      _Atomaria_--Common Heath
+    =Bupalus.=
+      _Piniaria_--Bordered White
+    =Minoa.=
+      _Murinata_ (_Euphorbiata_)--Drab Geometer
+    =Scoria.=
+      _Lineata_ (_Dealbata_)--Black-veined
+    =Aplasta.=
+      _Ononaria_--Rest-harrow
+    =Sterrha.=
+      _Sacraria_--Vestal
+    =Lythria.=
+      _Purpuraria_--Purple-barred Yellow
+    =Aspilates.=
+      _Strigillaria_--Grass Wave
+      _Ochrearia_ (_Citraria_)--Yellow Belle
+      _Gilvaria_--Straw Belle
+
+  ZERENIDAE.
+    =Abraxas.=
+      _Grossulariata_--Currant Moth (Magpie)
+      _Sylvata_ (_Ulmata_)--Clouded Magpie
+    =Ligdia.=
+      _Adustata_--Scorched Carpet
+    =Lomaspilis.=
+      _Marginata_--Clouded Border
+
+  LIGIIDAE.
+    =Pachycnemia.=
+      _Hippocastanaria_--Horse Chestnut
+
+  HYBERNIIDAE.
+    =Hybernia.=
+      _Rupicapraria_--Early Moth
+      _Leucophaearia_--Spring Usher
+      _Aurantiaria_--Scarce Umber
+      _Marginaria_ (_Progemmaria_)--Dotted Border
+      _Defoliaria_--Mottled Umber
+    =Anisopteryx.=
+      _AEscularia_--March Moth
+
+  LARENTIIDAE.
+    =Cheimatobia.=
+      _Brumata_--Winter Moth
+      _Boreata_--Northern Winter
+  Moth
+    =Oporabia.=
+      _Dilutata_--November Moth
+      _Filigrammaria_--Autumnal Moth
+      _Autumnaria_
+    =Larentia.=
+      _Didymata_--Twin-spot Carpet
+      _Multistrigaria_--Mottled Grey
+      _Caesiata_--Grey Mountain Carpet
+      _Flavicinctata_ (_Ruficinctata_)--Yellow-ringed Carpet
+      _Salicata_--Striped Twin-spot Carpet
+      _Olivata_--Beech-green Carpet
+      _Viridaria_ (_Pectinitaria_)--Green Carpet
+    =Emmelesia.=
+      _Affinitata_--Rivulet
+      _Alchemillata_--Small Rivulet
+      _Albulata_--Grass Rivulet
+      _Decolorata_--Sandy Carpet
+      _Taeniata_--Barred Carpet
+      _Unifasciata_--Haworth's Carpet
+      _Minorata_ (_Ericetata_)--Heath Rivulet
+      _Adaequata_ (_Blandiata_)--Pretty Pinion
+    =Eupithecia.=
+      _Venosata_--Netted Pug
+      _Consignata_--Pinion-spotted Pug
+      _Linariata_--Toadflax Pug
+      _Pulchellata_--Foxglove Pug
+      _Oblongata_ (_Centaureata_)--Lime-speck
+      _Succenturiata_--Bordered Lime-speck
+      _Subfulvata_--Tawny-speckled Pug
+      _Scabiosata_ (_Subumbrata_)--Shaded Pug
+      _Pernotata_--Guen['e]e's Pug
+      _Plumbeolata_--Lead-coloured Pug
+      _Isogrammaria_--Haworth's Pug
+      _Pygmaeata_--Marsh Pug
+      _Helveticaria_--Edinburgh Pug
+      _Egenaria_--Pauper Pug
+      _Satyrata_--Satyr Pug
+      _Castigata_--Grey Pug
+      _Jasioneata_--Jasione Pug
+      _Trisignaria_--Triple-spotted Pug
+      _Virgaureata_--Golden-rod Pug
+      _Fraxinata_--Ash-tree Pug
+      _Extensaria_--Scarce Pug
+      _Pimpinellata_--Pimpinel Pug
+      _Valerianata_--Valerian Pug
+      _Pusillata_--Dwarf Pug
+      _Irriguata_--Marbled Pug
+      _Campanulata_--Campanula Pug
+      _Innotata_--Long-winged Pug
+      _Indigata_--Ochreous Pug
+      _Constrictata_--Wild Thyme Pug
+      _Nanata_--Narrow-winged Pug
+      _Subnotata_--Plain Pug
+      _Vulgata_--Common Pug
+      _Albipunctata_--White-spotted Pug
+      _Expallidata_--Bleached Pug
+      _Absinthiata_--Wormwood Pug
+      _Minutata_--Ling Pug
+      _Assimilata_--Currant Pug
+      _Tenuiata_--Slender Pug
+      _Subciliata_--Maple Pug
+      _Lariciata_--Larch Pug
+      _Abbreviata_--Brindled Pug
+      _Dodoneata_--Oak-tree Pug
+      _Exiguata_--Mottled Pug
+      _Ultimaria_--Tamarisk Pug
+      _Sobrinata_--Juniper Pug
+      _Togata_--Cloaked Pug
+      _Pumilata_--Double-striped Pug
+      _Coronata_--V Pug
+      _Rectangulata_--Green Pug
+      _Debiliata_--Bilberry Pug
+    =Collix.=
+      _Sparsata_--Dentated Pug
+    =Lobophora.=
+      _Sexalisata_ (_Sexalata_)--Small Seraphim
+      _Halterata_ (_Hexapterata_)--Seraphim
+      _Viretata_--Yellow-barred Brindle
+      _Carpinata_ (_Lobulata_)--Early Tooth-striped
+      _Polycommata_--Barred Tooth-striped
+    =Thera.=
+      _Juniperata_--Juniper Carpet
+      _Simulata_--Chestnut-coloured Carpet
+      _Variata_ (_Obeliscata_)--Shaded Broad-bar
+      _Firmata_--Pine Carpet
+    =Hypsipetes.=
+      _Ruberata_--Ruddy High-flier
+      _Trifasciata_ (_Impluviata_)--May High-flier
+      _Sordidata_ (_Elutata_)--July High-flier
+    =Melanthia.=
+      _Bicolorata_ (_Rubiginata_)--Blue-bordered Carpet
+      _Ocellata_--Purple Bar
+      _Albicillata_--Beautiful Carpet
+    =Melanippe.=
+      _Hastata_--Argent and Sable
+      _Tristata_--Small Argent and Sable
+      _Procellata_--Chalk Carpet
+      _Unangulata_--Sharp-angled Carpet
+      _Rivata_--Wood Carpet
+      _Sociata_ (_Subtristata_)--Common Carpet
+      _Montanata_--Silver-ground Carpet
+      _Galiata_--Galium Carpet
+      _Fluctuata_--Garden Carpet
+    =Anticlea.=
+      _Cucullata_ (_Sinuata_)--Royal Mantle
+      _Rubidata_--Flame
+      _Badiata_--Shoulder Stripe
+      _Nigrofasciaria_ (_Derivata_)--Streamer
+      _Berberata_--Barberry Carpet
+    =Coremia.=
+      _Munitata_--Red Carpet
+      _Designata_ (_Propugnata_)--Flame Carpet
+      _Ferrugata_--Red Twin-spot Carpet
+      _Unidentaria_--Dark-barred Twin-spot Carpet
+      _Quadrifasciaria_--Large Twin-spot Carpet
+    =Camptogramma.=
+      _Bilineata_--Yellow Shell
+      _Fluviata_--Gem
+    =Phibalapteryx.=
+      _Tersata_--Fern
+      _Lapidata_--Slender-striped Rufous
+      _Vittata_ (_Lignata_)--Oblique Carpet
+      _Polygrammata_ (_Conjunctaria_)--Many-lined
+      _Vitalbata_--Small Waved Umber
+    =Triphosa.=
+      _Dubitata_--Tissue
+    =Eucosmia.=
+      _Certata_--Scarce Tissue
+      _Undulata_--Scalloped Shell
+    =Scotosia.=
+      _Vetulata_--Brown Scallop
+      _Rhamnata_--Dark Umber
+    =Cidaria.=
+      _Siterata_ (_Psittacata_)--Red-green Carpet
+      _Miata_--Autumn Green Carpet
+      _Picata_--Short-cloak Carpet
+      _Corylata_--Broken-barred Carpet
+      _Sagittata_--Marsh Carpet
+      _Truncata_ (_Russata_)--Common Marbled Carpet
+      _Immanata_--Dark Marbled Carpet
+      _Suffumata_--Water Carpet
+      _Reticulata_--Netted Carpet
+      _Silaceata_--Small Ph[oe]nix
+      _Prunata_ (_Ribesiaria_)--Ph[oe]nix
+      _Testata_--Chevron
+      _Populata_--Northern Spinach
+      _Fulvata_--Barred Yellow
+      _Dotata_ (_Pyraliata_)--Barred Straw
+      _Associata_ (_Dotata_)--Spinach
+    =Pelurga.=
+      _Comitata_--Dark Spinach
+
+  EUBOLIIDAE.
+    =Eubolia.=
+      _Cervinata_ (_Cervinaria_)--Mallow
+      _Limitata_ (_Mensuraria_)--Small Mallow
+      _Plumbaria_ (_Palumbaria_)--Belle
+      _Bipunctaria_--Chalk Carpet
+    =Mesotype.=
+      _Virgata_ (_Lineolata_)--Oblique-striped
+    =Carsia.=
+      _Paludata_ (_Imbutata_)--Manchester Treble Bar
+    =Anaitis.=
+      _Plagiata_--Treble Bar
+    =Lithostege.=
+      _Griseata_--Pale Grey Carpet
+    =Chesias.=
+      _Spartiata_--Streak
+      _Rufata_ (_Obliquaria_)--Broom Tip
+
+  SIONIDAE.
+    =Tanagra.=
+      _Atrata_ (_Chaerophyllata_)--Chimney Sweep
+
+
+APPENDIX II
+
+_THE LEPIDOPTERIST'S CALENDAR_
+
+The success of the country rambles of an expert lepidopterist depends
+greatly on his knowledge of the times at which the various butterflies
+and moths generally appear, and of the localities which they are known
+to frequent. The experiences he has gained in the past enable him to
+calculate on the probabilities of the future, and he chooses both time
+and locality according to his requirements.
+
+As he makes his way to the hunting ground he counts over the chances of
+meeting with a certain insect that is wanted to fill a long-standing
+blank in his cabinet; and we hear him discussing the probabilities as to
+whether this species is yet 'out,' or whether the larvae of that species
+are feeding.
+
+How different it is with the young and unguided entomologist! He rambles
+promiscuously here and there, having only the faintest idea as to what
+he is likely to see, and perhaps meeting with only four or five species
+when an experienced collector, without covering a larger area of ground,
+would take scores in the same time.
+
+In order to afford some little help to the beginner, I have thought it
+advisable to introduce a calendar of operations to guide him in his
+work. The space at our command would not allow this to be carried out in
+detail, but the general instructions will undoubtedly assist most of my
+readers until the practical experience gained by a few years' work has
+enabled them to run on their own legs.
+
+Of course, in making reference to the monthly lists of insects on the
+wing, allowance must be made for the forwardness or backwardness of the
+seasons. Thus, an insect entered in the April list _may_ appear in March
+in an exceptionally warm season, but may not emerge till the early part
+of May if the spring has been unusually severe.
+
+It will be observed that in cases where all the species of a certain
+genus or family appear on the wing in the same month, the name of that
+genus or family is entered on the list instead of the names of the
+individual species; but the latter can easily be obtained by reference
+to Appendix I.
+
+
+JANUARY
+
+There is not much field work to be done during this month. If the
+weather is very severe, hardly an insect will be found on the wing; but
+a mild January will sometimes entice the Brimstone Butterfly (_Rhamni_)
+and some of the hybernating Vanessas from their winter quarters.
+
+Hybernating moths may also be met with, on the wing if the weather
+is mild, or sleeping in their sheltered nooks during the frosts.
+These include several _Noctuae_--_Auricoma_, _Lithargyria_,
+_Suffusa_, _Vaccinii_, _Spadicea_, _Erythrocephala_, _Satellitia_,
+_Rubiginea_, _Croceago_, _Vetusta_, _Exoleta_, _Ornithopus_,
+_Furcifera_, _Semibrunnea_, _Socia_, and _Libatrix_; and also a few
+_Geometrae_--_Zonaria_, _Fluviata_, _Dubitata_, _Siterata_, and _Miata_.
+
+In addition to these hybernating insects, the collector may examine tree
+trunks and fences for the Early Moth (_Rupicapraria_), and late
+specimens of the Winter Moth (_Brumata_); and towards the end of the
+month he may expect to meet with fresh specimens of the Pale Brindled
+Beauty (_Pedaria_) and the Spring Usher (_Leucophaearia_). A few of the
+_Tineae_ may also be seen.
+
+The net need not be used at all during the colder months of the year, as
+the moths are easily taken in pill boxes from the trunks and fences on
+which they rest.
+
+Pupa digging may be carried on throughout the month if the weather is
+sufficiently mild, but it is of no use attempting this during a frost.
+Hybernating larvae may also be searched out of their winter quarters if
+the collector does not mind giving them the attention they require; but,
+as a rule, it is better to wait till they themselves start out to feed
+in the spring, at which time all their food plants are showing leaf.
+
+
+FEBRUARY
+
+Our remarks under 'January' concerning pupa digging and other work apply
+equally well to this month. The same hybernating butterflies and moths
+may be looked for; and, in addition to _Pedaria_, _Leucophaearia_, and
+_Rupicapraria_, which now appear more plentifully, the following species
+will probably be seen:
+
+  Small Eggar (_Lanestris_)
+  Small Brindled Beauty (_Hispidaria_)
+  Oak Beauty (_Strataria_)
+  Dotted Border (_Marginaria_)
+  March Moth (_AEscularia_)
+
+About half a dozen species of the _Tineae_ will also have made their
+appearance before the end of the month.
+
+
+MARCH
+
+Many of the hybernating larvae will come out during March if the weather
+is mild, and commence to feed; and the young caterpillars will begin to
+appear from the eggs of the early moths already named. This is
+consequently a good time to commence the search for larvae if you intend
+to go in for rearing. During the daytime some may be beaten from the
+boughs of trees and shrubs; and those which feed on low plants, being
+generally nocturnal in their habits, should be searched for in the
+evening, after dark, with the aid of a lantern.
+
+The hybernating butterflies are now flying more freely than before, and,
+if the weather is bright and warm for the time of year, a few freshly
+emerged species may be seen. These may possibly include:
+
+  Large White (_Brassicae_)
+  Small White (_Rapae_)
+  Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+  Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+
+As regards moths, several fresh species may be expected to appear, while
+those named as appearing in February are still to be found. The
+new-comers may include:
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Kentish Glory (_Versicolor_)
+    Yellow-horned (_Flavicornis_)
+
+  =Noctuae.=
+    Pine Beauty (_Piniperda_)
+    White-marked Rustic (_Leucographa_)
+    Red Chestnut (_Rubricosa_)
+    All species of the genus _Taeniocampa_
+    Early Grey (_Areola_)
+    Green-brindled Dot (_Oleagina_)
+    Orange Underwing (_Parthenias_)
+    Light Orange Underwing (_Notha_)
+
+  =Geometrae.=
+    Early Thorn (_Bilunaria_)
+    Engrailed (_Biundularia_)
+    Mottled Grey (_Multistrigaria_)
+
+Sugaring may be commenced towards the end of March, and sallow blossom
+may be searched in the evening, but it is probable that only a few
+species will be taken by these means.
+
+A few more species of the _Tineae_ appear in March, and four or five of
+the _Tortrices_ are out before the end of the month.
+
+
+APRIL
+
+This is really a busy month with the entomologist, and it will be
+necessary to put all apparatus and appliances into perfect order early.
+The cyanide bottle should be freshly charged, nets examined and repaired
+if necessary, and all setting boards, breeding cages &c. put in perfect
+trim for the new season's work.
+
+Larvae are now feeding freely, and a few hours spent in beating,
+sweeping, and searching will enable you to stock your cages liberally.
+
+Sugaring may be continued throughout the month, and the sallow blossom
+may be searched as long as it proves attractive. Moths may also be
+attracted by light at night.
+
+The following butterflies are generally out during April, in addition to
+the hybernated species already named:
+
+  Large White (_Brassicae_)
+  Small White (_Rapae_)
+  Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+  Orange Tip (_Cardamines_)
+  Wood White (_Sinapis_)
+  Pearl-bordered Fritillary (_Euphrosyne_)
+  Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+  Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_)
+  Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+  Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+  Grizzled Skipper (_Malvae_)
+  Dingy Skipper (_Tages_)
+
+The following is a list of the principal moths for April:
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Small Lappet (_Ilicifolia_)
+    Kentish Glory (_Versicolor_)
+    Yellow Horned (_Flavicornis_)
+    Frosted Green (_Ridens_)
+
+  =Noctuae.=
+    Pine Beauty (_Piniperda_)
+    White-marked Rustic (_Leucographa_)
+    Red Chestnut (_Rubricosa_)
+    All species of the genus _Taeniocampa_
+    Early Grey (_Areola_)
+    Mullein Shark (_Verbasci_)
+    Orange Underwing (_Parthenias_)
+    Light Orange Underwing (_Notha_)
+
+  =Geometrae.=
+    Brimstone (_Luteolata_)
+    Early Thorn (_Bilunaria_)
+    Belted Beauty (_Zonaria_)
+    Brindled Beauty (_Hirtaria_)
+    Waved Umber (_Abruptaria_)
+    Small Engrailed (_Crepuscularia_)
+    Engrailed (_Biundularia_)
+    Sloe Carpet (_Pictaria_)
+    Netted Mountain (_Carbonaria_)
+    Mottled Grey (_Multistrigaria_)
+    Satyr Pug (_Satyrata_)
+    Marbled Pug (_Irriguata_)
+    Campanula Pug (_Campanulata_)
+    Brindled Pug (_Abbreviata_)
+    Oak-tree Pug (_Dodoneata_)
+    Double-striped Pug (_Pumilata_)
+    Early Tooth-striped (_Carpinata_)
+    Shoulder Stripe (_Badiata_)
+    Many-lined (_Polygrammata_)
+    Tissue (_Dubitata_)
+
+In addition to the above, a few species of the _Tortrices_, several of
+the _Tineae_, and one or two of the Plume Moths (_Pterophori_) are out
+during April.
+
+
+MAY
+
+Little or nothing will be obtained by digging during May, yet a number
+of pupae may be found among grass and leaves under trees, and also
+attached to the leaves and stems of low plants. These pupae include those
+of several of the butterflies, among which may be mentioned _Machaon_,
+_Selene_, _Euphrosyne_, _Aurinia_, _Megaera_, _Ianira_, _Rubi_,
+_Astrarche_, _Icarus_, _Bellargus_, _Corydon_, _Lucina_, and _Sylvanus_.
+
+Larvae may now be taken in abundance by beating the boughs of oaks and
+other trees, and also by examining low plants.
+
+The hybernating butterflies are still on the wing, and the following are
+also out:
+
+  Swallow Tail (_Machaon_)
+  Large White (_Brassicae_)
+  Small White (_Rapae_)
+  Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+  Bath White (_Daplidice_)
+  Orange Tip (_Cardamines_)
+  Wood White (_Sinapis_)
+  Small Pearl-bordered (_Selene_)
+  Pearl-bordered (_Euphrosyne_)
+  Greasy Fritillary (_Aurinia_)
+  Glanville Fritillary (_Cinxia_)
+  Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+  Wall (_Megaera_)
+  Marsh Ringlet (_Typhon_)
+  Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+  Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_)
+  Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+  Brown Argus (_Astrarche_)
+  Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+  Clifden Blue (_Bellargus_)
+  Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+  Mazarine Blue (_Semiargus_)
+  Grizzled Skipper (_Malvae_)
+  Chequered Skipper (_Palaemon_)
+
+There is a great increase in the number of moths this month, and much
+good work may be done by means of light traps and by the examination of
+fences. Many moths are driven from their resting places early in the
+morning by the direct rays of the rising sun, and then seek out a spot
+where they are better sheltered, and where they are consequently less
+easily found. Hence the advantage of searching fences early in the
+morning.
+
+The May list includes:
+
+  =Sphinges.=
+    Small Elephant (_Porcellus_)
+    All species of the genera _Smerinthus_ and _Macroglossa_
+    Some of the Clearwings (_Apiformis_, _Sphegiformis_, and
+      _Culiciformis_)
+    Cream-bordered Green (_Chlorana_)
+    Green Silver-lined (_Prasinana_)
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Wood Tiger (_Plantaginis_)
+    Muslin Moth (_Mendica_)
+    Common Swift (_Lupulinus_)
+    Pale Tussock (_Pudibunda_)
+    Small Lappet (_Ilicifolia_)
+    Emperor (_Pavonia_)
+    All species of family _Drepanulidae_
+    Alder Kitten (_Bicuspis_)
+    Puss (_Vinula_)
+    Several of the 'Prominents' (_Cuculla_, _Carmelita_, _Dictaea_,
+      _Dictaeoides_, _Trilophus_, _Ziczac_, _Trepida_, _Chaonia_,
+      _Trimacula_)
+    Chocolate Tip (_Curtula_)
+    Small Chocolate Tip (_Pigra_)
+
+  =Noctuae.=
+    Knot Grass (_Rumicis_)
+    Sweet Gale (_Myricae_)
+    White Colon (_Albicolon_)
+    Cabbage (_Brassicae_)
+    Treble Lines (_Trigrammica_)
+    Marsh Moth (_Palustris_)
+    Light Brocade (_Genistae_)
+    Mullein Shark (_Verbasci_)
+    Betony Shark (_Scrophulariae_)
+    Starwort Shark (_Asteris_)
+    Camomile Shark (_Chamomillae_)
+    Small Dark Yellow Underwing (_Cordigera_)
+    Small Yellow Underwing (_Tenebrata_)
+    Bordered Sallow (_Umbra_)
+    Lunar Double Stripe (_Lunaris_)
+
+  =Geometrae.=
+    Brimstone (_Luteolata_)
+    Speckled Yellow (_Macularia_)
+    Purple Thorn (_Tetralunaria_)
+    Scalloped Hazel (_Bidentata_)
+    Brindled Beauty (_Hirtaria_)
+    Peppered (_Betularia_)
+    Waved Umber (_Abruptaria_)
+    Ringed Carpet (_Cinctaria_)
+    Square Spot (_Consonaria_)
+    Small Engrailed (_Crepuscularia_)
+    Engrailed (_Biundularia_)
+    Grey Birch (_Punctularia_)
+    Small Grass Emerald (_Viridata_)
+    All species of family _Ephyridae_
+    Cream Wave (_Remutaria_)
+    White Wave (_Pusaria_)
+    Round-winged Wave (_Rotundaria_)
+    Common Wave (_Exanthemata_)
+    Clouded Silver (_Temerata_)
+    White-pinion Spotted (_Bimaculata_)
+    Latticed Heath (_Clathrata_)
+    Brown Silver-line (_Petraria_)
+    Barred Umber (_Pulveraria_)
+    Netted Mountain (_Carbonaria_)
+    Common Heath (_Atomaria_)
+    Bordered White (_Piniaria_)
+    Rest Harrow (_Ononaria_)
+    Yellow Belle (_Ochrearia_)
+    Clouded Border (_Marginata_)
+    Horse Chestnut (_Hippocastanaria_)
+    Pretty Pinion (_Adaequata_)
+    Pugs (_Venosata_, _Consignata_, _Pulchellata_, _Plumbeolata_,
+      _Satyrata_, _Castigata_, _Pusillata_, _Irriguata_, _Indigata_,
+      _Nanata_, _Vulgata_, _Assimilata_, _Exiguata_, _Coronata_)
+    Yellow-barred Brindle (_Viretata_)
+    Ruddy High-flier (_Ruberata_)
+    May High-flier (_Trifasciata_)
+    Common Carpet (_Sociata_)
+    Silver-ground Carpet (_Montanata_)
+    Streamer (_Nigrofasciaria_)
+    Barberry Carpet (_Berberata_)
+    Flame Carpet (_Designata_)
+    Twin-spot Carpets (_Ferrugata_ and _Unidentaria_)
+    Scarce Tissue (_Certata_)
+    Water Carpet (_Suffumata_)
+    Small Ph[oe]nix (_Silaceata_)
+    Oblique-striped (_Virgata_)
+    Broom Tip (_Rufata_)
+
+A number of the Micros are also out this month. About twenty species of
+the _Pyralides_, one or two of the _Pterophori_, a few _Crambi_, about
+fifty of the _Tortrices_, and no less than two hundred of the _Tineae_.
+The collector will do well to search fences and tree trunks for these
+moths, whenever he has the opportunity; and also to use the net freely
+in wooded country, waste places, and along hedgerows, _before_ and at
+dusk.
+
+
+JUNE
+
+There is a marked increase in winged insect life during this month. The
+early butterflies are disappearing, or perhaps have quite left us; but
+new species are taking their place. The _Sphinges_ now reach their
+maximum, as do also the _Bombyces_; and the other groups are almost if
+not quite up to their highest total. The _Noctuae_ and _Geometrae_ each
+amount to over a hundred species. No less than a hundred and fifty
+British _Tortrices_ are on the wing; the _Tineae_ make a near approach to
+three hundred, and the _Pyralides_ of the month are not far short of
+numbering a hundred species. It will thus be seen that the net and pill
+boxes, as well as the setting boards, are in constant demand.
+
+Dull days may be well occupied in beating for moths, and in the
+examination of fences and the bark of trees; and on bright days, as soon
+as the butterflies have settled down to rest, the same work may be
+carried on till dusk.
+
+Micros and _Geometrae_ are out early in the evening, when they should be
+taken with the net. Later on the _Noctuae_ may be seen playing round
+their favourite flowers.
+
+Sugar and light traps are likely to do good service during June, and
+decoy females of the _Bombyces_ group may be called to your aid.
+
+Larvae are also abundant during June, and those of most of the
+butterflies may be taken by carefully searching their food plants.
+
+The following is the list of imagines for the month:
+
+  =Butterflies.=
+    Swallow Tail (_Machaon_)
+    Black-veined White (_Crataegi_)
+    Large White (_Brassicae_)
+    Small White (_Rapae_)
+    Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+    Small Pearl-bordered (_Selene_)
+    Pearl-bordered (_Euphrosyne_)
+    Silver-washed Fritillary (_Paphia_)
+    Greasy Fritillary (_Aurinia_)
+    Glanville Fritillary (_Cinxia_)
+    Heath Fritillary (_Athalia_)
+    Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticae_)
+    White Admiral (_Sibylla_)
+    Small Ringlet (_Epiphron_)
+    Meadow Brown (_Ianira_)
+    Ringlet (_Hyperanthus_)
+    Marsh Ringlet (_Typhon_)
+    Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+    Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_)
+    Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+    Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+    Small Blue (_Minima_)
+    Duke of Burgundy (_Lucina_)
+    Grizzled Skipper (_Malvae_)
+    Dingy Skipper (_Tages_)
+    Large Skipper (_Sylvanus_)
+    Chequered Skipper (_Palaemon_)
+
+  =Sphinges.=
+    Privet Hawk (_Ligustri_)
+    Spurge Hawk (_Euphorbiae_)
+    Small Elephant (_Porcellus_)
+    Large Elephant (_Elpenor_)
+    Eyed Hawk (_Ocellatus_)
+    Poplar Hawk (_Populi_)
+    Lime Hawk (_Tiliae_)
+    Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_)
+    All the Clearwings (Sesiidae)
+    The Burnets (Fam. _Zygaenidae_)
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Family _Nolidae_
+    Dew Moth (_Irrorella_)
+    Cinnabar (_Jacobaeae_)
+    Scarlet Tiger (_Dominula_)
+    Family _Cheloniidae_
+    Family _Hepialidae_
+    Family _Cossidae_
+    Family _Cochliopodidae_
+    Dark Tussock (_Fascelina_)
+    Pale Tussock (_Pudibunda_)
+    Scarce Vapourer (_Gonostigma_)
+    Fox (_Rubi_)
+    Lappet (_Quercifolia_)
+    Family _Drepanulidae_
+    Family _Dicranuridae_
+    Pale Prominent (_Palpina_)
+    Coxcomb Prominent (_Camelina_)
+    Swallow Prominent (_Dictaea_)
+    Lesser Swallow Prominent (_Dictaeoides_)
+    Iron Prominent (_Dromedarius_)
+    Pebble Prominent (_Ziczac_)
+    Great Prominent (_Trepida_)
+    Marbled Brown (_Trimacula_)
+    Buff Tip (_Bucephala_)
+    Peach Blossom (_Batis_)
+    Genus _Cymatophora_
+
+  =Noctuae.=
+    Scarce Marvel-du-jour (_Orion_)
+    Genus _Acronycta_
+    Powdered Wainscot (_Albovenosa_)
+    Most of the species of genus _Leucania_
+    Flame Wainscot (_Flammea_)
+    Silky Wainscot (_Maritima_)
+    Small Rufous (_Rufa_)
+    Mere Wainscot (_Hellmanni_)
+    Concolorous (_Extrema_)
+    Flame (_Putris_)
+    Genus _Xylophasia_
+    Bird's Wing (_Scabriuscula_)
+    Small Mottled Willow (_Exigua_)
+    Bordered Gothic (_Reticulata_)
+    Feathered Ear (_Leucophaea_)
+    Large Nutmeg (_Sordida_)
+    White Colon (_Albicolon_)
+    Cabbage (_Brassicae_)
+    Dot (_Persicariae_)
+    Rustic Shoulder Knot (_Basilinea_)
+    Union Rustic (_Connexa_)
+    Dusky Brocade (_Gemina_)
+    Double Lobed (_Ophiogramma_)
+    Genus _Miana_
+    Treble Lines (_Trigrammica_)
+    Mottled Rustic (_Morpheus_)
+    Rustic (_Taraxaci_)
+    Pale Mottled Willow (_Quadripunctata_)
+    Reddish Buff (_Caliginosa_)
+    Marsh Moth (_Palustris_)
+    Brown Rustic (_Tenebrosa_)
+    Turnip (_Segetum_)
+    Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_)
+    Light-feathered Rustic (_Cinerea_)
+    Sand Dart (_Ripae_)
+    Garden Dart (_Nigricans_)
+    Lover's Knot (_Strigula_)
+    Double Dot (_Augur_)
+    Flame Shoulder (_Plecta_)
+    Double-spotted Square-spot (_Triangulum_)
+    Ingrailed Clay (_Festiva_)
+    Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing (_Fimbria_)
+    Large Yellow Underwing (_Pronuba_)
+    Gothic (_Typica_)
+    Heart Moth (_Oo_)
+    Genus _Dianth[oe]cia_
+    Broad-barred White (_Serena_)
+    Small Angle Shades (_Lucipara_)
+    Angle Shades (_Meticulosa_)
+    Green Arches (_Prasina_)
+    Grey Arches (_Nebulosa_)
+    Silvery Arches (_Tincta_)
+    Pale Shining Brown (_Advena_)
+    Northern Arches (_Exulis_)
+    Genus Hadena (nearly all)
+    Lychnis Shark (_Lychnitis_)
+    Starwort Shark (_Asteris_)
+    Cudweed Shark (_Gnaphalii_)
+    Camomile Shark (_Chamomillae_)
+    Shark (_Umbratica_)
+    Genus _Habrostola_
+    Burnished Brass (_Chrysitis_)
+    Plain Golden Y (_Iota_)
+    Beautiful Golden Y (_Pulchrina_)
+    Silver Y (_Gamma_)
+    Scarce Silver Y (_Interrogationis_)
+    Genus _Anarta_
+    Small Yellow Underwing (_Tenebrata_)
+    Bordered Straw (_Peltigera_)
+    Bordered Sallow (_Umbra_)
+    Spotted Sulphur (_Trabealis_)
+    Four-spotted (_Luctuosa_)
+    Family _Erastriidae_
+    Purple Marbled (_Ostrina_)
+    Small Marbled (_Parva_)
+    Small Purple-barred (_Viridaria_)
+    Mother Shipton (_Mi_)
+    Burnet Noctua (_Glyphica_)
+    Black Neck (_Pastinum_)
+    Family _Herminiidae_
+    Family _Hypenidae_
+
+  =Geometrae.=
+    Little Thorn (_Advenaria_)
+    Brimstone (_Luteolata_)
+    Speckled Yellow (_Macularia_)
+    Orange (_Prunaria_)
+    Barred Red (_Prosapiaria_)
+    Scorched Wing (_Dolobraria_)
+    Lunar Thorn (_Lunaria_)
+    Peppered (_Betularia_)
+    Speckled Beauty (_Angularia_)
+    Genus _Boarmia_
+    Square Spot (_Consonaria_)
+    Brindled White-spot (_Luridata_)
+    Grey Birch (_Punctularia_)
+    Blotched Emerald (_Pustulata_)
+    Small Grass Emerald (_Viridata_)
+    Common Emerald (_Strigata_)
+    Nearly all the family _Acidaliidae_
+    Genus _Bapta_
+    Peacock (_Notata_)
+    Rannoch Geometer (_Brunneata_)
+    Brown Silver-line (_Petraria_)
+    Barred Umber (_Pulveraria_)
+    Grey Scalloped Bar (_Belgiaria_)
+    Frosted Yellow (_Limbaria_)
+    Bordered White (_Piniaria_)
+    Drab Geometer (_Murinata_)
+    Black-veined (_Lineata_)
+    Grass Wave (_Strigillaria_)
+    Clouded Magpie (_Sylvata_)
+    Scorched Carpet (_Adustata_)
+    Clouded Border (_Marginata_)
+    Twin-spot Carpet (_Didymata_)
+    Grey Mountain Carpet (_Caesiata_)
+    Striped Twin-spot Carpet (_Salicata_)
+    Green Carpet (_Viridaria_)
+    Genus _Emmelesia_
+    Most of the Pugs (_Eupithecia_)
+    Small Seraphim (_Sexalisata_)
+    Seraphim (_Halterata_)
+    Yellow-barred Brindle (_Viretata_)
+    Shaded Broad-bar (_Variata_)
+    Ruddy High-flier (_Ruberata_)
+    Purple Bar (_Ocellata_)
+    Beautiful Carpet (_Albicillata_)
+    Genus _Melanippe_
+    Royal Mantle (_Cucullata_)
+    Flame (_Rubidata_)
+    Genus _Coremia_
+    Yellow Shell (_Bilineata_)
+    Fern (_Tersata_)
+    Oblique Carpet (_Vittata_)
+    Small Waved Umber (_Vitalbata_)
+    Scalloped Shell (_Undulata_)
+    Brown Scallop (_Vetulata_)
+    Short-cloak Carpet (_Picata_)
+    Broken-barred Carpet (_Corylata_)
+    Common Marbled Carpet (_Truncata_)
+    Small Ph[oe]nix (_Silaceata_)
+    Small Mallow (_Limitata_)
+    Belle (_Plumbaria_)
+    Oblique-striped (_Virgata_)
+    Treble Bar (_Plagiata_)
+    Pale Grey Carpet (_Griseata_)
+    Chimney Sweep (_Atrata_)
+
+
+JULY
+
+The number of species on the wing in July is even greater than in June.
+Butterflies are very numerous, some being second broods of
+double-brooded species, and others late single-brooded insects.
+
+_Sphinges_ are beginning to fall off, and so are the _Bombyces_, but the
+_Noctuae_ and _Geometrae_ are slightly on the increase.
+
+As regards the Micros, a good number of fresh species may be expected,
+all the groups exhibiting a marked increase in the total number on the
+wing with the exception of the _Tineae_.
+
+Sugaring is likely to pay well this month, and many moths may be
+attracted by light. Tree trunks and fences should be well examined.
+
+Pupae may certainly be taken, but unless the collector is particularly
+desirous of obtaining the pupae of insects known to be now passing
+through that stage, he will probably do better by looking after
+imagines.
+
+Larvae, however, may well receive a little attention, providing the
+setting of butterflies and moths leave a little leisure for other
+employments. Beating by day, and searching by both day and night, even
+if carried on only occasionally, will probably supply you with as many
+species as you can accommodate in your glasses and cages.
+
+The butterflies of the month are:
+
+  Swallow Tail (_Machaon_)
+  Black-veined White (_Crataegi_)
+  Large White (_Brassicae_)
+  Small White (_Rapae_)
+  Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+  Wood White (_Sinapis_)
+  Brimstone (_Rhamni_)
+  Dark Green Fritillary (_Aglaia_)
+  High Brown Fritillary (_Adippe_)
+  Silver-washed Fritillary (_Paphia_)
+  Heath Fritillary (_Athalia_)
+  Comma (_C-Album_)
+  Large Tortoiseshell (_Polychloros_)
+  Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticae_)
+  Peacock (_Io_)
+  Painted Lady (_Cardui_)
+  White Admiral (_Sibylla_)
+  Purple Emperor (_Iris_)
+  Marbled White (_Galatea_)
+  Northern Brown (_AEthiops_)
+  Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+  Grayling (_Semele_)
+  Meadow Brown (_Ianira_)
+  Large Heath (_Tithonus_)
+  Ringlet (_Hyperanthes_)
+  Marsh Ringlet (_Typhon_)
+  Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+  Brown Hairstreak (_Betulae_)
+  White-letter Hairstreak (_W-Album_)
+  Dark Hairstreak (_Pruni_)
+  Purple Hairstreak (_Quercus_)
+  Green Hairstreak (_Rubi_)
+  Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+  Silver-studded Blue (_AEgon_)
+  Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+  Chalk-hill Blue (_Corydon_)
+  Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+  Mazarine Blue (_Semiargus_)
+  Small Blue (_Minima_)
+  Large Blue (_Arion_)
+  Small Skipper (_Thaumas_)
+  New Small Skipper (_Lineola_)
+
+The moths of July include the following species:
+
+  =Sphinges.=
+    Privet Hawk (_Ligustri_)
+    Bedstraw Hawk (_Galii_)
+    Eyed Hawk (_Ocellatus_)
+    Poplar Hawk (_Populi_)
+    Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_)
+    Hornet Clearwing of Poplar (_Apiformis_)
+    Hornet Clearwing of Osier (_Crabroniformis_)
+    Welsh Clearwing (_Scoliiformis_)
+    Red-belted Clearwing (_Myopiformis_)
+    Red-tipped Clearwing (_Formiciformis_)
+    Six-belted Clearwing (_Ichneumoniformis_)
+    Genus _Ino_
+    Burnets (_Trifolii_, _Lonicerae_ and _Filipendulae_)
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Tortrix (_Undulanus_)
+    Large Green Silver-lined (_Bicolorana_)
+    Short-cloaked (_Cucullatella_)
+    Most of the family _Lithosiidae_
+    Tiger (_Caia_)
+    Ruby Tiger (_Fuliginosa_)
+    Buff Ermine (_Lubricipeda_)
+    White Ermine (_Menthastri_)
+    Wood Swift (_Sylvanus_)
+    Northern Swift (_Velleda_)
+    Goat Moth (_Ligniperda_)
+    Leopard (_Pyrina_)
+    Brown Tail (_Chrysorrh[oe]a_)
+    Yellow Tail (_Similis_)
+    Satin (_Salicis_)
+    Reed Tussock (_C[oe]nosa_)
+    Black Arches (_Monacha_)
+    Vapourer (_Antiqua_)
+    Lackey (_Neustria_)
+    Ground Lackey (_Castrensis_)
+    Oak Eggar (_Quercus_)
+    Drinker (_Potatoria_)
+    Sallow Kitten (_Furcula_)
+    Poplar Kitten (_Bifida_)
+    Lobster (_Fagi_)
+    Pale Prominent (_Palpina_)
+    Coxcomb Prominent (_Camelina_)
+    Buff Tip (_Bucephala_)
+    Buff Arches (_Derasa_)
+    Peach Blossom (_Batis_)
+    Figure of Eighty (_Octogesima_)
+    Poplar Lutestring (_Or_)
+    Lesser Satin (_Duplaris_)
+
+  =Noctuae.=
+    Marbled Green (_Muralis_)
+    Marbled Beauty (_Perla_)
+    Grey Dagger (_Psi_)
+    Miller (_Leporina_)
+    Poplar Grey (_Megacephala_)
+    Grisette (_Strigosa_)
+    Coronet (_Ligustri_)
+    Knot Grass (_Rumicis_)
+    Scarce Dagger (_Auricoma_)
+    Light Knot Grass (_Menyanthidis_)
+    Brown Line Bright Eye (_Conigera_)
+    Double Line (_Turca_)
+    Clay (_Lithargyria_)
+    Wainscots (_Littoralis_, _Impudens_, _Comma_, _Impura_, _Pallens_,
+      _Phragmitidis_, _Maritima_, _Rufa_, _Bondii_, _Neurica_)
+    Ear Moth (_Nictitans_)
+    Flame (_Putris_)
+    Genus _Xylophasia_
+    Antler (_Graminis_)
+    Straw Underwing (_Matura_)
+    Most of Genus _Mamestra_
+    Genus _Miana_
+    Haworth's Minor (_Haworthii_)
+    Treble Lines (_Trigrammica_)
+    Genus _Caradrina_
+    Brown Rustic (_Tenebrosa_)
+    Archer's Dart (_Vestigialis_)
+    Pearly Underwing (_Saucia_)
+    Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_)
+    Heart and Club (_Corticea_)
+    Sand Dart (_Ripae_)
+    Coast Dart (_Cursoria_)
+    Garden Dart (_Nigricans_)
+    Streaked Dart (_Aquilina_)
+    True Lover's Knot (_Strigula_)
+    Stout Dart (_Obscura_)
+    Dotted Rustic (_Simulans_)
+    Northern Rustic (_Lucernea_)
+    Ashworth's Rustic (_Ashworthii_)
+    Most of Genus _Noctua_
+    Genus _Triphaena_
+    Copper Underwing (_Pyramidea_)
+    Mouse (_Tragopogonis_)
+    Old Lady (_Maura_)
+    Suspected (_Suspecta_)
+    Dismal (_Upsilon_)
+    Olive (_Subtusa_)
+    Genus _Calymnia_
+    Dusky Sallow (_Ochroleuca_)
+    Marbled Coronet (_Nana_)
+    Genus _Hecatera_
+    Minor Shoulder Knot (_Viminalis_)
+    Small Angle Shades (_Lucipara_)
+    Genus _Aplecta_
+    Dark Brocade (_Adusta_)
+    Shears (_Dentina_)
+    Nutmeg (_Trifolii_)
+    Pale-shouldered Brocade (_Thalassina_)
+    Silver Cloud (_Conspicillaris_)
+    Lychnis Shark (_Lychnitis_)
+    Wormwood Shark (_Absinthii_)
+    Family _Plusiidae_
+    Beautiful Yellow Underwing (_Myrtilli_)
+    Marbled Clover (_Dipsacea_)
+    Four-spotted (_Luctuosa_)
+    Rosy Marbled (_Venustula_)
+    Marbled White-spot (_Fasciana_)
+    Small Purple-barred (_Viridaria_)
+    Red Underwing (_Nupta_)
+    Light Crimson Underwing (_Promissa_)
+    Dark Crimson Underwing(_Sponsa_)
+    New Black-neck (_Craccae_)
+    Family _Herminiidae_
+    Family _Hypenidae_
+
+  =Geometrae.=
+    Swallow-tail (_Sambucaria_)
+    Dark-bordered Beauty (_Parallelaria_)
+    Bordered Beauty (_Apiciaria_)
+    Orange (_Prunaria_)
+    Light Emerald (_Margaritaria_)
+    Barred Red (_Prosapiaria_)
+    Lilac Beauty (_Syringaria_)
+    Early Thorn (_Bilunaria_)
+    Scalloped Oak (_Elinguaria_)
+    Genus _Cleora_
+    Genus _Boarmia_
+    Annulet (_Obscuraria_)
+    Scotch Annulet (_Obfuscaria_)
+    Black Mountain Moth (_Coracina_)
+    Family _Geometridae_
+    Golden-bordered Purple (_Muricata_)
+    Waved Carpet (_Sylvata_)
+    Dingy Shell (_Obliterata_)
+    Welsh Wave (_Cambrica_)
+    Most of the _Acidaliae_
+    Blood Vein (_Amataria_)
+    Family _Macariidae_
+    Latticed Heath (_Clathrata_)
+    Bordered Grey (_Ericetaria_)
+    Common Heath (_Atomaria_)
+    Rest Harrow (_Ononaria_)
+    Vestal (_Sacraria_)
+    Grass Wave (_Strigillaria_)
+    Family _Zerenidae_
+    Twin-spot Carpet (_Didymata_)
+    Grey Mountain Carpet (_Caesiata_)
+    Yellow-ringed Carpet (_Flavicinctata_)
+    Beech-green Carpet (_Olivata_)
+    Green Carpet (_Viridaria_)
+    Genus _Emmelesia_
+    Pugs (_Linariata_, _Oblongata_, _Succenturiata_, _Pernotata_,
+      _Isogrammaria_, _Virgaureata_, _Innotata_, _Subnotata_,
+      _Absinthiata_, _Tenuiata_, _Subciliata_, _Rectangulata_)
+    Chestnut-coloured Carpet (_Simulata_)
+    Shaded Broad Bar (_Variata_)
+    Pine Carpet (_Firmata_)
+    July High-flier (_Sordidata_)
+    Genus _Melanthia_
+    Genus _Melanippe_
+    Flame (_Rubidata_)
+    Red Carpet (_Munitata_)
+    Large Twin-spot Carpet (_Quadrifasciaria_)
+    Yellow Shell (_Bilineata_)
+    Fern (_Tersata_)
+    Oblique Carpet (_Vittata_)
+    Many-lined (_Polygrammata_)
+    Dark Umber (_Rhamnata_)
+    Short-cloak Carpet (_Picata_)
+    Marsh Carpet (_Sagittata_)
+    Common Marbled Carpet (_Truncata_)
+    Dark Marbled Carpet (_Immanata_)
+    Netted Carpet (_Reticulata_)
+    Ph[oe]nix (_Prunata_)
+    Chevron (_Testata_)
+    Northern Spinach (_Populata_)
+    Barred Yellow (_Fulvata_)
+    Barred Straw (_Dotata_)
+    Spinach (_Associata_)
+    Dark Spinach (_Comitata_)
+    Small Mallow (_Limitata_)
+    Belle (_Plumbaria_)
+    Chalk Carpet (_Bipunctaria_)
+    Oblique-striped (_Virgata_)
+    Manchester Treble Bar (_Paludata_)
+    Treble Bar (_Plagiata_)
+    Pale Grey Carpet (_Griseata_)
+    Chimney Sweep (Atrata)
+
+
+AUGUST
+
+Although there is a very appreciable falling off in the number of
+species on the wing during August, yet there remains plenty of work for
+the lepidopterist.
+
+Many of the butterflies of July continue to fly during the whole or part
+of this month, and several fresh species commence their flight. August,
+too, may be looked upon as _the_ month for second broods, and an
+opportunity now arises for searching for some of the species that were
+missed at the time of their early appearance in May. Clover and lucerne
+fields should be well worked.
+
+A few _Sphinges_ and a number of the _Bombyces_ are still on the wing.
+The _Noctuae_ are on the decrease, but there are yet nearly a hundred
+species (including the rarer ones) at large.
+
+These last may be taken at sugar in considerable numbers, and it is
+interesting to note that two of the Vanessas (_Atalanta_ and _Cardui_)
+may be caught sipping on your baited trees during the daytime.
+
+_Geometrae_ and Micros fall off very considerably this month, but these,
+as well as moths of the other groups, may be taken from tree trunks and
+palings. Light traps may also be used with much success during August.
+
+Fallen fruits should be examined for the larvae that feed within them;
+and late in the month ripe fruit will supply food to the lovers of
+sweets.
+
+Ivy blossom should be well worked at night; and clover and lucerne
+fields form admirable hunting grounds for moths at night, especially
+just after rain.
+
+Larvae are to be obtained in abundance by beating and searching, the
+latter process being conducted by night as well as by day.
+
+The following is the list of imagines for August:
+
+  =Butterflies.=
+    Swallow Tail (_Machaon_)
+    Large White (_Brassicae_)
+    Small White (_Rapae_)
+    Green-veined White (_Napi_)
+    Bath White (_Daplidice_)
+    Wood White (_Sinapis_)
+    Pale Clouded Yellow (_Hyale_)
+    Clouded Yellow (_Edusa_)
+    Brimstone (_Rhamni_)
+    Queen of Spain (_Latona_)
+    Dark Green Fritillary (_Aglaia_)
+    High Brown Fritillary (_Adippe_)
+    Silver-washed Fritillary (_Paphia_)
+    Genus _Vanessa_
+    White Admiral (_Sibylla_)
+    Purple Emperor (_Iris_)
+    Marbled White (_Galatea_)
+    Northern Brown (_AEthiops_)
+    Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+    Wall (_Megaera_)
+    Grayling (_Semele_)
+    Meadow Brown (_Ianira_)
+    Large Heath (_Tithonus_)
+    Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+    Brown Hairstreak (_Betulae_)
+    Purple Hairstreak (_Quercus_)
+    Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+    Tailed Blue (_Baetica_)
+    Silver-studded Blue (_AEgon_)
+    Brown Argus (_Astrarche_)
+    Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+    Clifden Blue (_Bellargus_)
+    Chalk-hill Blue (_Corydon_)
+    Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+    Mazarine Blue (_Semiargus_)
+    Dingy Skipper (_Tages_)
+    New Small Skipper (_Lineola_)
+    Lulworth Skipper (_Actaeon_)
+    Large Skipper (_Sylvanus_)
+    Silver-spotted Skipper (_Comma_)
+
+  =Sphinges.=
+    Death's-head Hawk (_Atropos_)
+    Convolvulus Hawk (_Convolvuli_)
+    Bedstraw Hawk (_Galii_)
+    Striped Hawk (_Livornica_)
+    Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_)
+    Red-tipped Clearwing (_Formiciformis_)
+    Six-belted Clearwing (_Ichneumoniformis_)
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Round-winged Muslin (_Senex_)
+    Muslin (_Mundana_)
+    Footmen (_Muscerda_, _Lutarella_, _Griseola_)
+    Wood Swift (_Sylvanus_)
+    Brown Tail (_Chrysorrh[oe]a_)
+    Yellow Tail (_Similis_)
+    Satin (_Salicis_)
+    Gipsy (_Dispar_)
+    Black Arches (_Monacha_)
+    Vapourer (_Antiqua_)
+    Lackey (_Neustria_)
+    Ground Lackey (_Castrensis_)
+    Oak Eggar (_Quercus_)
+    Grass Eggar (_Trifolii_)
+    Drinker (_Potatoria_)
+    Hook Tips (_Lacertinaria_, _Falcataria_, _Binaria_, _Cultraria_)
+    Chinese Character (_Glaucata_)
+    Sallow Kitten (_Furcula_)
+    Poplar Kitten (_Bifida_)
+    Prominents (_Camelina_, _Trilophus_, _Ziczac_)
+    Lesser Lutestring (_Diluta_)
+
+  =Noctuae.=
+    Marbled Green (_Muralis_)
+    Marbled Beauty (_Perla_)
+    Grey Dagger (_Psi_)
+    Scarce Dagger (_Auricoma_)
+    Wainscots (_Musculosa_, _Albipuncta_, _Impura_, _Pallens_,
+      _Fulva_, _Cannae_, _Arundinis_, _Geminipuncta_, _Neurica_,
+      _Lutosa_)
+    Frosted Orange (_Ochracea_)
+    Genus _Hydr[oe]cia_
+    Slender Clouded Brindle (_Scolopacina_)
+    Feathered Brindle (_Australis_)
+    Feathered Gothic (_Popularis_)
+    Antler (_Graminis_)
+    Straw Underwing (_Matura_)
+    Genus _Luperina_
+    Confused (_Furva_)
+    Small Clouded Brindle (_Unanimis_)
+    Crescent (_Leucostigma_)
+    Common Rustic (_Didyma_)
+    Anomalous (_Anomala_)
+    Mottled Rustic (_Morpheus_)
+    Pale Mottled Willow (_Quadripunctata_)
+    Archer's Dart (_Vestigialis_)
+    Shuttle-shaped Dart (_Puta_)
+    Pearly Underwing (_Saucia_)
+    Crescent Dart (_Lunigera_)
+    Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_)
+    Coast Dart (_Cursoria_)
+    Garden Dart (_Nigricans_)
+    White-line Dart (_Tritici_)
+    Streaked Dart (_Aquilina_)
+    Square-spot Dart (_Obelisca_)
+    Heath Rustic (_Agathina_)
+    Portland (_Praecox_)
+    Stout Dart (_Obscura_)
+    Dotted Rustic (_Simulans_)
+    Plain Clay (_Depuncta_)
+    Setaceous Hebrew Character (_C-Nigrum_)
+    Barred Chestnut (_Dahlii_)
+    Small Square-spot (_Rubi_)
+    Six-striped Rustic (_Umbrosa_)
+    Grey Rustic (_Castanea_)
+    Square-spot Rustic (_Xanthographa_)
+    Genus _Triphaena_
+    Mouse (_Tragopogonis_)
+    Old Lady (_Maura_)
+    Mountain Rustic (_Hyperborea_)
+    Suspected (_Suspecta_)
+    Olive (_Subtusa_)
+    Double Kidney (_Retusa_)
+    Angle-striped Sallow (_Paleacea_)
+    Genus _Calymnia_
+    Dusky Sallow (_Ochroleuca_)
+    Grey Chi (_Chi_)
+    Large Ranunculus (_Flavicincta_)
+    Feathered Ranunculus (_Lichenea_)
+    Crescent (_Bimaculosa_)
+    Great Brocade (_Occulta_)
+    Beautiful Brocade (_Porphyrea_)
+    Golden-rod Brindled (_Solidaginis_)
+    Herald (_Libatrix_)
+    Scarce Burnished Brass (_Chryson_)
+    Burnished Brass (_Chrysitis_)
+    Gold Spot (_Festucae_)
+    Scarce Bordered Straw (_Armigera_)
+    Four-spotted (_Luctuosa_)
+    Clifden Nonpareil (_Fraxini_)
+    Red Underwing (_Nupta_)
+    Dark Crimson Underwing (_Sponsa_)
+
+  =Geometrae.=
+    Dark-bordered Beauty (_Parallelaria_)
+    Bordered Beauty (_Apiciaria_)
+    Purple Thorn (_Tetralunaria_)
+    Scalloped Oak (_Elinguaria_)
+    Canary-shouldered Thorn (_Alniaria_)
+    Dusky Thorn (_Fuscantaria_)
+    September Thorn (_Erosaria_)
+    August Thorn (_Quercinaria_)
+    Dotted Carpet (_Glabraria_)
+    Annulet (_Obscuraria_)
+    Scotch Annulet (_Obfuscaria_)
+    Family _Ephyridae_
+    Small Dusty Wave (_Virgularia_)
+    Mullein Wave (_Marginepunctata_)
+    Small Blood Vein (_Imitaria_)
+    Common White Wave (_Pusaria_)
+    Vestal (_Sacraria_)
+    Yellow Belle (_Ochrearia_)
+    Straw Belle (_Gilvaria_)
+    Currant (_Grossulariata_)
+    _Autumnaria_
+    Haworth's Carpet (_Unifasciata_)
+    Bordered Lime Speck (_Succenturiata_)
+    Pugs (_Virgaureata_, _Campanulata_, _Indigata_, _Constrictata_,
+      _Expallidata_, _Sobrinata_, _Variata_)
+    July High Flier (_Sordidata_)
+    Carpets (_Bicolorata_, _Montanata_, _Fluctuata_, _Berberata_)
+    Yellow Shell (_Bilineata_)
+    Gem (_Fluviata_)
+    Oblique Carpet (_Vittata_)
+    Many-lined (_Polygrammata_)
+    Tissue (_Dubitata_)
+    Common Marbled Carpet (_Truncata_)
+    Ph[oe]nix (_Prunata_)
+    Chevron (_Testata_)
+    Northern Spinach (_Populata_)
+    Barred Yellow (_Fulvata_)
+    Barred Straw (_Dotata_)
+    Small Mallow (_Limitata_)
+    Chalk Carpet (_Bipunctaria_)
+    Treble Bar (_Plagiata_)
+    Broom Tip (_Rufata_)
+
+
+SEPTEMBER
+
+The number of species on the wing is now considerably lower, yet there
+is a good deal to be done both with butterflies and moths.
+
+Many of the former are worn and ragged, but good fresh specimens of some
+species may be taken. Clover and lucerne fields and the flowery borders
+of corn fields remain very attractive.
+
+Tree trunks and palings should be searched as before. Sugar still
+attracts numbers of the _Noctuae_; and ivy blossom should be examined at
+night whenever an opportunity offers itself.
+
+September is a good month for larva hunting. Most of the species that
+pupate in the autumn are now full fed, and will undergo the change to
+the chrysalis state shortly after they have been housed, thus giving but
+little trouble to the entomologist. The day feeders may be beaten or
+swept from their food plants, but, of course, the nocturnal species are
+best discovered by searching at night.
+
+Some have already 'gone down' for the winter, and, consequently, pupa
+hunting may be started. However, as there is yet much to be done with
+imagines and larvae, it may, perhaps, be better to leave the pupae alone
+till about the end of the month, especially as many of the larvae have
+not yet had time to complete their transformation.
+
+The list of imagines for September includes:
+
+  =Butterflies.=
+    Clouded Yellow (_Edusa_)
+    Brimstone (_Rhamni_)
+    Queen of Spain (_Latona_)
+    Comma (_C-Album_)
+    Large Tortoiseshell (_Polychloros_)
+    Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticae_)
+    Peacock (_Io_)
+    Camberwell Beauty (_Antiopa_)
+    Red Admiral (_Atalanta_)
+    Painted Lady (_Cardui_)
+    Speckled Wood (_Egeria_)
+    Wall (_Megaera_)
+    Grayling (_Semele_)
+    Large Heath (_Tithonus_)
+    Small Heath (_Pamphilus_)
+    Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+    Common Blue (_Icarus_)
+    Clifden Blue (_Bellargus_)
+    Chalk-hill Blue (_Corydon_)
+    Holly Blue (_Argiolus_)
+
+  =Sphinges.=
+    Death's-head Hawk (_Atropos_)
+    Convolvulus Hawk (_Convolvuli_)
+    Humming Bird Hawk (_Stellatarum_)
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Tortrix (_Undulanus_)
+    Crimson Speckled (_Pulchella_)
+    Vapourer (_Antiqua_)
+    Pale Oak Eggar (_Crataegi_)
+    Lesser Lutestring (_Diluta_)
+
+  =Noctuae.=
+    Figure of Eight (_Caeruleocephala_)
+    Small Wainscot (_Fulva_)
+    Bullrush (_Arundinis_)
+    Large Wainscot (_Lutosa_)
+    Frosted Orange (_Ochracea_)
+    Rosy Rustic (_Micacea_)
+    Feathered Brindle (_Australis_)
+    Beautiful Gothic (_Hispidus_)
+    Antler (_Graminis_)
+    Flounced Rustic (_Testacea_)
+    Hedge Rustic (_Cespitis_)
+    Haworth's Minor (_Haworthii_)
+    Anomalous (_Anomala_)
+    Shuttle-shaped Dart (_Puta_)
+    Dark Sword Grass (_Suffusa_)
+    Pearly Underwing (_Saucia_)
+    Turnip (_Segetum_)
+    Heart and Dart (_Exclamationis_)
+    Autumn Rustic (_Glareosa_)
+    Mouse (_Tragopogonis_)
+    Red-lined Quaker (_Lota_)
+    Yellow-lined Quaker (_Macilenta_)
+    Genus _Anchocelis_
+    Genus _Xanthia_
+    Centre-barred Sallow (_Xerampelina_)
+    Double Kidney (_Retusa_)
+    Genus _Polia_
+    Black Rustic (_Nigra_)
+    Green-brindled Crescent (_Oxyacanthae_)
+    Marvel-du-jour (_Aprilina_)
+    Angle Shades (_Meticulosa_)
+    Flame Brocade (_Flammea_)
+    Brindled Green (_Protea_)
+    Genus _Calocampa_
+    Genus _Xylina_
+    Herald (_Libatrix_)
+    Gold Spot (_Festucae_)
+    Silver Y (_Gamma_)
+    Scarce Bordered Straw (_Armigera_)
+    Clifden Nonpareil (_Fraxini_)
+    Buttoned Snout (_Rostralis_)
+
+  =Geometrae.=
+    Bordered Beauty (_Apiciaria_)
+    Brimstone (_Luteolata_)
+    Genus _Eugonia_
+    November (_Dilutata_)
+    Autumnal (_Filigrammaria_)
+    Juniper Pug (_Sobrinata_)
+    Shaded Broad Bar (_Variata_)
+    Slender-striped Rufous (_Lapidata_)
+    Tissue (_Dubitata_)
+    Carpets (_Siderata_, _Miata_, _Immanata_)
+    Chevron (_Testata_)
+    Mallow (_Cervinata_)
+    Streak (_Spartiata_)
+
+
+OCTOBER
+
+As there is very little winged life this month, and the larvae have
+nearly all sought out their winter quarters, special attention may be
+given to pupae. The earlier this work is started after the insects have
+completed their change the better. If left late, many pupae will have
+been destroyed by floods, moles, &c., and a prolonged series of frosty
+days may render digging unproductive if not impossible. Again, it must
+be remembered that some larvae are not yet down, and by digging at the
+roots of the trees on which they are feeding, you are preparing an
+acceptable bed for the late species, for the pupae of which you may call
+again in about a month.
+
+Larvae may be obtained by beating and searching as before, but this work
+should be done as early in the month as possible, since but few are
+feeding after the first week or so.
+
+Butterfly catching is now practically over, only a few of the late
+species and the hybernators being on the wing, and these only on mild
+days.
+
+_Noctuae_ are still attracted by sugar and ivy blossom, and a few may be
+found at rest. _Geometrae_ and Micros may be taken from palings and tree
+trunks by day, or caught flying at dusk.
+
+The imagines of October may include the following butterflies:
+
+  Brimstone (_Rhamni_)
+  Pale Clouded Yellow (_Hyale_)
+  Clouded Yellow (_Edusa_)
+  Comma (_C-Album_)
+  Large Tortoiseshell (_Polychloros_)
+  Small Tortoiseshell (_Urticae_)
+  Peacock (_Io_)
+  Camberwell Beauty (_Antiopa_)
+  Red Admiral (_Atalanta_)
+  Painted Lady (_Cardui_)
+  Small Copper (_Phl[oe]as_)
+
+And a few late 'Blues.'
+
+The principal moths of the month are:
+
+  =Sphinges.=
+    Death's-head Hawk (_Atropos_)
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    Plumed Prominent (_Plumigera_)
+
+  =Noctuae.=
+    Large Wainscot (_Lutosa_)
+    Red-lined Quaker (_Lota_)
+    Yellow-lined Quaker (_Macilenta_)
+    Beaded Chestnut (_Pistacina_)
+    Brown-spot Pinion (_Litura_)
+    Chestnut (_Vaccinii_)
+    Dark Chestnut (_Spadicea_)
+    Red-headed Chestnut (_Erythrocephala_)
+    Satellite (_Satellitia_)
+    Dotted Chestnut (_Rubiginea_)
+    Orange Upperwing (_Croceago_)
+    Brick (_Circellaris_)
+    Brindled Ochre (_Templi_)
+    Green Brindled Crescent (_Oxyacanthae_)
+    Marvel-du-jour (_Aprilina_)
+    Angle Shades (_Meticulosa_)
+    Flame Brocade (_Flammea_)
+    Red Sword-grass (_Vetusta_)
+    Sword-grass (_Exolita_)
+    Genus _Xylina_
+    Sprawler (_Sphinx_)
+    Silver Y (_Gamma_)
+
+  =Geometrae.=
+    Feathered Thorn (_Pennaria_)
+    Vestal (_Sacraria_)
+    Scarce Umber (_Aurantiaria_)
+    Mottled Umber (_Defoliaria_)
+    Winter (_Brumata_)
+    Northern Winter (_Boreata_)
+    November (_Dilutata_)
+    Juniper Carpet (_Juniperata_)
+    Gem (_Fluviata_)
+    Carpets (_Siderata_, _Miata_)
+    Mallow (_Cervinata_)
+    Streak (_Spartiata_)
+
+
+NOVEMBER
+
+No butterflies are to be seen this month with the exception of the
+hybernating species, and even these will not venture on the wing unless
+the weather is mild and bright for the season.
+
+Most of the moths met with are also hybernators, but a few species are
+to be found only at this season, and these should be looked for on
+fences and tree trunks. A few _Noctuae_ may be taken at sugar, and the
+_Geometrae_ attracted by lights.
+
+The only larvae now existing are hybernators, and many of these may be
+met with during your pupa-digging operations; but they are best left
+alone till the spring, as a rule.
+
+The chief work of the entomologist in November is certainly pupa
+hunting, and this may be carried on in real earnest whenever the weather
+is favourable, following the instructions given in Chapter VII.
+
+It will be remembered, also, that many of the _Lepidoptera_ pass the
+winter in the egg state, and search may be made for ova when time
+permits.
+
+The November list, besides some of the hybernating species previously
+mentioned, include:
+
+  =Bombyces.=
+    December (_Populi_)
+
+  =Noctuae.=
+    Genus _Cerastis_
+    Satellite (_Satellitia_)
+    Dotted Chestnut (_Rubiginea_)
+    Orange Upperwing (_Croceago_)
+    Brindled Ochre (_Exempli_)
+
+  =Geometrae.=
+    Feathered Thorn (_Pennaria_)
+    Scarce Umber (_Aurantiaria_)
+    Mottled Umber (_Defoliaria_)
+    Winter (_Brumata_)
+    Northern Winter (_Boreata_)
+
+
+DECEMBER
+
+Outdoor work is now at a minimum. The weather is too severe, as a rule,
+to allow pupa digging to be carried on with either success or comfort,
+but favourable opportunities should be seized for this employment as
+well as for ova collecting.
+
+Now and again we may meet with _P. Populi_ at rest by day, or fluttering
+round a light at night. _Brumata_ and _Defoliaria_ may also be seen, and
+the Early Moth (_Rupicapraria_) may appear on the wing before the new
+year; but nothing is likely to be met with beyond these save the
+hybernators, already named in other lists, and some of the _Tineae_.
+
+It is a good plan to utilise your spare time during the dreary months of
+winter by attending to your cabinet. Rearrange your specimens where
+necessary, and see that all are properly labelled; remove all greasy
+specimens, and deal with them as recommended on page 127; also renew the
+supply of camphor or naphthaline in your drawers and store boxes. Time
+may also be found for the construction of apparatus that is likely to be
+required next season, and for repairing any that has been damaged during
+the work of the last.
+
+
+
+
+COLOURED PLATES
+
+
+PLATE I (_Frontispiece_)
+
+  1. SWALLOW-TAIL (_Papilio Machaon_).
+  2. BLACK-VEINED WHITE (_Aporia Crataegi_).
+  3. LARGE WHITE (_Pieris Brassicae_). Female.
+  4. SMALL WHITE (_Pieris Rapae_). Male.
+  5. GREEN-VEINED WHITE (_Pieris Napi_). Under side.
+  6. BATH WHITE (_Pieris Daplidice_). Female.
+  7. ORANGE TIP (_Euchlo[:e] Cardamines_). Male.
+  8. ORANGE TIP (_Euchlo[:e] Cardamines_). Male. Under side.
+
+PLATE II
+
+  1. WOOD WHITE (_Leucophasia Sinapis_).
+  2. PALE CLOUDED YELLOW (_Colias Hyale_).
+  3. CLOUDED YELLOW (_Colias Edusa_). Male.
+  4. BRIMSTONE (_Gonopteryx Rhamni_). Male.
+  5. SMALL PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Selene_).
+  6. PEARL-BORDERED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Euphrosyne_).
+  7. QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Latona_).
+  8. DARK-GREEN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Aglaia_).
+
+PLATE III
+
+  1. HIGH BROWN FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Adippe_). Under side.
+  2. SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_).
+  3. GREASY FRITILLARY (_Melitaea Aurinia_).
+  4. GLANVILLE FRITILLARY (_Melitaea Cinxia_).
+  5. HEATH FRITILLARY (_Melitaea Athalia_).
+  6. HEATH FRITILLARY (_Melitaea Athalia_). Under side.
+  7. COMMA (_Vanessa C-Album_).
+  8. LARGE TORTOISESHELL (_Vanessa Polychloros_).
+  9. SMALL TORTOISESHELL (_Vanessa Urticae_).
+
+
+PLATE IV
+
+  1. PEACOCK (_Vanessa Io_).
+  2. CAMBERWELL BEAUTY (_Vanessa Antiopa_).
+  3. RED ADMIRAL (_Vanessa Atalanta_).
+  4. PAINTED LADY (_Vanessa Cardui_).
+  5. WHITE ADMIRAL (_Limenitis Sibylla_).
+
+PLATE V
+
+  1. PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_). Male.
+  2. MARBLED WHITE (_Melanargia Galatea_).
+  3. SMALL RINGLET (_Erebia Epiphron_).
+  4. NORTHERN BROWN (_Erebia AEthiops_).
+  5. WOOD ARGUS (_Pararge Egeria_).
+  6. WALL BUTTERFLY (_Pararge Megaera_).
+  7. GRAYLING (_Satyrus Semele_). Female.
+  8. MEADOW BROWN (_Epinephele Ianira_). Female.
+  9. LARGE HEATH (_Epinephele Tithonus_). Male.
+  10. RINGLET (_Epinephele Hyperanthus_).
+
+PLATE VI
+
+  1. MARSH RINGLET (_Caenonympha Typhon_).
+  2. SMALL HEATH (_Caenonympha Pamphilus_).
+  3. BROWN HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla Betulae_). Under side.
+  4. WHITE-LETTER HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla W-album_). Under side.
+  5. DARK HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla Pruni_). Under side.
+  6. PURPLE HAIRSTREAK (_Thecla Quercus_). Under side.
+  7. GREEN HAIRSTREAK(_Thecla Rubi_). Under side.
+  8. LARGE COPPER (_Polyommatus Dispar_). Male.
+  9. SMALL COPPER (_Polyommatus Phlaeas_).
+  10. TAILED BLUE (_Lycaena Baetica_).
+  11. SILVER-STUDDED BLUE (_Lycaena AEgon_). Male.
+  12. SILVER-STUDDED BLUE (_Lycaena AEgon_). Female.
+  13. BROWN ARGUS (_Lycaena Astrarche_).
+  14. BROWN ARGUS (_Lycaena Astrarche_). Under side.
+  15. COMMON BLUE (_Lycaena Icarus_). Male.
+  16. COMMON BLUE (_Lycaena Icarus_). Female.
+  17. CLIFDEN BLUE (_Lycaena Bellargus_). Male.
+  18. CLIFDEN BLUE (_Lycaena Bellargus_). Female.
+
+PLATE VII
+
+   1. CHALK-HILL BLUE (_Lycaena Corydon_). Male.
+   2. CHALK-HILL BLUE (_Lycaena Corydon_). Female.
+   3. HOLLY BLUE (_Lycaena Argiolus_). Male.
+   4. HOLLY BLUE (_Lycaena Argiolus_). Female.
+   5. MAZARINE BLUE (_Lycaena Semiargus_). Male.
+   6. MAZARINE BLUE (_Lycaena Semiargus_). Female.
+   7. SMALL BLUE (_Lycaena Minima_).
+   8. LARGE BLUE (_Lycaena Arion_).
+   9. DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_).
+  10. DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_). Under side.
+  11. GRIZZLED SKIPPER (_Syrichthus Malvae_).
+  12. DINGY SKIPPER (_Nisoniades Tages_).
+  13. SMALL SKIPPER (_Hesperia Thaumas_).
+  14. LULWORTH SKIPPER (_Hesperia Actaeon_). Male.
+  15. LARGE SKIPPER (_Hesperia Sylvanus_). Male.
+  16. SILVER-SPOTTED SKIPPER (_Hesperia Comma_).
+  17. CHEQUERED SKIPPER (_Carterocephalus Palaemon_).
+  18. NEW SMALL SKIPPER (_Hesperia Lineola_).
+
+PLATE VIII
+
+   1. LARVA OF SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY (_Papilio Machaon_).
+   2. LARVA OF ORANGE TIP (_Euchlo[:e] Cardamines_).
+   3. LARVA OF SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_).
+   4. LARVA OF PEACOCK BUTTERFLY (_Vanessa Io_).
+   5. LARVA OF PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_).
+   6. LARVA OF DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_).
+   7. PUPA OF SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY (_Papilio Machaon_).
+   8. PUPA OF ORANGE TIP (_Euchlo[:e] Cardamines_).
+   9. PUPA OF SILVER-WASHED FRITILLARY (_Argynnis Paphia_).
+  10. PUPA OF PURPLE EMPEROR (_Apatura Iris_).
+  11. PUPA OF DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY (_Nemeobius Lucina_).
+  12. PUPA OF DINGY SKIPPER (_Nisoniades Tages_).
+
+PLATE IX
+
+  1. PRIVET HAWK MOTH (_Sphinx Ligustri_).
+  2. SPURGE HAWK (_Deilephila Euphorbiae_).
+  3. LARGE ELEPHANT HAWK (_Ch[oe]rocampa Elpenor_).
+  4. EYED HAWK (_Smerinthus Ocellatus_).
+  5. LIME HAWK (_Smerinthus Tiliae_).
+  6. HUMMING-BIRD HAWK (_Macroglossa Stellatarum_).
+  7. BROAD-BORDERED FIVE-SPOTTED BURNET (_Zygaena Trifolii_).
+
+PLATE X
+
+  1. CINNABAR MOTH (_Euchelia Jacobaeae_).
+  2. WOOD TIGER (_Nemeophila Plantaginis_).
+  3. TIGER (_Arctia Caia_).
+  4. CREAM-SPOT TIGER (_Arctia Villica_).
+  5. OAK EGGAR (_Bombyx Quercus_). Male.
+  6. LAPPET (_Lasiocampa Quercifolia_).
+  7. KENTISH GLORY (_Endromis Versicolor_). Male.
+  8. EMPEROR MOTH (_Saturnia Pavonia_). Male.
+  9. BUFF TIP (_Phalera Bucephala_).
+
+PLATE XI
+
+  1. LARGE YELLOW UNDERWING (_Triphaena Pronuba_).
+  2. MARVEL-DU-JOUR (_Agriopis Aprilina_).
+  3. SMALL ANGLE SHADES (_Euplexia Lucipara_).
+  4. MOTHER SHIPTON (_Euclidia Mi_).
+  5. CLIFDEN NONPAREIL (_Catocala Fraxini_).
+  6. DARK CRIMSON UNDERWING (_Catocala Sponsa_).
+
+PLATE XII
+
+  1. HERALD (_Gonoptera Libatrix_).
+  2. SWALLOW-TAIL MOTH (_Uropteryx Sambucaria_).
+  3. BRIMSTONE MOTH (_Rumia Luteolata_).
+  4. SCALLOPED OAK (_Crocallis Elinguaria_).
+  5. BRINDLED BEAUTY (_Biston Hirtaria_).
+  6. WAVED UMBER (_Hemerophila Abruptaria_).
+  7. MAIDEN'S BLUSH (_Zonosoma Punctaria_).
+  8. MOTTLED UMBER (_Hybernia Defoliaria_).
+  9. TREBLE BAR (_Anaitis Plagiata_).
+
+[Illustration: Plate II.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate III.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate IV.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate V.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VI.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VII.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate VIII.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate IX.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate X.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XI.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+[Illustration: Plate XII.
+
+_Danielsson & Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chromolith._]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Abbreviata, 284
+
+  Abraxas, 279
+
+  Abruptaria, 273
+
+  Acherontia, 204
+
+  Acidalia, 275
+
+  Acidaliidae, 275
+
+  Aciptilia, 295
+
+  Acronycta, 240
+
+  Actaeon, 199
+
+  Adela, 304
+
+  Adippe, 159
+
+  Admiral, Red, 168
+
+  Admiral, White, 170
+
+  AEgon, 189
+
+  AEscularia, 281
+
+  AEthiops, 175
+
+  Aglaia, 158
+
+  Aglossa, 291
+
+  Agriopis, 258
+
+  Agrotis, 250
+
+  Albulata, 283
+
+  Alucita, 295
+
+  Amataria, 276
+
+  Amphidasydae, 271
+
+  Amphidasys, 272
+
+  Amphipyridae, 254
+
+  Anaitis, 289
+
+  Angle Shades, 258
+
+  Anisopteryx, 281
+
+  Antennae, 5
+
+  Antiopa, 167
+
+  Antiqua, 228
+
+  Antithesia, 301
+
+  Apamea, 247
+
+  Apameidae, 244
+
+  Apatura, 171
+
+  Apiformis, 213
+
+  Aplecta, 259
+
+  Aporia, 141
+
+  Aprilina, 258
+
+  Arctia, 221
+
+  Areola, 261
+
+  Argiolus, 193
+
+  Argus, Brown, 189
+
+  Argus, Wood, 175
+
+  Argynnis, 154
+
+  Arion, 194
+
+  Arrangement of specimens, 136
+
+  Arundinis, 243
+
+  Asphalia, 238
+
+  Astrarche, 189
+
+  Atalanta, 168
+
+  Athalia, 163
+
+  Atomaria, 278
+
+  Atropos, 204
+
+  August Thorn, 271
+
+  Aurella, 306
+
+  Aurinia, 161
+
+  Aversata, 276
+
+  Axylia, 245
+
+
+  Baetica, 188
+
+  Bapta, 277
+
+  Basilinea, 247
+
+  Bath White, 146
+
+  Batis, 237
+
+  Beating for moths, 83
+
+  Beautiful Carpet, 286
+
+  Beautiful China Mark, 293
+
+  Bellargus, 191
+
+  Betulae, 183
+
+  Betularia, 272
+
+  Bicolorata, 285
+
+  Bifida, 234
+
+  Bilineata, 287
+
+  Binaria, 232
+
+  Biston, 271
+
+  Black Arches, 227
+
+  Black Hairstreak, 184
+
+  Black-veined White, 141
+
+  Blood Vein, 276
+
+  Blue-bordered Carpet, 285
+
+  Blue Chalk Hill, 192
+
+  ---- Clifden, 191
+
+  ---- Common, 190
+
+  ---- Holly, 193
+
+  ---- Large, 194
+
+  ---- Mazarine, 193
+
+  ---- Silver-studded, 189
+
+  ---- Small, 194
+
+  ---- Tailed, 188
+
+  Boarmia, 273
+
+  Boarmiidae, 272
+
+  Bombyces, 217
+
+  Bombycidae, 229
+
+  Bombycoidae, 240
+
+  Bombyx, 229
+
+  Bordered White, 279
+
+  Botys, 293
+
+  Brassicae (_Pieris_), 142
+
+  Brassicae (_Mamestra_), 246
+
+  Bright-line Brown-eye, 260
+
+  Brimstone Butterfly, 152
+
+  Brimstone Moth, 269
+
+  Brindled Beauty, 271
+
+  Brindled Pug, 284
+
+  Broad-barred White, 257
+
+  ---- bordered Bee Hawk, 211
+
+  ---- ---- Five spotted Burnet, 215
+
+  Brown Argus, 189
+
+  ---- Hairstreak, 183
+
+  ---- line Bright-eye, 242
+
+  ---- Meadow, 178
+
+  ---- Northern, 175
+
+  ---- Tail, 226
+
+  Bryophila, 239
+
+  Bryophilidae, 239
+
+  Bucephala, 236
+
+  Buff Ermine, 222
+
+  ---- Tip, 236
+
+  Bullrush, 243
+
+  Bupalus, 279
+
+  Burnets, 215
+
+  Burnished Brass, 263
+
+  Butterflies--British, 139
+
+  ---- antennae of, 5
+
+  ---- body, 3
+
+  ---- catching, 64
+
+  ---- eye, 3
+
+  ---- legs, 8, 10
+
+  ---- proboscis, 6
+
+  ---- wings, 2, 8
+
+
+  Cabbage Moth, 246
+
+  Cabera, 277
+
+  Caberidae, 276
+
+  Cabinets, 134
+
+  Caia, 221
+
+  Callimorpha, 220
+
+  C-Album, 164
+
+  Calymnia, 256
+
+  Camberwell Beauty, 167
+
+  Camelina, 235
+
+  Camptogramma, 287
+
+  Caradrina, 249
+
+  Caradrinidae, 248
+
+  Cardamines, 148
+
+  Cardui, 169
+
+  Carpocapsa, 302
+
+  Carterocephalus, 201
+
+  Catching Butterflies, 64
+
+  ---- moths, 82, 85
+
+  Caterpillar state, 22
+
+  Catocala, 265
+
+  Catocalidae, 265
+
+  Cerastis, 256
+
+  Chalk-hill Blue, 192
+
+  Cheloniidae, 220
+
+  Chequered Skipper, 201
+
+  Chestnut, 256
+
+  Chilo, 296
+
+  Chinese Character, 233
+
+  Chloroform bottle, 72
+
+  Chocolate Tip, 237
+
+  Ch[oe]rocampa, 207
+
+  Chrysalis state, 44
+
+  Chrysitis, 263
+
+  Chrysorrh[oe]a, 226
+
+  Cidaria, 288
+
+  Cilix, 233
+
+  Cinnabar, 219
+
+  Cinxia, 162
+
+  Cirsiana, 301
+
+  Classification of Lepidoptera, 55
+
+  Clearwings, 212
+
+  Clifden Blue, 191
+
+  Clifden Nonpareil, 265
+
+  Clouded Silver, 277
+
+  Clouded Yellow, 151
+
+  C[oe]nonympha, 181
+
+  Coleophora, 305
+
+  Colias, 149
+
+  Collecting box, 73
+
+  Collecting larvae, 101
+
+  ---- ova, 99
+
+  ---- pupae, 108
+
+  Comes, 253
+
+  Comma, 164, 200
+
+  Common Blue, 190
+
+  ---- Carpet, 286
+
+  Common Emerald, 274
+
+  ---- Footman, 219
+
+  ---- Heath, 278
+
+  ---- Quaker, 255
+
+  ---- Swift, 223
+
+  ---- Wainscot, 243
+
+  ---- Wave, 277
+
+  Complanella, 306
+
+  Conigera, 242
+
+  Copper--Large, 187
+
+  ---- Small, 188
+
+  Corydon, 192
+
+  Cosmiidae, 256
+
+  Cossidae, 224
+
+  Cossus, 224
+
+  Coxcomb Prominent, 235
+
+  Crambi, 296
+
+  Crambus, 297
+
+  Crataegi, 141
+
+  Cream-spot Tiger, 221
+
+  Cristana, 300
+
+  Crocallis, 270
+
+  Cucullatella, 218
+
+  Cucullia, 261
+
+  Cuprella, 304
+
+  Currant Clearwing, 213
+
+  Currant Moth, 279
+
+  Curtula, 237
+
+  Cyanide bottle, 68
+
+  Cymatophoridae, 237
+
+
+  Daplidice, 146
+
+  Dark Crimson Underwing, 266
+
+  Dark Dagger, 241
+
+  Dark Green Fritillary, 158
+
+  Dark Hairstreak, 185
+
+  Death's-head Hawk, 204
+
+  Decoys, 96
+
+  Defoliaria, 281
+
+  Deilephila, 207
+
+  Dentina, 259
+
+  Depressaria, 304
+
+  Dicranura, 234
+
+  Dicranuridae, 233
+
+  Didymata, 283
+
+  Diloba, 241
+
+  Dilutata, 282
+
+  Dingy Skipper, 198
+
+  Dispar, 187, 227
+
+  Diurnea, 303
+
+  Dominula, 220
+
+  Dot, 247
+
+  Drepana, 232
+
+  Drepanulidae, 232
+
+  Drinker, 230
+
+  Duke of Burgundy, 196
+
+  Dun-bar, 256
+
+
+  Early Grey, 261
+
+  Edusa, 151
+
+  Egeria, 175
+
+  Eggs, 16
+
+  Elephant Hawk, 207
+
+  Elinguaria, 270
+
+  Elpenor, 208
+
+  Ematurga, 278
+
+  Emmelesia, 283
+
+  Emperor Moth, 231
+
+  Emperor, Purple, 171
+
+  Endromidae, 231
+
+  Endromis, 231
+
+  Ennomidae, 269
+
+  Entomological pins, 76
+
+  Ephippiphora, 301
+
+  Ephyridae, 275
+
+  Epinephele, 178
+
+  Epiphron, 174
+
+  Erebia, 174
+
+  Erycinidae, 196
+
+  Eubolia, 289
+
+  Euboliidae, 288
+
+  Euchelia, 219
+
+  Eucheliidae, 219
+
+  Euchlo[:e], 148
+
+  Euclidia, 264
+
+  Euclidiidae, 264
+
+  Eugonia, 271
+
+  Euphorbiae, 207
+
+  Euphrosyne, 156
+
+  Eupithecia, 283
+
+  Euplexia, 258
+
+  Eurrhypara, 292
+
+  Exanthemata, 277
+
+  Exclamationis, 250
+
+  Eyed Hawk, 208
+
+
+  Fagella, 303
+
+  Farinalis, 292
+
+  Fidoniidae, 278
+
+  Figure of Eight, 241
+
+  Filipendulae, 215
+
+  Flame, 245
+
+  Flame Shoulder, 252
+
+  Flavago, 256
+
+  Flavicornis, 238
+
+  Flounced Rustic, 246
+
+  Fluctuata, 287
+
+  Forester, 214
+
+  Forficalis, 293
+
+  Fraxini, 265
+
+  Fritillaries, 154
+
+  Fritillary, Dark Green, 158
+
+  ---- Glanville, 162
+
+  ---- Greasy, 161
+
+  ---- Heath, 163
+
+  ---- High Brown, 159
+
+  ---- Pearl-bordered, 156
+
+  ---- Queen of Spain, 156
+
+  ---- Silver-washed, 159
+
+  ---- Small Pearl-bordered, 154
+
+  Galatea, 173
+
+  Galleria, 298
+
+  Gamma, 264
+
+  Garden Carpet, 287
+
+  Garden Dart, 251
+
+  Garden Pebble, 293
+
+  Gemmaria, 273
+
+  Geoffrella, 305
+
+  Geometra, 274
+
+  Geometrae, 268
+
+  Geometridae, 274
+
+  Ghost Swift, 223
+
+  Gipsy, 227
+
+  Glaucata, 233
+
+  Goat Moth, 224
+
+  Gonodactyla, 294
+
+  Gonoptera, 264
+
+  Gonopteridae, 262
+
+  Gonopteryx, 152
+
+  Gortyna, 244
+
+  Gothic, 254
+
+  Grass Rivulet, 283
+
+  Grayling, 177
+
+  Grease, 127
+
+  Greasy Fritillary, 161
+
+  Green Hairstreak, 186
+
+  Green-chequered White, 146
+
+  Green Silver-lined, 217
+
+  Grizzled Skipper, 197
+
+  Grey Arches, 259
+
+  Grey Dagger, 240
+
+  Grossulariata, 279
+
+
+  Hadena, 259
+
+  Hadenidae, 257
+
+  Hairstreak, Black, 184
+
+  ---- Brown, 183
+
+  ---- Dark, 185
+
+  ---- Green, 186
+
+  ---- Purple, 185
+
+  ---- White-letter, 184
+
+  Halia, 278
+
+  Hamellus, 297
+
+  Harpella, 305
+
+  Hawk Moths, 204
+
+  Heart and Dart, 250
+
+  Heath, Large, 179
+
+  ---- Moth, 278
+
+  Heath, Small, 181
+
+  ---- Fritillary, 163
+
+  Hecatera, 257
+
+  Helice, 151
+
+  Hemerophila, 273
+
+  Hemithea, 274
+
+  Hepialidae, 223
+
+  Hepialus, 223
+
+  Herald Moth, 262
+
+  Hesperia, 198
+
+  Hesperiidae, 197
+
+  Hexadactyla, 295
+
+  High Brown Fritillary, 159
+
+  Hirtaria, 271
+
+  Holly Blue, 193
+
+  Hornet Clearwing of Osier, 213
+
+  Hornet Clearwing of Poplar, 213
+
+  Hortuellus, 297
+
+  Humming-bird Hawk, 210
+
+  Humuli, 223
+
+  Hyale, 149
+
+  Hybernia, 280
+
+  Hyberniidae, 280
+
+  Hydrocampa, 293
+
+  Hylophila, 217
+
+  Hyperanthus, 180
+
+  Hyponomeuta, 304
+
+
+  Ianira, 178
+
+  Ianthina, 252
+
+  Ibipennella, 305
+
+  Icarus, 190
+
+  Ichneumon flies, 25
+
+  Impura, 243
+
+  Ino, 214
+
+  Io, 167
+
+  Iris, 171
+
+
+  Jacobaeae, 219
+
+
+  Kentish Glory, 231
+
+  Killing bottle, 68
+
+  Killing box, 70
+
+
+  Labial palpi, 6
+
+  Lace Border, 275
+
+  Lappet, 230
+
+  Larentia, 283
+
+  Larentiidae, 282
+
+  Large Blue, 194
+
+  Large Copper, 187
+
+  Large Elephant, 208
+
+  Large Emerald, 274
+
+  Large Heath, 179
+
+  Large Skipper, 200
+
+  Large Tortoiseshell, 165
+
+  Large White, 142
+
+  Large Yellow Underwing, 253
+
+  Larvae, 22
+
+  Larvae Beating, 107
+
+  Larvae, blowpipe for, 131
+
+  Larva boxes, 101
+
+  Larva cage, 115
+
+  Larvae collecting, 101
+
+  Larvae, glass for, 114
+
+  Larvae rearing, 113
+
+  Lasiocampa, 230
+
+  Latona, 156
+
+  Laurel box, 70
+
+  Leaf Miners, 33, 303
+
+  Leaf Rollers, 33, 303
+
+  Lecheana, 300
+
+  Legs of Lepidoptera, 8, 10
+
+  Leioptilus, 295
+
+  Leopard Moth, 225
+
+  Lepidoptera--antennae, 5
+
+  ---- body, 3
+
+  ---- classification of, 55
+
+  ---- eggs of, 16
+
+  ---- general characteristics, 1
+
+  ---- legs of, 8, 10
+
+  ---- metamorphoses, 14
+
+  ---- proboscis, 6
+
+  ---- wings, 2, 8
+
+  Lesser Broad Border, 252
+
+  Lesser Yellow Underwing, 253
+
+  Leucania, 242
+
+  Leucaniidae, 242
+
+  Leucophasia, 149
+
+  Leucophaearia, 280
+
+  Libatrix, 262
+
+  Light Arches, 245
+
+  Light Emerald, 270
+
+  Light Traps, 87
+
+  Ligniperda, 224
+
+  Ligustri, 206
+
+  Lime Hawk, 210
+
+  Limenitis, 170
+
+  Limitata, 289
+
+  Lineola, 199
+
+  Liparidae, 226
+
+  Lithosia, 218
+
+  Lithosiidae, 219
+
+  Lithoxylea, 245
+
+  Lobophora, 285
+
+  Lobster Moth, 28
+
+  Lophopteryx, 235
+
+  Lubricipeda, 222
+
+  Lucina, 196
+
+  Lucipara, 258
+
+  Lulworth Skipper, 199
+
+  Luperina, 246
+
+  Lupulinus, 223
+
+  Luteolata, 269
+
+  Lycaena, 183, 188
+
+  Lycaenidae, 183
+
+
+  Macariidae, 278
+
+  Machaon, 139
+
+  Macroglossa, 210
+
+  Maiden's Blush, 275
+
+  Malvae, 197
+
+  Mamestra, 246
+
+  Mania, 254
+
+  Marbled Beauty, 239
+
+  Marbled Minor, 248
+
+  Margaritaria, 270
+
+  Marsh Moth, 281
+
+  Marsh Ringlet, 181
+
+  Marvel-du-jour, 258
+
+  Maura, 254
+
+  Mazarine Blue, 193
+
+  Meadow Brown, 178
+
+  Meal Moth, 292
+
+  Megacephala, 241
+
+  Megaera, 177
+
+  Melanargia, 173
+
+  Melanthia, 285
+
+  Melitaea, 161
+
+  Mellonella, 298
+
+  Menthastri, 222
+
+  Meticulosa, 258
+
+  Metrocampa, 270
+
+  Mi, 264
+
+  Miana, 248
+
+  Micro-lepidoptera, 290
+
+  Minima, 194
+
+  Monacha, 227
+
+  Montanata, 286
+
+  Morpheus, 249
+
+  Mother-of-pearl, 293
+
+  Mother Shipton, 264
+
+  Moths, 203
+
+  ---- antennae of, 5
+
+  ---- catching, 82
+
+  ---- traps, 87
+
+  Mottled Rustic, 249
+
+  Mottled Umber, 281
+
+  Mundana, 218
+
+  Muslin Moth, 218
+
+
+  Nanata, 284
+
+  Napi, 145
+
+  Narrow-winged Pug, 284
+
+  Nebulosa, 259
+
+  Nemeobius, 196
+
+  Nemeophila, 220
+
+  Nepticula, 306
+
+  Nervosa, 304
+
+  Nets, 65, 87, 91
+
+  Netted Pug, 283
+
+  New Small Skipper, 199
+
+  Nigricans, 251
+
+  Nisoniades, 198
+
+  Noctua, 252
+
+  Noctuae, 239
+
+  Noctuidae, 249
+
+  Nola, 218
+
+  Nolidae, 218
+
+  Nonagria, 243
+
+  Northern Brown, 175
+
+  Notodontidae, 235
+
+  November Moth, 282
+
+  Nudaria, 218
+
+  Nupta, 266
+
+  Nycteolidae, 217
+
+  Nymphalidae, 154
+
+
+  Oak Eggar, 229
+
+  Oak Hook Tip, 232
+
+  Ocellatus, 208
+
+  Ochracea, 244
+
+  Ocneria, 227
+
+  Octomaculana, 301
+
+  Odonestis, 230
+
+  Old Lady, 254
+
+  Oleracea, 260
+
+  Oporabia, 282
+
+  Orange Tip, 148
+
+  Orgyia, 228
+
+  Ornata, 275
+
+  Orthosiidae, 255
+
+  Osteodactylus, 295
+
+  Ova collecting, 99
+
+  Ova preserving, 130
+
+
+  Padellus, 304
+
+  Painted Lady, 169
+
+  Palaemon, 201
+
+  Pale Clouded Yellow, 149
+
+  Pallens, 243
+
+  Palpi, 6
+
+  Pamphilus, 181
+
+  Paphia, 159
+
+  Papilio, 139
+
+  Papilionaria, 274
+
+  Papilionidae, 139
+
+  Pararge, 175
+
+  Pavonia, 231
+
+  Peach Blossom, 237
+
+  Peacock, 167
+
+  Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 156
+
+  Pentadactyla, 295
+
+  Penthina, 300
+
+  Peppered Moth, 272
+
+  Perla, 239
+
+  Peronea, 300
+
+  Persicariae, 247
+
+  Phalera, 236
+
+  Phlaeas, 188
+
+  Phlogophora, 258
+
+  Phragmitellus, 296
+
+  Pieridae, 141
+
+  Pinguinalis, 291
+
+  Piniaria, 279
+
+  Pink-barred Sallow, 256
+
+  Pins, 76
+
+  Pionea, 293
+
+  Plagiata, 289
+
+  Plantaginis, 220
+
+  Platyptilia, 294
+
+  Plecta, 252
+
+  Plusia, 263
+
+  Plusiidae, 263
+
+  Polychloros, 165
+
+  Polyommatus, 187
+
+  Poplar Grey, 241
+
+  Poplar Hawk, 209
+
+  Poplar Kitten, 234
+
+  Populi, 209
+
+  Porcellus, 207
+
+  Porthesia, 226
+
+  Potatoria, 230
+
+  Prasinana, 217
+
+  Preserving larvae, 131
+
+  ---- ova, 130
+
+  ---- pupae, 133
+
+  Privet Hawk, 206
+
+  Proboscis, 6
+
+  Pronuba, 253
+
+  Pruni, 185
+
+  Pruniana, 300
+
+  Psi, 240
+
+  Psilura, 227
+
+  Pterophori, 294
+
+  Ptycholoma, 300
+
+  Punctaria, 275
+
+  Pupa state, 44
+
+  Pupae collecting, 108
+
+  ---- digging, 111
+
+  ---- management of, 118
+
+  ---- preserving, 133
+
+  Purple Emperor, 171
+
+  Purple Hairstreak, 185
+
+  Puss Moth, 235
+
+  Putris, 245
+
+  Pygaera, 237
+
+  Pygaeridae, 236
+
+  Pyralides, 291
+
+  Pyralis, 292
+
+  Pyrina, 225
+
+
+  Queen of Spain, 156
+
+  Quercifolia, 230
+
+  Quercinaria, 271
+
+  Quercus (_Bombyx_), 229
+
+  Quercus (_Thecla_), 185
+
+
+  Rapae, 144
+
+  Rearing larvae, 113
+
+  Red Admiral, 168
+
+  Red Underwing, 266
+
+  Relaxing, 125
+
+  Rhamni, 152
+
+  Riband Wave, 276
+
+  Ringlet, 180
+
+  ---- Marsh, 181
+
+  ---- Small, 174
+
+  Rubi, 186
+
+  Rumia, 269
+
+  Ruralis, 293
+
+  Rustic Shoulder-knot, 247
+
+
+  Salicella, 301
+
+  Sambucaria, 268
+
+  Saturnia, 231
+
+  Saturniidae, 231
+
+  Satyridae, 173
+
+  Satyrus, 177
+
+  Scalloped Oak, 270
+
+  Scarlet Tiger, 220
+
+  Sciaphila, 301
+
+  Segetum, 250
+
+  Selene, 154
+
+  Semele, 177
+
+  Semiargus, 193
+
+  Serena, 257
+
+  Sesia, 213
+
+  Sesiidae, 212
+
+  Setting boards, 122
+
+  Shark, 261
+
+  Shears, 259
+
+  Short-cloaked, 218
+
+  Sibylla, 170
+
+  Silaceata, 288
+
+  Silver-ground Carpet, 286
+
+  Silver-spotted Skipper, 200
+
+  Silver-studded Blue, 189
+
+  Silver-washed Fritillary, 159
+
+  Silver Y, 264
+
+  Sinapis, 149
+
+  Six-spot Burnet, 215
+
+  Skippers, 196
+
+  Skipper, Chequered, 201
+
+  ---- Dingy, 198
+
+  ---- Grizzled, 197
+
+  ---- Lulworth, 199
+
+  ---- New Small, 199
+
+  ---- Silver-spotted, 200
+
+  ---- Small, 198
+
+  Sleeving, 116
+
+  Small Angle Shades, 258
+
+  ---- Blue, 194
+
+  ---- Copper, 188
+
+  ---- Elephant, 207
+
+  ---- Heath, 181
+
+  ---- Magpie, 292
+
+  ---- Mallow, 289
+
+  ---- Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 154
+
+  ---- Ph[oe]nix, 288
+
+  ---- Ringlet, 174
+
+  ---- Seraphim, 285
+
+  ---- Skipper, 198
+
+  ---- Tortoiseshell, 166
+
+  ---- White, 144
+
+  Smerinthus, 208
+
+  Smoky Wainscot, 243
+
+  Sociata, 286
+
+  Speckled Wood, 175
+
+  Sphinges, 203
+
+  Sphingidae, 204
+
+  Sphinx, 206
+
+  Spilosoma, 222
+
+  Sponsa, 266
+
+  Spring Usher, 280
+
+  Spurge Hawk, 207
+
+  Stabilis, 255
+
+  Stagnata, 293
+
+  Statices, 214
+
+  Stellatarum, 210
+
+  Store boxes, 135
+
+  Strigata, 274
+
+  Strigilis, 248
+
+  Stuffing insects, 126
+
+  Sugaring, 92
+
+  Sugaring net, 94
+
+  Sugar traps, 96
+
+  Swallow-tail Butterfly, 139
+
+  Swallow-tail Moth, 268
+
+  Swifts, 223
+
+  Sylvanus, 200
+
+  Syrichthus, 197
+
+
+  Tabby, 291
+
+  Taeniocampa, 255
+
+  Tages, 198
+
+  Tailed Blue, 188
+
+  Temerata, 277
+
+  Testacea, 246
+
+  Thaumas, 198
+
+  Thecla, 183
+
+  Thyatira, 237
+
+  Tiger, Common, 221
+
+  ---- Cream-spot, 221
+
+  ---- Scarlet, 220
+
+  ---- Wood, 220
+
+  Tiliae, 210
+
+  Timandra, 276
+
+  Tineae, 303
+
+  Tipuliformis, 213
+
+  Tithonus, 179
+
+  Tortoiseshell, Large, 165
+
+  Tortoiseshell, Small, 166
+
+  Tortrices, 298
+
+  Treble Bar, 289
+
+  Trifolii, 215
+
+  Triphaena, 252
+
+  Tristellus, 297
+
+  Trochilium, 213
+
+  Turnip Moth, 250
+
+  Twin-spot Carpet, 283
+
+  Typhon, 181
+
+  Typica, 254
+
+
+  Umbratica, 261
+
+  Uropterygidae, 268
+
+  Uropteryx, 268
+
+  Urticae, 166
+
+  Urticata, 292
+
+
+  Vaccinii, 256
+
+  Vanessa, 164
+
+  Vapourer Moth, 228
+
+  Vauaria, 278
+
+  Venosata, 283
+
+  Versicolor, 231
+
+  Villica, 221
+
+  Vinula, 235
+
+  Viridana, 299
+
+  V moth, 278
+
+
+  W album, 184
+
+  Wainscots, 243
+
+  Wall Butterfly, 177
+
+  Waved Umber, 273
+
+  White Admiral, 170
+
+  ---- Bath, 146
+
+  ---- Black-veined, 141
+
+  ---- Ermine, 222
+
+  ---- Green-chequered, 146
+
+  ---- Green-veined, 145
+
+  ---- Large, 142
+
+  White-letter Hairstreak, 184
+
+  ---- Marbled, 173
+
+  ---- Small, 144
+
+  ---- Wood, 149
+
+  Willow Beauty, 273
+
+  Wings, 2, 8
+
+  Wood Argus, 175
+
+  Wood Tiger, 220
+
+  Wood White, 149
+
+
+  Xanthia, 256
+
+  Xanthosetia, 302
+
+  Xylinidae, 261
+
+  Xylocampa, 261
+
+  Xylophasia, 245
+
+  Xylosteana, 299
+
+
+  Yellow-horned, 238
+
+  Yellow Shell, 287
+
+
+  Zerenidae, 279
+
+  Zeuzera, 225
+
+  Zoegana, 302
+
+  Zonosoma, 275
+
+  Zygaena, 215
+
+  Zygaenidae, 214
+
+
+  PRINTED BY
+  SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
+  LONDON
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes
+
+Some minor changes have been made to obvious format and punctuation
+inconsistencies. Other inconsistent usages have been retained except
+where obvious typographical errors have been corrected as follows:
+
+Page 97 'dicover' changed to 'discover' (... not being able to discover
+the 'entrance out,' ...)
+
+Page 188 'Polyommatas' changed to 'Polyommatus' (_The Small Copper_
+(_Polyommatas Phlaeas_))
+
+Page 219 'Jacobaea' changed to 'Jacobaeae' (FIG. 112.--THE LARVA OF
+JACOBAEAE.)
+
+Page 263 'rested' changed to 'crested' (The abdomen also is crested)
+
+Page 334 'Rannock' changed to 'Rannoch' (Rannoch Geometer (_Brunneata_))
+
+Page 354 'Ibipenella' change to 'Ibipennella' (Ibipennella, 305)
+
+Page 354 missing page reference added (Ichneumon flies, 25)
+
+Page 355 'Leucophearia' changed to 'Leucophaearia' (Leucophaearia, 280)
+
+Page 356 'Octomacularia' changed to 'Octomaculana' (Octomaculana, 301)
+
+Page 358 'Tryphaena' changed to 'Triphaena' and moved to its alphabetical
+position in the index (Triphaena, 252)
+
+Page 358 'Umbricata' changed to 'Umbratica' (Umbratica, 261)
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS***
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