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diff --git a/34075.txt b/34075.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d0f25b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/34075.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12597 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 3, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 3 + Atrebates to Bedlis + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34075] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENEYC. VOL 1 PART 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they +are listed at the end of the text. + + * * * * * + + +Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron"; +[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above"; +[n.] "n with dot below"; [:a] "a with diaeresis"; and so forth. + +THE + +NEW . GRESHAM + +ENCYCLOPEDIA + +VOLUME . I . PART . 3 + +[Illustration] + +_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING +COMPANY . _Limited_ + +66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND +LONDON W.C.2. +1922 + + * * * * * + + + + + + + +LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS + + * * * * * + +VOLUME I PART 3 + + * * * * * + +PLATES + + Page + + BACTERIA 348 + +MAPS IN COLOUR + + + AUSTRALIA 316 + + * * * * * + + + + + + + +KEY TO PRONUNCIATION + + * * * * * + +The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking +the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of +transliteration, to which the following is the Key:-- + +VOWELS + +[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re. + +[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _a_me, Ger. B_a_hn = a of Indian names. + +[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn. + +a, as in f_a_t. + +[a:], as in f_a_ll. + +_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common +in Indian names. + +[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne. + +e, as in m_e_t. + +[.e], as in h_e_r. + +[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n. + +i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in +French and Italian words. + +_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eu_ne = Ger. long _oe_, as in S_oe_hne, +G_oe_the (Goethe). + +eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _oe_ short. + +[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n. + +o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium. + +[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_. + +[=u] as in t_u_be. + +u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a. + +[u:], as in b_u_ll. + +[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _u_ as in d_u_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in +gr_ue_n, B_ue_hne. + +[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger. +M_ue_ller. + +oi, as in _oi_l. + +ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s. + +CONSONANTS + +Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always +have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. +The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K +being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require +explanation are the following:-- + +ch is always as in ri_ch_. + +_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c. + +g is always hard, as in _g_o. + +_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other +similar gutturals. + +[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_. + +r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally +much more strongly trilled. + +s, always as in _s_o. + +th, as _th_ in _th_in. + +_th_, as _th_ in _th_is. + +w always consonantal, as in _w_e. + +x = ks, which are used instead. + +y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written +l[=e]ny). + +zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_. + + * * * * * + +ATREB'ATES, ancient inhabitants of that part of Gallia Belgica, afterwards +called _Artois_. A colony of them settled in Britain, in a part of +Berkshire and Oxfordshire. + +AT'REK, a river of Asia, forming the boundary between Persia and the +Russian Transcaspian territory, and flowing into the Caspian; length 250 +miles. + +ATREUS (at'r[=u]s), in Greek mythology, a son of Pelops and Hippodam[=i]a, +and grandson of Tant[)a]lus. Atreus was the father of Agamemnon, according +to Homer; other writers call him Agamemnon's grandfather. He succeeded +Eurystheus, his father-in-law, as King of Myc[=e]nae, and in revenge for +the seduction of his wife by his brother Thyestes gave a banquet at which +the latter partook of the flesh of his own sons. Atreus was killed by +Aegisthus, a son of Thyestes. The tragic events connected with this family +furnished materials to some of the great Greek dramatists. + +ATRI (ancient, HADRIA), an episcopal city in the province of Teramo, Italy, +8 miles from the Adriatic. It has an old (thirteenth century) Gothic +cathedral, ruins of ancient Roman walls and buildings, and a palace of the +Agraviva family, who were Dukes of Atri from 1398 to 1775. Pop. 14,043. + +AT'RIPLEX. See _Orache_. + +A'TRIUM, the entrance-hall and most important apartment of a Roman house, +generally ornamented with statues, pictures, and _imagines_ or ancestral +likenesses, which were portrait masks in wax kept in cases. The _atrium_ +formed the reception-room for visitors and clients. It was lighted by the +_compluvium_, an opening in the roof, towards which the roof sloped so as +to throw the rainwater into a cistern in the floor called the _impluvium_. + +In zoology the term is applied to the large chamber or 'cloaca' into which +the intestine opens in the Tunicata. + +AT'ROPA, the nightshade genus of plants. See _Belladonna_. + +AT'ROPHY, a wasting of the flesh due to some interference with the +nutritive processes. It may arise from a variety of causes, such as +permanent, oppressive, and exhausting passions, organic disease, a want of +proper food or of pure air, suppurations in important organs, copious +evacuations of blood, saliva, semen, &c., and it is also sometimes produced +by poisons, for example arsenic, mercury, lead, in miners, painters, +gilders, &c. In old age the whole frame except the heart undergoes atrophic +change, and it is of frequent occurrence in infancy as a consequence of +improper, unwholesome food, exposure to cold, damp, or impure air, &c. +Single organs or parts of the body may be affected irrespective of the +general state of nutrition; thus local atrophy may be superinduced by +palsies, the pressure of tumours upon the nerves of the limbs, or by +artificial pressure, as in the feet of Chinese ladies. + +AT'ROPIN, or AT'ROPINE, a crystalline alkaloid obtained from the deadly +nightshade (_Atr[)o]pa Belladonna_). It is very poisonous, and produces +persistent dilation of the pupil. + +AT'ROPOS, the eldest of the three Fates (the others being Clotho and +Lach[)e]sis), who cuts the thread of life with her shears. + +ATTACHE (at'a-sh[=a]), a junior member of the diplomatic services attached +to an embassy or legation. + +ATTACH'MENT, in English law, a taking of the person, goods, or estate by +virtue of a writ or precept. It is distinguished from an _arrest_ by +proceeding out of a higher court by precept or writ, whereas the latter +proceeds out of an inferior court by precept only. An arrest lies only +against the body of a man, whereas an attachment lies often against the +goods only, and sometimes against the body and goods. It differs from a +_distress_ in that an attachment does not extend to lands, while a distress +cannot touch the body.--_Foreign attachment_ answers to what in Scotland is +termed arrestment, by means of which a creditor may obtain the security of +the goods or other personal property of his debtor in the hands of a third +person for the purpose of enforcing the appearance of the debtor to answer +to an action, and afterwards, upon his continued default, of obtaining the +property absolutely in satisfaction of the demand. + +ATTACK', the opening act of hostility by a force seeking to dislodge an +enemy from its position. It is considered more advantageous to offer than +to await attack, even in a defensive war. The historic forms of attack are: +(1) the parallel; (2) the form in which both wings attack and the centre is +kept back; (3) the form in which the centre is pushed forward and the wings +kept back; (4) the famous oblique mode, dating at least from Epaminondas, +and employed by Frederick the Great, where one wing advances to engage, +whilst the other is kept back, and occupies the attention of the enemy by +pretending an attack. Napoleon preferred to mass heavy columns against an +enemy's centre. The forms of attack have changed with the weapons used. In +the days of the pike heavy masses were the rule, but the use of the musket +led to an extended battle-front to give effect to the fire. The advance in +long and slender lines which grew out of this has been not less famous in +the annals of British attack than the square formation in those of defence. +In the European War (1914-18) the Germans often attacked in mass-formation; +but British attacks were usually carried out by successive _waves_; one +wave secured its objective and consolidated it while another wave passed +through to attack a more advanced objective. Artillery preparation became +of increasingly great importance; it broke down the enemy's wire, +counteracted his artillery-fire, and made his infantry keep under cover. In +trench-to-trench attacks machine-guns and trench-mortars were of great +value, and many casualties were avoided by the skilful use of tanks in the +attack. But it is still a fundamental principle of tactics that the +infantry is the chief factor in the attack, and that no attack can be +considered overwhelmingly successful without the use of the bayonet. + +ATTAIN'DER, the legal consequences of a sentence of death or outlawry +pronounced against a person for treason or felony, the person being said to +be _attainted_. It resulted in forfeiture of estate and 'corruption of +blood', rendering the party incapable of inheriting property or +transmitting it to heirs; but these results now no longer follow. Formerly +persons were often subjected to attainder by a special Bill or Act passed +in Parliament called _Bills of Attainder_, the last being passed in 1798, +in the case of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the Irish rebel leaders. + +ATTAINT', a writ at common law against a jury for a false verdict, finally +abolished in England in 1825. + +ATTALE'A, a genus of American palms, comprising the piassava palm, which +produces coquilla-nuts. + +ATT'ALUS, the names of three kings of ancient Pergamus (241-133 B.C.), the +last of whom bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. They were all patrons of +art and literature. + +AT'TAR, in the East Indies, a general term for a perfume from flowers; in +Europe generally used only of the _attar_ or _otto of roses_, an essential +oil made from _Rosa centifolia_, the hundred-leaved or cabbage-rose, _R. +damasc[=e]na_, or damask-rose, _R. mosch[=a]ta_, or musk-rose, &c., 100,000 +roses yielding only 180 grains of attar. Cashmere, Shiraz, and Damascus are +celebrated for its manufacture, and there are extensive rose farms in the +valley of Kezanlik in Roumelia and at Ghazipur in Benares. The oil is at +first greenish, but afterwards it presents various tints of green, yellow, +and red. It is concrete at all ordinary temperatures, but becomes liquid +about 84deg F. It consists of two substances, a hydrocarbon and an +oxygenated oil, and is frequently adulterated with the oils of rhodium, +sandal-wood, and geranium, with the addition of camphor or spermaceti. + +AT'TERBURY, Francis, an English prelate, born in 1662, and educated at +Westminster and Oxford. In 1687 he took his degree of M.A., and appeared as +a controversialist in a defence of the character of Luther, entitled, +_Considerations on the Spirit of Martin Luther_, &c. He also assisted his +pupil, the Hon. Charles Boyle, in his famous controversy with Bentley on +the _Epistles of Phalaris_. Having taken orders in 1691 he settled in +London, became chaplain to William and Mary, preacher of Bridewell, and +lecturer of St. Bride's. Controversy was congenial to him, and in 1706 he +commenced one with Dr. Wake, which lasted four years, on the rights, +privileges, and powers of convocations. For this service he received the +thanks of the lower house of convocation and the degree of Doctor of +Divinity from Oxford. Soon after the accession of Queen Anne he was made +Dean of Carlisle, aided in the defence of the famous Sacheverell, and wrote +_A Representation of the Present State of Religion_. In 1712 he was made +Dean of Christ Church, and in 1713 Bishop of Rochester and Dean of +Westminster. After the death of the queen in 1714 he distinguished himself +by his opposition to George I; and, having entered into a correspondence +with the Pretender's party, was apprehended in Aug., 1722, and committed to +the Tower. Being banished the kingdom, he settled in Paris, where he +chiefly occupied himself in study and in correspondence with men of +letters. But even here, in 1725, he was actively engaged in fomenting +discontent in the Scottish Highlands. He died in 1731, and his body was +privately interred in Westminster Abbey. His sermons and letters are marked +by ease and grace; but as a critic and a controversialist he is rather +dexterous and popular than accurate and profound. + +ATTERCLIFFE, a parliamentary division of the borough of Sheffield. + +ATTIC, an architectural term variously used. An _Attic base_ is a peculiar +kind of base, used by the ancient architects in the Ionic order and by +Palladio and some others in the Doric. An _Attic story_ is a low story in +the upper part of a house rising above the main portion of the building. In +ordinary language an attic is an apartment lighted by a window in the roof. + +AT'TICA, a State of ancient Greece, the capital of which is Athens. The +territory was triangular in shape, with Cape Sunium (Colonna) as its apex +and the ranges of Mounts Cithaeron and Parnes as its base. On the north +these ranges separated it from Boeotia; on the west it was bounded by +Megaris and the Saronic Gulf; on the east by the Aegean. Its most marked +physical divisions consisted of the highlands, midland district, and coast +district, with the two famous plains of Eleusis and of Athens. The +Cephissus and Ilissus, though small, were its chief streams; its principal +hills, Cithaeron, Parnes, Hymettus, Pentelicus, and Laurium. Its soil has +probably undergone considerable deterioration, but produced good fruit, +especially olives and figs. These are still cultivated, as well as the vine +and cereals, but Attica is better suited for pasture than tillage. +According to tradition the earliest inhabitants of Attica lived in a savage +manner until the time of Cecrops, who came, 1550 B.C., with a colony from +Egypt, taught them all the essentials of civilization, and founded Athens. +One of Cecrops' descendants founded eleven other cities in the regions +round, and there followed a period of mutual hostility. To Theseus is +assigned the honour of uniting these cities in a confederacy, with Athens +as the capital, thus forming the Attic State. After the death of Codrus, +1068 B.C., the monarchy was abolished, and the government vested in archons +elected by the nobility, at first for life, in 752 B.C. for ten years, and +in 683 B.C. for one year only. The severe constitution of Draco was +succeeded in 594 by the milder code of Solon, the democratic elements of +which, after the brief tyranny of the Pisistratids, were emphasized and +developed by Clisthenes. He divided the people into ten classes, and made +the Senate consist of 500 persons, establishing as the Government an +oligarchy modified by popular control. Then came the splendid era of the +Persian War, which elevated Athens to the summit of fame. Miltiades at +Marathon, and Themistocles at Salamis, conquered the Persians by land and +by sea. The chief external danger being removed, the rights of the people +were enlarged; the archons and other magistrates were chosen from all +classes without distinction. The period from the Persian War to the time of +Alexander (500 to 336 B.C.) was most remarkable for the development of the +Athenian constitution. Attica appears to have contained a territory of +nearly 850 sq. miles, with some 500,000 inhabitants, 360,000 of whom were +slaves, while the inhabitants of the city numbered 180,000. Cimon and +Pericles (444 B.C.) raised Athens to its point of greatest splendour, +though under the latter began the Peloponnesian War, which ended with the +conquest of Athens by the Lacedaemonians. The succeeding tyranny of the +Thirty, under the protection of a Spartan garrison, was overthrown by +Thrasybulus, with a temporary partial restoration of the power of Athens; +but the battle of Cheronaea (338 B.C.) made Attica, in common with the rest +of Greece, a dependency of Macedon. The attempts at revolt after the death +of Alexander were crushed, and in 260 B.C. Attica was still under the sway +of Antigonus Gonatas, the Macedonian king. A period of freedom under the +shelter of the Achaean League then ensued, but their support of Mithridates +led, in 146 B.C., to the subjugation of the Grecian States by Rome. After +the division of the Roman Empire, Attica belonged to the Empire of the East +until, in A.D. 396, it was conquered by Alaric the Goth and the country +devastated. Attica and Boeotia now form a nome or province of the kingdom +of Greece, with a population of 407,063.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Frazer, +_Pausanias's Description of Greece_, vols. ii and v; C. Wordsworth, _Athens +and Attica_. + +AT'TICUS, Titus Pomponius, a Roman of great wealth and culture, born 109 +B.C., and died 32 B.C. On the death of his father he removed to Athens to +avoid participation in the civil war, to which his brother Sulpicius had +fallen a victim. There he so identified himself with Greek life and +literature as to receive the surname Atticus. It was his principle never to +mix in politics, and he lived undisturbed amid the strife of factions. +Sulla and the Marian party, Caesar and Pompey, Brutus and Antony, were +alike friendly to him, and he was in favour with Augustus. Of his close +friendship with Cicero proof is given in the series of letters addressed to +him by Cicero. He married at the age of fifty-three, and had one daughter, +Pomponia, named by Cicero Atticula and Attica. He reached the age of +seventy-seven years without sickness, but, being then attacked by an +incurable disease, ended his life by voluntary starvation. He was a type of +the refined Epicurean, and an author of some contemporary repute, though +none of his works have reached us.--The name Atticus was given to Addison +by Pope, in a well-known passage (Prologue to the _Satires_, addressed to +Dr. Arbuthnot). + +AT'TILA (in Ger. _Etzel_), the famous leader of the Huns, was the son of +Mundzuk, and the successor, in conjunction with his brother Bleda, of his +uncle Roua. The rule of the two leaders extended over a great part of +Northern Asia and Europe, and they threatened the Eastern Empire, and twice +compelled the weak Theodosius II to purchase an inglorious peace. Attila +caused his brother Bleda to be murdered (444), and in a short time extended +his dominion over all the peoples of Germany and exacted tribute from the +Eastern and Western emperors. The Vandals, the Ostrogoths, the Gepidae, and +a part of the Franks united under his banners, and he speedily formed a +pretext for leading them against the Empire of the East. He laid waste all +the countries from the Black to the Adriatic Sea, and in three encounters +defeated the Emperor Theodosius, but could not take Constantinople. Thrace, +Macedonia, and Greece all submitted to the invader, who destroyed seventy +flourishing cities; and Theodosius was obliged to purchase a peace. Turning +to the west, the 'scourge of God', as his defeated enemies termed him, +crossed with an immense army the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Seine, came to +the Loire, and laid siege to Orleans. The inhabitants of this city repelled +the first attack, and the united forces of the Romans under Aetius, and of +the Visigoths under their king, Theodoric, compelled Attila to raise the +siege. He retreated to Champagne, and waited for the enemy in the plains of +Chalons. In apparent opposition to the prophecies of the soothsayers the +ranks of the Romans and Goths were broken; but when the victory of Attila +seemed assured, the Gothic prince Thorismond, the son of Theodoric, poured +down from the neighbouring height upon the Huns, who were defeated with +great slaughter. Rather irritated than discouraged, he sought in the +following year a new opportunity to seize upon Italy, and demanded Honoria, +the sister of Valentinian III, in marriage, with half the kingdom as a +dowry. When this demand was refused he conquered and destroyed Aquileia, +Padua, Vicenza, Verona, and Bergamo, laid waste the plains of Lombardy, and +was marching on Rome when Pope Leo I went with the Roman ambassadors to his +camp and succeeded in obtaining a peace. Attila went back to Hungary, and +died on the night of his marriage with Hilda or Ildico (453), either from +the bursting of a blood-vessel or by her hand. The description that +Jordanes (or Jornandes) has left us of him is in keeping with his +Kalmuck-Tartar origin. He had a large head, a flat nose, broad shoulders, +and a short and ill-formed body; but his eyes were brilliant, his walk +stately, and his voice strong and well-toned.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Thierry, +_Koenig Attila und seine Zeit_; E. Hutton, _Attila and the Huns_. + +ATTILLY, a village in France. See _Scarpe, Battle of the_. + +ATTLEBOROUGH, a manufacturing town of the United States, in Massachusetts. +Pop. 19,731. + +AT'TOCK, a town and fort in Rawal Pindi district, Punjab, overhanging the +Indus at the point where it is joined by the Kabul River. It is at the head +of the steam navigation of the Indus, and is connected with Lahore by +railway. It is an important post on the military road to the frontier. Pop. +2822. + +ATTOR'NEY, a person appointed to do something for and in the stead and name +of another. An attorney may have _general_ powers to act for another; or +his power may be _special_, and limited to a particular act or acts. A +special attorney is appointed by a deed called a _power_ or _letter of +attorney_, specifying the acts which he is authorized to do. An _attorney +at law_ is a person qualified to appear for another before a court of law +to prosecute or defend any action on behalf of his client. The term in +England was formerly applied especially to those practising before the +supreme courts of common law at Westminster, and corresponded to the term +_solicitor_ used in courts of Chancery; but this distinction was abolished +in 1873, and _solicitor_ is now the regular term for all such legal agents. +In the United States the term is in common use, and is wide enough to +include what in England would be called barristers (or counsel), in +Scotland advocates, having indeed the general sense of lawyer. In America +women are admitted as attorneys. + +ATTORNEY-GENERAL, in England and Ireland, the first law-officer and legal +adviser of the Crown, acting on its behalf in its revenue and criminal +proceedings, carrying on prosecutions in crimes that have a public +character, guarding the interests of charitable endowments, and granting +patents. He is _ex officio_ the leader of the bar, and, as a member of +Parliament, has charge of all Government measures on legal questions. The +Solicitor-General holds a similar position, and may act in his place. In +Scotland the Attorney-General is called Lord-Advocate. There are also +Attorneys-General in the colonies. In the United States he is head of the +Department of Justice. The individual States have also an Attorney-General. + +ATTRAC'TION, the tendency of all material bodies, whether masses or +particles, to approach each other, to unite, and to remain united. Newton +was the first to adopt the theory of a universal attractive force, and to +determine its laws. When bodies tend to come together from sensible +distances the tendency is termed either the attraction of _gravitation_, +_magnetism_, or _electricity_, according to circumstances; when the +attraction operates at insensible distances it is known as _adhesion_ with +respect to surfaces, as _cohesion_ with respect to the particles of a body, +and as _affinity_ when the particles of different bodies tend together. It +is by the attraction of gravitation that all bodies fall to the earth when +unsupported.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Newton, _Principia_; Thomson and Tait, _Natural +Philosophy_; Laplace, _Mecanique Celeste_; Poynting, _The Mean Density of +the Earth_. + +ATTREK. See _Atrek_. + +AT'TRIBUTE, in philosophy, a quality or property of a substance, as +whiteness or hardness. A substance is known to us only as a congeries of +attributes. + +In the fine arts an attribute is a symbol regularly accompanying and +marking out some personage. Thus the caduceus, purse, winged hat, and +sandals are attributes of Mercury, the trampled dragon that of St. George. + +ATTWOOD, George, F.R.S., an English mathematician, born 1746, died 1807, +best known by his invention, called after him _Attwood's Machine_, for +verifying the laws of falling bodies. It consists essentially of a +freely-moving pulley over which runs a fine cord with two equal weights +suspended from the ends. A small additional weight is laid upon one of +them, causing it to descend with uniform acceleration. Means are provided +by which the added weight can be removed at any point of the descent, thus +allowing the motion to continue from this point onward with uniform +velocity. See _Gravitation_. + +ATYS, or ATTIS (at'is), in classical mythology, the shepherd lover of +Cyb[)e]le, who, having broken the vow of chastity which he made her, +castrated himself. In Asia Minor Atys seems to have been a deity, with +somewhat of the same character as Adonis. Catullus has written a celebrated +poem (Carmen 63) on the subject of Attis. + +AUBAGNE ([=o]-b[.a]n-y[.e]), a town in France, department of +Bouches-du-Rhone, with manufactures of cottons, pottery, cloth. Pop. 8800. + +AUBAINE, DROIT D' (drwae d[=o]-b[=a]n). See _Droit d'Aubaine_. + +AUBE ([=o]b), a north-eastern French department; area 2326 sq. miles; pop. +227,745. The surface is undulating, and watered by the Aube, &c. The N. and +N.W. districts are bleak and infertile, the southern districts remarkably +fertile. A large extent of ground is under forests and vineyards, and the +soil is admirable for grain, pulse, and hemp. The chief manufactures are +worsted and hosiery. Troyes is the capital.--The River Aube, which gives +name to the department, rises in Haute-Marne, flows N.W., and after a +course of 113 miles joins the Seine. + +AUBENAS ([=o]b-nae), a town of France, department Ardeche, with a trade in +coal, silk, &c. Pop. 7206. + +AUBER ([=o]-b[=a]r), Daniel Francois Esprit, a French operatic composer, +born 1782, at Caen, in Normandy, died at Paris 1871. He was originally +intended for a mercantile career, but devoted himself to music, studying +under Cherubini. His first great success was his opera _La Bergere +Chatelaine_, produced in 1820. In 1822 he had associated himself with +Scribe as librettist, and other operas now followed in quick succession. +Chief among them were _Masaniello_ or _La Muette de Portici_ (1828), _Fra +Diavolo_ (1830), _Lestocq_ (1834), _L'Ambassadrice_ (1836), _Le Domino +Noir_ (1837), _Les Diamants de la Couronne_ (1841), _Marco Spada_ (1853), +_La Fiancee du Roi de Garbe_ (1864). Despite his success in _Masaniello_, +his peculiar field was comic opera, in which his charming melodies, bearing +strongly the stamp of the French national character, his uniform grace and +piquancy, won him a high place. + +AUBERGINE ([=o]'b[.e]r-zh[=e]n), the fruit of the eggplant (q.v.). + +AUBERVILLIERS ([=o]-b[=a]r-v[=e]l-y[=a]), a suburban locality of Paris, +with a fort belonging to the defensive works of the city. Pop. 37,558. + +AUBIGNE, Merle d'. See _Merle d'Aubigne_. + +AUBIN ([=o]-ba[n.]), a town of Southern France, department of Aveyron, 20 +miles N.E. of Villefranche; mining district: coal, sulphur, alum, and iron. +Pop. 9574. + +AU'BREY, John, F.R.S., an English antiquary, born in Wiltshire in 1625 or +1626, died about 1700. He was educated at Oxford; collected materials for +the _Monasticon Anglicanum_, and afforded important assistance to Wood, the +antiquary. He left large collections of manuscripts, which have been used +by subsequent writers. His _Miscellanies_ (London, 1696) contain much +curious information, but display credulity and superstition. His _Survey of +Surrey_ was incorporated in Rawlinson's _Natural History and Antiquities of +the County of Surrey_, which was published in 1719. + +AU'BURN, the name of many places in America, the chief being a handsome +city of New York State, at the north end of Owasco Lake. It is chiefly +famous for its State prison, large enough to receive 1000 prisoners. In the +town or vicinity various manufactures are carried on. Pop. 36,142.--Another +Auburn is in Maine, on the Androscoggin River, a manufacturing town. Pop. +(1920), 16,985. + +AUBUSSON ([=o]-b[.u]-s[=o]n), a town of the interior of France, department +Creuse, celebrated for its carpets. Pop. 7211. + +AUBUSSON ([=o]-b[.u]-s[=o]n), Pierre d', grand-master of the knights of St. +John of Jerusalem, born in 1423 of a noble French family, served in early +life against the Turks, then entered the order of St. John, obtained a +commandery, was made grand-prior, and in 1476 succeeded the Grand-master +Orsini. In 1480 the Island of Rhodes, the head-quarters of the order, was +invaded by a Turkish army of 100,000 men. The town was besieged for two +months and then assaulted, but the Turks were obliged to retire with great +loss. He died at Rhodes in 1503. + +AUCH ([=o]sh), a town in S.W. France, capital of department Gers; the seat +of an archbishop, with one of the finest Gothic cathedrals in France; +manufactures linens, leather, &c. Pop. 13,638. + +AUCHENIA ([a:]-k[=e]'ni-a). See _Llama_. + +AUCHTERAR'DER, a town, Perthshire, Scotland, with manufactures of tweeds, +tartans, &c. The opposition to the presentee to the church of Auchterarder +(1839) originated the struggle which ended in the formation of the Free +Church of Scotland. Pop. (1921), 3151. + +AUCK'LAND, a town of New Zealand, in the North Island, founded in 1840, and +situated on Waitemata Harbour, one of the finest harbours of New Zealand, +where the island is only 6 miles across, there being another harbour +(Manukau) on the opposite side of the isthmus. At dead low water there is +sufficient depth in the harbour for the largest steamers. The working ship +channel has an average depth of 36 feet, and varies in width from 1 to 2 +miles. The harbour has two good entrances, with a lighthouse; and is +defended by batteries. There are numerous wharves and jetties, and two +graving-docks, one of which--the Calliope Dock, opened in 1887--is one of +the largest in the whole of the Southern Seas. Its site is picturesque, the +streets are spacious, and the public buildings--churches, educational +establishments, including a university college--are numerous and handsome. +It has a large and increasing trade, there being connection with the chief +places on the island by rail, and regular communication with the other +ports of the colony, Australia, and Fiji by steam. It was formerly the +capital of the colony. Pop. (including suburbs) 157,750.--The provincial +district of Auckland forms the northern part of North Island, with an area +of 25,364 sq. miles. Pop. 308,766. The surface is very diversified; +volcanic phenomena are common, including geysers, hot lakes, &c.; rivers +are numerous; wool, timber, kauri-gum, &c., are exported. Much gold has +been obtained in the Thames Valley and elsewhere. + +AUCKLAND, William Eden, Lord, an English statesman, born 1744; educated at +Eton and Oxford, called to the bar 1768, Under-Secretary of State 1772, and +in 1776 a lord of the Board of Trade. In 1778 he was nominated in +conjunction with Lord Howe and others to act as mediator between Britain +and the insurgent American colonies. He was afterwards Secretary of State +for Ireland, Ambassador Extraordinary to France, Ambassador Extraordinary +to the Netherlands, &c. He was raised to the peerage in 1788, and died in +1814. + +AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group of islands about 180 miles S. of New Zealand, +discovered in 1806, and belonging to Britain. They are of volcanic origin +and fertile; and the largest, which is 30 miles by 15, has two good +harbours. There are no settled inhabitants. + +AUCTION is a public sale to the party offering the best price where the +buyers bid against each other, or to the bidder who first accepts the terms +offered by the vendor where he sells by reducing his terms until someone +accepts them. The latter form is known as a _Dutch Auction_. A sale by +auction must be conducted in the most open and public manner possible; and +there must be no collusion on the part of the buyers. Puffing, or mock +bidding, to raise the value by apparent competition, is illegal. + +AUCTIONEER', a person who conducts sales by auction. It is his duty to +state the conditions of sale, to declare the respective biddings, and to +terminate the sale by _knocking down_ the thing sold to the highest bidder. +In Britain an auctioneer must have a licence (for which he pays L10), +renewable annually. Verbal declarations by an auctioneer are not suffered +to control the printed conditions of sale. The Auctioneers' Institute of +the United Kingdom was founded in 1886. + +AU'CUBA, a genus of plants, ord. Cornaceae, one species of which, _A. +japonica_, a laurel-like shrub with spotted leaves, a native of Japan and +China, is now common in ornamental grounds in Europe. The flowers are +dioecious and inconspicuous. For a long time only the female plant, +introduced into Britain from Japan in 1783, was cultivated, but in 1850 the +male was introduced, and the fruit, which consists of beautiful coral-red +berries, is now frequently developed, and adds greatly to the +attractiveness of the plant. _A. himalaica_, also brought to Europe, is +less hardy. + +AUDE ([=o]d), a maritime department in the S. of France; area 2448 sq. +miles, mainly covered by hills belonging to the Pyrenees or the Cevennes, +and traversed W. to E. by a valley drained by the Aude. The loftier +districts are bleak and unproductive; the others tolerably fertile, +yielding good crops of grain. The wines, especially the white wines, are +famous; olives and other fruits are also cultivated. The manufactures are +varied; the trade is facilitated by the Canal du Midi. Carcassonne is the +capital; other towns are Narbonne and Castelnaudary. Pop. 286,552. The +River Aude rises in the Eastern Pyrenees, and, flowing nearly parallel to +the Canal du Midi, falls into the Mediterranean after a course of 130 +miles. + +AUDEBERT ([=o]d-b[=a]r), Jean Baptiste, French engraver and naturalist, +born in 1759, died in 1800; published _Histoire Naturelle des Singes, des +Makis, et des Galeopitheques_; _Histoire des Colibris_, &c.; and began +_Histoire des Grimpereaux et des Oiseaux de Paradis_, finished by +Desray--all finely-illustrated works. + +AU'DENSHAW, a town of England, in Lancashire, 4 miles E. of Manchester, +with cotton-mills, engineering-works, &c. Pop. (1921), 7878. + +AUDIOMETER, an instrument for the measurement of hearing, invented by +Professor D. E. Hughes, of London, in 1879. + +AU'DIPHONE, an acoustic instrument by means of which deaf persons are +enabled to hear. It consists essentially of a fan-shaped plate of hardened +caoutchouc, which is bent to a greater or less degree by strings, and is +very sensitive to sound-waves. When used, the up edge is pressed against +the upper front teeth, with the convexity outward, and the sounds being +collected are conveyed from the teeth to the auditory nerve without passing +through the external ear. + +AU'DIT, an examination into accounts or dealings with money or property, +along with vouchers or other documents connected therewith, especially by +proper officers, or persons appointed for the purpose. Also the occasion of +receiving the rents from the tenants on an estate. + +AU'DITOR, a person appointed to examine accounts, public or private, to see +whether they are correct and in accordance with vouchers. In Britain the +public accounts are audited by the Exchequer and Audit Department, Somerset +House, at the head of it being a comptroller and auditor-general, and an +assistant-comptroller and auditor, with a large staff of clerks. In +Scotland there is an auditor attached to the Court of Session appointed to +tax costs in litigation. + +AUDITORY NERVES. See _Ear_. + +AUDLEY, a town (urban district) of England, in Staffordshire, to the +north-west of the district of The Potteries, with coal and iron mines. Pop. +(1921), 14,751. + +AUDRAN ([=o]-draen), Gerard, a celebrated French engraver, born 1640; +studied at Rome; was appointed engraver to Louis XIV; died at Paris 1703. +He engraved Le Brun's _Battles of Alexander_, two of Raphael's cartoons, +Poussin's _Coriolanus_, &c., and takes a first place among historical +engravers. Other members of the family were successful in the same +profession: Benoit, 1661-1721; Claude _pere_, 1592-1677; Claude _fils_, +1640-84; Germain, 1631-1710; Jean, 1667-1756. + +AU'DUBON, John James, an American naturalist of French extraction, born +near New Orleans in 1775, was educated in France, and studied painting +under David. In 1798 he settled in Pennsylvania, but having a great love +for ornithology he set out in 1810 with his wife and child, descended the +Ohio, and for many years roamed the forests in every direction, drawing the +birds which he shot. In 1826 he came to England, exhibited his drawings in +Liverpool, Manchester, and Edinburgh, and finally published them in an +unrivalled work of double-folio size, with 435 coloured plates of birds the +size of life (_The Birds of America_, 4 vols., 1827-39), with an +accompanying text (_Ornithological Biography_, 5 vols., 8vo, partly written +by Professor Macgillivray). On his final return to America he laboured with +Dr. Bachman on a finely-illustrated work entitled _The Quadrupeds of +America_ (1843-50, 3 vols.). He died at New York in 1851. + +AUERBACH, a manufacturing town of Germany, in Saxony. Pop. 2200. + +AUERBACH (ou'[.e]r-bae_h_), Berthold, a distinguished German author of +Jewish extraction, born 1812, died 1882. He abandoned the study of Jewish +theology in favour of philosophy, publishing in 1836 his _Judaism and +Modern Literature_, and a translation of the works of Spinoza with critical +biography (5 vols., 1841). His later works were tales or novels, and his +_Village Tales of the Black Forest_ (_Schwarzwaelder Dorfgeschichten_), as +well as others of his writings, have been translated into several +languages. Other works: _Barfuessele_, _Joseph im Schnee_, _Edelweiss_, +_Auf der Hoehe_, _Das Landhaus am Rhein_, _Waldfried_, _Brigitta_. + +AUERSTAEDT (ou'[.e]r-stet), battle at, 14th Oct., 1806. See _Jena_. + +AUGEAS ([a:]-j[=e]'as), a fabulous king of Elis, in Greece, whose stable +contained 3000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for thirty years. Hercules +undertook to clear away the filth in one day in return for a tenth part of +the cattle, and executed the task by turning the River Alph[=e]us through +it. Augeas, having broken the bargain, was deposed and slain by Hercules. + +AUGER ([a:]'g[.e]r), an instrument for boring holes considerably larger +than those bored by a gimlet, used by carpenters and joiners, ship-wrights, +&c. + +AUGEREAU ([=o]zh-r[=o]), Pierre Francois Charles, Duke of Castiglione, +Marshal of France, son of a mason, born at Paris 1757. He adopted the life +of a soldier, and by 1796 had reached the rank of general of division in +the army of Italy. At Casale, Lodi, Castiglione, and Arcole he highly +distinguished himself. In 1797 he was at Paris, and was the instrument of +the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th of Fructidor (4th Sept.). In 1799 he was +chosen a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He then obtained the +command of the army in Holland, and fought till the end of the campaign. In +1803 he was appointed to lead the army collected at Bayonne against +Portugal. In 1804 he was named marshal of the empire, and grand officer of +the Legion of Honour. He subsequently took part in the battles of Jena and +Eylau, held a command in Spain, and in July, 1813, led the army in Bavaria +against Saxony, taking part in the battle of Leipzig. On Napoleon's +abdication he submitted to Louis XVIII, who named him a peer. He died 1816. + +AUGHRIM, a village in Co. Galway, Ireland, memorable for the decisive +victory gained in the neighbourhood, 12th July, 1691, by the forces of +William of Orange, under Ginkel, over the Irish and French troops, under +St. Ruth. The total English casualties were about 1700, while the Irish +lost at least 7000 men as well as all their war material. This battle +caused the complete submission of the country. + +AUGIER ([=o]-zhi-[=a]), Emile, noted French dramatist, born 1820, came +young to Paris, entered a lawyer's office, but relinquished law for +literature; elected an academician in 1857, in 1868 a commander of the +Legion of Honour. His first and one of his best dramas was the comedy _La +Cigue_ (1844); among his other works are _L'Aventuriere_, _Gabrielle_, +_Paul Forestier_, _Le Mariage d'Olympe_, _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_, _Les +Effrontes_, _Le Fils de Giboyer_, _Les Lions et les Renards_, _Maitre +Guerin_, _Les Fourchambault_, &c. He died in 1889. + +AUGITE ([a:]'j[=i]t) is the commonest member of the pyroxene group of +minerals; a constituent of many igneous rocks, such as basalt, gabbro, &c. +It crystallizes in short almost rectangular prisms of the monoclinic +system, modifying planes causing cross-sections to be eight-sided. Its +specific gravity is about 3.2; lustre vitreous; hardness sufficient to +scratch glass; colour usually dark. It is a silicate of calcium, magnesium, +iron, and aluminium, and alters in geological time by slow +recrystallization into hornblende, possibly with some loss of calcium. It +may be imitated by the artificial fusion of its constituents. A +transparent, green, non-aluminous variety found at Zillertal, in Tyrol, is +used in jewellery. + +AUGSBURG (ougz'b[u:]r_h_; Lat. _Augusta Vindelicorum_), a city of Bavaria, +at the junction of the Wertach and Lech, antique in appearance, but with +some fine streets, squares, and handsome or interesting buildings, +including a splendid town hall, a lofty belfry (Perlach Tower), cathedral, +with paintings by Domenichino, Holbein, &c.; St. Ulrich's Church; the +bishop's palace, where the Augsburg Confession was presented to the Diet, +afterwards a royal residence; the Fugger Palace, or mansion of the +celebrated Fugger family; the public library; the theatre; the Academy of +Arts; and the Fuggerei, a separate quarter of the city, consisting of +fifty-three small houses, tenanted at a merely nominal rent by indigent +Roman Catholics. Augsburg was a renowned commercial centre in the Middle +Ages, and is still an important emporium of South German and Italian trade; +industries: cotton spinning and weaving, dyeing, woollen manufacture, +machinery and metal goods, books and printing, chemicals, &c. The Emperor +Augustus established a colony here about 12 B.C. In 1276 it became a free +city, and, besides being a great mart for the commerce between the north +and south of Europe, it was a great centre of German art in the Middle +Ages. It early took a conspicuous part in the Reformation. (See next +article.) In 1806 it was incorporated in Bavaria. Pop. (1919), 154,555. + +AUGSBURG CONFESSION, a document which was presented by the Protestants at +the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, to the Emperor Charles V and the Diet, and +being signed by the Protestant States was adopted as their creed. Luther +made the original draft; but as its style appeared too violent it was given +to Melanchthon for amendment. The original is to be found in the imperial +Austrian archives. Afterwards Melanchthon arbitrarily altered some of the +articles, and there arose a division between those who held the original +and those who held the altered Augsburg Confession. The former is received +by the Lutherans, the latter by the German Reformed. + +AU'GURS, a board or college of diviners who, amongst the Romans, predicted +future events and announced the will of the gods from the occurrence of +certain signs. These consisted of signs in the sky, especially thunder and +lightning; signs from the flight and cries of birds; from the feeding of +the sacred chickens; from the course taken or sounds uttered by various +quadrupeds or by serpents; from accidents or occurrences, such as spilling +the salt, sneezing, &c. The answers of the augurs as well as the signs by +which they were governed were called _auguries_, but bird-predictions were +properly termed _auspices_. Nothing of consequence could be undertaken +without consulting the augurs, and by the mere utterance of the words _alio +die_ ('meet on another day') they could dissolve the assembly of the people +and annul all decrees passed at the meeting. + +AU'GUST, the eighth month from January. It was the sixth of the Roman year, +and hence was called _Sext[=i]lis_ till the Emperor Augustus affixed to it +his own name. + +AUGUS'TA, the name of many ancient places, as Augusta Trevirorum, now +_Treves_; Augusta Taurinorum, now _Turin_; Augusta Vindelicorum, now +_Augsburg_; &c. + +AUGUSTA (ou-g[u:]s't[.a]), or AGOS'TA, a seaport in the south-east of +Sicily, 12 miles north of Syracuse. It exports salt, oil, honey, &c. Pop. +17,250. + +AUGUS'TA, capital of Maine, United States, on the River Kennebec, which is +crossed by a bridge and is navigable for small vessels 43 miles from its +mouth, while a dam enables steamboats to ply for 20 miles farther up and +furnishes immense water-power. Pop. (1920), 14,144. + +AUGUSTA, the capital of Richmond county, Georgia, United States, on the +left bank of the Savannah River, 231 miles from its mouth; well built, and +connected with the river by high-level canals; an important manufacturing +centre, having cotton-mills, machine-shops, and railroad works, &c. Pop. +(1920), 52,548. + +AU'GUSTINE (Aurelius Augustinus), ST., a renowned father of the Christian +Church, was born at Tagaste, in Africa, in 354, his mother Monica being a +Christian, his father Patricius a pagan. His parents sent him to Carthage +to complete his education, but he disappointed their expectations by his +neglect of serious study and his devotion to pleasure. A lost book of +Cicero's, called _Hortensius_, led him to the study of philosophy; but +dissatisfied with this he went over to the Manichaeans. He was one of their +disciples for nine years, but left them, went to Rome, and thence to Milan, +where he announced himself as a teacher of rhetoric. St. Ambrose, the +bishop of this city, converted him to the faith of his boyhood, and the +reading of Paul's _Epistles_ wrought an entire change in his life and +character. He retired into solitude, and prepared himself for baptism, +which he received in his thirty-third year from the hands of Ambrose. +Returning to Africa, he sold his estate and gave the proceeds to the poor, +retaining only enough to support him. At the desire of the people of Hippo, +Augustine became the assistant of the bishop of that town, preached with +extraordinary success, and in 395 succeeded to the see. He entered into a +warm controversy with Pelagius concerning the doctrines of free-will, +grace, and predestination, and wrote treatises concerning them, but of his +various works his _Confessions_ is most secure of immortality. He died 28th +Aug., 430, while Hippo was besieged by the Vandals. He was a man of great +enthusiasm, self-devotion, zeal for truth, and powerful intellect, and +though there have been fathers of the Church more learned, none have +wielded a more powerful influence. His doctrine of grace, which was an +important contribution to Christian thought, triumphed at last in the +Reformation and evangelical religion. His writings are partly +autobiographical, as the _Confessions_, partly polemical, homiletic, or +exegetical. The greatest is the _City of God_ (_De Civitate Dei_), a +vindication of Christianity.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Joseph McCabe, _St. Augustine +and his Age_; Nourrisson, _La Philosophie de St. Augustin_. + +AU'GUSTINE, or AUSTIN, ST., the _Apostle of the English_, first Archbishop +of Canterbury, flourished at the close of the sixth century, was sent, in +596, with forty monks by Pope Gregory I to introduce Christianity into +Saxon England, and was kindly received by Ethelbert, King of Kent, whom he +converted, baptising 10,000 of his subjects in one day. In acknowledgment +of his tact and success Augustine received the archiepiscopal pall from the +Pope, with instructions to establish twelve sees in his province, but he +could not persuade the British bishops in Wales to unite with the new +English Church. He died in 604 or 605. Cf. Sir H. H. Howorth, _St. +Augustine of Canterbury_. + +AU'GUSTINS, or AUGUSTINES, members of several monastic fraternities who +follow rules framed by the great St. Augustine, or deduced from his +writings, of which the chief are the Canons Regular of St. Augustine, or +Austin Canons, and the Begging Hermits or Austin Friars. The Austin Canons +were introduced into Britain about 1100, and had about 170 houses in +England and about twenty-five in Scotland. They took the vows of chastity +and poverty, and their habit was a long black cassock with a white rochet +over it, having over that a black cloak and hood. The Austin Friars, +originally hermits, were a much more austere body, went barefooted, and +formed one of the four orders of mendicants. An order of nuns had also the +name of Augustines. Their garments, at first black, were afterwards violet. + +AUGUSTO'VO, a town of Poland, formerly in Russia, in the government of +Suwalki, founded in 1557 by Sigismund II. Pop. 11,797. The battle of +Augustovo was fought between the Russians and the Germans between 14th Sept +and 3rd Oct., 1914. + +AUGUS'TULUS, Romulus, the last of the Western Roman emperors; reigned for +one year (475-6), when he was overthrown by Odoacer and banished. + +AUGUS'TUS, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (originally called Gaius +Octavius), Roman emperor, was the son of Gaius Octavius and Atia, a +daughter of Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar. He was born 63 B.C., and +died A.D. 14. Octavius was at Apollonia, in Epirus, when he received news +of the death of his uncle (44 B.C.), who had previously adopted him as his +son. He returned to Rome to claim Caesar's property and avenge his death, +and now took, according to usage, his uncle's name with the surname +Octavianus. He was aiming secretly at the chief power, but at first he +joined the republican party, and assisted at the defeat of Antony at +Mutina. He got himself chosen consul in 43. Soon after the second +triumvirate was formed between him and Antony and Lepidus, and this was +followed by the conscription and assassination of three hundred Senators +and two thousand knights of the party opposed to the triumvirate. Next year +Octavianus and Antony defeated the republican army under Brutus and Cassius +at Philippi. The victors now divided the Roman world between them, +Octavianus getting the West, Antony the East, and Lepidus Africa. Sextus +Pompeius, who had made himself formidable at sea, had now to be put down; +and Lepidus, who had hitherto retained an appearance of power, was deprived +of all authority (36 B.C.) and retired into private life. Antony and +Octavianus now shared the Empire between them; but while the former, in the +East, gave himself up to a life of luxury, and alienated the Romans by his +alliance with Cleopatra and his adoption of Oriental manners, Octavianus +skilfully cultivated popularity, and soon declared war ostensibly against +the Queen of Egypt. The naval victory of Actium, in which the fleet of +Antony and Cleopatra was defeated, made Octavianus master of the world, 31 +B.C. He returned to Rome, 29 B.C., celebrated a splendid triumph, and +caused the temple of Janus to be closed in token of peace being restored. +Gradually all the highest offices of State, civil and religious, were +united in his hands, and the new title of Augustus was also assumed by him, +being formally conferred by the Senate in 27 B.C. Great as was the power +given to him, he exercised it with wise moderation, and kept up the show of +a republican form of government. Under him successful wars were carried on +in Africa and Asia (against the Parthians), in Gaul and Spain, in Pannonia, +Dalmatia, &c.; but the defeat of Varus by the Germans under Arminius with +the loss of three legions, A.D. 9, was a great blow to him in his old age. +Many useful decrees proceeded from him, and various abuses were abolished. +He gave a new form to the Senate, employed himself in improving the morals +of the people, enacted laws for the suppression of luxury, introduced +discipline into the armies, and order into the games of the circus. He +adorned Rome in such a manner that it was said: "He found it of brick, and +left it of marble". The people erected altars to him, and, by a decree of +the Senate, the month Sextilis was called _Augustus_ (our August). He was a +patron of literature; Virgil and Horace were befriended by him, and their +works and those of their contemporaries are the glory of the _Augustan +Age_. His death, which took place at Nola, plunged the Empire into the +greatest grief. He was thrice married, but had no son, and was succeeded by +his stepson Tiberius, whose mother Livia he had married after prevailing on +her husband to divorce her.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. B. Firth, _Augustus Caesar_ +(in Heroes of the Nations series); E. S. Shuckburgh, _Augustus_. + +AUGUSTUS II (or FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I), Elector of Saxony and King of +Poland, second son of John George III, Elector of Saxony, was born at +Dresden in 1670, died at Warsaw 1733. He succeeded his brother in the +Electorate in 1694, and the Polish throne having become vacant, in 1696, by +the death of John Sobieski, Augustus presented himself as a candidate for +it and was successful. He joined with Peter the Great in the war against +Charles XII of Sweden, invaded Livonia, but was defeated by Charles near +Riga, and at Clissow, between Warsaw and Cracow. In 1704 he was deposed, +and two years later formally resigned the crown to Stanislaus I, now +devoting himself to his Saxon dominions. In 1709, after the defeat of +Charles at Poltava, the Poles recalled Augustus, who united himself anew +with Peter. The two monarchs, in alliance with Denmark, sent troops into +Pomerania, but the Swedish general Steinbock defeated the allies at +Gadebusch, 20th Dec., 1712. The death of Charles XII put an end to the war, +and Augustus concluded a peace with Sweden. A confederation was now formed +in Poland against the Saxon troops, but through the mediation of Peter an +arrangement was concluded by which the Saxon troops were removed from the +kingdom. Augustus now gave himself up to voluptuousness and a life of +pleasure. His Court was one of the most splendid and polished in Europe. +The Poles yielded but too readily to the example of their king, and the +last years of his reign were characterized by boundless luxury and +corruption of manners. His wife left him one son. The Countess of +Koenigsmark bore him the celebrated commander Marshal Saxe (Maurice of +Saxony). + +AUGUSTUS III (or FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II), Elector of Saxony and King of +Poland, son of Augustus II, born at Dresden 1696, succeeded his father as +Elector in 1733, and was chosen King of Poland through the influence of +Austria and Russia. He closely followed the example of his father, +distinguishing himself by the splendour of his feasts and the extravagance +of his Court. He preferred Dresden to Warsaw, and through his long absence +from Poland the government sank into entire inactivity. During the first +Silesian war he formed a secret alliance with Austria. The consequence was +that during the second Silesian war Frederick the Great of Prussia pushed +on into Saxony, and occupied the capital, from which Augustus fled. By the +peace of Dresden, 25th Dec., 1745, he was reinstated in the possession of +Saxony. In 1756 he was involved anew in a war against Prussia. When +Frederick declined his proposal of neutrality he left Dresden, and entered +the camp at Pirna, where 17,000 Saxon troops were assembled. Frederick +surrounded the Saxons, who were obliged to surrender, and Augustus fled to +Poland. On the threat of invasion by Russia he returned to Dresden, where +he died in 1763. His son, Frederick Christian, succeeded him as Elector of +Saxony, and Stanislaus Poniatowski as King of Poland. + +[Illustration: Razor-bill (_Alca torda_)] + +AUK, a name of certain swimming birds, family Alcidae, including the great +auk, the little auk, the puffin, &c. The genus Alca, or auks proper, +contains only two species, the great auk (_Alca impennis_), and the +razor-bill (_Alca torda_). The great auk or gair-fowl, a bird about 3 feet +in length, used to be plentiful in northerly regions, and also visited the +British shores, but has become extinct. Some seventy skins, about as many +eggs, with bones representing perhaps a hundred individuals, are preserved +in various museums. Though the largest species of the family, the wings +were only 6 inches from the carpal joint to the tip, totally useless for +flight, but employed as fins in swimming, especially under water. The tail +was about 3 inches long; the beak was high, short, and compressed; the +head, neck, and upper parts were blackish; a large spot under each eye, and +most of the under parts white. Its legs were placed so far back as to cause +it to sit nearly upright. The razor-bill is about 15 inches in length, and +its wings are sufficiently developed to be used for flight. It is found in +numbers on some parts of the British shores, as the Isle of Man. + +AULAP'OLAY, or ALLEPPI, a seaport on the south-west coast of Hindustan, +Travancore, between the sea and a lagoon, with a safe roadstead all the +year round; exports timber, coir, coconuts, &c. Pop. 24,918. + +AULD LICHTS. See _Presbyterianism_. + +AULIC (Lat. _aula_, a court or hall), an epithet given to a council (the +_Reichshofrath_) in the old German Empire, one of the two supreme courts of +the German Empire, the other being the court of the imperial chamber +(_Reichskammergericht_). It had not only concurrent jurisdiction with the +latter court, but in many cases exclusive jurisdiction, in all feudal +processes, and in criminal affairs, over the immediate feudatories of the +Emperor and in affairs which concerned the imperial Government. + +AU'LIS, in ancient Greece, a seaport in Boeotia, on the strait called +Euripus, between Boeotia and Euboea. See _Iphigenia_. + +AULLAGAS (ou-lyae'gaes), a salt lake of Bolivia, which receives the surplus +waters of Lake Titicaca through the Rio Desaguadero, and has only one +perceptible insignificant outlet, so that what becomes of its superfluous +water is still a matter of uncertainty. + +AULNOY ([=o]-nwae), Countess d', French writer, born 1650, died 1705, was +the author of _Contes des Fees_ (_Fairy Tales_), many of which, such as +_The White Cat_, _The Yellow Dwarf_, &c., have been translated into +English. She also wrote a number of novels, historical memoirs, &c. + +AUMALE ([=o]-mael), a small French town, department of Seine Inferieure, 35 +miles N.E. of Rouen, which has given titles to several notables in French +history.--Jean d'Arcourt, Eighth Count d'Aumale, fought at Agincourt, and +defeated the English at Gravelle (1423).--Claude II, Duc d'Aumale, one of +the chief instigators of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, was killed +1573.--Charles de Lorraine, Duc d'Aumale, was an ardent partisan of the +League in the politico-religious French wars of the sixteenth +century.--Henri-Eugene-Philippe Louis d'Orleans, Duc d'Aumale, son of Louis +Philippe, king of the French, was born in 1822. In 1847 he succeeded +Marshal Bugeaud as Governor-General of Algeria, where he had distinguished +himself in the war against Abd-el-Kader. After the revolution of 1848 he +retired to England; but he returned to France in 1871, and was elected a +member of the Assembly; became Inspector-General of the army in 1879, and +was expelled along with the other royal princes in 1886, but was allowed to +return. Author of a _History of the House of Conde_, &c. He died in 1897. + +AUN'GERVILLE, Richard, known as Richard de Bury (from his birthplace Bury +St. Edmund's), English statesman, bibliographer, and correspondent of +Petrarch, born 1281, died 1345. He entered the order of Benedictine monks, +and became tutor to the Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward III. Promoted to +several offices of dignity, he ultimately became Bishop of Durham, and Lord +Chancellor of England. During his frequent embassies to the Continent he +made the acquaintance of many of the eminent men of the day. He was a +diligent collector of books, and formed a library at Oxford. Author of +_Philobiblon_, printed at Cologne in 1473; _Epistoloe Familiarium_, +including letters to Petrarch, &c. + +AURANGABAD', a town of India, in the territory of the Nizam of Hyderabad, +175 miles from Bombay. It contains a ruined palace of Aurangzib and a +mausoleum erected to the memory of his favourite wife. It was formerly a +considerable trading centre, but its commercial importance decreased when +Hyderabad became the capital of the Nizam. Pop. 34,000. + +AURANGZIB ('ornament of the throne'), one of the greatest of the Mogul +emperors of Hindustan, born in Oct. 1618 or 1619. When he was nine years +old his weak and unfortunate father, Shah Jehan, succeeded to the throne. +Aurangzib was distinguished, when a youth, for his serious look, his +frequent prayers, his love of solitude, his profound hypocrisy, and his +deep plans. In his twentieth year he raised a body of troops by his address +and good fortune, and obtained the government of the Deccan. He stirred up +dissensions between his brothers, made use of the assistance of one against +the other, and finally shut his father up in his harem, where he kept him +prisoner. He then murdered his relatives one after the other, and in 1659 +ascended the throne. Notwithstanding the means by which he had got +possession of power, he governed with much wisdom. Two of his sons, who +endeavoured to form a party in their own favour, he caused to be arrested +and put to death by slow poison. He carried on many wars, conquered +Golconda and Bijapur, and drove out, by degrees, the Mahrattas from their +country. After his death, on 4th March, 1707, the Mogul Empire declined. + +AURANTIA'CEAE, the orange tribe, a nat. ord. of plants, polypetalous +dicotyledons, with leaves containing a fragrant essential oil in +transparent dots, and a superior pulpy fruit, originally natives of India; +examples comprise the orange, lemon, lime, citron, and shaddock. + +AURAY ([=o]-r[=a]), a seaport of North-West France, department Morbihan, +with a deaf and dumb institute, and within 2 miles of St. Anne of Auray, a +famous place of pilgrimage. Pop. 6653. + +AURE'LIAN, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, Emperor of Rome, of humble origin, +was born about A.D. 212, rose to the highest rank in the army, and on the +death of Claudius II (270) was chosen emperor. He delivered Italy from the +barbarians (Alemanni and Marcomanni), and conquered the famous Zenobia, +Queen of Palmyra. He followed up his victories by the reformation of +abuses, and the restoration throughout the Empire of order and regularity. +He lost his life, A.D. 275, by assassination, when heading an expedition +against the Persians. + +AURE'LIUS ANTONI'NUS, Marcus, often called simply MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman +emperor and philosopher, son-in-law, adopted son, and successor of +Antoninus Pius, born A.D. 121, succeeded to the throne 161, died 180. His +name originally was Marcus Annius Verus. He voluntarily shared the +government with Lucius Verus, whom Antoninus Pius had also adopted. Brought +up and instructed by Plutarch's nephew, Sextus, the orator Herodes Atticus, +and L. Volusius Mecianus, the jurist, he had become acquainted with learned +men, and formed a particular love for the Stoic philosophy. A war with +Parthia broke out in the year of his accession, and did not terminate till +166. A confederacy of the northern tribes now threatened Italy, while a +frightful pestilence, brought from the East with the army, raged in Rome +itself. Both emperors set out in person against the rebellious tribes. In +169 Verus died, and the sole command of the war devolved on Marcus +Aurelius, who prosecuted it with the utmost rigour, and nearly exterminated +the Marcomanni. His victory over the Quadi (174) is connected with a famous +legend. Dion Cassius tells us that the twelfth legion of the Roman army was +shut up in a defile, and reduced to great straits for want of water, when a +body of Christians enrolled in the legion prayed for relief. Not only was +rain sent, which enabled the Romans to quench their thirst, but a fierce +storm of hail beat upon the enemy, accompanied by thunder and lightning, +which so terrified them that a complete victory was obtained, and the +legion was ever after called _The Thundering Legion_ (_Legio Fulminatrix_). +After this victory the Marcomanni, the Quadi, as well as the rest of the +barbarians, sued for peace. The sedition of the Syrian governor Avidius +Cassius, with whom Faustina, the empress, was in treasonable communication, +called off the emperor from his conquests, but before he reached Asia the +rebel was assassinated. Aurelius returned to Rome, after visiting Egypt and +Greece, but soon new incursions of the Marcomanni compelled him once more +to take the field. He defeated the enemy several times, but was taken sick +at Sirmium, and died at Vindobona (Vienna) in 180. His only extant work is +the _Meditations_, written in Greek. It has been translated into most +modern languages (into English first by George Long in 1862, and by J. +Jackson in 1906). This may be regarded as a manual of practical morality, +in which wisdom, gentleness, and benevolence are combined in the most +fascinating manner. Many believe it to have been intended for the +instruction of his son Commodus. Aurelius was one of the best emperors Rome +ever saw, although his philosophy and the magnanimity of his character did +not restrain him from the persecution of the Christians, whose religious +doctrines he was led to believe were subversive of good government, and +whom he charged, therefore, with obstinacy, the greatest social crime in +the eyes of Roman authority. Marcus Aurelius was not so much a philosopher +as a seeker after righteousness.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. B. Watson, _M. Aurelius +Antoninus_; Sir Samuel Dill, _Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius_; +Translations of the _Meditations_ by G. H. Kendall, and J. Jackson. + +AURENGZEBE. See _Aurangzib_. + +AURE'OLA, or AU'REOLE, in paintings, an illumination surrounding the whole +figure of a holy person, as Christ, a saint, or a martyr, intended to +represent a luminous cloud or haze emanating from him. It is generally of +an oval shape, or may be nearly or quite circular, and is of similar +character with the nimbus surrounding the heads of sacred personages. + +AU'R[)E]US, the first gold coin which was coined at Rome, 207 B.C. Its +value varied at different times, from about 12s. to L1, 4_s_. See +_Numismatics_. + +AURICH (ou'r[=e]_h_), a German town, province of Hanover. Pop. 6070. + +AU'RICLE. See _Heart_. + +AURIC'ULA, a garden flower derived from the yellow _Prim[)u]la +Auric[)u]la_, found native in the Swiss Alps, and sometimes called +bear's-ear from the shape of its leaves. It has for over three centuries +been an object of cultivation by florists, who have succeeded in raising +from seed a great number of beautiful varieties. Its leaves are obovate, +entire or serrated, and fleshy, varying, however, in form in the numerous +varieties. The flowers are borne on an erect umbel and central scape with +involucre. The original colours of the corolla are yellow, purple, and +variegated, and there is a mealy covering on the surface. There are +auricula clubs and societies in the north of England. + +AURICULAR CONFESSION. See _Confession_. + +AU'RIFABER, the Latinized name of Johann Goldschmidt, one of Luther's +companions, born 1519, became pastor at Erfurt in 1566, died there in 1579. +He collected the unpublished MSS. of Luther, and edited the _Epistolae_ and +the _Table-talk_. + +AURIFLAMME. See _Oriflamme_. + +AURI'GA, in astronomy, the _Waggoner_, a constellation of the northern +hemisphere, containing Capella, a star of the first magnitude. _Nova +Aurigae,_ a temporary star, appeared in the constellation in 1892. + +AURILLAC ([=o]-r[=e]-y[.a]k), a town of France, capital of the department +Cantal, in a valley watered by the Jordanne, about 270 miles S. of Paris; +well built, with wide streets; copper-works, paper-works, manufactures of +lace, tapestry, leather, &c. Pop. 18,036. + +AUROCHS ([a:]'roks), a species of wild bull or buffalo, the _urus_ of +Caesar, _bison_ of Pliny, the European bison, _Bos_ or _Bonassus Bison_ of +modern naturalists. The animal was once abundant in Europe, but were it not +for the protection afforded by the late Emperor of Russia to a few herds +which inhabit the forests of Lithuania it would before this have been +extinct. + +AURO'RA, an American city, of Kane county, Illinois, on Fox River, 40 miles +W. by S. of Chicago; it has flourishing manufactures, railway-works, and a +considerable trade. Pop. (1920), 36,265. + +AURO'RA (Gr. _E[=o]s_), in classical mythology, the goddess of the dawn, +daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios and Sel[=e]n[=e] (Sun +and Moon). She was represented as a charming figure, 'rosy-fingered', clad +in a yellow robe, rising at dawn from the ocean and driving her chariot +through the heavens. Among the mortals whose beauty captivated the goddess, +poets mentioned Orion, Tith[=o]nus, and Ceph[)a]lus. + +AURO'RA, one of the New Hebrides Islands, S. Pacific Ocean, about 30 miles +long by 5 wide. It rises to a considerable elevation, and is covered with a +luxuriant vegetation. + +[Illustration: Aurora Borealis] + +AURO'RA BOREA'LIS, a luminous meteoric phenomenon appearing in the north, +most frequently in high latitudes, the corresponding phenomenon in the +southern hemisphere being called _Aurora Australis_, and both being also +called _Polar Light_, _Streamers_, &c. The northern aurora has been far the +most observed and studied. It usually manifests itself by streams of light +ascending towards the zenith from a dusky line of cloud or haze a few +degrees above the horizon, and stretching from the north towards the west +and east, so as to form an arc with its ends on the horizon, and its +different parts and rays are constantly in motion. Sometimes it appears in +detached places; at other times it almost covers the whole sky. It assumes +many shapes and a variety of colours, from a pale red or yellow to a deep +red or blood colour; and in far northern latitudes serves to illuminate the +earth and cheer the gloom of the long winter nights. The appearance of the +aurora borealis so exactly resembles the effects of experimental electrical +phenomena that there is every reason to believe that their causes are +similar. When electricity passes through rarefied air it exhibits a +diffused luminous stream which has all the characteristic appearances of +the aurora, and hence it is highly probable that this natural phenomenon is +occasioned by the passage of electricity through the upper regions of the +atmosphere. The synchronism of auroral display with disturbances of the +magnetic needle is an ascertained fact, and the connection between aurorae +and magnetism is further evident from the fact that the beams or +coruscations issuing from a point in the horizon west of north are +frequently observed to run in the magnetic meridian. What are known as +magnetic storms are invariably connected with exhibitions of the aurora, +and with spontaneous galvanic currents in the ordinary telegraph wires; and +this connection is found to be so certain that, upon remarking the display +of one of the three classes of phenomena, we can at once assert that the +other two are also present. In recent years it has been established that +aurorae wax and wane in frequency _pari passu_ with sun-spots in an 11-year +cycle, and that they often manifest themselves about the time of transit of +a conspicuous spot across the sun's central meridian. Also they frequently +recur at successive intervals of about 27 days, which is the period of a +solar rotation relative to the earth. It is therefore inferred that aurorae +are largely excited by influences proceeding from the sun, and it is +suggested that they are the result of the impinging upon our upper +atmosphere of streams of electric corpuscles expelled from the solar orb, +these streams when approaching our planet being mainly directed to its +higher latitudes as a consequence of its magnetic polarity. The aurora +borealis is said to be frequently accompanied by sound, which is variously +described as resembling the rustling of pieces of silk against each other, +or the sound of wind against the flame of a candle. The aurora of the +southern hemisphere is quite a similar phenomenon to that of the +north.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Angot, _Les Aurores Polaires_; Captain H. P. +Dawson, _Observations of the International Polar Expeditions, 1882-3, Fort +Rae_. + +AURUNGABAD. See _Aurangabad_. + +AURUNGZEBE. See _Aurangzib_. + +AUSCULTA'TION, a method of distinguishing the state of the internal parts +of the body, particularly of the thorax and abdomen, by observing the +sounds arising in the part either through the immediate application of the +ear to its surface (immediate auscultation), or by applying the stethoscope +to the part, and listening through it (mediate auscultation). Auscultation +may be used with more or less advantage in all cases where morbid sounds +are produced, but its general applications are: the _auscultation_ of +respiration, the _auscultation_ of the voice; _auscultation_ of coughs; +_auscultation_ of sounds foreign to all these, but sometimes accompanying +them; _auscultation_ of the actions of the heart; obstetric _auscultation_. +The parts when struck also give different sounds in health and disease. + +AUSO'NIA, an ancient poetical name of Italy. + +AUSO'NIUS, Decimus Magnus (_c._ A.D. 310-395), Roman poet, born at +Burdigala (Bordeaux). Valentinian entrusted to him the education of his son +Gratian, and appointed him afterwards quaestor and pretorian prefect. +Gratian appointed him consul in Gaul, and after this emperor's death he +lived upon an estate at Bordeaux, devoted to literary pursuits. He wrote +epigrams, idyls, eclogues, letters in verse, &c., still extant, and was +probably a Christian. He was rather a man of letters than a poet, and his +poems are devoid of inspiration. + +AUS'PICES, among the ancient Romans strictly omens or auguries derived from +birds, though the term was also used in a wider sense. Nothing of +importance was done without taking the auspices, which, however, simply +showed whether the enterprise was likely to result successfully or not, +without supplying any further information. Magistrates possessed the right +of taking the auspices, in which they were usually assisted by an augur. +Before a war or campaign a Roman general always took the auspices, and +hence the operations were said to be carried out 'under his auspices'. See +_Augur_. + +AUS'SIG, a town in Bohemia, in the republic of Czecho-Slovakia, formerly in +Austria, near the junction of the Bila with the Elbe, 42 miles N.N.W. of +Prague; has large manufactures of woollens, chemicals, &c. The town is now +known as Ousti nad Labem. Pop. 40,000. + +AUS'TEN, Jane, English novelist, born 1775, at Steventon, in Hants, of +which parish her father was rector. Her principal novels are, _Sense and +Sensibility; Pride and Prejudice_, which Disraeli is said to have read +seventeen times; _Mansfield Park_; and _Emma_. Two more were published +after her death, entitled _Northanger Abbey_ and _Persuasion_, which were, +however, her most early attempts. Her novels are marked by ease, humour, +and a complete knowledge of the domestic life of the English middle classes +of her time. She died in 1817. + +AUSTENITE, a constituent of high-carbon steel (q.v.). + +AUS'TERLITZ, a town with 3703 inhabitants, in Moravia, 10 miles E. of +Bruenn, famous for the battle of 2nd Dec., 1805, fought between the French +(70,000 in number) and the allied Austrian and Russian armies (95,000). The +decisive victory of the French led to the Peace of Pressburg between France +and Austria. + +AUS'TIN, capital of the State of Texas, on the Colorado, about 200 miles +from its mouth, and accessible to steamboats during certain seasons. There +is a State university and other institutions, and a splendid capitol built +of red granite. Pop. (1920), 34,876. + +AUSTIN, Alfred, English poet, born at Hedingley, near Leeds, in 1835, +educated at Stonyhurst and St. Mary's College, Oscott; took the degree of +B.A. at London in 1853, was called to the bar and practised, but gave up +law for literature in 1861. He published, in 1861, a satire called _The +Season_, followed by many poems, including _The Human Tragedy_, _The Golden +Age_, _Savonarola_ (a tragedy), _English Lyrics_, _Fortunatus the +Pessimist_, _Lyrical Poems_, _Narrative Poems_, _Prince Lucifer_, _Alfred +the Great_, _A Tale of True Love_, _Flodden Field_ (a tragedy), &c. His +works in prose include _The Garden that I love_, _In Veronica's Garden_, +_Spring and Autumn in Ireland_, _Haunts of Ancient Peace_, _The Bridling of +Pegasus_, &c. He was made Poet Laureate in 1896, about four years after the +death of Tennyson. He died in 1913. + +AUS'TIN, John, an English writer on jurisprudence, born 1790, died 1859. +From 1826 to 1835 he filled the chair of jurisprudence at London +University. He served on several royal commissions, one of which took him +to Malta; lived for some years on the Continent, and finally settled at +Weybridge, in Surrey. His fame rests solely on his great works: _The +Province of Jurisprudence Determined_, published in 1832; and his _Lectures +on Jurisprudence_, published by his widow between 1861 and 1863.--His wife, +Sarah, one of the Taylors of Norwich, produced translations of German +works, and other books bearing on Germany or its literature; also, +_Considerations on National Education_, &c. Born 1793, died 1867. Her +daughter, Lady Duff Gordon, translated Meinhold's _Mary Schweidler, the +Amber Witch_, and other German works. + +AUSTIN, ST. See _Augustine_. + +AUSTIN FRIARS. See _Augustins_. + +AUSTRALASIA, a division of the globe usually regarded as comprehending the +Islands of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Caledonia, the New +Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, New Ireland, New Britain, the Admiralty +Islands, New Guinea, and the Arru Islands, besides numerous other islands +and island groups; estimated area, 3,400,000 sq. miles; pop. 6,000,000. It +forms one of the three portions into which some geographers have divided +Oceania, the other two being Malaysia and Polynesia. The British +territories in Australasia comprise the Commonwealth of Australia, the +Australian dependencies of Papua and Northern Territory, New Zealand and +adjacent islands, and the crown colony of Fiji. + +[Illustration] + +AUSTRALIA (older name, NEW HOLLAND), the largest island in the world, a +sea-girt continent, lying between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, S.E. of +Asia; between lat. 10deg 39' and 39deg 11' S.; long. 113deg 5' and 153deg +16' E.; greatest length, from W. to E., 2400 miles; greatest breadth, from +N. to S., 1700 to 1900 miles. It is separated from New Guinea on the north +by Torres Strait, from Tasmania on the south by Bass Strait. It is divided +into two unequal parts by the Tropic of Capricorn, and consequently belongs +partly to the South Temperate, partly to the Torrid Zone. It is occupied by +five British colonies, namely, New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland in +the east; South Australia in the middle, stretching from sea to sea; and +Western Australia in the west, which, with the Island of Tasmania, form the +Commonwealth of Australia. Their area and population are as follows:-- + + Area in Pop. + sq. m. in 1920 + New South Wales 309,432 2,091,115 + Victoria 87,884 1,528,151 + Queensland 670,500 752,245 + South Australia 380,070 491,177 + Western Australia 975,920 330,819 + Tasmania 26,215 212,847 + Northern Territory 523,620 3,992 + Federal Territory 940 1,972 + +Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, and Perth are the chief towns. The +population of the Commonwealth of Australia was 4,895,894 in 1917 and +5,412,318 in 1920. + +Although there are numerous spacious harbours on the coasts, there are few +remarkable indentations, the principal being the Gulf of Carpentaria, on +the N., the Great Australian Bight, and Spencer's Gulf, on the S. The chief +projections are Cape York Peninsula and Arnhem Land in the north. Parallel +to the N.E. coast runs the Great Barrier Reef for 1000 miles. In great part +the E. coast is bold and rocky, and is fringed with many small islands. +Part of the S. coast is low and sandy, and part presents cliffs of several +hundred feet high. The N. and W. coasts are generally low, with some +elevations at intervals. + +The interior, so far as explored, is largely composed of rocky tracts and +barren plains with little or no water. The whole continent forms an immense +plateau, highest in the east, low in the centre, and with a narrow tract of +land usually intervening between the elevated area and the sea. The base of +the table-land is granite, which forms the surface-rock in a great part of +the south-west, and is common in the higher grounds along the east side. +Secondary (cretaceous) and tertiary rocks are largely developed in the +interior. Silurian rocks occupy a large area in South Australia, on both +sides of Spencer Gulf. The mountainous region in the south-east and east is +mainly composed of volcanic, Silurian, carbonaceous, and carboniferous +rocks yielding good coal. No active volcano is known to exist, but in the +south-east there are some craters only recently extinct. The highest and +most extensive mountain-system is a belt about 150 miles wide skirting the +whole eastern and south-eastern border of the continent, and often called, +in whole or in part, the Great Dividing Range, from forming the great +water-shed of Australia. A part of it, called the Australian Alps, in the +south-east, contains the highest summits in Australia, Mount Kosciusko +(7175 feet), Mount Clarke (7256 feet), and Mount Townshend (7353 feet). +West of the Dividing Range are extensive plains or downs admirably adapted +for pastoral purposes. The deserts and scrubs, which occupy large areas of +the interior, are a characteristic feature of Australia. The former are +destitute of vegetation, or are covered only with a coarse, spiny grass +that affords no sustenance to cattle or horses; the latter are composed of +a dense growth of shrubs and low trees, often impenetrable till the +traveller has cleared a track with his axe. + +[Illustration: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Geological] + +The rivers of Australia are nearly all subject to great irregularities in +volume, many of them at one time showing a channel in which there is merely +a series of pools, while at another they inundate the whole adjacent +country. The chief is the Murray, which, with its affluents the +Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Darling, drains a great part of the interior +west of the Dividing Range, and falls into the sea on the south coast +(after entering Lake Alexandrina). Its greatest tributary is the Darling, +which may even be regarded as the main stream. On the east coast are the +Hunter, Clarence, Brisbane, Fitzroy, and Burdekin; on the west, the Swan, +Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton, and De Grey; on the north, the Fitzroy, +Victoria, Flinders, and Mitchell. The Australian rivers are of little +service in facilitating internal communication. Many of them lose +themselves in swamps or sandy wastes of the interior. A considerable river +of the interior is Cooper's Creek, or the Barcoo, which falls into Lake +Eyre, one of a group of lakes on the south side of the continent having no +outlet, and accordingly salt. The principal of these are Lakes Eyre, +Torrens, and Gairdner, all of which vary in size and saltness according to +the season. Another large salt lake of little depth, Lake Amadeus, lies a +little west of the centre of Australia. Various others of less magnitude +are scattered over the interior. + +The climate of Australia is generally hot and dry, but very healthy. In the +tropical portions there are heavy rains, and in most of the coast districts +there is a sufficiency of moisture, but in the interior the heat and +drought are extreme. Considerable portions now devoted to pasturage are +liable at times to suffer from drought. At Melbourne the mean temperature +is about 56deg, at Sydney about 63deg. The south-eastern settled districts +are at times subject to excessively hot winds from the interior, which +cause great discomfort, and are often followed by a violent cold wind from +the south ('southerly bursters'). In the mountainous and more temperate +parts snow-storms are common in winter (June, July, and August). + +Australia is a region containing a vast quantity of mineral wealth. +Foremost come its rich and extensive deposits of gold, which, since the +precious metal was first discovered in 1851, have produced a total of +nearly L600,000,000. The greatest quantity has been obtained in Victoria, +but New South Wales and Queensland have also yielded a considerable amount, +and now Western Australia stands first in respect of annual output. +Australia also possesses silver, copper, tin, lead, zinc, antimony, +mercury, plumbago, &c., besides coal (now worked to a considerable extent +in New South Wales) and iron. Various precious stones are found, as the +garnet, ruby, topaz, sapphire, and even the diamond. Of building-stone +there are granite, limestone, marble, and sandstone. + +[Illustration: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Mean Annual Rainfall and +Temperature] + +The Australian flora presents peculiarities which mark it off by itself in +a very decided manner. Many of its most striking features have an +unmistakable relation to the general dryness of the climate. The trees and +bushes have for the most part a scanty foliage, presenting little surface +for evaporation, or thick leathery leaves well fitted to retain moisture. +The most widely-spread types of Australian vegetation are the various kinds +of gum tree (_Eucalyptus_), the shea-oak (_Casuar[=i]na_), the acacia or +wattle, the grass tree (_Xanthorrhoea_), many varieties of Proteaceae, and +a great number of ferns and tree-ferns. Of the gum tree there are found +upwards of 150 species, many of which are of great value. Individual +specimens of the 'peppermint' (_E. amygdal[)i]na_) have been found to +measure from 480 to 500 feet in height. As timber trees the most valuable +members of this genus are the _E. rostr[=a]ta_ (or red gum), _E. +leucox[)y]lon_, and _E. margin[=a]ta_ (jarrah), the timber of which is +hard, and almost indestructible. A number of the gum trees have deciduous +bark. The wattle or acacia includes about 300 species, some of them of +considerable economic value, yielding good timber or bark for tanning. The +most beautiful and most useful is that known as the golden wattle (_A. +dealb[=a]ta_) which in spring is adorned with rich masses of fragrant +yellow blossom. Palms--of which there are twenty-four species, all except +the coco-palm peculiar to Australia--are confined to the north and east +coasts. In the 'scrubs' already mentioned hosts of densely-intertwisted +bushes occupy extensive areas. The _mallee_ scrub is formed by a species of +dwarf eucalyptus, the _mulga_ scrub by a species of thorny acacia. A plant +which covers large areas in the arid regions is the _spinifex_ or porcupine +grass, a hard, coarse, and excessively spiny plant, which renders +travelling difficult, wounds the feet of horses, and is utterly uneatable +by any animal. Other large tracts are occupied by herbs or bushes of a more +valuable kind, from their affording fodder. Foremost among those stands the +salt-bush (_Atriplex nummularia_, ord. Chenopodiaceae). Beautiful flowering +plants are numerous. Australia also possesses great numbers of turf-forming +grasses, such as the kangaroo-grass (_Anthistiria austr[=a]lis_), which +survives even a tolerably-protracted drought. The native fruit trees are +few and unimportant, and the same may be said of the plants yielding roots +used as food; but exotic fruits and vegetables may now be had in the +different colonies in great abundance and of excellent quality. The vine, +the olive, and mulberry thrive well, and quantities of wine are now +produced. The cereals of Europe and maize are extensively cultivated, and +large tracts of country, particularly in Queensland, are under the +sugar-cane. + +The Australian fauna is almost unique in its character. Its great feature +is the nearly total absence of all the forms of mammalia which abound in +the rest of the world, their place being supplied by a great variety of +marsupials--these animals being nowhere else found, except in the opossums +of America. There are about 110 kinds of marsupials (of which the kangaroo, +wombat, bandicoot, and phalangers or opossums, are the best-known +varieties), over twenty kinds of bats, a wild dog (the dingo), and a number +of rats and mice. Two extraordinary animals, the platypus, or water-mole of +the colonist (Ornithorhynchus), and the porcupine ant-eater (Echidna) +constitute the lowest order of mammals (Monotremata), and are confined to +Australia. Their young are produced from eggs. Australia now possesses a +large stock of the domestic animals of Britain, which thrive there +remarkably well. The breed of horses is excellent. Horned cattle and sheep +are largely bred, the first attaining a great size, while the sheep improve +in fleece and their flesh in flavour. There are upwards of 650 different +species of birds, the largest being the emu, or Australian ostrich, and a +species of cassowary. Peculiar to the country are the black swan, the +honey-sucker, the lyre-bird, the brush-turkey, and other mound-building +birds, the bower-birds, &c. The parrot tribe preponderates over most other +groups of birds in the continent. There are many reptiles, the largest +being the alligator, found in some of the northern rivers. There are +upwards of sixty different species of snakes, some of which are very +venomous. Lizards, frogs, and insects are also numerous in various parts. +The seas, rivers, and lagoons abound in fish of numerous varieties, and +other aquatic animals, many of them peculiar. Whales and seals frequent the +coasts. On the northern coasts are extensive fisheries of trepang, much +visited by native traders from the Indian Archipelago. Some animals of +European origin, such as the rabbit and the sparrow, have developed into +real pests in several of the colonies. + +[Illustration: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Surface Features] + +The natives belong to the Australian negro stock, and are sometimes +considered the lowest as regards intelligence in the whole human family, +though this is doubtful. At the census of 1891 they were believed to number +about 60,000, exclusive of those in the unexplored parts. They are of a +dark-brown or black colour, with jet-black curly but not woolly hair, of +medium size, but inferior muscular development. In the settled parts of the +continent they are inoffensive, and rapidly dying out. They have no fixed +habitations; in the summer they live almost entirely in the open air, and +in the more inclement weather they shelter themselves with bark erections +of the rudest construction. They have no cultivation and no domestic +animals. Their food consists of such animals as they can kill, and no kind +of living creature seems to be rejected, snakes, lizards, frogs, and even +insects being eaten, often half raw. They are ignorant of the potter's art. +In their natural condition they wear little or no clothing. They speak a +number of different languages or dialects. The women are regarded merely as +slaves, and are frequently maltreated. They have no religion; they practise +polygamy, and are said sometimes to resort to cannibalism, but only in +exceptional circumstances. They are occasionally employed by the settlers +in light kinds of work, and as horse-breakers; but they dislike continuous +occupation, and soon give it up. The weapons of all the tribes are +generally similar, consisting of spears, shields, boomerangs, wooden axes, +clubs, and stone hatchets. Of these the boomerang is the most singular, +being an invention confined to the Australians. + +The five colonies, independently of each other, having declared their +desire for a federal union, the Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed. A +Convention, which sat at Adelaide in 1897-8, drafted a Constitution Bill, +and on 9th July, 1900, the British Parliament passed the Act to constitute +the Commonwealth. There is now a Governor-General and Central or Federal +Parliament, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives, while +each State has also (as before) a Governor, an administration, and a +Parliament of its own. Each Parliament consists of two Houses corresponding +to the British House of Lords and House of Commons, but both Houses are +elected by popular vote. Altogether the machinery of government very much +resembles that of the home country. The aggregate annual revenue of the +colonies is over L30,000,000. The public debt on 30th June, 1917, was +L372,517,623. The former militia and volunteer units have been gradually +merged into the new Citizen Army started by the Australian Government in +1911. The Government also agreed in the same year to furnish an Australian +fleet unit, upon which King George conferred the title of 'Royal Australian +Navy'. There is no established Church in the colonies. The denomination +which numbers most adherents is the English or Anglican Church, next to +which come the Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and Methodists. Education is +well provided for, instruction in the primary schools being in some cases +free and compulsory, and the higher education being more and more attended +to. There are flourishing universities in Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide. +Newspapers are exceedingly numerous, and periodicals of all kinds are +abundant. There is as yet no native literature of any distinctive type, but +names of Australian writers of ability both in prose and poetry are +beginning to be known beyond their own country. + +Pastoral and agricultural pursuits and mining are the chief occupations of +the people, though manufactures and handicrafts also employ large numbers. +The total land area under cultivation was calculated at 13,298,576 acres in +1919-20. For sheep-rearing and the growth of wool the Australian colonies +are unrivalled, and while the production of gold has considerably +decreased, that of wool is constantly on the increase. The great bulk of +the wool exported goes to Britain, which receives over 300,000,000 pounds +from the Australian colonies annually (L37,256,915 in 1919-20). The +commerce is rapidly extending, and becoming every year more important to +Britain, whence the colonists derive their chief supplies of manufactured +goods in return for wool, gold, and other produce. Next to wool come gold, +tin, copper, wheat, preserved meat, and tallow, hides and skins, cotton, +tobacco, sugar, and wine as the most important items of export. The chief +imports consist of textile fabrics, haberdashery, and clothing, machinery +and metal goods. The aggregate imports in 1920 amounted to about +L97,456,899 in value, the exports to L148,564,523. There are upwards of +23,000 miles of railway in actual use or in course of construction, and +about 133,000 miles of telegraph. In 1912 the building of the +Trans-Australian railway from Port Augusta to Kalgoorlie was commenced. The +longest telegraph line is that running northwards across the continent from +Adelaide. The two chief routes for mails between Britain and the Australian +colonies are by way of the Suez Canal, and by San Francisco across the +American continent. The coinage is the same as in the mother country. Banks +and banking offices are numerous, including post office or other savings +banks for the reception of small sums. + +It is doubtful when Australia was first discovered by Europeans. Between +1531 and 1542 the Portuguese published the existence of a land which they +called Great Java, and which corresponded to Australia, and probably the +first discovery of the country was made by them early in the sixteenth +century. The first authenticated discovery is said to have been made in +1601 by a Portuguese named Manoel Godinho de Eredia. In 1606 Torres, a +Spaniard, passed through the strait that now bears his name, between New +Guinea and Australia. Between this period and 1628 a large portion of the +coastline of Australia had been surveyed by various Dutch navigators. In +1664 the continent was named New Holland by the Dutch Government. In 1688 +Dampier coasted along part of Australia, and about 1700 explored a part of +the W. and N.W. coasts. In 1770 Cook carefully surveyed the E. coast, named +a number of localities, and took possession of the country for Britain. He +was followed by Bligh in 1789, who carried on a series of observations on +the N.E. coast, adding largely to the knowledge already obtained of this +new world. Colonists had now arrived on the soil, and a penal settlement +was formed (1788) at Port Jackson. In this way was laid the foundation of +the future colony of New South Wales. The Moreton Bay district (Queensland) +was settled in 1825; in 1835 the Port Phillip district. In 1851 the latter +district was erected into a separate colony under the name of Victoria. +Previous to this time the colonies both of Western Australia and of South +Australia had been founded--the former in 1829, the latter in 1836. The +latest of the colonies is Queensland, which dates from 1859. The discovery +of gold in abundance took place in 1851 and caused an immense excitement +and great influx of immigrants. The population was then only about 350,000, +and was slowly increasing; but the discovery of the precious metal started +the country on that career of prosperity which has since been almost +uninterrupted. Convicts were long sent to Australia from the mother +country, but transportation to New South Wales practically ceased in 1840, +and the last convict vessel to W. Australia arrived in 1868. Altogether +about 70,000 convicts were landed in Australia (besides almost as many in +Tasmania). + +The record of interior exploration forms an interesting part of Australian +history. This has been going on since early last century, and is as yet far +from complete. There is still a large area of the continent of which little +or nothing is known, comprising especially a vast territory belonging to +Western Australia, and a portion of South Australia. Among the men who have +won fame in the field of Australian exploration are Oxley (1817-23), who +partly explored the Lachlan and Macquarie, discovered the Brisbane, &c.; +Hume and Hovell (1824), who crossed what is now the colony of Victoria from +north to south; Cunningham (1827), who discovered the Darling Downs; Sturt +(1828-9), who examined the Macquarie, part of the Darling, and the +Murrumbidgee, which he traced to the Murray, sailing down the latter to +Lake Alexandrina; in 1844 he penetrated to near the middle of the continent +from the south; Mitchell (1831-6) made extensive explorations in New South +Wales and Victoria; McMillan (1839) explored and traversed Gippsland; Eyre +(1840) travelled by the coast from Adelaide to King George's Sound; +Leichhardt in 1844-5 travelled from Brisbane to Port Essington, discovering +fine tracts of territory and the numerous rivers flowing into the Gulf of +Carpentaria; in 1848 he was lost in the northern interior, in attempting to +cross Australia from east to west, and nothing further regarding his fate +has been discovered; Kennedy (1848) was killed in exploring Cape York +Peninsula; A. C. Gregory (1855-6) explored part of North-Western Australia, +and crossed from that to the Brisbane district, an important exploring +journey; McDouall Stuart (1859-60-2) crossed the continent from south to +north and back again nearly in the line of the present overland telegraph; +Burke, Wills, Gray, and King (1860-1) crossed from Melbourne to the Gulf of +Carpentaria, but Burke, Wills, and Gray perished on the return journey; +F. T. Gregory (1861) explored the region of the Ashburton, Fortescue, and +other rivers of North-West Australia; Warburton (1873) travelled with +camels from the centre of the continent to the north-west coast; J. Forrest +(1874) made an important journey in Western Australia; Giles (1874-6) +explored Central Western Australia; Favenc (1878-9) travelled from Brisbane +to Port Darwin; A. Forrest (1879) explored part of Northern Australia; +Mills (1883) traversed with camels a considerable stretch of new ground in +Western Australia; Winnicke (1883-4), also with camels, explored and mapped +about 40,000 sq. miles of the unknown interior; Lindsay (1885-6) travelled +north-west from Lake Eyre, and then north-east to the Gulf of Carpentaria. +Among subsequent explorations mention may be made of Carnegie's eight +months' journeyings in W. Australia (1896-7). (See articles on the separate +colonies.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wall, _Physical Geography of Australia_; Aflalo, +_Natural History of Australia_; T. A. Coghlan, _A Statistical Account of +the Seven Colonies of Australasia_ (Sydney); G. W. Rusden, _History of +Australia_. + +AUSTRA'LIOIDS, one of the five groups into which Professor Huxley +classifies man, comprising the indigenous non-Aryan inhabitants of Central +and Southern India, the ancient Egyptians and their descendants, and the +modern Fellahs. + +AUSTRIA, or GERMAN AUSTRIA, a republic formed out of the fragments of the +old Austro-Hungarian Empire. The republic was proclaimed on 12th Nov., +1918, and the government was taken in hand by the National Constitutional +Assembly. The new republic, the frontiers of which were provisionally +defined by the treaty of St. Germain (q.v.), includes Upper Austria, Lower +Austria, Salzburg, and parts of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, and Vorarlberg, +some districts having been assigned to Yugo-Slavia and Italy. German +Austria now has an area of 30,716 sq. miles, and a pop. of 6,130,197. + +AUSTRIA-HUNGARY (in Ger. _Oesterreich_, that is, Eastern Empire), previous +to the changes resulting from the European War (1914-18), a Central +European monarchy, inhabited by several nationalities, and consisting of +the Austrian Empire, the Hungarian monarchy, and the territory of Bosnia +and Herzegovina annexed by Austria on 5th Oct., 1908. The States had +together a total area of about 261,242 sq. miles, and were bounded S. by +Turkey, the Adriatic, and Italy; W. by Switzerland, Bavaria, and Saxony; N. +by Prussia and Russian Poland; and E. by Russia and Roumania. On 12th Nov., +1918, the German-Austrian Republic was proclaimed, and the government was +taken in hand by the National Constitutional Assembly. The account given in +the following pages applies to the countries only as they existed before +the end of the European War. + +The population of Austria proper in 1913 was estimated at 29,193,293. + +The prevailing character of the Austrian dominions is mountainous or hilly, +the plains not occupying more than a fifth part of the whole surface. The +loftiest ranges belong to the Alps, and are found in Styria, Salzburg, and +Carinthia, the highest summits being the Ortlerspitzen (12,814 feet) on the +western boundary of Tyrol, and the Grossglockner (12,300 feet) on the +borders of Salzburg, Tyrol, and Carinthia. Another great range is that of +the Carpathians. The chief rivers are the Danube, with its tributaries, and +the Dniester. The Danube is navigable for pretty large vessels; the +tributaries also are largely navigable. The lakes are numerous and often +picturesque, the chief being Lake Balaton or the Plattensee. The climate is +exceedingly varied, but generally good. The principal products of the north +are wheat, barley, oats, and rye; in the centre vines and maize are added; +and in the south olives and various fruits. The cereals grow to perfection, +other crops being hops, tobacco, flax, and hemp. Sheep and cattle are +largely reared.--Wild deer, wild swine, chamois, foxes, lynxes, and a +species of small black bear are found in many districts, the fox and lynx +being particularly abundant.--In mineral productions Austria is very rich, +possessing, with the exception of platinum, all the useful metals, the +total annual value of the mineral products of Austria being estimated at +upwards of L15,000,000, the principal being coal, salt, and iron. + +Before the European War, manufactures were in the most flourishing +condition in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lower Austria; less so in the +eastern provinces, and insignificant in Dalmatia, Bukowina, Herzegovina, +&c. Among the most important manufactures were those of machinery and metal +goods, Austria holding a high place for the manufacture of musical and +scientific instruments, gold and silver plate and jewellery; of stone and +china-ware and of glass, which is one of the oldest and most +highly-developed industries in Austria; of chemicals; of sugar from beet; +of beer, spirits, &c.; and especially the manufactures of wool, cotton, +hemp, and flax. + +In addition to the general import and export trade, Austria carried on a +very considerable amount of business in the transit of goods through her +territory. In 1914 the total value of imports into Austria-Hungary was +L114,716,000, of exports L83,996,000; the value of imports in 1913 was +L141,433,000, the exports L115,129,000. Among imports were cotton and other +fibres, textile goods and yarn, metals, machinery, drugs, chemicals, oils, +fats, hides, skins, &c. The chief exports were cereals, animals, metallic +goods, woven fabrics, pottery and glass manufactures. Nearly two-thirds of +the commerce are with Germany, next in importance being the trade with +Roumania, Italy, and Russia. The exports direct to the United Kingdom in +1913 were L7,705,949; the imports of British produce direct, L4,480,760; +but these amounts do not include indirect exports and imports through other +countries. The staple exports to the United Kingdom were corn and flour. +The chief imports from it were cotton manufactures, machinery and metals, +woollen goods, fish, &c. In 1913 the mercantile navy of Austria had a total +burden of about 471,252 tons. The principal ports were Trieste, in Austria, +and Fiume, in Hungary. + +None of the European States, except Russia, exhibited such a diversity of +race and language as the former dual monarchy. The Slavs--who differ +greatly, however, amongst themselves in language and civilization--amounted +to above 20,000,000, or 46 per cent of the total population, and formed the +great mass of the population of Bohemia, Moravia, Carniola, Galicia, +Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia, and Northern Hungary, and half the +population of Silesia and Bukowina. The Germans, about 9,950,266, formed +almost the sole population of the archduchy of Austria, Salzburg, the +greatest portion of Styria and Carinthia, almost the whole of Tyrol and +Vorarlberg, large portions of Bohemia and Moravia, the whole of West +Silesia, &c.; and they were also numerous in Hungary and Transylvania. The +Magyars or Hungarians (10,061,549) formed nearly half of the inhabitants of +the former Kingdom of Hungary and the connected provinces. + +The State religion of the former dual monarchy was the Roman Catholic. In +1910 there were in the Austrian portion of the monarchy 22,530,000 Roman +Catholics, 3,417,000 Greek Catholics united to the Roman Church, 689,000 +non-united, 589,000 Protestants, and 1,314,000 Jews. + +The intellectual culture of the people was highest in the German provinces, +but in some of the other provinces the percentage of uneducated was very +high. Attendance at the elementary schools was compulsory on all children +from their sixth to the end of their fourteenth year in most of the +Austrian provinces; to at least the twelfth year in the whole empire. There +were numerous gymnasia and 'real schools', the gymnasia being intended +chiefly to prepare pupils for the universities, while in the real schools a +more practical end was kept in view, and modern languages and physical +science formed the groundwork of the educational course. The technical high +schools in Austria were very important institutions, and there are many +other special schools where the students received training in mining, +agriculture, industries of all kinds, art, music, commerce, &c. In 1917 +there were eight universities maintained by the State, viz. in Vienna, +Prague (2), Gratz, Cracow, Lemberg, Innsbruck, and Czernowitz. Most of +these have four faculties--Catholic theology, law and politics, medicine, +and philosophy. + +Before the revolution of 1918 the ruler of the dual monarchy had the title +of emperor in his Austrian dominions, but he was only king of Hungary. The +Parliament of the Austrian division of the empire was known as the +Reichsrath, or council of the realm, consisting of an Upper House +(Herrenhaus), composed of princes of the imperial family, nobles with the +hereditary right to sit, archbishops, and life-members nominated by the +Emperor; and a Lower House (Abgeordnetenhaus) of 516 deputies elected on +the basis of universal suffrage. There were seventeen provincial Diets or +Assemblies, each provincial division having one. In the Hungarian division +of the Empire the legislature was a Parliament consisting of an Upper House +or House of Magnates and of a Lower House or House of Representatives, the +latter elected by all citizens of full age paying a small amount in taxes, +or otherwise qualified. Its powers corresponded to those of the Austrian +Parliament or Reichsrath. All matters affecting the joint interests of the +two divisions of the monarchy, such as foreign affairs, war, and finance, +were dealt with by the Parliaments of the two States. There were three +Budgets, viz. one for common affairs, one for Austria, and one for Hungary. +The Budget estimates for the former Austrian kingdom in 1913 were +L130,716,773 (the revenue balancing the expenditure). In 1918 the estimates +were: expenditure 24,321,140,000 crowns, revenue 4,854,789 crowns. +Austria's special debt in Feb., 1918, was placed at 54,081,765,681 crowns, +of which 29,274,603,300 crowns were war debt. On 20th Nov., 1918, the +Provisional Government of the Austrian Republic passed a law adopting the +Budget of 1918-9, and empowering the Minister of Finance to make good the +difference between revenue and expenditure. + +Military service was compulsory and universal throughout the dual monarchy. +The old Austro-Hungarian army numbered about 820,000 men on a peace +footing. + +_History._--In 791 Charlemagne drove the Avars from the territory between +the Ens and the Raab, and united it to his empire under the name of _the +Eastern Mark_ (that is, March or boundary land); and from the establishment +by him of a margraviate in this new province the former Austrian Empire +took its rise. On the invasion of Germany by the Hungarians it became +subject to them from 900 till 955, when Otho I, by the victory of Augsburg, +reunited a great part of this province to the German Empire, which by 1043 +had extended its limits to the Leitha. The margraviate of Austria was +hereditary in the family of the Counts of Babenberg (Bamberg) from 982 till +1156, in which year the boundaries of Austria were extended so as to +include the territory above the Ens, and the whole was created a duchy. The +territory was still further increased in 1192 by the gift of the duchy of +Styria as a fief from the Emperor Henry VI, Vienna being by this time the +capital. The male line of the House of Bamberg became extinct in 1246, and +the Emperor Frederick II declared Austria and Styria a vacant fief, the +hereditary property of the German emperors. In 1282 the Emperor Rudolph +granted Austria, Styria, and Carinthia to his two sons, Albert and Rudolph. +The former became sole ruler (duke), and since then, until 12th Nov., 1918, +Austria remained under the House of Habsburg. Albert, who was an energetic +ruler, was elected emperor in 1298, but was assassinated in 1308. The first +of his successors whom we need specially mention was Albert V, son-in-law +of the Emperor Sigismund. He assisted Sigismund in the Hussite wars, and +was elected, after his death, King of Hungary and of Bohemia, and German +emperor (1438). Ladislaus, his posthumous son, was the last of the Austrian +line proper, and its possessions devolved upon the collateral Styrian line +in 1457; since which time the House of Austria furnished an unbroken +succession of German emperors. + +In 1453 the Emperor Frederick III, a member of this House, had conferred +upon the country the rank of an archduchy before he himself became ruler of +all Austria. His son Maximilian I, by his marriage with Mary, the surviving +daughter of Charles the Bold, united the Netherlands to the Austrian +dominions. After the death of his father, in 1493, Maximilian was made +Emperor of Germany, and transferred to his son Philip the government of the +Netherlands. He also added to his paternal inheritance Tyrol, with several +other territories, particularly some belonging to Bavaria, and acquired for +his family new claims to Hungary and Bohemia. The marriage of his son +Philip to Joanna of Spain raised the House of Habsburg to the throne of +Spain. Philip, however, died in 1506, and the death of Maximilian, in 1519, +was followed by the union of Spain and Austria, his grandson (the eldest +son of Philip), Charles I, King of Spain, being elected Emperor of Germany +as Charles V. Charles thus became the greatest monarch in Europe, but in +1521 he ceded to his brother Ferdinand all his dominions in Germany. +Ferdinand I, by his marriage with Anna, the sister of Louis II, King of +Hungary, acquired the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, with Moravia, +Silesia, and Lusatia, the appendages of Bohemia. To oppose him the woywode +of Transylvania, John Zapolya, sought the help of the Sultan, Soliman II, +who appeared in 1529 at the gates of Vienna, but was compelled to retreat. +In 1535 a treaty was made by which John Zapolya was allowed to retain the +royal title and half of Hungary, but after his death new disputes arose, +and Ferdinand maintained the possession of Lower Hungary only by paying +Soliman the sum of 30,000 ducats annually (1562). In 1556 Ferdinand +obtained the imperial crown, when his brother Charles laid by the sceptre +for a cowl. He died in 1564, leaving his territories to be divided amongst +his three sons. + +Maximilian II, the eldest, succeeded his father as emperor, obtaining +Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia; Ferdinand, the second son, received Tyrol +and Lower Austria; and Charles, the youngest, obtained Styria, Carinthia, +Carniola, and Goerz. Maximilian died in 1576, and was succeeded on the +imperial throne by his eldest son Rudolph II, who had already been crowned +King of Hungary in 1572, and King of Bohemia in 1575. Rudolph's reign was +distinguished by the war against Turkey and Transylvania; the persecutions +of the Protestants, who were driven from his dominions; the cession of +Hungary in 1608; and in 1611 of Bohemia and his hereditary estates in +Austria to his brother Matthias. Matthias, who succeeded Maximilian on the +imperial throne, concluded a peace with the Turks, but was disturbed by the +Protestant Bohemians, who took up arms in defence of their religious +rights, thus commencing the Thirty Years' War. After his death in 1619 the +Bohemians refused to acknowledge his successor, Ferdinand II, until after +the battle of Prague in 1620, when Bohemia had to submit, and was deprived +of the right of choosing her king. Lutheranism was strictly forbidden in +all the Austrian dominions. Hungary, which revolted under Bethlem Gabor, +Prince of Transylvania, was, after a long struggle, subdued. During the +reign of Ferdinand III (1637-57), successor of Ferdinand II, Austria was +continually the theatre of war; Lusatia was ceded to Saxony in 1635; and +Alsace to France in 1648, when peace was restored in Germany by the Treaty +of Westphalia. + +The Emperor Leopold I, son and successor of Ferdinand III, was victorious +through the talents of Prince Eugene in two wars with Turkey; and Vienna +was delivered by Sobieski and the Germans from the attacks of Kara Mustapha +in 1683. In 1687 he united Hungary to Transylvania, and in 1699 restored to +Hungary the country lying between the Danube and the Theiss. It was the +chief aim of Leopold to secure to Charles, his second son, the inheritance +of the Spanish monarchy, and in 1701, upon the victory of French diplomacy +in the appointment of the grandson of Louis XIV, the War of the Spanish +Succession commenced. Leopold died in 1705, but Joseph I, his eldest son, +continued the war. As he died without children in 1711, his brother Charles +was elected emperor, but was obliged to accede in 1714 to the Peace of +Utrecht, by which Austria received the Netherlands, Milan, Mantua, Naples, +and Sardinia. In 1720 Sicily was given to Austria in exchange for Sardinia. +This monarchy now embraced over 190,000 sq. miles; but its power was +weakened by new wars with Spain and France. In the peace concluded at +Vienna (1735 and 1738) Charles VI was forced to cede Naples and Sicily to +Spain and part of Milan to the King of Sardinia; and in 1739, by the Peace +of Belgrade, he was obliged to transfer to the Porte Belgrade, Serbia, &c., +partly in order to secure the succession to his daughter, Maria Theresa, by +the Pragmatic Sanction. He died in 1740. + +On Maria Theresa's marriage to Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine (the +dynasty henceforth being that of Habsburg-Lorraine), and her accession to +the Austrian throne, the Empire was threatened with dismemberment. +Frederick II of Prussia subdued Silesia; the Elector of Bavaria was crowned +in Lintz and Prague, and in 1742 chosen emperor under the name of Charles +VII; Hungary alone supported the heroic and beautiful queen. Charles, +however, died in 1745, and the husband of Theresa was crowned Emperor of +Germany as Francis I; but a treaty concluded in 1745 confirmed to Frederick +the possession of Silesia, and by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, +Austria was obliged to cede the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla +to Philip, Infant of Spain, and several districts of Milan and Sardinia. To +recover Silesia, Maria Theresa formed an alliance with France, Russia, +Saxony, and Sweden, and entered upon the Seven Years' War; but by the Peace +of Hubertsberg, 1763, Silesia was recognized as Prussian territory. On the +death of Francis I, in 1765, Joseph II, his eldest son, was appointed to +assist his mother in the government and elected Emperor of Germany. The +partition of Poland (1772) gave Galicia and Lodomeria to Austria, which +also obtained Bukowina from the Porte in 1777. At the death of the Empress +in 1780 Austria contained 235,000 sq. miles, with a pop. estimated at +24,000,000. + +The liberal home administration of the Empress was continued and extended +by her successor, Joseph II, who did much to further the spread of +religious tolerance, education, and the industrial arts. The Low Countries, +however, revolted, and he was unsuccessful in the war of 1788 against the +Porte. His death took place in 1790. He was succeeded by his eldest +brother, Leopold II, under whom peace was restored in the Netherlands, and +in Hungary, and also with the Porte. On the death of his sister and her +husband Louis XVI of France he formed an alliance with Prussia, but died in +1792, before the French revolutionary war broke out. + +His son, Francis II, succeeded, and was elected German Emperor, by which +time France had declared war against him as King of Hungary and Bohemia. In +1795, in the third partition of Poland, West Galicia fell to Austria, and +by the Peace of Campo-Formio (1797) she received the largest part of the +Venetian territory as compensation for her loss of Lombardy and the +Netherlands. In 1799 Francis, in alliance with Russia, renewed the war with +France until 1801, when the Peace of Luneville was concluded. In 1804 +Francis declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria as Francis I, and +united all his States under the name of the Empire of Austria, immediately +taking up arms once more with his allies Russia and Great Britain against +France. The war of 1805 was terminated by the Peace of Pressburg (26th +Dec.), by which Francis had to cede to France the remaining provinces of +Italy, as well as to give up portions of territory to Bavaria, Wuertemberg, +and Baden, receiving in return Salzburg and Berchtesgaden. After the +formation of the Confederation of the Rhine (12th July, 1806) Francis was +forced to resign his dignity as Emperor of Germany, which had been in his +family more than 500 years. A new war with France in 1809 cost the monarchy +42,380 sq. miles of territory and 3,500,000 subjects. Napoleon married +Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor, and in 1812 concluded an alliance +with him against Russia. But in 1813 Francis again declared war against +France, and formed an alliance with Britain, Prussia, and Sweden against +his son-in-law. By the Congress of Vienna (1815) Austria gained Lombardy +and Venetia, and recovered, together with Dalmatia, the hereditary +territories which it had been obliged to cede. + +In the troubled period following the French revolution of 1830 +insurrections took place in Modena, Parma, and the Papal States (1831-2), +but were suppressed without much difficulty; and though professedly neutral +during the Polish insurrections Austria clearly showed herself on the side +of Russia, with whom her relations became more intimate as those between +Great Britain and France grew more cordial. The death of Francis I (1835) +and accession of his son, Ferdinand I, made little change in the Austrian +system of government, and much discontent was the consequence. In 1846 the +failure of the Polish insurrection led to the incorporation of Cracow with +Austria. In Italy the declarations of Pio Nono in favour of reform +increased the difficulties of Austria, and in Hungary the opposition under +Kossuth and others assumed the form of a great constitutional movement. In +1848, when the expulsion of Louis Philippe shook all Europe, Metternich +found it impossible any longer to guide the helm of the State, and the +Government was compelled to admit a free press and the right of citizens to +arms. Apart from the popular attitude in Italy and in Hungary, where the +Diet declared itself permanent under the presidency of Kossuth, the +insurrection made equal progress in Vienna itself, and the royal family, no +longer in safety, removed to Innsbruck. After various ministerial changes +the Emperor abdicated in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph; more +vigorous measures were adopted; and Austria, aided by Russia, reduced +Hungary to submission. + +The year 1855 is memorable for the Concordat with the Pope, which put the +educational and ecclesiastical affairs of the Empire entirely into the +hands of the Papal see. In 1859 the hostile intentions of France and +Sardinia against the possessions of Austria in Italy became so evident that +she declared war by sending an army across the Ticino; but after disastrous +defeats at Magenta and Solferino she was compelled to cede Milan and the +north-west portion of Lombardy to Sardinia. In 1864 she joined with the +German States in the war against Denmark, but a dispute about +Schleswig-Holstein involved her in a war with her allies (1866), while at +the same time Italy renewed her attempts for the recovery of Venice. The +Italians were defeated at Custozza and driven back across the Mincio; but +the Prussians, victorious at Koeniggraetz (or Sadowa), threatened Vienna. +Peace was concluded with Prussia on 23rd Aug. and with Italy on 3rd Oct., +the result of the war being the cession of Venetia through France to Italy +and the withdrawal of Austria from all interference in the affairs of +Germany. + +For nearly half a century (from 1866 to 1914) the internal affairs of +Austria-Hungary gave much occupation to statesmen of the dual monarchy. +Hungarian demands for self-government were finally agreed to, and the +Empire was divided into the two parts already mentioned--Austria and +Hungary. This settlement was consummated by the coronation of the Emperor +Francis Joseph I, at Budapest, as King of Hungary, on 8th June, 1867. In +the same year the Concordat of 1855 came up for discussion, and measures +were passed for the re-establishment of civil marriage, the emancipation of +schools from the domination of the Church, and the placing of different +creeds on a footing of equality. The fact of the Austro-Hungarian dominions +comprising so many different nationalities gave the central Government much +trouble, both in regard to internal and to external affairs. In regard to +the 'Eastern Question', for instance, the action of Austria was hampered by +the sympathies shown by the Magyars for their blood relations, the Turks, +while the Slavs were naturally more favourable to Russia. During the war +between Russia and Turkey in 1877-8 Austria remained neutral; but at its +close it was decided at the Congress of Berlin that Bosnia and Herzegovina +should in future be administered by Austria instead of Turkey. In 1908, +taking advantage of the condition of Turkey, Austria formally annexed these +provinces. By the middle of Oct., 1918, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy began +to break up into independent national States. Four States of some size laid +claim to independence, viz. German-Austria, Czecho-Slovakia (recognized by +the Allies), Hungary, and Yugo-Slavia. On 13th Oct., 1921, German Austria +signed with Hungary the Burgenland pact, agreeing to a plebiscite in +several districts. For recent history of Austria, see _Francis Joseph; +European War._--Cf. S. Whitman, _Austria_ (in Story of the Nations Series); +H. W. Steed, _The Hapsburg Monarchy._ + +AUTEUIL ([=o]-t[.e]-y[.e]), formerly a suburban village of Paris, but now +enclosed within the fortifications. + +AUTOBIOG'RAPHY, a department of literature of which, as a definite branch +or form at least, we have no very ancient examples, though many +autobiographical details are contained, for instance, in Cicero's and +Pliny's letters, while St. Augustine has left a fragmentary autobiography +in his _Confessions_. Various writers of note, without claiming or perhaps +intending to write a formal autobiography, have left similar materials in +the form of their own memoirs or reminiscences, or, for a portion of their +lives, in diaries. The chief English diarists are Pepys and Evelyn, while +Crabb Robinson is an admirable modern example. Brief autobiographies were +written by Gibbon, Hume, and Sir Walter Scott (of his early life only), and +among other writers who have given us autobiographies or kindred works are +Fanny Burney, Cobbett, Haydon, Miss Mitford, Harriet Martineau, Leigh Hunt, +Hugh Miller (in _My Schools and Schoolmasters_), John Stuart Mill, Anthony +Trollope, Sir Henry Taylor, Miss F. P. Cobbe, Carlyle, Ruskin, Herbert +Spencer, Alexander Bain, and Alfred Russel Wallace. Lord Roberts's +_Forty-one Years in India_ and General Grant's _Personal Memoirs_ are most +interesting autobiographical works by men of action. One of the most famous +of autobiographies is that of the Italian Benvenuto Cellini. See +_Biography_. + +AUTOCHROME. See _Photography_. + +AUTOCHTHONES ([a:]-tok'tho-n[=e]z), the Greek name for the aboriginal +inhabitants of a country. See _Aborigines_. + +AU'TOCLAVE (derived from the Gr. _autos_, self, and Lat. _clavis_, key) is +a strong steam-tight vessel in which hydrolysis of liquids can be carried +out, under pressure, at temperatures considerably higher than their normal +boiling-points. The vessels may be of copper, iron, or other suitable +material, are sometimes enamelled within, or may have renewable refractory +linings when used for corrosive liquids. Some types have mechanical +agitators. Used in the manufacture of candles, coal-tar colours, &c. May be +heated by high-pressure steam or in baths of oil or molten lead. See +_Papin_. + +AU'TOCRAT (Gr. _autos_, self, _kratos_, rule), an absolute or uncontrolled +ruler; the head of a State who is not controlled by any constitutional +limitations, such as the Tsars of Russia till 1917. + +AUTO-DE-FE (Sp.); AUTO-DA-FE (Pg.), literally, 'act of faith'. See +_Inquisition_. + +AU'TOGRAPH, a person's own handwriting; an original manuscript or +signature, as opposed to a copy. The practice of collecting autographs or +signatures originated in Germany and the Low Countries, chiefly among +members of the universities, and dates at least from the sixteenth century. +Among the earliest collections known are those of John Cotton and Hans +Sloane in the British Museum, and of Philippe de Bethune, brother of Sully, +and Lomenie de Brienne at the Bibliotheque Nationale. The most celebrated +collection formed in England in recent years is that of Alfred Morrison. + +AUTOMATIC WRITING. See _Psychical Research_; _Spiritualism_. + +AUTOM'ATISM, the confinement of activity in men or animals within a purely +mechanical limit, resulting from injury to or partial removal of the brain. + +AUTOM'ATON (Gr. _automatos_, spontaneous), a self-moving machine performing +actions like those of a living being, and often shaped like one. The +walking statues of Daedalus, the flying dove of Archytas, the brazen head +of Friar Bacon, the iron fly of Regiomontanus, the door-opening figure of +Albertus Magnus, the parading knights of the clock presented to Charlemagne +by Harun al Rashid, the toy carriage and attendants constructed by Camus +for Louis XIV, the flute-player, tambour-player, and duck of Vaucanson, and +the writing child of the brothers Droz are among the more noteworthy of +traditional automata. See _Conjuring_. + +AUTOMOBILE. See _Motor Vehicles_. + +AUTON'OMY, the power of a State, institution, &c., to legislate for itself. + +AUTOPH'AGI (-j[=i]), birds which feed themselves as soon as hatched. + +AU'TOPLASTY, the operation by which wounds and diseased parts are repaired +with healthy tissues taken from other parts of the same person's body. + +AUTOPLATE. See _Printing_. + +AUTOP'SY, literally, personal observation or inspection, commonly +restricted to post-mortem examination. See _Coroner_. + +AU'TOTYPE, a species of photographic print. A thin sheet of gelatine on +paper is rendered sensitive to light by treatment with bichromate of +potash, and then exposed under an ordinary photographic negative. The +portions of gelatine affected by the light become insoluble, the remainder +of the gelatine is then washed away, and the picture remains reproduced in +the gelatine, there being slight elevations and depressions corresponding +with the distribution of light and shade. This may be printed from, but it +is more often made use of to obtain electrotypes or other reverses, from +which impressions can more easily be taken. + +AUTUMN, the season between summer and winter, in the northern hemisphere +often regarded as embracing August, September, and October, or three months +about that time. The beginning of the astronomical autumn is 22nd Sept., +the autumnal equinox; and the end is 21st Dec., the shortest day. The +autumn of the southern hemisphere takes place at the time of the northern +spring. + +AUTUN ([=o]-t[.u]n; ancient, BIBRACTE, later, AUGUSTODUNUM), a town, +South-Eastern France, department of Saone-et-Loire. It has two Roman gates +of exquisite workmanship, the ruins of an amphitheatre and of several +temples, the cathedral of St. Lazare, a fine Gothic structure of the +twelfth century with chapels added in the fifteenth; manufactures of +carpets, woollens, cotton, velvet, hosiery, &c. Pop. 15,498. + +AUTUNITE, a hydrous phosphate of uranium and calcium, crystallizing in the +rhombic system in yellow plates. Like other minerals of the uranium series +it shows radio-activity. + +AUVERGNE ([=o]-v[=a]r-ny[.e]), a province, Central France, now merged into +departments Cantal and Puy-de-Dome, and an arrondissement of Haute-Loire. +The Auvergne Mountains, separating the basins of the Allier, Cher, and +Creuse from those of the Lot and Dordogne, contain the highest points of +Central France: Mount Dor, 6188 feet; Cantal, 6093 feet, and Puy-de-Dome, +4806 feet. The number of extinct volcanoes and general geologic formation +make the district one of great scientific interest. The minerals include +iron, copper, and lead, and there are warm and cold mineral springs. +Auvergne contributes a large supply to the labour markets of Paris and +Belgium, there being in Paris alone some 50,000 Auvergnats. + +AUXERRE ([=o]-s[=a]r), a town, France, department of Yonne, 110 miles S.E. +of Paris. Principal edifices: a fine Gothic cathedral, unfinished; the +abbey of St. Germain, with curious crypts; and an old episcopal palace, now +the Hotel de Prefecture; it manufactures woollens, hats, casks, leather, +earthenware, violin strings, &c.; trade, chiefly in wood and wines, of +which the best known is white Chablis. Pop. 21,930. + +AUXOM'ETER, an instrument to measure the magnifying powers of an optical +apparatus. + +AUXONNE ([=o]-son; ancient, AUSSONA), a town, France, department of +Cote-d'Or (Burgundy), on the Saone; a fortified place, with some +manufactures. Pop. 6300. + +A'VA, a town in Asia, formerly the capital of Burma, on the Irawadi, now +almost wholly in ruins. + +AVA-AVA, ARVA, KAVA, or YAVA (_Macropiper methysticum_), a plant of the +nat. ord. Piperaceae (pepper family), so called by the inhabitants of +Polynesia, who make an intoxicating drink out of it. Its leaves are chewed +with betel, in South-Eastern Asia. + +AVAD'AVAT. See _Amadavat_. + +AV'ALANCHES, large masses of snow or ice precipitated from the mountains, +and distinguished as _wind_ or _dust avalanches_ when they consist of +fresh-fallen snow whirled like a dust-storm into the valleys; as _sliding +avalanches_ when they consist of great masses of snow sliding down a slope +by their own weight; and as _glacier_ or _summer avalanches_ when +ice-masses are detached by heat from the high glaciers. + +AVAL ISLANDS. Same as _Bahrein Islands_. + +AVALLON ([.a]-v[.a]-l[=o]n), a town of Central France, department Yonne. +Pop. 5900. + +AV'ALON, a sort of fairyland or elysium mentioned in connection with the +legends of King Arthur, being his abode after disappearing from the haunts +of men: called also _Avilion_. The name is also identified with +Glastonbury; and has been given to a peninsula of Newfoundland. + +AVAN'TURINE, or AVEN'TURINE, a variety of quartz containing glittering +spangles of mica through it; also a sort of artificial gem of similar +appearance. + +AV'ARS, a nation, probably of Turanian origin, who at an early period may +have migrated from the region east of the Tobol in Siberia to that about +the Don, the Caspian Sea, and the Volga. A part advanced to the Danube in +A.D. 555, and settled in Dacia. They served in Justinian's army, aided the +Lombards in destroying the kingdom of the Gepidae, and in the sixth century +conquered under their Khan Bajan the region of Pannonia. They then won +Dalmatia, pressed into Thuringia and Italy against the Franks and Lombards, +and subdued the Slavs dwelling on the Danube, as well as the Bulgarians on +the Black Sea. But they were ultimately limited to Pannonia, where they +were overcome by Charlemagne, and nearly extirpated by the Slavs of +Moravia. After 827 they disappear from history. Traces of their fortified +settlements are found, and known as Avarian rings. See _Lesghians_. + +AVATAR', more properly AVATARA, in Hindu mythology, an incarnation of the +Deity. Of the innumerable avatars the chief are the ten incarnations of +Vishnu, who appeared successively as a fish, a tortoise, a boar, a +man-lion, a dwarf, &c. + +AVATCH'A, a volcano and bay in Kamchatka. The volcano, which is 9000 feet +high, was last active in 1855. The town of Petropavlovsk lies in the bay. + +AVEBURY ([=a]v'be-ri), a village of England, in Wiltshire, occupying the +site of a so-called Druidical temple, which originally consisted of a large +outer circle of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet in height, and about 40 feet +in circumference, surrounded by a broad ditch and lofty rampart, and +enclosing two smaller circles. Few traces now remain of the structure. On +the neighbouring downs are numerous barrows or tumuli, one of which, called +Silbury Hill, rises to the height of 130 feet, with a circumference of 2027 +feet at the base, covering fully 5 acres. + +AVEBURY, John Lubbock, first Baron. See _Lubbock_. + +AVEIRO ([.a]-v[=a]'i-r[u:]), a coast town in Portugal, province of Douro, +with a cathedral, an active fishery, and a thriving trade. Pop. 11,523. + +AVELLINO ([.a]-vel-l[=e]'n[=o]), a town in Southern Italy, capital of the +province of Avellino, 29 miles east of Naples, the seat of a bishop. +Avellino nuts were celebrated under the Romans. Pop. 24,620. Area of the +province, 1165 sq. miles; pop. 411,813. + +A'VE MARI'A ('Hail, Mary'), the first two words of the angel Gabriel's +salutation (_Luke_, i, 28), and the beginning of the very common Latin +prayer to the Virgin in the Roman Catholic Church. Its lay use was +sanctioned at the end of the twelfth century, and a papal edict of 1326 +ordains the repetition of the prayer thrice each morning, noon, and +evening, the hour being indicated by sound of bells called the Ave Maria or +Angelus Domini. The prayers are counted upon the small beads of the rosary, +as the pater-nosters are upon the large ones. + +AVE'NA. See _Oat_. + +AV'ENS, the English name of two rosaceous plants of the genus Geum. Common +avens, or herb-bennet, _G. urb[=a]num_, possesses astringent properties, +and was formerly used in medicine. The mountain avens, _Dryas octopetala_, +belongs to the same nat. ord. + +AV'ENTAILE, the movable face-guard of the helmet, through which the wearer +breathed. + +AV'ENTINE, one of the seven hills of Rome, east of the Tiber. It was +included in the city by Servius Tullius. + +AVEN'TURINE. See _Avanturine_. + +AV'ERAGE, in maritime law, any charge or expense over and above the freight +of goods, and payable by their owner.--_General average_ is the sum falling +to be paid by the owners of ship, cargo, and freight, in proportion to +their several interests, to make good any loss or expense intentionally +incurred for the general safety of ship and cargo, e.g. throwing goods +overboard, cutting away masts, port dues in cases of distress, +&c.--_Particular average_ is the sum falling to be paid for unavoidable +loss when the general safety is not in question, and therefore chargeable +on the individual owner of the property lost. A policy of insurance +generally covers both general and particular average, unless specially +excepted.--_Averaging_, in Stock Exchange language, denotes the operation +of a speculator in increasing transactions at a higher or lower price when +the price is moving against him, so that the average price of the whole +will be higher or lower than his original purchase or sale. + +AVER'NUS, a lake, now called LAGO D'AVERNO, in Campania, Italy, between the +ancient Cumae and Puteoli, about 8 miles from Naples. It is the crater of +an old volcano, and is in some places 180 feet deep. Formerly the gloom of +its forest surroundings and its mephitic exhalations caused it to be +regarded as the entrance to the infernal regions. It was the fabled abode +of the Cimmerians, and especially dedicated to Proserpine. + +AVERROES (a-ver'o-es; corrupted from IBN ROSHD), the most renowned Arabian +philosopher, born at Cordova, in Spain, 1126, died at Morocco 1198. His +ability procured him the succession to his father's office of chief +magistrate, and the King of Morocco appointed him at the same time cadi in +the province of Mauretania. Accused of being an infidel, he was, however, +deprived of his offices, and banished to Spain; but, being persecuted there +also, he fled to Fez, where he was condemned to recant and undergo public +penance. Upon this he went back to his own country, where the Caliph +Almansur finally restored him to his dignities. Averroes regarded Aristotle +as the greatest of all philosophers, and devoted himself so largely to the +exposition of his works as to be called among the Arabians _The +Interpreter_. He wrote a compendium of medicine, and treatises on theology, +philosophy, jurisprudence, &c. His commentaries upon Aristotle appeared +before 1250 in a Latin translation attributed to Michael Scott, the reputed +wizard (1194-1250), and others. Averroes was at once a philosopher, a +theologian, and a theosophist. + +AVERRUNCA'TOR, a garden implement for pruning trees without a ladder, +consisting of two blades similar to stout shears, one fixed rigidly to a +long handle, and the other moved by a lever to which a cord passing over a +pulley is attached. + +AVER'SA, a well-built town of Southern Italy, 7 miles N. of Naples, in a +beautiful vine and orange district, the seat of a bishop, with a cathedral +and various religious institutions, and a large lunatic asylum. Andreas of +Hungary, husband of Queen Joanna I, was strangled in a convent here, 18th +Sept., 1345. Pop. 23,203. + +AVESNES ([.a]-v[=a]n), a town of France, department Nord. Pop. 5829. + +AVESTA. See _Zendavesta_. + +AVEYRON ([.a]-v[=a]-r[=o][n.]), a department occupying the southern +extremity of the central plateau of France, traversed by mountains +belonging to the Cevennes and the Cantal ranges; principal rivers: Aveyron, +Lot, and Tarn, the Lot alone being navigable. The climate is cold, and +agriculture is in a backward state, but considerable attention is paid to +sheep-breeding. It is noted for its 'Roquefort cheese'. It has coal, iron, +and copper mines, besides other minerals. Area, 3385 sq. miles; capital, +Rhodez. Pop. (1921), 332,940. + +AVEZZANO ([.a]-vet-zae'n[=o]), a town of S. Italy, province Aquila. Pop. +11,279. + +AV'IARY, a building or enclosure for keeping, breeding, and rearing birds. +Aviaries appear to have been used by the Persians, Greeks, and Romans, and +are highly prized in China. In England they were in use at least as early +as 1577, when William Harrison refers to "our costlie and curious +aviaries". An aviary may be simply a kind of very large cage, or a series +of enclosures. + +AVIATIK, a German type of biplane. It was originally built at Mulhausen in +Alsace. + +AVIATION. See _Aeronautics_. + +AVICEN'NA, or EBN-SINA, an Arabian philosopher and physician, born at +Kharmaithen, in the province of Bokhara, A.D. 980. After practising as a +physician he quitted Bokhara at the age of twenty-two, and for a number of +years led a wandering life, settling at last at Hamadan, subsequently as +vizier of the Emir. On the death of his patron he lived in retirement at +Hamadan, but having secretly offered his services to the Sultan of Ispahan +he was imprisoned by the new Emir. Escaping, he fled to Ispahan, was +received with great honour by the Sultan, and passed there in quietness the +last fourteen years of his life, writing upon medicine, logic, metaphysics, +astronomy, and geometry. His philosophy was Aristotelianism mingled with +neo-Platonism, and his influence is most marked in Dante and the Mystics. +He died at Hamadan, in Northern Persia, 1037, leaving many writings, mostly +commentaries on Aristotle. Of his 100 treatises the best known is the +_Canon Medicinae_, which was still in use as a textbook at Louvain and +Montpellier in the middle of the seventeenth century. His _Philosophia +Orientalis_, mentioned by Roger Bacon, is lost. + +AVIE'NUS, Rufus Festus, a Latin descriptive poet, who flourished about the +end of the fourth century A.D., and wrote _Descriptio Orbis Terrae_, a +general description of the earth; _Ora Maritima_, an account of the +Mediterranean coasts, &c. + +AVIFAU'NA, a collective term for the birds of any region. + +AVIGLIANO ([.a]-v[=e]l-yae'n[=o]), a town of S. Italy, province Potenza. +Pop. 17,413. + +AVIGNON ([.a]-v[=e]-ny[=o]n; ancient, AVENIO), an old town of S.E. France, +capital of department Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Rhone; enclosed by +lofty battlemented and turreted walls, well built, but with rather narrow +streets. It is an archbishop's see since 1475, and has a large and ancient +cathedral on a rock overlooking the town, the immense palace in which the +Popes resided (used as a barracks and prison for a long time), and other +old buildings. The industries of the city are numerous and varied, the +principal being connected with silk. The silk manufacture and the breeding +of silk-worms are the principal employments in the district. Here Petrarch +lived several years, and made the acquaintance of Laura, whose tomb is in +the Franciscan church. From 1309 to 1377 seven Popes in succession, from +Clement V to Gregory XI, resided in this city. After its purchase by Pope +Clement VI, in 1348, Avignon and its district continued, with a few +interruptions, under the rule of a vice-legate of the Pope's till 1791, +when it was formally united to the French Republic. Pop. 49,304. + +AVIGNON BERRIES. See _French Berries_. + +AVILA (ae'v[=e]-l[.a]), a town of Spain, capital of province of Avila, a +modern division of Old Castile. It is the see of the Bishop suffragan of +Santiago, with fine cathedral. Once one of the richest towns of Spain. +Principal employment in the town, spinning; in the province, breeding sheep +and cattle. Pop., town, 12,060; province, 214,008. + +AVILA, Gil Gonzalez d', a Spanish antiquary and biographer, 1577-1658; made +historiographer of Castile in 1612, and of the Indies in 1641. Most +valuable works: _Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid_, 1623, and _Teatro +Ecclesiastico_, 1645-53. + +AVILA Y ZUNIGA (ae'v[=e]-l[.a] [=e] thoe-ny[=e]'g[.a]), Don Luis d', +Spanish general, diplomatist, and historian; a favourite of Charles V; born +about 1490, died about 1560. His chief work, printed in 1548 and translated +into five languages, was on the war of Charles V in Germany. + +AVILES ([.a]-v[=e]'les), a town of Northern Spain, province Oviedo, with a +good harbour. Pop. 13,660. + +AVIZ, an order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho, its first +king, and having as its original object the subjection of the Moors. + +AVIZAN'DUM, in Scots law, private consideration. To make _avizandum_ is to +remove a cause from the public court to the private consideration of the +judge. + +AVLO'NA (Ital. _Valona_), a seaport of Albania on the Adriatic, with a +considerable trade. It was occupied and made a naval and military base by +the Italians during the European War. Pop. 6500. + +AVO'CA, or OVOCA, a river and valley in Ireland, County Wicklow, celebrated +as the scene and subject of one of Moore's _Irish Melodies_. The river is +formed by the union of the Avonbeg and Avonmore, and below the junction +receives the Aughrim, the name in Celtic signifying 'the meeting of the +waters'. After a course of about 9 miles it falls into the sea about a mile +below Arklow. The scenery here is singularly beautiful, and attracts many +visitors. + +AVOCA'DO-PEAR. See _Alligator-pear_. + +AVOGAD'RO'S LAW, in physics, asserts that equal volumes of different gases +at the same pressure and temperature contain an equal number of molecules. + +AVOIRDUPOIS (a-v[.e]r'd[u:]-pois; from old French, literally, 'goods of +weight'), a system of weights used for all goods except precious metals, +gems, and medicines, and in which a pound contains 16 ounces, or 7000 +grains, while a pound troy contains 12 ounces, or 5760 grains. A +hundredweight contains 112 pounds avoirdupois; a _cental_ of 100 pounds is +common in America, and is a legal British weight. See _Weights and +Measures_. + +AV'OLA, a seaport on the east of Sicily, with a trade in almonds, sugar, +&c. Pop. 17,711. + +A'VON, the name of several rivers in England, of which the principal are: +1. The Upper Avon, rising in Leicestershire, and flowing S.W. into the +Severn at Tewkesbury. Stratford-on-Avon lies on this river. 2. The Lower +Avon, rising in Gloucestershire, and falling into the Severn N.W. of +Bristol; navigable as far as Bath. 3. In Monmouthshire. 4. In Wiltshire and +Hampshire, entering the English Channel at Christchurch Bay. There are also +streams of this name in Wales and Scotland. + +AVONMOUTH, a place at the mouth of the River Avon, 6 miles from Bristol, +and connected with it by rail and river, with large docks belonging to the +Bristol corporation, and forming part of the shipping accommodation of that +city. + +[Illustration: Avoset (_Recurvirostra avosetta_)] + +AV'OSET, a bird about the size of a lapwing, of the genus Recurvirostra +(_R. avosetta_), family Scolopacidae (snipes), ord. Grallatores. The bill +is long, slender, elastic, and bent upward toward the tip, the legs long, +the feet webbed, and the plumage variegated with black and white. The bird +feeds on worms and other small animals, which it scoops up from the mud of +the marshes and fens that it frequents. It is found in Europe, Asia, +Africa, and America; but the American species is slightly different from +the others. + +AVRANCHES ([.a]-vrae[n.]sh; ancient, ABRINCAE), a town, France, department +La Manche, about 3 miles from the Atlantic. It formerly had a fine +cathedral, destroyed during the first French revolution. Manufactures: +lace, thread, and candles. Pop. 7174. + +AWE ([a:]), a Scottish loch in Argyllshire, about 28 miles long and 2 +broad, and communicating by the Awe with Loch Etive. Ben Cruachan stands at +its northern extremity. It has many islands and beautiful scenery, and +abounds in trout, salmon, &c. + +AXE, or AX, a well-known tool for cutting or chipping wood, consisting of +an iron head with an arched cutting edge of steel, which is in line with +the wooden handle of the tool, and not at right angles to it as in the +adze. + +AXEL. See _Absalon_. + +AXE-STONE. See _Jade_. + +AXHOLME ISLE (aks'[=o]m), a sort of island in England formed by the Rivers +Trent, Idle, and Don, in the north-west angle of Lincolnshire, 17 miles +long, 4-1/2 broad. + +[Illustration: Leaf and stem of Horse-chestnut, showing axil] + +AXIL, or AXILLA, in botany, the angle between the upper side of a leaf and +the stem or branch from which it springs. Buds usually appear in the axils, +and flowers or flower-stalks growing in this way are called _axillary_. + +AX'IM, a town of W. Africa, on the Gold Coast. + +AX'INITE, a mineral, silicate of alumina, lime, &c., with boracic acid, +deriving its name from the form of the crystals, the edges of which bear +some resemblance to the edge of an axe. + +AXIN'OMANCY, an ancient method of divination by the movements of an axe +(Gr. _axin[=e]_) balanced on a stake, or of an agate placed on a red-hot +axe. The names of suspected persons being uttered, the movements at a +particular name indicated the criminal. + +AX'IOM, a universal proposition, which the understanding must perceive to +be true as soon as it perceives the meaning of the words, and therefore +called a _self-evident truth_: e.g. _A_ is _A_. In mathematics, axioms are +those propositions which are assumed without proof, as being in themselves +independent of proof, and which are made the basis of all the subsequent +reasoning; as, 'The whole is greater than its part'; 'Things that are equal +to the same thing are equal to one another'. See _Geometry_. + +AXIS, the straight line, real or imaginary, passing through a body or +magnitude, on which it revolves, or may be supposed to revolve; especially +a straight line with regard to which the different parts of a magnitude, or +several magnitudes, are symmetrically arranged; e.g. the _axis of the +world_, the imaginary line drawn through its two poles. + +In _botany_ the word is also used, the stem being termed the _ascending +axis_, the root the _descending axis_. + +In _anatomy_ the name is given to the second vertebra from the head, that +on which the _atlas_ moves. See _Atlas_. + +AXIS (_Cervus axis_), a species of Indian deer, also known as the Spotted +Hog-deer, of a rich fawn colour, nearly black along the back, with white +spots, and under parts white. Breeds freely in many parks in Europe. + +AX'MINSTER, a market town, England, county Devon, on the Axe, at one time +celebrated for its woollen cloth and carpet manufactures, and giving name +to an expensive variety of carpet having a thick soft pile, and also to a +cheaper variety. Pop. (1921), 2049. + +AX'OLOTL (_Amblyst[)o]ma macul[=a]tum_), a curious Mexican amphibian, not +unlike a newt, from 8 to 10 inches in length, with gills formed of three +long ramified or branch-like processes floating on each side of the neck. +It reproduces by laying eggs, and was for some time regarded as a perfect +animal with permanent gills. It is said, however, that they frequently lose +their gills like the other members of the genus, though some authorities +maintain that the true axolotl never loses its gills, and that merely +confusion with _A. tigr[=i]num_ has led to the belief, as this species +sometimes retains its branchiae, though usually it loses them. The axolotl +is esteemed a luxury by the Mexicans. There are a number of species of +Amblystoma in North America. + +AX'UM, or AKSUM, a town in Tigre, a division of Abyssinia, once the capital +of an important kingdom, and at one time the great depot of the ivory trade +in the Red Sea. It is the seat of an _abuna_ or Patriarch, and has a pop. +of 5000. The site of the town still exhibits many remains of its former +greatness. + +AYACUCHO (ae-y[.a]-koe'ch[=o]), the name of a department of Peru, and of +its capital. The department has an area of 18,185 sq. miles; a pop. of +302,469. The town (formerly Guamanga or Huamanga) has a cathedral and a +university, and a pop. of 20,000. + +AYALA ([.a]-yae'l[.a]), Pedro Lopez de, Spanish historian and poet, +Chancellor of Castile in the second half of the fourteenth century, and the +author of a history of Castile from 1350 to 1396. He took an active part in +the struggle between Henry II and Pedro the Cruel, and was taken prisoner +by the English in 1367. During his English captivity he wrote part of his +chief poetical work, _A Book in Rhyme concerning Court Life_. Died 1407. + +AYAMONTE ([.a]-y[.a]-mon't[=a]), a seaport town, Spain, province of Huelva, +2 miles from the mouth of the Guadiana. Pop. 6000. + +AYASS'OLUK. See _Ephesus_. + +[Illustration: Aye-aye (_Cheir[)o]mys madagascariensis_)] + +AYE-AYE ([=i]-[=i]; _Cheir[)o]mys madagascariensis_), an animal of +Madagascar, so called from its cry; now referred to the lemur family. It is +about the size of a hare, has large flat ears and a bushy tail; large eyes; +long sprawling fingers, the third so slender as to appear shrivelled; +colour, musk-brown, mixed with black and grey ash; feeds on grubs, fruits, +&c.; habits, nocturnal. See _Primates_, _Lemurs_. + +AYESHA (a-yesh'a), daughter of Abu-Bekr and favourite wife of Mahomet, +though she bore him no child, born in 610 or 611. After his death she +opposed the succession of Ali, but was defeated and taken prisoner. She +died at Medina in 677 or 678 (A.H. 58). + +AYLESBURY ([=a]lz'be-ri), county town of Buckinghamshire, England, with a +fine old parish church; chief industries, silk-throwing, printing, making +condensed milk, and poultry-rearing for the London market. The Aylesbury +duck, also called 'white English', is famous. Previous to 1885 it and its +hundred sent two members to Parliament, and it still gives its name to a +parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), 12,114. + +AY'LOFFE, Sir Joseph, an English antiquary, born about 1708, died 1781; +member of the first council of the Society of Antiquaries, a commissioner +for the preservation of State papers, the author and editor of several +works, of which the best known is his _Calendars of the Auntient Charters_, +&c. + +AYMARAS ([=i]'m[.a]-r[.a]z), an Indian race of Bolivia and Peru, speaking a +language akin to the Quichua. + +AY'MON, the surname of four brothers, Alard, Richard, Guiscard, and Renaud, +who hold a first place among the heroes of the Charlemagne cycle of +romance. Their exploits were the subject of a romance, _Les Quatre Fils +d'Aymon_, by Huon de Villeneuve, a trouvere of the thirteenth century, and +Renaud is a leading figure in Ariosto's _Orlando_. + +AYR ([=a]r), a town of Scotland, a royal and parliamentary burgh, and +capital of Ayrshire, at the mouth of the River Ayr, on the Firth of Clyde. +It was the site of a Roman station. William the Lion built a castle there +in 1197 and constituted it a royal burgh in 1202; and the Parliament which +confirmed Robert Bruce's title to the crown sat in Ayr. It is picturesquely +situated, and has excellent public and other buildings. Two bridges connect +Ayr proper with the suburbs of Newton and Wallacetown, a third stands +farther up the river. The 'New Brig' of Burns's 'Brigs of Ayr' (built in +1788) had to be replaced by a new structure in 1879, while the 'Auld Brig' +(built in 1252) still stands, after being repaired. Carpets, lace goods, +leather, iron goods, &c., are manufactured. The harbour accommodation is +good, and in particular coals are largely exported. The house in which +Burns was born stands within 1-1/2 miles of the town, and near 'Alloway's +auld haunted kirk', and a monument to him is near. Ayr unites with +Ardrossan, Irvine, Prestwick, Saltcoats, and Troon in sending a member to +Parliament. Pop. 32,986.--The county has an area of 724,523 acres. It is +divided into the districts of Carrick in the south, Kyle in the middle, and +Cunningham in the north. The surface is irregular, and a large portion of +it hilly, but much of it is fertile. The principal streams are the Ayr, +Stinchar, Girvan, Doon, Irvine, and Garnock. Coal and iron are abundant; +and there are numerous collieries and ironworks. Limestone and freestone +are also abundant. Agriculture is in a flourishing state, the principal +crops being oats, turnips, and early potatoes, while dairy husbandry is +extensively practised; the Ayrshire cows, referred to in the eighteenth +century as the Cunningham, are celebrated as milkers, and Ayrshire cheese +('Dunlop' and 'Cheddar') has a high reputation. Woollen manufactures are +extensive, particularly carpets and bonnets; lace goods are largely made; +Kilmarnock is a centre of engineering and of dairying education. Goods made +include explosives, boots and shoes, chemicals, and leather. Chief towns, +Ayr, Kilmarnock, Irvine, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Stevenston, Maybole. Ayr and +Buteshire send three members to Parliament. Pop. 267,600 (1918). + +AYRER ([=i]'rer), Jacob, a German dramatist of the sixteenth century, who +almost rivalled Hans Sachs in copiousness and importance. He was a citizen +and legal official of Nuremberg, and died in 1605. His works, published at +Nuremberg in 1618, under the title _Opus Theatricum_, include thirty +comedies and tragedies and thirty-six humorous pieces. + +AYRTON, William Edward, English physicist and electrical engineer, born in +1847. From 1873 to 1879 he was professor of natural philosophy and +telegraphy in the Imperial College of Engineering at Tokio. In 1879 he was +appointed professor of applied physics in the City and Guilds of London +Institute. He invented an ammeter, voltmeter, &c., in conjunction with +Professor Perry. He died in 1908. He published _Practical Electricity_, and +many papers on scientific subjects. + +AYTOUN ([=a]'tun), Sir Robert, poet, born in Fifeshire, Scotland, 1570, +died 1638. After studying at St. Andrews he lived for some time in France, +whence, in 1603, he addressed a panegyric in Latin verse to King James on +his accession to the crown of England. By the grateful monarch he was +appointed one of the gentlemen of the bedchamber, and private secretary to +the queen, receiving also the honour of knighthood. At a later period of +his life he was secretary to Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. His poems +are few in number, but are distinguished by elegance of diction. Several of +his Latin poems are preserved in the work called _Delitiae Poetarum +Scotorum_, published at Amsterdam in 1637 at the expense of Sir John Scot +of Scotstarvet. + +AYTOUN, William Edmonstoune, poet and prose writer, born at Edinburgh in +1813, died at Blackhills, Elgin, 1865. He studied at the University of +Edinburgh, became a writer to the signet in 1835, and passed as advocate in +1840. He issued a volume of poems in 1832, by 1836 was a contributor to +_Blackwood's Magazine_, and in 1840 he published the _Life and Times of +Richard 1_. In 1848 he published a collection of ballads entitled _Lays of +the Scottish Cavaliers_, which has proved the most popular of all his +works. It was followed in 1854 by _Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy_ +(intended to ridicule certain popular writers); the _Bon Gaultier Ballads_ +(parodies and other humorous pieces, in conjunction with Theodore Martin), +1855; in 1856 the poem _Bothwell_; and in subsequent years by _Norman +Sinclair_, _The Glenmutchkin Railway_, and other stories. In 1858 he edited +a critical and annotated collection of the _Ballads of Scotland_. A +translation of the poems and ballads of Goethe was executed by him in +conjunction with Theodore Martin. In 1845 he became professor of rhetoric +and English literature in the University of Edinburgh--a position which he +held till his death. In 1852 he was appointed Sheriff of Orkney and +Shetland. + +AYUNTAMIENTO ([.a]-y[u:]n-t[.a]-m[=e]-en't[=o]), the name given to the town +and village councils in Spain and Spanish America. + +AYU'THIA, the ancient capital of Siam, on the Menam, now a scene of +splendid ruin. + +AZA'LEA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Ericaceae, or heaths, remarkable for +the beauty and fragrance of their flowers, and distinguished from the +rhododendrons chiefly by the flowers having five stamens instead of ten. +Many beautiful rhododendrons with deciduous leaves are known under the name +of _azalea_ in gardens. The azaleas are common in North America, and two +species of these--_A. visc[=o]sa_ and _A. nudifl[=o]ra_--are well known in +Britain. An Asiatic species, _A. pontica_, famous for the stupefying effect +which its honey is said to have produced on Xenophon's army (cf. +_Anabasis_, book iv, chap. 8), is also common in British gardens and +shrubberies; and another, _A. indica_, is a brilliant greenhouse plant. + +AZAMGARH, or AZIMGARH, a town of India, United Provinces, capital of +district of same name. Pop. 18,835.--The district has an area of 2418 sq. +miles; a pop. of 1,530,000. + +AZEGLIO ([.a]d-zel'y[=o]), Massimo Taparelli, Marquis d', an Italian +'admirable Crichton', artist, novelist, publicist, statesman, and soldier, +born at Turin in 1798, died 1866. After gaining some reputation in Rome as +a painter, he married the daughter of Manzoni, and achieved success in +literature by his novels _Ettore Fieramosca_ (1833) and _Niccolo dei Lapi_ +(1841). These embodied much of the patriotic spirit, and in a short time he +devoted himself exclusively to fostering the national sentiment by personal +action and by his writings. Many of the reforms of Pius IX were due to him. +He commanded a legion in the Italian struggle of 1848, and was severely +wounded at Vincenza. Chosen a member of the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies, +he was, after the battle of Novara, made president of the cabinet, and in +1859 appointed to the military post of general and +commissioner-extraordinary for the Roman States. + +AZERBAIJAN ([.a]-zer-b[=i]-jaen'), a province of North-Western Persia; +area, 40,000 sq. miles; pop. estimated at 2,000,000. It consists generally +of lofty mountain ranges, some of which rise to a height of between 12,000 +and 13,000 feet. Principal rivers: the Aras or Araxes, and the Kizil-Uzen, +which enter the Caspian; smaller streams discharge themselves within the +province into the great salt lake of Urumiyah. Agricultural products: +wheat, barley, maize, fruit, cotton, tobacco, and grapes. Horses, cattle, +sheep, and camels are reared in considerable numbers. Chief minerals: iron, +lead, copper, salt, saltpetre, and marble. Tabriz is the capital; pop. +200,000. + +AZERBAIJAN, a new republic proclaimed in 1918, after the Russian +revolution. It consists of the former Russian province of Baku on the coast +of the Caspian Sea. In 1920 the Bolshevist party overthrew the Government +and broke off relations with the Entente. See _Russia_. + +AZ'IMUTH of a heavenly body, the arc of the horizon comprehended between +the meridian of the observer and a vertical circle passing through the +centre of the body. The azimuth and altitude give the exact position of the +body with reference to the horizon. + +AZINCOURT. See _Agincourt_. + +AZO COMPOUNDS, a class of substances which belong to the benzene series and +contain carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. All azo compounds are highly +coloured, and in some cases they are direct cotton dyes. The simplest azo +compound is _azobenzene_, the chemical formula of which is +C_6H_5--N = N--C_6H_5. It is prepared from nitrobenzene by reducing it with +stannous chloride and sodium hydroxide. Azobenzene is a highly-coloured +crystalline substance, but it is not a dye; it forms, however, the basis of +the dyes known as _azodyes_. The azodyes form one of the largest groups of +dyes, and derive their name from the presence of the characteristic +chemical group --N = N--, known as the _azo_ group. Azo compounds may +become exceedingly complicated in structure. They are divided into mon-azo, +di-azo, tri-azo compounds according to the number of azo groups present. +The well-known dyes Congo Red and Bismarck Brown are azo compounds of +complicated structure. Azo dyes were discovered by Griess in 1856, but as a +class did not come on the market until about 1876. + +AZOF. See _Azov_. + +AZO'IC. See _Pre-Cambrian_. + +AZOIMIDE, or HYDRAZOIC ACID, N_3H, is an acid liquid of disagreeable odour, +producing headache if inhaled. The acid itself and its salts, with the +exception of the alkali salts, are exceedingly explosive and dangerous to +handle. Lead hydrazoate, PbN_6, is one of the most stable of these salts. +It is a more powerful explosive than mercury fulminate, and has been used +instead, in the manufacture of detonators. + +AZORES (a-z[=o]rz' or a-z[=o]'res), or WESTERN ISLANDS, a group belonging +to and 900 miles west of Portugal, in the North Atlantic Ocean. They are +nine in number, and form three distinct groups--a N.W., consisting of +Flores and Corvo; a central, consisting of Terceira, Sao Jorge, Pico, +Fayal, and Graciosa; and a S.E., consisting of Sao Miguel (or St. Michael) +and Santa Maria. The total area is 922 sq. miles; Sao Miguel (containing +the capital Ponta Delgada), Pico, and Terceira are the largest. The +islands, which are volcanic and subject to earthquakes, are of +comparatively recent origin, and are conical, lofty, precipitous, and +picturesque. The most remarkable summit is the peak of Pico, about 7600 +feet high. There are numerous hot springs. They are covered with luxuriant +vegetation, and diversified with woods, corn-fields, vineyards, lemon and +orange groves, and rich, open pastures. The mild and somewhat humid +climate, combined with the natural fertility of the soil, brings all kinds +of vegetable products rapidly to perfection, among the most important being +grain, oranges, pine-apples, bananas, potatoes, yams, beans, coffee, and +tobacco. The inhabitants are mainly of Portuguese descent, indolent and +devoid of enterprise. Principal exports: wine and brandy, oranges, maize, +beans, pineapples, cattle. The climate is recommended as suitable for +consumptive patients. The Azores were discovered by Cabral about 1431, +shortly after which date they were taken possession of and colonized by the +Portuguese. When first visited they were uninhabited, and had scarcely any +other animals except birds, particularly hawks, to which, called in +Portuguese _acores_, the islands owe their name. Pop. 242,613 (1911). + +AZ'OTE, a name formerly given to nitrogen; hence substances containing +nitrogen and forming part of the structure of plants and animals are known +as _azotized_ bodies. Such are albumen, fibrine, caseine, gelatine, urea, +kreatine, &c. See _Nitrogen_. + +A'ZOV, or ASOV, a town in the Russian government of Ekaterinoslav, upon an +island at the mouth of the Don, where it flows into the Sea of Azov; +formerly a place of extensive trade, but its harbour has become almost +sanded up. Pop. 31,111. + +AZOV, SEA OF (ancient, PALUS MOE[=O]TIS), an arm of the Black Sea, with +which it is united by the Straits of Kertch or Kaffa; length about 170 +miles, breadth about 80 miles; greatest depth not more than 8 fathoms. The +W. part, called the Putrid Sea, is separated from the main expanse by a +long sandy belt called Arabat, along which runs a military road. The sea +teems with fish. The Don and other rivers enter it, and its waters are very +fresh. + +AZPEITIA ([.a]th-p[=a]'i-ti-[.a]), a town of N.E. Spain, province +Guipuzcoa. Near it is the convent of Loyola, a large edifice, now a museum. +Pop. 6692. + +AZ'RAEL. See _As'rael_. + +AZ'TECS (from _Aztatl_ (heron), and _Flacatl_ (man), 'people of the +heron'), a race of people who settled in Mexico early in the fourteenth +century, ultimately extended their dominion over a large territory, and +were still extending their supremacy at the time of the arrival of the +Spaniards, by whom they were speedily subjugated. Their political +organization, termed by the Spanish writers an absolute monarchy, consisted +of a military chief exercising important, but not unlimited, power in civil +affairs, in which the council of chiefs and periodic assemblies of the +judges had also a voice. Their most celebrated ruler was Montezuma, who was +reigning when the Spaniards arrived, about the middle of the fifteenth +century. It is inferred that considerable numbers of them lived in large +communal residences, and that land was held and cultivated upon the +communal principle. Slavery and polygamy were both legitimate, but the +children of slaves were regarded as free. Although ignorant of the horse, +ox, &c., they had a considerable knowledge of agriculture, maize and the +agave being the chief produce. Silver, lead, tin, and copper were obtained +from mines, and gold from the surface and river beds, but iron was unknown +to them, their tools being of bronze and obsidian. Metal coins were not in +use. In metal-work, feather-work, weaving, and pottery they possessed a +high degree of skill. To record events they used picture-writing, and their +lunar calendars were of unusual accuracy. Two special deities claimed their +reverence: Huitzilo-pochtli, the god of war, propitiated with human +sacrifices; and Quetzalcoatl, the beneficent god of light and air, with +whom at first the Aztecs were disposed to identify Cortez. Their temples, +with large terraced pyramidal bases, were in the charge of an exceedingly +large priesthood, to whom the education of the young was entrusted. As a +civilization of apparently independent origin, yet closely resembling in +many features the archaic Oriental civilizations, the Aztec civilization is +of the first interest, but in most accounts of it a large speculative +element has to be discounted. + +AZ'ULINE, or AZ'URINE, blue dyes belonging to the coal-tar class. + +A'ZURE, the heraldic term for the colour blue, represented in engraving by +horizontal lines. + +AZ'URINE (_Leuciscus caerul[)e]us_), a fresh-water fish of the same genus +as the roach, chub, and minnow, found in some parts of Europe, but rare in +Britain; called also _Blue Roach_. + +AZ'URITE, a blue mineral, a carbonate of copper, often occurring in +crystals. Its formula is 2CuCO_3.Cu(OH)_2, and it is also called _Blue +Malachite_. Also a name of lazulite. + +AZYMITE. See _Eucharist_. + + * * * * * + + +B + +B is the second letter and the first consonant in the English and most +other alphabets. It is a mute and labial, pronounced solely by the lips, +and is distinguished from _p_ by being sonant, that is, produced by the +utterance of voice as distinguished from breath. + +B, in _music_, the seventh note of the model diatonic scale or scale of C. +It is called the leading note, as there is always a feeling of suspense +when it is sounded until the keynote is heard. + +BAADER, Franz Xaver von (fr[.a]nts-zae'fer fon bae'der), German philosopher +and theologian, born in Munich, 1765, died 1841. He studied engineering, +became superintendent of mines, and was ennobled for services. He was +deeply interested in the religious speculations of Eckhart, St. Martin, and +Boehme, and in 1826 was appointed professor of philosophy and speculative +theology in the University of Munich. During the last three years of his +life he was interdicted from lecturing for opposing the interference in +civil matters of the Roman Catholic Church. + +BA'AL, or BEL, a Semitic word, which primarily signified lord or +proprietor, and was afterwards applied to many different divinities, or, +with qualifying epithets, to the same divinity regarded in different +aspects, describing him as an occupier of some physical object or locality, +or as a possessor of some attribute. Thus in _Hos._ ii, 16 it is applied to +Jehovah himself, while _Baal-berith_ (the Covenant-lord) was the god of the +Shechemites, and _Baal-zebub_ (the Fly-god) the idol of the Philistines at +Ekron. Baal was the sacred title applied to the Sun as the principal male +deity of the Phoenicians and their descendants, the Carthaginians, as well +as of the ancient Canaanitish nations, and was worshipped as the supreme +ruler and vivifier of nature. The word enters into the composition of many +Hebrew, Phoenician, and Carthaginian names of persons and places; thus, +_Jerubaal_, _Hasdrubal_ (help of Baal), _Hannibal_ (grace of Baal), and +_Baal-Hammon_, _Baal-Thamar_, &c. + +BAALBEK' (ancient, HELIOP[)O]LIS, 'city of the sun'), a place in Syria, in +a fertile valley at the foot of Antilibanus, 40 miles from Damascus, famous +for its magnificent ruins. Of these the chief is the Temple of the Sun, +built either by Antoninus Pius or by Septimius Severus. Some of the blocks +used in its construction are 60 feet long by 12 thick; and its fifty-four +columns, of which six are still standing, were 72 feet high and 22 in +circumference. Near it is a temple of Jupiter, of smaller size though +larger than the Parthenon at Athens, and there are other structures of an +elaborately ornate type. Originally a centre of Sun-worship, it became a +Roman colony under Julius Caesar, was garrisoned by Augustus, and acquired +increasing renown under Trajan as the seat of an oracle. Under Constantine +its temples became churches, but after being sacked by the Arabs in 748, +and more completely pillaged by Tamerlane in 1401, it sank into hopeless +decay. The work of destruction was completed by an earthquake in 1759. + +BAAL-ZEBUB. See _Beelzebub_. + +BABA, a cape near the north-west point of Asia Minor. + +BABADAGH (b[.a]-b[.a]-daeg'), a town of Roumania, capital of the Dobrudsha, +carrying on a considerable Black Sea trade; it was bombarded by the +Russians in 1854. Pop. 10,000. + +BAB'BAGE, Charles, English mathematician and inventor of the +calculating-machine, born 1792, died 1871. He graduated at Cambridge in +1814, and occupied the Lucasian chair of mathematics at Cambridge for +eleven years, but delivered no lectures. As early as 1812 he conceived the +idea of calculating numerical tables by machinery, and in 1823 he received +a grant from Government for the construction of such a machine. After a +series of experiments lasting eight years, and an expenditure of L17,000 +(L6000 of which was sunk by himself, the balance voted by Government), +Babbage abandoned the undertaking in favour of a much more enlarged work, +an analytical engine, worked with cards like the jacquard-loom; but the +project was never completed. The incompleted machine is now in the South +Kensington Museum. Among the many treatises he published on subjects +connected with mathematics and mechanics few can be regarded as finished +performances. Babbage was instrumental in founding the Astronomical and +Statistical Societies (1820 and 1834). + +BABBIT-METAL, a soft metal resulting from alloying together certain +proportions of copper, tin, and zinc or antimony, used with the view of as +far as possible obviating friction in the bearings of journals, cranks, +axles, &c., invented by Isaac Babbit (1799-1862), a goldsmith of Taunton, +Massachusetts. + +BA'BEL. See _Babylon_. + +BA'BEL, TOWER OF, according to the 11th chapter of _Genesis_, a structure +in the Plain of Shinar, Mesopotamia, commenced by the descendants of Noah +subsequent to the deluge, but which was not allowed to proceed to +completion. It has commonly been identified with the great temple of Belus, +or Bel, that was one of the chief edifices in Babylon, and the huge mound +called Birs Nimrud is generally regarded as its site, though another mound, +which to this day bears the name of Babil, has been assigned by some as its +site. Babel means literally 'gate of God'. The meaning 'confusion' assigned +to it in the Bible really belongs to a word of similar form. See _Babylon_. + +BAB-EL-MANDEB ('gate of tears', from being dangerous to small craft), a +strait, 15 miles wide, between the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, formed by +projecting points of Arabia in Asia, and Abyssinia in Africa. The Island of +Perim is here. + +BA'BER, first Grand Mogul, the founder of the Mogul dynasty in Hindustan, +born in 1483, died 1530. He was a grandson of the great Tartar prince, +Timur or Tamerlane, and was sovereign of Cabul. He invaded Hindustan, and +in 1525 overthrew and killed Sultan Ibrahim, the last Hindu emperor of the +Pathan or Afghan race. He made many improvements, social and political, in +his empire, and left a valuable autobiography (English translation, 1826). + +BABEUF (b[.a]-beuf), Francois Noel, a French political agitator, born in +1764; started a democratic journal in Paris, called _Le Tribun du Peuple, +par 'Gracchus' Babeuf_, and wrote with great severity against the Jacobins. +After the fall of Robespierre, to which he powerfully contributed, he +openly attacked the terrorists, and advocated the most democratic +principles. He was accused of a conspiracy against the directorial +Government, condemned to death, and guillotined in 1797. He was one of the +pioneers of Socialism in France. + +BAB'INGTON, Anthony, a Catholic gentleman of Derbyshire, born 1561. He +associated with others of his own persuasion to assassinate Queen +Elizabeth, and deliver Mary, Queen of Scots. The plot being discovered, the +conspirators were executed in 1586. + +BABIROUSSA. See _Babyroussa_. + +BAB'ISM, the doctrines of a Mohammedan sect whose head-quarters is Persia, +founded by Seyd Ali Mohammed in 1844. He took the name of Bab-ed-din, 'the +gate of the faith', and afterwards that of Nokteh, 'the point', as not +merely the recipient of a new divine revelation, but the focus in which all +preceding dispensations would converge. One of his most successful +disciples was a highly-gifted woman, Gurred-ul-Ayn, 'consolation of the +eyes', who perished with many others during a persecution in 1852. The Bab +himself had been executed about two years before this, and was succeeded by +a noble youth, Mirza Yahya. The sect holds that all individual existence is +an emanation from the supreme deity, by whom it will be ultimately +reabsorbed. The morality of the sect is pure and cheerful, and it shows +great advancement in the treatment of woman. Moses, Christ, and Mohammed +are acknowledged as prophets, though only mere precursors of the Bab. A +schism divided the followers of Babism into two sects, Bahais and Ezelis. +The former have carried on an active propaganda in America. + +BA'BOO, or BABU, a Hindu title of respect equivalent to _sir_ or _master_, +usually given to wealthy and educated native gentlemen, especially when of +the mercantile class. + +[Illustration: Family of Common Baboons (_Cynoceph[)a]lus babouin_)] + +BABOON', a common name applied to a division of old-world quadrumana (apes +and monkeys), comprehending the genera Cynoceph[)a]lus and Papio. They have +elongated abrupt muzzles like a dog, strong tusks or canine teeth, usually +short tails, cheek-pouches, small deep eyes with large eyebrows, and naked +callosities on the buttocks. Their hind and fore feet are well +proportioned, so that they run easily on all fours, but they do not +maintain themselves in an upright posture with facility. They are generally +of the size of a moderately large dog, but the largest, the mandrill, is, +when erect, nearly of the height of a man. They are almost all African, +ugly, sullen, fierce, lascivious, and gregarious, defending themselves by +throwing stones, dirt, &c. They live on fruits and roots, eggs and insects. +They include the chacma, drill, common baboon, and mandrill. The chacma or +pig-tailed baboon (_Cynoceph[)a]lus porcarius_) is found in considerable +numbers in parts of the S. African colonies, where the inhabitants wage war +against them on account of the ravages they commit in the fields and +gardens. The common baboon (_C. babouin_) inhabits a large part of Africa +farther to the north. It is of a brownish-yellow colour, while the chacma +is greyish-black, or in parts black. The hamadryas (_C. hamadryas_) of +Abyssinia is characterized by long hair, forming a sort of shoulder-cape. +The black baboon (_C. niger_) is found in Celebes. + +BABOUR (bae'b[u:]r). See _Baber_. + +BAB'RIUS, a Greek poet who flourished during the second or third century of +the Christian era, and wrote a number of Aesopian fables. Several versions +of these made during the Middle Ages have come down to us as _Aesop's +Fables_. In 1840 a manuscript containing 120 fables by Babrius, previously +unknown, was discovered on Mount Athos. + +BABUYA'NES ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific Ocean, between Luzon and +Formosa, belonging to United States. Pop. 12,000. + +BABY-FARMING. The law relating to the protection of children and young +persons has been subjected to amendment and consolidation by the Children +Act of 1908, which wholly repealed the Infant Life Protection Act of 1897 +dealing with baby-farming and infant life protection. + +The Act of 1908 (Part I) deals with baby-farming, and requires that notice +shall be given to the Local Authority (in Scotland the Parish Council) by +the person undertaking for reward the nursing and maintenance of any infant +or infants under seven years of age apart from their parents, within +forty-eight hours after reception, unless the period for which it is +received be only forty-eight hours or less. The notice requires the name, +sex, date and place of birth of the child to be stated, where it is to be +kept, and from whom it is received. The Act also provides that such a +person shall notify any change in his residence or the removal or death of +the infant to the Local Authority within forty-eight hours. In regard to +all these matters the Act is retrospective, and necessitates persons who +had undertaken nursing and maintenance of such infants before its coming +into operation to comply with its provisions within a month after the +commencement thereof. But it exempts any person who may have given the +similar notice required by the Infant Life Protection Act of 1897, although +it does not exempt any person whose duty it was to have given notice +thereunder from any liability which such a person may have incurred +thereunder. + +A duty is imposed upon Local Authorities to inquire regarding persons +willing to undertake the nursing and maintenance of infants, to appoint +infant-protection visitors of either sex in so far as it provides for +infant life protection and gives powers to such Local Authorities and +visitors for fulfilling the requirements of the Act. It is an offence for +the person undertaking the nursing to refuse to allow such visitors access +to the infant or the premises in which it is kept; and, if need be, +application may be made to the court for a warrant to enter the house in +which an infant is farmed out, and where there is reason to believe that +the Act is being contravened. It is an offence for any infant to be kept +(1) by any person from whose care an infant has been removed under the Act +or the Infant Life Protection Act, or (2) by any person convicted of any +offence under Part II of the Children Act of 1908 or the Prevention of +Cruelty to Children Act, 1904. + +The Local Authority may fix the number of infants under the age of seven +years which may be kept in any dwelling, and it is an offence to keep more. +Provision is also made for the removal of an infant from overcrowded, +dangerous, or insanitary premises, or from the custody of a person unfit to +take charge of the child; and an application may be made by a visitor to a +magistrate for a removal order enforceable by the visitor or a constable. +Should the infant die, notice of the fact must be given by the person with +whom it is farmed out to the Procurator-fiscal of the district, if in +Scotland, and, if in England, to the Coroner of the district, within +twenty-four hours. He shall hold an inquest unless a certificate by a +medical practitioner specifying the cause of death shall be forwarded. +Failure to give such notice is punishable under the Act. + +A person nursing an infant for reward shall have no interest in the life of +the child for the purposes of life assurance. It is not permissible for +such a person or insurance company to insure the life of such a child. To +do so renders both the person and the insurance company liable to +prosecution. + +Any person knowingly or wilfully making any false statement in any notice +required to be given under the Act commits an offence under the Act. + +Imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or a fine not exceeding +L25, may be imposed upon any person found guilty upon summary conviction of +an offence against Part I of the Children Act, 1908; in addition the court +may order the removal of the infant to a place of safety. All fines are +payable to the Local Authority for the purposes of the Act. + +Legal guardians of an infant, as well as institutions established for the +protection and care of infants, are exempted from the provisions of Part I +of the Children Act, 1908. + +BAB'YLON, the capital of Babylonia, on the left of the Euphrates, one of +the largest and most splendid cities of the ancient world, now a scene of +ruins, and earth-mounds containing them. Babylon was a royal city sixteen +hundred years before the Christian era; but the old city was almost +entirely destroyed in 683 B.C. A new city was built by Nebuchadnezzar +nearly a century later. This was in the form of a square, each side 15 +miles long, with walls of such immense height and thickness as to +constitute one of the wonders of the world. It contained splendid edifices, +large gardens and pleasure-grounds, especially the 'hanging-gardens', a +sort of lofty terraced structure supporting earth enough for trees to grow, +and the celebrated Tower of Babel or Temple of Belus, rising by stages to +the height of 625 feet. (See _Babel, Tower of_.) After the city was taken +by Cyrus in 538 B.C., and Babylonia made a Persian province, it began to +decline, and had suffered severely by the time of Alexander the Great. He +intended to restore it, but was prevented by his death, which took place +here in 323 B.C., from which time its decay was rapid. Interesting +discoveries have been made on its site, more especially of numerous and +valuable inscriptions in the cuneiform or arrow-head character. The modern +town of Hillah is believed to represent the ancient city, and the plain +here for miles round is studded with vast mounds of earth and brick and +imposing ruins. The greatest mound is Birs Nimrud, about 6 miles from +Hillah. It rises nearly 200 feet, is crowned by a ruined tower, and is +commonly believed to be the remains of the ancient Temple of Belus. Another +great ruin-mound, called Mujellibeh, has also been assigned as its site. + +BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. These ancient seats of Mesopotamian civilization lay +across the western Asian trade-routes, Babylonia being in the south and +Assyria in the north. The area, in which they flourished is embraced by the +Rivers Tigris and Euphrates, and extends from the head of the Persian Gulf +to the frontiers of Armenia and Northern Syria, is bordered on the east by +Persia and on the west by the Syro-Arabian desert. 'Mesopotamia' is a term +borrowed by the ancient Greeks from the Semites, and was first applied to +the north-western region. There was a Roman province of that name. The +northern area of the Tigro-Euphrates valley is partly mountainous and +partly steppe land, with wide stretches of elevated grazing-lands and +fertile districts on the banks of rivers. Assyria, derived from A-usar +('the river-bank region'), had origin in north-eastern Mesopotamia. Its +most ancient capital, Asshur (modern Kal'at Sherkat), was situated on the +western bank of the River Tigris, between the tributaries the Upper Zab and +the Lower Zab. Nineveh, the last capital of all, lay farther north on the +eastern bank of the Tigris, and right opposite modern Mosul. The Assyrians +called themselves Asshurai, and their national god was Ashur (earlier +Ashir), written A-Shur, but confused in time with Ash-Shur, the name of the +capital. The southern area of Mesopotamia, below Bagdad, where the Tigris +and Euphrates come within 35 miles of one another, is a flat alluvial +plain. Babylonia proper is that fish-shaped region between the rivers, +which broadens out to about 100 miles and gradually narrows to the point at +Kurnah where the rivers meet and form the Shatt-el-Arab. From Kurnah to the +head of the Persian Gulf is the ancient area of Chaldea, which means +'Sea-land'. The inhabitants called themselves Kaldu (Sea-landers) and were +known to the Hebrews as the Kasdim, and to the Greeks as the Chaldaioi. +Babylonia, and the rest of the alluvial plain, is the 'gift' of the rivers +which rise in flood each year when the snow melts on the Armenian +mountains. Both the Tigris and the Euphrates bring down enormous quantities +of sediment--indeed five times as much as does the Egyptian Nile--and they +have withal more destructive tendencies. The accumulating silt tends to +divert the flow of the rivers in the south, and a process of land-making +which began at the close of the Ice Age is still in progress, thrusting +back the head of the Persian Gulf. At one time the Tigris and Euphrates +entered the gulf by separate mouths, and Chaldea was then a narrow fringe +of steppe land, plain, and marshes. The River Tigris is about 1146 miles +long, and begins to rise early in March, reaching its height in May, and +subsiding before the end of June. The Euphrates is a slower river, about +1780 miles in length. It begins to rise a fortnight later than the Tigris, +is longer in flood, and does not reach its lowest level until September. As +there is a drop of only 120 feet between Bagdad and the sea, a distance, as +the crow flies, of about 300 miles, the ancient Babylonians did their +utmost to conserve the water which came down in such abundance and was +rapidly drained away, after doing much damage. Near Bagdad the Tigris is on +a higher level than the Euphrates, and could be run into it through a +canal; farther south the Euphrates, being on the higher level, could be run +by canal into the Tigris. The ancient engineers cut these and other canals; +indeed, they covered the whole valley with a network of them. To store the +Euphrates water for the season of drought and great heat, they formed +canals which carried the roaring flood into two depressions in the western +desert between the modern towns of Kerbela and Ram[.a]di. These depressions +are utilized for the British irrigation scheme. The Babylonians did their +utmost to control the Tigris by erecting earthen dams so as to hold up as +much of the water as possible. Earthen dykes were also erected to raise its +banks. The right bank protected the farms from disastrous flooding. These +ancient irrigation works made Babylonia the greatest grain-yielding area in +the ancient world. Its vast surplus of food stimulated trade and brought +Babylonia immense wealth, while its strategic situation made it very +powerful. Its cultural influence flowed along the trade routes, eastward +across Persia and the Iranian plateau, northward through Assyria to Armenia +(ancient Urartu) and beyond, and north-westward along the Euphrates banks +into Syria and Palestine, and into Asia Minor, the land of the Hittites, +and then along the highway to Europe, called later by the Persians 'the +royal road'. The road to Egypt ran southward from North Syria through +Palestine, skirting the maritime valley by 'the way of the Philistines'. +The merchants of many nations met in the city of Babylon, the London of the +ancient western Asian world, and in the trading centres of North Syria, +including Carchemish. + +[Illustration: Assyrian Soldiers] + +The earliest agriculturists and traders of Babylonia were the Sumerians, a +non-Semitic people, who built a number of cities in the irrigated valley +and founded colonies in Assyria. No trace has been found of a Neolithic Age +in Babylonia. Its civilization, so far as our knowledge goes, began after +copper was introduced. At an early period Semites filtered into the valley. +They absorbed Sumerian civilization, and ultimately became politically +predominant in the northern part of the valley, which was called Akkad (the +biblical Accad). The southern part was then known as Sumer or Sumeria (the +biblical 'Plain of Shinar'). Akkad embraced the city States of Agade, +Babylon, Borsippa, Sippar, Kish, Opis, and Kutha. The Sumerian city States +included Eridu, Ur (later 'of the Chaldees' and the birthplace of Abraham), +Lagash, Shuruppak, Erech, Umma, and Adab. Inter-state wars resulted time +and again in the formation of confederacies which were more of political +than racial character, and the predominance of one city or another. +Religious ideas were fused, and local pantheons appear to have reflected +local politics. The chief seat of early Sumerian civilization was the city +of Eridu, a name signifying 'on the seashore'. Its site is marked by modern +Abu-Shahrein on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, and south-east of Ur, +modern Mukayyar. Eridu was originally a seaport on the Persian Gulf, from +which it is now separated by about 125 miles of land formed by river silt. +The chief god of Eridu was Ea, a name also rendered Ae and Aa, and +apparently meaning 'waters' or 'house (region) of waters'. That the term +'waters' had a special significance for the inhabitants of a water-formed +land is evident by the fact that the Semitic equivalent of Ea is Enki, +which means 'lord of earth'. Other titles of the god were 'lord of Heaven +and Earth', 'ruler of the land', 'the deep', 'god of the abyss', and 'king +of the river'. He was withal the 'Creator', water having created Sumeria, +and Nadimmud, 'lord of everything', as the Egyptian Osiris in his character +of god of the Nile was 'Neb-er-Zer', also 'lord of everything'. Ea had a +ship with a crew including his son Marduk (Merodach or Marad, the Ni-marad +or Nimrod of legend) and In-ab, 'the pilot of Eridu'. The ship was hailed, +in religious literature, as the bringer of fertility and joy. Evidently the +beginning of Sumerian civilization had some connection with ancient +seafarers. Of special interest in this connection are the references made +by the Greek writer Berosus to Oannes, a sea-dweller who came daily from +the Persian Gulf to instruct the early Babylonians how to irrigate the +land, grow crops, erect houses, make laws, write, calculate and measure, +and engage in trade. Texts have been discovered which tend to identify +Oannes with the god Ea. As the early Sumerians bore a strong physical +resemblance to the ancient Egyptians, and there were links between the +early religious beliefs and customs of the two peoples, it is suspected +that they represented two branches of the same ancient stock. Some think +Sumerian civilization was founded by colonists from Egypt, while others +believe that Egyptian civilization was stimulated by settlers from Sumeria. +The question as to who first invented ships has an important bearing in +this connection. When we turn to Sumero-Babylonian religious myths we find +that some reflect local natural phenomena. In one the Euphrates is hailed +as the River (god) "who didst create all things". Another, referring to the +creation of man, says that Marduk (earlier the god Gilimma) "tied reeds on +the face of the waters, he formed dust and poured it out beside the reeds +... he formed mankind". Another version is that man was created from the +god's blood and bone, or, as Berosus has it, from the god's blood and +earth. The oldest Sumerian creation myth states that all things came from +primeval water. Then many deities were created by the pre-existing triad of +gods, Anu (the sky-god), Enlil ('the elder Bel', the earth-god, and 'lord +of grain'), and Ea, who was associated with the goddess Ninkharsagga. Ea +had several other wives, including Ninshar or Ninkurra, Ninella, Nintu, and +Damkina. These goddesses were ultimately all absorbed by Ishtar, the +Semitic name of the love and mother goddess. In the later Babylonian 'Seven +Tablets' version of the creation myth a conflict is introduced. The female +chaos-dragon Tiamat is slain by Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, 'the +later Bel', who cuts up her body and uses part to form the sky and part to +keep the waters in their place. After a time a deluge took place. In the +Sumerian myth a priest-king called Ziusudu (earlier named Tatug or Uttu) +corresponds both to Adam and to Noah, and builds a large vessel, having +been warned by Ea of the approaching disaster. The Gilgamesh Epic refers to +the hero as Ut-na-pishtim (or Pir-na-pishtim). He and his wife afterwards +become immortal, and they are visited on their island by Gilgamesh (the +Babylonian Hercules), when, smitten by disease, he searches for the Plant +of Life, which he finds and afterwards loses. Ishtar, the goddess who plays +a part in this epic, is also the heroine of the poetic legend which tells +of her descent to Hades in quest of Tammuz, whose story resembles somewhat +that of Adonis and has Osirian characteristics. The Babylonian Persephone +was Eresh-ki-gal with whom Tammuz dwelt in her underworld for part of the +year. Associated with her was Nergal, chief god of Kutha, whose planet was +Mars. He conquered Hades. He and other city gods appear to have been +developed from attributes vaguely shared by the earlier triad Anu, +Bel-Enlil, and Ea. The moon-god of Ur was Sin (Sumerian Nannara), whose +name clings to the desert of Sinai. Shamash was the Semitic name of the +sun-god of Sippar, the Sumerian being Utu; Gishnu, the Light, and +Ma-banda-anna, 'the boat of heaven' (like the Egyptian Ra), and Mitra were +among his other non-Semitic names. Dagan, the god of the Euphrates, is +regarded as a form of Ea, and as probably the same deity as Dagon of the +Philistines. In later times the astrologers coloured with their doctrines +the religious beliefs of Babylonia. + +Among the early empire-builders of Babylonia were Lugal-zaggisi of Sumerian +Erech, who claimed to have subdued all lands from the Lower Sea (Persian +Gulf) to the Upper Sea (the Mediterranean). He flourished about 2800 B.C. +Another was Sargon of Akkad, who lived about a century and a half later. He +must not be confused with the much later biblical Sargon of Assyria. His +son or grandson, Naram-Sin, recorded his great trading activities and +victories over his enemies, including the Elamites, whose chief stronghold +was Susa in south-western Persia. Elam was a rival power of considerable +strength. About 2200 B.C. it had overrun a great part of Sumeria, and Akkad +fell to the invading bands of Amorites. These Amorites founded the +Hammurabi Dynasty, of which the king of that name was sixth in succession; +Hammurabi extinguished the last sparks of Elamite power in Sumeria, which, +with Akkad, was united to form the kingdom of Babylonia, named after +Babylon, the capital. It was during this period that Abraham migrated from +Ur to Palestine. Hammurabi (_c._ 2123-2081 B.C.) codified the ancient +Sumerian laws and did much to develop trade. The chief god of his kingdom +was Marduk, 'the later Bel', whose temple was called Esagilla. Babylon +became the greatest trading centre in Western Asia and a rival of the +Egyptian Memphis. Sumerian gradually ceased to be a spoken language, being +supplanted by Semitic, but remained, like Latin, in mediaeval Europe, the +language of law, culture, and religion, while the Babylonian language +became the language of trade and diplomacy, and was used in international +correspondence by all the great Powers. The Hammurabi dynasty came to an +end about 1926 B.C., when the Hittites raided Babylonia and carried off the +statues of Marduk and his consort. Kassites, assisted by Elamites, had been +attacking Babylonia from the east, and the Sea-landers, who were Arabians +mixed with Sumerians, established their independence. In the end the +Kassites, who were probably Aryan by race, conquered Babylonia and +established a new dynasty. Like the Trojans they were 'tamers of horses'. +Their military successes are believed to have been due to the use of the +horse, which was a rarity in Babylonia before their time, but became common +as a beast of burden as soon as the Kassite dynasty was established. +Kassite supremacy lasted for over 570 years, and during that period +Babylonia was known as Karduniash. One of its early kings brought back from +Khani (Mitanni) the statues of Marduk and his consort which had been +carried off by the Hittites. Babylonian civilization was not changed by +Kassite conquest, and its trade went on as of yore. The Kassites formed an +aristocracy like the Normans in England. During the Kassite period Assyria +was a growing power. It had origin as a Sumerian colony, but above the +relics of the Sumerians at Asshur have been found those of a people whose +kings had such non-Semitic and probably Aryan names as Ushpia, Kikia, and +Adasi. The Amorites afterwards swept into Assyria, which they Semitized. +During the Hammurabi dynasty it was subject to Babylonian overlordship. It +grew independent during the latter period of the Kassite dynasty, and its +kings formed compacts with the Kassites. Their western neighbours were by +this time the Mitannians. An Aryan military aristocracy had formed a +powerful State in north-western Mesopotamia, where they worshipped Indra, +Varuna, and Mitra, gods which figure in the mythology of the Aryan invaders +of India. Egypt, under Thothmes III, extended her Syrian empire to the +borders of Mitannia and a friendship sprang up between the two Powers. +Assyria was during the period subject to Mitanni. The Tell-el-Amarna +letters reveal the fact that Egyptian monarchs had married princesses from +Mitanni, and the famous Akhenaton had Mitannian blood in his veins. + +[Illustration: Ashur-natsir-pal in Chariot, hunting Lions about 884 B.C. +From a relief in the Palace of Nimrod] + +[Illustration: Tablet recording the Wars of Sennacherib] + +The Hittites conquered Northern Syria and overran Mitannia when the +Egyptian Asian empire went to pieces. Assyria then became powerful and +independent again, the first great king of its new age being Ashur-uballit, +who was strong enough to interfere with Babylonia's domestic politics. +Shalmaneser I of Assyria (_c._ 1300 B.C.) conquered the whole of the +Mitanni kingdom and extended the Assyrian empire westward across the +Babylonian caravan road to North Syria. He built a new capital at Kalah +(Nimrud). His son, Tulkulti--Nineb I--(_c._ 1275 B.C.), conquered Babylonia +and reigned over it for seven years. In the end he was murdered by +political conspirators, with whom his son was associated. Civil war ensued, +and Assyria's history is found to be obscure for a century afterwards. In +Babylon the Kassite dynasty, under which trade flourished, came to an end +as a result of an Elamite invasion about 1185 B.C. A new Babylonian dynasty +then arose, and the third king, Nebuchadnezzar I, revived the old empire +and waged war against Assyria. But the future lay with Assyria, which was +organized as a military State. It did not have Babylonia's natural +resources, and could only exist as a great Power by imposing tribute on +weaker States. A standing army was the basis of its strength. The national +god was Ashur, who was symbolized by a winged disk, an adaptation of the +Egyptian winged disk of Horus. It was carried to battle with the king, so +that wherever the king was, there was the national god of war. The +heavily-bearded Assyrians were a fiercer and more war-like people than the +mild shaven Babylonians, who were ever influenced by Sumerian modes of +thought. The Assyrian temperament is reflected in its art, which at its +best is characterized by vigorous realism and brilliant ferocity. Much of +it is harsh, exaggerated, and pompous. A sharp contrast is presented by the +calmer and more idealistic art of the Sumero-Babylonians. The records of +Assyrian monarchs deal mainly with extensive conquests. They did their +utmost to set up a reign of terror in Western Asia, and when subject States +revolted the chief men in them were flayed alive or impaled on stakes. The +wholesale destruction of trading city States and the massacres of thousands +of innocents were fit subjects for an Assyrian conqueror to boast of in his +inscriptions. Hittites, North Syrians, Babylonians, and Urartians +(Armenians), were time and again plundered and subjected. A great conqueror +of the Middle Period was Tiglath-Pileser I (_c._ 1100 B.C.), and other +monarchs of the same name repeated his conquests and atrocities during the +last century of Assyria's existence. The military glory of such a monarch +as Ashur-natsir-pal III (885-860 B.C.), whose armies swept through western +Asia like cyclones, has a lurid background of savage cruelty and +oppression. He fought for no greater cause than plunder and the maintenance +of Assyria's ability to wring tribute from the oppressed. His son, +Shalmaneser III, extended the empire but died under a cloud of internal +revolt. Subsequent rulers dominated Babylonia, and one, Adad-nirari IV +(810-782 B.C.), married the Babylonian princess, Sammurammat, the Semiramis +of tradition. Tiglath-Pileser IV (745-727 B.C.) was overlord of Babylon, +and, indeed, Babylonia was more or less under Assyrian sway for the next +century. Sargon II ('Sargon the later') did his utmost to break the +national spirit in subject States by transporting whole communities from +one to another. He removed a portion of the 'ten lost tribes' to the Median +hills, and dispatched Babylonians from Kutha to Samaria, where they made +Nergal their chief god. His campaigns extended to Phoenicia, Cilicia, and +Armenia. Sennacherib, his son, defeated Egypt and her allies in Palestine +and besieged Hezekiah in Jerusalem. A revolution in Babylonia broke out, +and he swept into it and devastated Babylon, so that Nineveh might become +the chief city in Mesopotamia. But Babylon had to be rebuilt by his son +Esarhaddon, so that its dislocated trade might be restored. Esarhaddon, +recognizing that the great commercial rival of Babylonia was Egypt, and +that Egypt instigated the Palestinian and Syrian revolts against Assyria, +invaded the Nile valley and captured and sacked Memphis. Ashur-bani-pal +(668-626 B.C.), the next Assyrian emperor, punished the Egyptian rebels by +sweeping southwards and capturing and sacking Thebes, which is referred to +as No (Nu-Amon) in the Bible (_Nahum_, iii, 8-10): "Populous No ... Yet was +she carried away ... her young children also were dashed in pieces at the +top of all the streets: and they (the Assyrians) cast lots for her +honourable men, and all her great men were bound in chains". Egypt became +for a time an Assyrian province. Elam was similarly dealt with, the great +capital Susa being treated like Thebes. On the north and east Assyrian +power was established with characteristic Assyrian ferocity and +thoroughness. The result was that the predatory nomadic tribes of Scythians +and Medes were able to sweep through the devastated territories and strike +at the very heart of the empire. Ashur-bani-pal was the last great monarch +of Assyria. In private life he was cultured and scholarly, and his library, +which contained copies of many ancient records and literary works, is one +of the sources of Mesopotamian history. Although the Sardanapulus of Greek +tradition, he was not the actual monarch who perished when Nineveh was +captured and sacked about 606 B.C. by the fiery hillmen from the east. The +Assyrian military organization collapsed and Assyria ceased to be. The +factors that led to the downfall of Assyria can only be guessed at. It may +be that its many wars of conquest had left it in a state of exhaustion. It +is also possible that the new generation of the aristocratic class that +grew up in wealth and luxury was disorganized by intrigues and corruption. +After Ashur-bani-pal died, no great leader arose, and the vast unwieldy +empire suffered from internal decay. Babylonia was the first to foster +organized revolt. It was overrun by the Chaldeans from the south, who, two +years after Ashur-bani-pal's death, set on the throne at Babylon their +leader, King Nabopolassar. With him began the Neo-Babylonian dynasty which +lasted for 86 years. He had an ambitious and capable son named +Nebuchadnezzar, who set out, as soon as Nineveh fell, to seize the western +portion of the Assyrian Empire--the Medes, with whom the Chaldeans had an +agreement, being content to retain north-eastern Mesopotamia. The +Egyptians, having overcome the Assyrian garrisons in the Nile valley, were +by this time moving northward through Palestine with the idea of +re-establishing their ancient empire in Asia. Memphis and Babylon were +rival trading centres, and the struggle that ensued was one which was to +decide which should have preeminence on the western Asian trade-routes, and +especially the 'clearing-houses' of North Syria. In 604 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar +met and defeated Pharaoh Necho's Egyptian army at Carchemish. The Egyptians +retreated in confusion and were pursued to their frontier. Nabopolassar's +death in Babylon caused Nebuchadnezzar to return home and ascend the +throne. Eight years later, [Illustration] however, he was back in Palestine +again. Judah had been plotting with Egypt, its ally, and the Babylonian +monarch besieged and captured Jerusalem. Thousands of Jews were carried off +as captives to Babylonia. In 587 B.C. Egypt involved Judah in a second +revolt. Nebuchadnezzar II again captured Jerusalem. This time he destroyed +the city and carried away the greater part of the remnant of the Jewish +people to serve his artisans and agriculturists "by Babel's streams". +Babylon was triumphant as a political and trading centre, and, during +Nebuchadnezzar's long reign of 42 years, prospered greatly. Its products +and its culture were carried far and wide, and Chaldean astrologers as well +as merchants became known in Egypt and Greece. Babylonia was the birthplace +of the science of astronomy, which developed from astrology. Nebuchadnezzar +was a great builder. It is the ruins of his Babylon that have been +excavated in our own day. Although Greek descriptions of the city have been +found to be somewhat exaggerated, it was yet made very strong and +impressive. The royal palace was rebuilt, and the Hanging Garden on its +terraced platform became one of the seven wonders of the world. Trade +flourished in the capital, and a harbour was built at the head of the +Persian Gulf to promote sea traffic. In 539 B.C. Cyrus, the Persian +conqueror, having defeated the Babylonian army, entered Babylon in state +and was welcomed by the priests, Nabo-nidus, the last king of the +Neo-Babylonian empire, having made them his enemies. The independence of +Babylonia then came to an end, but the importance of its capital as a +trading centre did not suffer sudden decline. When it was captured by +Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. it had been much damaged in consequence of +revolts against Persia. The Macedonian conqueror resolved to make it his +capital, but his early death, and subsequent political developments, +hastened its decay. The Greeks had removed the rocks that blocked the +Tigris, which then could be navigated by vessels from the Persian Gulf. +Seleucus built the new capital of Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris, +and the traders followed the officials to the new Babylon. In time +Ctesiphon arose on the left bank, and after the fall of the Parthian empire +it was the principal city of the province. The Moslem conquest of +Mesopotamia in the seventh century of our era brought about the rise of +Bagdad, a few miles to the north of Ctesiphon. It will be noted that all +these cities are strategically situated in the neck of land, between the +rivers, which is crossed by the caravan roads leading east and west. During +the reign of the famous Harun al Rashid (786-809) Bagdad was at the height +of its splendour. A portion of this ruler's great palace still remains, and +the tomb of Zobiede, his queen, is a prominent feature on the outskirts of +the city. Bagdad declined as a trading centre after Vasco da Gama +discovered the sea-route to India, and diverted the merchandise previously +carried to Europe across the overland routes across Persia and through +Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Bagdad afterwards depended chiefly on the +traffic caused by pilgrim caravans to and from Mecca. The disastrous +neglect of Babylonia's irrigation system occurred under Turkish rule. +Towards the close of the nineteenth century Germany obtained concessions +from the Turks and planned the Bagdad railway, so as to reopen the ancient +overland trade-route for Indo-Persian trade. British interests in the +Persian Gulf were seriously threatened by this scheme. When war broke out +in 1914, a British force landed in ancient Chaldea and pushed northward. +Bagdad, the modern Babylon, was captured in 1917, and Mosul (Nineveh) was +occupied in 1918. The Peace Treaty between the Allied Powers and Turkey +placed Mesopotamia under the protection of Great Britain, which thus +secured control of the Bagdad railway. An extensive irrigation scheme in +the southern alluvial valley promises to restore ancient Babylonia to its +importance as one of the great grain-yielding areas of the +world.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. W. Rogers, _History of Babylonia and Assyria_; H. +Winckler, _History of Babylonia and Assyria_; L. W. King and H. R. H. Hall, +_Egypt and Western Asia in the Light of recent Discoveries_; P. S. P. +Handcock, _The Latest Light on Bible Lands_; L. W. King, _History of +Babylon_; D. A. Mackenzie, _Myths of Babylonia and Assyria_; T. G. Pinches, +_The Religion of Babylon and Assyria_; _The Old Testament in the Light of +the Records of Assyria and Babylonia_; A. H. Sayce, _Religions of Ancient +Egypt and Babylonia_; M. Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice +in Babylonia and Assyria_; R. Koldeweg, _The Excavations of Babylon_. + +BABYROUSSA (bab-i-r[u:]s'a; a Malay word signifying stag-hog), a species of +wild hog (_Sus_ or _Porcus Babyrussa_), a native of the Indian Archipelago. +From the outside of the upper jaw spring two teeth 12 inches long, curving +upwards and backwards like horns, and almost touching the forehead. The +tusks of the lower jaw also appear externally, though they are not so long +as those of the upper jaw. Along the back are some weak bristles, and on +the rest of the body only a sort of wool. These animals live in herds, feed +on herbage, are sometimes tamed, and their flesh is well flavoured. + +BAC'CARAT, a gambling card game of French origin, played by any number of +players, or rather betters, and a banker. The latter deals two cards to +each player and two to himself, and covers the stakes of each with an equal +sum. The cards are then examined, and according to the scores made the +players take their own stake and the banker's, or the latter takes all or a +certain number of the stakes. + +BACCARAT (b[.a]k-[.a]-rae), a town of France, about 15 miles south-east of +Luneville, department Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the River Meurthe, with a +handsome new church, and one of the largest works for plate-glass and +crystal in France. Pop. 7277. + +BACCHANA'LIA, or DIONYSIA, feasts in honour of Bacchus or Dionysus, +characterized by licentiousness and revelry, and celebrated in ancient +Athens. In the processions were bands of Bacchantes of both sexes, who, +inspired by real or feigned intoxication, wandered about rioting and +dancing. They were clothed in fawn-skins, crowned with ivy, and bore in +their hands _thyrsi_, that is spears entwined with ivy, or having a +pine-cone stuck on the point. These feasts passed from the Greeks to the +Romans, who celebrated them with still greater dissoluteness till the +Senate abolished them, 187 B.C. + +BACCHANTE (bak-an'te), a person taking part in revels in honour of Bacchus. +See _Bacchanalia_. + +BACCHIGLIONE (b[.a]k-kil'y[=o]-n[=a]), a river of Northern Italy, rises in +the Alps, passes through the towns of Vicenza and Padua, and enters the +Adriatic near Chioggia, after a course of about 90 miles. + +BACCHUS (bak'us; in Greek, generally _Dion[)y]sus_), the god of wine, son +of Zeus (Jupiter) and S[)e]m[)e]l[=e]. He first taught the cultivation of +the vine and the preparation of wine. To spread the knowledge of his +invention he travelled over various countries and received in every quarter +divine honours. Drawn by lions (some say panthers, tigers, or lynxes), he +began his march, which resembled a triumphal procession. Those who opposed +him were severely punished, but on those who received him hospitably he +bestowed rewards. His love was shared by several; but Ariadne, whom he +found deserted upon Naxos, alone was elevated to the dignity of a wife, and +became a sharer of his immortality. In art he is represented with the +round, soft, and graceful form of a maiden rather than with that of a young +man. His long waving hair is knitted behind in a knot, and wreathed with +sprigs of ivy and vine leaves. He is usually naked; sometimes he has a +loose mantle hung negligently round his shoulders; sometimes a fawn-skin +hangs across his breast. He is often accompanied by Silenus, Bacchantes, +Satyrs, &c. See _Bacchanalia_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Farnell, _Cults of the Greek +States_; J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_; Sir +J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_. + +BACCHYLIDES (bak-kil'i-d[=e]z), born in the Island of Cos, about the middle +of the fifth century B.C., the last of the great lyric poets of Greece, a +nephew of Simonides and a contemporary of Pindar. The extant remains of his +odes, hymns, paeans, &c., were augmented in 1897 by papyrus discoveries. + +BACCIOCCHI (b[.a]t-chok'[=e]), Maria Anne Eliza Bonaparte, sister of +Napoleon, born at Ajaccio, 1777, died near Trieste, 1820; a great patroness +of literature and art. She married Captain Bacciocchi, who in 1805 was +created Prince of Lucca and Piombino. She virtually ruled these +principalities herself, and as Grand-Duchess of Tuscany she enacted the +part of a queen. She fell with the Empire. + +BACCIO DELIA PORTA (b[.a]ch'[=o]). See _Bartolommeo_. + +BACH (ba_h_), Johann Sebastian, one of the greatest of German musicians, +born in 1685 at Eisenach, died in 1750 at Leipzig. Being the son of a +musician he was early trained in the art, and soon distinguished himself. +In 1703 he was engaged as a player at the Court of Weimar, and subsequently +he was musical director to the Duke of Anhalt-Koethen, and afterwards held +an appointment at Leipzig. He paid a visit to Potsdam on the invitation of +Frederick the Great. As a player on the harpsichord and organ he had no +equal among his contemporaries; but it was not till a century after his +death that his greatness as a composer was fully recognized. His +compositions, many of which are pieces of sacred music, show great +originality. They include pieces, vocal and instrumental, for the organ, +piano, stringed and keyed instruments; church cantatas, oratorios, masses, +passion music, &c. More than fifty musical performers have proceeded from +this family. Sebastian himself had eleven sons, all distinguished as +musicians. The most renowned were the following:--Wilhelm Friedemann, born +in 1710 at Weimar, died at Berlin in 1784. He was one of the most +scientific harmonists and most skilful organists.--Karl Philipp Emmanuel, +born in 1714 at Weimar, died in 1788 at Hamburg. He composed mostly for the +piano, and published melodies for Gellert's hymns; he also wrote _The True +Manner of Playing the Harpsichord_.--Johann Christoph Friedrich, born at +Weimar, 1732, died in 1795, a great organist, is known also by the music he +published.--Johann Christian, born in 1735 at Leipzig, died in London, +1782, was a favourite composer and conductor with the English +public.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Spitta, _Johann Sebastian Bach_; A. Pirro, +_L'Esthetique de Jean Sebastian Bach_. + +BACHARACH (b[.a]_h_'[.a]-r[.a]_h_), a small place of 2000 inhabitants on +the Rhine, 12 miles S. of Coblenz. The vicinity produces excellent wine, +which was once highly esteemed. The view from the ruins of the castle is +one of the sublimest on the Rhine. + +BACH'ELOR, a term applied anciently to a person in the first or +probationary stage of knighthood who had not yet raised his standard in the +field. It also denotes a person who has taken the first degree in the +liberal arts and sciences, or in divinity, law, or medicine, at a college +or university; or a man of any age who has not been married.--A _knight +bachelor_ is one who has been raised to the dignity of a knight without +being made a member of any of the orders of chivalry such as the Garter, +the Thistle, or the Bath. + +BACHELOR'S BUTTONS, the double-flowering buttercup (_Ranunculus acris_), +with white or yellow blossoms, common in gardens. + +BACHIAN (b[.a]ch'[.a]n), one of the Molucca Islands, immediately S. of the +equator, S.W. of Gilolo; area, 800 sq. miles. It is ruled by a native +sultan under the Dutch. + +BACHMUT (b[.a]_h_-moet'), a town in the Ukraine, government of +Ekaterinoslav, with a trade in cattle, tallow, &c., and coal and rock-salt +mines. Pop. 20,000. + +BACILLA'RIA, a genus of microscopic algae, belonging to the class +Diatomaceae, the siliceous remains of which abound in cretaceous, tertiary, +and more recent geological deposits. + +BACIL'LUS. See _Bacteria_. + +BACK, Admiral Sir George, eminent English Arctic discoverer, born 1796, +died 1878. He accompanied Franklin and Richardson in their northern +expeditions, and in 1833-4 headed an expedition to the Arctic Ocean through +the Hudson Bay Company's territory, on which occasion he wintered at the +Great Slave Lake, and discovered the Back or Great Fish River. + +BACKERGUNGE. See _Bakarganj_. + +BACKGAM'MON, a game played by two persons upon a table or board made for +the purpose, with pieces or men, dice-boxes, and dice. The table is in two +parts, on which are twenty-four black and white spaces called points. Each +player has fifteen men of different colours for the purpose of distinction. +The movements of the men are made in accordance with the numbers turned up +by the dice. + +BACKHAUS, Wilhelm, one of the greatest living pianists, born at Leipzig in +1884. At the age of twenty-one he was appointed a professor at the Royal +College of Music, Manchester. This position, however, he soon gave up, and +since 1905 has devoted his time to concert tours. + +BACKHUYSEN (b[.a]k'hoi-zn), Ludolf, a painter of the Dutch school, +particularly celebrated for sea pieces, born in 1631, died 1709. His most +famous picture is a sea piece which the burgomasters of Amsterdam +commissioned him to paint as a present to Louis XVI. It is still at Paris. + +BACKWARDA'TION, a stock exchange term signifying the rate paid by a +speculative seller of stock for the privilege of carrying over or +continuing a bargain from one fortnightly account to another, instead of +closing it on the appointed day. + +BACNINH, a town of Tongking, on the Red River, fortified and containing a +French garrison, being in an important strategic position. Pop. 7000. + +BA'CON, Anthony, elder brother of the celebrated Lord Chancellor, was born +in 1558 and died in 1601. He was a skilful politician, and much devoted to +learned pursuits. He became personally acquainted with most of the foreign +literati of the day, and gained the friendship of Henri IV of France. +Francis Bacon dedicated to him the first edition of the _Essays_. + +BACON, Francis, Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans, and Lord High +Chancellor of England, was born at London in 1561, died at Highgate in +1626. His father, Nicholas Bacon, was Keeper of the Great Seal under Queen +Elizabeth. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1575 was +admitted to Gray's Inn. From 1576 to 1579 he was at Paris with Sir Amyas +Paulet, the English ambassador. The death of his father called him back to +England, and being left in straitened circumstances he zealously pursued +the study of law, and was admitted a barrister in 1582. In 1584 he became +member of Parliament for Melcombe Regis, and soon after drew up a _Letter +of Advice_ to Queen Elizabeth, an able political memoir. In 1586 he was +member for Taunton, in 1589 for Liverpool. A year or two after he gained +the Earl of Essex as a friend and patron. Bacon's talents and his +connection with the Lord-Treasurer Burleigh, who had married his mother's +sister, and his son, Sir Robert Cecil, First Secretary of State, seemed to +promise him the highest promotion; but he had displeased the queen, and +when he applied for the attorney-generalship, and next for the +solicitor-generalship (1595), he was unsuccessful. Essex endeavoured to +indemnify him by the donation of an estate in land. Bacon, however, forgot +his obligations to his benefactor, and not only abandoned him as soon as he +had fallen into disgrace, but without being obliged took part against him +on his trial, in 1601, and was active in obtaining his conviction. He had +been chosen member for the county of Middlesex in 1593, and for Southampton +in 1597, and had long been a Queen's Counsel. The reign of James I was more +favourable to his interest. He was assiduous in courting the king's favour, +and James, who was ambitious of being considered a patron of letters, +conferred upon him in 1603 the honour of knighthood. In 1604 he was +appointed King's Counsel, with a pension of L60; in 1606 he married; in +1607 he became Solicitor-General, and six years after Attorney-General. +Between James and his Parliament he was anxious to produce harmony, but his +efforts were without avail, and his obsequiousness and servility gained him +enmity and discredit. In 1617 he was made Lord-Keeper of the Seal; in 1618 +Lord High Chancellor of England and Baron Verulam. In this year he lent his +influence to bring a verdict of guilty against Raleigh. In 1621 he was made +Viscount St. Albans. Soon after this his reputation received a fatal blow. +A new Parliament was formed in 1621, and the Lord Chancellor was accused +before the House of bribery, corruption, and other malpractices. It is +difficult to ascertain the full extent of his guilt; but he seems to have +been unable to justify himself, and handed in a 'confession and humble +submission', throwing himself on the mercy of the Peers. He was condemned +to pay a fine of L40,000, to be committed to the Tower during the pleasure +of the king, declared incompetent to hold any office of State, and banished +from Court for ever. The sentence, however, was never carried out. The fine +was remitted almost as soon as imposed, and he was imprisoned for only a +few days. He survived his fall a few years, during this time occupying +himself with his literary and scientific works, and vainly hoping for +political employment. In 1597 he published his celebrated _Essays_, which +immediately became very popular, were successively enlarged and extended, +and translated into Latin, French, and Italian. The treatise on the +_Advancement of Learning_ appeared in 1605; _The Wisdom of the Ancients_ in +1609 (in Latin); his great philosophical work, the _Novum Organum_ (in +Latin), in 1620; and the _De Augmentis Scientiarum_, a much enlarged +edition (in Latin) of the _Advancement_, in 1623. His _New Atlantis_ was +written about 1614-7; _Life of Henry VII_ about 1621. Various minor +productions also proceeded from his pen. Numerous editions of his works +have been published, by far the best being that of Messrs. Spedding, Ellis, +and Heath, 1857-9 (reprinted, 1879-90). Bacon was great as a moralist, a +historian, a writer on politics, and a rhetorician; but it is as the father +of the inductive method in science, as the powerful exponent of the +principle that facts must be observed and collected before theorizing, that +he occupies the grand position he holds among the world's great ones. His +moral character, however, was not on a level with his intellectual, +self-aggrandizement being the main aim of his life. We need do no more than +allude to the preposterous attempt that has been made to prove that Bacon +was the real author of the plays attributed to Shakespeare, an attempt that +only ignorance of Bacon and Shakespeare could uphold and +tolerate.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Spedding, _Life and Letters of Francis Bacon_; +R. W. Church, _Bacon_ (in English Men of Letters Series); Sir Sidney Lee, +_Great Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century_; J. M. Robertson, _Short +History of Free-thought_. + +BACON, John, English sculptor, born 1740, died 1799. Among his chief works +are two groups for the interior of the Royal Academy; the statue of Judge +Blackstone for All Souls College, Oxford; another of Henry VI for Eton +College; the monument of Lord Chatham in Westminster Abbey; and the statues +of Dr. Johnson and Mr. Howard in St. Paul's Cathedral. + +BACON, Sir Nicholas, father of Francis Bacon, Lord-Keeper of the Great +Seal, born 1510, died 1579. Henry VIII gave him several lucrative offices, +which he retained under Edward VI. He lived in retirement during the reign +of Mary, but Queen Elizabeth appointed him Lord-Keeper for life. He was the +intimate friend of Lord Burleigh, a sister of whose wife he married, and by +her became the father of the great Chancellor. + +BACON, Roger, an English monk, and one of the most profound and original +thinkers of his day, was born about 1214, near Ilchester, Somersetshire, +died at Oxford in 1294. He first entered the University of Oxford, and went +afterwards to that of Paris, where he is said to have distinguished himself +and received the degree of Doctor of Theology. About 1250 he returned to +England, entered the order of Franciscans and fixed his abode at Oxford; +but having incurred the suspicion of his ecclesiastical superiors, he was +sent to Paris and kept in confinement for ten years, without +writing-materials, books, or instruments. The cause seems to have been +simple enough. He had been a diligent student of the chemical, physical, +and mathematical sciences, and had made discoveries, and deduced results, +which appeared so extraordinary to the ignorant that they were believed to +be works of magic. This opinion was countenanced by the jealousy and hatred +of the monks of his fraternity. In subsequent times he was popularly +classed among those who had been in league with Satan. Having been set at +liberty, he enjoyed a brief space of quiet while Clement IV was Pope; but +in 1278 he was again thrown into prison, where he remained for at least ten +years. Of the close of his life little is known. His most important work is +his _Opus Majus_, where he discusses the relation of philosophy to +religion, and then treats of language, metaphysics, optics, and +experimental science. He was undoubtedly the earliest philosophical +experimentalist in Britain; he made signal advances in optics; was an +excellent chemist; and in all probability discovered gunpowder. He was +intimately acquainted with geography and astronomy, as appears by his +discovery of the errors of the calendar, and their causes, and by his +proposals for correcting them, in which he approached very nearly to +truth.--Cf. E. Charles, _Roger Bacon, sa vie, ses ouvrages, ses doctrines_. + +[Illustration: Bacteria--Forms of cells + +1. Coccus. 2. Bacillus. 3. Spirillum (vibrio). 4. Spirillum (spirochaete).] + +BACTE'RIA (Gr. _bakt[=e]rion_, a rod), a general term applied to the lowest +visible forms of life; other names given are _germs_ or _microbes_. They +are divided into three classes: (1) _cocci_--these are minute spheres about +one twenty-five thousandth of an inch in diameter, arranged in chains or +clusters; (2) _bacilli_--these are straight rods about the breadth of a +coccus and two to four times as long; (3) _spirilla_--here there are two +forms; one is like a bacillus, but curved (spirillum proper or vibrio); the +other is a very fine spiral thread (spirochaete) often only half the +thickness of a vibrio and two to six times as long. Bacteria consist of +protoplasm surrounded by a membrane, and many show active movements; they +all multiply asexually by splitting, and so rapidly may the process occur +that 17,000,000 organisms or more may be formed from one bacterium in +twenty-four hours. The chief part played by bacteria in nature is to cause +putrefaction. They are found on all organic matter, and are therefore +omnipresent. When grown artificially (see _Bacteriology_) they usually +require organic matter for their food, and this they split up into simpler +chemical compounds, some of which are very poisonous to animals (toxins); +they can also split up sugars to produce various alcohols, acids, and +gases. When certain of the bacilli are starved, the living matter gathers +itself up into a spore surrounded by a very resisting membrane, and it can +survive for a long time in this condition. All ordinary bacteria, including +most of those which produce disease, can be killed by a few minutes' +boiling, but the sporing varieties (e.g. many putrefactive forms) withstand +much longer boiling--up to one and a half hours; they can also be killed by +chemical means (see _Disinfection_). Many bacteria are useful to man, and a +few give rise to disease (see _Germ Theory_). + +[Illustration: BACTERIA + +All the above are magnified 560 times.] + +BACTERIOLOGY, the branch of science which deals with the structure and +properties of bacteria. Though the existence of bacteria had been known +from the time when Leeuwenhock arranged lenses so as to form a microscope, +it was through the work of Pasteur that modern knowledge regarding the +group originated. Pasteur's discovery that yeasts are the cause of the +formation of alcohol from sugar was followed by his showing that bacteria +are responsible for other processes of a similar character, e.g. the +formation of vinegar from alcohol, the occurrence of the rancid change in +butter, &c. When he went on to prove that a bacterium was the cause of a +disease of silkworms, a stimulus was given to the germ theory of infection, +and bacteriology was thus early brought intimately into contact with +medical science. Another stimulus to bacteriological inquiry came from the +controversy on spontaneous generation, and Pasteur was one of those who +helped to establish the principle that the new development of living +things, as represented by bacteria, out of non-living matter does not take +place. This led to the inevitable deduction that all putrefactive processes +are due to bacteria. On this Lister founded his antiseptic treatment of +wounds, the practical effects of which focused attention on the important +part played by bacteria in human affairs. The modern science of +bacteriology really dates from 1877, when Koch proved that _Bacillus +anthracis_ is the cause of anthrax in cattle. The outstanding feature of +Koch's research was that in it, for the first time, methods were employed +whereby all extraneous organisms were excluded from the inquiry, and the +way was thus opened up for the study of the properties and effects of one +species of bacterium acting by itself. The chief aspects of his work were +as follows: (1) the determination of the temperatures at which bacteria are +killed; the knowledge of this enables investigators to render free from +living organisms their apparatus and the food materials (usually called +_media_) necessary to support bacterial life (this is called +_sterilization_); (2) the discovery that the insertion of a plug of +cotton-wool in the neck of a vessel (e.g. a flask or test-tube) before its +sterilization constitutes a sufficient filter, which prevents bacteria in +the outside air gaining access to its interior or to any food medium placed +in it for sterilization; (3) the elaboration of a series of media capable +of acting as food for all the commonly occurring bacteria; (4) the +introduction of a simple method of separating from one another bacterial +species which in nature are often growing side by side. This is effected by +making media containing a jelly (e.g. gelatine) which melts at a relatively +low temperature. The bacterial mixture is well diluted in the melted +medium, and this is poured out in a thin layer on a sterile glass plate and +allowed to set. Each individual bacterial cell can thus multiply apart from +neighbouring cells, and, it may be, in a few hours the resulting growth (a +'colony') is visible to the naked eye. A minute part of the colony is +picked off with a heated needle and placed on a mass of sterile medium. In +this way a 'pure culture' of each species present in the original mixture +can be obtained. Koch's work was chiefly concerned with disease bacteria, +and between 1880 and 1895 many such organisms were isolated in pure culture +and their properties investigated (see _Germ Theory of Disease_). + +While in the evolution of knowledge the progress of bacteriology has been +most associated with that of medicine and surgery, the science has +fundamental relations with many other human interests, and the same methods +are used in investigating such relationships. The adaptation of these +methods on a commercial scale underlies all industrial processes concerned +in the preserving of milk and in the canning and bottling of meat and fruit +(apart from the addition of chemical preservatives). Since bacteriology +came into existence, many of the most primitive domestic procedures have +been improved and placed on a scientific basis. Thus, butter-making +involves a previous souring of the milk; this is due to bacterial action, +and standard mixtures of milk-souring bacteria are now regularly supplied +by the laboratory as 'starters' of the process. It is recognized that the +disorders of milk, e.g. 'ropiness', 'blue milk', &c., are due to certain +'wild' bacteria gaining access to the dairy. The ripening of such cheeses +as Gorgonzola and Stilton is due to bacteria and allied organisms, and here +again light has been shed on the 'diseases' of cheese by bacteriological +investigation. The pickling of foods by salt, or vinegar, or nitre, is due +to the action of these substances as antiseptics, and a similar principle, +aided by boiling, underlies the making of jams. Again, certain kinds of +bacteria which only flourish at high temperatures are responsible for the +heating of hay and corn stacks, and for the production of ensilage. +Bacteriology is also throwing important light on factors concerned in the +fertility of soils. For example, it has been shown that the little nodules +on the roots of plants of the pea tribe are caused by bacteria; these, in +growing, take up nitrogen from the air, and form compounds which promote +the growth of the plant on which they are parasites and remain to enrich +the soil when the plant dies. In short, there is no industry, which depends +on natural putrefaction being prevented or modified so as to stop at a +particular stage, which bacteriology cannot guide towards securing the most +perfect results.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fischer, _The Structure and Functions of +Bacteria_; Abbot, _Principles of Bacteriology_; Muir and Ritchie, _Manual +of Bacteriology_; E. R. Stitt, _Practical Bacteriology_; P. H. Hiss and H. +Zinsser, _A Textbook of Bacteriology_. + +BACTRIA'NA, or BACTRIA, a country of ancient Asia, south of the Oxus and +reaching to the west of the Hindu Kush. It is often regarded as the +original home of the Indo-European races. A Graeco-Bactrian kingdom +flourished about the third century B.C., but its history is obscure. + +BACULI'TES, a fossil genus allied to the ammonites, characteristic of +cretaceous strata, having a straight tapering shell. See _Cephalopoda_. + +BA'CUP, a municipal borough of England, in Lancashire, 18 miles N. of +Manchester. The chief manufacturing establishments are connected with +cotton-spinning and power-loom weaving; there are also ironworks, +Turkey-red dyeing-works, and in the neighbourhood numerous coal-pits and +immense stone-quarries. Pop. (1921), 21,256. + +BADAGRY, seaport in the British province of Southern Nigeria, West Africa, +50 miles E.N.E. of Whydah. Pop. about 10,000. + +BADAJOZ (b[.a]-_d_[.a]-_h_[=o]th'; ancient, PAX AUGUSTA), the fortified +capital of the Spanish province of Badajoz, on the left bank of the +Guadiana, which is crossed by a stone bridge of twenty-eight arches. It is +a bishop's see, and has an interesting cathedral. During the Peninsular War +Badajoz was besieged by Marshal Soult, and taken in March, 1811. It was +twice attacked by the English, on 5th and 29th May, 1811, and was besieged +by Wellington on 16th March, and taken 6th April, 1812. Pop. 37,600.--The +province of Badajoz has an area of 8451 sq. miles. Pop. 644,220. + +BADAKSHAN', a territory of Central Asia, tributary to the Ameer of +Afghanistan. It has the Oxus on the north, and the Hindu Kush on the south, +and has lofty mountains and fertile valleys; the chief town is Faizabad. +The inhabitants profess Mahommedanism. Pop. 20,957. + +BADALONA (bae-_d_[.a]-l[=o]'na), a Mediterranean seaport of Spain, 5 miles +from Barcelona. Pop. 19,240. + +BADEN (bae'd[.e]n), formerly a Grand-Duchy and one of the more important +States of the German Empire, situated in the S.W. of Germany, to the west +of Wuerttemberg. It is divided into four districts, Constance, Freiburg, +Karlsruhe, and Mannheim. It has an area of 5819 sq. miles, and a pop. of +2,142,833. It is mountainous, being traversed to a considerable extent by +the lofty plateau of the Schwarzwald or Black Forest, which attains its +highest point in the Feldberg (4904 feet). The nucleus of this plateau +consists of gneiss and granite. In the north it sinks down towards the +Odenwald, which is, however, of different geological structure, being +composed for the most part of red sandstone. The whole of Baden, except a +small portion in the S.E., in which the Danube takes its rise, belongs to +the basin of the Rhine, which bounds it on the south and west. Numerous +tributaries of the Rhine intersect it, the chief being the Neckar. Lakes +are numerous, and include a considerable part of the Lake of Constance. The +climate varies much. The hilly parts, especially in the east, are cold and +have a long winter, while the valley of the Rhine enjoys the finest climate +of Germany. The principal minerals worked are coal, salt, iron, zinc, and +nickel. The number of mineral springs is remarkably great, and of these not +a few are of great celebrity. The vegetation is peculiarly rich, and there +are magnificent forests. The cereals comprise wheat, oats, barley, and rye. +Potatoes, hemp, tobacco, wine, and sugar-beet are largely produced. Several +of the wines, both white and red, rank in the first class. Baden has long +been famous for its fruits also. Of the total area 55.4 per cent is under +cultivation, 39.4 per cent under forest, and 5.2 per cent uncultivated +(houses, roads, water, &c.). The farms are mostly quite small. The +manufactures are important. Among them are textiles, tobacco and cigars, +chemicals, machinery, pottery ware, jewellery (especially at Pforzheim), +wooden clocks, confined chiefly to the districts of the Black Forest, +musical boxes and other musical toys. The capital is Karlsruhe, about 5 +miles from the Rhine; the other chief towns are Mannheim, +Freiburg-im-Breisgau (with a Roman Catholic university), Baden, and +Heidelberg. Baden has warm mineral springs, which were known and used in +the time of the Romans. Heidelberg has a university (Protestant), founded +in 1386, the oldest in Germany. The railways have a length of 1200 miles, +and are all State property. In the time of the Roman Empire southern Baden +belonged to the Roman province of Rhaetia. Under the old German Empire it +was a margraviate, which in 1533 was divided into Baden-Baden and +Baden-Durlach, but reunited in 1771. The title of grand-duke was conferred +by Napoleon in 1806, and in the same year Baden was extended to its present +limits. Until 1918 the executive power was vested in the grand-duke, the +legislative in a house of legislature, consisting of an upper and a lower +chamber. The former consisted partly of hereditary members; the latter of +elected representatives of the people. In the break-up of the German Empire +in Nov., 1918, Baden was among the first States to feel the shock of +revolution. The Grand-Duke Frederick I abdicated, and the Provisional +Government, under the Socialist Herr Jeiss, proclaimed Baden a Republic. +Two-thirds of the population are Roman Catholics, the rest Protestants. + +BADEN (or BADEN-BADEN, to distinguish it from other towns of the same name; +German _Bad_, a bath), a town and watering-place, in the former Grand-Duchy +of Baden, 18 miles S.S.W. of Karlsruhe, built in the form of an +amphitheatre on a spur of the Black Forest, overhanging a valley, through +which runs a little stream Oosbach. Baden has been celebrated from the +remotest antiquity for its thermal baths; and it used also to be celebrated +for its gaming-saloons. It has many good buildings, and a castle, the +summer residence of the former grand-dukes. Pop. 22,066. + +BADEN, a town of Austria, 15 miles S.W. of Vienna. It has numerous hot +sulphurous springs, used both for bathing and drinking, and much +frequented. Pop. 19,000. + +BADEN, a small town of Switzerland, canton Aargau, celebrated for its hot +sulphurous baths, which attract many visitors. Pop. 8318. + +BADEN-POWELL. See _Powell_. + +BADGE (baj), a distinctive device, emblem, mark, honorary decoration, or +special cognizance, used originally to identify a knight or distinguish his +followers, now worn as a sign of office or licensed employment, as a token +of membership in some society, or generally as a mark showing the relation +of the wearer to any person, occupation, or order. See _Cockade_, +_Heraldry_, _Totems_. + +[Illustration: Common Badger (_Meles vulg[=a]ris_)] + +BADGER (baj'[.e]r), a plantigrade, carnivorous mammal, allied both to the +bears and to the weasels, of a clumsy make, with short thick legs, and long +claws on the fore-feet. The common badger (_Meles vulg[=a]ris_) is as large +as a middling-sized dog, but much lower on the legs, with a flatter and +broader body, very thick tough hide, and long coarse hair. It inhabits the +north of Europe and Asia, burrows, is indolent and sleepy, feeds by night +on vegetables, small quadrupeds, &c. Its flesh may be eaten, and its hair +is used for artists' brushes in painting. The American badger belongs to a +separate genus. _Badger baiting_, or _drawing the badger_, is a barbarous +sport, long a favourite amusement in England, but declared illegal in the +middle of last century, and yet to some extent practised, generally as an +attraction to public-houses of the lowest sort. A badger is put in a +barrel, and one or more dogs are put in to drag him out. When this is +effected he is returned to his barrel, to be similarly assailed by a fresh +set. The badger usually makes a most determined and savage resistance. + +BADGER DOG, a long-bodied, short-legged dog, with rather large pendulous +ears, usually short haired, black, and with yellow extremities; often +called by its German name _Dachshund_. + +BAD'MINTON, a game closely resembling lawn-tennis, but played with +battledore and shuttle-cock instead of ball and racket: named after a seat +of the Duke of Beaufort, in Gloucestershire. + +BADRINATH (-aet'), a peak of the main Himalayan range, in Garhwal District, +in the United Provinces, 23,210 feet above the sea. On one of its +shoulders, at an elevation of 10,400 feet, stands a celebrated temple of +Vishnu, which some years attracts as many as 50,000 pilgrims. + +BAEDEKER (b[=a]'de-k[.e]r), Karl, a German publisher, born 1801, died 1859; +originator of a celebrated series of guide-books for travellers. + +BAELZ'S DISEASE, an affection of the mouth characterized by swelling of the +mucous glands of the mouth and lips, leading to the formation of small +abscesses and ulcers. + +BAENA (b[.a]-[=a]'n[.a]), a town of Spain, in Andalusia, province of +Cordova, and 24 miles S.S.E. of the city of that name. Pop. 14,730. + +BAEZA (b[.a]-[=a]'th[.a]; anciently, BEATIA), a town of Spain, in +Andalusia, 22 miles E.N.E. of Jaen, with 15,843 inhabitants. The principal +edifices are the cathedral, the university (now suppressed), and the old +monastery of St. Philip de Neri. + +BAFFA (ancient, PAPHOS), a seaport on the S.W. coast of Cyprus. Pop. 1000. +It occupies the site of New Paphos, which, under the Romans, was full of +beautiful temples and other public buildings. Old Paphos stood a little to +the south-east. + +BAFFIN, William, an English navigator, born 1584, famous for his +discoveries in the Arctic regions; in 1616 he ascertained the limits of +Baffin Bay. He was killed at the siege of Ormuz, in the East Indies, 1622. + +BAFFIN BAY, on the N.E. of North America, between Greenland and Baffin Land +and other islands that lie on the N. of the continent; discovered by Baffin +in 1616. + +BAFULABE (b[.a]-f[u:]-lae-b[=a]), a trading-place in French West Africa, on +the Upper Senegal, and on the railway that runs from Kayes on the Senegal +to Bammako on the Niger. + +BAGAMO'YO, a seaport of former German East Africa, a short distance +north-west of Dar-el-Salaam. There is no proper harbour, only a shallow and +rather exposed roadstead where ships have to anchor some distance from the +shore, yet it is the chief trading-centre of the colony, and as the +terminus of the caravan route to Tanganyika is a place of some importance. +Pop. about 25,000. See _European War_. + +BAGASSE', the sugar-cane in its dry crushed state as delivered from the +mill, and after the main portion of its juice has been expressed; used as +fuel in the sugar factory, and called also _cane-trash_. + +BAGATELLE', a game played on a long flat board covered with cloth like a +billiard-table, with spherical balls and a cue or mace. At the end of the +board are nine cups or sockets of just sufficient size to receive the +balls. These sockets are arranged in the form of a regular octagon, with +the ninth in the middle, and are numbered consecutively from one upwards. +Nine balls are used, generally one black, four white, and four red, the +distinction between white and red being made only for the sake of variety. +In the ordinary game, at starting, the black ball is placed on a point in +the longitudinal middle line of the board, a few inches in front of the +nearest of the sockets, and the player places one of his eight balls on a +corresponding point at the other end of the board, and tries to strike the +black ball into one of the sockets with his own. After this his object is +to place as many of his balls as possible in the sockets. Each ball so +placed counts as many as the socket is numbered for, and the black ball +always counts double. He who first makes the number of points agreed on +wins. + +BAGDAD', or BAGHDAD, a city of a vilayet of same name (54,540 sq. miles; +pop. 900,000) in what was anciently Mesopotamia. The greater part of it +lies on the eastern bank of the Tigris, which is crossed by a bridge of +boats; old Bagdad, the residence of the caliphs (now in ruins), was on the +western bank of the river. The city occupies a large area. The houses are +mostly built of brick, the streets unpaved and very narrow, and there are +few buildings of any note. The palace of the governor is spacious. Of the +mosques only a few attract notice, many are in ruins; the bazaars are large +and well stocked; that of Dawd Pasha still ranks as one of the most +splendid in the world. Manufactures: leather, silks, cottons, woollens, +carpets, &c. Steamers ply on the river between Bagdad and Bassorah, and the +town exports wheat, dates, galls, gums, mohair, carpets, &c., to Europe, +the chief import being cotton goods. The estimated population is over +200,000; of these about 86,000 are Mahommedans, 52,000 Jews, and 7000 +Christians. The city has been frequently visited by the plague. Bagdad was +founded in 762 by the Caliph Almansur, and raised to a high degree of +splendour in the ninth century by Harun Al Rashid. It is the scene of a +number of the tales of the _Arabian Nights_. It was long the chief city of +the Mahommedan world, and at one time is said to have had two millions of +inhabitants. In the thirteenth century it was stormed by Hulaku, grandson +of Genghis-Khan, who caused the reigning caliph to be slain, and destroyed +the caliphate. It was again laid waste by Timur in 1401. For a considerable +period it was the object of contention between the Persians and the Turks, +until it was besieged and captured by Sultan Murad IV in 1638. Since that +date it remained a part of the Turkish Empire. It was captured by the +British on 11th March, 1917. + +BAGDAD RAILWAY, a railway which, under arrangement with the Turkish +Government, was intended to run from Konia, which is the terminus of the +Anatolian railway system, to Bagdad, Basra (Bassorah), and the Persian +Gulf. It was built chiefly by means of funds provided by German and French +financiers, in association with the Anatolian Railway Company, a German +company. The line has been constructed continuously as far as Kara Bunar in +Cilicia. Farther on, the following sections have been completed: Dorak to +Bagtche, on the Ordana side of the Taurus Mountains; Radjun, via Muslimie, +to Jerablus, on the Euphrates, with a branch from Muslimie to Aleppo; +Jerablus to El-Abiad, and Bagdad to Samara. A branch line has also been +completed from Alexandretta to Toprak Kale. Of the distance from Konia to +Bagdad (1509 miles), 1117 miles (with gaps) are already working. In 1919 +the railway system passed to the Allies, and in 1920 it was announced that +the line between Basra and Bagdad had been completed. + +BAGEHOT (bag'ot), Walter, English economist and journalist, born at +Langport, Somerset, 1826, died at the same place 1877. He studied at +Bristol, and at University College, London, and graduated as B.A. and M.A. +at the London University (1848). He was for some time associated with his +father in the banking business at Langport, and for a number of years he +acted as London agent for the bank. He was one of the editors of the +_National Review_ (1855-64), and from 1860 till his death he was editor and +part proprietor of the _Economist_. His chief works are: _Physics and +Politics_; _The English Constitution_; _Lombard Street_; and _Studies, +Literary, Biographic, and Economic_. He was a high authority on economics, +banking, and finance, and was often consulted by public men. + +[Illustration: Baggala] + +BAG'GALA, a two-masted Arab boat, generally 200-250 tons burden, used for +trading in the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, &c. + +BAGGESEN (bag'e-sen), Jens, a Danish poet, who also wrote much in German, +born 1764, at Korsoer, died at Hamburg, 1826. He led a rather wandering and +unsettled life, spending some time in England as well as in France and +Germany. He tried lyric, epic, and dramatic poetry, but was most successful +as a humorist and satirist. One of his best poems is his famous song _There +was a Time when I was very Little_. + +BAGGING is the name of the textile material which is used in the making of +bags. Baltic hemp was the first material used for the purpose, but now all +kinds of fibres are used, though the majority of bags are made of jute +fibre. The style of the bagging used depends, naturally, upon the +requirements of the bag; for the export of raw cotton from the United +States of America we find the coarsest of all cotton-bagging used. When +intended to carry grain, spices, sugar, &c., the bag must be made of +closely-woven material. In many cases bags to carry sugar are lined with +paper. + +BAGHELKAND, a tract of country in Central India, occupied by a collection +of native States (Rewah being the chief), under the Governor-General's +agent for Central India; area, 11,323 sq. miles. Pop. 1,772,574. + +BAGHERIA (b[.a]-g[=a]'r[=e]-[.a]), a town of Sicily, province of Palermo, 9 +miles by railway from the city of Palermo. Pop. 21,212. + +BAGIMONT'S ROLL, a rent-roll of Scotland, made up in 1275 by _Baiamund_ or +_Boiamond_ de Vicci, vulgarly called _Bagimont_, who was sent from Rome by +the Pope, in the reign of Alexander III, to collect the tithe of all the +church livings in Scotland for an expedition to the Holy Land. It remained +the statutory valuation, according to which the benefices were taxed, till +the Reformation. A copy of it as it existed in the reign of James V is in +the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh. + +BAGIRMI (b[.a]-gir'm[=e]), or BAGHERMI, a Mohammedan Negro State in Central +Africa, situated to the south-east of Lake Tchad. It is mostly a plain; has +an area of about 20,000 sq. miles, and about 100,000 inhabitants. The +people are industrious, and fairly civilized. The country is in the French +sphere of influence, but the people are still under a native ruler. + +BAGNARA (b[.a]-nyae'r[.a]), a seaport near the S.W. extremity of Italy. +Pop. 11,000. + +BAGNERES DE BIGORRE (b[.a]n-y[=a]r d[.e] b[=e]-gorr), a watering-place, +France, department Hautes-Pyrenees, on the left bank of the Adour. It owes +its chief celebrity to its sulphurous and saline baths. The springs were +known to and used by the Romans. The site is one of the most romantic in +the Pyrenees, and the town is well built and well provided with +accommodation for visitors. Pop. 8455. + +BAGNERES DE LUCHON (b[.a]n-y[=a]r d[.e] lu-sh[=o]n), a town, France, +department Haute-Garonne, in a picturesque valley surrounded by wooded +hills, one of the principal watering-places of the Pyrenees, having +sulphurous thermal waters, beneficial in rheumatic complaints. There is a +large bathing establishment, and a large and splendid casino building, +comprising a theatre, concert and ball rooms, &c. Resident pop. 4000. + +BAGNI (baen'y[=e]), Italian for 'baths', a name in Italy for various places +which possess natural baths or thermal springs, with some designation added +to mark the particular locality. _Bagni di Lucca_, in the province of +Lucca, and about 13 miles north-east of the city of Lucca, is one of the +most frequented of these bathing-places, its waters being recommended +against gout, rheumatism, affections of the skin, &c. + +BAGPIPE, a musical wind-instrument of very great antiquity, having been +used among the ancient Greeks, and being a favourite instrument over Europe +generally in the fifteenth century. It still continues in use among the +country people of Poland, Italy, the south of France, and in Scotland and +Ireland. Though now often regarded as the national instrument of Scotland, +especially Celtic Scotland, it is only Scottish by adoption, being +introduced into that country from England. It consists of a leathern bag, +which receives the air from the mouth, or from bellows; and of pipes, into +which the air is pressed from the bag by the performer's elbow. In the +common or Highland form, one pipe (called the _chanter_) plays the melody; +of the three others (called _drones_) two are in unison with the lowest _A_ +of the chanter, and the third and longest an octave lower, the sound being +produced by means of reeds. The chanter has eight holes, which the +performer stops and opens at pleasure, but the scale is imperfect and the +tone harsh. The Highland bagpipe is a powerful instrument, and calls for +great exertion of the lungs in order that the air may be supplied in +sufficient quantity. There are several other species of bagpipes, as the +soft and melodious Irish bagpipe, supplied with wind by a bellows, and +having several keyed drones and a keyed chanter; the old English bagpipe +(now no longer used); the Italian bagpipe, a very rude instrument, &c. The +Irish bagpipe is, musically speaking, the most perfect of +all.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Dalyell, _Musical Memoirs of Scotland_; E. de +Bricqueville, _Les Musettes_. + +BAGRATION (b[.a]g-rae'ty[=o]n), Peter, Prince, distinguished Russian +general, descended from a noble Georgian family. He was born in 1765, +entered the Russian army in 1782, and henceforth was constantly engaged in +active service, distinguishing himself in many actions and gradually rising +in military rank. He fought in Poland, in Italy, and against the Turks, was +engaged in the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, and Friedland, and at last was +mortally wounded at the battle of Borodino, Sept., 1812. + +BAGSHOT-SAND, in geology, the collective name for a series of sands of the +Eocene age, occupying extensive tracts round Bagshot, in Surrey, and in the +New Forest, Hampshire, the whole reposing on the London-clay; generally +devoid of fossils. + +BAGSTER, Samuel, publisher, founder of the firm of Bagster & Sons, +celebrated for their bibles, was born in 1772, and died in 1851. He began +business as a London bookseller in 1794, and soon turned his attention to +the publication of bibles, bringing out a Hebrew bible, the _Septuagint_ +(Greek) version, and the English version, with 60,000 parallel references, +followed by his great polyglot bible, which in its final form showed eight +languages at the opening of the volume. Separate versions in different +languages were also brought out, with various other aids to the study of +Scripture; a polyglot _Book of Common Prayer_, in eight languages; &c. + +BAHA'DUR SHAH, the last of the Grand Moguls of India, a descendant of +Tamerlane. In 1857, during the Indian Mutiny, the Mahommedans, who wished +to restore the Empire of the Moguls, placed him, then a very old man, at +the head of the movement in Delhi; but the city was soon retaken by the +British, and the Emperor was banished to Rangoon, where he died in 1862. + +BAHA'MA ISLANDS, or LUCAYOS, a group of islands in the West Indies, forming +a colony belonging to Britain, lying N.E. of Cuba and S.E. of the coast of +Florida, the Gulf Stream passing between them and the mainland. They extend +a distance of upwards of 600 miles, and are said to be twenty-nine in +number, besides keys and rocks innumerable. The principal islands are Grand +Bahama, Great and Little Abaco, Andros Islands, New Providence, Eleuthera, +San Salvador, Great Exuma, Watling Island, Long Island, Crooked Island, +Acklin Island, Mariguana Island, Grand Inagua. Of the whole group about +twenty are inhabited, the most populous being New Providence, which +contains the capital, Nassau; the largest being Andros, 100 miles long, 20 +to 40 broad. They are low and flat, and have in many parts extensive +forests. Total area, 4400 sq. miles. The soil is a thin but rich vegetable +mould, and an important product is pineapples, which form a large export +(both canned and green). Other fruits are also grown, with sisal hemp (a +valuable export), cotton, sugar, maize, yams, ground nuts, coco-nuts, &c. +Sponges are obtained in large quantity, and are at present the chief +export. Total exports about L382,140 (1919). The Bahama Islands are a very +favourite winter resort for persons suffering from lung trouble. San +Salvador, or Cat Island, is generally believed to be the same as Guanahani, +the land first touched on by Columbus (12th Oct., 1492) on his first great +voyage. The first British settlement was made on New Providence towards the +close of the seventeenth century. A number of loyal Americans settled in +the islands after the War of Independence. Pop. 55,944, including 14,000 +whites. + +BAHA'WALPUR, a town of India, capital of State of same name in the Punjab, +2 miles from the Sutlej; surrounded by a mud wall and containing the +extensive palace of the Nawab. Pop. 18,700. The State has an area of 15,000 +sq. miles, of which 10,000 is desert, the only cultivated lands lying along +the Indus and Sutlej. Pop. 780,641. + +BAHIA (b[.a]-[=e]'[.a]; formerly ST. SALVADOR), a town of Brazil, on the +Bay of All Saints, State of Bahia. It consists of a lower town, which is +little more than an irregular, narrow, and dirty street, stretching about 4 +miles along the shore; and an upper town, larger and much better built, +with various outlying suburbs. The harbour is one of the best in South +America; and the export trade, chiefly in sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, +hides, piassava, and tapioca, is very extensive. Pop. 348,000. The State, +area 164,600 sq. miles, pop. 3,013,007, has much fertile land, both along +the coast and in the interior. + +BAHIA BLANCA, a seaport of the Argentine Republic, on a bay of same name +opening into the Atlantic, about 350 miles south-west of Buenos Ayres; it +is a rising place connected by railway with the capital, and a terminus of +other railways from the interior. It carries on a considerable trade +directly with Europe, exporting mutton, wheat, &c. Pop. 75,000. + +BAHR (baer), an Arabic word signifying sea or large river; as in +Bahr-el-Huleh, the Lake Merom in Palestine; Bahr-el-Abiad, the White Nile, +Bahr-el-Azrek, the Blue Nile, which together unite at Khartoum. + +BAHRAICH (bae-r[=a]ch'), a flourishing town of India, in Oudh, Faizabad +division. It carries on a good local trade, and has a shrine that attracts +many Hindu and Mohammedan pilgrims. It is the seat of an American Methodist +mission. Pop. 27,304. + +BAHREIN (bae'r[=i]n) ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Persian Gulf, in an +indentation on the Arabian coast, since 1867 under British protection. The +principal island, usually called Bahrein, is about 27 miles in length and +10 in breadth. It is in general very flat and low, and the soil is not very +fertile except in a few places; but irrigation is employed and excellent +dates are grown. The principal town is Menamah or Manama; pop. 30,000. The +smaller island of Moharrek, separated by a shallow strait 2 miles wide, +contains the town of Moharrek, the present seat of government; pop. 25,000. +The Bahrein Islands are chiefly noted for their pearl-fisheries, which were +known to the ancients, and which employ in the season from 2000 to 3000 +boats manned by from 8 to 20 men each. Total pop. estimated at 110,000. + +BAHR-EL-GHAZAL, a large river of Central Africa, a western tributary of the +White Nile (or Bahr-el-Abiad). It flows through a very swampy region, and +is liable to inundations. The head of steam navigation is Meshra-er-Rek. +The river gives its name to a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, +yielding ivory, rubber, timber, &c., and suited for cotton growing. + +BAIADEER. See _Bayadere_. + +BAIAE (b[=i]'[=e]), an ancient Roman watering-place on the coast of +Campania, 10 miles west of Naples. Many of the wealthy Romans had country +houses at Baiae, which was a favourite resort of Horace. Ruins of temples, +baths, and villas still attract the attention of archaeologists. + +BAIKAL (b[=i]'k[.a]l), a large freshwater lake in Eastern Siberia, 360 +miles long, and about 50 in extreme breadth, interspersed with islands; in +the line of the great Siberian Railway. It is surrounded by rugged and +lofty mountains; contains seals, and many fish, particularly salmon, +sturgeon, and pike. Its greatest depth is over 4000 feet. It receives the +waters of the Upper Angara, Selenga, Barguzin, &c., and discharges its +waters by the Lower Angara. It is frozen over in winter. + +BAIKIE, William Balfour, born in the Orkney Islands 1824, died at Sierra +Leone 1863. He joined the British navy, and was made surgeon and naturalist +of the Niger Expedition, 1854. He took the command on the death of the +senior officer, and explored the Niger for 250 miles. Another expedition, +which started in 1857, passed two years in exploring, when the vessel was +wrecked, and all the members, with the exception of Baikie, returned to +England. With none but native assistants he formed a settlement at the +confluence of the Benue and the Quorra, in which he was ruler, teacher, and +physician, and within a few years he opened the Niger to navigation, made +roads, and established a market. + +BAIL, the person or persons who procure the release of a prisoner from +custody by becoming surety for his appearance in court at the proper time; +also, the security given for the release of a prisoner from custody. In the +United States bail is a matter of right in all cases where a sentence of +death cannot be pronounced, and even in such a case it may be allowed by +one of the judges. + +BAILDON, an urban district in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, about 5 miles +north of Bradford, with worsted manufactures, chemical works, and quarries. +Pop. (1921), 6527. + +BAILEN (b[=i]-len'), a town of Southern Spain, province Jaen, with +lead-mines. Pop. 8334. + +BAILEY (b[=a]'li), the name given to the courts of a castle formed by the +spaces between the circuits of walls or defences which surrounded the keep. + +BAILEY, or BAILY, Nathaniel, an English lexicographer, school teacher at +Stepney, and author of several educational works. His _Dictionary_, +published in 1721, passed through a great many editions. + +BAILEY, Philip James, English poet, born near Nottingham, 1816, called to +the bar 1840, died 1902. He published _Festus_, his best work, in 1839; +_The Mystic_, 1855; _The Age_, 1858; and _The Universal Hymn_, 1867. + +BAILIE, or BAILLIE, a municipal officer or magistrate in Scotland, +corresponding to an _alderman_ in England. The criminal jurisdiction of the +provost and bailies of royal burghs extends to breaches of the peace, +drunkenness, adulteration of articles of diet, thefts not of an aggravated +character, and other offences of a less serious nature. + +BAILIFF, a civil officer or functionary, subordinate to someone else. There +are several kinds of bailiffs, whose offices widely differ, but all agree +in this, that the keeping or protection of something belongs to them. In +England the sheriff is the monarch's bailiff, and his county is a +bailiwick. The name is also applied to the chief magistrates of some towns, +to keepers of royal castles, as of Dover, to persons having the +conservation of the peace in hundreds and in some special jurisdictions, as +Westminster, and to the returning officers in the same. But the officials +commonly designated by this name are the _bailiffs_ of sheriffs, or +sheriffs' officers, who execute processes, &c. + +BAILLEUL (b[.a]-yeul), an ancient French town, department of Nord, near the +Belgian frontier, about 19 miles west of Lille. Much fighting took place in +its vicinity during the European War, but it was not destroyed until the +campaign of 1918. Pop. 12,828.--A village of the same name in department +Orne gave its name to the Baliol family. + +BAILLIE, Joanna, a Scottish authoress, born at Bothwell, Lanarkshire, in +1762, died at Hampstead, 1851. She removed in early life to London, where +her brother, Matthew Baillie, was settled as a physician. Here in 1798 she +published her first work, entitled _A Series of Plays_, in which she +attempted to delineate the stronger passions by making each passion the +subject of a tragedy and a comedy. The series was followed up by a second +volume in 1802, and a third in 1812. A second series appeared in 1836, and +a complete edition of her whole dramatic works in 1850. She also published +a volume of miscellaneous poetry, including songs, in 1841. Her only plays +performed on the stage were a tragedy entitled the _Family Legend_, brought +out at Edinburgh under the patronage of Sir Walter Scott; and _De +Montfort_, brought out by John Kemble, who acted in it with Mrs. Siddons. + +BAILLIE, Matthew, M.D., physician and anatomist, brother of the preceding, +was born 1761 at Shotts, Lanarkshire, died at Cirencester, Gloucestershire, +in 1823. In 1773 he was sent to the University of Glasgow. He afterwards +studied anatomy under his maternal uncles, John and William Hunter, and +entered Oxford, where he graduated as M.D. In 1783 he succeeded his uncle +as lecturer on anatomy in London, where he acquired a high reputation as a +teacher and demonstrator, having also a large practice. In 1810 he was +appointed physician to George III. His work on _The Morbid Anatomy of Some +of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body_ gave him a European +reputation. + +BAILLIE, Robert, an eminent Scottish Presbyterian clergyman, was born at +Glasgow in 1599, died 1662. Though educated and ordained as an +Episcopalian, he resisted the attempt of Archbishop Laud to introduce his +_Book of Common Prayer_ into Scotland, and joined the Presbyterian party. +In 1638 he represented the presbytery of Irvine in the General Assembly at +Glasgow, which dissolved Episcopacy in Scotland. In 1640 he was selected to +go to London, with other commissioners, to draw up the accusation against +Archbishop Laud. Of this, and almost all the other proceedings of his +public life, he has left a minute account in his letters and journals, +which form a most valuable collection for the history of his time. In 1642 +he was appointed professor of divinity at Glasgow. He was a member of the +Westminster Assembly of Divines, and attended its sittings from 1643-6. +After the Restoration, though made principal of his college through Court +patronage, he did not hesitate to express his dissatisfaction with the +reintroduction of Episcopacy. + +BAILLIE, Robert, of Jerviswood, in Lanarkshire, a Scottish patriot of the +reign of Charles II. He brought himself into notice by opposing the +tyrannical measures of Archbishop Sharpe against the Nonconformists, for +which he was fined 6000 merks (or L500) and imprisoned for four months. In +1683 he went to London in furtherance of a scheme of emigration to South +Carolina taken up by a number of Scottish gentlemen, as being the only way +of escaping the tyranny of the Government. He became associated with +Monmouth, Sydney, Russell, and the rest of that party, and was charged with +complicity in the Rye-house plot. After a long imprisonment, during which +vain attempts were made to obtain evidence against him, he was brought +before the Court of Justiciary (23rd Dec., 1684), was found guilty, and +condemned to be executed that afternoon. + +BAILLIESTON, a town of Scotland, in Lanarkshire, a few miles east of +Glasgow, with extensive collieries, in which many of the inhabitants are +employed. Pop. 5500. + +BAILLY (b[.a]-y[=e]), Jean Sylvain, French astronomer and statesman, born +at Paris 1736. After some youthful essays in verse, he was induced by +Lacaille to devote himself to astronomy, and on the death of the latter in +1753, being admitted to the Academy of Sciences, he published a reduction +of Lacaille's observations on the zodiacal stars. In 1764 he competed ably +but unsuccessfully for the Academy prize offered for an essay upon +Jupiter's satellites, Lagrange being his opponent; and in 1771 he published +a treatise on the light reflected by these satellites. In the meantime he +had won distinction as a man of letters by his _Eloges_ on Pierre +Corneille, Leibnitz, Moliere, and others; and the same qualities of style +shown by these were maintained in his _History of Astronomy_ (1775-87), his +most extensive work. In 1784 the French Academy elected him a member. The +revolution drew him into public life. Paris chose him, 12th May, 1789, +first deputy of the _tiers-etat_, and in the Assembly itself he was made +first president, a post occupied by him on 20th June, 1789, in the session +of the Tennis Court, when the deputies swore never to separate till they +had given France a new constitution. As Mayor of Paris his moderation and +impartial enforcement of the law failed to commend themselves to the +people, and his forcible suppression of mob violence, 17th July, 1791, +aroused a storm which led to his resignation and retreat to Nantes. In 1793 +he attempted to join Laplace at Melun, but was recognized and sent to +Paris, where he was condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, and executed +on 12th Nov. + +BAILMENT, in law, is the delivery of a chattel or thing to a person in +trust, either for the use of the bailer or person delivering, or for that +of the bailee or person to whom it is delivered. A bailment always supposes +the subject to be delivered only for a limited time, at the expiration of +which it must be re-delivered to the bailer, the responsibility of the +bailee being dependent, in some degree, upon the contract on which the +bailment is made. Pledging and letting for hire are species of bailment. +_Agistment_, or the taking in of cattle or live stock to feed at a rate of +so much per head, is a contract of bailment. + +BAILY, Edward Hodges, an English sculptor, born at Bristol 1788, died at +London 1867. He became a pupil of Flaxman in 1807, gained the Academy Gold +Medal in 1811, and was elected R.A. in 1821. Principal works: _Eve at the +Fountain_, _Eve Listening to the Voice_, _Maternal Affection_, _Girl +Preparing for the Bath_, _The Graces_, &c. The bas-reliefs on the south +side of the Marble Arch, Hyde Park, the statue of Nelson on the Trafalgar +Square monument, and other public works, were by him. + +BAILY, Francis, astronomer, born in Berkshire 1774; settled in London as a +stockbroker in 1802. While thus actively engaged he published _Tables for +the Purchasing and Renewing of Leases_, _The Doctrine of Interest and +Annuities_, _The Doctrine of Life Annuities and Assurances_, and an epitome +of universal history. On retiring from business with an ample fortune in +1825 he turned his attention to astronomy, became one of the founders of +the Astronomical Society, contributed to its _Transactions_, and in 1835 +published a life of Flamsteed. He died in 1844. + +BAILY'S BEADS, a phenomenon attending eclipses of the sun, the unobscured +edge of which appears discontinuous and broken immediately before and after +the moment of complete obscuration. It is classed as an effect of +irradiation, and is caused by the sun shining through the depressions +between the lunar mountains. + +BAIN, Alexander, Scottish philosopher and educationalist, was born at +Aberdeen in 1818. He was educated at Marischal College (then a separate +university), Aberdeen; was for some years a deputy professor in the +university; subsequently held official posts in London; and in 1860 was +appointed professor of logic and English in Aberdeen University, a post +which he held till his resignation in 1881. His most important works are: +_The Senses and the Intellect_ (1855); _The Emotions and the Will_ (1859), +together forming a complete exposition of the human mind; _Mental and Moral +Science_ (1868); _Logic, Deductive and Inductive_ (1870); _Mind and Body_ +(1873); _Education as a Science_ (1879); _James Mill, a Biography_ (1881); +_John Stuart Mill, a Criticism with Personal Recollections_ (1882); besides +an _English Grammar_; _English Composition and Rhetoric_; an +_Autobiography_, &c. Bain was at once grammarian, rhetorician, +educationalist, and logician, but his fame rests on his contributions to +psychology. He died in 1903. + +BAINSIZZA PLATEAU. See _European War_. + +BAIRAM (b[=i]'ram), the Easter of the Mohammedans, which follows +immediately after the Ramadan or Lent (a month of fasting), and lasts three +days. This feast during the course of thirty-three years makes a complete +circuit of all the months and seasons, as the Turks reckon by lunar years. +Sixty days after this first great Bairam begins the lesser Bairam. They are +the only two feasts prescribed by the Mohammedan religion. + +BAIRD, Sir David, a distinguished British soldier, was born in +Aberdeenshire in 1757, and entered the army 1772. Having been promoted to a +lieutenancy in 1778 he sailed for India, distinguished himself as a captain +in the war against Hyder Ali, was wounded and taken prisoner, and confined +in the fortress of Seringapatam for nearly four years. He and his +fellow-prisoners were treated with great barbarity, and many of them died +or were put to death, but at last (in 1784) all that survived were set at +liberty. In 1787 he became major, and in 1791 joined the army under +Cornwallis as lieutenant-colonel, and was appointed to the command of a +brigade in the war against Tippoo. After much hard service he was made a +colonel in 1795, went in 1797 to the Cape of Good Hope as +brigadier-general, and in 1798, on his appointment as major-general, +returned to India. In 1799 he commanded the storming party at the assault +of Seringapatam, and, in requital, was presented with the State sword of +Tippoo Saib. Being appointed in 1800 to command an expedition to Egypt, he +landed at Kosseir in June, 1801, crossed the desert, and, embarking on the +Nile, descended to Cairo, and thence to Alexandria, which he reached a few +days before it surrendered to General Hutchinson. Next year he returned to +India, but being soon after superseded by Sir Arthur Wellesley +(Wellington), he sailed for Britain, where he was knighted and made K.B. +With the rank of lieutenant-general he commanded an expedition in 1805 to +the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1806, after defeating the Dutch, he received +the surrender of the colony. He commanded a division at the siege of +Copenhagen, and after a short period of service in Ireland sailed with +10,000 men for Corunna, where he formed a junction with Sir John Moore. He +commanded the first division of Moore's army, and in the battle of Corunna +lost his left arm. By the death of Sir John Moore, Sir David succeeded to +the chief command, receiving for the fourth time the thanks of Parliament, +and a baronetcy. In 1814 he was made a general. He died in 1829. + +BAIRD, Spencer Fullerton, American naturalist, born 1823, died 1887. From +1850 to 1878 he was assistant secretary, and then became secretary, of the +Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and was also chief Government +commissioner of fish and fisheries. He wrote much on natural history, his +chief works being _The Birds of North America_ (in conjunction with John +Cassin), _The Mammals of North America_, _Review of American Birds in the +Smithsonian Institution_, and (with Messrs. Brewer and Ridgeway) _History +of North American Birds_. + +BAIREUTH (b[=i]'roit), a well-built and pleasantly-situated town of +Bavaria, on the Red Main, 41 miles north-east of Nuernberg. The principal +edifices, besides churches, are the old and the new palace, the +opera-house, the gymnasium, and the national theatre, constructed after the +design of the composer Wagner, and opened in 1876 with a grand performance +of his tetralogy of the _Nibelungen Ring_. Industries: cotton-spinning, +sugar-refining, musical instruments, sewing-machines, leather, brewing, &c. +There is a monument to Jean Paul F. Richter, who died here. Pop. 34,547. + +BAIUS, or DE BAY, Michael, Catholic theologian, was born 1513, in Hainaut, +educated at Louvain, made professor of theology there in 1552, and chosen a +member of the Council of Trent in 1563. Leaving the scholastic method, he +founded systematic theology directly upon the Bible and the Christian +fathers, of whom he particularly followed St. Augustine. His doctrines of +original sin and of salvation by grace led to his persecution as a heretic +by the old Scotists, and the Jesuits, who succeeded in obtaining a Papal +bull in 1567, condemning the doctrines imputed to him. Baius, however, +remained in the possession of his dignities, was appointed in 1575 +Chancellor of Louvain University; and the King of Spain even conferred upon +him the office of Inquisitor-General in the Netherlands. He died in 1589. +His Augustinian views descended to the Jansenists, while his doctrine of +pure undivided love to God formed the staple of Quietism. His system is +called _Baianism_. + +BAIZE, a sort of coarse woollen fabric with a rough nap, now generally used +for linings, and mostly green or red in colour. + +BAJA (bae'y[.a]), a market town of Hungary, district of Bacs, on the +Danube, with a trade in grain and wine, and a large annual hog fair. Pop. +20,361. + +BAJADERES. See _Bayaderes_. + +BAJAZET (b[.a]-y[.a]-zet'), or BAYEZID, I, Turkish emperor, who, in 1389, +having strangled his brother Jacob, succeeded his father Murad or Amurath, +who fell in the battle of Kossovo while fighting against the Serbians. From +the rapidity of his conquests he received the name of _Ilderim_, the +Lightning. In three years he overcame Bulgaria, part of Serbia, Macedonia, +Thessaly, and the States of Asia Minor, and besieged Constantinople for ten +years, defeating Sigismund and the allied Hungarians, Poles, and French in +1395. The attack of Timur (Tamerlane) on Natolia, in 1400, saved the Greek +Empire, Bajazet being defeated and taken prisoner by him near Ancyra, +Galatia, 1402. The story of his being carried about in a cage by Timur is +improbable; but Bajazet died, in 1409, in Timur's camp, in Caramania. His +successor was Soliman I. + +BAJAZET II succeeded his father, Mohammed II, Sultan of the Turks, in 1481. +He increased the Turkish Empire by conquests on the N.W. and in the E., +took Lepanto, Modon, and Durazzo in a war against the Venetians, and +ravaged the coasts of the Christian States on the Mediterranean, to revenge +the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. Having abdicated in favour of his +younger son Selim, he died on his way to a residence near Adrianople in +1513. He did much for the improvement of his empire and the promotion of +the sciences. + +BAJIMONT'S ROLL. See _Bagimonts Roll_. + +BAJOCCO, or BAIOCCO (b[.a]-yok'o), was a copper coin in the Papal States, +the hundredth part of a scudo, or rather more than a halfpenny. The name +was also given in Sicily to the Neapolitan _grano_, the hundredth part of +the ducato (3s. 4d.). + +BAJUS. See _Baius_. + +BAJZA (boi'za), Anton, Hungarian lyric poet, historian, and critic, born +1804, died 1858. As contributor to and editor of various periodicals he +played an important part in the development of modern Hungarian literature +and drama. A volume of his poems, of high merit, was published in 1835. He +also translated a collection of foreign dramas, and edited a series of +historical works. + +BAKALAHA'RI, a Bechuana tribe inhabiting the Kalahari Desert, S. Africa. + +BAK'ARGANJ, a maritime district and town in Eastern Bengal; chief rivers: +Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna. Area, 3649 sq. miles. Pop. 2,292,000. The +town now lies in ruins. Pop. 7000. + +BAKAU (bae'kou), a town of Roumania, on the Bistritza. Pop. 16,187. + +BAKCHISARAI (b[.a]k-chi-s[.a]-r[=i]'), or BAGTCHESERAI (Bakh-chi-Sarai) +(baeg-che-se-r[=i]; Turk., 'Garden Palace'), an ancient town of Russia, in +the Crimea, picturesquely situated at the bottom of a narrow valley, hemmed +in by precipices. It contains the palace of the ancient Crimean khans, +restored by the Russian Government. Pop. 15,000. + +BAKER, Sir Richard, an English historian, born in Kent in 1568, educated at +Oxford, knighted in 1603 by James I, and in 1620 appointed High Sheriff of +Oxfordshire, where he had estates. Having given security for a debt +incurred by his wife's family, he was thrown into Fleet Prison, where, +after remaining some years, he died in 1645. During his imprisonment he +wrote some devotional books and his _Chronicle of the Kings of England_, +first published in 1641, and afterwards continued by Edward Phillips, the +nephew of Milton, and others--a work of great popularity in its day, though +of no permanent value. + +BAKER, Sir Samuel White, a distinguished English traveller, born in 1821. +He resided some years in Ceylon; in 1861 began his African travels, which +lasted several years, in the Upper Nile regions, and resulted, among other +discoveries, in that of Albert Nyanza Lake in 1864, and of the exit of the +White Nile from it. In Africa he encountered Speke and Grant after their +discovery of the Victoria Nyanza. On his return home he was received with +great honour and was knighted. In 1869 he returned to Africa as head of an +expedition sent by the Khedive of Egypt to annex and open up to trade a +large part of the newly-explored country, being raised to the dignity of +pasha. He returned in 1873, having finished his work, and was succeeded by +the celebrated Gordon. His writings include: _The Rifle and the Hound in +Ceylon_; _Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon_; _The Albert Nyanza_; _The +Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia_; _Ismailia: a Narrative of the Expedition to +Central Africa_; _Cyprus as I saw it in 1879_; also, _Cast up by the Sea_, +a story published in 1868. He died 30th Dec., 1893. + +BAKER, Thomas, antiquary, born 1656, educated at Cambridge. As a non-juror +he lost his living at Long-Newton in 1690, and was compelled to resign his +fellowship on the accession of George I, but continued to reside at St. +John's College till his death in 1740. His _Reflections on Learning_ +(1709-10) went through seven editions. He left in MS. forty-two folio +volumes of an _Athenae Cantabrigienses_, from which a _History of St. +John's College_ was edited by Professor Mayor in 1869. + +BAKEWELL, an ancient market town, England, county of Derby, between Buxton +and Matlock, possessing a fine Gothic church, a chalybeate spring, a +cotton-mill erected by Arkwright, and a large marble-cutting industry. Pop. +3062. + +BAKEWELL, Robert, an English agriculturist, celebrated for his improvements +in the breeding of sheep, cattle, and horses, was born in Leicestershire in +1725, and died in 1795. He commenced experiments in breeding sheep, about +1755, upon his father's farm at Dishley, and for fifty years devoted +himself to the acquisition and diffusion of information upon the subject. +He was the originator of the new Leicestershire breed of sheep, which has +since been so well known, and also of a breed of cattle very famous in +their day. The demand for his rams increased so considerably, that whereas +he let them for the season at L16 per head in 1755, by 1789 they were hired +at 6000 guineas. Various improvements in farm management were also +introduced by him. + +BAKHMUT. See _Bachmut_. + +BAKHUISEN. See _Backhuysen_. + +BAKING, a term meaning 'to cook by dry heat', and primarily applied to the +baking of bread. A common application of the term is to a mode of cooking +food in a close oven, baking in this case being opposed to roasting or +broiling, in which an open fire is used. The oven should not be too close, +but ought to be properly ventilated. Baking is also applied to the +hardening of earthenware or porcelain by fire. See _Bread_. + +BAKING POWDER, a mixture of bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid, usually +with some flour added. The water of the dough causes the liberation of +carbonic acid, which makes the bread 'rise'. + +BAKONY (b[.a]-kon'y[.e]) WALD, a thickly wooded mountain range dividing the +Hungarian plains, famous for the herds of swine fed on its mast. + +BAKSHEESH', an Eastern term for a present or gratuity. A demand for +baksheesh meets travellers in the East everywhere from Turkey and Egypt to +Hindustan. + +BAKU (bae-koe'), a Russian port on the western shore of the Caspian, +occupying part of the Peninsula of Apsheron. The naphtha or petroleum +springs of Baku have long been known; and the Field of Fire, so called from +emitting inflammable gases, has long been a place of pilgrimage with the +Guebres or Fire-worshippers. From the development of the petroleum +industry, Baku has greatly increased, and is now a large and flourishing +town. About 1500 oil-wells are in operation, producing immense quantities +of petroleum (6,448,000 tons in 1917), much of which is led direct in pipes +from the wells to the refineries in Baku, and it is intended to lay a pipe +for its conveyance all the way to the Black Sea at Batoum, which is already +connected with Baku by railway. Some of the wells have had such an outflow +of oil as to be unmanageable, and the Baku petroleum now competes +successfully with any other in the markets of the world. Baku, formerly the +station of the Caspian fleet, is strongly fortified, and has a large +shipping trade. The district of Baku lies within the limits of the new +Republic of Azerbaijan. Pop. 237,000; pop. of the province, 1,119,600. + +BAKU'NIN, Michael, Russian anarchist, the founder of Nihilism, born 1814 of +a rich and noble family, entered the army, but threw up his commission +after two years' service, and studied philosophy at Moscow, with his +friends Hertzen, Turgeniev, Granovski (historian), and Byelinski (critic). +Having adopted Hegel's system as the basis of a new revolution, he went in +1841 to Berlin, and thence to Dresden, Geneva, and Paris, as the +propagandist of anarchism. Wherever he went he caused disturbance, and +after undergoing imprisonment in various States, was handed over to Russia +in 1851 by Austria, imprisoned for five years, and finally sent to Siberia. +Escaping thence through Japan, he joined Hertzen in London on the staff of +the _Kolokol_. His extreme views, however, ruined the paper and led to a +quarrel with Marx and the Internationale; and having fallen into disrepute +with his own party in Russia, he died suddenly and almost alone at Berne in +1878. He demanded the entire abolition of the State as a State, the +absolute equalization of individuals, and the extirpation of hereditary +rights and of religion, his conception of the next stage of social progress +being purely negative and annihilatory. + +BALA, a lake 4 miles long, and an urban district of N. Wales, in +Merionethshire. Pop. 1408. + +BALAAM (b[=a]'lam), a prophet, invited by Balak, King of Moab, to curse the +Israelites, but compelled by miracle to bless them instead (_Num._ +xxii-xxiv). In another account he is represented as aiding in the +perversion of the Israelites to the worship of Baal, and as being, +therefore, slain in the Midianitish war (_Num._ xxxi; _Josh._ xiii). He is +the subject of many rabbinical fables, the Targumists and Talmudists +regarding him, as most of the fathers did, in the light of an impious and +godless man. + +BALA BEDS, or BALA SERIES, a deposit of Upper Ordovician Age, named from +the Bala district, North Wales, consisting of slates, grits, sandstones, +and limestones, there being two limestones separated by sandy and slaty +rocks about 1400 feet thick. They contain trilobites of many species, and +other marine fossils. The lower Bala limestone (25 feet thick) may be +traced over a large area in North Wales. See _Caradoc Series_, _Ordovician +System_. + +BALACHONG', an Oriental condiment, composed of small fishes, or shrimps, +pounded up with salt and spices and then dried. + +BALAE'NA, the genus which includes the Greenland or right whale, type of +the family Balaenidae, or whale-bone whales. + +BALAE'NICEPS ('whale-head'), a genus of wading birds belonging to the +Sudan, intermediate between the herons and storks, and characterized by an +enormous bill, broad and swollen, giving the only known species (_B. rex_), +also called shoe-bird, a peculiar appearance. It feeds on fishes, +water-snakes, carrion, &c., and makes its nest in reeds or grass adjoining +water. The bill is yellow, blotched with dark-brown, the general colour of +the plumage dusky-grey, the head, neck, and breast slaty, the legs +blackish. + +BALAENOP'TERA. See _Rorqual_. + +BALAGARH (bae-lae-g_a_r'), town of Hindustan, in the Punjab. Pop. 11,233. + +BALAGHAT', a district of India, in the Central Provinces, Nagpur division; +area, 3146 sq. miles; capital, Burha, a small place. The surface is +diversified, comprising extensive uplands as well as lowlands; forests are +extensive, and a comparatively small part of the area is under cultivation, +rice being the chief crop. Iron exists in considerable quantities, and it +is worked in a small way; gold is also worked. Pop. 330,000, almost +entirely rural. + +BALAGUER (b[.a]-l[.a]-g[=a]r'), Victor, Spanish author and politician, +important writer in the Catalonian dialect, born 1824, died 1901. Born at +Barcelona, he studied law there, and, becoming learned in Catalonian +history, was appointed archivist and soon after professor of history. In +1869 he entered the Cortes as a Liberal; in 1872 was Minister of Public +Works; from 1886 to 1888 Colonial Minister. He wrote much both in prose and +verse, his prose comprising historical works, novels, &c., his verse +lyrics, ballads, tragedies, odes, &c. His tragedies were partly on subjects +taken from Catalonian history, partly on subjects connected with Greek and +Roman history or literature. Among his lyrical and other poems are: _El +Trovador de Montserrat_; _Primavera de Ultimo Trovador Catalan_; _Poesias +Completas_ (1874); _Obras Poeticas_ (1880). _Don Juan de Serrallonga_ is +the most popular of his novels. Among other works of his are: _Historia +Politica y Literaria de los Trovadores_; _Historia de Cataluna_; _Los +Pirineos_; _Cristobal Colon_; _Estudios Historicos y Politicos_; _Historias +y Tradiciones_; _Instituciones y Reyes de Aragon_. As a poet he was +imitative, reminding us of Quintana, Zorilla, and Byron. + +BALAKLAVA (b[.a]-l[.a]-klae'va), a small seaport in the Crimea, 8 miles +S.S.E. Sevastopol. In the Crimean war it was captured by the British, who +used the harbour as a base of supplies. The famous battle of Balaklava was +fought some distance to the north of the seaport, on 25th Oct., 1854. The +Russians brought a force of 25,000 men against the allies, a much larger +force than they had to encounter, and the chief incidents in the battle +were as follows: The Russians captured a series of positions occupied by +the Turks in front of the British position; a Russian cavalry charge was +repulsed by the 93rd Highlanders; a great mass of Russian cavalry was +defeated by a charge of British heavy cavalry; the British light cavalry +brigade charged and took a Russian battery, and put to flight the cavalry +behind it, but were compelled by overpowering force to retreat with heavy +loss, their retreat being covered by a brilliant charge of the French. The +celebrated charge of the light brigade, or of the 'six hundred', though a +brilliant feat of arms, was made under an erroneous interpretation of +orders; that of the heavy brigade was equally glorious, and contributed far +more to the final repulse of the enemy. + +BALAKO'VO, a river-port of South-Eastern Russia, on the left bank of the +Volga, government of Samara, with a very important trade in grain. Pop. +16,000. + +BALALAI'KA, a musical instrument of very ancient Slavonic origin, common +among the Russians and Tartars. It is a narrow, shallow guitar with only +two strings. + +BAL'ANCE, an instrument for determining the relative weights of bodies. +Balances are of various forms; in that most commonly used a horizontal beam +rests so as to turn easily upon a fulcrum in the middle. From the +extremities of the beam, called the centres of suspension, hang the scales; +and a slender metal pointer between them, and in front of the fulcrum, +indicates when the beam is level. The characteristics of a good balance +are: (1) that the beam should rest in a horizontal position when the scales +are either empty or loaded with equal weights; (2) that a very small +addition of weight put into either scale should cause the beam to deviate +from the level, which property is denominated the sensibility of the +balance; (3) that when the beam is deflected from the horizontal position +by inequality of the weights on the scales, it should have a tendency +speedily to restore itself and come to rest in the level, which property is +called the stability of the balance. To secure these qualities the arms of +the beam should be exactly similar, equal in weight and length, and as long +as possible; the centres of gravity and suspension should be in one +straight line, and the fulcrum immediately above the centre of gravity; and +the fulcrum and the centres of suspension should cause as little friction +as possible. The fulcrum ought to be a knife-edge; and if the balance +requires to be very delicate, the centres of suspension ought to be +knife-edges also. If the balance has no tendency to one position more than +another, when the scales are either loaded, empty, or off altogether, it is +proof that the centre of gravity and the fulcrum coincide, and the remedy +is to lower the centre of gravity. If the beam is disturbed by a small +addition of weight to either scale, and exhibits no tendency to resume the +horizontal position, we may infer that the centre of gravity is above the +fulcrum. If it requires a considerable excess of weight to deflect the beam +from the level, we may infer either that there is too much friction at the +fulcrum, or that the centre of gravity is too low. If two weights are found +to be in equipoise, one being in each scale, and if, when that which is in +one scale is put into the other, there is no longer equilibrium, then we +may infer that the arms of the beam are of unequal lengths. For purposes of +accuracy, balances have occasionally means of raising or depressing the +centre of gravity, of regulating the length of the arms, &c., and the whole +apparatus is usually enclosed in a glass case, to prevent the heat from +expanding the arms unequally, or currents of air from disturbing the +equilibrium. A refinement in weighing is obtained by the use of the +milligram rider, a short bent wire which can be moved along a scale +engraved on the beam. + +Of the other forms of balance, the Roman balance, or steel-yard, consists +of a lever moving freely upon a suspended fulcrum, the shorter arm of the +lever having a scale or pan attached to it, and the longer arm, along which +slides a weight, being graduated to indicate quantities. It is commonly +used for weighing loaded carts, for luggage at railway stations, &c. A +variety of this, the Danish balance, has the weight fixed at the end of the +lever, the fulcrum being movable along the graduated index. The +spring-balance registers the weight of an article by the extent to which it +draws out or compresses a spiral spring. It is of service where a high +degree of exactness is not required, as in its domestic use, and it also +finds application in the dynamometer for measuring horse-power of +machinery. An extremely ingenious balance, used in the Mint and the Bank of +England, for weighing 'blanks' and sovereigns, distributes them +automatically into three compartments according as they are light, heavy, +or the exact weight. The Roberval balance is a form in common use for +weighing letters and parcels.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. A. Brauer, _The +Construction of the Balance_; E. Nicholson, _Men and Measures: a history of +weights and measures, ancient and modern_. + +BALANCE OF POWER, a political principle which first came to be recognized +in modern Europe in the sixteenth century, though it appears to have been +also acted on by the Greeks in ancient times, in preserving the relations +between their different States. The object in maintaining the balance of +power is to secure the general independence of nations as a whole, by +preventing the aggressive attempts of individual States to extend their +territory and sway at the expense of weaker countries. The first European +monarch whose ambitious designs induced a combination of other States to +counteract them was the Emperor Charles V, similar coalitions being formed +in the end of the seventeenth century, when the ambition of Louis XIV +excited the fears of Europe, and a century later against the exorbitant +power and aggressive schemes of the first Napoleon. Since that time we have +the instance of the Crimean War, entered into to check the ambition of +Russia. Of late years there has been a marked tendency among British +politicians to decry and impugn the principle of the balance of power, as +calculated only to propagate a system of mutual hostility, and retard the +cause of progress, by the expenditure both of money and life thus +occasioned. An equilibrium between the various Powers is, of course, +essential to the very existence of international law. The war of 1914-8 has +proved to the world that in the absence of any central authority neither +treaties nor signatures could prevent a State sufficiently powerful from +ignoring the law and acting solely according to its interests and ambitious +designs. See _Society of Nations_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hume, _Essay on the +Balance of Power_; Von Gentz, _Fragments on the Balance of Power_; +Professor L. Oppenheim, _International Law_, vol. i; Vattel, _Le droit des +gens_. + +BALANCE OF TRADE, the difference between the stated money values of the +exports and imports of a country. The balance is erroneously said to be 'in +favour' of a country when the value of the exports is in excess of that of +the imports, and 'against it' when the imports are in excess of the +exports. The phrases date from the days of the mercantile system, the +characteristic doctrine of which alleged the desirability of regulating +commerce with a view to amassing treasure by exporting produce largely, +importing little merchandise in return, and receiving the balance in +bullion. In certain conceivable political and industrial conditions this +may have had beneficial results; but its importance was greatly +overestimated, and the state of this balance came to be regarded as an +invariable criterion of the industrial condition of a country. The false +analogy of the successful merchant who gains more than he spends became the +basis of popular reasoning, the products of a country being mistakenly +identified with its exports, its consumption with its importation. It is +now generally recognized that if bullion be exported from a country it is +because it is at the time the cheapest commodity available for export; and +further, that there are certain natural limits to its undue exportation, in +that the increased scarcity of money is attended with a fall in the +money-value of other commodities, which thus in turn become preferable +objects of exportation, while bullion flows back. The excess of the value +of imports over that of exports, which is regarded by some as an adverse +and alarming symptom in British trade, is in large part readily accounted +for on the ground of shipping receipts, insurance returns, interest on +capital employed in foreign trade, merchants' profits, and the income +derived from foreign investments. + +[Illustration: Group of _Bal[)a]nus tintinnab[)u]lum_] + +BAL'ANUS ('acorn-shells'), a genus of sessile cirripeds, family Balanidae, +of which colonies are to be found on rocks at low water, on timbers, +crustaceans, shells of mollusca, &c. They differ from the barnacles in +having a symmetrical shell, and being destitute of a flexible stalk. The +shell consists of six plates, with an operculum of four valves. They pass +through a larval state, in which they are not fixed, moving by means of +swimming feet which disappear in the final state. All the Balanidae are +hermaphrodite. A South American species (_Bal[)a]nus psitt[)a]cus_) is +eaten on the coast of Chile, the _Bal[)a]nus tintinnab[)u]lum_ by the +Chinese. The old Roman epicures esteemed the larger species. + +BALAPUR', town of India, in Akola district, Berar, with strong fort and +fine pavilion of black stone. Pop. 10,500. + +BAL'AS, a name used to distinguish the rose-coloured species of ruby from +the ruby proper. + +BALASOR', a seaport town, Hindustan, presidency of Bengal, province of +Orissa, head-quarters of a district and subdivision bearing the same name. +It carries on a considerable traffic with Calcutta. Pop. 21,362. + +BALA'TA, a gum yielded by _Mim[=u]sops Balata_, a tree growing abundantly +in British, French, and Dutch Guiana, Honduras and Brazil, obtained in a +milky state by 'tapping' the tree, and hardening to a substance like +leather. Used for similar purposes to india-rubber, and in the United +States chewed as a masticatory. + +BAL'ATON, or PLATTENSEE, a lake of Hungary, 55 miles S.W. of Pesth; length, +50 miles; breadth, 3 to 10 miles; area, about 390 sq. miles. Of its +thirty-two feeders the Szala is the largest, and the lake communicates with +the Danube by the Rivers Sio and Sarviz. It abounds with a species of +perch. + +BALBEC. See _Baalbek_. + +BALBI, Adrien, geographer and statistician, born at Venice in 1782. In 1808 +his first work on geography, _Prospetto Politico-Geografico_, procured his +appointment as professor of geography in the College of San Michele at +Murano, and he became in 1811 professor of natural philosophy in the Lyceum +at Fermo. In 1820 he proceeded to Portugal, and collected there materials +for his _Essai Statistique sur le Royaume de Portugal et d'Algarve_ and +_Varietes Politiques et Statistiques de la Monarchie Portugaise_, both +published in 1822 at Paris, where he resided till 1832. He then settled in +Padua, where he died in 1848. Balbi's admirable _Abrege de Geographie_ was +written at Paris, and translated into the principal European languages. + +BALBI, Gasp[=a]ro, a Venetian dealer in precious stones, born about the +middle of the sixteenth century, who travelled first to Aleppo and thence +down the Euphrates and Tigris to the Malabar coast, sailing finally for +Pegu, where he remained for two years. His _Viaggio all' Indie Orientale_, +published on his return to Venice in 1590, contains the earliest account of +India beyond the Ganges. + +BALBO, Ces[=a]re, Italian author and statesman, born in 1789 at Turin. +After holding one or two posts under the patronage of Napoleon, he devoted +himself to history, publishing a history of Italy prior to the period of +Charlemagne, a compendium of Italian history, &c. His _Speranze d'Italia_ +(1843), a statement of the political condition of Italy, and of the +practicable ideals to be kept in view, gave him a wide reputation. He died +in 1853. + +BALBO'A, Vasco Nunez de, one of the early Spanish adventurers in the New +World, born 1475. Having dissipated his fortune, he went to America, and +was at Darien with the expedition of Francisco de Enciso in 1510. An +insurrection placed him at the head of the colony, but rumours of a western +ocean and of the wealth of Peru led him to cross the isthmus. On 25th +Sept., 1513, he saw for the first time the Pacific, and after annexing it +to Spain, and acquiring information about Peru, returned to Darien. Here he +found himself supplanted by a new governor, Pedrarias Davila, with much +consequent grievance on the one side, and much jealousy on the other. +Balboa submitted, however, and in the following year was appointed Viceroy +of the South Sea. Davila was apparently reconciled to him, and gave him his +daughter in marriage, but shortly after, in 1517, had him beheaded on a +charge of intent to rebel. Pizarro, who afterwards completed the discovery +of Peru, served under Balboa. + +BALBRIGGAN, a seaport and favourite watering-place, Ireland, county of +Dublin; celebrated for its hosiery. Pop. 2273. + +BAL'CONY, in architecture, is a gallery projecting from the outer wall of a +building, supported by columns or brackets, and surrounded by a balustrade. +Balconies were not used in Greek and Roman buildings, and in the East the +roof of the house has for centuries served similar purposes on a larger +scale. Balconies properly so styled came into fashion in Italy in the +Middle Ages, and were introduced into Britain in the sixteenth century. + +[Illustration: Baldachin: Church of St. Ambrogio, Milan] + +BAL'DACHIN (-kin; It. _baldachino_), a canopy or tent-like covering of any +material, either suspended from the roof, fastened to the wall, or +supported on pillars over altars, thrones, pulpits, beds, portals, &c. +Portable baldachins of rich materials were formerly used to shield the +heads of dignitaries in processions, and are still so used in the +processions of the Roman Catholic Church, and in the East. The enormous +bronze baldachin designed by Bernini for Pope Urban VIII, and placed over +the tomb of the apostles in St. Peter's at Rome, is one of the most famous, +though surpassed in beauty by many in other European cathedrals and +churches. + +BALDER, or BALDUR, a Scandinavian divinity, represented as the son of Odin +and Frigga, beautiful, wise, amiable, and beloved by all the gods. His +mother took an oath from every creature, and even from every inanimate +object, that they would not harm Balder, but omitted the mistletoe. Balder +was therefore deemed invulnerable, and the other gods in sport flung stones +and shot arrows at him without harming him. But the evil god Loki fashioned +an arrow from the mistletoe and got Balder's blind brother H[=o]der to +shoot it, himself guiding his aim. Balder fell dead, pierced to the heart, +to the deep grief of all the gods. He is believed to be a personification +of the brightness and beneficence of the sun. + +BALDI, Bernardino, mathematician, theologian, geographer, historian, poet, +&c., born at Urbino 1533; studied at Padua; became abbot of Guastalla. He +knew upwards of twelve languages, and is said to have written over a +hundred works, most of which remain in MS. His works include a poem on +_Navigation_, various translations and commentaries, _Lives of Celebrated +Mathematicians_, &c. He died in 1617. + +BALDNESS, loss of the hair, complete or partial, usually the latter, and +due to various causes. Most commonly it results as one of the changes +belonging to old age, due to wasting of the skin, hair-sacs, &c. It may +occur as a result of some acute disease, or at an unusually early age, +without any such cause. In both the latter cases it is due to defective +nourishment of the hair, owing to lessened circulation of the blood in the +scalp. The best treatment for preventing loss of hair seems to consist in +such measures as bathing the head with cold water and drying it by vigorous +rubbing with a rough towel and brushing it well with a hard brush. Various +stimulating lotions are also recommended, especially those containing +cantharides. But probably in most cases senile baldness is unpreventable. +When extreme scurfiness of the scalp accompanies loss of the hair, an +ointment that will clear away the scurf will prove beneficial. + +BALDOVINET'TI, Alessio, Florentine artist, born 1427. Few of his works +remain except a _Nativity_ in the church of the Annunziato, and two +altarpieces in the gallery of the Uffizi and the Academy of Arts, Florence. +Died 1499. His portrait by himself is in the gallery at Bergamo. + +BALDRIC (b[a:]ld'rik), a broad belt formerly worn over the right or left +shoulder diagonally across the body, often highly decorated and enriched +with gems, and used not only to sustain the sword, dagger, or horn, but +also for purposes of ornament, and as a military or heraldic symbol. + +BAL'DUNG, Hans, or HANS GRUEN (gruen), German painter and wood engraver, +born in Swabia 1470, died in Strasburg 1552. His work, though inferior to +Duerer's, possessed many of the same characteristics, and on this account +he has been sometimes considered a pupil of the Nuremberg master. His +principal paintings are the series of panels (of the date 1516) over the +altar in Freiburg Cathedral; others of his works are to be found at Berlin, +Colmar, and Basel. His numerous and often fantastic engravings have the +monogram H and B, with a small G in the centre of the H. + +BALDWIN I, Emperor of Constantinople, founder of the short-lived dynasty of +Latin sovereigns of the Eastern Empire, was born in 1172, and was +hereditary Count of Flanders and Hainault. His courage and conduct in the +fourth crusade led to his unanimous election as Emperor of the East after +the capture of Constantinople by the French and Venetians in 1204. In the +absence of Baldwin's brother with a large part of the army, the Greeks rose +in revolt under the instigation of Joannices, King of Bulgaria. Baldwin +marched on Adrianople, but was taken prisoner and died in captivity, 1205. +Baldwin was succeeded by his brother Henry.--BALDWIN II, fifth and last +Latin Emperor of Constantinople, was born 1217. During his minority John de +Brienne was regent, but on his assuming the power himself the Empire fell +to pieces. In 1261 Constantinople was taken by the forces of Michael +Palaeologus, and Baldwin retired to Italy, dying in 1270. + +BALDWIN I, King of Jerusalem, reigned 1100-18, having assumed the title +which his elder brother, Godfrey de Bouillon, had refused. He subdued +Caesarea, Ashdod, Tripolis, and Acre.--BALDWIN II, his cousin and +successor, reigned from 1118-31. During his reign the reduction of Tyre and +institution of the order of Templars took place.--BALDWIN III, King of +Jerusalem from 1143 to 1162, was son and successor of Foulques of Anjou, +and the embodiment of the best aspects of chivalry. After defeating +Noureddin in 1152, and again in 1157, he was enabled to devote himself to +the hopeless task of improving the kingdom and establishing the Christian +chivalry in the East. His death in 1162 was almost immediately followed by +the total collapse of the kingdom. + +BALDWIN, James Mark, American philosopher, born in Columbia, 12th Jan., +1861. He was educated at Princeton College, Leipzig and Berlin +Universities; was instructor of German and French at Princeton College, +1885-7; professor of philosophy in Lake Forest University, 1887-9; +professor of psychology at Princeton University, 1893-1903. From 1903-9 he +was professor of philosophy and psychology at the Johns Hopkins University, +Baltimore. Professor Baldwin is best known by his experimental psychology +and his theories of genetic logic. He distinguishes between genetic logic, +as theory of thought, and genetic philosophy, as theory of reality. Genetic +sciences, according to Baldwin, are psychology, sociology, ethics, &c., and +his point of view he terms 'Aesthonomical Idealism'. Among his numerous +works are: _Handbook of Psychology_ (2 vols., 1891-2); _Mental Development +in the Child and the Race_ (3rd edition, 1906); _Social and Ethical +Interpretations in Mental Development_ (1904); _Thought and Things, or +Genetic Logic_ (1906-8). He also edited the _Dictionary of Philosophy and +Psychology_ (1901-9) and _The Psychological Review_ (1894-1909). + +BALE (bael). See _Basel_. + +BALE, John, an English ecclesiastic, born in Suffolk in 1495, died in 1563. +Although educated a Roman Catholic, he became a Protestant, and the +intolerance of the Catholic party drove him to the Netherlands. On the +accession of Edward VI he returned to England, was presented to the living +of Bishop's Stoke, Southampton, and soon after nominated Bishop of Ossory, +in Ireland. Here, on his preaching the reformed religion, the popular fury +against him reached such a pitch that in one tumult five of his domestics +were murdered in his presence. On the accession of Mary he lay some time +concealed in Dublin, and after many hardships found refuge in Switzerland. +At her death he was appointed by Elizabeth a prebend of Canterbury, where +he died. His fame as an author rests upon his _Scriptorum Illustrium +Majoris Britanniae Catalogus_, or _An Account of the Lives of Eminent +Writers of Britain_, commencing with Japhet the son of Noah, and ending +with the year 1557. It is compiled from various writers, chiefly from the +antiquary Leland. He was also the author of nineteen miracle plays, printed +in 1558. One of his plays, _Kynge Johan_, is a link between the old +morality plays and the historical drama. + +BALEAR'IC CRANE (_Balear[)i]ca pavon[=i]na_), a handsome species of crested +crane inhabiting North-West Africa. + +BALEAR'IC ISLANDS, an archipelago of four large and eleven small islands, +south-east of Spain, including Majorca, Minorca, Iviza, and Formentera. The +popular derivation of the ancient name Baleares (Gr. _ballein_, to throw) +has reference to the repute of the inhabitants for their skill in slinging, +in which they distinguished themselves both in the army of Hannibal and +under the Romans, by whom the islands were annexed in 123 B.C. After being +taken by the Vandals, under Genseric, and in the eighth century by the +Moors, they were taken by James I, King of Aragon, 1220-34, and constituted +a kingdom, which in 1343 was united to Spain. The islands now form a +Spanish province, with an area of 1935 sq. miles, and 330,167 inhabitants. +See separate articles. + +BALEEN'. See _Whale-bone_. + +BALE-FIRE, any great fire kindled in the open air, especially the fire of a +funeral pile, or a beacon-fire. + +BALEN (bae'len), Hendrik van, painter, born at Antwerp 1560, died 1632. His +works, chiefly classical, religious, and allegorical--some of them executed +in partnership with Breughel--are to be found in most of the European +galleries. He was the first master of Van Dyck and Snyders. Three of his +sons also followed the art. + +BALFE (balf), Michael William, composer, was born in Dublin, 15th May, +1808. In his seventh year he performed in public on the violin, and at +sixteen took the part of the Wicked Huntsman in _Der Freischuetz_ at Drury +Lane. In 1825 he went to Italy, wrote the music for a ballet, _La Perouse_, +for the Scala at Milan, and in the following year sang at the +Theatre-Italien, Paris, with moderate success. He returned to Italy, and at +Palermo was given his first opera, _I Rivali_ (1829). For five years he +continued singing and composing operas for the Italian stage. In 1835 he +came to England, and composed a number of operas, amongst others _The +Bohemian Girl_ (1843), _The Rose of Castile_ (1857), _Satanella_ (1858), +and _The Talisman_ (first performed in 1874). He died 20th Oct., 1870. His +operas are melodious, and many of the airs are excellent. + +BALFOUR (bal-foer'), Sir Andrew, Bart., a Scottish botanist and physician, +born in Fifeshire in 1630. After completing his studies at St. Andrews and +London, and travelling on the Continent, he settled at Edinburgh, where he +planned, with Sir Robert Sibbald, the Royal College of Physicians, and was +elected its first president. He also laid the foundation of a hospital in +Edinburgh, which expanded into the Royal Infirmary. He died in 1694. His +familiar letters were published in 1700. + +BAL'FOUR, Right Hon. Arthur James, First Earl of (created 1922), son of +J. M. Balfour of Whittingehame, Haddingtonshire, and of Lady Blanche Cecil, +sister of the third Marquess of Salisbury, was born 25th July, 1848, and +educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He represented Hertford +from 1874-5, East Manchester from 1885 to 1906, and has been representative +for the City of London since 1906. For a time he was private secretary to +his uncle, Lord Salisbury, under whom he was President of the Local +Government Board, and afterwards Secretary for Scotland (1886-7), with a +seat in the cabinet. He showed much firmness and ability as Chief Secretary +for Ireland during Lord Salisbury's administration from 1887-91. He +succeeded Rt. Hon. W. H. Smith as leader of the House of Commons and First +Lord of the Treasury in 1891-2, and held the position again from 1895 till +1900, and from that year till 1902. On the retirement of Lord Salisbury in +1902 he became Prime Minister, a position which he retained till Dec., +1905. Under him as Premier was passed the new English Education Act (which +owed much to his personal influence and exertions), that for London, and +the new Licensing Act, and he advocated a change of our fiscal policy, at +least as far as having recourse to retaliation, denying that he in any way +favoured protection. He became First Lord of the Admiralty in the Coalition +Government of 1915, and Foreign Secretary in 1916. He was one of the +British delegates to the Peace Conference in 1919. He is given to studies +bearing on philosophy and religion, and has published a _Defence of +Philosophic Doubt_ (1879), _Essays and Addresses_ (1893), _The Foundations +of Belief_ (1895), _Economic Notes on Insular Free-Trade_ (1903), +_Criticism and Beauty_ (1909), _Theism and Humanism_ (1915), &c. He was +President of the British Association in 1904, and Gifford Lecturer, Glasgow +University, 1913-4. In 1919 he was elected to succeed Lord Rayleigh, O.M., +as Chancellor of Cambridge University. + +BALFOUR, Francis Maitland, writer on embryology, brother of the foregoing, +born in 1851, early distinguished himself in his special study, and in +1874, in conjunction with Dr. M. Foster, published _The Elements of +Embryology_; but the promise of his chief work, _Comparative Embryology_ +(1880-1) was unfulfilled, as in 1882 he was killed by a fall on Mont Blanc. + +BALFOUR, Sir James, Scottish lawyer and politician, born about 1522, took +part in the conspiracy against Cardinal Beaton, and was condemned with Knox +to the galleys; but after his release found it to his interest to change +his opinions, and was appointed, through the favour of Queen Mary, Lord of +Session and member of the Privy Council. In 1567 he was appointed Governor +of Edinburgh Castle, but had no scruple in surrendering it to Murray, who +made him President of the Court of Session. He was charged with a share in +the murder of Darnley, and helped to bring Regent Morton to his death. He +died in 1583. _The Practicks of Scots Law_, attributed to him, was long a +textbook. + +BALFOUR, John Hutton, a distinguished botanist, born 1808, died 1884. He +graduated at Edinburgh University in arts and in medicine; from 1841 to +1845 was professor of botany in Glasgow University; and in the latter year +removed to Edinburgh to occupy a similar post, resigning his chair in 1879. +He wrote valuable botanical textbooks, including _Elements_, _Outlines_, +_Manual_, and _Class-book_, besides various other works. + +BALFROOSH', or BARFURUSH', a town, Persia, province of Mazanderan, about +twelve miles from the Caspian, a great emporium of the trade between Persia +and Russia. Pop. estimated at 50,000. + +BA'LI, an island of the Indian Archipelago east of Java, belonging to +Holland; greatest length, 85 miles, greatest breadth, 55 miles; area, about +2160 sq. miles. It consists chiefly of a series of volcanic mountains, of +which the loftiest, Agoong (11,326 feet), became active in 1843 after a +long period of quiescence. Principal products: rice, cocoa, coffee, indigo, +cotton, &c. The people are akin to those of Java and are mostly Brahmans in +religion. It is divided into eight provinces under native rajahs, and since +1882 has formed one colony with Lombok, the united pop. being 1,363,000, of +whom about 900,000 belong to Bali. + +BAL'IOL, or BALLIOL, John de, of Barnard Castle, Northumberland, father of +King John Baliol, a great English (or Norman) baron in the reign of Henry +III, to whose cause he strongly attached himself in his struggles with the +barons. In 1263 he laid the foundation of Balliol College, Oxford, which +was completed by his widow Devorguila or Devorgilla. She was daughter and +co-heiress of Allan of Galloway, a great baron of Scotland, by Margaret, +eldest daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion. +It was on the strength of this genealogy that his son John Baliol became +temporary King of Scotland. He died 1269. + +BAL'IOL, or BALLIOL, John, King of Scotland, born about 1249, died 1315. On +the death of Margaret, the Maid of Norway and grandchild of Alexander III, +Baliol claimed the vacant throne by virtue of his descent from David, Earl +of Huntingdon, brother to William the Lion, King of Scotland (see above +article). Robert Bruce (grandfather of the king) opposed Baliol; but Edward +I's decision was in favour of Baliol, who did homage to him for the +kingdom, 20th Nov., 1292. Irritated by Edward's harsh exercise of +authority, Baliol concluded a treaty with France, then at war with England; +but after the defeat at Dunbar he surrendered his crown into the hands of +the English monarch. He was sent with his son to the Tower, but, by the +intercession of the Pope in 1297, obtained liberty to retire to his Norman +estates, where he died.--His son, Edward, in 1332 landed in Fife with an +armed force, and, having defeated a large army under the Regent Mar (who +was killed), got himself crowned king, but was driven out in three months. + +BALIS'TIDAE. See _Trigger-fishes_. + +BALIZE (ba-l[=e]z'). See _Belize_. + +BAL'KAN (ancient, HAEMUS), a rugged chain of mountains extending from Cape +Emineh, on the Black Sea, in Eastern Roumelia, westwards to the borders of +Serbia, though the name is sometimes used to include the whole mountain +system from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, the region south of Austria and +Russia, or south of the Danube and Save, forming the Balkan Peninsula. The +range, which is over 200 miles in length, forms the water-shed between the +streams flowing northward into the Danube and those flowing southward to +the Aegean, the chief of the latter being the Maritza. The average height +is not more than 5000 feet, but the highest point, Tchat-al-dagh, is 8340 +feet. In the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8 the Russian troops managed to +cross it without great difficulty, though they had to encounter a stubborn +resistance at the Shipka Pass, where a Turkish army of 32,000 men +ultimately surrendered to them. + +BALKAN LEAGUE, THE. After the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by +Austria, in 1908, the Balkan League of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and +Greece was formed, apparently at the instigation of the Powers of the +Triple Entente, primarily to constitute a bulwark against Austrian +aggression towards the southeast. The League, however, directed its +activities against Turkey, taking advantage of Turkish embarrassments in +Libya and of the success of an insurrection in Albania to attempt in 1912 +the overthrow of the Turkish regime in Europe. The declaration of +hostilities by the League in Oct., 1912, began the First Balkan War (q.v.). +The League was maintained during the two campaigns of the war, but jealousy +of Bulgarian pre-eminence led to its disruption in June, 1913, when Serbia, +Montenegro, and Greece went to war with their former ally. + +BALKAN STATES. See _Bulgaria_, _Greece_, _Roumania_, _Serbia_, _Turkey_, +and _Yugo-Slavs_. + +BALKAN WAR, THE. The First Balkan War (Oct., 1912-May, 1913) was the effort +of the Balkan League (q.v.) to dismember Turkey in Europe. Each member of +the League was allotted a definite strategic object, and each gained a +considerable measure of success. Bulgaria defeated the Turks at Kirk +Kilisseh and Lule Burgas, and drove them behind the lines of Tchataldja. +The Greeks captured Salonica; the Serbians forced their way to the sea at +Durazzo. The Montenegrins invested Scutari. An armistice in December was +followed by indecisive negotiations, in which the Great Powers took part. +Renewed hostilities in the spring of 1913 (during which the Turks lost +Adrianople) came to an end with the Treaty of London in May. Before its +promises could be carried out, Serbia, Greece, and Roumania joined to crush +Bulgaria in the Second Balkan War, alleging that her claims to conquered +territory in Macedonia were excessive. The Treaty of Bucharest (Aug., 1913) +finally concluded the war. The net results were: (1) to confine Turkey to +Constantinople and the vilayet of Adrianople; (2) to extend Bulgarian +territory to the Aegean and to increase greatly both Serbia and Montenegro; +(3) to grant Salonica to Greece; (4) to create an autonomous +Albania.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Ashmead-Bartlett, _With the Turks in Thrace_; +_The Balkan War Drama_, by a Special Correspondent; D. J. Cassvetti, +_Hellas and the Balkan Wars_; Sir J. R. L. Rankin, _The Inner History of +the Balkan War_. + +BALKASH', or BALKHASH (b[.a]l-_h_[.a]sh'), a salt lake in Russian Central +Asia, surrounded by steppes and plains; length about 330 miles, area 8500 +sq. miles, depth nowhere more than 80 feet; formerly of much greater area +and gradually growing smaller; receives the Ili and other smaller streams. + +BALKH (baelk or bael_h_), a city in the north of Afghanistan, in Afghan +Turkestan, at one time the emporium of the trade between India, China, and +Western Asia. It was long the centre of Zoroastrianism, and was also an +important Buddhist centre. In 1220 it was sacked by Genghis Khan, and again +by Timur in the fourteenth century. The remains of the ancient city extend +for miles. The town is now merely a village, but a new town has been built +an hour's journey north of the old, the residence of the Afghan governor, +with a pop. of about 20,000. The district, which formed a portion of +ancient Bactria, lies between the Oxus and the Hindu-Kush, with Badakshan +to the east and the desert to the west. In the vicinity of the Oxus, where +there are facilities for irrigation, the soil is rich and productive, and +there are many populous villages. + +BAL'KIS, the Arabian name of the Queen of Sheba who visited Solomon. She is +the central figure of innumerable Eastern legends and tales. + +BALL, GAME OF. Ball-playing was practised by the ancients, and old and +young amused themselves with it. The Phaeacian damsels are represented in +the _Odyssey_ as playing it to the sound of music; and Horace represents +Maecenas as amusing himself thus during a journey. In the Greek gymnasia, +the Roman baths, and in many Roman villas, a _sphaeristerium_ (a place +appropriated for playing ball) was to be found; the games played being +similar to those of the present day. In the Middle Ages the sport continued +to be very popular both as an indoor and outdoor exercise, and was a +favourite Court pastime until about the end of the eighteenth century. In +England football and tennis are mentioned at an early date, and a favourite +game prior to the English revolution was one in which a _mall_ or mallet +was used, hence the name _pall-mall_ (It. _palla_, Lat. _pila_, a ball) for +the game and the place where it was played. The most popular modern forms +are cricket, base-ball, football, golf, lawn-tennis, fives, and polo. + +BALL, John, an itinerant preacher of the fourteenth century, excommunicated +about 1367 for promulgating "errors, schisms, and scandals against the +Pope, archbishops, bishops, and clergy". He was one of the most active +promoters of the popular insurgent spirit which found vent under Wat Tyler +in 1381, and the couplet + + "When Adam delved and Eve span + Who was then the gentleman?" + +is attributed to him. He was hanged, drawn, and quartered on 15th July, +1381. + +BALL, Sir Robert Stawell, astronomer, born at Dublin 1840, educated at +Chester and Trinity College, Dublin. In 1865 he was appointed Lord Rosse's +astronomer at Parsonstown, and subsequently held various official posts, +including those of Andrews professor of astronomy in the University of +Dublin and Astronomer Royal for Ireland (1874), Lowndean professor of +astronomy and geometry in the University of Cambridge and director of the +observatory (1892). He became F.R.S. in 1873, and was knighted in 1886. +Besides many memoirs and articles, he published _The Story of the Heavens_, +_Starland_, _In Starry Realms_, _Time and Tide_, _The Story of the Sun_, +_Great Astronomers_, _The Earth's Beginning_, _Popular Guide to the +Heavens_ (numerous plates with accompanying text), _Natural Sources of +Power_, &c. He died in 1913. + +BAL'LAD, a term loosely applied to various poetic forms of the song type, +but in its most definite sense a poem in which a short narrative is +subjected to simple lyrical treatment. It was, as indicated by its name, +which is related to the Low Latin _ballare_ and O. French _baller_, to +dance, originally a song accompanied by a dance. The ballad, like the +nursery tales and the _Maerchen_, is probably one of the earliest forms of +rhythmic poetic expression, constituting a species of epic in miniature, +out of which by fusion and remoulding larger epics were sometimes shaped. +Their present form is, of course, relatively recent. As in the folk-tales, +so in the ballads of different nations, the resemblances are sufficiently +numerous and close to point to the conclusion that they have often had +their first origin in the same primitive folk-lore or popular tales. But in +any case, excepting a few modern literary ballads of a subtler kind, they +have been the popular expression of the broad human emotions clustering +about some strongly-outlined incidents of war, love, crime, superstition, +or death. It is probable that in the Homeric poems fragments of older +ballads are embedded; but the earliest ballads, properly so called, of +which we have record were the _ballistea_ or dancing-songs of the Romans, +of the kind sung in honour of the deeds of Aurelian in the Sarmatic war by +a chorus of dancing boys. In their less specialized sense of lyric +narratives, their early popularity among the Teutonic race is evidenced by +the testimony of Tacitus, of the Gothic historian Jornandes, and the +Lombard historian Paulus Diaconus; and many appear to have been written +down by order of Charlemagne and used as a means of education. Of the +ballads of this period, however, only a general conception can be formed +from their traces in conglomerates like the _Niebelungenlied_; the more +artificial productions of the Minnesingers and Meistersingers overlying the +more popular ballad until the fifteenth century, when it sprang once more +into vigorous life. A third German ballad period was initiated by Buerger, +under the inspiration of the revived interest in the subject shown in Great +Britain and the publication of the Percy _Reliques_; and the movement was +sustained by Herder, Schiller, Goethe, Heine, Uhland, and others. The +earlier German work is, however, of inferior value to that of Scandinavia, +where, though comparatively few manuscripts have survived, and those not +more than three or four centuries old, a more perfect oral tradition has +rendered it possible to trace the original stock of the twelfth century. + +Of the English and Scottish ballads anterior to the thirteenth century +there are few traces beyond the indication that they were abundant, if +indeed anything can be definitely asserted of them earlier than the +fourteenth century. Among the oldest may be placed _The Little Gest of +Robin Hood_, _Hugh of Lincoln_, _Sir Patrick Spens_, and the _Battle of +Otterbourn_. In the fifteenth century specimens multiply rapidly: +ballad-making became in the reign of Henry VIII a fashionable amusement, +the king himself setting the example; and though in the reign of Elizabeth +ballads came into literary disrepute and ballad singers were brought under +the law, yet there was no apparent check upon the rate of their production. +Except perhaps in the north of England and south of Scotland, there was, +however, a marked and increasing tendency to vulgarization as distinct from +the preservation of popular qualities. The value of the better ballads was +lost sight of in the flood of dull, rhythmless, and frequently scurrilous +verse. The modern revival in Britain dates from the publication of Allan +Ramsay's _Evergreen_ and _Tea-table Miscellany_ (1724-7) and of the +selection _Reliques_ made by Bishop Percy from his seventeenth-century MSS. +(1765), a revival not more important for its historic interest than for the +influence which it has exercised upon all subsequent poetry. + +The threefold wave discernible in German, if not in British, ballad +history, is equally to be traced in Spain, which alone among the Latinized +countries of Europe has songs of equal age and merit with the British +historic ballads. The principal difference between them is, that for the +most part the Spanish romance is in trochaic, the British ballad in iambic +metre. The ballads of the Cid date from about the end of the twelfth and +beginning of the thirteenth century; and then followed an interval of more +elaborate production, a revival of ballad interest in the sixteenth +century, a new declension, and finally a modern and still-persisting +enthusiasm. + +The French poetry of this kind never reached any high degree of perfection, +the romance, farce, and lyric flourishing at the expense of the ballad +proper. Of Italy much the same may be said, though Sicily has supplied a +great store of ballads; and nearly all the Portuguese poetry of this kind +is to be traced to a Spanish origin. The Russians have lyrico-epic poems, +of which some, in old Russian, are excellent, and the Serbians are still in +the ballad-producing stage of civilization. Modern Greece has also its +store of ballads, published in several collections. In Greece, Russia, and +elsewhere the old habit of improvising song as an accompaniment to dance +still exists.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Professor Child, _English and Scottish Popular +Ballads_; Professor Gummere, _The Beginnings of Poetry_; Sir W. Scott, +_Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_ (edited by T. F. Henderson); T. F. +Henderson, _The Ballad in Literature_. + +BALLADE (bal-[.a]d'), the earlier and modern French spelling of _ballad_, +but now limited in its use to a distinct verse-form introduced into English +literature of late years from the French, and chiefly used by writers of +_vers-de-societe_. It consists of three stanzas of eight lines each, with +an _envoy_ or closing stanza of four lines. The rhymes, which are not more +than three, follow each other in the stanzas thus: a, b, a, b; b, c, b, c, +and in the envoy, b, c, b, c; and the same line serves as a refrain to each +of the stanzas and to the envoy. There are other varieties, but this may be +regarded as the strictest, according to the precedent of Villon and Marot. + +BAL'LANTYNE, James, the printer of Sir Walter Scott's works, born at Kelso +1772, died at Edinburgh 1833. Successively a solicitor and a printer in his +native town, at Scott's suggestion he removed to Edinburgh, where the high +perfection to which he had brought the art of printing, and his connection +with Scott, secured him a large trade. The printing firm of James +Ballantyne & Co. included Scott, James Ballantyne, and his brother John +(who died in 1821). For many years he conducted the _Edinburgh Weekly +Journal_. His firm was involved in the bankruptcy of Constable & Co., by +which Scott's fortunes were wrecked, but Ballantyne was continued by the +creditors' trustee in the literary management of the printing-house. He +survived Scott only about four months. + +BALLANTYNE, Robert Michael, writer of books for boys, born at Edinburgh +1825, died in Rome 1894, was a nephew of James Ballantyne, the printer of +Sir Walter Scott's works. He was for some years in North America in the +service of the Hudson's Bay Company, and his experiences there supplied him +with materials for some of his earlier books, especially _Hudson's Bay, or +Life in the Wilds of North America_ (1848); _The Young Fur Traders_; and +_Ungava, a Tale of Eskimo Land_. For many years he continued to produce +popular and instructive boys' books, dealing with scenes and subjects of +the most varied kind; and he also published a volume entitled _Personal +Reminiscences of Book-Making_ (1893). + +BALLARAT', or BALLAARAT, an Australian town in Victoria, chief centre of +the gold-mining industry of the colony, and next in importance to +Melbourne, from which it is distant W.N.W. about 60 miles direct. It +consists of two distinct municipalities, Ballarat West and Ballarat East, +separated by the Yarrowee Creek, and has many handsome buildings, and all +the institutions of a progressive and flourishing city, including hospital, +mechanics' institute and library, free public library, Anglican and Roman +Catholic cathedrals, &c. Gold was first discovered in 1851, and the +extraordinary richness of the field soon attracted hosts of miners. The +surface diggings having been exhausted, the precious metal is now got from +greater depths, and there are mines as deep as some coal-pits, the gold +being obtained by crushing the auriferous quartz. There are also foundries, +woollen mills, flour-mills, breweries and distilleries, &c. Pop. 42,252. + +BAL'LAST, a term applied (1) to heavy matter, as stone, sand, iron, or +water placed in the bottom of a ship or other vessel to sink it in the +water to such a depth as to enable it to carry sufficient sail without +oversetting. (2) The sand placed in bags in the car of a balloon to steady +it and to enable the aeronaut to lighten the balloon by throwing part of it +out. (3) The material used to fill up the space between the rails on a +railway in order to make it firm and solid. + +BALL'ATER, a village and favourite summer resort in Aberdeenshire, on the +Dee, at the terminus of the Deeside Railway, about 43 miles from Aberdeen, +a centre from which Balmoral, Lochnagar, Braemar, &c., are easily reached. +The Pananich chalybeate springs are adjacent. Pop. (1921), 1542. + +[Illustration: Ball-cock + +1. Cistern with ball-cock attached: _a_, rising main; _b_, supply to house. +2. Outside view of valve (cistern full). 3. Piston with rubber disk. 4. +Section of valve (cistern full). 5. Section of valve with piston pulled +down.] + +BALL-COCK, a kind of self-acting stopcock opened and shut by means of a +hollow sphere or ball of metal attached to the end of a lever connected +with the cock. Such cocks are often employed to regulate the supply of +water to cisterns. The ball floats on the water in the cistern by its +buoyancy, and rises and sinks as the water rises and sinks, shutting off +the water in the one case and letting it on in the other. + +BAL'LENTYNE, or BELLENDEN, John, a Scottish poet; was a native of Lothian, +and appears to have been born towards the close of the fifteenth century. +He was in the service of James V from the king's earliest years, and at his +request he translated Boece's _Latin History_, which had been published at +Paris in 1526, the translation being printed in 1536. As a reward he was +made Archdeacon of Moray and a canon of Ross. He was a bitter opponent of +the Reformation, and is said to have died at Rome in 1550. + +BALLET (bal'[=a]), a species of dance, usually forming an interlude in +theatrical performances, but principally confined to opera. Its object is +to represent, by mimic movements and dances, actions, characters, +sentiments, passions, and feelings, in which several dancers perform +together. The ballet is an invention of modern times, though pantomimic +dances were not unknown to the ancients. The dances frequently introduced +into operas seldom deserve the name ballet, as they usually do not +represent any action, but are destined only to give the dancers an +opportunity of showing their skill. The modern ballet was developed and +perfected in France, and introduced into England in the eighteenth century. +From an artistic point of view, the modern ballet is often a very low-class +entertainment. + +[Illustration: Ball-flower] + +BALL-FLOWER, an architectural ornament resembling a ball placed in a +circular flower, the three petals of which form a cup round it; usually +inserted in a hollow moulding, and generally characteristic of the +Decorated Gothic style of the fourteenth century. + +BALLIA, a town of India, in the United Provinces, on the Ganges, the +administrative head-quarters of a district of the same name. Pop. 16,680. + +BALLINA', a town and river-port, Ireland, County Mayo, on both banks of the +Moy, about 5 miles above its mouth in Killala Bay, with a considerable +local and also a little coasting and foreign trade. Pop. 4662. + +BALLINASLOE' (-sl[=o]), a town, Ireland, in Galway and Roscommon counties, +15 miles south-west of Athlone, on both sides of the Suck, noted for its +cattle fair, from 5th till 9th Oct., the most important in Ireland. The +town contains remains of a castle of Elizabethan date. Pop. 5170. + +[Illustration: Ballista as used by the Romans] + +BALLIS'TA, a machine used in military operations by the ancients for +hurling heavy missiles, thus serving in some degree the purpose of the +modern cannon. The motive power appears to have been obtained by the +torsion of ropes, fibres, catgut, or hair. They are said to have sometimes +had an effective range of a quarter of a mile, and to have thrown stones +weighing as much as 300 lb. The ballistae differed from the _catapultae_, +in that the latter were used for throwing darts. + +BALLIS'TIC PENDULUM, an apparatus for ascertaining the velocity of military +projectiles, and consequently the force of fired gunpowder. A piece of +ordnance is fired against bags of sand supported in a strong case or frame +suspended so as to swing like a pendulum. The arc through which it vibrates +is shown by an index, and the amount of vibration forms a measure of the +force or velocity of the ball. + +BALLISTICS, the science of the motion of projectiles. _Interior ballistics_ +deals with the motion of the shot while inside the gun, and with the +results of the explosion of the charge. _Exterior ballistics_ comprises a +study of the trajectory or path of the projectile in the air, and the +causes which affect the shape of this path, such as the density of the air, +shape and weight of the shot, rifling of the barrel, angle of fire and +speed of the projectile. If the air-resistance be neglected, it can be +shown that the trajectory is a _parabola_. This result, given by Galileo, +is of little use in gunnery except when taken along with a knowledge of +air-resistance. Robins, in 1742, first measured the muzzle-speed of the +shot by firing into a ballistic pendulum and noting the swing of the +pendulum. Wheatstone, in 1840, suggested measuring the speed by causing the +shot to cut successive wire screens, each of which formed part of an +electric circuit. The Boulange chronograph is a modern development of this +idea. Rev. F. Bashforth's experiments, carried out between 1865 and 1880, +form the basis of our knowledge of air-resistance. He found that the latter +was proportional to the square of the diameter of the shot, and that, +although the resistance is expressible in terms of a power of the speed, +this power changes with the speed. The air-resistance is a maximum at about +the speed at which sound travels, viz. 1100 feet per second. Artillerists +employ ballistic tables based on the results obtained by Bashforth and +others, by means of which, given the kind of projectile, its initial +velocity, and angle of fire, they can calculate the range and time of +flight of the projectile. See _Gunnery_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Bashforth, _The +Motion of Projectiles_; J. M. Ingalls, _Interior Ballistics_; P. +Charbonnier, _Balistique Exterieure_. + +BALLOON-FISH (_Tetra[)o]don line[=a]tus_), ord. Plectognathi, a curious +tropical fish that can inflate itself so as to resemble a balloon. + +BALLOONS, the most elementary form of lighter-than-air air-craft, +unprovided with any means of propulsion or steering. Deriving its power of +sustentation from the gas contained in the gas-bag, the free balloon is +spherical in form. It is usually filled with coal-gas, which has a +lifting-force of 35 lb. per 1000 cu. feet. Varying in size from 5000 to +20,000 cu. foot capacity, the gas-bag is covered with a 'net', from which +is hung the 'basket' for the accommodation of the aeronaut, or pilot, and +passengers. The spherical gas-bag has at the bottom an elongation, known as +the 'neck', which is open to the air in order that the gas may escape as it +expands during the rise into the rarefied atmosphere of the upper air. A +'valve' is fitted at the top, which may be opened by a cord from the basket +when it is desired to allow gas to escape in order to descend. Bags +containing sand are carried in order that ballast may be dropped when it is +desired to rise. A free balloon is completely at the mercy of the wind, and +simply drifts where the wind takes it. Balloons are usually constructed of +cotton fabric, though occasionally of gold-beater's skin, in which case +they are commonly filled with hydrogen in place of coal-gas. A 'trail-rope' +is usually carried, with which the practice of 'trailing' may be effected +over open country or the sea. This consists in allowing the end of the +trail-rope to drag on the ground. As the balloon rises it raises more of +the rope off the ground, the additional weight bringing it down again. _Per +contra_, as it falls the weight of the trail-rope is taken by the ground +and so lightens the balloon. This tends to maintain the balloon at a +uniform height. The greatest height ever attained by a balloon is 37,000 +feet, reached by Glaisher and Coxwell in Sept., 1862. Both aeronauts nearly +perished from the effects of the cold and rarefaction of the atmosphere. In +1895 Parseval and Siegsfield, two officers of the Prussian army, invented +the 'Drachen-ballon' or 'Kite-balloon' (Fr. _Saucisse_). This consists of a +captive balloon comprising an elongated gas-bag fitted with an automatic +air-chamber, or 'ballonet', for maintaining the pressure, and automatic +stabilizers to prevent yawing off the wind, rolling from side to side, and +pitching horizontally. This was improved upon by Captain Caquot of the +French army, who in 1916 produced an improved type, offering many +advantages, which was used in large numbers by the British, French, and +American armies and navies during the Great European War of 1914-8. See +also _Aeronautics_, _Air-ships_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _British Military Manual of +Ballooning_; Rev. J. M. Bacon, _The Dominion of the Air_; H. Coxwell, _My +Life and Balloon Experiences_; J. Glaisher, _Travels in the Air_; G. +Tissandier, _Histoire de mes Ascensions_. + +BAL'LOT, VOTING BY, signifies literally voting by means of little balls +(called by the French _ballottes_), usually of different colours, which are +put into a box in such a manner as to enable the voter, if he chooses, to +conceal for whom or for what he gives his suffrage. The method is adopted +by most clubs in the election of their members--a white ball indicating +assent, a black ball dissent. Hence, when an applicant is rejected, he is +said to be _blackballed_. The term voting by ballot is also applied in a +general way to any method of secret voting, as, for instance, when a person +gives his vote by means of a ticket bearing the name of the candidate whom +he wishes to support. In this sense vote by ballot is the mode adopted in +electing the members of legislative assemblies in most countries, as well +as the members of various other bodies. In ancient Greece and Rome the +ballot was in common use. In Britain it had long been advocated in the +election of members of Parliament and of municipal corporations, but it was +only introduced by an Act passed in 1872. + +BALLYME'NA, a town of Ireland, County Antrim, 22 miles from Belfast, with a +considerable trade in linens and linen yarns, the manufacture of which is +carried on to a great extent. Pop. 11,380. + +BALLYMO'NEY, a town of Ireland, County Antrim, 38 miles N.W. of Belfast; +linen, chemicals, tanning, and brewing. Pop. 3100. + +BALLYSHAN'NON, a small seaport of Ireland, County Donegal, on the Erne, +about 1 mile from the S.E. shore of Donegal Bay. Pop. 2471. + +BALM (baem; _Melissa officin[=a]lis_), a plant, belonging to the Labiatae;, +formerly in great repute for its medicinal virtues. A native of the south +of Europe, it is cultivated in English gardens. It is a herbaceous +perennial, with an erect branching stem about 2 feet high. The leaves arise +with the flower-stems from a thick joint at the extremity of the stalk. The +flowers are whitish; they are produced in a round terminal umbel, and +appear in June. The stems and leaves are slightly stimulating and tonic. +They contain an essential oil of a yellowish colour and with a fragrant +smell, called oil of balm. + +BALM OF GILEAD, the exudation of a tree, _Balsamodendron gileadense_, nat. +ord. Amyridaceae, a native of Arabia Felix, and also obtained from the +closely-allied species _Balsamodendron Opobals[)a]mum_. The leaves of the +former tree yield when bruised a strong aromatic scent; and the balm of +Gilead of the shops, or balsam of Mecca or of Syria, is obtained from it by +making an incision in its trunk. It has a yellowish or greenish colour, a +warm, bitterish, aromatic taste, and an acidulous fragrant smell. It is +valued as an odoriferous unguent and cosmetic by the Turks. It is +frequently adulterated for market.--The _balm of Gilead fir_, which +produces a turpentine called Canada balsam, is the _Abies balsamif[)e]ra_, +a North American species, whose range is from Virginia to Canada. The name +is derived from _Jeremiah_, viii, 22. + +BALMAIN', a populous western suburb of Sydney, N.S.W., with extensive docks +and various industrial works. Pop. 33,000. + +BALMER'INO, Arthur Elphinstone, Lord, a Scottish Jacobite, born 1688, +executed 1746. He took part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715, and fought +at Sheriffmuir. Having joined the young Pretender in 1745, he was taken +prisoner at Culloden, tried at Westminster, found guilty, and beheaded. His +title was from Balmerino in Fife. + +BALMOR'AL CASTLE, a private residence of the British sovereign, beautifully +situated on the S. bank of the Dee, in Aberdeenshire, 45 miles W. by S. of +Aberdeen. It stands in the midst of fine and varied mountain scenery, is +built of granite in the Scottish baronial style, mainly in two connected +blocks, and has an imposing appearance. The estate, purchased by the Prince +Consort in 1852 and bequeathed to Queen Victoria, extends to about 40,000 +acres, mostly deer forest. + +BALNAVES', Henry, of Halhill, a Scottish reformer, was born at Kirkcaldy, +educated at St. Andrews, and became a lord of session and a member of the +Scottish Parliament in 1538. He was one of the commissioners appointed in +1543 to treat of the proposed marriage between Edward VI and Mary. In 1547 +he was one of the prisoners taken in the castle of St. Andrews and exiled +to France. Recalled in 1554, he busily engaged in the establishment of the +reformed faith, assisted in revising the _Book of Discipline_, and +accompanied Murray to England in connection with Darnley's murder. He died +in 1579. + +BALRAMPUR. See _Bulrampur_. + +BALSA, a kind of raft or float used on the coasts and rivers of Peru and +other parts of South America for fishing, for landing goods and passengers +through a heavy surf, and for other purposes where buoyancy is chiefly +wanted. It is formed generally of two inflated seal-skins, connected by a +sort of platform on which the fisherman, passengers, or goods are placed. + +BAL'SAM, the common name of succulent plants of the genus Impatiens, family +Balsaminaceae, having beautiful irregular flowers, cultivated in gardens +and green-houses. _Impatiens balsam[=i]na_, native of the East Indies, is a +common cultivated species. _I. noli-me-tangere_ grows wild in Britain, but +is not native. See _Impatiens_. + +BALSAM, an aromatic, resinous substance, flowing spontaneously or by +incision from certain plants. A great variety of substances pass under this +name. But in chemistry the term is confined to such vegetable juices as +consist of resins mixed with volatile oils, and yield the volatile oil on +distillation. The resins are produced from the oils by oxidation. A balsam +is thus intermediate between a volatile oil and a resin. It is soluble in +alcohol and ether, and capable of yielding benzoic acid. The balsams are +either liquid or more or less solid; as, for example, the balm of Gilead, +and the balsams of copaiba, Peru, and Tolu. Benzoin, dragon's-blood, and +storax are not true balsams, though sometimes called so. The balsams are +used in perfumery, medicine, and the arts. See _Copaiba_, &c.--_Balsam of +Gilead_ or _of Mecca_, balm of Gilead (q.v.).--_Canada balsam_. See _Canada +balsam_. + +BALSAM FIR. See _Balm of Gilead_. + +BALSA'MO, Joseph. See _Cagliostro, Count_. + +BALSAMODEN'DRON, a genus of trees or bushes, ord. Amyridaceae, species of +which yield such balsamic or resinous substances as balm of Gilead, +bdellium, myrrh, &c. + +BALTA, a town in the Ukraine, government of Podolia, on the Kodema, an +affluent of the Bug, 115 miles N.N.W. of Odessa. Pop. 18,450. + +BALTIC, BATTLE OF THE. See _Copenhagen_; _Parker, Sir Hyde_. + +BALTIC PROVINCES, a term commonly given to the former Russian governments +of Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia (q.v.). + +BALTIC SEA, an inland sea or large gulf connected with the North Sea, +washing the coasts of Denmark, Germany, Russia, and Sweden; nearly 900 +miles long, extending to 200 broad; superficial extent, together with the +Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, 171,743 sq. miles. Its greatest depth is 126 +fathoms; mean, 44 fathoms. A chain of islands separates the southern part +from the northern, or Gulf of Bothnia. The water of the Baltic is colder +and clearer than that of the ocean: it contains a smaller proportion of +salt, and the ice obstructs the navigation three or four months in the +year. Among the rivers that enter it are the Neva, Dwina, Oder, Vistula, +and Niemen. Islands: Samsoe, Moen, Bornholm, Langeland, Laaland, which +belong to Denmark (besides Zealand and Funen); Gottland and Oeland, +belonging to Sweden; Ruegen, belonging to Prussia; Dagoe and Oesel, +belonging to Russia; and the Aland Islands. The Sound, the Great and the +Little Belt lead from the Kattegat into the Baltic. The Baltic and North +Sea were long connected by the Eider and a canal from it to the +neighbourhood of Kiel, but this has been superseded by the great ship +canal, starting from the Elbe near its mouth and ending in Kiel Bay. + +BAL'TIMORE, a city and port in Maryland, United States, finely situated on +the N. side of the Patapsco, 14 miles above Chesapeake Bay. Baltimore takes +its name from Lord Baltimore, the founder of Maryland; it was first laid +out as a town in 1729; and was erected into a city in 1797. It is well +built, chiefly of brick, and is known as the 'monumental city', from the +public monuments which adorn it, the principal being the Washington +monument. Among its buildings are the city hall, built in Renaissance +style, of white marble, with a tower and dome rising 240 feet; the Peabody +Institute, containing a library, art gallery, &c.; the Maryland Institute; +the custom-house; the post office; the United States court-house and jail, +the Johns Hopkins hospital, the Roman Catholic cathedral, &c. The chief +educational institution, now one of the most important in the States, is +the Johns Hopkins University, endowed with 3,500,000 dollars by its founder +(whose name it bears). There is a Roman Catholic archbishop with the rank +of primate, and a Protestant episcopal bishop. Industries: shipbuilding; +manufactures of iron, wool, cotton, pottery, &c.; sugar-refining, +distilling, tanning, the making of agricultural implements, canning oysters +and fruits, &c. As a flour market Baltimore is an important centre; and it +does an immense trade in exporting tobacco and other products. The harbour +is very extensive. Pop. (1920), 733,826. + +BALTIMORE, George Calvert, Lord, born in Yorkshire about 1580, died in +London 1632. He was for some time Secretary of State to James I, but this +post he resigned in 1624 in consequence of having become a Roman Catholic. +Notwithstanding this he retained the confidence of the king, who in 1625 +raised him to the Irish peerage, his title being from Baltimore, a +fishing-village of Cork. He had previously obtained a grant of land in +Newfoundland, but as this colony was much exposed to the attacks of the +French he left it, and obtained another patent for Maryland. He died before +the charter was completed, and it was granted to his son Cecil, who deputed +the governorship to his brother Leonard (1606-47). + +BALTIMORE BIRD, an American bird, the _Ict[)e]rus Baltimorii_, family +Icteridae, nearly allied to the Sturnidae, or starlings. It is a migratory +bird, and is known also by the names of 'golden robin', 'hang-bird', and +'fire-bird'. It is about 7 inches long; the head and upper parts are black, +the under parts of a brilliant orange hue. It builds a pouch-like nest, +very skilfully constructed of threads deftly interwoven, suspended from a +forked branch and shaded by overhanging leaves. It feeds on insects, +caterpillars, beetles, &c. Its song is a clear, mellow whistle. + +BALUCHISTAN (ba-loe'chi-staen), a country in Asia, the coast of which is +continuous with the north-western seaboard of India, bounded on the north +by Afghanistan, on the west by Persia, on the south by the Arabian Sea, and +on the east by Sindh. It has an area of about 135,000 sq. miles, and a +population estimated at 834,703. The general surface of the country is +rugged and mountainous, with some extensive intervals of barren sandy +deserts, and there is a general deficiency of water. Various kinds of grain +are cultivated, and there is abundance of excellent fruits. The main body +of the inhabitants are divided into two great branches, the Baluchis and +Brahuis, differing in language, figure, and manners. The Baluchi language +resembles the modern Persian, the Brahui presents points of agreement with +the Dravidian languages of India. The Baluchis in general have tall +figures, long visages, and prominent features; the Brahuis have shorter, +thicker bodies, with round faces and rather flat features. Both races are +Mahommedans, hospitable and brave. There are also many Afghans and others +in the country. The Khan of Khelat, the nominal ruler of the whole land, in +1877 concluded a treaty with Britain, in virtue of which he became a +feudatory of India. Since then Quetta, in the north-east, occupying an +important position, and certain portions of territory, have been absolutely +annexed, and in 1887 a separate administration was constituted, and British +authority established, under the Governor-General's agent. The area of +British Baluchistan, including tribal areas, is 54,228 sq. miles; pop. +414,412. The country nominally under the Khan of Khelat has an area of +72,280 sq. miles; pop. 359,086. Under British administration roads and +railways have been made, with telegraphs and a postal service. Wool, +fruits, &c., are exported, cottons and other goods imported, and there is a +fair transit trade.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Floyer, _Unexplored Baluchistan_; T. +Thornton, _Life of Sandeman_. + +BAL'USTER, a small column or pilaster, of various forms and dimensions, +often adorned with mouldings, used for balustrades. + +BALUSTRADE', a range of balusters, together with the cornice or coping +which they support, used as a parapet for bridges or the roofs of +buildings, or as a mere ornament; also serving as a fence or enclosure for +balconies, terraces, staircases, &c. + +BALUZE (b[.a]-luez), Etienne, French historian and miscellaneous writer, +born 1630, died 1718. For more than thirty years he was librarian to M. de +Colbert, and was appointed professor of canon law in the Royal College, but +displeasing Louis XIV with his _Histoire Generale de la Maison d'Auvergne_, +he was thrown into prison and his property confiscated. He recovered his +liberty in 1713, but did not regain his position. He left some 1500 MSS. in +the national library of Paris, besides forty-five printed works, including +_Regum Francorum Capitularia_ (2 vols.) and _Miscellanea_ (7 vols.). + +BALZAC (b[.a]l-z[.a]k), Honore de, a celebrated French novelist, was born +at Tours in 1799, died 1850. Before completing his twenty-fourth year he +had published a number of novels under various assumed names, but the +success attending all was very indifferent; and it was not till 1829, by +the publication of _Le Dernier Chouan_, a tale of La Vendee, and the first +novel to which Balzac appended his name, that the attention of the public +was diverted to the extraordinary genius of the author. A still greater +popularity attended his _Physiologie de Mariage_, a work full of piquant +and caustic observations on human nature. He wrote a large number of +novels, all marked by a singular knowledge of human nature and distinct +delineation of character, but apt to be marred by exaggeration. Among his +best-known works are: _Scenes de la Vie de Province_, _Scenes de la Vie +Parisienne_, _Le Pere Goriot_, _Eugenie Grandet_, and _Le Medecin de +Campagne_. The publication of this last, in 1835, led to a correspondence +between Balzac and the Countess Eveline de Hanska, a Polish lady whom, +after about fifteen years, he visited and married. A collected edition of +his works, under the title _La Comedie Humaine_, was published in 45 vols., +Paris, 1856-9, and another in 1869. In 1899 appeared the first volume of +Balzac's _Oeuvres Posthumes_, and in 1906 the second.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. +Wedmore, _Balzac_; M. F. Sandars, _Balzac_; W. H. Helm, _Aspects of +Balzac_; Taine, _Essay on Balzac_. + +BALZAC (b[.a]l-z[.a]k), Jean Louis Guez de, French writer, born 1594, died +1654. His writings, which had a great reputation in their day owing to the +elegance of his style, are now neglected. The most esteemed are his +_Familiar Letters_, _Le Prince_, _Le Socrate Chretien_, and _Aristippe_. + +BAMAKO, capital of the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger since 1904. +It is an important trade-centre and the terminus of the Niger-Senegal +railway. Pop. 8000. + +BAMBA, a district of the Congo, W. coast of Africa, lying to the south of +the River Ambriz. It is thickly populated, and is rich in gold, silver, +copper, salt, &c. + +BAMBAR'RA, a territory of Western Africa, on the Upper Niger, first visited +by Mungo Park, now in the French portion of the Sudan. The country is +generally very fertile, producing wheat, rice, maize, yams, &c. The +inhabitants are of negro or mixed race, and some are Mohammedans. Excellent +cotton cloth is made. The chief town is Segou. Pop. estimated at 2,000,000. +See _Senegal_. + +BAM'BERG, a town of Germany, Bavaria, charmingly situated on several hills, +on the navigable River Regnitz, some 3 miles from its mouth in the Main. It +is the seat of a Catholic archbishop; the cathedral, founded in 1004 (the +present structure dates from 1111), is one of the finest churches in +Germany. The royal library contains 100,000 volumes and valuable MSS. +Bamberg carries on a large trade; its industries are cotton-spinning, +tobacco-manufacture, brewing, &c. Pop. 48,063. + +BAMBINO (b[.a]m-b[=e]'n[=o]; It., an infant), the figure of our Saviour +represented as an infant in swaddling-clothes. The _Santissimo Bambino_ in +the church of Ara Coeli at Rome, a richly-decorated figure carved in wood, +is believed to be able to perform miracles and heal the sick. According to +popular belief, the painting was miraculously done by St. Luke or by an +angel. Bambinos are set up for the adoration of the faithful in many places +in Catholic countries. + +BAMBOCCIADES (bam-boch-[=a]dz'), pictures, generally grotesque, of common, +rustic, or low life, such as those of Peter Van Laar, a Dutch painter of +the seventeenth century, who on account of his deformity was called +_Bamboccio_ (cripple). Teniers is the great master of this style. + +[Illustration: Bamboo (_Bambusa arundinac[)e]a_)] + +BAMBOO', the common name of the arborescent grasses belonging to the genus +Bamb[=u]sa. There are many species, belonging to the warmer parts of Asia, +Africa, and America, and growing from a few feet to as much as 100 feet, +requiring much moisture to thrive properly. A peculiarity of the bamboo +family is that they flower on reaching a certain age, generally about 130 +years. The best-known species is _B. arundinac[)e]a_, common in tropical +and sub-tropical regions. From the creeping underground rhizome, which is +long, thick, and jointed, spring several round jointed stalks, which send +out from their joints several shoots, the stalks also being armed at their +joints with one or two sharp rigid spines. The oval leaves, 8 or 9 inches +long, are placed on short footstalks. The flowers grow in large panicles +from the joints of the stalk. Some stems grow to 8 or 10 inches in +diameter, and are so hard and durable as to be used for building purposes. +The smaller stalks are used for walking-sticks, flutes, &c.; and indeed the +plant is used for innumerable purposes in the East Indies, China, and other +Eastern countries. Cottages are almost wholly made of it; also, bridges, +boxes, water-pipes, ladders, fences, bows and arrows, spears, baskets, +mats, paper, masts for boats, &c. The young shoots may be either pickled or +salted and eaten with rice, or candied and preserved in sugar; the seeds of +some species are also eaten. The substance called _tabasheer_ is a +siliceous deposit that gathers at the internodes of the stems. The bamboo +is imported into Europe for various purposes, and is grown in British +gardens. + +BAMBOOK', a country in Western Africa between the Faleme and Senegal +Rivers, about 140 miles in length, by 80 to 100 in breadth. It is on the +whole hilly and somewhat rugged. The valleys and plains are remarkably +fertile. The natives are Mandingoes, mostly professed Mahommedans ruled by +independent chieftains, most of whom acknowledge the supremacy of France. +Gold and ivory are exchanged for European goods. + +BAMBOOK-BUTTER, shea-butter (q.v.). + +BAM'BOROUGH CASTLE, an ancient English castle on the coast of +Northumberland, formerly with connected estate the property of the +Forsters, and forfeited to the Crown in 1715, both being purchased by Lord +Crewe, Bishop of Durham, and bequeathed by him for charitable purposes. + +BAMBU'SA. See _Bamboo_. + +BAM'IAN, a valley and pass of Afghanistan, the latter at an elevation of +8496 feet, the only known pass over the Hindu Kush for artillery and heavy +transport. The valley is one of the chief centres of Buddhist worship, and +contains two remarkable colossal statues and other ancient monuments. + +BAMO. See _Bhamo_. + +BAMPTON LECTURES, a course of lectures established in 1751 by John Bampton, +Canon of Salisbury, who bequeathed certain property to the University of +Oxford for the endowment of eight divinity lectures to be annually +delivered. The subjects prescribed are mainly connected with the evidences +of Christianity, and the lecturer must have taken the degree of M.A. at +Oxford or Cambridge. The first course of lectures was delivered in 1780, +and they have been delivered every year since, with the exceptions of 1834, +1835, and 1841. Among the more remarkable lectures were those by Dr. White +in 1784, by Dr. Mant in 1812, by Reginald Heber in 1815, Whately in 1822, +Milman in 1827, Dr. Hampden in 1832, H.L. Mansel in 1858, Canon Liddon in +1866, Canon Gore in 1891, J. R. Illingworth in 1894, and W. R. Inge in +1899. A similar course of lectures, the Hulsean, is annually delivered at +Cambridge. + +BAN, in political law, is equivalent to excommunication in ecclesiastical. +In Teutonic history the _ban_ was an edict of interdiction or proscription: +thus, to put a prince under the ban of the empire was to divest him of his +dignities, and to interdict all intercourse and all offices of humanity +with the offender. Sometimes whole cities have been put under the _ban_, +that is, deprived of their rights and privileges. + +BAN, anciently, a title given to the military chiefs who guarded the +eastern marches of Hungary; till 1919 the title of the Governor of Croatia +and Slavonia. A province over which a ban is placed is called _banat_, and +is equivalent to the German term _mark_. During the European War, Serbia +occupied the banat to the south of Hungary, and her claims to that region +were disputed both by Hungary and Roumania. The territory is bounded almost +entirely by the Danube, Theiss, and Maros Rivers, except on the east, where +it is shut in by the Transylvanian Carpathians. The banat was ultimately +divided between Yugo-Slavia and Roumania. See _Temesvar_. + +[Illustration: Banana (_Musa sapientum_)] + +BANA'NA, a plant of the genus Musa, nat. ord. Musaceae, being _M. +sapientum_, while the plantain is _M. paradisi[)a]ca_. It is originally +indigenous to the East Indies, and an herbaceous plant with an underground +stem. The apparent stem, which is sometimes as high as 30 feet, is formed +of the closely-compacted sheaths of the leaves. The leaves are 6 to 10 feet +long and 1 or more broad, with a strong midrib, from which the veins are +given off at right angles; they are used for thatch, basket-making, &c., +besides yielding a useful fibre. The spikes of the flowers grow nearly 4 +feet long, in bunches, covered with purple-coloured bracts. The fruit is 4 +to 10 or 12 inches long, and 1 inch or more in diameter; it grows in large +bunches, weighing often from 40 to 80 lb. The pulp is soft and of a +luscious taste; when ripe it is eaten raw or cooked. The banana is +cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries, and is the food of +millions. It is estimated that in Jamaica alone 40,000 acres are devoted to +its culture. Excellent biscuits may be made from banana meal, but it is not +suitable for bread. Vast quantities are imported by Britain and the United +States. Manila hemp is the product of a species of banana. + +BANA'NA, an African port, in Belgian Congo, at the mouth of the Congo. + +BANANA-BIRD, a pretty insessorial bird (_Ict[)e]rus leucopt[)e]ryx_), a +native of the West Indies and the warmer parts of America. It is a lively +bird, easily domesticated, tawny and black in colour, with white bars upon +the wings. + +BANAT. See _Ban_. + +BAN'BRIDGE, a town of Ireland, County Down, 22 miles S.W. of Belfast, on +the Bann. The manufacture of linen is carried on to a great extent in town +and neighbourhood. Pop. 5101. + +BANBURY (ban'be-ri), a town of England, in Oxfordshire, long celebrated for +its cheese, its cakes, and its ale; a parliamentary borough till 1885, and +now giving name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop. (municipal +borough) (1921), 13,347. + +BANCA, an island belonging to the Dutch East Indies, between Sumatra and +Borneo; area, 4446 sq. miles; pop. 113,658, of which a considerable +proportion are Chinese. It is celebrated for its excellent tin, of which +the annual yield is above 6000 tons; but it produces nothing else of any +importance. + +BANCO, in commerce, a term employed to designate the money in which the +banks of some countries keep or kept their accounts, in contradistinction +to the current money of the place, which might vary in value or consist of +light and foreign coins. The term was applied to the Hamburg bank accounts +before the adoption (in 1873) of the new German coinage. The mark _banco_ +had a value of 1s. 5-1/2d.; but there was no corresponding coin. See +_Bank_. + +BAN'CROFT, George, American historian, born near Worcester, Mass., 1800, +died 1891. He was educated at Harvard and in Germany, where he made the +acquaintance of many literary men of note. In 1823 he published a +translation of Heeren's _Politics of Ancient Greece_, and a small volume of +poems, and was also meditating and collecting materials for a history of +the United States. Between 1834 and 1840 three volumes of his history were +published. In 1845 he was appointed Secretary of the Navy, and effected +many reforms and improvements in that department. He was American +ambassador to Britain from 1846 to 1849, when the University of Oxford +conferred on him the honorary degree of D.C.L. He took the opportunity +while in Europe to perfect his collections on American history. He returned +to New York in 1849, and began to prepare for the press the fourth and +fifth volumes of his history, which appeared in 1852. The sixth appeared in +1854, the seventh in 1858, the eighth soon after, but the ninth did not +appear till 1866. From 1867 to 1874 he was Minister Plenipotentiary at the +Court of Berlin. The tenth and last volume of his great work appeared in +1874. An additional section appeared first as a separate work in 1882: +_History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States_, and +the whole came out in 6 vols. in 1884-5. He has also published many essays +in the _North American Review_ and other periodicals, a selection from +which was published in 1855 under the title of _Miscellanies_. + +BAN'CROFT, Richard, born in Lancashire 1544, died 1610, studied at +Cambridge, entered the Church, and rose rapidly during the reign of +Elizabeth till he obtained the see of London in 1597. James I made him +Archbishop of Canterbury on the death of Whitgift. He suppressed the +Puritans mercilessly, and they in return never ceased to abuse him. + +BAN'CROFT, Sir Squire, English actor, born in London in 1841. After playing +in Dublin and elsewhere he made his first appearance in London, at the +Prince of Wales's Theatre, in 1865. He married Miss Marie Effie Wilton in +1867, and was knighted in 1897. In collaboration with his wife he has +written _The Bancrofts: Recollections of Sixty Years_ (1909). + +BANDA, a town and district of India, in the United Provinces. The town +stands on a plain on the right bank of the Ken River, 95 miles S.W. from +Allahabad, and is a considerable cotton mart. Pop. 22,000.--Area of +district 2965 sq. miles. Pop. 660,000. + +BANDA ISLANDS, a group belonging to Holland, Indian Archipelago, south of +Ceram, Great Banda, the largest, being 12 miles long by 2 broad. They are +beautiful islands, of volcanic origin, yielding quantities of nutmeg. +Goenong Api, or Fire Mountain, is a cone-shaped volcano which rises 2320 +feet above the sea. Pop. 10,000. + +BANDAJAN', a pass over a range of the Himalaya, Kashmir State, 14,854 feet +above sea-level. + +BANDAN'NA, a variety of silk handkerchief having a uniformly-dyed ground, +usually of bright red or blue, ornamented with white or yellow circular, +lozenge-shaped, or other simple figures produced by discharging the +groundcolour. + +BANDA ORIENTAL. See _Uruguay_. + +BANDEL'LO, Matteo, an Italian writer of _novelle_ or tales, born about +1480, died about 1562. He was, in his youth, a Dominican monk, and having +been banished from Italy as a partisan of the French, Henry II of France +gave him in 1550 the bishopric of Agen. He left the administration of his +diocese to the Bishop of Grasse, and employed himself, at the advanced age +of seventy, in the completion of his _novelle_. He also wrote poetry, but +his fame rests on his _novelle_, which are in the style of Boccaccio's +_Decameron_ and the Queen of Navarre's _Heptameron_, and have been made use +of by Shakespeare, Massinger, and Beaumont and Fletcher. + +BANDE NOIRE. See _French Revolution_. + +BAND-FISH, the popular name of fishes of the genus Cep[)o]la, from their +long, flat, thin bodies. _C. rubescens_, a very fragile creature, is +sometimes cast up on British shores. Also called _Snake-fish_, +_Ribbon-fish_. + +[Illustration: Pig-footed Bandicoot (_Chaeropus castanotis_)] + +BAN'DICOOT (Perameles), a genus of small Australian marsupials. The most +common species (_P. nasuta_), the long-nosed bandicoot, measures about +1-1/2 feet from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail. It is not +unlike an overgrown rat, and is most destructive to farm-produce. + +BAN'DICOOT RAT, the _Mus gigant[=e]us_, the largest known species of rat, +attaining the weight of 2 or 3 lb., and the length, including the tail, of +24 to 30 inches. It is a native of India, and is very abundant in Ceylon. +Its flesh is said to be delicate and to resemble young pork, and is a +favourite article of diet with the coolies. It is destructive upon +rice-fields and gardens. + +BANDINELLI, Baccio, Italian sculptor, born at Florence 1493, died there +1560. He was jealous of and strove to rival Michael Angelo. Among his works +are a _Hercules and Cacus_, _The Dead Body of Christ held up by an Angel_, +_Adam and Eve_, &c. + +BAN'DIT, It. _bandito_, originally an _exile_, banished man, or outlaw, and +hence, as persons outlawed frequently adopted the profession of brigand or +highwayman, the word came to be synonymous with brigand, and is now applied +to members of the organized gangs which infest some districts of Italy, +Sicily, Spain, Greece, and Turkey. + +BAND OF HOPE. See _Temperance_. + +BAN'DOLIER, a large leathern belt or baldrick, to which were attached a bag +for balls and a number of pipes or cases of wood or metal covered with +leather, each containing a charge of gunpowder. It was worn by ancient +musketeers, and hung from the left shoulder under the right arm with the +ball bag at the lower extremity, and the pipes suspended on either side. +The name is now given to a similar belt, worn by mounted troops, for +carrying cartridges. Another form of the word is _bandoleer_. + +BAN'DOLINE, a gummy perfumed substance used to impart gloss and stiffness +to the hair. + +BAN'DON, a town, Ireland, County Cork, on both sides of the Bandon. Pop. +3122. + +BANDS, a small article of clerical dress, made of linen, going round the +neck and hanging down in front for a short distance in two pieces with +square ends, supposed to be a relic of the amice. + +BANEBERRY, or HERB CHRISTOPHER (_Actaea spic[=a]ta_), a European plant, +ord. Ranunculaceae, local in England, with a spike of white flowers and +black, poisonous berries. Two American species are considered remedies for +rattlesnake bite. + +BANER (b[.a]-n[=a]r'), Johan Gustafsson, a Swedish general in the Thirty +Years' War, born 1596, died 1641. He made his first campaigns in Poland and +Russia, and accompanied Gustavus Adolphus, who held him in high esteem, to +Germany. After the death of Gustavus in 1632 he had the chief command of +the Swedish army, and in 1634 invaded Bohemia, defeated the Saxons at +Wittstock, 24th Sept., 1636, and took Torgau. He ravaged Saxony again in +1639, gained another victory at Chemnitz, and in 1640 defeated Piccolomini. +In Jan., 1641, he very nearly took Ratisbon by surprise. + +BANFF (bamf), county town of Banffshire, Scotland, a seaport on the Moray +Firth at the mouth of the Deveron. It is well built, carries on some +boat-building, and has ropeworks, a brewery, &c., fishing and shipping. +Near the town are the county lunatic asylum, and Duff House, a seat of the +Duke of Fife, now public property; on the east side of the Deveron is the +town of Macduff, where an extensive fishing trade is carried on. Banff is +one of the Elgin burghs, which together return a member to Parliament. Pop. +3517.--The county has an area of 403,053 acres. In the south it is +mountainous; but the northern part is comparatively low and fertile; +principal rivers, the Spey and Deveron; principal mountains, Cairngorm +(4095 feet) and Ben Macdhui (4296 feet), on its southern boundary. Little +wheat is raised, the principal crops being barley, oats, turnips, and +potatoes. Fishing is an important industry; as is also the distilling of +whisky. Serpentine abounds in several places, especially at Portsoy, where +it is known as 'Portsoy marble', and Scotch topazes or cairngorm stones are +found on the mountains in the south. Banffshire returns one member to +Parliament. Pop. (1921), 57,293. + +BANFF, a town of N. W. Canada, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, on the +Canadian Pacific Railway, with National Park, hot springs, coal-mines, &c. + +BANG. See _Bhang_. + +BANGALORE', a town of Hindustan, capital of Mysore, and giving its name to +a considerable district in the east of Mysore State. The town stands on a +healthy plateau 3000 feet above sea-level, has a total area of nearly 14 +sq. miles, and is one of the pleasantest British stations in India. In the +old town stands the fort, reconstructed by Hyder Ali in 1761, and taken by +Lord Cornwallis in 1791. Under English administration the town has greatly +prospered in recent times. There are manufactures of silks, cotton cloth, +carpets, gold and silver lace, &c. Pop. 189,485.--The Bangalore district +has an area of 3070 sq. miles, of which more than half represent cultivable +land. Pop. about 760,000. + +BANGKOK', or BANKOK, the capital of the kingdom of Siam, extending for +several miles on both sides of the Menam, which falls into the Gulf of Siam +about 15 miles below. The inner city occupies an island surrounded with +walls and bastions, and contains the palace of the king and other important +buildings. The dwellings of the common people are of wood or bamboo, often +raised on piles; a large portion of the population, however, dwell in boats +or wooden houses erected on bamboo rafts moored in the river, and forming a +floating town. Temples are numerous and lavishly decorated. Houses in the +European style have been erected in modern times, and the telegraph, +telephone, gas, fire-engines, and omnibuses introduced. A university with +eight faculties has recently been established. The trade, both inland and +foreign, is very extensive, the exports consisting chiefly of rice, sugar, +silk, cotton, tobacco, pepper, sesame, ivory, aromatic wood, cabinet woods, +tin, hides, &c.; and the imports consisting chiefly of British cotton, +woollen, and other goods. Pop. 628,675, of whom about a half are Chinese. +See _Siam_. + +BAN'GOR, a city of North Wales, in Carnarvonshire, picturesquely situated +near the northern entrance of the Menai Strait. It appears to have +possessed a cathedral in the sixth century, which was destroyed by the +Normans in 1071. The present cathedral--the third--only dates from the +reign of Henry VII. It has a college of the University of Wales (founded in +1903), and a Normal College. Bangor has risen into importance as a popular +resort; its principal trade is in the export of slates from the +neighbouring quarries. Pop. (1921), 11,032. + +BAN'GOR, a seaport town, Ireland, County Down, on the south side of Belfast +Lough. Principal trade: cotton, linen, and embroideries. Pop. 7776. + +BAN'GOR, a port of the United States, in Maine, on the W. side of Penobscot +River, a flourishing and pleasantly-situated town, and one of the largest +lumber depots in the world. The river is navigable to the town for vessels +of the largest size. Pop. (1920), 25,948. + +BANGO'RIAN CONTROVERSY, a controversy stirred up by a sermon preached +before George I in 1717 by Dr. Hoadly, Bishop of Bangor, from the text "My +kingdom is not of this world" (_John_, xviii, 36), in which the bishop +contended in the most pronounced manner for the spiritual nature of +Christ's kingdom. The controversy was carried on with great heat for many +years, and resulted in an enormous collection of pamphlets. + +BANGS'RING. See _Banxring_. + +BANGWEO'LO, or BANGWEULU, LAKE, in South Africa, the southernmost of the +great lake reservoirs of the Congo, heard of in 1798, was reached by +Livingstone in 1868, an oval-shaped shallow sheet of water, said to be 150 +miles in length along its greater axis, from east to west, and about 75 +miles in width, but its exact limits are uncertain. It was first +circumnavigated by Poulett Weatherley in 1896. See _Congo_. + +BAN'IAN, or BAN'YAN, an Indian trader or merchant, one engaged in commerce +generally, but more particularly one of the great traders of Western India, +as in the seaports of Bombay, Kurrachee, &c., who carry on a large trade by +means of caravans with the interior of Asia, and with Africa by vessels. +They form a class of the Vaisya caste, wear a peculiar dress, and are +strict in the observance of fasts and in abstaining from the use of flesh. +Hence, _Banian days_, days in which sailors in the navy had no flesh meat +served out to them. Banian days are now abolished, but the term is still +applied to days of poor fare. + +BANIAN TREE. See _Banyan_. + +BA'NIM, John, an Irish novelist, dramatist, and poet, born in 1798, died +1842. His chief early work was a poem, _The Celt's Paradise_ (1821). Having +settled in London, he made various contributions to magazines and to the +stage; but his fame rests on his novels, particularly the _O'Hara Tales_, +in which Irish life is admirably portrayed. In these, as in some of his +other publications, his brother, Michael Banim (born 1796, died 1874), had +an important share, if not an equal claim to praise. The two brothers have +been justly called 'the first national novelists of Ireland'. + +BANISHMENT. See _Exile_. + +BAN'JARMASSIN, a district and town in the south-east of Borneo, under the +government of the Dutch. The town is situated on an arm of the Banjar, +about 14 miles above its mouth, in a marshy locality, the houses being +built on piles, and many of them on rafts. Exports: pepper, benzoin, +bezoar, ratans, dragon's-blood, birds'-nests, &c.; imports: rice, salt, +sugar, opium, &c. Pop. 52,000, mostly Dyaks. + +BAN'JO (a negro corruption of _bandore_; It. _pandora_, from Lat. +_pandura_, a three-stringed instrument), the favourite musical instrument +of the negroes of the Southern States of America. It is six-stringed, has a +body like a tambourine and a neck like a guitar, and is played by stopping +the strings with the fingers of the left hand and twitching or striking +them with the fingers of the right. The upper or octave string, however, is +never stopped. The banjo was introduced into England in 1846. + +BANJOEMAS (b[.a]n'yoe-m[.a]s), a town in Java, near the centre of the +island, well built and of commercial importance; it is 22 miles from the +coast, and is the residence of a Dutch governor. Pop. 6500. + +BANKING AND BANKS. Banks are establishments for the deposit, custody, and +repayment on demand of money, and obtain the bulk of their profits from the +investment of sums thus derived and not in immediate demand. The term is a +derivative of the _banco_ or bench of the early Italian money-dealers, +being analogous in its origin to the terms _trapez[=i]tai_ (_trapeza_, a +bench or table) applied to the ancient Greek money-changers, and _mensarii_ +(_mensa_, a table) applied to the public bankers of Rome. + +In respect of constitution there is a broad division of banks into public +and private; public banks including such establishments as are under any +special state or municipal control or patronage, or whose capital is in the +form of stock or shares which are bought and sold in the open market; +private banks embracing those which are carried on by one or more +individuals without special authority or charter and under the laws +regulating ordinary trading companies. In respect of function three kinds +of banks may be discriminated: (1) banks of deposit merely, receiving and +returning money at the convenience of depositors; (2) banks of discount or +loan, borrowing money on deposit and lending it in the discount of +promissory notes, bills of exchange, and negotiable securities; (3) banks +of circulation or issue, which give currency to promissory notes of their +own, payable to bearer and serving as a medium of exchange within the +sphere of their banking operations. The more highly-organized banks +discharge all three functions, but all modern banks unite the two first. +For the successful working of a banking establishment certain resources +other than the deposits are of course necessary, and the capital paid up by +shareholders on their shares and forming the substantial portion of their +claim to public credit is held upon a different footing from the sums +received from depositors. It is usually considered that for sound banking +this capital should not be traded with for the purpose of making gain in +the same way as the moneys deposited in the bank; and it is for the most +part invested in Government or other securities subject to little +fluctuation in value and readily convertible into money. But in any case +prudence demands that a _reserve_ be kept sufficient to meet all probable +requirements of customers in event of commercial crises or minor panics. +The reserve of the banking department of the Bank of England is always in +coin, or in notes against which an equivalent value of coin and bullion is +lying in the issue department. In other English banks the reserve is +usually kept partly in gold and partly in Government stocks and Bank of +England notes; but it sometimes lies as a deposit in the Bank of England. +The working capital proper of a bank is constituted by moneys on deposit, +for which the bank may or may not pay interest; the advantages of security, +of ease in the transmission of payments, &c., being regarded in the cases +of banks little affected by competition as a sufficient return to the +depositor. Thus the Bank of England pays no interest on deposits, while the +contrary practice has prevailed in Scotland since 1729, where interest is +paid on deposits although not on current accounts. + +Of the methods of making profit upon the money of depositors, one of the +most common is to advance it in the discounting of bills of exchange not +having long periods (seldom more than three months with the Bank of +England) to run; the banker receiving the amounts of the bills from the +acceptors when the bills arrive at maturity. Loans or advances are also +often made by bankers upon exchequer bills or other Government securities, +on railway debentures or the stock of public companies of various kinds, as +well as upon goods lying in public warehouses, the dock-warrant or +certificate of ownership being transferred to the banker in security. In +the case of a well-established credit they may be advanced upon notes of +hand without other security. Money is less commonly advanced by bankers +upon mortgages on land, in which the money loaned is almost invariably +locked up for a number of years. To banks of issue a further source of +profit is open in their note circulation, inasmuch as the bank is enabled +to lend these notes, or promises to pay, as if they were so much money and +to receive interest on the loan accordingly, as well as to make a +profitable use of the money or property that may be received in exchange +for its notes, so long as the latter remain in circulation. It is obvious, +however, that this interest on its loaned notes may not run over a very +extended period, in that the person to whom they are issued may at once +return them to the bank to lie there as a deposit and so may actually draw +interest on them from the bank of issue; or he may present them to be +exchanged for coin, or by putting them at once into circulation may ensure +a certain number speedily finding their way back through other hands or +other banks to the establishment from which he received them. A +considerable number of the notes issued will, however, be retained in +circulation at the convenience of the public as a medium of exchange; and +on this circulating portion a clear profit accrues. This rapid return of +notes through other banks, &c., in exchange for portions of the reserve of +the issuing bank, is one of the restraints upon an issue of notes in excess +of the ability of the bank to meet them. In the United Kingdom a more +obvious restraint upon an unlimited note issue, originating partly in a +desire for greater security, partly in the belief that the note +augmentation of the currency might lead to harmful economic results in its +influence upon prices, is to be found in the Bank Acts of 1844 and 1845, +which impose upon banks of issue the necessity of keeping an equivalent in +gold for all notes issued beyond a certain fixed amount. The wisdom of +these legal restrictions, which are not uniform throughout the kingdom, and +the desirability of the acquisition and control by the State of the whole +business of issue, are still matters of debate. + +In specific relation to his customer the banker occupies the position of +debtor to creditor, holding money which the customer may demand at any time +in whole or in part by means of a cheque payable at sight on presentation +during banking hours. For the refusal to cash a cheque from the erroneous +supposition that he has no funds of his customer's in his hands, or for +misleading statements respecting the position in which the bank stands, the +banker is legally responsible. Moreover, the law regards him as bound to +know his customer's signature, and the loss falls upon him in event of his +cashing a forged cheque. In their relations to the community, the chief +services rendered by banks are the following: By receiving deposits of +money they are the means by which the surplus capital of one part of a +country is transferred to another where it may be advantageously employed +in stimulating industry; they enable vast and numerous money transactions +to be carried on without the intervention of coin or notes at all, thus +obviating trouble, risk, and expense. The mechanism by which the last of +these benefits is secured is to be found in perfection in the London +Clearing House. + +The modern tendency of banks is towards amalgamation. The large English +banking institutions have absorbed many of the smaller banks. They have +also made working arrangements with Scotch and Irish banks and with similar +institutions abroad. + +The result of these amalgamations is to give control of immense financial +resources to a smaller number of banks. In 1918 the Government appointed a +Committee to inquire into the effect of such amalgamations and absorptions. +The terms of reference were: "To consider and report to what extent, if at +all, amalgamations between banks may affect prejudicially the interests of +the industrial and mercantile community, and whether it is desirable that +legislation should be introduced to prohibit such amalgamations or to +provide safeguards under which they might continue to be permitted"; and +the Committee reported: "That legislation be passed requiring that the +prior approval of the Government must be obtained before any amalgamations +are announced or carried into effect". + +In order, however, that such legislation may not have the effect of +producing secret amalgamations, the Committee decided that "all proposals +for agreements which would alter the status of a bank as regards its +separate entity and control, or for purchase by one bank of the shares of +another bank, be also submitted for the prior approval of the Government +before they are carried out". + +Another development is the registration of the British Overseas Bank, +Limited, with a nominal capital of L5,000,000. The principal object of this +institution is to carry on general banking business in all parts of the +world. Four banks--two English, one Scotch, and one having connections with +South America--are financially interested in the Overseas Bank. + +Banking operations on a considerable scale appear to have been conducted by +the ancients, and recent excavations have proved that in the seventh +century B.C. banking was practised at Bagdad by a firm of Egibi & Sons. +Modern banking, however, must be regarded as having had an independent +origin in the reviving civilization of the Middle Ages. In the twelfth +century almost the whole trade of Europe was in the hands of the Italian +cities, and it was in these that the need of bankers was first felt. The +earliest public bank, that of Venice, established in 1171 and existing down +to the dissolution of the Republic in 1797, was for some time a bank of +deposit only, the Government being responsible for the deposits, and the +whole capital being in effect a public loan. In the early periods of the +operations of this bank deposits could not be withdrawn, but the depositor +had a credit at the bank to the amount deposited, this credit being +transferable to another person in place of money payment. Subsequently +deposits were allowed to be withdrawn, the original system proving +inconvenient outside the Venetian boundaries. It is, however, less from the +Bank of Venice than from the Florentine bankers of the thirteenth and +fourteenth centuries that modern banking specially dates, the magnitude of +their operations being indicated by the fact that between 1430 and 1433, 76 +bankers of Florence issued on loan nearly 5,000,000 gold florins. The Bank +of St. George at Genoa also furnished a striking chapter in financial +history. The important Bank of Amsterdam, taken by Adam Smith as a type of +the older banks, was established in 1509, and owed its origin to the +fluctuation and uncertainty induced by the clipped and worn currency. The +object of the institution (established under guarantee of the city) was to +give a certain and unquestionable value to a bill on Amsterdam; and for +this purpose the various coins were received in deposit at the bank at +their real value in standard coin, less a small charge for recoinage and +expense of management. For the amount deposited a credit was opened on the +books of the bank, by the transfer of which payments could be made, this +so-called _bank money_ being of uniform value as representing money at the +mint standard. It bore, therefore, an _agio_ or premium above the worn-coin +currency, and it was legally compulsory to make all payments of 600 +guilders and upwards in bank money. The deposits were supposed to remain in +the coffers of the bank, but they were secretly traded with in the +eighteenth century till the collapse of the bank in 1790. Banks of a +similar character were established at Nuremberg and other towns, the most +important being the Bank of Hamburg, founded in 1619. In England there was +no corresponding institution, the London merchants being in the habit of +lodging their money at the Mint in the Tower, until Charles I appropriated +the whole of it (L200,000) in 1640. Thenceforth they lodged it with the +goldsmiths, who began to do banking business in a small way, encouraging +deposits by allowing interest for their use, lending money for short +periods, discounting bills, &c. The bank-note was first invented and issued +in 1690 by the Bank of Stockholm, founded by Palmstruck in 1688, and one of +the most successful of banking establishments. About the same time the +banks of England and Scotland began to take shape, opening up a new era in +the financing of commerce and industry. + +_Bank of England._--The Bank of England, the most important banking +establishment in the world, was projected by William Paterson, who was +afterwards the promoter of the disastrous Darien scheme. It was the first +public bank in the United Kingdom, and was chartered in 1694 by an Act +which, among other things, secured certain recompenses to such persons as +should advance the sum of L1,500,000 towards carrying on the war against +France. Subscribers to the loan became, under the Act, stockholders, to the +amount of their respective subscriptions, in the capital stock of a +corporation, denominated the _Governor and Company of the Bank of England_. +The company thus formed advanced to the Government L1,200,000 at an +interest of 8 per cent--the Government making an additional bonus or +allowance to the bank of L4000 annually for the management of this loan +(which, in fact, constituted the capital of the bank), and for settling the +interest and making transfers, &c., among the various stockholders. This +bank, like that of Venice, was thus originally an engine of the Government, +and not a mere commercial establishment. Its capital has been added to from +time to time, the original capital of L1,200,000 having increased to +L14,553,000 in 1816, since which no further augmentation has taken place. +There exists besides, however, a variable 'rest' of over L3,000,000. The +charter of the bank was originally granted for eleven years certain, or +till a year's notice after 1st Aug., 1705. It was subsequently renewed for +various periods in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1742, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1833, and +1844, certain conditions which the bank had to fulfil being specified at +each renewal. On this last occasion it was continued till twelve months' +notice from 1855. At the same time the issue department of the bank was +established as distinct from the general banking department, the sole +business entrusted to the former being the issue of notes. By this +arrangement the bank was authorized to issue notes to the value of +L14,000,000 upon securities specially set apart, the most important of the +securities being the sum of L11,015,100 due to the bank by the Government, +together with so much of the coin and bullion then held by the bank as was +not required by the banking department. The bank has since been permitted +to increase its issue on securities to L18,450,000, but for every note that +the issue department may issue beyond the total sum of L18,450,000 an +equivalent amount of coin or bullion must be paid into the coffers of the +bank. For its special privileges the bank has to pay to the Government an +annual sum of L180,000, and the profit derived from the issue of notes +beyond L14,000,000. The Bank of England notes are practically equivalent to +gold. They are (like all English bank-notes) of the value of L5 and +upwards, and are legal tender throughout England. Notes once issued by the +bank and returned to it are not reissued but are destroyed--a system +adopted in order to facilitate the keeping of an account of the numbers of +the notes in circulation, and so prevent forgery. On 7th Aug., 1914, +Government notes for L1, and ten shillings, were issued convertible into +gold at the Bank of England. + +In compliance also with the Bank Charter Act of 1844 the bank is compelled +to publish a weekly account, of which the following is a specimen:-- + + _Dr_. ISSUE DEPARTMENT. Week ending 11th August, 1920 _Cr_. + + Notes issued L139,980,460 | Government debt L11,015,100 + | Other securities 7,434,900 + | Gold coin and bullion 121,530,460 + | Silver bullion --- + ------------ | ------------ + L139,980,460 | L139,980,460 + + _Dr_. BANKING DEPARTMENT _Cr_. + + Capital L14,553,000 | Government securities L68,250,449 + Rest 3,458,795 | Other securities 73,805,565 + Public deposits 15,999,059 | Notes 14,452,665 + Other deposits 124,018,988 | Gold and silver coin 1,537,092 + Seven-day and other 15,929 | + bills ------------ | ------------ + L158,045,771 | L158,045,771 + +The total of the notes given out by the issue department is called the +'issue circulation', the portion of it in the hands of the public being the +'active circulation', and that still in the banking department being the +'note reserve'. This 'note reserve' represents really the amount of bullion +in the issue department available for the use of the banking department. Of +the other items in the account it may be noted that the proprietors' 'rest' +is a varying surplus increased always by accumulated profits up to 5th +April and 10th Oct., when the bank dividends are paid to the shareholders; +and that the public deposits, which include sums lodged on account of the +customs, inland revenue, &c., increase through revenue receipts until the +dividend terms in January, April, July, and October. The other or private +deposits comprise those of bankers, merchants, and other persons. An +increase in these private deposits indicates an increase of monetary ease, +while a decrease informs us that bankers, merchants, and traders have calls +upon them for money. A better indication of the demand for money is +furnished, however, by the advances on commercial securities, and it is by +this and the condition of the reserve that the bank rate of discount is +regulated. When the reserve is high and the advances moderate the discount +rate is low, and it is raised according as the reserve falls and advances +are more in request, especially during an adverse foreign exchange and +drain of gold. Gold is thus restrained from going abroad, and its influx +into the country is encouraged. In addition to the profit which the bank +may make by ordinary banking business, by the Bank Act of 1892 and the +Revenue Act of 1906, it receives an allowance for the management of the +national debt, at the rate of L325 per million on 500 millions, and L100 +per million on all debt above that sum. The annual sum is not to be less +than L160,000. It also derives a profit from foreign gold coin and bullion +brought to it, for which it pays L3, 17s. 9d., or 1-1/2d. per ounce less +than the real value. + +The management of the bank is in the hands of a governor, deputy-governor, +and twenty-four directors, elected by stock-holders who have held L500 of +stock for six months previous to the election. A director is required to +hold L2000, a deputy-governor L3000, and a governor L4000 of the stock. The +court or board of directors meets every Thursday, when the weekly account +is presented. The Bank of England has branches in Liverpool, Manchester, +Newcastle, Birmingham, Leeds, Hull, Bristol, Plymouth, and Portsmouth. + +The other English banks consist of numerous joint-stock and private banks +in London and the provinces, many of the provincial establishments of both +kinds having the right to issue notes. Private banks in London with not +more than six partners have never been prevented from issuing notes, but +they could not profitably compete with the Bank of England. The maximum +issues of the provincial banks are limited to a certain amount, against +which they are not compelled to hold gold in reserve, and they have no +power to issue against specie in excess of the fixed circulation. Their +actual issues are considerably below this amount. No union can take place +between a joint-stock bank and a private bank, or between two joint-stock +banks of issue, without one of them losing its issue. Their total +authorized circulation is about L2,958,900, but the actual circulation of +these banks is now only about L1,200,000, being distributed among about +eighteen private and about twenty joint-stock banks. The notes of these +banks are payable in Bank of England paper. The greater number of +joint-stock banks are of limited liability, though their liability in +respect of their notes is unlimited. Some of them have a large number of +branches. All the joint-stock banks allow interest on money deposited with +them. The total paid-up capital and reserves of the English joint-stock +banks is about L100,000,000. + +_Scotland_.--In Scotland there are no private banks, the only banks in that +portion of the United Kingdom being eight joint-stock banks of issue, and +their branches (the Mercantile and Savings not being banks of issue). By +the Act of 1845 new banks of issue were prohibited, a monopoly being given +to such establishments (nineteen in number) as existed in the year previous +to 1st May, 1845. At the same time the issue of each was limited to the +amount of its average circulation during that year, together with the +specie held at the head office. Any bank issuing notes in excess of this +limit is supposed to hold an equivalent amount of gold. The aggregate +authorized circulation is now L2,676,350; the average actual circulation is +fully L7,000,000. The Bank of Scotland, established by Act of Parliament in +1695, had for its original capital only L100,000, increased to L200,000 in +1744; but it now has a capital of L1,325,000 paid up. It remained the only +bank in Scotland till the Royal Bank of Scotland was established in 1727, +with an original capital of L151,000, which has grown to L2,000,000 paid +up. The British Linen Company was incorporated in 1746, for the purpose of +promoting the linen manufacture, but soon became a general banking company; +capital, L1,250,000 paid up. These three banks claim to be by their +charters banks of limited liability. All the other Scottish banks have been +established within the nineteenth century. They are all incorporated by +royal charter or Act of Parliament, which enables them to sue and be sued +as a corporation, and latterly they have all become banks of limited +liability, except that their liability is not to be limited in respect to +their note issue. The total paid-up capital of the Scotch banks is +L9,300,000. A large number of one-pound notes circulate in Scotland, thus +tending to keep the requirements for gold low. From allowing a moderate +rate of interest on deposit accounts (although not on current accounts) it +is not uncommon for depositors in Scottish banks to lodge their money +permanently as an investment; and the habit of keeping an account with a +banker is much more general in Scotland than in England, branch offices of +the banks being very numerous. Several of the Scotch banks have branch +offices in London, but of course they cannot issue their own notes from +these offices. The Scotch banks have enjoyed a high reputation for +stability, and though public confidence was somewhat shaken by the failure +of the Western Bank in 1857, and even more rudely by that of the City of +Glasgow Bank in 1878, their shares are generally looked upon as a safe and +remunerative investment. Their total deposits amount to fully L107,000,000. + +_Ireland._--The banks in Ireland consist of one public or national bank, +the Bank of Ireland, and of sundry joint-stock and private banks. The +authorized note circulation is arranged on the same footing as that of the +Scotch banks. If any bank discontinues its issue and issues notes of the +Bank of Ireland, the circulation of the latter may be to an equal amount +increased. The authorized circulation is L6,354,494; the actual circulation +is sometimes a little above, sometimes a little below. The Bank of Ireland, +which was established by charter in 1783 with similar privileges to those +granted to the Bank of England, has lent the greater portion of its capital +to Government. Its capital is L2,769,230 (or L3,000,000 Irish); it has also +a rest or reserve of over L1,000,000. The bank allows interest on deposits +when lodged for a stated period. + +_Banque de France._--The Bank of France is second in importance only to the +Bank of England. It was established in the beginning of the nineteenth +century, at first with a capital of 45,000,000 francs, and with the +exclusive privilege in Paris of issuing notes payable to bearer, a +privilege which was extended in 1848 to cover the whole of France. It has +numerous branches in the larger towns, a number of these having been +acquired in 1848, when certain joint-stock banks of issue were by +Government decree incorporated with the Bank of France, the capital of +which was then increased to 91,250,000 francs (L3,650,000), in 91,250 +shares of 1000 francs each. In 1857 the capital was doubled, and besides +this it has a large surplus capital or rest. Like the Bank of England, it +is a bank of deposit, discount, and circulation, and is a large creditor of +the State. The Government appoints the governor and the two +deputy-governors, who are all required to be stockholders. There is also a +body of fifteen directors and three censors, nominated by the shareholders. +The value of its note circulation in March, 1922, was 36,225,852,000 +francs. + +_British Colonies._--With regard to the banks in British colonies little +need be said. All the more important are joint-stock concerns, and they are +carried on subject to Acts passed by the respective colonial legislatures. +Some of them have their head-quarters in London, and have been established +by English capital. In Canada the banks are not allowed to issue notes of +lower denominations than five dollars, notes for one and two dollars and +higher amounts being issued by the Dominion Government; and the banking +laws are such that there is no possibility of holders of bank-notes being +losers by them. The total paid-up capital of the Canadian banks is about +L20,000,000; their total deposits about L135,000,000. + +_United States._--The more important of the banks of the United States are +what are called national banks, established in accordance with an Act +passed in 1863. Associations of this kind at starting must invest at least +a third of their paid-up capital in Government bonds, which pay them an +interest of 4 per cent more or less. They then obtain from the Government +bureau, established for the purpose, 90 per cent of paper-money sheets, +which they sign and pay out, this constituting their note circulation. +These banks pay no interest to depositors. Besides the notes of these banks +a large portion of the currency of the United States consists of Government +notes issued from the national treasury. There are also banks chartered by +the different States and private banks. + +_Savings-banks_ are banks established for the receiving of small sums, so +as to be taken advantage of by the poorer classes, and they are carried on +entirely for the benefit of the depositors. They are of comparatively +recent origin, one of the earliest having been an institution in which +small sums were received, and interest allowed on them, established by Mrs. +Priscilla Wakefield, at Tottenham, near London, in 1803. The first +savings-bank in Scotland was formed in 1810 by the Rev. Henry Duncan, of +Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire. In 1814 the Edinburgh savings-bank was established +on the same principles, and the system soon spread over the kingdom. The +first Act relating to savings-banks was passed in 1817. By it all deposits +in savings-banks, as soon as they reached L50, were placed in the hands of +the National Debt Commissioners, who allowed interest on them. In 1824 it +was enacted that the deposits for the first year should not exceed L50, nor +those in subsequent years L30, the total deposits being limited to L150, +and interest ceasing to be paid when accrued interest made the total L200. +By the Act of 1893 the limit of annual deposit was raised to L50, and the +interest is now rather less than 3 per cent. An Act of 1833 had provided +for the purchase of Government annuities by depositors either for life or +for a term of years; and an annuity of any amount up to L100 may now be +obtained. Depositors in savings-banks (by an Act of 1880) can also have +their money invested for them in Government stock, the banks collecting and +paying the dividends; and when accrued interest raises an account above +L200 the excess is now so invested for the depositor. The total amount +invested by one person in Government stock is not to exceed L500, nor L200 +in one year. These banks are managed by local trustees having no personal +interest in the business, and by certain paid officers. A new class of +savings-banks, namely, _Post Office Savings-banks_, was established in +Britain in connection with the money-order department of the Post Office in +1861. Any sum not less than a shilling is received, provided that the total +amount banked does not exceed L50 in one year, or more than L200 in all; +the excess of accrued interest above this being invested in Government +stock. Interest is paid on every complete pound at the rate of 2-1/2 per +cent. For the deposits the Government is responsible, and they may be drawn +from any Post Office Savings-bank in the kingdom. These savings-banks have +become very numerous, and much of the funds formerly in the trustees' +savings-banks has been transferred to them. The total amount deposited in +the old banks is now about L52,000,000, in the new about L157,600,000. The +regulations regarding the purchase of Government stock and annuities +correspond with those given above. Savings-banks are now well known in all +civilized countries, and the good they have done is incalculable. In the +United States there is an enormous amount of money deposited in them. Post +Office Savings-banks have been proposed to be established in the States, +but have not yet been so. In Canada, Australia, and other British colonies +they are established, as well as savings-banks of several other kinds. +School savings-banks are the most recent institutions of this kind, and +have had a marked effect for good. + +_Bank Holidays_, in England and Ireland, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Whit +Monday, first Monday in August, Christmas and following day, or 27th (if +next day is a Sunday); in Scotland, New-Year's Day, first Monday of May and +August and Christmas. + +BANKRUPT (from It. _banca rotta_ 'bank broken' or 'bench broken'. Dr. +Johnson said that the word originated from the Italian custom of breaking +the bench of an insolvent money-changer; but _rotta_ also means +'interrupted' or 'stopped', and is here used more in the sense of our +colloquial word _broken_, and means 'insolvent'), a person whom the law +does or may take cognizance of as unable to pay his debts. Properly it is +of narrower signification than _insolvent_, an insolvent person simply +being unable to pay all his debts. In England up till 1861 the term +_bankrupt_ was limited to an insolvent trader, and such traders were on a +different footing from other insolvent persons, the latter not getting the +same legal relief from their debts. In all civilized communities laws have +been passed regarding bankruptcy. At present bankruptcy in England is +regulated by the Bankruptcy Acts of 1883 and 1890, which have as one chief +feature the intervention of the Board of Trade in the proceedings, with the +object of obtaining full official supervision and control. A bankruptcy +petition may be presented either by a creditor or a debtor. A creditor's +petition must be founded on a debt of not less than fifty pounds, due to +one or more creditors, and on an 'act of bankruptcy' committed by the +debtor within three months before the presentation of the petition. A +debtor commits an act of bankruptcy if he makes a conveyance of his +property to a trustee for the benefit of his creditors; if he makes a +fraudulent transfer of any part of his property; if, to defeat or delay his +creditors, he conceal himself either at home or abroad; if execution issued +against him has been enforced by seizure and sale of his goods under +process in an action in any court; if he files in court a declaration of +inability to pay his debts, or presents a bankruptcy petition against +himself; if a creditor has obtained a final judgment against him for any +amount and he fail to pay the judgment debt without satisfactory reason; or +if the debtor gives notice to any of his creditors that he has suspended, +or is about to suspend, payment of his debts. In London jurisdiction in +bankruptcy now rests with the High Court of Justice, while the county +courts continue to have jurisdiction in bankruptcy outside the London +district. When the court is satisfied as to the petition, a 'receiving +order' is issued to protect the debtor's estate by constituting the +official appointed by the Board of Trade receiver of the debtor's property, +and to stay the remedies of all creditors until the meeting of creditors. +The debtor must make out a full statement of his affairs, accounting as +best he can for his insolvency. The official receiver summons the meeting +of creditors, a summary of the debtor's affairs being sent to each creditor +with the notice of the meeting, which is also advertised in the _London +Gazette_. The creditors must send to the official receiver, one day before +the meeting, sworn proofs of their claims to enable them to vote. At the +meeting the creditors (unless the debtor's proposal for a composition or +scheme be entertained) pass a resolution adjudging the debtor bankrupt, and +appoint a trustee of the bankrupt's property, with a committee of +inspection selected from their own body to superintend the administration +of the bankrupt's property by the trustee, who divides the available +realized assets amongst all creditors who have sent sworn proofs of claims. +Rates, assessments, and taxes, and all wages or salary of a clerk, servant, +labourer, or workman during four months before the date of the receiving +order not exceeding L50 are paid in priority to all other debts. The +trustee is required to give satisfactory security to the Board of Trade, by +which his accounts are audited not less than twice in each year. All moneys +received by the trustee under the bankruptcy must be paid forthwith to an +account kept at the Bank of England by the Board of Trade, called the +'Bankruptcy Estates Account'. The debtor is bound to be publicly examined +upon oath in court, and any creditor who has tendered a proof, or his +representative, may take part in the examination. Until the debtor has +passed his public examination he cannot apply for an order of discharge, +and upon proof of misdemeanour the court refuses or suspends the discharge. +A discharged bankrupt is disqualified for five years from acting as member +of Parliament, justice of peace, alderman, overseer of the poor, county +councillor, or as a member of any school, highway, or burial board. An +undischarged bankrupt obtaining credit to the extent of L20 or upwards from +any person, without informing such person of his status, is guilty of a +misdemeanour. By the Act of 1883 the creditors may at the first meeting +resolve to entertain a proposal for a composition or scheme of arrangement +of the debtor's affairs, but the composition or scheme shall not be binding +on the creditors, unless confirmed at a second meeting by a majority in +number representing three-fourths in value of all the creditors who have +proved. The composition or scheme has then to be formally brought before +the court for approval, which may be refused. A composition or scheme may +be sanctioned by the court after the debtor's adjudication as a bankrupt, +and in this case the bankruptcy is annulled. Though imprisonment for debt +has been abolished, fraudulent bankrupts may be punished, and the conduct +of prosecutions for offences arising out of any bankruptcy proceeding falls +to the public prosecutor. The estates of persons dying insolvent may be +administered according to the law of bankruptcy. The Act of 1913 embodies +suggestions of the Bankruptcy Law Amendment Committee of 1906. Thus, the +Summary Jurisdiction Act can now be applied to offenders under the Debtors' +Act. Whereas previously conviction for such offences as failure to keep +proper accounts and concealment of debt could only be by trial before a +jury, they are punishable after summary trial before a stipendiary +magistrate or justice of the peace, the onus of proving innocence falling +on the debtor. A married woman, too, may be made bankrupt even if not +trading separately from her husband. + +According to Scots law bankruptcy is notorious insolvency, that is, a +public acknowledgment of inability to discharge obligations. By a judicial +proceeding, called _sequestration_, authorized by the Court of Session or +sheriff court, on the petition of the debtor himself with the concurrence +of one creditor swearing to a debt of L50, two whose debts together amount +to L70, or of any number of creditors whose debts together amount to L100; +or on the petition of a creditor or creditors to the foregoing extent +without the concurrence of the debtor, if he has clearly shown himself to +be insolvent (or a _notour bankrupt_), the whole estates and effects of the +debtor, real and personal, are legally taken for behoof of the creditors. +The debtor's estate is then made over to a trustee chosen by the creditors, +the trustee being charged to bring the whole estate into the form of money, +with certain precautions, and to receive, investigate, and reject or admit +the claims of the creditors, subject to review of the Court of Session or +sheriff court by summary petition. The debtor, and all who can give +information as to the estate, must submit to public examination on oath +before the sheriff of the county, and the debtor may thereafter, or by +petition after six, twelve, or eighteen months from sequestration, be +discharged of all debts by the court with consent of the creditors or a +number of them, or at the expiry of two years without consent. These +proceedings may be partly superseded by 'composition' if such be assented +to by a majority in number and nine-tenths in value of creditors, or by a +majority in number and four-fifths in value of the creditors, according to +the period at which such arrangement may be proposed. They may also be +terminated by a deed of arrangement entered into between the bankrupt and a +majority in number and four-fifths in value of his creditors, approved of +by the court. Before a discharge is given there must be a report from the +trustee as to the conduct of the bankrupt, whether he has complied with the +provisions of the Act, whether his bankruptcy is culpable or not, &c. +Before the abolition of imprisonment for ordinary civil debts by Act passed +in 1880, an insolvent debtor often took advantage of a form of process by +which, on making a complete _cessio bonorum_, or surrender to his creditors +of all his property, he might obtain protection from imprisonment. Though +no person can now be imprisoned for ordinary debts, a creditor of a +_notour_ bankrupt may present a petition to the sheriff, praying him to +decern that the debtor assign over all his goods for behoof of his +creditors and that a trustee be appointed; and this proceeding is still +designated a process of _cessio bonorum_. The Act of 1880 also provides for +the better punishment of fraudulent debtors in Scotland. If the debtor's +liabilities exceed L200, the sheriff may award _sequestration_ of the +debtor's estate instead of _cessio bonorum_. There is no appeal from the +sheriff's decision with respect to discharge. + +In Ireland there is a special code of bankruptcy contained in special Acts, +differing to some extent from the regulations prevailing both in England +and Scotland. Thus in Ireland it is not an offence for an undischarged +bankrupt to obtain credit to any amount without disclosing the fact of his +bankruptcy. All bankruptcy business comes before the court at Dublin, +Belfast, or Cork. Imprisonment for debt was abolished in 1872. + +Official returns in Great Britain show a tendency towards a smaller number +of failures, but a larger amount of money is involved. + +In the different British colonies the laws regulating bankruptcy naturally +differ, and the same is the case with the individual States of the American +Union, though Congress has the power of legislating for the whole country +in regard to this, and has oftener than once done so.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. +Goudy, _Treatise of the Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland_; Sir R. H. J. +Palgrave, _Dictionary of Political Economy_; E. T. Baldwin, _The Law of +Bankruptcy and Bills of Sale_; Sir R. L. V. Williams, _The Law and Practice +of Bankruptcy_; R. Ringwood, _The Principles of Bankruptcy_. + +BANKS, Sir Joseph, Baronet, a distinguished naturalist, born in London +1743. After studying at Harrow and Eton he went to Oxford in 1760, and +formed there amongst his fellow-undergraduates a voluntary class in botany, +&c. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1766, and soon after went +to Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay to collect plants. In 1768, with Dr. +Solander, a Swedish gentleman, pupil of Linnaeus, and then assistant +librarian at the British Museum, he accompanied Cook's expedition as +naturalist. In 1772 he visited Iceland along with Dr. Solander, and during +this voyage the Hebrides were examined, and the columnar formation of the +rocks of Staffa first made known to geologists. In 1777 Banks was chosen +President of the Royal Society, and in 1781 was made a baronet, and in 1795 +received the Order of the Bath. He wrote only essays, papers for learned +societies, and short treatises. He died in 1820, and bequeathed his +collections to the British Museum. + +BANKS, Thomas, an English sculptor, born in 1735, died in 1805. He studied +sculpture in the Royal Academy, where he obtained the gold medal for a +bas-relief of the _Rape of Proserpine_. In 1772 he went to Italy, where he +executed several excellent pieces, particularly _Cupid tormenting a +Butterfly_, which was afterwards purchased by the Empress Catherine. On +leaving Italy he spent two unsatisfactory years in Russia, and then +returned to England, where he was soon after made an Academician. One of +his best-known works is _Shakespeare attended by Painting and Poetry_. +Among his other works was a colossal statue--_Achilles mourning the loss of +Briseis_--in the hall of the British Institution, and the monument of Sir +Eyre Coote in Westminster Abbey. His bust of Warren Hastings is in the +National Gallery. + +BANK'SIA (named after Sir Joseph Banks), a genus of Australian shrubs and +trees, order Proteaceae, with leathery leaves generally dark-green on the +upper surface and pale below, often cultivated in conservatories for their +peculiar foliage and flowers. They are named "honeysuckles" by the +colonists, from the honey the flowers contain. + +BANKS'RING. See _Banxring_. + +BANKURA', a town of Bengal, on the Dhalkisor River, healthy and with a +considerable trade Pop. 21,000. + +BANN, Upper and Lower, two rivers in the N. of Ireland, the former rising +in the mountains of Mourne, County Down, and, after flowing 38 miles in a +northerly direction, falling into Lough Neagh, the latter being the outlet +of Lough Neagh, and falling into the Atlantic Ocean 4 miles below +Coleraine, after a course of nearly 40 miles. + +BAN'NATYNE CLUB, a literary society instituted in Edinburgh (1823) by Sir +Walter Scott (its first president), David Laing (secretary till its +dissolution in 1861), Archibald Constable, and Thomas Thomson. It started +with thirty-one members, subsequently extended to 100, having as its object +the printing of rare works on Scottish history, literature, geography, &c. +It derived its name from George Bannatyne (1545-1609), the collector of the +famous MS. of early Scottish poetry. + +BAN'NERET, formerly, in England, a knight made on the field of battle as a +reward for bravery, with the ceremony of cutting off the point of his +pennon and making it a banner. The first banneret in England was made by +King Edward I, and the last (John Smith) by Charles I after the battle of +Edgehill in 1642. + +BAN'NOCK, a cake made of oatmeal, barley-meal, or peasemeal baked on an +iron plate or griddle over the fire. From a supposed resemblance the turbot +is sometimes called in Scotland the _Bannock-fluke_. + +BANNOCKBURN, a village of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, 2 miles S.E. +Stirling, famous for the decisive battle in which King Robert Bruce of +Scotland defeated Edward II of England, on the 24th June, 1314. It has +manufactures of woollens, such as tartans, carpets, &c.; pop. 4103. + +BANNS OF MARRIAGE, public notice of the intended celebration of a marriage +given either by proclamation, viva voce, by a clergyman, session-clerk, or +precentor in some religious assembly, or by posting up written notice in +some public place. Dissent of parents or guardians renders null and void +the publication of the banns of minors. In France the banns must be +published on two distinct Sundays, and the marriage cannot take place until +three days after the second publication. In America the practice is +confined to the Roman Catholics, although it is still recognized in the +statutes of some of the States. + +BANNU, a district in the north-west of Hindustan, traversed by the Indus; +area, 3847 sq. miles; pop. 390,000, nearly half being Afghans. + +BANQUETTE (bang-ket') in fortification, the elevation of earth behind a +parapet, on which the garrison or defenders may stand. The height of the +parapet above the banquette is usually about 4 feet 6 inches; the breadth +of the banquette from 2-1/2 or 3 feet to 4 or 6 feet, according to the +number of ranks to occupy it. It is frequently made double, that is, a +second is made still lower. + +BANSHEE', or BENSHI', a fairy woman believed in Ireland and some parts of +Scotland to attach herself to a particular house, and to appear or make her +presence known by wailing before the death of one of the family. + +BAN'TAM, a residency occupying the whole of the W. end of the Island of +Java. It formed an independent kingdom, governed by its own sultan, till +1683, and the Dutch exercised suzerainty with brief intermission until its +formal incorporation by them at the beginning of last century. It produces +rice, coffee, sugar, cinnamon, &c. Serang is its capital. The town Bantam +was the first Dutch settlement in Java (1595), and for some time their +principal mart, though now not so prosperous. + +BAN'TAM FOWL, a small but spirited breed of domestic fowl, first brought +from the East Indies, supposed to derive its name from Bantam in Java. Most +of the sub-varieties have feathered legs; but these are not to be +preferred. In point of colour the black and nankeen varieties are the best. +A well-bred bantam does not weigh more than a pound. + +BANTENG' (_Bos Banteng_ or _Sondaicus_), a wild species of ox, native of +Java and Borneo, having a black body, slender white legs, short sleek hair, +sharp muzzle, and the back humped behind the neck. + +BANTING SYSTEM, a course of diet for reducing superfluous fat, adopted and +recommended in 1863 by W. Banting of London. The dietary recommended was +the use of butcher-meat principally, and abstinence from beer, farinaceous +food, and vegetables. See _Corpulence_. + +BAN'TRY, a seaport near the head of Bantry Bay, County Cork, Ireland. Pop. +3159.--The _bay_, one of three large inlets at the S.W. extremity of +Ireland, affords an unsurpassed anchorage, and is about 25 miles long by 4 +to 6 broad, and from 10 to 40 fathoms deep, with no dangerous rocks or +shoals. + +BANTU (baen-toe'), the ethnological name of a group of African races below +about 6deg N. latitude, and including the Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, the +tribes of the Loango, Congo, &c., but not the Hottentots.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: +Deniker, _Races of Man_; J. Roscoe, _The Northern Bantu_. + +BANU. See _Bannu_. + +BANX'RING (genus Tapaia), a quadruped belonging to the Insectivora, +inhabiting the Indian Archipelago, bearing some resemblance externally to a +squirrel, but having a long pointed snout. + +[Illustration: Banyan (_Ficus benghalensis_)] + +BAN'YAN (_Ficus benghalensis_), a tree of India, of the fig genus. The most +peculiar feature of this tree is its method of throwing out from the +horizontal branches supports which take root as soon as they reach the +ground, enlarge into trunks, and, extending branches in their turn, soon +cover a prodigious extent of ground. A celebrated banyan tree has been +known to shelter 7000 men beneath its shade. The wood is soft and porous, +and from its white glutinous juice bird-lime is sometimes prepared. Both +juice and bark are regarded by the Hindus as valuable medicines, and the +tree itself is sacred. The banyan tree is described by Southey in his poem +_The Curse of Kehama_. + +[Illustration: Baobab or Monkey-bread Tree (_Adansonia digitata_)] + +BA'OBAB (_Adansonia digit[=a]ta_) or MONKEY-BREAD TREE, a tree belonging to +the nat. ord. (or sub-ord.) Bombaceae, and the best-known species of its +genus, which was named after the naturalist Adanson. Though not tall, it is +one of the bulkiest of trees, its trunk sometimes measuring 30 feet in +diameter, and as the profusion of leaves and drooping boughs sometimes +almost hides the stem, the whole forms a hemispherical mass of verdure 140 +to 150 feet in diameter and 60 to 70 feet high. It is a native of the +African savannahs, and is cultivated in many of the warmer parts of the +world. The roots are of extraordinary length, a tree 77 feet in girth +having a tap-root 110 feet in length. The leaves are deep green, divided +into five unequal parts lanceolate in shape, and radiating from a common +centre. The flowers resemble the white poppy, having snowy petals and +violet-coloured stamens; and the fruit, which is large and of an oblong +shape, is said to taste like gingerbread, with a pleasant acid flavour. The +wood is pale-coloured, light, and contains a large store of water, which +enables the tree to withstand prolonged drought. The tree is liable to be +attacked by a fungus which, growing in the woody part, renders it soft and +pithlike. By the negroes of the west coast these trunks are hollowed into +chambers, and dead bodies are suspended in them. There they become +perfectly dry and well preserved, without further preparation or embalming. +The baobab is emollient and mucilaginous; the pulverized leaves constitute +_lalo_, which the natives mix with their daily food. + +BAPAUME, a French town in the department of Pas-de-Calais. It has been the +scene of several battles. In 1793 the French were compelled by the allied +troops to abandon the place, and in the Franco-German war one of the most +closely-contested battles was fought there on 3rd Jan., 1871. Bapaume, +occupied by the Germans in the European War, was recaptured by British +troops on 29th Aug., 1918, the great battle of Bapaume having begun on 21st +Aug. Pop. (1911) 2917. + +BAPH'OMET, the imaginary idol or symbol which the Templars were accused of +employing in their mysterious rites, and of which little is known. The word +is supposed to be a corruption of Mahomet, to whose faith the Templars were +accused of having a leaning. See _Gnosticism_. + +BAPTISM (from the Gr. _baptiz[=o]_, from _bapt[=o]_, to immerse or dip), a +rite which is generally thought to have been usual with the Jews even +before Christ, being administered to proselytes. All that can be said, +however, with some certainty is that the Jewish baptism was not of later +origin than the Christian baptism. Anyhow, from this baptism that of St. +John the Baptist differed, because he baptized Jews also as a symbol of the +necessity of perfect purification from sin. Christ himself never baptized, +but directed his disciples to administer this rite to converts (_Mat._ +xxviii, 19); and baptism, therefore, became a religious ceremony among +Christians, taking rank as a sacrament with all sects which acknowledge +sacraments. It should, however, be borne in mind that among many peoples a +rite is found which has considerable likeness to Christian baptism. In the +primitive Church the person to be baptized was dipped in a river or in a +vessel, with the words which Christ had ordered, generally adopting a new +name further to express the change. Sprinkling, or, as it was termed, +_clinic_ baptism, was used only in the case of the sick who could not leave +their beds. The Greek Church and Eastern schismatics retained the custom of +immersion; but the Western Church adopted or allowed the mode of baptism by +pouring or sprinkling, since continued by most Protestants. This practice +can be traced back certainly to the third century, before which its +existence is disputed. Since the Reformation there have been various +Protestant sects called Baptists, holding that baptism should be +administered only by immersion, and to those who can make a personal +profession of faith. The Montanists in Africa baptized even the dead, and +in Roman Catholic countries the practice of baptizing church bells--a +custom of tenth-century origin--continues to this day. Being an initiatory +rite, baptism is only administered once to the same person. The Roman and +Greek Catholics consecrate the water of baptism, but Protestants do not. +The act of baptism is accompanied only with the formula that the person is +baptized in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; but, among most +Christians, it is preceded by a confession of faith made by the person to +be baptized if an adult, and by his parents or sponsors if he be a child. +The Roman Catholic form of baptism is far more elaborate than the +Protestant. This Church teaches that all persons not baptized are damned, +and that even unbaptized infants are not admitted into Heaven; but for +those whose chief fault was that they had not been baptized, even St. +Augustine himself believed in a species of mitigated damnation. Protestants +hold that though the neglect of the sacrament is a sin, yet the saving new +birth may be found without the performance of the rite which symbolizes it. +Naming the person baptized forms no essential part of the ceremony, but has +become almost universal, probably from the ancient custom of renaming the +catechumen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_ (vol. ii); S. +Baring-Gould, _Origin and Development of Religious Belief_; J. E. Hanaver, +_Baptism, Jewish and Christian_; Harnack, _History of Dogma_; article +_Baptism_ in _Encyclopedia of Ethics and Religion_; Corblet, _Histoire du +Sacrement du Bapteme_; P. Mauro, _Baptism: its place and importance in +Christianity_. + +[Illustration: Baptistery of S. Giovanni in Laterano, Rome] + +BAP'TISTERY, a building or a portion of a building in which is administered +the rite of baptism. In the early Christian Church the baptistery was +distinct from the basilica or church, but was situated near its west end, +and was generally circular or octagonal in form, and dome-roofed. About the +end of the sixth century the baptistery began to be absorbed into the +church, the font being placed within and not far from the western door. +Some detached baptisteries still remain in use, as those of the Lateran, +Rome (the earliest in existence), at Pisa, Parma, Ravenna, Aquileia, Siena, +Florence, &c., that of Florence being 108 feet in diameter externally, and +richly decorated. Baptisteries were dedicated to St. John the Baptist. + +BAP'TISTS, a Protestant sect, distinguished by their opinions respecting +the mode and subjects of baptism. With regard to the mode, they maintain +the necessity of immersion, and with regard to the subjects, they consider +that baptism ought not to be administered to children at all, nor to adults +in general, but to those only who profess repentance and faith. They are +sometimes called _Anti-paedobaptists_, to express their variance from those +who defend infant baptism, and who are called _Paedobaptists_. Apart from +the special sect of that name, Baptists are to be found equally among +Calvinists and Arminians, Trinitarians and Unitarians. The Baptists as a +whole adopt the Independent or Congregational form of church government, +and their ecclesiastical assemblies are held for the purpose of mutual +stimulus and intercourse, and not for the general government of the body, +or for interference with individual churches. The Particular Baptists of +England (so called from believing that Christ died only for the elect), the +Baptists of Scotland and Ireland, the Associated Baptists of America, and +some of the Seventh-day Baptists, are Calvinistic. The other classes, such +as the General Baptists (who believe that Christ died for all), are +Arminian, or at least not Calvinistic. Most Baptists profess to be +Trinitarians. The Free-will Baptists, the Christian Society, and most of +the General Baptists of England admit of open communion; the other bodies +decline communion with any Christians but Baptists. The Associated or +Calvinistic Baptists long ranked in the United States as the most numerous +denomination of Christians. The Seventh-day Baptists, or Sabbatarians, +observe the seventh day of the week. The Free-will Baptists profess the +doctrine of free salvation. The Anabaptists of the Reformation period are +not to be confounded with the Baptists, by whom their principles were +expressly disclaimed. The first regular Baptist Church appears to have been +formed in the reign of Elizabeth, but we may date their first public +acknowledgment as distinct from the Anabaptists from their petition to +Parliament in 1620. The year 1633 provides the earliest record of the +formation of a Particular Baptist Church in London. In 1689 a Baptist +General Assembly, held in London, formulated a confession of thirty-two +articles and a catechism. The Baptist Union, formed in 1832, comprehends +the greater number of members of the sect in Great Britain and Ireland. In +July, 1905, a world-congress of Baptists was held in London, and the +Baptist World Alliance was constituted. The total number of members of +Baptist Churches in the United Kingdom was 405,104 in 1922, and 408,029 in +1920. There are nine colleges for training ministers, of which the chief +are: Bristol Baptist College; Regent's Park; Rawdon, Bradford; and the +Metropolitan Pastors' College. The Regular Baptists in the United States +numbered 7,504,447 members in 1922, and nearly 6,000,000 in 1920, in +addition to which there are Anti-mission Baptists, Free-will Baptists, and +Seventh-day Baptists. In Canada there are in all about 128,730 +Baptists.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. C. Vedder, _A Short History of the Baptists_; +A. H. Newman, _History of the Baptist Churches in the United States_; _The +Baptist Handbook_ (annually); _The American Baptist Year-book_ (annually); +W. E. MacIntyre, _Baptist Churches, 1500-1914_. + +BAR, in law, the railing that encloses the place which counsel occupy in +courts of justice; hence the phrase, _at the bar of the court_, that is, in +open court. Hence also persons duly admitted as pleaders or advocates +before the courts of England are denominated _barristers_ (see +_Barrister_), and the whole body of such barristers or advocates are called +the _bar_. The enclosed place or dock in which persons accused of crimes +stand in court is also called the bar. Near the door of both Houses of +Parliament there is also a bar, beyond which none but the members and +clerks are admitted, and at which counsel, witnesses, offenders against +privilege, &c., are heard. + +BAR, in music, is a line drawn through the stave to mark the rhythm of +small portions; the notes composing these are also called a bar. + +BAR, in heraldry, an ordinary resembling the fesse, stretching like it +horizontally across the shield but narrower. + +BAR, CONFEDERATION OF. See _Poland_. + +BAR'ABA, the name of a great steppe in the West Siberian governments of +Tomsk, Akmolinsk, and Tobolsk. + +BARABIN'ZIANS, a rude, uncultivated tribe of Tartars, living on the banks +of the River Irtish, and subsisting chiefly on the produce of their herds +and on fish supplied by the lakes of the Baraba steppe. + +BARAGUEY-D'HILLIERS (b[.a]-r[.a]-g[=a]-d[=e]l-y[=a]),Louis, a distinguished +French general under the first Empire, born in Paris, 1764. After serving +under Custine and other generals he joined the army of Italy, and took +Bergamo and Venice, of which he became Governor. He took part in the +expedition to Egypt, served in the campaigns in Germany and Spain, and +commanded a division of the "Great Army" in the Russian campaign of 1812. +He was entrusted with the direction of the vanguard in the retreat, but was +compelled to capitulate. Napoleon ordered him to return to France as under +arrest, but, overcome with grief and fatigue, he died at Berlin on the way, +Dec., 1812. + +BARANOVITCHI, a town in Russia, government of Minsk. A battle was fought +here between the Russians and the Germans in July, 1916. See _European +War_. + +BARB, a horse of the Barbary breed, introduced by the Moors into Spain, and +of great speed, endurance, and docility. + +[Illustration: Barbacan. Walmgate Bar, York] + +BAR'BACAN, or BARBICAN, generally an advanced work defending the entrance +to a castle or fortified town, as before the gate or drawbridge, and often +of formidable size and strength. + +BARBA'DOES, or BARBADOS, the most eastern of the West India Islands, first +mentioned in 1518, and occupied by the British in 1625. Length, 21 miles; +breadth, 13; area, 106,470 acres or 166 sq, miles, about 74,000 being under +cultivation. It is divided into eleven Church of England parishes; capital, +Bridgetown. It is one of the most densely-populated areas in the world, the +population in 1917 being estimated at 186,656, or nearly 1100 to the square +mile. The climate is very hot, though moderated by the constant +trade-winds; and the island is subject to dreadful hurricanes. The surface +is broken, now without forests, and with few streams; the highest point is +1145 feet above the sea-level. There are few indigenous mammals or birds. +The black lowland soil gives great returns of sugar in favourable seasons. +The chief exports, besides sugar, are molasses and rum; imports: rice, salt +meat, corn, butter, flour, &c. Both exports and imports were over +L2,000,000 in 1918. Barbadoes has a considerable transit trade, being in +some measure the central mart for all the Windward Islands. It is the see +of a bishop and the head-quarters of the British forces in the West Indies. +There is a railway across the island, also tramways, telephones, &c. The +island forms a distinct government under a Governor, an Executive and a +Legislative Council of 9 members, and a House of Assembly of 24 members. +Liberal provision is made for education both by old foundations and by +annual vote. + +BARBADOES LEG, a form of elephantiasis. + +BAR'BARA, ST., according to the legend, belonged to Nicomedia, in Asia +Minor, and was beheaded by her father for having turned Christian, he being +immediately thereafter struck dead by lightning. The latter part of this +legend caused her, probably, to be invoked in storms, and to be considered +the patron saint of artillerists. + +BARBARELLI. See _Giorgione_. + +BARBARIAN (Gk. _barbaros_), a name given by the Greeks, and afterwards by +the Romans, to everyone who spoke an unintelligible language; and hence +coming to connote the idea of _rude_, _illiterate_, _uncivilized_. This +word, therefore, did not always convey the idea of something odious or +savage; thus a Greek character in Plautus calls Naevius a barbarous poet, +because he had not written in Greek; and Cicero terms illiterate persons +without taste 'barbarians'. + +BARBAROSSA ('red-beard'), the name of two famous Turkish corsairs of the +sixteenth century, who ravaged the shores of the Mediterranean, and +established themselves in Algiers. The elder of the brothers, Aruch or +Horuk, was killed in 1518; the younger and more notorious, Hayraddin, who +captured Tunis, died in 1546. See _Frederick Barbarossa_. + +BAR'BARY, a general name for the most northerly portion of Africa, +extending about 2600 miles from Egypt to the Atlantic, with a breadth +varying from about 140 to 550 miles, comprising Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, +and Libya (Tripolitania, Barqa, and Fezzan). The principal races are: the +Berbers, the original inhabitants, from whom the country takes its name; +the Arabs, who conquered an extensive portion of it during the times of the +caliphs; the Bedouins, Jews, Turks, and the French colonists of Algeria, +&c. The country, which was prosperous under the Carthaginians, was, next to +Egypt, the richest of the Roman provinces, and the Italian States enriched +themselves by their intercourse with it. In the fifteenth century, however, +it became infested with adventurers who made the name of Barbary corsair a +terror to commerce, a condition of things finally removed by the French +occupation of Algeria. + +BARBARY APE (_In[)u]us ecaud[=a]tus_), a species of ape, or tailless +monkey, with greenish-brown hair, of the size of a large cat, remarkable +for docility, also called the _magot_. It is common in Barbary and other +parts of Africa, and some used to live formerly on Gibraltar Rock, being +the only European monkey, though probably not indigenous. It has been the +'showman's ape' from time immemorial. + +BAR'BASTEL, or BARBASTELLE, a bat with hairy lips (_Barbastellus +comm[=u]nis_), a native of England. + +BARBAS'TRO, a city, Spain, Arragon, province of Huesca, with an interesting +cathedral, and some trade and manufactures. Pop. 7202. + +BAR'BAULD, Anna Letitia, English poet and general writer, was born in +Leicestershire, 1743, daughter of a Presbyterian minister named Aikin. She +published a small volume of miscellaneous poems in 1772, and in 1773, in +conjunction with her brother, Dr. John Aikin, a collection of pieces in +prose. In 1774 she married the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld. Her _Early Lessons +and Hymns for Children_, and various essays and poems, won considerable +popularity. She edited a collection of English novels, with critical and +biographical notices; a selection from the British essayists of the reign +of Anne, and another from Richardson's correspondence. Her last long poem, +_Eighteen Hundred and Eleven_, appeared in 1812. She died at +Stoke-Newington, 1825. + +BAR'BECUE, a word of West Indian origin, meaning a hog, or other large +animal, roasted whole. In the United States the word means a large +gathering of people in the open air, for a social or political feast, where +whole animals are roasted and eaten. + +BARBED WIRE, wire-rope for fencing or other purposes, having fixed in it +short bent pieces of wire with sharp projecting points, which serve to keep +animals from pressing against it. There is an Act of Parliament (1893) to +prevent the use of barbed-wire fences that form a nuisance on a public road +or path; and a person employing barbed wire for fencing may render himself +liable for damages caused by it to another person who is legitimately using +the adjoining ground. Barbed wire plays an important part in the +construction of obstacles in modern warfare. During the European War, all +systems of trenches were protected by thick belts of wire. This wire was +laid out in various different ways, two of the best being known as the +Concertina Fence and the Double-apron Fence. + +BARBEL (Barbus), a genus of freshwater fishes of the carp family, +distinguished by the four fleshy filaments growing from the lips, two at +the nose and one at each corner of the mouth, forming the kind of beard to +which the genus owes its name. Of the several species the European _Barbus +vulg[=a]ris_, common in most rivers, has an average length of from 12 to 18 +inches, and in form and habits strongly resembles the pike. Its body is +elongated and rounded, olive-coloured above and bluish on the sides, and +covered with small scales. The upper jaw, which is much longer than the +lower, forms a snout, with which it bores into the mud for worms, insects, +aquatic plants, &c. It is common in the Thames, where it gives good sport +to the angler; but its flesh is very coarse, and at the time of spawning +the roe is dangerous to eat. + +BARBER, one whose occupation is to shave or trim the beard, or to cut and +dress hair. The practice of surgery was formerly a part of the craft, and +by an Act of Henry VIII the Company of Barbers was incorporated with the +Company of Surgeons--the company being then known as the +Barber-surgeons--with the limitation, however, that the surgeons were not +to shave or practise 'barbery', and the barbers were to perform no higher +surgical operation than blood-letting and tooth-drawing. This continued +till the time of George II. The signs of the old profession--the pole which +the patient grasped, its spiral decoration in imitation of the bandage, and +the basin to catch the blood--are still sometimes retained. The barbers' +shops, always notorious for gossip, were in some measure the news centres +of classic and mediaeval times. The ancient hall in London, formerly used +by the Barber-surgeons, is still standing in Markwell Street, Cripplegate. + +BARBERINI (b[.a]r-be-r[=e]'n[=e]), a celebrated Florentine family, which, +since the pontificate of Maffeo Barberini (Urban VIII, 1623-44), has +occupied a distinguished place among the nobility of Rome. During his reign +Urban was chiefly intent on the aggrandizement of his three nephews, of +whom two were appointed cardinals, and the third Prince of Palestrina. + +[Illustration: Barberry _(Berb[)e]ris aristata)_] + +BAR'BERRY, a genus of shrubs, nat. ord. Berberidaceae. The common barberry +(_Berb[)e]ris vulg[=a]ris_) has serrate, pointed leaves (the primary ones +reduced to tripartite spines), hanging clusters of yellow flowers, and +small, orange-red berries, which are sometimes made into preserves. The +inner bark and roots yield a fine yellow dye (berberine). The shrub is a +native of temperate Asia, but is now generally diffused through Europe and +N. America. In Britain it has been almost universally banished from +hedgerows, owing to its connection with the black rust of wheat. Numerous +other species inhabit Asia and America; those of the section Mahonia have +pinnate leaves. _B. aristata_ is an erect bush, with furrowed red-brown +branches, and pendulous clusters of yellow flowers; it thrives best in the +south. See _Irritability_ and _Rust_. + +BAR'BERTON, the chief mining-centre of De Kaap gold-fields, Transvaal, +about 80 miles from Lydenburg, and 150 to 160 from Delagoa Bay. British +prisoners were confined here in the Boer War (1899-1902). Pop. about 2000 +(whites). + +BAR'BETS (Bucconidae), a family of climbing birds with a thick conical +beak, having tufts of bristles at its base. Their wings are short and their +flight somewhat heavy. They have been divided into three sub-genera: The +_barbicans_ (Pogonias), inhabiting India and Africa, and feeding chiefly on +fruit; the _barbets_ proper (Bucco), found in Africa and America, and +nearly related to the woodpeckers; and the _puff-birds_ (Tamatia), +inhabiting America, and feeding on insects. + +BARBETTE (b[.a]r-bet'), an elevation of earth behind the breastwork of a +fortification, from which the artillery may be fired over the parapet +instead of through an embrasure. In ships of war the name is given to a +strong breastwork of armour over which heavy guns are fired. See +_Fortification_. + +BARBEYRAC (b[.a]r-b[=a]-r[.a]k), Jean, an able writer on jurisprudence and +natural law, translator of Grotius and Cumberland, and translator and +annotator of Pufendorf. Born 1674; professor of law at Lausanne and +Groningen; died 1744. + +BARBICAN. See _Barbacan_. + +BARBIE DU BOCAGE (b[.a]rb-y[=a] due b[=o]-kaezh), Jean Denis, a +distinguished geographer, born in Paris in 1760, who laid the foundation of +his fame in 1788 by his _Atlas_ to Barthelemy's _Voyage du Jeune +Anacharsis_. His maps and plans to the works of Thucydides, Xenophon, &c., +exhibit much erudition, and materially advanced the science of ancient +geography. He also prepared many modern maps, and published various +excellent dissertations. He held many honourable posts, and died in 1825. + +BARBIER (b[.a]rb-y[=a]), Antoine Alexandre, bibliographer (1765-1825). He +was appointed keeper of the library of the Conseil d'Etat in 1798; Napoleon +made him his librarian in 1807; and he was afterwards librarian to Louis +XVIII. His _Catalogue de la Bibliotheque du Conseil d'Etat_ (1801-3), and +_Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes_ (1806-9), are both +valuable works. + +BARBIERI (b[.a]r-b[=e]-[=a]'r[=e]), Giovanni Francesco (otherwise known as +_Guercino_ (the squinter) _da Cento_), an eminent and prolific historical +painter, born near Bologna 1590, died in 1666. His style showed the +influence of Caravaggio and of the Caracci, his best work being of the +latter school. Chief work, a _St. Petronilla_ in the Capitol at Rome; but +most of the large galleries have pictures by him. + +BARBIERI, Paolo Antonio, a celebrated still-life and animal painter, was a +brother of Guercino; born 1596, died 1640. + +BARBITONE. See _Veronal_. + +BARBIZON (b[.a]r-b[=e]-z[=o]n), a French village about 25 miles south by +east of Paris, on the borders of the Forest of Fontainebleau, and 6 miles +north-west of the town of that name. It has given its name to a French +school of painters, including Corot, Millet, Rousseau, Jules Dupre, and +Daubigny. + +BAR'BOUR, John, an ancient Scottish poet, contemporary with Chaucer, born +about 1316. By 1357 he was Archdeacon of Aberdeen, and in the following +year was appointed a commissioner to treat for the ransom of David II. He +appears as Auditor of the Exchequer more than once; he travelled through +England on several occasions, and was pensioned by Robert II. His chief +poem, _The Bruce_ (Brus), written about 1375, was first published in 1571, +and the chief manuscripts of the poem are those in the Advocates' Library, +Edinburgh, dated 1489, and in St. John's College, Cambridge. Of another +long poem, setting forth the Trojan origin of the Scottish kings, no MS. +remains, unless a portion of two Troy books in the Cambridge and Bodleian +libraries may be ascribed to Barbour. He has also been credited with having +compiled a _Book of Legends of Saints_, existing in a single MS. at +Cambridge, and published in 1881-2 by Horstman in his _Legenden Sammlung_. +He died in 1395. He was the father of Scottish poetry and history, and his +_Bruce_ is linguistically of high value. Though wanting in the higher +qualities of poetry, it is truthful and natural, and often exhibits a high +moral dignity.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_; Irving, +_History of Scottish Poetry_. + +BARBUDA (b[.a]r-boe'da), one of the West Indies, annexed by Britain in +1628; about 15 miles long and 8 miles wide; lying north of Antigua; pop. +580. It is flat, fertile, and healthy. Corn, cotton, pepper, and tobacco +are the principal produce, but the island is only partially cleared for +cultivation. There is no harbour, but a well-sheltered roadstead on the +west side. It is a dependency of Antigua. + +BARBUSSE, Henri, a French author born at Asnieres in 1874. He served in the +French army during the European War, and his descriptions of the realities +of modern warfare have made him famous. His works include _Le Feu_ and +_Clarte_. + +BARBY (baer'b[=e]), a German town on the Elbe, in the government of +Magdeburg, with an old castle. Pop. 5202. + +BAR'CA, a division of N. Africa, between the Gulf of Sidra and Egypt, +annexed by Italy in 1911-2; capital, Bengazi. It formed a portion of the +ancient Cyrenaica, and from the time of the Ptolemies was known as +Pentapolis from its five Greek cities. It became part of Tripoli, and later +a separate province under Turkish dominion. On 18th Oct., 1912, it was +formally recognized as a dependency of Italy, and forms with Tripoli the +Italian colony of Libya. The country consists of a rocky plateau. A large +portion of it is desert, but some parts, especially near the coast, are +fertile, and yield abundant crops and excellent pasture, the chief being +wheat, barley, dates, figs, and olives. Flowering shrubs, roses, +honeysuckles, &c., occur in great variety. There are hardly any permanent +streams, but the eastern portion is tolerably well watered by rains and +springs. The exports are grain and cattle, with ostrich feathers and ivory +from the interior. Next to Bengazi (pop. 35,000), the seaport of Derna is +the chief town (pop. 8000). The population probably does not exceed +300,000. See _Cyrenaica_ and _Tripoli_. + +BARCAROLLE (-rol'), a species of song sung by the _barcaruoli_, or +gondoliers, of Venice, and hence applied to a song or melody composed in +imitation. A very well-known example is to be found in Offenbach's _Tales +of Hoffmann_. + +BARCELLONA (b[.a]r-chel-[=o]'n[.a]), seaport, Sicily, province of Messina, +immediately contiguous to Pozzo di Gotto, and practically forming one town +with it. Joint pop. 26,172. + +BARCELONA (b[.a]r-thel-[=o]'n[.a]), next to Madrid the chief city of Spain, +capital of the province of Barcelona, and formerly capital of the kingdom +of Catalonia; finely situated on the northern portion of the Spanish +Mediterranean coast. It is divided into the upper and lower town; the +former modern, regular, stone-built, and often of an English architectural +type, the latter old, irregular, brick-built, and with traces of Eastern +influence in the architecture. The harbour is suited to accommodate large +vessels. The principal manufactures are cottons, silks, woollens, +machinery, paper, glass, chemicals, stoneware, soap; exports manufactured +goods, wine and brandy, fruit, oil, &c.; imports coals, textile fabrics, +machinery, cotton, fish, hides, silks, timber, &c. The city contains a +university, several public libraries, a museum, a large arsenal, +cannon-foundry, &c. Barcelona was, until the twelfth century, governed by +its own counts, but was afterwards united with Arragon. In 1640, with the +rest of Catalonia, it placed itself under the French Crown; in 1652 it +submitted again to the Spanish Government; in 1697 it was taken by the +French, but was restored to Spain at the Peace of Ryswick. It has had +several severe visitations of cholera and yellow fever, and has been the +scene of many serious and sanguinary revolts, as in 1836, 1840, and 1909. +Pop. 618,766.--The province has an area of 2968 sq. miles; pop. 1,191,386 +(1918). It is generally mountainous, but well cultivated, and among the +most thickly peopled in Spain. + +BARCELONA, a town of Venezuela, near the mouth of the Neveri, which is +navigable for vessels of small size, but larger vessels anchor off the +mouth of the river. Pop. 13,000. + +BARCELONA NUTS, hazel-nuts exported from the Barcelona district of Spain. + +BAR'CLAY, Alexander, a poet of the sixteenth century, most probably a +native of Scotland, born about 1475; for some years a priest and chaplain +of St. Mary Ottery, in Devonshire; afterwards a Benedictine monk of Ely; +subsequently a Franciscan, and also the holder of one or two livings; died +1552. His principal work was a satire, entitled _The Shyp of Folys of this +Worlde_, part translation and part imitation of Brandt's _Narrenschiff_ +(Ship of Fools), and printed by Pynson in 1509. He also wrote _The Myrrour +of Good Maners_, and some _Egloges_ (Eclogues), both printed by Pynson, as +well as translations, &c. + +BARCLAY, John, poet and satirist, son of a Scottish father, born at +Pont-a-Mousson (Lorraine) in 1582, and probably educated in the Jesuits' +College there. Having settled in England, he published a Latin +politico-satirical romance, entitled _Euphormionis Satyricon_, having as +its object the exposure of the Jesuits. In 1616 he left England for Rome, +received a pension from Pope Paul V, and died in 1621. His chief work is a +singular romance in Latin, entitled _Argenis_ (Paris, 1621), thought by +some to be an allegory bearing on the political state of Europe at the +period. Several seventeenth-century romances were indebted to this work, +among others Fenelon's _Telemaque_ and Calderon's _Argenis y Poliarco_. It +has been translated into several modern languages. His shorter poems +appeared in the _Delitiae Poetarum Scotorum_, + +BARCLAY, Robert, the celebrated apologist of the Quakers, born in 1648 at +Gordonstown, Moray, and educated at Paris, where he became a Roman +Catholic. He was recalled home by his father, whose example he followed in +becoming a Quaker. His first treatise in support of his adopted principles, +published at Aberdeen in the year 1670, under the title of _Truth Cleared +of Calumnies_, together with his subsequent writings, did much to rectify +public sentiment in regard to the Quakers. His chief work, in Latin, _An +Apology for the True Christian Divinity_, was soon reprinted at Amsterdam, +and quickly translated into German, Dutch, French, and Spanish, and, by the +author himself, into English. His fame was now widely diffused; and, in his +travels with William Penn and George Fox through England, Holland, and +Germany, to spread the opinions of the Quakers, he was received everywhere +with the highest respect. The last of his productions, _On the Possibility +and Necessity of an Inward and Immediate Revelation_, was not published in +England until 1686; from which time Barclay lived quietly with his family. +He died, after a short illness, at his own house of Ury, Kincardineshire, +in 1690. He was a friend of and had influence with James II. + +BARCLAY, Sir Thomas, British barrister, born in 1853. Educated at the +Universities of London, Paris, Bonn, and Jena, he was sent to Paris in 1876 +as correspondent of _The Times_. He has been greatly instrumental in +bringing about a better understanding between England and France. He was +knighted in 1904, and entered Parliament in 1910. His works include: +_Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_; _The Turco-Italian War +and its Problems_; _Law and Usage of War_. + +BARCLAY DE TOLLY, Michael, Prince, a distinguished general and +field-marshal of Russia, born in 1755. His family, of Scottish origin, had +been established in Livonia since 1689. He entered the army at an early +age, served in various campaigns against the Turks, Swedes, and Poles, and +in 1811 was named Minister of War. On the invasion of Napoleon he was +transferred to the chief command of the army, and adopted a plan of +retreat; his forces did not greatly exceed 100,000 men, but the Court +became impatient, and after the capture of Smolensk by the French he was +superseded by Kutusov. Sinking all personal feeling, he asked leave to +serve under his successor, commanded the right wing at the battle of the +Moskwa, maintained his position, and covered the retreat of the rest of the +army. After the battle of Bautzen, in 1813, he was reappointed to the chief +command, which he had soon after to resign to Prince Schwarzenberg. He +forced the surrender of General Vandamme after the battle of Dresden, took +part in the decisive battle of Leipzig, and was made a field-marshal in +Paris. In 1815 he received from the emperor the title of prince, and from +Louis XVIII the badge of the Order of Military Merit. He died in 1818. + +BAR-COCHBA (b[.a]r-ko_h_'b[.a]), or BAR-COCHEBAS, Simon, a Jewish impostor, +who pretended to be the Messiah, raised a revolt, and made himself master +of Jerusalem about A.D. 132, and of about fifty fortified places. Hadrian +sent to Britain for Julius Severus, one of his ablest generals, who +gradually regained the different forts and then took and destroyed +Jerusalem. Bar-cochba retired to a mountain fortress, and perished in the +assault of it by the Romans three years after, about 135. + +BAR'COO. See _Cooper's Creek_. + +BARD, one of an order among the ancient Celtic tribes, whose occupation was +to compose and sing verses in honour of the heroic achievements of princes +and brave men, generally to the accompaniment of the harp. Their verses +also frequently embodied religious or ethical precepts, genealogies, laws, +&c. Their existence and function was known to the Romans two centuries +B.C.; but of the Gallic bards only the tradition of their popularity +survives. The first Welsh bards of whom anything is extant are Taliesin, +Aneurin, and Llywarch, of the sixth century. A considerable lacuna then +occurs in their history until the order was reconstituted in the tenth +century by King Howel Dha, and again in the eleventh by Gryffith ap Conan. +Edward I is said to have hanged all the Welsh bards as promoters of +sedition. Some modern attempts have been made in Wales to revive bardism, +and the Cambrian Society was formed in 1818, for this purpose and for the +preservation of the remains of the ancient literature. The revived +Eisteddfodau, or bardic festivals, have been so far exceedingly popular. In +Ireland there were three classes of bards: those who sang of war, religion, +&c., those who chanted the laws, and those who gave genealogies and family +histories in verse. They were famous harpists. In the Highlands of Scotland +there are considerable remains of compositions supposed to be those of +their old bards still preserved.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Jones, _Relics of the +Welsh Bards_; Walker, _Memoirs of the Irish Bards_; Dottin, _Manuel de +l'Antiquite Celtique_; John Rhys and D. Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_; +D. D. Evans, _Ancient Bards of Britain_. + +BARDESA'NES, a Syrian Gnostic, poet, astrologer, and philosopher, born 154 +or 164 at Edessa, died 222. His system started with the statement that from +the union of God with matter sprang Christ and a female Holy Ghost, from +whom in turn sprang various existences. He propagated his doctrines in +Syrian hymns (_Hymn on the Soul_), the first in the language. His son, +Harmonius, was also an able hymn-writer. The Bardesanists maintained +themselves till the twelfth century, the later adherents having practically +adopted Manichaeism. + +BARDWAN', or BURDWAN', a division of Bengal, upon the Hugli, comprising the +six districts of Bardwan, Hugli, Howrah, Midnapur, Bankura, and Birbhum. +Area, 13,850 sq. miles; pop. 8,245,000.--The district _Bardwan_ has an area +of 2697 sq. miles, and a pop. of 1,532,500. Apart from its products, rice, +grain, hemp, cotton, indigo, &c., it has a noted coal-field of about 500 +sq. miles in area, with an annual output of about half a million tons.--The +town of _Bardwan_ has a fine palace of the Maharajah and a pop. of 35,022. + +BAREBONE, or BARBONE, Praise-God, the name of a leather-seller in Fleet +Street, London, who obtained a kind of lead in the convention which +Cromwell substituted for the Long Parliament, and which was thence +nicknamed the Barebone Parliament. After its dissolution he disappeared +till 1660, when he presented a petition to Parliament against the +restoration of the monarchy. In 1661 he was committed to the Tower for some +time, but his subsequent history is unknown. + +BAREFOOTED FRIARS. See _Monasticism_. + +BAREGE (ba-r[=a]zh'), a light, open tissue of silk and worsted, or cotton +and worsted, for women's dresses, originally manufactured near Bareges. It +is now made chiefly at Bagneres-de-Bigorre. + +BAREGES (b[.a]-r[=a]zh), a watering-place, south of France, department +Hautes-Pyrenees, about 4000 feet above the sea, celebrated for its thermal +springs, which are frequented for rheumatism, scrofula, &c. The place is +hardly inhabited except in the bathing season, June till September. + +BAREGINE (ba-r[=a]zh'in; from _Bareges_), a gelatinous product of certain +algae growing in sulphuric mineral springs, and imparting to them the +colour and odour of flesh-broth. + +BAREILLY (ba-r[=a]'li), a town of Hindustan, in the United Provinces, +capital of a district of same name, on a pleasant and elevated site. It has +a fort and cantonments, a Government college, and manufactures +sword-cutlery, gold and silver lace, perfumery, furniture and upholstery. +On the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny the native garrison took possession of +the place, but it was retaken by Lord Clyde in May, 1858. Pop. +129,462.--The district has an area of 1595 sq. miles; pop. 1,089,550. + +BAR'ENTS, William, a Dutch navigator of the end of the sixteenth century, +who, on an expedition intended to reach China by the North-East Passage, +discovered Novaya Zemlya. He wintered there in 1596-7, and died before +reaching home. + +BARET'TI, Joseph, an Italian writer, born at Turin, 1719. In 1748 he came +to England, and in 1753 published in English a _Defence of the Poetry of +Italy against the Censures of M. Voltaire_. In 1760 he brought out a useful +_Italian and English Dictionary_. After an absence of six years, during +part of which he edited the _Frusta Letteraria_ (Literary Scourge) at +Venice, he returned to England, and in 1768 published an _Account of the +Manners and Customs of Italy_. Not long after, in defending himself in a +street brawl, he stabbed his assailant and was tried for murder at the Old +Bailey but acquitted, Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, Reynolds, and +Beauclerk giving testimony to his good character. An _English and Spanish +Dictionary_, and various other works, followed before his death in 1789. + +BARFLEUR (b[.a]r-fl_eu_r), at one time the best port on the coast of +Normandy, and the reputed port from which William the Conqueror sailed. It +was destroyed in the year 1346 by Edward III. Present pop. 1304. + +BARFRUSH', or BARFURUSH', Same as _Balfroosh_. + +BARGAIN AND SALE, a legal term denoting the contract by which lands, +tenements, &c., are transferred from one person to another. See +_Conveyancing_. + +BARGE, a term similar in origin to _barque_, but generally used of a +flat-bottomed boat of some kind, whether used for loading and unloading +vessels, or as a canal-boat, or as an ornamental boat of state or pleasure. + +[Illustration: Barge-board or gable-end of Manor House, Bramley, Hants.] + +BARGE-BOARD (perhaps a corruption of _verge-board_), in architecture, a +board generally pendent from the eaves of gables, so as to conceal the +rafters, keep out rain, &c. They are sometimes elaborately ornamented. The +portion of the roof projecting from the wall at the gable-end, and beneath +which the barge-board runs, is termed the _barge-course_. + +BARHAM (bar'am), Rev. Richard Harris, a humorous writer, born in 1788 at +Canterbury; educated at St. Paul's School, London, and at Brasenose, +Oxford; appointed in succession curate of Ashford, curate of Westwell, +rector of Snargate in Romney Marsh, and one of the minor canons of St. +Paul's Cathedral. He published two novels, _Baldwin_ and _My Cousin +Nicholas_, wrote nearly a third of the articles in Gorton's _Biographical +Dictionary_, and contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_. In 1824 he was +appointed priest in ordinary of the Chapel Royal, and afterwards rector of +St. Mary Magdalene and St. Gregory-by-St.-Paul, London. In 1837, on the +starting of _Bentley's Miscellany_, he laid the main foundation of his +literary fame by the publication in that periodical of the _Ingoldsby +Legends_. He died in 1845. + +BARHEBRAE'US. See _Abulfaragius_. + +BARI (bae'r[=e]; ancient, BARIUM), a seaport, S. Italy, on a small +promontory of the Adriatic, capital of the province Terra di Bari. It was a +place of importance as early as the third century B.C., and has been thrice +destroyed and rebuilt. The present town, though poorly built for the most +part, has a large Norman castle, a fine cathedral and priory, &c. It +manufactures cotton and linen goods, hats, soap, glass, and liqueurs; has a +trade in wine, grain, almonds, oil, &c., and is now an important seaport. +In 1915 the town suffered considerably from floods. Pop. 109,218.--The +province has an area of 2048 sq. miles, and is fertile in fruit, wine, oil, +&c.; pop. 935,982. + +BARI, a negro people of Africa, dwelling on both sides of the White Nile, +between lat. 3deg 30' and 6deg N. They practise agriculture, +cattle-rearing, smithwork, &c. Their country was conquered by Baker for +Egypt. + +BARIL'LA, is the commercial name for impure sodium carbonate imported from +Spain and the Levant. At one time all sodium carbonate required for +industrial purposes was prepared from barilla obtained by burning various +marine plants (Salsola, Salicornia, and others). Only 25 per cent of the +weight of the ash contained soda, and consequently its import was expensive +and considerably added to the price of the manufacture of glass and soap. +During the Napoleonic wars the price of barilla rose to such a height that +Napoleon offered a reward for the discovery of a process for the +manufacture of sodium carbonate. A chemist, Leblanc, in 1791 invented a new +process by which sodium carbonate could be obtained from common salt, and +this entirely superseded barilla. Plants are still grown in Southern France +and Spain to obtain soda and other substances from the ash; but almost all +the sodium carbonate of the present day is manufactured chemically. + +BARING, the name of a famous English family of bankers and financiers, +statesmen and diplomats, from which has arisen the financial house of +Baring Brothers & Co., and of which members now hold four peerages, namely, +two earldoms--Northbrook and Cromer--and two baronies--Ashburton and +Revelstoke. The founder of the house was Francis Baring (1740-1810), whose +father was a cloth manufacturer near Exeter, and grandfather pastor of the +Lutheran Church at Bremen, the family being thus of German origin. Francis +Baring settled in London, attained a high position in the mercantile and +financial world, was long a member of Parliament and a director of the East +India Company, and was made a baronet in 1793. Of his sons, one, Alexander, +was created Baron Ashburton (in 1835), and rendered important political +services in connection with the boundary treaty concluded between Britain +and the United States, and known by his title (see _Ashburton_, _Ashburton +Treaty_). His son, the second Lord Ashburton (1799-1864), held a position +of some note in politics, and his first wife, a daughter of the sixth Earl +of Sandwich, was fond of the society of both politicians and literary men, +among those who were on friendly terms with her being Carlyle and +Thackeray. Sir Francis Baring's eldest son, Thomas, was father of Francis +Thornhill Baring, first Lord Northbrook (1796-1866), whose eldest son, +Thomas, was created Earl of Northbrook in 1876, and held successively a +number of high positions, among them that of Viceroy of India (1872-6) and +First Lord of the Admiralty (1880-5). (See _Northbrook_.) Another son of +Sir Francis, Henry Baring, was father of Edward Baring, the first Baron +Revelstoke (born in 1828, died in 1897), who was long one of the most +conspicuous members of the financial world of London, and was raised to the +peerage as baron in 1885. He had full management of the great house of +Baring Brothers, which under him was long most prosperous, but in 1890 fell +into temporary difficulties. Henry Baring was father also of Evelyn Baring, +Earl Cromer (q.v.). + +BARING-GOULD (b[=a]-ring-g[=o]ld'), Sabine, English clergyman and author, +born at Exeter, 1834. Educated at Cambridge, he held several livings in the +English Church, and in 1881 became rector of Lew Trenchard, Devon. After +publishing several books on theological and miscellaneous subjects, he +distinguished himself as a novelist. Among his works are: _Iceland, its +Scenes and Sagas_; _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_; _The Origin and +Development of Religious Belief_; _Lives of the Saints_ (in 15 vols.); +_Village Sermons_; _The Vicar of Morwenstowe_ (an account of the Rev. R. S. +Hawker); _The Mystery of Suffering_; _History of the Church in Germany_; +_The Tragedy of the Caesars_; _Cliff Castles and Cave Dwellings_; _The +Church Revival_; &c.; besides the novels _Mehalah_, _John Herring_, +_Richard Cable_, _The Gaverocks_, _Court Royal_, _The Pennycomequicks_, +&c.; and short stories or novelettes. + +BARINGO, a lake in Africa, N.E. of the Victoria Nyanza, about 20 miles +long. + +BAR'ITONE, or BAR'YTONE, a male voice, the compass of which partakes of +those of the common bass and the tenor, but does not extend so far +downwards as the one, nor to an equal height with the other. Its best tones +are from the lower A of the bass clef to the lower F in the treble. + +BA'RIUM (from the Gr. _barys_, heavy), the metal of which _baryta_ is the +oxide; specific gravity 4; symbol Ba. It is only found in compounds, such +as the common sulphate (or _barytes_) and carbonate, and was isolated by +Davy in 1808. It is a yellow malleable metal, which readily oxidizes, +decomposes water, and fuses at a low temperature. Its nitrate and chlorate +are used in pyrotechny. Barium salts, when brought into a non-luminous +flame, burn with a yellowish-green colour. See _Baryta_. + +[Illustration: Magnified Section of Oak-bark. + +A, Epidermis. B, Cells containing chlorophyll or colouring matter. C, Liber +or Bast. D, Cambium. E, Sapwood.] + +BARK, properly the _periderm_, or outer covering, of woody stems and roots, +composed of dead tissues cut off from the living parts of the organ by one +or more layers of impervious cork. It serves to prevent loss of water, and +also affords protection against animals and fungi. The outermost bark is +continually sloughed in the form of scales (Scots Pine) or sheets (Common +Birch), being regenerated from within by the activity of the cork-cambium +(_phellogen_). Bark is usually rich in waste-products, many of which are of +economic value, such as tannin, gums, &c. Bottle-cork is the bark of the +cork-oak. Bark for tanning is obtained from oak, hemlock-spruce, species of +acacia, &c. Peruvian and Angostura barks, cinnamon, &c., are other useful +barks. As commonly used, bark denotes all the tissues external to the +_cambium_. + +BARK. See _Barque_. + +BARK, PERUVIAN. See _Cinchona_. + +BARKER, Granville, playwright, was born in London in 1877. His principal +plays are: _The Voysey Inheritance_ (1905), _Waste_ (1907), _The Madras +House_ (1910). He has published a book (in which William Archer +collaborated) called _A National Theatre_, and another entitled _The Red +Cross in France_. His revivals of Shakespeare have introduced some new +ideas of mounting and stage-effects. + +BARKER'S MILL, also called Scottish turbine, a hydraulic machine on the +principle of what is known as the hydraulic tourniquet. This consists of an +upright vessel free to rotate about a vertical axis, and having at its +lower end two discharging pipes projecting horizontally on either side and +bent in opposite directions at the ends, through which the water is +discharged horizontally, the direction of discharge being mainly at right +angles to a line joining the discharging orifice to the axis. The backward +pressures at the bends of the tubes, arising from the two issuing jets of +water, cause the apparatus to revolve in an opposite direction to the +issuing fluid. The machine was invented by a Dr. Barker towards the end of +the seventeenth century. + +BARKING, a town, England, county of Essex, on the Roding, 7 miles N.E. of +London, with some important manufacturing works. Near it is the outfall of +the sewage of a large part of London. Pop. (1921), 35,543. + +BARKSTON ASH, a parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire. + +BARK-STOVE, or BARK-BED, a sort of hothouse for forcing or for growing +plants that require a great heat combined with moisture, both of which are +supplied by the fermentation that sets up in a bed of spent tanner's bark +contained in a brick pit under glass. + +BAR'LAAM AND JOS'APHAT, a famous mediaeval spiritual romance, which is in +its main details a Christianized version of the Hindu legends of Buddha. +The story first appeared in Greek in the works of Joannes Damascenus in the +eighth century. It is, however, more probably the work of a monk of the +Sabbas monastery, near Jerusalem, and written at the beginning of the +seventh century. The compilers of the _Gesta Romanorum_, Boccaccio, Gower, +and Shakespeare have all drawn materials from it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Max +Mueller, _Chips from a German Workshop_; J. Jacobs, _Barlaam and Josaphat_, +(There is a translation by Rev. G. R. Woodward and H. Mattingly in the Loeb +Library). + +BAR-LE-DUC (b[.a]r-l-d[.u]k), a town of North-East France, capital of +department Meuse, with manufactures of cotton and woollen stuffs, leather, +confectionery, &c. Pop. 17,068. + +BARLET'TA, a seaport in South Italy, province of Bari, on the Adriatic, +with a fine Gothic cathedral; it has a considerable export trade in grain, +wine, almonds, &c. Pop. 44,233. + +BAR'LEY, the name of several cereal plants of the genus Hordeum, ord. +Gramineae: (grasses), yielding a grain used as food and also for making +malt, from which are prepared beer, porter, and whisky. Barley has been +known and cultivated from remote antiquity, and beer was made from it among +the Egyptians. It is mentioned in _Exodus_, in connection with the ten +plagues; and it is referred to in ancient Chinese records. Excellent barley +is produced in Britain. The species principally cultivated are _Hord[)e]um +dist[)i]chum_, two-rowed barley; _H. vulg[=a]re_, four-rowed barley; and +_H. hexastichum_, six-rowed, of which the small variety is the sacred +barley of the ancients. The varieties of the four- and six-rowed species +are generally coarser than those of the two-rowed, and adapted for a poorer +soil and more exposed situation. Some of these are called _bere_ or _bigg_. +In Britain barley occupies more than 22-1/2 per cent of the land under +corn, but in N. America the extent of it as a crop is comparatively small, +being in Canada, however, relatively greater than in the States, and the +Canadian barley is of very high quality. Barley is better adapted for cold +climates than any other grain, and some of the coarser varieties are +cultivated where no other cereal can be grown. Russia devotes a surface of +over 20,000,000 acres to barley, i.e. a little under 11 per cent of the +cereal area of the country. Germany has 4,000,000 and France 1,800,000 +acres of barley. Some species of the genus, three of which are natives of +Britain, are mere grasses. _Pot_ or _Scotch barley_ is the grain deprived +of the husk in a mill. _Pearl barley_ is the grain polished and rounded and +deprived of husk and pellicle. _Patent barley_ is the farina obtained by +grinding pearl barley. _Barley-water_, a decoction of pearl barley, is used +in medicine as possessing emollient, diluent, and expectorant qualities. + +BARLEY-SUGAR. See _Confectionery_; _Sugar_. + +BAR'LOW, Joel, an American poet and diplomatist, born 1755. After an active +and changeful life as chaplain, lawyer, editor, land-agent, lecturer, and +consul, he went to Paris and acquired a fortune. On his return to America +he was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to France (1811), but died near +Cracow in 1812 on his way to meet Napoleon. His principal poem, _The +Columbiad_ (_The Vision of Columbus_), dealing with American history from +the time of Columbus, was published in 1807. + +BARM. See _Yeast_. + +BAR'MECIDES (-s[=i]dz), a distinguished Persian family, whose virtues and +splendour form a favourite subject with Mahommedan poets and historians. +Two eminent members of this family were Khaled-ben-Barmek, tutor of Haroun +al Rashid, and his son Yahya, grand vizier of Haroun. The expression +_Barmecide Feast_, meaning a visionary banquet or make-believe +entertainment, originates from the Barber's story of his Sixth Brother in +the _Arabian Nights' Entertainments_. + +BAR'MEN, a German city on the Wupper, in the Prussian Rhine Province, +government of Duesseldorf, and forming a continuation of the town of +Elberfeld, in the valley of Barmen. It has extensive ribbon and other +textile manufactures; also dyeworks, manufactures of chemicals, metal +wares, buttons, yarns, iron, machines, pianos, organs, soap, &c. In 1919 +Barmen was the scene of Spartacist disorders. Pop. 169,214. + +BARMOUTH, Welsh name ABERMAW, a small seaport and watering-place of Wales, +in Merionethshire, at the entrance of Barmouth Bay, a fine estuary. It is +picturesquely situated, and has become a favourite resort of tourists and +others. Pop. (1921), 3559. + +BAR'NABAS, the surname, according to _Acts_, iv, 36-7, given by the +apostles to Joseph, a fellow-labourer of St. Paul, and, like him, ranked as +an apostle. He is said to have founded at Antioch the first Christian +community, to have been first Bishop of Milan, and to have suffered +martyrdom at Cyprus. His festival is held on the 11th June. + +BARNABAS, SAINT, EPISTLE OF, an epistle in twenty-one chapters unanimously +ascribed to Barnabas by early Christian writers, but without any support of +internal evidence. It was probably written about A.D. 130 (or, according to +others, between A.D. 70 and 79) by one who was not a Jew, and under the +influence of Alexandrian Judaistic thought. See _Codex_ (_Sinaiticus_). + +BARNABITES, an order of monks founded in Milan in 1530 and named after the +Milan church of St. Barnabas which was allotted them to preach in. On their +expulsion from France in 1905, the majority of the Barnabites sought refuge +in England. A few monasteries of the order still exist in Italy, Belgium, +Austria, and Spain. + +[Illustration: Barnacles hanging from timber] + +BAR'NACLE, the name of a family (Lepadidae) of marine crustaceous animals, +ord. Cirripedia. They are enveloped by a mantle and shell, composed of five +principal valves and several smaller pieces, joined together by a membrane +attached to their circumference; and they are furnished with a long, +flexible, fleshy stalk or peduncle, provided with muscles, by which they +attach themselves to ships' bottoms, submerged timber, &c. They feed on +small marine animals, brought within their reach by the water and secured +by their tentacula. Some of the larger species are edible. According to an +old fable, these animals produced barnacle geese. + +BARNACLE GOOSE (_Anser Bernicla_ or _leucopsis_), a summer visitant of the +northern seas, in size rather smaller than the common wild goose, and +having the forehead and cheeks white, the upper body and neck black. A +fable asserts that the crustaceans called barnacles changed into geese, and +various theories have been framed to account for its origin. Max Mueller +supposes the geese were originally called _Hiberniculae_ or Irish geese, +and that barnacle is a corruption of this; but the resemblance of a +barnacle to a goose hanging by the head may account for it. The Brent Goose +is also sometimes called the Barnacle Goose, but the two should not be +confused. + +BARNARD-CASTLE, a town, England, County Durham, giving name to a +parliamentary division of the county. There are a large thread-mill and +carpet manufactories; the Bowes Museum and Art Gallery, endowed by private +munificence, and costing over L80,000; and the Northern Counties School, +richly endowed. The castle was originally built about 1178 by Bernard +Baliol, grandfather of John Baliol. Pop. 4737. + +BARNAR'DO, Thomas John, philanthropist, born in Ireland in 1845, qualified +as a medical practitioner, studying in London, Edinburgh, and Paris, +established his first home for neglected London children in 1867, and for +the rest of his life was engaged in the same class of work. Up to his death +in 1905 he had nearly 60,000 destitute waifs cared for and trained in the +institutions with which his name is connected, many of the children having +been sent to Canada or other colonies. The Barnardo homes and institutions +have become very numerous, being established in various English counties as +well as in London, a few being in Canada. A naval training-school for boys +is included among them. It was a rule of the founder that no destitute +child should be refused admission. The homes have since 1899 been under a +council or body incorporated under the title of the National Incorporated +Waifs Association, but continue to be managed on the same lines as before. +Dr. Barnardo published _Something Attempted, Something Done_; _The Rescue +of Waifs_; &c.--Cf. J. H. Batt, _Dr. Barnardo, the Foster-father of +Nobody's Children_. + +BARNAUL', a town of Siberia, government of Tomsk, on the Barnaulski, near +its influx into the Obi. The town is of wood but well built, with museum, +observatory, &c. It is an important mining centre for lead, copper, and +silver, has a copper-mint, kilns, and factories. Pop. 61,330. + +BARNAVE (b[.a]r-naev), Antoine-Pierre-Joseph-Marie, a distinguished French +revolutionist, born 1761, died 1793. He successfully maintained against +Mirabeau the right of the National Assembly, as against that of the king, +to declare for peace or war, but afterwards asserted the inviolability of +the king's person. He was impeached, condemned, and guillotined. + +BARNES, an urban district of England, in Surrey, on the right bank of the +Thames, a short distance above London, connected with Middlesex by +Hammersmith Suspension Bridge. There is here a common of 120 acres, one of +the preserved open spaces of the metropolitan area. Pop. (1921), 34,281. + +BARNES (baernz), Albert, theologian, born in the State of New York, 1798. +In 1825 he was ordained pastor of the Presbyterian Church of Morristown, +New Jersey, and from 1830 till his death in 1870 had charge of the first +Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia. He is chiefly known by his _Notes on +the New Testament_ and _Notes on the Old Testament_. + +BARNES, Rt. Hon. George Nicoll, British Labour leader, born at Dundee, in +Scotland, in 1859. After working as an engineer he became assistant +secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers in 1892, and was general +secretary from 1896 to 1906. He entered Parliament in 1906, became Minister +for Pensions in 1916, member of War Cabinet in 1917, and was Minister +without portfolio from 1919 to Jan., 1920. He was a British representative +at the Peace Conference in Paris. + +BARNES, William, English dialect poet and philologist, born in Dorsetshire +in 1800, died 1886. Of humble birth, he first entered a solicitor's office, +then taught at a school in Dorchester, and having taken orders became +rector of Winterbourne Came in his native county and died there. He +acquired a knowledge of many languages, and published works on Anglo-Saxon +and English, as _An Anglo-Saxon Delectus_, _A Philological Grammar_ +(grounded upon English), _Grammar and Glossary of the Dorset Dialect_, &c., +but is best known by his _Poems of Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect_ and +_Poems of Rural Life in Common English_. + +BAR'NET, a town of England, in Herts, 11 miles from London, where was +fought in 1471 a battle between the Yorkists and Lancastrians, resulting in +the defeat of the latter and the death of Warwick, Edward IV being thus +established king. Pop. (1921), 11,772. + +BARNETT, John, musical composer, son of Bernhard Beer, a German, born at +Bedford 1802, died 1890. He composed music as a lad, and his songs and +ballads soon had great vogue. In 1834 his opera _The Mountain Sylph_ was +produced with success, and three years after was followed by the less +successful _Fair Rosamond_. For many years before his death he was little +heard of. + +BARNETT, John Francis, nephew of the former, born in 1837, died in 1916, +was also a distinguished musician and teacher, author of cantatas: _The +Ancient Mariner_, _Paradise and the Peri_, _The Raising of Lazarus_, _The +Building of the Ship_, and of various other works. + +BARNEVELDT (baer'ne-velt), Johan van Olden, grand pensionary of Holland +during the struggle with Philip II of Spain, born in 1547. After the +assassination of William of Orange, and the conquest of the south provinces +by the Spaniards under Parma, he headed the embassy to secure English aid. +Finding, however, that the Earl of Leicester proved a worse than useless +ally, he secured the elevation of the young Maurice of Nassau to the post +of Stadtholder, at the same time by his own wise administration doing much +to restore the prosperity of the State. After serving as ambassador to +France and England, he succeeded in 1607 in obtaining from Spain a +recognition of the independence of the States, and two years later in +concluding with her the twelve years' truce. Maurice, ambitious of absolute +rule and jealous of the influence of Barneveldt, was interested in the +continuance of the war, and lost no opportunity of hostile action against +the great statesman. In this he was aided by the strongly-marked theologic +division in the State between the Gomarites (the Calvinistic and popular +party) and the Arminians, of whom Barneveldt was a supporter. Maurice, who +had thrown in his lot with the Gomarites, encouraged the idea that the +Arminians were the friends of Spain, and procured the assembly of a synod +at Dort (1618), which violently condemned them. Barneveldt and his friends +Grotius and Hoogerbeets were arrested, and subjected to a so-called trial; +and Barneveldt, to whom the country owed its political existence and the +Commons their retention of legislative power, was beheaded on 13th May, +1619. His sons, four years later, attempted to avenge his death; one was +beheaded, the other escaped to Spain. + +BARNOLDSWICK, an urban district of England, West Riding of Yorkshire, 9 +miles south-west of Skipton, with cotton manufactures and other industries. +Pop. (1921), 11,951. + +BARNS'LEY, a municipal borough of England, West Riding of Yorkshire. Its +staple industries are the manufacture of linens, iron, and steel, and there +are numerous collieries in the neighbourhood. Created a parliamentary +borough in 1918, Barnsley returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921), +53,670. + +BARN'STAPLE, a county and municipal borough in England, county of Devon, +giving its name to a parliamentary division of the county on the right bank +of the Taw, where it receives the Yeo; manufactures of lace, paper, +pottery, furniture, toys and turnery, and leather. Pop. 14,409. + +BAROACH. See _Broach_. + +BARO'DA, a non-tributary State, but subordinate to the Indian Government, +situated in the north of the Bombay presidency. It consists of a number of +detached territories in the province of Guzerat, and is generally level, +fertile, and well cultivated, producing luxuriant crops of grain, cotton, +tobacco, opium, sugar-cane, and oil-seeds. There is a famous breed of large +white oxen used as draught cattle. Area, 8182 sq. miles; pop. (1911) +2,032,798. The ruler is called the _Gaekwar_. The dissensions of the Baroda +family have more than once called for British intervention, and in 1875 the +ruling Gaekwar was tried and deposed in connection with the charge of +attempting to poison the British Resident. Since 1908 there is a +Legislative Council of 17 members.--_Baroda_, the capital, is the third +city in the Bombay presidency. It consists of the city proper within the +walls and the suburbs without, and is largely composed of poor and crowded +houses, but has also some fine buildings, and is noted for its Hindu +temples kept up by the State. Pop. 99,345.--Cf. E. St. C. Weeden, _A Year +with the Gaekwar of Baroda_. + +BAROGRAPH, a kind of aneroid barometer, which, by means of special +mechanism and appliances, is made to furnish automatically a continuous +record of the successive changes in atmospheric pressure. The paper that +receives the record is made to move by clockwork while in contact with the +index pencil, which rises and falls according to alterations of atmospheric +pressure. + +BAROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the weight or pressure of the +atmosphere and thus determining changes in the weather, the height of +mountains, and other phenomena. It had its origin about the middle of the +seventeenth century in an experiment of Torricelli, an Italian, who found +that if a glass tube about 3 feet in length, open at one end only, and +filled with mercury, were placed vertically with the open end in a cup of +the same fluid metal, a portion of the mercury descended into the cup, +leaving a column only about 30 inches in height in the tube. He inferred, +therefore, that the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the mercury in +the cup forced it up the tube to the height of 30 inches, and that this was +so because the weight of a column of air from the cup to the top of the +atmosphere was only equal to that of a column of mercury of the same base +and 30 inches high. Pascal confirmed the conclusion in 1645; six years +afterwards it was found by Perrier that the height of the mercury in the +Torricellian tube varied with the weather; and in 1655 Boyle proposed to +use the instrument to measure the height of mountains. + +[Illustration: Common Upright Barometer; Marine Barometer] + +The common or _cistern_ barometer, which is a modification of the +Torricellian tube, consists of a glass tube 33 inches in length and about +one-third of an inch in diameter, hermetically sealed at the top, and +having the lower end resting in a small vessel containing mercury, or bent +upwards and terminating in a glass bulb partly occupied by the mercury and +open to the atmosphere. The tube is first filled with purified mercury, and +then inverted, and there is affixed to it a scale to mark the height of the +mercurial column, which comparatively seldom rises above 31 inches or sinks +below 28 inches. In general the rising of the mercury presages fair +weather, and its falling the contrary, a great and sudden fall being the +usual presage of a storm. The weather-points on the ordinary barometric +scale are as follows: At 28 inches, stormy weather; 28-1/2, much rain or +snow; 29, rain or snow; 29-1/2, changeable; 30, fair or frost; 30-1/2, +settled fair or frost; 31, very dry weather or hard frost. Certain +attendant signs, however, have also to be noted: thus, when fair or foul +weather follows almost immediately upon the rise or fall of the mercury, +the change is usually of short duration; while if the change of weather be +delayed for some days after the variation in the mercury, it is usually of +long continuance. The direction of the wind has also to be taken into +account. + +[Illustration: Siphon Barometer; Wheel Barometer] + +The _siphon_ barometer consists of a bent tube, generally of uniform bore, +having two unequal legs, the longer closed, the shorter open. A sufficient +quantity of mercury having been introduced to fill the longer leg, the +instrument is set upright, and the mercury takes such a position that the +difference of the levels in the two legs represents the pressure of the +atmosphere. In the best siphon barometers there are two scales, one for +each leg, the divisions on one being reckoned upwards, and on the other +downwards from an intermediate zero point, so that the sum of the two +readings is the difference of levels of the mercury in the two branches. + +The _wheel_ barometer is the one that is most commonly used for domestic +purposes. It is far from being accurate, but it is often preferred for +ordinary use on account of the greater range of its scale, by which small +differences in the height of the column of mercury are more easily +observed. It usually consists of a siphon barometer having a float resting +on the surface of the mercury in the open branch, a thread attached to the +float passing over a pulley, and having a weight as a counterpoise to the +float at its extremity. As the mercury rises and falls the thread and +weight turn the pulley, which again moves the index of the dial. + +The _mountain_ barometer is a portable mercurial barometer with a tripod +support and a long scale for measuring the altitude of mountains. To +prevent breakage, through the oscillations of such a heavy liquid as +mercury, it is usually carried inverted, or it is furnished with a movable +basin and a screw, by means of which the mercury may be forced up to the +top of the tube. For delicate operations, such as the measurement of +altitudes, the scale of the barometer is furnished with a nonius or +vernier, which greatly increases the minuteness and accuracy of the scale. +For the rough estimate of altitudes the following rule is sufficient: As +the sum of the heights of the mercury at the bottom and top of the mountain +is to their difference, so is 52,000 to the height to be measured, in feet. +(See also _Heights, Measurement of_.) In exact barometric observations two +corrections require to be made, one for the depression of the mercury in +the tube by capillary attraction, the other for temperature, which +increases or diminishes the bulk of the mercury. In regard to the +measurement of heights, the general rule is to subtract the ten-thousandth +part of the observed altitude for every degree of Fahrenheit above 32deg. + +[Illustration: Aneroid Barometer] + +In the _aneroid_ barometer, as its name implies (Gr. _a_, not, _n[=e]ros_, +liquid), no fluid is employed, the action being dependent upon the +susceptibility to atmospheric pressure shown by a flat circular metallic +chamber from which the air has been partially exhausted, and which has a +flexible top and bottom of corrugated metal plate. By an ingenious +arrangement of springs and levers the depression or elevation of the +surface of the box is registered by an index on the dial, by which means it +is also greatly magnified, being given in inches to correspond with the +mercurial barometer. Aneroids are, however, generally less reliable than +mercurial barometers, with which they should be frequently compared. The +illustration shows an aneroid without its case. At the centre of the +partially exhausted metal chamber is a small pillar [M], connected with a +steel spring [R]. The rise and fall of the top of the chamber, due to +changing atmospheric pressure, is transmitted by means of the levers [L], +and [_m_] to a metallic axis [_r_], and this axis carries a lever [_t_], +whose end is attached to a chain [_s_], which turns a drum on whose axis +the index needle is fixed.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Abbe, _Meteorological +Apparatus_; Marvin, _Barometers and the Measurement of Atmospheric +Pressure_. + +BAR'ON, originally, in the feudal system, the vassal or immediate tenant of +any superior; but the term was afterwards restricted to the king's barons, +and again to the greater of these only, who attended the Great Council, or +who, at a later date, were summoned by writ to Parliament. It was the +second rank of nobility, until dukes and marquesses were introduced and +placed above the earls, and viscounts also set above the barons, who +therefore now hold the lowest rank in the British peerage. The present +barons are of three classes: (1) barons by writ, whose ancestors have long +sat in the Upper House; (2) by patent; (3) by tenure, i.e. holding the +title as annexed to land. The coronet is a plain gold circle with six balls +or 'pearls' on its edge, the cap being of crimson velvet. + +BARON AND FEME, a term used for husband and wife in English law. + +BAR'ONET, a hereditary dignity in Great Britain and Ireland, next in rank +to the peerage, originally instituted by James I in 1611, nominally to +promote the colonization and defence of Ulster, each baronet, on his +creation, being then obliged to pay into the treasury a sum of L1095, +exclusive of fees. Baronets of Ireland were instituted in 1620, and of +Scotland in 1625, the latter being called baronets of Nova Scotia, because +their creation was originally intended to further the colonization of Nova +Scotia. But the baronets of Scotland and of England have been baronets of +Great Britain if created since 1707; since 1801 all creations have been +known as baronetcies of the United Kingdom. A baronet has the title of +'Sir' prefixed to his Christian and surname, and his wife is 'Lady' +so-and-so. Baronets rank before all knights except Knights of the Garter, +the Thistle, and St. Patrick. They have as their badge a 'bloody hand' (the +arms of Ulster), that is, a left hand, erect and open, cut off at the +wrist, and red in colour.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pixley, _History of the +Baronetage_; G. E. Cokayne, _Complete Baronetage_; _The Baronetage under 27 +Sovereigns, 1309-1910_. + +BARO'NIUS, or BARONIO, Caesar, Italian ecclesiastical historian, born 1538; +educated at Naples; in 1557 went to Rome; was one of the first pupils of +St. Philip of Neri, and member of the oratory founded by him; afterwards +cardinal and librarian of the Vatican Library. He owed these dignities to +the services which he rendered the Church by his _Ecclesiastical Annals_, +comprising valuable documents from the papal archives, on which he laboured +from the year 1580 until his death, 30th June, 1607. They were continued, +though with less power, by other writers, of whom Raynaldus takes the first +rank; others are Laderchi and Theiner. + +BARON OF BEEF, two sirloins not cut asunder. + +BARONS' WAR, the war carried on for several years by Simon de Montfort and +other barons of Henry III against the king, beginning in 1263. + +BARONY, a manor or landed estate under a baron, who formerly had certain +rights of jurisdiction in his barony and could hold special courts. In +Ireland baronies are still the chief subdivisions of the counties. + +BAROSMA. See _Bucku_. + +BAROT'SELAND, a former kingdom of South Africa, now a part of Rhodesia. + +BAROUCHE (ba-roesh'), a four-wheeled carriage with a falling top and two +inside seats in which four persons can sit, two facing two. + +BARQUE (baerk), a three-masted vessel of which the fore-mast and main-mast +are square-rigged, but the mizzen-mast has fore-and-aft sails only. + +BARQUISIMETO (b[.a]r-k[=e]-s[=e]-m[=a]'t[=o]), a city in the north of the +Republic of Venezuela, capital of the State of Lara. Pop. about 32,000. + +BAR'RA, or BAR, a small kingdom in Africa, near the mouth of the Gambia. +The Mandingoes, who form a considerable part of the inhabitants, are +Mahommedans and the most civilized people on the Gambia. Pop. 200,000. The +coast here belongs to Britain. The chief town is Barrinding, where the +so-called king resides. See _Gambia_. + +BARRA, an island of the Outer Hebrides, west coast of Scotland, belonging +to Inverness-shire; 8 miles long and from 2 to 5 miles broad, of irregular +outline, with rocky coasts, surface hilly but furnishing excellent pasture. +On the west coast the Atlantic, beating with all its force, has hollowed +out vast caves and fissures. Large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are +reared on the island. The coasts of this and adjacent islands abound with +fish, and fishing is an important industry. The inhabitants, about 2500, +are Roman Catholics, and speak Gaelic. + +BARRA, a town about 3 miles east of Naples. Pop. 12,080. + +BARRACAN', or BARRAGAN, strictly, a thick strong stuff made in Persia and +Armenia of camel's hair, but the name has been applied, by Byron and +others, to various wool, flax, and cotton fabrics. + +BAR'RACK (Sp. _barraca_), originally a small cabin or hut for troops, but +now applied to the permanent buildings in which troops are lodged. Despite +the obvious evils of the quartering system, the introduction of barracks by +George III met with considerable opposition in the British Parliament as +dangerous to liberty, by estranging the soldier from the citizen, and +fitting him to become a tool of despotism. + +BARRACKPUR (-poer'), a town and military cantonment, Hindustan, on the left +bank of the Hughli, 10 miles N.N.E. of Calcutta. The suburban residence of +the Viceroy is in Barrackpur Park. Pop. 31,907. + +BARRACOON', a negro barrack or slave depot, formerly plentiful on the west +coast of Africa, in Cuba, Brazil, &c. + +BARRACU'DA, a name for certain large and ferocious fishes of the genus +Sphyraena, and allied to the mullets, inhabiting southern seas, and caught +in abundance for food. + +BARRAFRAN'CA, a town of Sicily, province Caltanissetta. Pop. 11,170. + +BARRAMUN'DA. See _Ceratodus_. + +BARRANQUILLA (b[.a]r-r[.a]n-k[=e]l'y[.a]), a port of S. America, in +Colombia, on a branch of the River Magdalena, near its entrance into the +Caribbean Sea, connected by rail with the seaport Puerto Colombia. Pop. +64,543. + +BARRAS (b[.a]-rae), Paul Francois Jean Nicholas, Comte de, member of the +French National Convention and of the Executive Directory, born in Provence +1755, died 1829. After serving in the army in India and Africa, he joined +the revolutionary party and was a deputy in the _tiers etat_. He took part +in the attack upon the Bastille and upon the Tuileries, and voted for the +death of Louis XVI. In the subsequent events he displeased Robespierre, and +on this account joined the members of the committee, who foresaw danger +awaiting them, and being entrusted with the chief command of the forces of +his party he made himself master of Robespierre. On 4th Feb., 1795, he was +elected president of the Convention, and on 5th Oct., when the troops of +the sections which favoured the royal cause approached, Barras for a second +time received the chief command of the forces of the Convention. On this +occasion he employed General Bonaparte, for whom he procured the chief +command of the army of the interior, and afterwards the command of the army +in Italy. From the events of the 18th Fructidor (4th Sept., 1797) he +governed absolutely until the 13th June, 1799, when Sieyes entered the +Directory, and in alliance with Bonaparte procured his downfall in the +revolution of the 18th Brumaire (9th Nov., 1799). He afterwards resided at +Brussels, Marseilles, Rome, and Montpellier under surveillance. His +_Memoirs_ (in four volumes) were published in French and in English in +1895-6. + +BAR'RATRY, in commerce, any fraud committed by the master or mariners of a +ship, whereby the owners, freighters, or insurers are injured; as by +deviation from the proper course of the voyage, by the captain, for his own +private purposes; fraudulent negligence; embezzlement of any part of the +cargo, &c. + +BARRATRY, COMMON, in law, the stirring up of lawsuits and quarrels between +other persons, the party guilty of this offence being indictable as a +_common barrator_ or _barretor_. The commencing of suits in the name of a +fictitious plaintiff is common barratry. In old Scots law it denotes the +taking of bribes by a judge. + +BARREL, a well-known variety of wooden vessel; but the term is also used as +a definite measure and weight. A barrel of beer is 36 gallons, of flour 196 +lb., of beef or pork 200 lb. The Italian _barile_ varies from 7 to 31 +English gallons; the French _barrique_ of Bordeaux contains 50 English +gallons = 228 French litres. + +BARREL-ORGAN, a musical instrument usually carried by street musicians, in +which a barrel, studded with pegs or staples, when turned round, opens a +series of valves to admit air to a set of pipes, or acts upon wire strings +like those of the piano, thus producing a fixed series of tunes. + +BARREN GROUNDS, a large tract in the North-West Territories of Canada, +extending northwards from Churchill River to the Arctic Ocean between Great +Bear and Great Slave Lake and Hudson's Bay. It largely consists of swamps, +lakes, and bare rock. + +BARRHEAD', a town, Scotland, Renfrewshire, on the Levern, 7 miles S.W. of +Glasgow; chief industries: printing of cottons, the spinning of cotton +yarn, dyeing, bleaching, iron and brass founding, and sanitary ware. Pop. +11,387. + +BARRIE, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 55 miles N.W. Toronto, +picturesquely situated on Lake Simcoe, a favourite summer resort. Pop. +6420. + +BARRIE, Sir James Matthew, a novelist and playwright, born in 1860 at +Kirriemuir, Forfarshire; studied at Edinburgh University, graduating as +M.A. in 1882. After working on a Nottingham journal he was a journalist in +London. His first book, _Better Dead_ (1887), a satire on London life, was +followed by the highly successful _Auld Licht Idylls_ (1888), with its +sequel _A Window in Thrums_ (that is, Kirriemuir) (1889). Among his novels +and tales are _When a Man's Single_, _My Lady Nicotine_, _The Little +Minister_, _Sentimental Tommy_, _Tommy and Grizel_, _The Little White +Bird_. Successful plays are _Peter and Wendy_, _The Professor's Love +Story_, _The Little Minister_ (based on the novel), _The Admirable +Crichton_, _Quality Street_, _Little Mary_, _Peter Pan_, _What Every Woman +Knows_, _Dear Brutus_, _A Kiss for Cinderella_, _Mary Rose_. His plays on +the whole have been even more successful than his other works. He was +created a baronet in 1913, and elected Rector of the University of St. +Andrews in 1919.--Cf. J. A. Hammerton, _J. M. Barrie and his Books_. + +BARRIER REEF, a coral reef, or rather series of reefs, extending for 1260 +miles off the N. E. coast of Australia, at a distance from land ranging +from 10 to 100 miles. In sailing along this coast, steamers generally take +the route inside the reef, where there is a channel about 12 fathoms deep +throughout, protected by the reefs themselves; the outer channel is safer +for sailing vessels. + +BARRIER TREATY, the treaty (1718) by which, when the Spanish Netherlands +were ceded to Austria, the Dutch secured the right to garrison several +border fortresses of the country at the expense of Austria, to serve as a +barrier against France. It was declared void in 1781 by Joseph II. + +BAR'RINGTON, Daines, son of Viscount Barrington, lawyer, antiquarian, and +naturalist, born 1727, died 1800. He wrote many papers for the Royal +Society and the Society of Antiquaries; published some separate works, and +was a correspondent of White of Selborne, who addressed to him a number of +the letters in _The Natural History of Selborne_. + +BAR'RISTER, in England or Ireland, an advocate or pleader, who has been +admitted by one of the Inns of Court, viz. the Inner Temple, Middle Temple, +Lincoln's Inn, or Gray's Inn, to plead at the bar. It is they who speak +before all the higher courts, being instructed in regard to the case they +have in hand by means of the _brief_ which they receive from the solicitor +who may happen to engage their services, and which has a certain fee +endorsed upon it as the sum to be paid for the barrister's services in the +case. Before a student can be admitted to the bar he must have been a +member of one of those societies, and have kept twelve terms there. The +examinations, which had dwindled into mere forms, have been revived and +made more stringent. Barristers are sometimes called _utter_ or _outer +barristers_, to distinguish them from the king's counsel, who sit within +the bar in the courts and are distinguished by a silk gown. Barristers are +also spoken of as _counsel_, as in the phrase _opinion of counsel_, that +is, a written opinion on a case obtained from a barrister before whom the +facts have been laid. All judges are selected from the barristers. A +barrister cannot maintain an action for his fees, which are considered +purely honorary. A _revising barrister_ is a barrister appointed to revise +the list of persons in any locality who have a vote for a member of +Parliament. The term corresponding to barrister is in Scotland _advocate_, +in the United States _counsellor-at-law_; but the position of the latter is +not quite the same.--Cf. J. R. V. Marchant, _Barrister-at-law_. + +BAR'ROS, Joao de, Portuguese historian, born 1496. He was attached to the +Court of King Emmanuel, who, after the publication in 1520 of Barros' +romance, _The Emperor Clarimond_, urged him to undertake a history of the +Portuguese in India, which appeared thirty-two years later. King John III +appointed Barros Governor of the Portuguese settlements in Guinea, and +General Agent for these colonies, further presenting him in 1530 with the +province of Maranham, in Brazil, for the purpose of colonization. For his +losses by the last enterprise the king indemnified him, and he died in +retirement in 1570. Besides his standard work, the _Decadas_, a history of +the Portuguese in India (a complete edition of which appeared at Lisbon +between 1778 and 1788), he wrote a moral dialogue on compromise, and the +first _Portuguese Grammar_. + +BARRO'SA, a village, Spain, near the S. W. coast of Andalusia, near which +General Graham, when abandoned by the Spaniards, defeated a superior French +force in 1811. + +BAR'ROW, a river in the south-east of Ireland, province Leinster, rising on +the borders of the King's and Queen's Counties, and after a southerly +course joining the Suir in forming Waterford harbour. It is next in +importance to the Shannon, and is navigable for vessels of 200 tons for 25 +miles above the sea. Its principal tributary is the Nore. + +BAR'ROW, Isaac, an eminent English mathematician and divine, born in London +in 1630; studied at the Charterhouse and at Trinity College, Cambridge, of +which he became a fellow in 1649. After a course of medical studies he +turned to divinity, mathematics, and astronomy, and took his M. A. degree +in 1652, and, failing to obtain the Cambridge Greek professorship, went +abroad. In 1659 he was ordained; in 1660 elected Greek professor at +Cambridge; in 1662 professor of geometry in Gresham College; and in 1663 +Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge, a post which he resigned to +Newton in 1669. In 1670 he was created D. D., in 1672 master of Trinity +College, and in 1675 vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. He died in +1677. His principal mathematical works (written in Latin) were: _Euclidis +Elementa_ (1655); _Euclidis Data_ (1657); _Mathematicae Lectiones_ +(1664-6); _Lectiones Opticae_ (1669); _Lectiones Geometricae_ (1670); +_Archimedis Opera_; _Apollonii Conicorum lib. iv_; _Theodosii Spherica_, +(1675). All his English works, which are theological, were left in MS., and +published by Dr. Tillotson in 1685, the best edition being that prepared by +the Rev. A. Napier in 1859. As a mathematician Barrow was deemed inferior +only to Newton. The Latin edition of his mathematical works was prepared by +Whewell in 1860. + +BARROW, Sir John, Bart., geographer and man of letters, born in 1764 in +Lancashire. At the age of sixteen he went in a whaler to Greenland; and +later on was teacher of mathematics in a school at Greenwich. In 1792 he +was sent with Lord Macartney, in his embassy to China, to take charge of +philosophical instruments for presentation to the Chinese emperor. His +account of this journey was of great value, and not less so was the account +of his travels in South Africa, whither he went in 1797 as secretary to +Macartney. In 1804 he was appointed second secretary to the Admiralty, a +post occupied by him for forty years. In 1835 he was made a baronet; and he +died in 1848, three years after his retirement. Besides the accounts of his +own travels, he published lives of Earl Macartney, Lord Anson, and Lord +Howe; _Voyages of Discovery and Research within the Arctic Regions_; an +_Autobiography_ written at the age of eighty-three, &c. + +BAR'ROW-IN-FUR'NESS, a seaport, county and parliamentary borough of +Lancashire, in the district of Furness, opposite the Island of Walney, a +town that has increased from a fishing-hamlet with 100 inhabitants in 1848 +to a town of 74,254 inhabitants in 1921. Its prosperity is due to the mines +of red hematite iron-ore which abound in the district, and to the railway +rendering its excellent natural harbour available. It has several large +docks, besides graving-docks, a floating dock capable of receiving vessels +of 3000 tons, a large timber pond, &c. There is an extensive trade in +timber, cattle, grain, and flour; and iron-ore and pig-iron are largely +shipped. It has numerous blast-furnaces, and one of the largest +Bessemer-steel works in the world. Besides ironworks, a large business is +done in shipbuilding, the making of railway wagons and rolling-stock, +ropes, sails, bricks, &c. A town hall, erected at a cost of L60,000, was +opened in 1887. Barrow-in-Furness returns one member to Parliament. + +[Illustration: Barrows] + +BAR'ROWS, mounds of earth or stones raised to mark the resting-place of the +dead, and distinguished, according to their shape, as _long_, _bowl_, +_bell_, _cone_, and _broad_ barrows. The practice of barrow-burial is of +unknown antiquity and almost universal, barrows being found all over +Europe, in Northern Africa, Asia Minor, Afghanistan, Western India, and in +America. In the earliest barrows the enclosed bodies were simply laid upon +the ground, with stone or bone implements and weapons beside them. In +barrows of later date the remains are generally enclosed in a stone cist. +Frequently cremation preceded the erection of the barrow, the ashes being +enclosed in an urn or cist. A detailed description of an ancient +barrow-burial is given in the Anglo-Saxon poem _Beowulf_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: +Canon W. Greenwell, _British Barrows_; J. Anderson, _Scotland in Pagan +Times_; W. C. Borlase, _The Dolmens of Ireland_. + +BARROW STRAIT, the connecting channel between Lancaster Sound and Baffin's +Bay on the east and the Polar Ocean on the west. Named after Sir John +Barrow. + +BARRY, a seaport of S. Wales, Glamorganshire, 7 miles south-west of +Cardiff, with large docks, exporting much coal. Pop. (1921), 38,927. + +BAR'RY, Sir Charles, an English architect, born in London, 1795. After +executing numerous important buildings, such as the Reform Clubhouse, +London, St. Edward's School, Birmingham, &c., he was appointed architect of +the new Houses of Parliament at Westminster, with the execution of which he +was occupied for more than twenty-four years. He was elected a Royal +Academician in 1844, was knighted in 1852, and died suddenly in 1860. + +BARRY, Comtesse Du. See _Du Barry_. + +BARRY, Edward Middleton, R.A. (1830-80), son of Sir Charles Barry, was also +a distinguished architect, and designed many important buildings, though he +was disappointed in regard to his plans for the Albert Memorial, National +Gallery, and New Law Courts. + +BARRY, James, a painter and writer on art, born at Cork, 1741; studied +abroad with the aid of Burke; was elected Royal Academician on his return; +and worked seven years on the paintings for the hall of the Society for the +Encouragement of the Arts. His first picture which attracted attention was +_St. Patrick baptizing the King of Cashel_. In 1773 he published his +_Inquiry into the Real and Imaginary Obstructions to the Increase of the +Arts in England_, and in 1782 was elected professor of painting to the +Academy. He was expelled in 1797 on the ground of his authorship of the +_Letter to the Society of Dilettanti_. His chief painting was his _Victors +at Olympia_. He died in 1806. + +BARRY CORNWALL. See _Procter, Bryan Waller_. + +BAR'SABBAS, surnamed Justus, son of Alpheus, brother of James the Less and +of Judas, and one of the candidates for the apostolical office left vacant +by Judas Iscariot. According to tradition, he was afterwards Bishop of +Eleutheropolis, near Jerusalem, and suffered martyrdom. Another Barsabbas, +surnamed Judas, supposed to be the brother of the above, is mentioned in +the _Acts_ as a companion of St. Paul and Barnabas at Antioch. He is +supposed to have died in Jerusalem at a very advanced age. + +BAR-SHOT, a double-headed shot consisting of two pieces connected by a bar. + +BARSI, a town of India, in Sholapur district, Bombay, 43 miles north of +Sholapur and 128 miles east of Poona, with a trade in cotton, oil, &c. Pop. +21,000. + +BAR-SUR-AUBE (b[.a]r-s[.u]r-[=o]b), an ancient town, France, department +Aube, where, in 1814, a hotly-contested action was fought between Napoleon +and the Allies. Pop. 4533. + +BART, BARTH, or BAERT (baert), Jean, a famous French sailor, born at +Dunkirk, 1650, the son of a poor fisherman. He became captain of a +privateer, and after some brilliant exploits was appointed captain in the +royal navy. In recognition of his further services he was made commodore, +subsequently receiving letters of nobility. Brusque, if not vulgar, in +manner, and ridiculed by the Court for his indifference to ceremony, he +made the navy of the nation everywhere respected, and furnished some of the +most striking chapters in the romance of naval warfare. After the Peace of +Ryswick he lived quietly at Dunkirk, and died there while equipping a fleet +to take part in the War of the Spanish Succession, 1702. + +BARTAS (b[.a]r-tae), Guillaume de Salluste du, a French poet, termed 'the +divine' by contemporary English writers, born 1544. Principal work, _La +Semaine ou la Creation du Monde_, a poem on the creation, translated into +English by Joshua Sylvester. It is said to have had a considerable +influence on Milton's _Paradise Lost_. He died of wounds received at Ivry, +1590. + +BARTFELD (b[.a]rt'felt), an old town in Czecho-Slovakia, formerly Hungary, +county of Saros, on the Tepl, with mineral springs in the neighbourhood. +Pop. 6160, mostly Slovaks. + +BARTH (baert), Heinrich, African traveller, born at Hamburg, 1821, died in +1865. He graduated at the University of Berlin as Ph.D. in 1844, and set +out in 1845 to explore all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. +The first volume of his _Wanderungen durch die Kuestenlaender des +Mittelmeeres_ was published in 1849, in which year he was invited by the +British Government to join Dr. Overweg in accompanying Richardson's +expedition to Central Africa. The expedition set out from Tripoli in Feb., +1850, and, in spite of the death both of Richardson and Overweg, Barth did +not return to Tripoli till the autumn of 1855. His explorations, which +extended over an area of about 2,000,000 sq. miles, determined the course +of the Niger and the true nature of the Sahara. The English account of it +was entitled _Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa_ (5 +vols., 1857-8). An important work on the African languages was left +unfinished. + +BARTH, Jean. See _Bart_. + +BARTHELEMY (b[.a]r-t[=a]l-m[=e]), Jean Jacques, French author, born 1716. +He was educated under the Jesuits, for holy orders, but declined all offers +of clerical promotion above the rank of Abbe He gained considerable repute +as a worker in philology and archaeology; and after his appointment as +Director of the Royal Cabinet of Medals, in 1753, spent some time +travelling in Italy collecting medals and antiquities. His best-known work, +not inaptly characterized by himself as an unwieldy compilation, was his +_Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece_ (1787). It was very popular and was +translated into various tongues. Though taking no part in the revolution, +he was arrested on a charge of being an aristocrat in 1793, but was set at +liberty, and subsequently offered the post of librarian of the National +Library. He died in 1795. + +BARTHELMY-SAINT-HILAIRE (b[.a]r-t[=a]l-m[=e]-san-t[=e]-l[=a]r), Jules, +French scholar and statesman, born 1805, died in 1895. He was professor of +Greek and Latin philosophy in the College de France, but resigned the chair +after the _coup d'etat_ of 1852 and refused to take the oath. He was +reappointed in 1862; and in 1869 was returned to the Corps Legislatif. +After the revolution he was a member of the National Assembly; and was +elected Senator for life in 1876. He published a translation of Aristotle, +and works on Buddhism, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, the Vedas, &c. + +BARTHEZ (b[.a]r-t[=a]), Paul Joseph, an eminent French physician, born at +Montpellier 1734, died 1806. At Montpellier he founded a medical school, +which acquired a reputation throughout all Europe. Having settled in Paris, +he was appointed by the king consulting physician, and by the Duke of +Orleans his first physician. The Revolution deprived him of the greatest +part of his fortune, and drove him from Paris, but Napoleon brought him +forth again, and loaded him in his advanced age with dignities. Among his +numerous writings may be mentioned _Nouvelle Mecanique des Mouvements de +l'Homme et des Animaux_; _Traitement des Maladies Goutteuses_; +_Consultation de Medecine_, &c. His _Traite du Beau_ was published +posthumously (1807). + +BARTHOLDI (b[.a]r-tol'd[=e]), Auguste, French sculptor, born 1834, died +1904; best known for his colossal statue of Liberty, now overlooking the +harbour of New York. + +BARTHOLIN (baer'to-lin), Kaspar, Swedish writer, born 1585, died 1630. He +studied medicine, philosophy, and theology; was made doctor of medicine at +Basel in 1610, rector of the University of Copenhagen 1618, and professor +of theology 1624. His _Institutiones Anatomicae_ was for long a standard +textbook in the universities.--His son, Thomas, born at Copenhagen 1616, +died 1680, was equally celebrated as a philologist, naturalist, and +physician. He was professor of anatomy at Copenhagen, 1648; physician to +the king, Christian V, in 1670; and Councillor of State, 1675.--His sons, +Kaspar (born 1654, died 1704) and Thomas (born 1659, died 1690) were also +highly distinguished--the former as an anatomist, the latter as an +archaeologist. + +BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE OF ST., the brutal slaughter of the French +Protestants, which began on 24th Aug., 1572, by secret orders from Charles +IX, at the instigation of his mother, Catherine de' Medici, and in which, +according to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, including women and children, were +murdered throughout the country. During the minority of Charles and the +regency of his mother, a long war raged in France between the Catholics and +Huguenots, the leaders of the latter being the Prince of Conde and Admiral +Coligny. In 1570 overtures were made by the Court to the Huguenots, which +resulted in a treaty of peace. This treaty blinded the chiefs of the +Huguenots, particularly Admiral Coligny, who was tired of the civil war. +The king appeared to have entirely disengaged himself from the influence of +the Guises and his mother; he invited Coligny to his Court, and honoured +him as a father. The most artful means were employed to increase this +delusion. The sister of the king was married to the Prince de Bearn (18th +Aug., 1572) in order to allure the most distinguished Huguenots to Paris. +On 22nd Aug. a shot from a window wounded the admiral. The king hastened to +visit him, and swore to punish the author of the villainy; but on the same +day he was induced by his mother to believe that the admiral had designs on +his life. "God's death!" he exclaimed; "kill the admiral; and not only him, +but all the Huguenots; let none remain to disturb us." The following night +Catherine held the council, which fixed the execution for the night of St. +Bartholomew, 24th Aug., 1572. After the assassination of Coligny, a bell +from the tower of the royal palace at midnight gave to the assembled +companies of burghers the signal for the general massacre of the Huguenots. +The Prince of Conde and the King of Navarre saved their lives by going to +mass and pretending to embrace the Catholic religion. By the king's orders +the massacre was extended throughout the whole kingdom; and the horrible +slaughter continued for thirty days in almost all the +provinces.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry White, _Massacre of St. Bartholomew and +History of the Religious Wars_; Lavisse, _Histoire de France_ (vol. vi). + +BARTHOL'OMEW, ST., the apostle, is probably the same person as _Nathanael_, +mentioned in the _Gospel of St. John_ as an upright Israelite and one of +the first disciples of Jesus. He is said to have taught Christianity in the +south of Arabia, into which, according to Eusebius, he carried the _Gospel +of St. Matthew_ in the Hebrew language, and to have suffered martyrdom. The +ancient Church had an apocryphal gospel bearing his name, of which nothing +has been preserved. A festival is held in his memory on 24th Aug. + +BARTHOLOMEW, ST., or ST. BARTHELEMY, an island, one of the West Indies, in +the Leeward group, belonging to France, about 24 miles in circumference. It +produces some tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, &c. Pop. 3000. The only town +is Gustavia. The island, occupied by France in 1648, was ceded to Sweden in +1784, but was again acquired by France in 1877 at the cost of 275,000 +francs. + +BARTHOLOMEW FAIR, a celebrated fair, established in the reign of Henry I +(1133), formerly held in West Smithfield, London, on St. Bartholomew's Day +(24th Aug., O. S.), but abolished since 1855. + +BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL, ST., one of the great hospitals of London, formerly +the priory of St. Bartholomew, and made a hospital by Henry VIII in 1547. +On an average over 6000 patients are annually admitted to the hospital, +while about 150,000 out-patients are treated at its out-door dispensaries. +A medical school is attached to it, attended by more than four hundred +students. + +BARTHOU, Louis, French statesman, born at Orloron-Sainte-Marie in 1862. He +practised as an advocate until he entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1889. +He was a member of several Cabinets, and was appointed Premier in March, +1913, but resigned in December of the same year. He was Minister of Foreign +Affairs in Painleve's Cabinet during the European War. In April, 1922, he +headed the French delegation to the Genoa Conference. His works include +_Mirabeau_; _Lamartine, Orateur_; _Les Amours d'un Poete_, &c. + +[Illustration: Bartizan, Micklegate Bar, York. + +_a_, _a_, Balistraria] + +BAR'TIZAN, a small overhanging turret pierced with one or more apertures +for archers, projecting generally from the angles on the top of a tower, or +from the parapet, or elsewhere, as in a mediaeval castle. The word, +probably a corruption of _bratticing_, was apparently first used by Sir +Walter Scott. + +BART'LETT, William Henry, an English artist, born 1809, died, on a voyage +from Malta to Marseilles, 1854. He travelled extensively abroad, and the +illustrated works descriptive of the countries visited by him (Switzerland, +the Bosporus and the Danube, Syria and Palestine, Egypt, Canada, United +States, &c.) obtained great success with the public, the engravings being +from sketches by his own pencil. + +BARTOLINI (b[.a]r-to-l[=e]'n[=e]), Lorenzo, a celebrated Italian sculptor, +born at Florence about 1778, died 1850. He studied and worked in Paris, and +was patronized by Napoleon. On the fall of the Empire he returned to +Florence, where he continued to exercise his profession. Among his greater +works may be mentioned his groups of _Charity_, and _Hercules and Lichas_, +a colossal bust of Napoleon, and the beautiful monument in the cathedral of +Lausanne, erected in memory of Lady Stratford Canning. Bartolini ranks next +to Canova among modern Italian sculptors. + +BARTOLOMMEO (-m[=a]'o), Fra, or BACCIO DELLA PORTA (b[.a]ch[=o]'), Italian +painter, born at Florence 1475, died there 1517. He studied painting in +Florence, and acquired a more perfect knowledge of art from the works of +Leonardo da Vinci. He was an admirer and follower of Savonarola, on whose +death he took the Dominican habit, and assumed the name of Fra Bartolommeo. +He was the friend of Michael Angelo and Raphael; painted many religious +pictures, among them a _Saint Mark_ and a _Saint Sebastian_, which are +greatly admired. His colouring, in vigour and brilliancy, comes near to +that of Titian and Giorgione. His _Holy Family_ is in the National Gallery, +London. + +BARTOLOZZI (-lot's[=e]), Francesco, a distinguished engraver, born at +Florence in 1725, or, according to others, in 1730, died at Lisbon 1815. In +Venice, in Florence, and Milan he etched several pieces on sacred subjects, +and then went to London, where he received great encouragement. After forty +years' residence in London, he went to Lisbon on the invitation of the +Prince Regent of Portugal. He became director of the National Academy at +Lisbon, where he remained till his death. + +BAR'TON, Andrew, one of Scotland's first great naval commanders; flourished +during the reign of James IV, and belonged to a family which for two +generations had produced able and successful seamen. In 1497 he commanded +the escort which accompanied Perkin Warbeck from Scotland. After doing +considerable damage to English shipping, he was killed in an engagement +with two ships which had been specially fitted out against him (1512). + +BARTON, Bernard, known as the Quaker poet, born at Carlisle 1784, died +1849. In 1806 he removed to Woodbridge, in Suffolk, where he was long clerk +in a bank. He published _Metrical Effusions_ (1812); _Poems by an Amateur_ +(1818); _Poems_ (1820); _Napoleon, and other Poems_ (1822); _Poetic Vigils_ +(1824); _Devotional Verses_ (1826); _A New-year's Eve, and other Poems_ +(1828); besides many contributions to the annuals and magazines. His +poetry, though deficient in force, is pleasing, fluent, and graceful. +Barton is chiefly remembered as the friend of Charles Lamb, with whom he +began to correspond in 1822. + +BARTON, Elizabeth, a country girl born in 1506 at Aldington, in Kent +(commonly called the Holy Maid or the Nun of Kent), who gained some +notoriety in the reign of Henry VIII. She was subject to epileptic fits, +and was persuaded by certain priests that she was a prophetess inspired by +God. Among other things she prophesied that Henry, if he persisted in his +purpose of divorce and second marriage, would not be king for seven months +longer, and would die a shameful death, and be succeeded by Catherine's +daughter. On arrest the imposture was confessed, and Barton and six others +were executed 5th May, 1534. + +BARTON-UPON-HUMBER, a town of England, in Lincolnshire, on the Humber. It +contains two old churches, one of which is an undoubted specimen of +Anglo-Saxon architecture. Pop. (1921), 6454. + +BARTSCH (b[.a]rch), Karl Friedrich, a German scholar, born in 1832, died in +1888, whose labours have been of immense service in elucidating the older +literature and language of his native country as well as in the field of +the Romance tongues. Among his publications were editions of the +_Nibelungenlied_, _Walther von der Vogelweide_, _Kudrun_, &c.; +_Chrestomathie de l'ancien Francais_; _Provencalisches Lesebuch_; +translations of Burns, of Dante, &c. + +BARTSIA, a genus of Scrophulariaceae, green half-parasites upon roots of +grasses. Three species are British; _B. alpina_ has underground shoots, not +unlike those of the allied Toothwort, with fleshy scale-leaves bearing +water-secreting glands. + +BARU (ba-roe'), a woolly substance used for caulking ships, stuffing +cushions, &c., found at the base of the leaves of an East India sago palm. + +BARUCH (b[=a]'ruk; literally, 'blessed'), a Hebrew scribe, friend and +assistant to the prophet Jeremiah. At the captivity, after the destruction +of Jerusalem, Jeremiah and Baruch were permitted to remain in Palestine, +but were afterwards carried into Egypt, 588 B.C. His subsequent life is +unknown. One of the apocryphal books bears the name of Baruch. The Council +of Trent gave it a place in the canon, but its authenticity was not +admitted either by the ancient Jews or the early Christian fathers. + +BARWOOD, a dyewood obtained from _Pterocarpus angolensis_, a tall tree of +West Africa. It is chiefly used for giving orange-red dyes on cotton yarns. +See _Camwood_; _Sandalwood_. + +BARY'TA, oxide of barium (BaO) is found in nature associated with sulphuric +acid as barium sulphate, heavy-spar or Barytes (BaSO_4), and with carbon +dioxide as barium carbonate or witherite (BaCO_3). Baryta is a heavy +greyish powder of specific gravity 4.7, obtained by burning barium in +oxygen or from barium nitrate or barium carbonate. It has a strong affinity +for water, and combines with it in the evolution of lead and the formation +of barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)_2). Barium oxide is manufactured in quantity +for the preparation of barium dioxide (BaO_2), from which oxygen was at one +time obtained. (See _Oxygen_.) Baryta forms white crystalline salts with +acids, which are all poisonous with the exception of barium sulphate. +Barium hydroxide is soluble in water, forming a strongly-alkaline solution, +Baryta water, which is much used in chemical analysis. Barium sulphate is a +white substance insoluble in water and in acids, and is the source of most +of the barium compounds. Artificially-prepared barium sulphate is used as a +pigment, _Permanent White_, also in the paper industry and in vulcanizing +rubber. Other salts of barium of importance are barium chloride, barium +nitrate, and barium carbonate, used in pyrotechny and in glass manufacture. + +BARYTES (AMERICAN BARITE), a rhombic mineral consisting of barium sulphate +(specific gravity 4.5) occurring in veins and extensive masses as a +subsequent deposit in various rocks. Colourless to brownish, the colourless +massive examples being in great demand as a substitute for white lead in +paint and for other purposes. Barytes is mined in the north of England and +in County Cork. + +BARYTONE. See _Baritone_. + +[Illustration: Basaltic Columns, Fingal's Cave, Island of Staffa] + +BASALT (ba-s[a:]lt'), a well-known igneous rock occurring in the ancient +trap and the recent volcanic series of rocks, but more abundantly in the +former. It is a fine-grained, heavy, crystalline rock, consisting of +felspar, augite, and magnetic iron, and sometimes contains a little +olivine. Basalt is amorphous, columnar, tabular, or globular. The columnar +form is straight or curved, perpendicular or inclined, sometimes nearly +horizontal; the diameter of the columns from 3 to 18 inches, sometimes with +transverse hemispherical joints, in which the convex part of one is +inserted in the concavity of another; and the height from 5 to 150 feet. +The forms of the columns generally are pentagonal, hexagonal, or octagonal. +When decomposed it is found also in round masses, either spherical or +compressed and lenticular. These rounded masses are sometimes composed of +concentric layers, with a nucleus, and sometimes of prisms radiating from a +centre. Fingal's Cave, in the Island of Staffa, furnishes a remarkable +instance of basaltic columns. The pillars of the Giant's Causeway, Ireland, +composed of this stone, and exposed to the roughest sea for ages, have +their angles as perfect as those at a distance from the waves. Basalt often +assumes curious and fantastic forms, as, for example, those masses +popularly known as 'Samson's Ribs' at Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and 'Lot' +and 'Lot's Wife' near the south coast of St. Helena. + +BASCHI (b[.a]s'k[=e]), Matteo, an Italian Minorite friar of the convent of +Montefalcone, founder and first general of the Capuchin branch of the +Franciscans. He died at Venice, 1552. + +BAS'CINET, or BAS'NET, a light helmet, sometimes with, but more frequently +without, a visor, in general use for English infantry in the reigns of +Edward II and III and Richard II. + +BASE, in architecture, that part of a column which is between the top of +the pedestal and the bottom of the shaft; where there is no pedestal, the +part between the bottom of the column and the pavement. The term is also +applied to the lower projecting part of the wall of a room, consisting of a +plinth and its mouldings. + +BASE, in chemistry, a term applied to those compound substances which unite +with acids to form salts. The most important bases are oxides of metals, +and when brought in contact with acids their oxygen combines with the +hydrogen of the acid to form water. They are divided into several sections, +of which the most important are the alkalies. These substances are the +hydrates of the so-called alkaline metals, and may be compared to water in +which part of the hydrogen is replaced by a metallic radicle. Potash, for +instance, is the hydrate of the metal potassium. The alkalies are readily +soluble in water, restore the blue colour to reddened litmus, and give a +green with red cabbage, dahlia, and other vegetable blues, and convert the +yellow of turmeric into a brownish red. Most of the bases, however, are +insoluble in water, and without any effect on vegetable colours. See +_Alkali_; _Acids_. + +BASE, a term in tactics, signifying the original line on which an offensive +army forms; or any safe position from which an army takes the field to +invade an enemy's country; upon which it depends for its supplies, +reinforcements, &c.; to which it sends back its sick and wounded; and upon +which it would generally fall back in case of reverse and retreat. + +BASE-BALL, the national game of the United States of America. It holds the +position there that is held by cricket in England. It is a scientific +development of the old English game of 'rounders', and is played by nine +players a side. A diamond-shaped space of ground, 90 feet on the side, is +marked out, the corners being the 'bases'. One side takes the field and the +other sends a man to bat. When the field side takes its place, the +'pitcher', standing inside the ground near the centre and in front of the +batsman, delivers a ball to the batsman, who stands at the 'home base' +within a certain marked space, and who tries to drive it out of the reach +of the fielders, and far enough out of the field to enable him to run round +the bases, which scores a run. If he cannot run round all, he may stop at +any one, and may be followed by another batsman. If the ball is caught by +an opponent before touching the ground when the batsman is running, or if +he is touched by the ball, he is out (also in several other cases), and +when three on his side are put out, the field side take the bat. Nine of +these innings make a game, which the highest score wins. The bat is of a +cylindrical shape, not more than 2-1/2 inches in diameter nor more than 42 +inches long. The ball is about 9 inches in circumference and weighs 5 - +5-1/4 oz. Base-ball is not a very old game, having attained its present +position only since about 1845. Many professional players now engage in it. +Attempts have been made to introduce it into Britain and Australia, but +with little success.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Official Base-ball Guide_, in the +Spalding Athletic Library (annually); R. H. Barbour, _The Book of School +and College Sports_; A. G. Spalding, _America's National Game_; W. J. +Clarke and F. T. Dawson, _Base-ball_. + +BASEDOW (bae'ze-d[=o]), John Bernhard, German educationalist, born in +Hamburg 1723, died in 1790. After having gained considerable experience as +a teacher, especially at the gymnasium of Altona, he published a number of +works dealing with mental and moral philosophy, the teaching of religion +and morality, &c., some of which roused a great amount of discussion. His +watchword was "Everything according to nature". In 1771 he was called to +Dessau by Prince Leopold, and in 1774 took charge of an educational +institution in which his views were to receive practical exemplification. +This institution, which he called the _Philanthropinum_, was a school free +from sectarian bias, and in which the pupils were to be disciplined in all +studies--physical, intellectual, and moral. This school led to the +establishment of some similar ones, though Basedow retired from it in 1776, +not having been very successful in the practical working out of his +theories. His place was taken by Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746-1818). He +henceforth devoted himself to authorship, writing especially on religious +subjects. The chief feature of Basedow's system is the full development of +the faculties of the young, in pursuance of the notions of Locke and +Rousseau. His name still lives in the history of education, and his efforts +were not without result.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. Meyer, _Leben, Charakter und +Schriften Basedows_ (2 vols., 1791-2); A. Pinloche, _La Reforme de +l'Education en Allemagne au dix-huitieme Siecle_; O. H. Lang, _Basedow, His +Life and Work_. + +BASEL (bae'zl; Fr. _Bale_), a canton and city of Switzerland. The canton +borders on Alsace and Baden, has an area of 177 sq. miles, and a pop. of +222,000 (1916), nearly all speaking German. It is divided into two +half-cantons, Basel city (Basel-Stadt) and Basel country (Basel-Land). The +former consists of the city and its precincts, the remainder of the canton +forming Basel-Land, the capital of which is Liestal. The whole canton +belongs to the valley of the Rhine. The soil is generally well cultivated; +and the climate in the low grounds allows of the cultivation of the vine +and other fruits.--The city of _Basel_ is 43 miles N. of Bern, and consists +of two parts on opposite sides of the Rhine, and communicating by three +bridges, one of them an ancient wooden structure, besides a railway bridge. +The older portions are irregularly built with narrow streets, and are now +surrounded with pleasant promenades where the old fortifications existed. +Basel has an ancient cathedral, founded 1010, containing the tombs of +Erasmus and other eminent persons; the fine modern church of St. Elizabeth; +town hall (1508); a university, founded by Pius II in 1460; a seminary for +missionaries; a bible society; a museum containing the valuable public +library, pictures, &c. The industries include silk ribbons (8000 hands), +metal articles, tanning, paper, aniline dyes and other chemicals, brewing, +&c.; and the position of Basel, a little below where the Rhine becomes +navigable and at the terminus of the French and German railways, has made +it the emporium of a most important trade. At Basel was signed the treaty +of peace between France and Prussia, 5th April, and that between France and +Spain, 22nd July, 1795. Pop. (with suburbs), 137,000 (latest estimate). + +BASEL, COUNCIL OF, a celebrated oecumenical council of the Church, convoked +by Pope Martin V and his successor Eugenius IV. It was opened 14th Dec., +1431, under the presidency of the Cardinal Legate Juliano Cesarini of St. +Angelo. The objects of its deliberations were to extirpate heresies (that +of the Hussites in particular), to unite all Christian nations under the +Catholic Church, to put a stop to wars between Christian princes, and to +reform the Church. But its first steps towards a peaceable reconciliation +with the Hussites were displeasing to the Pope, who authorized the Cardinal +Legate to dissolve the Council. That body opposed the pretensions of the +Pope, and, notwithstanding his repeated orders to remove to Italy, +continued its deliberations under the protection of the Emperor Sigismund, +of the German princes, and of France. On the Pope continuing to issue bulls +for its dissolution, the Council commenced a formal process against him, +and cited him to appear at its bar. On his refusal to comply with this +demand the Council declared him guilty of contumacy, and, after Eugenius +had opened a counter-synod at Ferrara, decreed his suspension from the +papal chair (24th Jan., 1438). The removal of Eugenius, however, seemed so +impracticable that some prelates, who till then had been the boldest and +most influential speakers in the Council, including the Cardinal Legate +Juliano, left Basel, and went over to the party of Eugenius. The Archbishop +of Arles, Cardinal Louis Allemand, was now made first President of the +Council, and directed its proceedings with much vigour. In May, 1439, it +declared Eugenius, on account of his disobedience of its decrees, a +heretic, and formally deposed him. Excommunicated by Eugenius, they +proceeded, in a regular conclave, to elect the Duke Amadeus of Savoy to the +papal chair. Felix V--the name he adopted--was acknowledged by only a few +princes, cities, and universities. After this the moral power of the +Council declined; its last formal session was held 16th May, 1443, though +it was not technically dissolved till 7th May, 1449, when it gave in its +adhesion to Nicholas V, the successor of Eugenius. The decrees of the +Council of Basel are admitted into none of the Roman collections, and are +considered of no authority by the Roman lawyers. They are regarded, +however, as of authority in points of canon law in France and Germany, as +their regulations for the Reformation of the Church have been adopted in +the pragmatic sanctions of both countries, and, as far as they regard +clerical discipline, have been actually enforced. + +BASE-LINE, in surveying, a straight line measured with the utmost precision +to form the starting-point of the triangulation of a country or district. +See _Geodesy_. + +BASH. See _Mining_. + +BA'SHAN, the name in Scripture for a singularly rich tract of country lying +beyond the Jordan between Mount Hermon and the land of Gilead. At the time +of the Exodus it was inhabited by the Amorites, who were overpowered by the +Israelites, and the land assigned to the half-tribe of Manasseh. The +district was, and yet is, famous for its oak forests and its cattle. +Remains of ancient cities are common. + +BASHAW, or BASHA. See _Pasha_. + +BASHEE' ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Chinese Sea between Luzon and +Formosa, long. 122deg E.; lat. 20deg 28' to 20deg 55' N. They were +discovered by Dampier in 1687, and belong to the United States. The largest +island is Batan, with a population of 8000. + +BASHI-BAZOOKS', irregular troops in the Turkish army. They are mostly +Asiatics, and have had to be disarmed several times by the regular troops +on account of the barbarities by which they have rendered themselves +infamous. + +BASH'KIRS, a tribe of Finno-Tartar origin, inhabiting the Russian +governments of Ufa, Orenburg, Perm, and Samara. They formerly roamed about +under their own princes in Southern Siberia, but in 1556 they voluntarily +placed themselves under the Russian sceptre. They are nominally +Mahommedans, and live by hunting, cattle-rearing, breeding of cattle and +horses, and keeping of bees. They are rude and warlike and partially +nomadic. They number about 1,000,000.--Cf. Ujfalvy, _Les Bashkirs_. + +BASHKIRTSEV, Marie, Russian painter and authoress, born 1860, died 1884; +educated mostly outside of Russia, in France, Germany, and Italy; became an +accomplished linguist and musician, and studied art in Paris, attaining +high success, but overtaxing her system, with fatal results. She is best +known from her journal, an intimate personal record, interesting not only +as revealing her own peculiar character and intellectual gifts, but also +for notices of the notable personages with whom she came in contact. It has +been translated into various languages--into English by Mathilde Blind +(1890), who has also published _A Study of Marie Bashkirtsev_ (1892). A +number of her letters were also published in 1891.--Cf. _The Journal of +Marie Bashkirtsev, an Exposure and a Defence_. + +BASIC SLAG, the slag or refuse-matter which is got in making basic steel, +and which, from the phosphate of lime it contains, is a valuable +fertilizer. See _Manures (Phosphatic)_. + +BASIC STEEL. See _Steel_. + +BASI'DIOMYCETES, one of the two sub-classes of the Eumycetes or septate +Fungi, including the bulk of the larger and more familiar saprophytic +types, such as the Mushroom, Toad-stools, Shelf-fungi, Puff-balls, and +Earth-stars, and also the important parasites known as the Rusts. They are +characterized by their principal spores being produced externally, usually +in fours, upon an organ called a _basidium_. The basidia are arranged in a +continuous layer (hymenium), and are usually massed together upon a +specialized fruit-body, of which an ordinary mushroom is a good example. +The principal subdivisions of the group, with representative genera, are as +follows:-- + +A. Basidia septate (Proto-Basidiomycetes). + +1. Family Uredineae (Rusts). Basidia transversely septate; teleutospores +present; parasites. Puccinia, Phragmidium, Melampsora. + +2. Family Auricularineae. Basidia transversely septate; no teleutospores; +saprophytes. Auricularia. + +3. Family Tremellineae. Basidia longitudinally septate; saprophytes. +Tremella. + +B. Basidia not septate (Auto-Basidiomycetes). + +4. Family Exobasidiineae. Parasites without fruit-body; basidia exposed on +surface of host. Exobasidium. + +5. Family Dacryomycetineae. Fruit-body soft; hymenium on its surface; +saprophytes. Dacryomyces, Calocera. + +6. Group Hymenomycetes (several families). Hymenium generally on gills, in +tubes, &c.; saprophytes or, less often, parasites. Agaricus Polyporus, +Hydnum. + +7. Group Gastromycetes (several families). Hymenium within a closed +fruit-body, which does not open until the spores are ripe; saprophytes. +Ithyphallus, Lycoperdon. + +The Ustilagineae (Smuts) are often regarded as Basidiomycetes of a low +type, but it is more probable that they are allied to the Unicellular +Chytridineae. The Basidiomycetes are the highest members of the Fungoid +alliance; their relations to the lower groups are obscure. + +BASI'DIUM, the characteristic spore-producing organ of the Basidiomycetes. +Typically, e.g. in the Toad-stools, it is a club-shaped structure, produced +at its free end into four slender processes, the _sterigmata_, each of +which bears a _basidiospore_ at its tip. The young basidium contains two +nuclei, which later fuse; the fusion-nucleus then undergoes two successive +divisions, involving a reduction of chromosomes, and each of the four +resultant nuclei passes through a sterigma into a basidiospore. These +latter are thus seen to be carpospores, comparable to those of Red Algae, +and to the ascospores of Ascomycetes. The basidia of Uredineae (Rusts) and +of some other primitive Basidiomycetes are septate, but otherwise agree +with the type described above. See _Basidiomycetes_; _Carpospore_; _Rusts_. + +BASIL. See _Basilius_. + +BAS'IL, a labiate plant, _Oc[)i]mum basil[)i]cum_, a native of India, much +used in cookery, especially in France, and known more particularly as sweet +or common basil. Bush or lesser basil is _O. minimum_; wild basil belongs +to a different genus, being the _Calamintha Clinopodium_. + +BASIL, ST., called the _Great_, one of the Greek fathers, was born in 329, +and made in 370 Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, where he died in 379. He +was distinguished by his efforts for the regulation of clerical discipline, +and, above all, his endeavours for the promotion of monastic life. The +Greek Church honours him as one of its most illustrious saints, and +celebrates his festival on 1st Jan. The vows of obedience, chastity, and +poverty framed by St. Basil are essentially the rules of all the orders of +Christendom, although he is particularly the father of the Eastern, as St. +Benedict is the patriarch of the Western orders. + +BASILAN', the principal island of the Sulu Archipelago, now belonging to +the Philippines, off the S.W. extremity of Mindanao, from which it is +separated by the Strait of Basilan. It is about 30 miles in length by 20 +miles in breadth. Pop. about 8000. + +BASILE'AN MANUSCRIPTS, two manuscripts of the Greek New Testament now in +the library of Basel. (1) A nearly complete uncial copy of the Gospels of +the eighth century; (2) a cursive copy of the whole New Testament except +the Apocalypse, tenth century. + +BASIL'IAN LITURGY, that form for celebrating the Eucharist drawn up towards +the close of the fourth century by Basil the Great, still used in the Greek +Church. + +BASILIAN MONKS, monks who strictly follow the rules of St. Basil, chiefly +belonging to the Greek Church. + +[Illustration: Basilica di S'Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna] + +BASIL'ICA, originally the name applied by the Romans to their public halls, +either of justice, of exchange, or other business. The plan of the basilica +was usually a rectangle divided into aisles by rows of columns, the middle +aisle being the widest, with a semicircular apse at the end, in which the +tribunal was placed. The ground-plan of these buildings was generally +followed in the early Christian churches, which, therefore, long retained +the name of basilica, and it is still applied to some of the churches in +Rome by way of distinction, and sometimes to other churches built in +imitation of the Roman basilicas. + +BASILICA'TA, also called POTENZA, an Italian province, extending north from +the Gulf of Taranto, and corresponding pretty closely with the ancient +Lucania. Area, 3855 sq. miles; pop. 489,574 (1915). + +BASIL'ICON, a name of several ointments, the chief ingredients of which are +wax, pitch, resin, and olive-oil. + +BASIL'ICON DO'RON (the royal gift), the title of a book written by King +James I in 1599, containing a collection of precepts of the art of +government. It maintains the claim of the king to be sole head of the +Church. Printed at Edinburgh, 1603. + +BASIL'IDES (d[=e]z), one of the most famous Gnostic teachers, a native of +Alexandria, who lived under the reigns of Adrian and Antoninus Pius about +A.D. 120-40. He was well acquainted with Christianity, but mixed it up with +the wildest dreams of the Gnostics, peopling the earth and the air with +multitudes of _aeons_. He was also greatly influenced by Platonism and +Zoroastrianism. His disciples (Basilidians) were numerous in Syria, Egypt, +Italy, and Gaul, but they are scarcely heard of after the fourth century. + +BAS'ILISK, a fabulous creature formerly believed to exist, and variously +regarded as a kind of serpent, lizard, or dragon, and sometimes identified +with the cockatrice. It inhabited the deserts of Africa, and its breath and +even its look was fatal. The name is now applied to a genus of saurian +reptiles (Basiliscus), belonging to the family Iguanidae;, distinguished by +an elevated crest or row of scales, erectable at pleasure, which, like the +dorsal fins of some fishes, runs along the whole length of the back and +tail. The mitred or hooded basilisk (_B. mitr[=a]tus_) is especially +remarkable for a membranous bag at the back of the head, of the size of a +small hen's egg, which can be inflated with air at pleasure. The other +species have such hoods also, but of a less size. To this organ they owe +their name, which recalls the basilisk of fable, though in reality they are +exceedingly harmless and lively creatures. The _B. amboinensis_ is a native +of the Indian Archipelago, where it is much used for food. It frequents +trees overhanging water, into which it drops when alarmed. + +BASIL'IUS I, a Macedonian, Emperor of the East, born A.D. 820, died 886. He +was of obscure origin, but having succeeded in gaining the favour of the +Emperor Michael III, he became his colleague in the Empire, 866. After the +assassination of Michael, 867, Basilius became emperor. Though he had +worked his way to the throne by a series of crimes, he proved an able and +equitable sovereign. The versatility, if not the depth, of his intellect is +strikingly displayed in his _Exhortations to his Son Leo_, which are still +extant. + +BASILIUS II, Emperor of the East, born 958, died 1025. On the death of his +father, the Emperor Romanus the Younger, in 963, he was kept out of the +succession for twelve years by two usurpers. He began to reign in +conjunction with his brother Constantine, 975. His reign was spent in +almost perpetual warfare, his most important struggle being that which +resulted in the conquest of Bulgaria, 1018. + +BA'SIN, in physical geography, the whole tract of country drained by a +river and its tributaries. The line dividing one river basin from another +is the water-shed, and by tracing the various water-sheds we divide each +country into its constituent basins. The basin of a loch or sea consists of +the basins of all the rivers which run into it.--In geology a basin is any +dipping or disposition of strata towards a common axis or centre, due to +upheaval and subsidence. It is sometimes used almost synonymously with +'formation' to express the deposits lying in a certain cavity or depression +in older rocks. The 'Paris basin' and 'London basin' are familiar +instances. + +BA'SINGSTOKE, a town of England, county of Hants, 18 miles N.N.E. of +Winchester. It has a good trade in corn, malt, &c., and now gives its name +to one of the parliamentary divisions of the county. Pop. (1921), 12,718. + +BAS'KERVILLE, John, celebrated English printer and type-founder, born in +1706, died 1775. He settled at Birmingham as a writing-master, subsequently +engaged in the manufacture of japanned works, and in 1750 commenced +printing. From his press came highly-prized editions of ancient and modern +classics, Bibles, prayer-books, &c., all beautifully-printed works. His +first work was a _Virgil_, published in 1757, followed by his famous +edition of Milton in 1758. + +BASKET, a vessel or utensil of wicker-work, made of interwoven osiers or +willows, rushes, twigs, grasses, &c. The process of basket-making is very +simple, and appears to be well known among the very rudest peoples. The +ancient Britons excelled in the art, and their baskets were highly prized +in Rome.--Cf. T. Okey, _Introduction to the Art of Basket-making_. + +BASKING-SHARK (_Sel[)a]ch[=e] maxima_ or _Cetorh[=i]nus maximus_), a +species of shark, so named from its habit of basking in the sun at the +surface of the water. It reaches the length of 40 feet, and its liver +yields a large quantity of oil. It frequents the northern seas, and is +known also as the sail-fish or sun-fish. + +BASLE. See _Basel_. + +BASOCHE. See _Bazoche_. + +BASQUES (b[.a]sks), or BISCAYANS (in their own language, _Euscaldunac_), a +remarkable race of people dwelling partly in the south-west corner of +France (Basses-Pyrenees), but mostly in the north of Spain adjacent to the +Pyrenees. They are probably descendants of the ancient Iberi, who occupied +Spain before the Celts. They preserve their ancient language, former +manners, and national dances, and make admirable soldiers, especially in +guerrilla warfare. Their language is highly polysynthetic, and stands +isolated from other tongues of Europe. There are eight principal dialects, +which are not only distinguished by their pronunciation and grammatical +structure, but differ even in their vocabularies. The Basques, who number +about 600,000 (450,000 in Spain, and 150,000 in France), occupy in Spain +the provinces of Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Al[)a]va; in France parts of the +departments of the Upper and Lower Pyrenees, Ariege, and Upper Garonne. The +Basques are very religious and conservative in their religious practices. +Ignatius Loyola and Francis Xavier de Navarre were Basques.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: +Julien Vinson, _Les Basques et le pays Basque_; _Le Folk-lore du pays +Basque_; Michel, _Le pays Basque, sa population, sa langue, ses moeurs, sa +litterature, et sa musique_; Van Eys, _Outlines of a Basque Grammar_. + +BASRA, BASSORA, or BASRAH, a city in Lower Mesopotamia, on the west bank of +the Shat-el-Arab (the united stream of the Tigris and Euphrates), about 50 +miles from its mouth, and nearly 300 miles south-east of Bagdad. It is +surrounded by a wall about 10 miles in circuit, from 20 to 25 feet thick; +but much of the area enclosed is occupied by gardens, &c. The houses are +generally mean. A considerable transit trade is carried on here between the +Turkish and Persian dominions and India, and since communication by steamer +has been established with Bagdad and Bombay the prosperity of the town has +greatly increased. The chief exports are: dates, camels and horses, wool +and wheat; imports: coffee, indigo, rice, tissues, &c. The inhabitants are +estimated at 80,000; but in the eighteenth century they were said to number +150,000. The substitution of date and wheat cultivation for that of rice +has rendered the place much more healthy. The ruins of the ancient and more +famous Bassora--founded by Caliph Omar in 636, at one time a centre of +Arabic literature and learning and regarded as 'the Athens of the +East'--lie about 9 miles south-west of the modern town. The town was +occupied by the British on 22nd Nov., 1914. The first through-train from +Basra to Bagdad was run in Jan., 1920. + +[Illustration: Bas-relief--Northern frieze of Parthenon] + +BAS-RELIEF (bae'r[=e]-l[=e]f or bas'r[=e]-l[=e]f) or BASSO-RILIEVO, +low-relief, a mode of sculpturing figures on a flat surface, the figures +having a very slight relief or projection from the surface. It is +distinguished from _haut-relief_ (_alto-rilievo_), or high-relief, in which +the figures stand sometimes almost entirely free from the ground. +Bas-relief work has been described as 'sculptured painting', from the +capability of disposing of groups of figures and exhibiting minor adjuncts, +as in a painting. The finest specimen of bas-relief is the frieze around +the cella of the Parthenon; large portions of it are to be seen in the +British Museum. + +BASS (b[=a]s; from the It. _basso_, deep, low), in music, the lowest part +in the harmony of a musical composition, whether vocal or instrumental. +According to some it is the fundamental or most important part, while +others regard the melody or highest part in that light. Next to the melody, +the bass part is the most striking, the freest and boldest in its +movements, and richest in effect.--_Figured bass_, a bass part having the +accompanying chords suggested by certain figures written above or below the +notes--the most successful system of shorthand scoring at present in use +among organists and pianists.--_Fundamental bass_, the lowest note or root +of a chord; a bass consisting of a succession of fundamental +notes.--_Thorough bass_, the mode or art of expressing chords by means of +figures placed over or under a given bass. Figures written over each other +indicate that the notes they represent are to be sounded simultaneously, +those standing close after each other that they are to be sounded +successively. The common chord in its fundamental form is generally left +unfigured, and accidentals are indicated by using sharps, naturals, or +flats along with the figures. + +BASS (b[.a]s), the name of a number of fishes of several genera, but +originally belonging to a genus of sea-fishes (Labrax) of the perch family, +distinguished from the true perches by having the tongue covered by small +teeth and the preoperculum smooth. _L. lupus_, the only British species, +called also sea-dace, and from its voracity sea-wolf, resembles somewhat +the salmon in shape, and is much esteemed for the table, weighing about 15 +lb. _L. line[=a]tus_ (_Roccus line[=a]tus_), or striped bass, an American +species, weighing from 25 to 30 lb., is much used for food, and is also +known as rock-fish. Both species occasionally ascend rivers, and attempts +have been made to cultivate British bass in freshwater ponds with success. +Two species of black bass (_Micropt[)e]rus salmoides_ and _M. dolomieu_), +American freshwater fishes, are excellent as food and give fine sport to +the angler. The former is often called the large-mouthed black bass, from +the size of its mouth. Both make nests and take great care of their eggs +and young. The _Centropristis nigricans_, an American sea-fish of the perch +family, and weighing 2 to 3 lb., is known as the sea-bass. + +BASS (b[.a]s), THE, a remarkable insular trap-rock, at the mouth of the +Firth of Forth, 3 miles from North Berwick, of a circular form, about 1 +mile in circumference, rising majestically out of the sea to a height of +313 feet. It pastures a few sheep, and is a great breeding-place of solan +geese. During the persecution of the Covenanters its castle, long since +demolished, was used as a State prison, in which several eminent +Covenanters were confined. It was held from 1691 to 1694 with great courage +and pertinacity by twenty Jacobites, who in the end capitulated on highly +honourable terms. + +BASS. See _Basswood_. + +BASSA'NO, a commercial city of North Italy, province of Vicenza, on the +Brenta, over which is a covered wooden bridge. It has lofty old walls and +an old castle, and has various industries and an active trade. Near +Bassano, 8th Sept., 1796, Bonaparte defeated the Austrian general Wurmser. +Pop. (commune) 17,130. + +BASSA'NO (from his birth-place; real name GIACOMO DA PONTE), an Italian +painter, born 1510, died 1592. He painted historical pieces, landscapes, +flowers, &c., and also portraits. He left four sons, who all became +painters, Francesco being the most distinguished. + +BASSANO DAM. See _Dams_. + +BAS'SARIS. See _Cacomistle_. + +BASSEIN (bas-s[=a]n'), a town in Lower Burma, province of Pegu, on both +banks of the Bassein River, one of the mouths of the Irawadi, and navigable +for the largest ships. It has considerable trade, exporting large +quantities of rice, and importing coal, salt, cottons, &c. Pop. +37,081.--Bassein District has an area of 4127 sq. miles and a pop. of 9598 +(1911). + +BASSEIN (bas-s[=a]n'), a town in Hindustan, 28 miles north of Bombay. At +the beginning of the eighteenth century it was a fine and wealthy city, +with over 60,000 inhabitants; it has now only about 9598 (1911). + +BASSELIN (b[.a]s-lan), Olivier, an old French poet or song-writer, born in +the Val-de-Vire, Normandy, about the end of the fourteenth century, died +about 1450. His sprightly songs, famous under the name _Vaux-de-Vire_, have +given origin and name to the modern Vaudevilles. + +BASSELISSE TAPESTRY. See _Hautelisse_. + +BASSES-ALPES (baes-[.a]lp; 'Lower Alps'). See _Alpes_. + +BASSES-PYRENEES (baes-p[=e]-r[=a]-n[=a]; 'LOWER PYRENEES'). See _Pyrenees_. + +BASS'ET, the name of a game at cards, formerly much played, especially in +France. It is very similar to the modern _faro_. See _Lansquenet_. + +BASSET, or BASSET-HOUND, a smooth-haired dog with short crooked legs, +rather large head, and large pendulous ears, thus somewhat resembling a +bloodhound and a dachshund. It is sometimes used in packs for hunting +hares, or in beating and covert work generally. + +BASSETERRE (baes-t[=a]r), two towns in the West Indies.--1. Capital of the +Island of St. Christopher's, at the mouth of a small river, on the south +side of the island. Trade considerable. Pop. about 9000.--2. The capital of +the Island of Guadeloupe. It has no harbour, and the anchorage is +unsheltered and exposed to a constant swell. Pop. 8650. + +BASSET-HORN, a musical instrument, now practically obsolete, a sort of +clarinet of enlarged dimensions, with a curved and bell-shaped metal end. +The compass extends from F below the bass staff to C on the second +ledger-line above the treble. Mozart wrote several pieces for the +basset-horn, and Beethoven employed it in his _Prometheus_ overture. + +BASSETLAW, a parliamentary division of the county of Nottingham. + +BASSIA, a genus of tropical trees found in the East Indies and Australia, +nat. ord., Sapotaceae. The seeds of _B. butyracea_, the Indian butter tree, +yield a butter-like substance, which makes good soap. _B. latifolia_, the +Mahwa of Bengal, furnishes a valuable hard timber, and has edible flowers, +from which a potent spirit is distilled; a gutta-percha is obtained from +_B. pallida_. + +BASSOMPIERRE (bae-son-py[=a]r), Francois de, Marshal of France, +distinguished both as a soldier and a statesman, born 1579, died 1646. In +1602 he made his first campaign against the Duke of Savoy, and he fought +with equal distinction in the following year in the imperial army against +the Turks. In 1622 Louis XIII appointed him Marshal of France, and became +so much attached to him that Luynes, the declared favourite, sent him on +embassies to Spain, Switzerland, and England. After his return he became an +object of suspicion to Cardinal Richelieu, and was sent to the Bastille in +1631, from which he was not released till 1643, after the death of the +cardinal. During his detention he occupied himself with writing his +memoirs, which shed much light on the events of that time. + +BASSO'ON, a musical wind-instrument of the reed order, blown with a bent +metal mouthpiece, and holed and keyed like the clarinet. Its compass +comprehends three octaves rising from B flat below the bass staff. Its +diameter at bottom is 3 inches, and for convenience of carriage it is +divided into two or more parts, whence its Italian name, _fagotto_, a +bundle. It serves for the bass among wood wind-instruments, as hautboys, +flutes, &c. + +BASSORA GUM, an inferior kind of gum resembling gum-arabic. + +BASS ROCK. See _Bass_. + +BASS STRAIT, a channel beset with islands, which separates Australia from +Tasmania, 120 miles broad, discovered by George Bass, a surgeon in the +Royal Navy, in 1798. + +BASSWOOD, or BASS, the American lime tree or linden (_Tilia americ[=a]na_), +a tree common in N. America, yielding a light, soft timber. + +BAST, a term originally applied to fibrous tissue external to the cambium; +now used in two senses: (1) for Phloem (q.v.); (2) commercially, for the +fibre of the lime or linden. The manufacture of lime-bast into mats, ropes, +&c., is in Russia a considerable industry, bast-mats for packing furniture, +covering plants, &c., being largely exported. + +BASTAR', a feudatory State in Upper Godavari district, Central Provinces of +India; area, 13,062 sq. miles; pop. 433,310. Chief town, Jagdalpur; pop. +4294. + +BAS'TARD, a child begotten and born out of wedlock; an illegitimate child. +By the civil and canon laws, and by the law of Scotland, a bastard becomes +legitimate by the intermarriage of the parents at any future time. In some +of the United States, bastards can be legitimized by subsequent marriage, +in addition to which, however, the father must also recognize the child as +his. By the laws of England a child, to be legitimate, must at least be +_born_ after the lawful marriage; it does not require that the child shall +be begotten in wedlock, but it is indispensable that it should be born +after marriage, no matter how short the time, the law presuming it to be +the child of the husband. The only incapacity of a bastard is that he +cannot be heir or next of kin to any one save his own issue. In England the +maintenance of a bastard in the first instance devolves on the mother, +while in Scotland it is a joint burden upon both parents. The mother is +entitled to the custody of the child in preference to the father. See +_Legitimation_; _Illegitimacy_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacquet, _Traite de la +Batardise_; Nicholls and Mackay, _History of the English Poor Law_. + +[Illustration: Bastard Bar] + +BASTARD BAR, more correctly _baton sinister_, the heraldic mark used to +indicate illegitimate descent. It is a diminutive of the bend sinister, of +which it is one-fourth in width, couped or cut short at the ends, so as not +to touch the corners of the shield. + +BASTARD FALLOW. See _Fallow Land_. + +BASTARD SAFFRON. See _Safflower_. + +BASTIA (b[.a]s-t[=e]'[.a]), the former capital of the Island of Corsica, +upon the N.E. coast, 75 miles N.E. of Ajaccio, on a hill slope; badly +built, with narrow streets, a strong citadel, and an indifferent harbour; +with some manufactures, a considerable trade in hides, soap, wine, oil, +pulse, &c. Pop. 29,412. + +BAS'TIAN, Adolf, German traveller and ethnologist, born in 1826, died in +1905. His travels embraced various parts of Europe, the United States, +Mexico, Peru, Australia and New Zealand, Southern and Western Africa, +Egypt, Arabia, India, South-Eastern Asia, the Asiatic Archipelago, Japan, +China, Mongolia, Siberia, &c. His numerous writings throw light on almost +every subject connected with ethnology or anthropology, as well as +psychology, linguistics, non-Christian religions, geography, &c. Some of +his chief works are: _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_ (Peoples of Eastern +Asia); _Ethnographische Forschungen_; _Ideale Welten_; _Die Voelkerkunde u. +der Voelkerverkehr_; &c. + +BAS'TIAN, Henry Charlton, English physician and biologist, born at Truro in +1837, died on 17th Nov., 1915. He was educated at Falmouth and at +University College, London, where he was assistant curator in the museum +from 1860 to 1863. He obtained the degree of M.A. in 1861 from the +University of London, graduating subsequently in medicine at the same +university (M.B. 1863, M.D. 1866). From 1864 to 1866 he was a medical +officer in Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum, and in 1866 was appointed +lecturer on pathology and assistant physician in St. Mary's Hospital. In +1867 he became professor of pathological anatomy in University College, +subsequently he was also professor of clinical medicine, and in the period +1887-95 he occupied the chair of medicine and clinical medicine. Apart from +numerous contributions to medical and other periodicals, and to Quain's +_Dictionary of Medicine_, he published _The Modes of Origin of Lowest +Organisms_ (1871); _The Beginnings of Life_ (1872); _Evolution and the +Origin of Life_ (1874); _Lectures on Paralysis from Brain Disease_ (1875); +_The Brain as an Organ of Mind_ (1880); which has been translated into +French and German; _The Nature and Origin of Living Matter_; _Evolution of +Life_; _Origin of Life_; &c. + +BASTIAT (b[.a]s-t[=e]-[.a]), Frederic, French economist, advocate of +free-trade, and opponent of protection, born at Bayonne 1801, died at Rome +1850. He became acquainted with Cobden and the English free-traders, whose +speeches he translated into French. Whilst combating protectionism, Bastiat +was also an opponent of socialism. His chief works are: _Sophismes +Economiques_ (1846); _Propriete et Loi_; _Justice et Fraternite_ (1848); +_Protectionisme et Communisme_ (1849); _Harmonies Economiques_ (1849). + +BASTIEN-LEPAGE (b[.a]s-tya[n.]-l[.e]-paezh), Jules, French painter, born +1848, died 1884. He studied at Paris under Cabanel, and about 1874 began to +attract some notice as a realistic painter of subjects connected with the +country and everyday life, among his first pictures of note being _Song of +Spring_, _Portrait of My Grandfather_, and _The First Communion_. Among his +most important works are _The Hayfield_, _The Potato Harvest_, _Portrait of +Mme Sarah Bernhardt_, _The Beggar_, and _The Forge_.--Cf. Marie +Bashkirtsev, _Journal Intime_; Arnic, J. _Bastien-Lepage, lettres et +souvenirs_. + +BASTILLE (b[.a]s-t[=e]l'), a French name for any strong castle provided +with towers, but as a proper name the State prison and citadel of Paris, +which was built about 1370 by Charles V. It was ultimately used chiefly for +the confinement of persons of rank who had fallen victims to the intrigues +of the Court or the caprice of the Government. (See _Cachet, Lettres de_.) +The capture of the Bastille by the Parisian mob, 14th July, 1789, was the +opening act of the Revolution. On that date the Bastille was surrounded by +a tumultuous mob, who first attempted to negotiate with the Governor, +Delaunay, but when these negotiations failed, began to attack the fortress. +For several hours the mob continued their siege without being able to +effect anything more than an entrance into the outer court of the Bastille; +but at last the arrival of some of the Royal Guard with a few pieces of +artillery forced the Governor to let down the second drawbridge and admit +the populace. The Governor was seized, but on the way to the Hotel de Ville +he was torn from his captors and put to death. The next day the destruction +of the Bastille commenced. Not a vestige of it exists, but its site is +marked by a column in the Place de la Bastille.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Francois +Ravaisson, _Les Archives de la Bastille_; Arnold, _Histoire de la +Bastille_; Bingham, _The Bastille_; Funck-Brentano, _The Bastille_; M.J. de +Staal, _La Bastille sous la Regence_ (edited by Funck-Brentano). + +BASTINA'DO, an Eastern method of corporal punishment, consisting of blows +upon the soles of the feet, applied with a bamboo cane. + +BAS'TION, in fortification, a large mass of earth, faced with sods, brick, +or stones, standing out from a rampart, of which it is a principal part. A +bastion consists of two _flanks_, each commanding and defending the +adjacent _curtain_, or that portion of the wall extending from one bastion +to another, and two _faces_ making with each other an acute angle called +the _salient angle_, and commanding the outworks and ground before the +fortification. The distance between the two flanks is the _gorge_, or +entrance into the bastion. The use of the bastion is to bring every point +at the foot of the rampart as much as possible under the guns of the place. + +BAST'WICK, John, English physician and ecclesiastical controversialist, +born in 1593, died 1654. He settled at Colchester, but, instead of +confining himself to his profession, entered keenly into theological +controversy, and was condemned by the Star Chamber for his books against +Prelacy: _Elenchus Religionis Papisticae_, _Flagellum Pontificis_, and _The +Letanie of Dr. J. Bastwick_. With Prynne and Burton he was sentenced to +lose his ears in the pillory, to pay a fine of L5000, and to be imprisoned +for life. He was released by the Long Parliament, and entered London in +triumph along with Prynne and Burton. He appears to have continued his +controversies with the Independents and others to the very last. + +BASU'TOLAND, a native province and British South African possession, +situated between the Orange Free State, Natal, Griqualand East, and the +Cape Province. The Basutos belong chiefly to the great stem of the +Bechuanas, and have made greater advances in civilization than perhaps any +other South African race. In 1866 the Basutos, who had lived under a +semi-protectorate of the British since 1848, were proclaimed British +subjects, their country placed under the government of an agent, and in +1871 it was joined to Cape Colony. In 1879 the attempted enforcement of an +Act passed for the disarmament of the native tribes caused a revolt under +the chief Moirosi, which the Cape forces were unable to put down. When +peace was restored Basutoland was separated from Cape Colony (1884), and is +now governed by a Resident Commissioner under the High Commissioner for +South Africa. Basutoland has an area of about 11,716 sq. miles, much of it +covered with grass, and there is but little wood. The climate is pleasant. +The natives keep cattle, sheep, and horses, cultivate the ground, and +export grain. The Basuto ponies, which originally were brought from Batavia +by the Dutch in the eighteenth century, are famous. It is divided into +eight districts, each under a magistrate. Capital, Maseru. Pop. (European), +1396; (native), 404,507.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Widdicombe, _Fourteen Years in +Basutoland_; M. Martin, _Basutoland: Its Legends and Customs_; Sir G. +Lagden, _The Basutos_; Rev. D. F. Ellenberger, _History of the Basuto_. + +[Illustration: Bats Asleep + +Left--Serotine (_Vespertilio serotinus_). Right--Long-eared bat (_Plecotus +auritus_).] + +BAT, one of the group of wing-handed, flying mammals, having the fore-limb +peculiarly modified so as to serve for flight, and constituting the order +Cheiroptera. Bats are animals of the twilight and darkness, and are common +in temperate and warm regions, but are most numerous and largest in the +tropics. All European bats are small, and have a mouse-like skin. The body +of the largest British species, _Vespertilio noct[)u]la_, is less than that +of a mouse, but its wings stretch about 15 inches. During the day it +remains in caverns, in the crevices of ruins, hollow trees, and similar +lurking places, and flits out at evening in search of food, which consists +of insects. Several species of the same genus are common in North America. +Many bats are remarkable for having a singular nasal cutaneous appendage, +bearing in some cases a fancied resemblance to a horse-shoe. Bats may be +conveniently divided into two sections--the insectivorous or carnivorous, +comprising all European and most African and American species; and the +fruit-eating, belonging to tropical Asia and Australia, with several +African forms. An Australian fruit-eating bat (_Pter[)o]pus ed[=u]lis_), +commonly known as the kalong or flying-fox, is the largest of all the bats; +it does much mischief in orchards. At least two species of South American +bats are known to suck the blood of other mammals, and thence are called +'vampire-bats'. All the British bats belong to the insectivorous group, the +fruit-eating and blood-sucking bats being confined to warmer regions. There +are fifteen species on the British list, but of these three are very rare. +Among the most noteworthy forms are the greater and the lesser horse-shoe +bats, in which the ears are nearly as long as the whole body. As winter +approaches, in cold climates bats seek shelter in caverns, vaults, ruinous +and deserted buildings, and similar retreats, where they cling together in +large clusters, hanging head downwards by the feet, and remain in a torpid +condition until the returning spring recalls them to active exertions. Bats +generally bring forth two young. The parent shows a strong degree of +attachment to her offspring, and, when they are captured, will follow them, +and even submit to captivity herself rather than forsake her charge. + +[Illustration: Vampire-bat (_Phyllostroma spectrum_)] + +BATAILLE, Henry, French poet and dramatist, born at Nimes in 1872. His +first volume of poems, _La Chambre Blanche_, appeared in 1895. His other +works include _Le Beau Rivage_, _Maman Colibri_, _La Marche Nuptiale_, _La +Femme Nue_, _La Divine Tragedie_, &c. + +BATALHA (b[.a]-t[.a]l'y[.a]), a village in Portugal, 69 miles north of +Lisbon, with a renowned convent of Dominicans, a splendid building. + +BATAN'GAS, a town of the Philippines, in the Island of Luzon, capital of a +province of same name, 58 miles south of Manila. Pop. 33,131. + +BATA'TAS. See _Sweet-potato_. + +BAT'AVI. See _Batavians_. + +BATA'VIA, a city and seaport of Java, on the north coast of the island, the +capital of the Dutch East Indies. It is situated on a wide, deep bay, the +principal warehouses and offices of the Europeans, the Java Bank, the +exchange, &c., being in the old town, which is built on a low, marshy plain +near the sea, intersected with canals and very unhealthy; while the +Europeans reside in a new and much healthier quarter. Batavia has a large +trade, sugar being the chief export. It was founded by the Dutch in 1619, +and attained its greatest prosperity in the beginning of the eighteenth +century. Its inhabitants are chiefly Malay, with a considerable admixture +of Chinese and a small number of Europeans. Pop. 234,697 (1918). + +BATAVIAN REPUBLIC. See _Belgium_; _Netherlands._ + +BATAVIANS, an old German nation which inhabited a part of the present +Holland, especially the island called _Batavia_, formed by that branch of +the Rhine which empties itself into the sea near Leyden, together with the +Waal and the Meuse. Tacitus asserts that they were a branch of the Catti. +They were subdued by Germanicus, and were granted special privileges for +their faithful services to the Romans, but revolted under Vespasian. They +were, however, again subdued by Trajan and Adrian, and at the end of the +third century the Salian Franks obtained possession of the Island of +Batavia. + +BATCHIAN. See _Bachian_. + +BATES, Henry Walter, traveller and naturalist, born at Leicester 1825, +learned the hosiery trade, but in 1847 went to the Amazon with Russel +Wallace, and remained there for eleven years studying the natural history +of the region. Returning to England, he published in 1862 his _Naturalist +on the River Amazons_, a work regarded as a classic. He was assistant +secretary to the Royal Geographical Society from 1864 till his death in +1892. A large part of his collections is in the British Museum. + +BATH (b[.a]th), a city of England, in Somersetshire, on the Avon, which is +navigable for barges from Bristol; is beautifully placed among the hills, +and the houses are built of freestone, obtained from the neighbourhood. The +Abbey Church, dating from the fifteenth century, ranks as one of the finest +specimens of Perpendicular Gothic architecture. Bath is remarkable for its +medicinal waters, the four principal springs yielding no less than 184,000 +gallons of water a day; and the baths are both handsome and roomy. The +temperature of the springs varies from 109deg to 117deg F. They contain +carbonic acid, chloride of sodium and of magnesium, sulphate of soda, +carbonate and sulphate of lime, &c. Bath was founded by the Romans, and +called by them _Aquae Solis_ (Waters of the Sun). Amongst the Roman remains +discovered there have been some fine baths. The height of its prosperity +was reached, however, in the eighteenth century, when Beau Nash was leader +of the fashion and master of its ceremonies. Since then, though it still +attracts large numbers of visitors, it has become the resort of +valetudinarians chiefly. Jointly with Wells it is the head of a diocese, +and since 1918 returns one member to the House of Commons. Pop. (1921), +68,648. + +BATH, a town, United States, Maine, on the west side and at the head of the +winter navigation of the Kennebec, 12 miles from the sea. Chief industries: +shipbuilding and allied crafts. Pop. 9396. + +BATH, the immersion of the body in water, or an apparatus for this purpose. + +_Ancient Baths._--The use of the bath as an institution, apart from +occasional immersion in rivers or the sea, is, as might be anticipated, an +exceedingly old custom. Homer mentions the bath as one of the first +refreshments offered to a guest; thus, when Ulysses enters the palace of +Circe, a bath is prepared for him, and he is anointed after it with costly +perfumes. No representation, however, of a bath as we understand it is +given upon the Greek vases, bathers being represented either simply washing +at an elevated basin, or having water poured over them from above. In later +times, rooms, both public and private, were built expressly for bathing, +the public baths of the Greeks being mostly connected with the gymnasia. +Apparently, by an inversion of the later practice, it was customary in the +Homeric epoch to take first a cold and then a hot bath; but the +Lacedaemonians substituted the hot-air sudorific bath, as less enervating +than warm water, and in Athens at the time of Demosthenes and Socrates the +warm bath was considered by the more rigorous to be an effeminate custom. +The fullest details we have with respect to the bathing of the ancients +apply to its luxurious development under the Romans. Their bathing +establishments consisted of four main sections: the undressing room, with +an adjoining chamber in which the bathers were anointed; a cold room with +provision for a cold bath; a room heated moderately to serve as a +preparation for the highest and lowest temperatures; and the sweating-room, +at one extremity of which was a vapour-bath and at the other an ordinary +hot bath. After going through the entire course both the Greeks and Romans +made use of strigils or scrapers, either of horn or metal, to remove +perspiration, oil, and impurities from the skin. Connected with the baths +were walks, covered race-grounds, tennis-courts, and gardens, the whole, +both in the external and internal decorations, being frequently on a +palatial scale. The group of the _Laocoon_ and the _Farnese Hercules_ were +both found in the ruins of Roman baths. + +_Modern Baths._--With respect to modern baths, that commonly in use in +Russia consists of a single hall, built of wood, in the midst of which is a +powerful metal oven, covered with heated stones, and surrounded with broad +benches, on which the bathers take their places. Cold water is then poured +upon the heated stones, and a thick, hot steam rises, which causes the +sweat to issue from the whole body. The bather is then gently whipped with +wet birch rods, rubbed with soap, and washed with luke-warm and cold water; +of the latter, some pailfuls are poured over his head; or else he leaps, +immediately after this sweating-bath, into a river or pond, or rolls in the +snow. The Turks, by their religion, are obliged to make repeated ablutions +daily, and for this purpose there is, in every city, a public bath +connected with a mosque. A favourite bath among them, however, is a +modification of the hot-air sudorific bath of the ancients introduced under +the name of 'Turkish' into other than Mahommedan countries. A regular +accompaniment of this bath, when properly given, is the operation known as +'kneading', generally performed at the close of the sweating process, after +the final rubbing of the bather with soap, and consisting in a systematic +pressing and squeezing of the whole body, stretching the limbs, and +manipulating all the joints as well as the fleshy and muscular parts. +Public baths are now common in Europe, but the first English public baths +and wash-houses of the kind now common in all cities were established in +Liverpool and near the London docks in 1844. In 1846 an Act was passed for +their encouragement, and a series of statutes, known as 'The Baths and +Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896', followed. The establishment of cheap +swimming-baths was authorized in 1878. + +The principal natural warm baths in England are at Bath, in Somersetshire +(the hottest), and Buxton and Matlock, in Derbyshire. The temperature of +the Bath springs ranges from 109deg to 117deg F., while that of the Buxton +and Matlock waters scarcely exceeds 82deg. The baths of Harrogate, which +are strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, are also of great +repute for the cure of obstinate cutaneous diseases, indurations of the +glands, &c. The most celebrated natural hot baths in Europe are those of +Aix-la-Chapelle, and the various Baden, in Germany; Toeplitz, in Bohemia; +Bagnieres, Bareges, and Dax, in the south of France; and Spa, in Belgium. +Besides the various kinds of water-bath with or without medication or +natural mineral ingredients, there are also milk, oil, wine, earth, sand, +mud, and electric baths, smoke-baths and gas-baths; but these are as a rule +only indulged in after specific prescription. + +The practice of bathing as a method of cure in cases of disease falls under +the head of hydropathy; but even when it is employed simply for pleasure or +purification due regard should be paid to the physiological condition of +the bather. In many cases cold bathing should be avoided altogether, +especially by those who have any tendency to spitting of blood or +consumption, by gouty people, or by those who have any latent visceral +disease or apoplectic tendency. Wherever the bath is followed by shivering +instead of by a healthy reactionary glow, it is undesirable; and a cold +bath in the morning after any debauchery or excess in eating or drinking on +the previous evening is exceedingly imprudent. Delicate persons and +children ought not to bathe in the sea before ten or eleven o'clock in the +morning, and in no case should bathing be indulged in after a long fast. In +cold streams and rivers additional precautions should be taken, the cold +plunge, when heated or fatigued, being frequently attended with fatal +results. Even warm baths are not wholly free from danger; apoplexy and +death having been known to follow a hot bath when entered with a full +stomach. As a rule the temperature should not exceed 105deg, and they +should not be too long continued. Frequent indulgence in them has an +enervating effect, though the majority of people need as yet no renewal of +Hadrian's prohibitive legislation in this matter. See also _Douches_; +_Thermae_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. A. Becker, _Gallus_; J. Farrar, _Baths and +Bathing_; W. P. Gerhard, _Modern Baths and Bath Houses_; R. F. Fox, +_Principles and Practice of Medical Hydrology_. + +BATH, KNIGHTS OF THE, an order of England, supposed to have been instituted +by Henry IV on the day of his coronation, but allowed to lapse after the +reign of Charles II till 1725, when George I revived it as a military +order. By the book of statutes then prepared the number of knights was +limited to the sovereign and thirty-seven knights companions; but the +limits of the order were greatly extended in 1815, and again in 1847, when +it was opened to civilians. It now consists of three classes, each +subdivided into (1) military members, (2) civil members, and (3) honorary +members, consisting of foreign princes and officers. The first class +consists of Knights of the Grand Cross (G.C.B.); the second of Knights +Commanders (K.C.B.); and the third of Companions (C.B.). The Dean of +Westminster is dean of the order. In 1917 the Companions of the order were +given the privileges and precedence of Commanders, the badge being now worn +round the neck. In 1918 the statutes were amended in order to admit +officers of the Royal Air Force to the military division. The ribbon of the +order is crimson; the military badge a gold cross of eight points, with the +lion of England between the four principal angles, and having in a circle +in the centre the rose, thistle, and shamrock between three imperial +crowns; motto: _Tria juncta in uno_. Stars are worn by the two first +classes, with additional motto, _Ich dien_, for the military members only. +See _Knighthood_. + +BATH-BRICK, a preparation of siliceous earth found in the River Parret, in +Somersetshire, in the form of a solid brick, used for cleaning knives, &c. +See _Sand_. + +BATH'GATE, a town, Scotland, Linlithgowshire, pleasantly situated, and +having in the vicinity the paraffin-works known as Young's, a paper-mill +and other works, and coal and iron-stone mines. Pop. (1921), 8504. + +BATHOLITE, a mass of igneous rock having no visible floor, and presumed to +pass down into some region of the earth's crust where molten rocks at one +time prevailed over all others. Granite blocks, like those of the Cairngorm +Mountains in Scotland, or the long ridge of the Leinster Chain, which have +intruded into their surroundings, are regarded as batholites the crests of +which have become exposed by denudation. A batholite in its original molten +condition may exist under any large area of volcanic activity, and the +similarity of the igneous rocks sent to the surface over broad regions of +the earth, constituting what are called 'petrographical provinces', points +to the existence of very considerable continuous rock-cauldrons in the +crust. + +BATHOM'ETER, an instrument, invented by C. Williams Siemens, for measuring +the depth of sea beneath a vessel without casting a line. It is based upon +the fact that the attraction exerted upon any given mass of matter on the +ship is less when she is afloat than ashore, because of the less density of +sea-water as compared with that of earth or rock. + +BATHONIAN STAGE, a division of the middle Jurassic series of rocks, +including the beds between the Inferior Oolite and the Oxford Clay. The +name is derived from its excellent development near Bath, in Somersetshire, +and the most important member is the Oolitic limestone known as Bath-stone +(q.v.). The Bathonian stage includes the following beds in ascending +order:-- + +1. _Stonesfield Slate_, named from a village near Woodstock; a flaggy +limestone used for roofing, with remains of ferns and cycads washed in from +the Jurassic land, and of some of the earliest-known mammals, allies of the +monotremes or the marsupials. 2. The _Great_ or _Bath Oolite_, with marine +fossils, and also remains of the large reptiles known as dinosaurs. 3. +_Bradford Clay._ 4. _Forest Marble._ 5. _Cornbrash_, so called from its +'brashy' or rubbly nature, an earthy oolite yielding fair land for corn. + +BATHORI (bae'to-r[=e]), or BATHORY, a Hungarian family, which gave +Transylvania five princes, and Poland one of its greatest kings. The more +important members were:--1. Stephen, born in 1532, elected Prince of +Transylvania in 1571, on the death of Zapolya, and in 1575 King of Poland. +He accomplished many internal reforms, recovered the Polish territories in +possession of the Czar of Moscovy, and reigned prosperously till his death +in 1586.--2. Sigismund, nephew of Stephen, educated by the Jesuits, became +Prince of Transylvania in 1581, shook off the Ottoman yoke, and had begun +to give hopes of reigning gloriously when he resigned his dominions to the +Emperor Rudolph II, in return for two principalities in Silesia, a +cardinal's hat, and a pension. Availing himself, however, of an invitation +by the Transylvanians, he returned, and placed himself under the protection +of the Porte, but was defeated by the Imperialists in every battle, and +finally sent to Prague, where he died almost forgotten in 1613.--3. +Elizabeth, niece of Stephen, King of Poland, and wife of Count Nadasdy, of +Hungary. She is said to have bathed in the blood of 600 young girls in the +hope of renewing her youth, and to have committed other enormities. She was +afterwards seized and confined till her death in 1614. + +BAT-HORSE. See _Batman_. + +BA'THOS, a Greek word meaning depth, now used to signify a ludicrous +sinking from the elevated to the mean in writing or speech. First used in +this sense by Pope in _The Art of Sinking in Poetry_ (_Scriblerus Papers_, +1729). + +BATH-STONE (also called BATH-OOLITE and ROE-STONE, from the small rounded +grains of which it is composed), a species of English limestone. It is +extensively worked near Bath for building purposes. When just quarried it +is soft; but though it soon becomes hard on exposure to the atmosphere, and +is of handsome appearance, it is not very durable. + +BATH'URST, a British settlement on the west coast of Africa, on the Island +of St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Gambia, with a trade in gum, bees-wax, +hides, ivory, gold, rice, cotton, and palm-oil. Pop. 8000. + +BATHURST, a town in the western district of New South Wales, on the +Macquarie River, with wide, well-laid-out streets at right angles, and a +central square, tanneries, railway workshops, breweries, flour-mills, and +other industries. Pop. 9200. + +BATHURST, Allen Bathurst, First Earl, a distinguished statesman in Queen +Anne's reign; born 1684. He took part with Harley and St. John in opposing +the influence of Marlborough, was raised to the peerage in 1711, impeached +the promoters of the South Sea scheme, opposed the Bill against Atterbury, +and was a leading antagonist of Walpole. He was created earl in 1772. His +name is also associated with those of the leading writers and wits of the +day. Died 1775. + +BATHURST, Henry Bathurst, Third Earl, son of the second earl, a prominent +Tory statesman, after whom various capes, islands, and districts were +named. Born 1762; in 1807, President of Board of Trade; in 1809, Secretary +for Foreign Affairs; and in 1812, Secretary for the Colonies, a post held +by him for sixteen years. He was also President of the Council under +Wellington, 1828-30. Died 1834. + +BATHURST ISLAND, on the North Australian coast, belonging to S. Australia, +separated from Melville Island by a narrow strait; triangular in shape, +with a wooded area of about 1000 sq. miles.--Also an island in the Arctic +Ocean discovered by Parry, E. of Cornwallis and W. of Melville Island, +76deg N., 100deg W. + +BATHYB'IUS (Gr. _bathys_, deep, _bios_, life), the name given by Huxley to +what was regarded as granular slimy masses of animal matter found covering +the sea-bottom at great depths. + +BATISTE (ba-t[=e]st'), a fine linen cloth made in Flanders and Picardy, +named after its inventor, Jean Baptiste of Cambrai. + +BAT'LEY, a municipal and parliamentary borough of England, West Riding of +York, about a mile from Dewsbury; principal manufactures: heavy woollen +cloths, such as pilot, beaver, police, army, and frieze cloths, flushings, +and blankets. Batley and Morley unite in returning one member to +Parliament. Pop. 36,151. + +BATMAN (bat'man or bae'man; from Fr. _bat_, a pack-saddle), in the British +army, a person allowed by the Government to every company of a regiment on +foreign service. His duty is to take charge of the cooking utensils, &c., +of the company, and he has a bat-horse to convey these utensils from place +to place. + +BA'TON, a short staff or truncheon, in some cases used as an official +badge, as that of a field-marshal. The conductor of an orchestra has a +baton for the purpose of directing the performers as to time, &c. In +heraldry, what is usually called the 'bastard bar', or 'bar sinister', is +properly a baton sinister. See _Bastard Bar_. + +BAT'ON ROUGE (roezh), the capital of Louisiana, United States, on the left +bank of the Mississippi, with an arsenal, barracks, military hospital, +State house, State university, &c. On 5th Aug., 1862, the Confederates +under General Breckenridge suffered a severe defeat before it. Pop. (1920), +21,782. + +BATOUM, or BATUM (b[.a]-toem'), a port on the east coast of the Black Sea, +acquired by Russia by the Treaty of Berlin, on condition that its +fortifications were dismantled and it was thrown open as a free port. It +rapidly grew to be the main outlet for Transcaucasia; its harbour was +enlarged for commercial reasons; an arsenal was built outside it; it was +connected by a military road with Kars; and finally, in July, 1886, the +Russian Government declared it to be a free port no longer. Its importance +as a naval and military station to Russia was unquestionably great; it is +of most importance commercially as an outlet for the mineral oil of Baku. +The water is of great depth close inshore, and the shipping lies under +protection of the overhanging cliffs of the Gouriel Mountains. Batoum was +abandoned by the Bolshevik Government in March, 1918, and occupied by the +Turks on 15th April of the same year. By the terms of the armistice +concluded with Turkey in Nov., 1918, the Allies occupied the port, and in +Nov., 1919, a military governor was appointed by the British Government. On +9th July, 1920, Batoum was evacuated by the British, and occupied by +Georgian troops. Pop. 46,000.--The province of _Batoum_ has an area of 2693 +sq. miles. Pop. 186,000. + +BATRACHIANS (ba-tr[=a]'ki-anz; Gr. _batrach[)o]s_, a frog), the fourth +order in Cuvier's arrangement of the class Reptilia, comprising frogs, +toads, newts, salamanders, and sirens. The term is now sometimes employed +as synonymous with amphibia, but is more usually restricted to the order +Anura or tailless amphibia. See _Amphibia_. + +BATSHIAN. See _Bachian_. + +BAT'TA, an allowance which military officers in India receive in addition +to their pay. It was originally given only when the officers were on the +march or in the field, but now half batta is paid when troops are in +cantonments. + +BATTAL'ION, the tactical unit of command in infantry, supposed to be of the +maximum strength to be efficiently handled by one officer in chief command, +with others under him. In most armies it is about 1000 to 1100 men. The +former is about the strength of a battalion in the British army, in which +battalions now correspond to what were formerly regiments, the chief +commanding officer (in actual command) being the lieutenant-colonel. See +_Army_. + +BATTALION OF DEATH, the legion of Russian women and girls, belonging to all +classes, organized in 1917 and commanded by the famous revolutionary Madame +Botshkalova. The battalion took part in several engagements. + +BAT'TAS, or BATTAKS, a people belonging to the Malayan race inhabiting the +valleys and plateaus of the mountains that extend longitudinally through +the Island of Sumatra. They practise agriculture and cattle-rearing, and +are skillful in various handicrafts; they have also a written literature +and an alphabet of their own, their books treating of astrology, +witchcraft, medicine, war, &c. They are under the rule of hereditary +chieftains. In 1908 a Battak Institute was established at Leyden for the +study of the Battak country, people, &c. + +BAT'TENBERG, a village in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, from which +the sons (by morganatic marriage) of Prince Alexander of Hesse, uncle of +Louis, Grand-Duke of Hesse, the husband of Princess Alice of Britain, +derived their titles of princes of Battenberg. One of them, Alexander, was +Prince of Bulgaria from 1879 to 1886, and died in 1893. Another, Prince +Henry, was married to Princess Beatrice of Great Britain in 1885, and died +in 1896. + +BATTENBERG, Prince Louis Alexander of, born 24th May, 1854, in Graz, son of +Prince Alexander of Hesse. He became a naturalized British subject, entered +the navy in 1868, and in 1884 married Princess Victoria, eldest daughter of +Princess Alice Maud, Grand-Duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, and second daughter +of Queen Victoria. He became rear-admiral in 1904, was second admiral of +the Mediterranean fleet from 1906 to 1908, commanded the Atlantic fleet +from 1908 to 1910, the 3rd and 4th divisions of the Home fleet in 1911, and +was appointed Second Sea Lord in Nov., 1911, and First Sea Lord in Dec., +1912, in succession to Sir Francis Bridgeman. In October, 1914, however, in +consequence of a campaign against alien enemies which culminated in an +attack in the _Globe_ on the First Sea Lord, he tendered his resignation to +Mr. Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, on the ground that +his birth and parentage in some respects impaired his usefulness. In 1917 +the king determined that those princes of his family who were his subjects +and bore German names and titles should relinquish those titles and adopt +British surnames, and Prince Louis adopted the title of Marquess of Milford +Haven, and the surname of Mountbatten. He was the author of _Men-of-war +Names, their Meaning and Origin_ (1908). He was made a Privy Councillor in +1914, and was both a Civil and a Military Knight Grand Cross of the Bath. +He died 11th Sept., 1921. + +[Illustration: Roman Battering-ram] + +BATTERING-RAM, an engine for battering down the walls of besieged places. +The ancients employed two different engines of this kind--one suspended in +a frame, the other movable on wheels or rollers. They consisted of a beam +or spar with a massive metal head, and were set in motion either by a +direct application of manual force or by means of cords passing over +pulleys. Some are said to have been 120 feet or more in length, and to have +been worked by 100 men. One is described as being 180 feet long, and having +a head weighing 1-1/2 tons. Smaller ones, manned by three or four soldiers, +were also frequently employed. They were generally covered with a roof or +screen for the protection of the workers. The battering-ram is mentioned by +Ezekiel (iv, 2; xxi, 22), and the Romans learnt the use of it from the +Greeks. + +BAT'TERSEA, a municipal and parliamentary borough of London, in Surrey, in +a low situation on the south bank of the Thames, nearly opposite Chelsea, +with a fine public park extending over 185 acres. The district is +associated with the names of Pope and Bolingbroke, and with the +Wellington-Winchilsea duel. Battersea returns two members to Parliament. +Pop. (municipal borough), (1921), 167,693. + +BAT'TERY, (1) any number of guns grouped for action in one place and under +one control; (2) the tactical and administrative unit of the Royal Regiment +of Artillery; (3) an entrenched work constructed as a position for guns in +siege warfare. + +The Royal Regiment of Artillery is organized in batteries of horse, field, +heavy, siege, and mountain artillery. These differ in the weight and type +of gun with which they have to do, but the general principles of +organization are the same. (See _Army_.) Nominally a battery consists of +six guns with their attendant ammunition wagons (12) and certain other +transport. A major commands the battery, and has a captain and three +subalterns to assist him. For all purposes a battery is permanently +organized in three sections, each of two guns and four wagons, under +subaltern officers; while in action it is divided into two parts, (_a_) the +fighting battery of six guns and six wagons; (_b_) the wagon line of the +remaining wagons, under command of the captain. The change from march +formation to that necessary for firing is termed 'coming into action'. + +Horse, field, and some heavy batteries are horse-drawn (six or eight horses +to a gun), while other heavy batteries and siege-guns are drawn by +mechanical transport or mounted on railway platforms. Mountain batteries +are organized for pack transport only--either mules or carriers--all the +material being specially constructed to this end. Among combinations with +the word battery come the following: _battery commander_, the officer +commanding a battery; _battery leader_, the senior subaltern, who receives +and carries out the commander's orders in action; _battery-fire_, each gun +of a battery firing in turn: as opposed to gun-fire, where each gun fires +independently. See _Artillery_. + +BATTERY, in criminal law, an assault by beating or wounding another. The +least touching or meddling with the person of another against his will may +be held to constitute a battery. + +BATTERY, in electricity and galvanism, a combination of several jars or +metallic plates. See _Daniell's Cell_; _Electric Battery_; _Secondary +Cell_. + +BATTHYANYI (b[.a]t-y[.a]n'y[=e]), one of the oldest and most celebrated +Hungarian families, traceable as far back as the Magyar invasion of +Pannonia in the ninth century. Among later bearers of the name have +been--Count Casmir Batthyanyi, who was associated with Kossuth, was +Minister of Foreign Affairs in Hungary during the insurrection of 1849, and +died in Paris 1854; Count Louis Batthyanyi, born 1809, of another branch of +the family, was leader of the opposition in the Hungarian Diet until the +breaking out of the commotions of 1848, when he took an active part in +promoting the national cause; but on the entry of Windischgraetz into Pesth +he was arrested and shot, 1849. + +BATTLE, a combat between two armies. In ancient times and the Middle Ages +the battleground was often chosen by agreement, and the battle was a mere +trial of strength, a duel _en gros_; and as the armies of the ancients were +imperfectly organized, and the combatants fought very little at a distance, +after the battle had begun manuoevres were much more difficult, and troops +almost entirely beyond the control of the general. Under these +circumstances the battle depended almost wholly upon the previous +arrangements and the valour of the troops. In modern times, however, the +finest combinations, the most ingenious manoeuvres, are rendered possible +by the better organization of the armies, and it is the skill of the +general rather than the courage of the soldier that now determines the +event of a battle. Battles are distinguished as _offensive_ or _defensive_ +on either side, but there is a natural and ready transition from one method +to the other. The purely defensive attitude is condemned by tacticians +except in cases where the only object desirable is to maintain a position +of vital consequence, the weight of precedent being in favour of the dash +and momentum of an attacking force even where opposed to superior forces. +Where the greatest generals have acted upon the defensive, it has almost +always been with the desire to develop an opportunity to pass to the +offensive, and, having discovered their opponent's hand, to marshal against +the enemy, exhausted with attack, the whole strength of their resources. +Napoleon won more than one great victory by this method, and Wellington's +reputation was largely based upon his skill in defensive-offensive +operations. Tacticians have divided a battle into three periods, which are +disposition, combat, and the decisive moment. In some measure they require +distinct qualities in a commander, the intellect which can plot a +disposition being by no means always of the prompt judgment passing to +instant action which avails itself of the crucial moment to crush an enemy. +Cooperation and mutual support of all arms and services is essential to +success in a modern battle, which may occupy many days or even weeks and +embrace a large area of country, e.g. the battle of the Marne, the battle +of the Somme. This co-operation is ensured by the most careful and detailed +arrangements being made beforehand, such arrangements even including the +rehearsal of more important phases over ground prepared to represent the +country over which the operations will eventually take place. The modern +battle may be, and probably will be, a continuation of many +operations--_offensive_ and _defensive_--carried out by distinct and +separate formations. The general scope of the operations as a whole will be +planned by the supreme commander, while the choice of the methods to be +used is left to the commander of the formations affected. See _Strategy_; +_Tactics_. + +BATTLE, a town in Sussex, so named from the battle of Hastings having been +fought there. An abbey built by William the Norman has disappeared, but +important remains of a later building exist on the same site; and there is +an old church of great interest. Pop. (1921), 2891. + +BATTLE (or BATTEL), WAGER OF, an obsolete method, according to English law, +of deciding civil or criminal cases by personal combat between the parties +or their champions in presence of the court. A woman, a priest, a peer, or +a person physically incapable of fighting could refuse such a trial. It was +not abolished till 1819 (by the Statute of 59 George III, c. 46), but had +long previously been in abeyance. See _Ordeal_. + +BATTLE-AXE, a weapon much used in war in the early part of the Middle Ages +among knights. It is a weapon which affords hardly any guard, and the +heavier the blow given with it the more the fighter is exposed; but its use +was to some extent necessitated by the resistance of iron armour to all but +heavy blows. In England and Scotland the battle-axe was much employed, the +Lochaber-axe remaining a formidable implement of destruction in the hands +of the Highlanders to a recent period. + +BATTLE CREEK, a town of the United States, in Michigan, at the junction of +the Kalamazoo and Battle Creek, with a college, and manufactures of +agricultural implements, &c. Pop. 25,267. + +BATTLEFORD, a trading town of Canada, province of Saskatchewan, at the +junction of the Battle and Saskatchewan (North Fork). Pop. 1335. + +BAT'TLEMENT, a notched or indented parapet of a fortification, formed by a +series of raised parts called _cops_ or _merlons_, separated by openings +called _crenelles_ or _embrasures_, the soldier sheltering himself behind +the merlon, while he fires through the embrasure. Battlements were +originally military, but were afterwards used freely in ecclesiastical and +civil buildings by way of ornament, on parapets, cornices, tabernacle work, +&c. + +BATTLE-PIECE, a painting representing a battle. Some of the greatest pieces +of this kind are the _Battle of Constantine_, of which the cartoons were +drawn by Raphael, and which was executed by Giulio Romano; Lebrun's +_Battles of Alexander_; and the _Battles of the Amazons_, by Rubens. + +BATTUE (ba-tue'), a method of killing game by having persons to beat a +wood, copse, or other cover, and so drive the animals (pheasants, hares, +&c.) towards the spot where sportsmen are stationed to shoot them. + +BATTUS, legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene, in Libya, about +650 B.C. There were eight rulers of the family founded by him, bearing +alternately the names Battus and Arcesilaus. + +BATU KHAN, Mongol ruler of the Western conquests of his grandfather, +Genghis Khan, from 1224 to 1255. He overran Russia, Poland, Hungary, and +Dalmatia, holding Russia for ten years. + +BATUM. See _Batoum_. + +BAUDELAIRE (b[=o]d-l[=a]r), Charles Pierre, French poet, born 1821. His +first work of importance was a series of translations from Poe, ranking +among the most perfect translations in any literature. A volume of poems, +_Les Fleurs du Mal_ (1857), established his reputation as a leader of the +Romanticists, though the police thought it necessary to deodorize them. Of +a higher tone were his _Petits Poemes en Prose_; followed in 1859 by a +monograph on Theophile Gautier, in 1860 by _Les Paradis Artificiels_ (opium +and hashish studies), and in 1861 by _Wagner et Tannhaeuser a Paris_. He +died in 1867. The best English rendering of the _Fleurs du Mal_ is by A. +Symons (1905).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry James, _French Poets and Novelists_; +Asselineau, _Charles Baudelaire, sa vie et son oeuvre_; F. Gautier, +_Charles Baudelaire_. + +BAUDRY (b[=o]-dr[=e]), Paul Jacques Aime, a prominent modern French +painter, born in 1828, died Jan., 1886. He took the grand prix de Rome in +1850, and exhibited many important works, of which the better known are his +_Charlotte Corday_ and _La Perle et la Vague_. The decoration of the +_foyer_ of the New Opera House at Paris was entrusted to him--an enormous +work, occupying a total surface of 500 sq. metres, but admirably +accomplished by him in eight years. + +BAUER (bou'er), Bruno, German philosopher, historian, and Biblical critic +of the rational school, born 1809, died 1882. Wrote _Critique of the Gospel +of John_ (1840); _Critique of the Synoptic Gospels_ (1840); _History of the +French Revolution to the Founding of the Republic_ (1847); _History of +Germany during the French Revolution and the Rule of Napoleon_ (1846); +_Critique of the Gospels_ (1850-1); _Critique of the Pauline Epistles_ +(1850); _Philo, Strauss, Renan, and Primitive Christianity_ (1874); _Christ +and the Caesars_ (1877), &c. + +BAUHIN (b[=o]-an), Gaspard, born at Basel in 1560; in 1580 elected to the +Greek chair at Basel, and in 1589 to that of anatomy and botany. He died in +1624. His fame rests chiefly on his _Pinax Theatri Botanici_ and _Theatrum +Botanicum_. Linnaeus gave his name to a genus of plants. + +BAUHIN'IA, a genus of plants, ord. Leguminosae, usually lianes, found in +the woods of hot countries, and often stretching from tree to tree like +cables. Many are showy and interesting. The bark of _B. varieg[=a]ta_ is +used in tanning; the bast fibres of some Indian species are made into ropes +and twine. + +BAUMGARTEN (boum'g[.a]r-tn), Alexander Gottlieb, a German philosopher, born +in 1714 at Berlin; in 1740 was made professor of philosophy at +Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and died there in 1762. He is the founder of +aesthetics as a science, and the inventor of this name. His ideas were +first developed in his _De Nonnullis ad Poema pertinentibus_ (1735), and +afterwards in the two volumes of his uncompleted _Aesthetica_, published +1750-8. + +BAUR (bour), Ferdinand Christian, German theologian, founder of the +'Tuebingen School' of theologians and Hegelian thinkers, born in 1792. The +publication of his first work, _Symbolism and Mythology, or The Natural +Religion of Antiquity_, in 1824-5, led to his appointment as professor in +the evangelical faculty of Tuebingen University, a position occupied by him +till his death in 1860. His chief works in the department of the history of +Christian dogma are: _The Christian Gnosis, or The Christian Philosophy of +Religion_ (1835); _The Christian Doctrine of the Atonement_ (1838); _The +Christian Doctrine of the Trinity and the Incarnation_ (1841-3); _The +Compendium of and Lectures on the History of Christian Dogmas_ (1847, +1865). To the department of New Testament criticism and the early history +of Christianity belong the so-called _Pastoral Epistles of the Apostle +Paul_ (1835); _Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ_ (1845); _Critical +Inquiries Concerning the Canonic Gospels_ (1847); _A History of Christian +Doctrine to the End of the Eighteenth Century_ (1853-63). Baur's views in +regard to the Church of the earliest times and the New Testament Scriptures +have been very influential. He saw different and opposing tendencies at +work in the Church of apostolic times, and believed that the New Testament +mainly took form in the second century, the only genuine writings previous +to A.D. 70 being the four great Pauline epistles and _Revelation_. + +BAUTZEN (bout'sen), or BUDISSIN, a German town in Saxony, upon a height on +the right bank of the Spree, with some old and interesting buildings. The +inhabitants are mostly Lutheran, and both Catholics and Protestants worship +in the same cathedral. Chief manufactures: woollen goods, paper, gunpowder, +machines. Napoleon defeated the united armies of the Russians and the +Prussians at Bautzen on the 21st May, 1813. Pop. 32,754. + +BAUXITE (b[a:]k's[=i]t), a rock resembling clay, but consisting of hydrated +aluminium oxides, with, in good examples, a silica content of less than 2 +per cent. Bauxite is mined at Les Baux in Provence, in Arkansas, and other +places, including County Antrim, where it occurs between basaltic lavas. It +is the source of commercial aluminium, and is also used for bricks for +high-temperature furnaces, and in alum manufacture. Like laterite (q.v.), +it results from tropical conditions of weathering acting on a variety of +silicate rocks. + +BAVA'RIA (Ger. _Bayern_; Fr. _Baviere_), previous to the changes caused by +the European War (1914-8), a kingdom in the south of Germany, the second +largest State of the _Reich_, composed of two isolated portions, the larger +comprising about eleven-twelfths of the monarchy, having Wuertemberg, +Baden, &c., on the west, while the smaller portion, the Pfalz or +Palatinate, is separated from the other by Wuertemberg and Baden, and lies +west of the Rhine; total area, 30,346 sq. miles. The main political +divisions are: Upper Bavaria (pop. 1,532,065; chief town, Munich, the +capital of the country, pop. 596,467); Lower Bavaria (724,331); Palatinate +(937,085); Upper Palatinate and Regensburg (600,284); Upper Franconia +(661,862); Middle Franconia (930,868); Lower Franconia and Aschaffenburg +(710,943); Sehwaben and Neuburg (789,853); total in (1919), 7,150,146. Next +towns after Munich are Nuernberg, Augsburg, Wuerzburg, and Ratisbon +(Regensburg). The main portion of the country is hilly; in the south, where +it belongs to the Alps, it is mountainous; but north of the Alps and south +of the Danube, which flows east through the country from Ulm to Passau, +there is a considerable plateau, averaging about 1600 feet above the +sea-level. The south frontier is formed by a branch of the Noric Alps, +offsets from which project far into the plateau; principal peaks: the +Zugspitze, 10,394 feet, and the Watzmann, 9470 feet. The highest summits on +the Bohemian (Austrian) frontier, belonging to the Boehmerwald Mountains, +are the Rachel, 5102 feet, and the Arber, 5185 feet. Ranges of less +elevation bordering on or belonging to the country are the Fichtelgebirge +in the north-east, the Frankenwald, Rhoengebirge, and Spessart in the +north, and the Steigerwald and Franconian Jura in the middle. The +Palatinate is traversed by the north extremity of the Vosges Mountains, the +highest peak being the Konigstuhl, 2162 feet. The greater part of the +country belongs to the basin of the Danube, which is navigable, its +tributaries on the south being the Iller, Lech, Isar, and Inn; on the +north, the Wornitz, Altmuehl, Nab, and Regen. The northern portion belongs +to the basin of the Main, which receives the Regnitz and Saale, and is a +tributary of the Rhine. The Palatinate has only small streams that flow +into its boundary river the Rhine. The chief lakes of Bavaria are all on +the higher part of the south plateau; the smaller within the range of the +Alps. The Ammer-See is about 10 miles long by 2-1/2 broad, 1736 feet above +the sea; the Wuerm-See or Starnberger-See, about 12 miles long by 3 broad, +1899 feet; and Chiem-See, 9 miles long by 9 to 4 broad, 1651 feet. The +climate in general is temperate and healthy, though somewhat colder than +the other South German States; yearly average about 47deg F. + +As regards soil, Bavaria is one of the most fertile countries in Germany, +producing the various cereals in abundance, the best hops in Germany, +fruit, wine, tobacco, &c., and having extensive forests. Lower Franconia +(the Main valley) and the Palatinate are the great vine-growing districts. +The celebrated Steinwein and Leistenwein are the produce of the slopes of +the Steinberg and Marienberg at Wuerzburg (on the Main). The forests of +Bavaria, chiefly fir and pine, yield a large revenue, much timber being +annually exported, together with potash, tar, turpentine, &c. The principal +mineral products are salt, coal, and iron, some of the mining works +belonging to the State. The minerals worked include copper, quicksilver, +manganese, cobalt, porcelain clay, alabaster, graphite. Large numbers of +horses and cattle are reared, as also sheep and swine. The return of cattle +in 1917 showed 272,667 horses, 3,896,702 cattle, and 616,464 sheep. The +manufactures are individually mostly on a small scale. The principal +articles manufactured are linens, woollens, cottons, leather, paper, glass, +earthen and iron ware, jewellery, &c. The optical and mathematical +instruments made are excellent. A most important branch of industry is the +brewing of beer, for which there are upwards of 7000 establishments, +producing over 300 millions of gallons a year. The distilleries produce +over 4 millions of gallons of alcohol. A number of the people maintain +themselves by the manufacture of articles in wood, and by felling and +hewing timber. The trade of Bavaria in home produce exported and goods +imported for consumption in the country is not large. Principal exports: +corn, timber, wine, cattle, glass, hops, fruit, beer, wooden wares, &c. The +chief imports are sugar, coffee, cotton, rice, spices, dye-stuffs, silk and +silk goods, lead, &c. From its position Bavaria has a considerable transit +trade. The Konig Ludwig Canal connects the Main at Bamberg with the +Altmuehl a short distance above its embouchure in the Danube, thus +establishing water communication between the North Sea and the Black Sea. +The railway system has a total mileage of 5290, mostly belonging to the +State. + +Education is in a less satisfactory condition than in most German States. +There are about 7500 elementary schools, at which attendance is compulsory +up to fourteen years of age. There are three universities, two of which +(Munich and Wuerzburg) are Roman Catholic, and one (Erlangen) Protestant. +In art Bavaria is best known as the home of the Nuernberg school, founded +about the middle of the sixteenth century by Albert Duerer. Hans Holbein is +also claimed as a Bavarian; and to these have to be added the eminent +sculptors Kraft and Vischer, both born about the middle of the fifteenth +century. The restoration of the reputation of Bavaria in art was chiefly +the work of Ludwig I, under whom the capital became one of the most +prominent seats of the fine arts in Europe. The religion of the State is +Roman Catholicism, over 70 per cent of the population being Roman +Catholics. All citizens, whatever their creed, possess the same civil and +political rights. The dioceses of Bavaria comprise two Roman Catholic +archbishopries, Munich and Bamberg; and six bishopries, Augsburg, Ratisbon, +Eichstaedt, Passau, Wuerzburg, and Spires. + +For over a century Bavaria was a kingdom, and the crown hereditary in the +male line of the descendants of the ancient Counts of Wittelsbach. The +executive power was vested in the king, but his ministers were responsible +for his acts. The legislature consisted of two chambers--one of senators, +composed of princes of the royal family, the great officers of the State, +the two archbishops, the heads of certain noble families, and certain +members appointed by the Crown; the other of deputies, 163 in number, +elected by direct and secret vote, and calculated at the rate of 1 for +every 38,000 inhabitants. The lower chamber was elected for six years. The +Budget for each of the years 1916 and 1917 balanced at L12,183,411; for +1918 and 1919 at L42,639,595; the public debt on 1st July, 1917, was +L128,719,000, L98,179,000 being railway debt. The army (peace footing, +72,000) was raised by conscription--every man being liable to serve from +the 1st of January of the year in which he completes his twentieth year. In +time of peace the army was under the command of the King of Bavaria, but in +time of war under that of the Emperor of Germany, as commander-in-chief of +the whole German army. + +As a result of the revolutionary movement in Nov., 1918, the Bavarian +dynasty was deposed and a republican form of government set up. The +provisional constitution, made public on 7th Jan., 1919, established a +Socialist Republic in Bavaria. The supreme power lies with the people; the +Diet consists of one chamber; the suffrage is universal; the privileges of +birth and caste are abolished. The supreme executive power is exercised by +the ministry as a whole. The Church is separated from the State, and all +religious associations have equal rights. + +_History._--The Bavarians take their name from the Boii, a Celtic tribe +whose territory was occupied by a confederation of Germanic tribes, called +after their predecessors Boiarii. These were made tributary first to the +Ostrogoths, and then to the Franks; and on the death of Charlemagne his +successors governed the country by lieutenants with the title of margrave, +afterwards converted (in 921) into that of duke. In 1070 Bavaria passed to +the family of the Guelphs, and in 1180 by imperial grant to Otho, Count of +Wittelsbach, founder of the dynasty reigning until 1918. In 1623 the +reigning duke was made one of the Electors of the empire. Elector +Maximilian II joined in the War of the Spanish Succession on the side of +France, and this led, after the battle of Blenheim, 1704, to the loss of +his dominions for the next ten years. His son, Charles Albert, likewise +lost his dominions for a time to Austria, but they were all recovered again +by Charles's son, Maximilian III (1745). In the wars following the French +revolution Bavaria was in a difficult position between France and Austria, +but in the end joined Napoleon, from whom its Elector Maximilian IV +received the title of king (1805), a title afterwards confirmed by the +treaties of 1814 and 1815. King Maximilian I was succeeded by his son, +Ludwig (or Louis) I, under whom various circumstances helped to quicken a +desire for political change. Reform being refused, tumults arose in 1848, +and Ludwig resigned in favour of his son, Maximilian II, under whom certain +modifications of the constitution were carried out. At his death in 1864 he +was succeeded by Ludwig II. In the war of 1866 Bavaria sided with Austria, +and was compelled to cede a small portion of its territory to Prussia, and +to pay a war indemnity of L2,500,000. Soon after Bavaria entered into an +alliance with Prussia, and in 1867 joined the Zollverein. In the +Franco-German War of 1870-1 the Bavarians took a prominent part, and it was +at the request of the King of Bavaria, on behalf of all the other princes +and the senates of the free cities of Germany, that the King of Prussia +agreed to accept the title of Emperor of Germany. From Jan., 1871, to 1918 +Bavaria formed part of the German Empire, and was represented in the +Bundesrath by six, and in the Reichstag by forty-eight members. The +eccentricity early displayed by Ludwig II developed to such an extent that +in June, 1886, he was placed under control, and a regency established under +Prince Luitpold (Leopold). The change was almost immediately followed by +the suicide of the king, and as Prince Otto, the brother and heir of the +late king, was insane, the regency was continued. Prince Luitpold died on +12th Dec., 1912, and his son, Ludwig, became regent. On 5th Nov., 1913, the +prince was proclaimed king, under the name of Ludwig III, in succession to +his cousin, King Otto, who was declared incapable of ruling. King Otto died +on 12th Oct., 1916. Ludwig III abdicated in Nov., 1918, and the Bavarian +Government was taken over by a cabinet under the leadership of Kurt Eisner. +Eisner was assassinated in Feb., 1919, and a struggle ensued between the +moderate Socialists and the extremists of the Left. The moderate party, +however, returned to power in May, 1919.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Riezler, +_Geschichte Bayerns_ (4 vols.); R. Piloty, _Die Verfassungsgeschichte des +Koenigreichs Bayern_; Goetz, _Geographisch-historisches Handbuch von +Bayern_; M. Docberl, _Entwickelungsgeschichte Bayerns_; C. P. Higby, +_Religious Policy of the Bavarian Government during the Napoleonic Period_. + +BAXTER, Richard, the most eminent of the English nonconforming divines of +the seventeenth century, born in Rowton, Shropshire, 1615; ordained in +1638; parish minister of Kidderminster in 1640. The imposition of the oath +of universal approbation of the doctrine and discipline of the Church of +England (the _et caetera oath_) detached him from the Establishment. After +the battle of Naseby he accepted the chaplaincy of Colonel Whalley's +regiment. He can scarcely be said, however, to have separated as yet in +spirit from the Establishment. He upheld the monarchy, condemned the +execution of the king and the election of Cromwell, preached against the +Covenant and against separatists and sectaries, but his piety won him the +respect of all parties. At the Restoration he became king's chaplain, but +declined the bishopric of Hereford, and on the passage of the Act of +Uniformity threw in his lot entirely with the nonconformists. In 1685 he +was arrested, refused a hearing by Jeffreys, and imprisoned. After his +release he lived in retirement till his death in 1691. He left about 150 +treatises, of which his _Saints' Everlasting Rest_, _Call to the +Unconverted_, and _Reformed Pastor_ have been the most +popular.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Orme, _Life and Times of Richard Baxter_; +J. Stalker, _Lecture on Baxter_ in _The Evangelical Succession_; McAdam +Muir, _Religious Writers of England_; Currier, _Nine Great Preachers_. + +BAXTERIANS, followers of Baxter in respect of his attempted compromise +between Calvinism and Arminianism. They reject the doctrine of reprobation, +admit a universal potential salvation, becoming actual in the case of the +elect, and assert the possibility of falling from grace. The Baxterians +never formed a sect or even a school, but were men of independent minds, +distinguishing between essentials and non-essentials: in things necessary, +unity; in things doubtful, liberty; in all things, charity. The two most +eminent Baxterians were Dr. Isaac Watts and Dr. Philip Doddridge.--Cf. +McAdam Muir, _Religious Writers of England_. + +BAY, the laurel tree, noble laurel, or sweet-bay (_Laurus nob[)i]lis_); but +the term is loosely given to many trees and shrubs resembling this. A fatty +or fixed oil (used in veterinary medicine) and also a volatile oil are +obtained from the berries, but what is called 'bayberry oil' is also +obtained from the genus Myrica or candleberry. In N. America the +fragrant-flowered _Magnolia glauca_ is called sweet-bay, the red-bay being +_Laurus carolinensis_, the loblolly-bay _Gordonia lasianthus_. See +_Laurel_. + +BAY, in geography, an indentation of some size into the shore of a sea or +lake, generally said to be one with a wider entrance than a gulf. + +BAY, in architecture, a term applied to a recessed division or compartment +of a building, as that marked off by buttresses or pillars. + +[Illustration: Nests of Baya (_Ploceus philipp[=i]nus_)] + +BA'YA, the weaver-bird (_Ploc[)e]us philipp[=i]nus_), an interesting East +Indian passerine bird, somewhat like the bullfinch. Its nest resembles a +bottle, and is suspended from the branch of a tree. The entrance is from +beneath, and there are two chambers, one for the male, the other for the +female. The baya is easily tamed, and will fetch and carry at command. + +BAYADERES (b[=a]-a-d[=e]rz'), the general European name for the dancing and +singing girls of India, some of whom are attached to the service of the +Hindu temples, while others travel about and dance at entertainments for +hire. Those in the service of the temples are generally devoted to this +profession (including that of prostitution) from their childhood. + +BAYAMO (b[.a]-yae'm[=o]), or ST. SALVADOR, a town in the east of Cuba, near +the Cauto. Pop. 18,180. + +BAYARD (b[.a]-yaer), Pierre du Terrail, Seigneur de, the _Chevalier sans +peur et sans reproche_, born in 1476 in Castle Bayard, near Grenoble, in +Southern France. At the age of eighteen he accompanied Charles VIII to +Italy, and in the battle of Fornovo took a standard. At the beginning of +the reign of Louis XII, in a battle near Milan, he entered the city at the +heels of the fugitives, and was taken prisoner, but released by Ludovico +Sforza without ransom. In Apulia he killed his calumniator, Sotomayor, and +afterwards defended a bridge over the Garigliano singly against the +Spaniards, receiving for this exploit as a coat of arms a porcupine, with +the motto _Vires agminis unus habet_ ('one has the strength of a band'). He +distinguished himself equally against the Genoese and the Venetians, and, +when Julius II declared himself against France, went to the assistance of +the Duke of Ferrara. He was severely wounded at the assault of Brescia, but +returned, as soon as cured, to the camp of Gaston de Foix, before Ravenna, +and after new exploits was again dangerously wounded in the retreat from +Pavia. In the war commenced by Ferdinand the Catholic he displayed the same +heroism, and the fatal reverses which embittered the last years of Louis +XII only added to the personal glory of Bayard. When Francis I ascended the +throne he sent Bayard into Dauphine to open a passage over the Alps and +through Piedmont. Prosper Colonna lay in wait for him, but was made +prisoner by Bayard, who immediately after further distinguished himself in +the battle of Marignano. After his defence of Mezieres against the invading +army of Charles V he was saluted in Paris as the saviour of his country, +receiving the honour paid to a prince of the blood. His presence reduced +the revolted Genoese to obedience, but failed to prevent the expulsion of +the French after the capture of Lodi. In the retreat the safety of the army +was committed to Bayard, who, however, was mortally wounded by a stone from +a blunderbuss in protecting the passage of the Sesia. He kissed the cross +of his sword, confessed to his squire, and died, 30th April, 1524. He was +buried in a church of the Minorites, at Grenoble.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: "Le Loyal +Serviteur" (supposed to be Jacques de Mailles), _La tres joyeuse ... +histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du bon chevalier sans +paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de Bayart_ (printed in 1527); +modern edition of this work by M. J. Roman; A. de Terrebasse, _Histoire de +Pierre Terrail, Seigneur de Bayart_. + +BAYAZID', a ruined town in Armenia, 140 miles S.E. of Erzerum, S.W. of +Mount Ararat, at various times the scene of warlike operations, and twice +occupied by the Russians in 1877. Total pop. 4000. + +BAYAZID. See _Bajazet_. + +BAYBERRY. See _Bay_ (tree) and _Candleberry_. + +BAY CITY, an American city, Michigan, on the east side of Saginaw River, +near its mouth in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron. Chief articles of trade, lumber +and salt. Pop. (1920), 47,554. + +BAYEUX, (b[.a]-y_eu_) an ancient town, France, department Calvados, 16 +miles N.W. of Caen, with manufactures of lace, calico, and porcelain. In +its cathedral, said to be the oldest in Normandy, the famous Bayeux +tapestry was preserved for a long time. Pop. 7638. + +[Illustration: A section of the Bayeux Tapestry showing the Norman cavalry +attacking the English footmen at the Battle of Hastings] + +BAYEUX TAPESTRY, so called because it was originally found in the cathedral +of Bayeux, in the public library of which town it is still preserved. +Formerly known as the 'Toile de St. Jean', it is supposed to have been +worked by Matilda, Queen of William the Conqueror, and to have been +presented by Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, the half-brother of William, to the +church in which it was found. It is 231 feet in length and 20 inches in +breadth, and is divided into seventy-two compartments, the subject of each +scene being indicated by a Latin inscription. These scenes give a pictorial +history of the invasion and conquest of England by the Normans, beginning +with Harold's visit to the Norman Court, and ending with his death at +Hastings.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bolton Corney, _Researches and Conjectures on the +Bayeux Tapestry_; Jules Comte, _Tapisserie de Bayeux_; F. R. Fowke, _The +Bayeux Tapestry_. + +BAY ISLANDS, an island group, Bay of Honduras, off N. coast of State of +Honduras, incorporated as a British colony in 1852, and ceded to Honduras +in 1856. The largest is Ruatan, 30 miles long. Pop. about 5000. + +BAYLE (b[=a]l), Pierre, French critic and miscellaneous writer, the son of +a Calvinist preacher, born at Carlat (Languedoc) in 1647, died at Rotterdam +1706. A statue in his honour was erected at Pamiers in 1906. He studied at +Toulouse, and was employed for some time as a private tutor at Geneva and +Rouen. He went to Paris in 1674, and soon after was appointed professor of +philosophy at Sedan. Six years after he removed to Rotterdam, where he +filled a similar chair. The appearance of a comet, in 1680, which +occasioned an almost universal alarm, induced him to publish, in 1682, his +_Pensees Diverses sur la Comete_, a work full of learning, in which he +discussed various subjects of metaphysics, morals, theology, history, and +politics. It was followed by his _Critique Generale de l'Histoire du +Calvinisme de Maimbourg_. This work excited the jealousy of his colleague, +the theologian Jurieu, and involved Bayle in many disputes. In 1684 he +undertook a periodical work, _Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres_, +containing notices of new books in theology, philosophy, history, and +general literature. This publication, which lasted for three years, added +much to his reputation as a philosophical critic. In 1693 Jurieu succeeded +in inducing the magistrates of Rotterdam to remove Bayle from his office. +He now devoted all his attention to the composition of his _Dictionnaire +Historique et Critique_, which he first published in 1696, in 2 vols. fol. +It is a vast storehouse of facts, discussions, and opinions, and though it +was publicly censured by the Rotterdam consistory for its frequent +impurities, its pervading scepticism, and tacit atheism, it long remained a +favourite book both with literary men and with men of the world. The +articles in his dictionary, in themselves, are generally of little value, +and serve only as a pretext for the notes, in which the author displays, at +the same time, his learning and the power of his logic. The best editions +are that of 1740, in 4 vols. fol. (Amsterdam and Leyden), and that in 16 +vols., published in 1820-4 at Paris.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. A. Feuerbach, +_Pierre Bayle_; F. Brunetiere, _Etudes Critiques_ (5th series); A. Cazes, +_Pierre Bayle, sa vie, ses idees, son influence, son oeuvre_. + +BAY-LEAF, the leaf of the sweet-bay or laurel tree (_Laurus nobilis_). +These leaves are aromatic, and are used in cookery and confectionery. See +_Bay_. + +BAYLEN (b[=i]-len'). Same as _Bailen_. + +BAYLY (b[=a]'li), Thomas Haynes, English poet, novelist, dramatist, and +miscellaneous writer, born 1797, died 1839. He was educated at Oxford, and +intended for the Church. He wrote thirty-six pieces for the stage, most of +which were successful; several novels: _The Aylmers_, _A Legend of +Killarney_, &c.; and numerous songs. As a song-writer he was most prolific +and most popular. _The Soldier's Tear_, _We met--'twas in a Crowd_, were +the best known. + +BAY MAHOGANY, that variety of mahogany exported from Honduras. It is softer +and less finely marked than the variety known as Spanish mahogany, but is +the largest and most abundant kind. + +BAYNES (b[=a]nz), Thomas Spencer, LL.D., born at Wellington, Somerset, in +1823, died suddenly in London, 1887. He studied under Sir William Hamilton +at Edinburgh, and acted as his class assistant from 1851 to 1855. From 1857 +to 1863 he was resident in London, where he acted as examiner in logic and +mental philosophy in the University of London, and as assistant editor of +the _Daily News_. In 1864 he was appointed to the chair of logic, rhetoric, +and metaphysics in St. Andrews University, a post he held till his death. +In 1873, when he became editor of the ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_, his wide acquaintance with men of letters and learning +assisted him greatly in the selection of suitable contributors. He +translated the _Port Royal Logic_ (see _Arnauld_), and was a frequent +contributor to the principal reviews and literary journals. + +BAY OF ISLANDS, a large, deep, and safe harbour on the N.E. coast of the N. +Island of New Zealand. On it is Kororarika, the first European settlement +in New Zealand.--Also a large bay formed by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, on +the west coast of Newfoundland. See _New Zealand_. + +BAY'ONET (Fr. _baionnette_), a straight, sharp-pointed weapon, invented by +a Frenchman (probably a native of Bayonne) in the seventeenth century. A +bayonet was originally screwed into the muzzle of the firelock, converting +it into a short pike. This system, which practically precluded any further +use of the firelock as such, was later improved by a Scotchman, who fitted +the weapon with a socket and bolt, enabling it to be placed over the muzzle +of the musket instead of being screwed into it. The firelock could then be +used for both missile and shock action, according to requirements. The +bayonet replaced the pike in the English army after the revolution of 1690. +The length, shape, and weight of the bayonet have varied considerably at +different periods and in different countries; that at present in use in the +British army is a short sword-shaped weapon, 1 foot 6 inches long and +weighing about 1 pound. In war it is considered that an attack with the +bayonet or the immediate threat of one is a necessary preliminary to a +successful assault. + +BAYONNE (b[.a]-yon), a well-built fortified town, the largest in the French +department Basses-Pyrenees, at the confluence of the Nive and the Adour, +about 2 miles from their mouth in the Bay of Biscay; with a citadel +commanding the harbour and city, a cathedral--a beautiful ancient +building--shipbuilding and other industries, and a considerable trade. +Among the lower class the Basque language is spoken. Catherine de' Medici +had an important interview with the Duke of Alva in Bayonne, June, 1565, at +which it is said the massacre of St. Bartholomew was arranged. It was also +the scene of the abdication of Charles IV of Spain in favour of Napoleon +(1808). In 1814 the British forced the passage of the Nive and invested the +town, from which the French made a desperate but unsuccessful sortie. Pop. +27,886. + +BAYONNE CITY, a suburb of New York, in Hudson County, New Jersey. Pop. +76,754. + +BAYOU (b[=a]-yoe'), in the southern States of North America, a stream which +flows from a lake or other stream: frequently used as synonymous with creek +or tidal channel. + +BAYREUTH (b[=i]'roit). See _Baireuth_. + +BAY RUM, a spirit obtained by distilling the leaves of _Myrica acris_, or +other West Indian trees of the same genus. It is used for toilet purposes, +and as a liniment in rheumatic affections. + +BAY-SALT, a general term for coarse-grained salt, but properly applied to +salt obtained by spontaneous or natural evaporation of sea-water in large +shallow tanks or _bays_. + +[Illustration: Bay-window at Bramhall Hall, Cheshire] + +BAY-WINDOW, a window forming a recess or bay in a room, projecting +outwards, and rising from the ground or basement on a plan rectangular, +semi-octagonal, or semi-hexagonal, but always straight-sided. One of the +finest examples of bay-windows is that of the banqueting-hall at Hampton +Court. The term is, however, also often employed to designate a +_bow-window_, which more properly forms the segment of a circle, and an +_oriel-window_, which is supported on a kind of bracket, and is usually on +the first floor. + +BAZA (bae'th[.a]), an old town of Spain, Andalusia, province of Granada, +formerly a large and flourishing city. In 1810 the French, under Marshal +Soult, here defeated the Spaniards under Generals Blake and Freire. Pop. +15,964. + +BAZAAR. See _Bazar_. + +BAZAINE (b[.a]-z[=a]n), Francois Achille, French general, born 1811, died +1888. He entered the army as a private soldier in 1831, and served in +Algeria with distinction, gaining the cross of the Legion of Honour, and +rising to the rank of lieutenant. He next went to Spain and fought in the +Foreign Legion against the Carlists; and in 1839 returned to Algeria, where +he eventually held the rank of colonel (1850). He was next engaged in the +Crimean War, being at first commander of a brigade and then general of +division, leading the French troops sent to attack the fortress of Kinburn +(1855). He did good service also in the Italian war of 1859, being actively +engaged in the battle of Solferino. His military reputation was increased +by the part he took in the Mexican expedition (1862-4), in which he led the +first division under Forey, and when this general was recalled became +commander-in-chief of the French forces in Mexico and marshal of France. +His loyalty, however, to the cause of the Emperor Maximilian was very +doubtful. In 1870 he took command of the army of the Rhine, or the third +army corps, in the Franco-German War, collected a very large army in the +neighbourhood of Metz, and had the intention of joining his forces with +those of MacMahon at Chalons. He found this impossible, however, especially +after Gravelotte, and was forced into Metz, where he capitulated after a +seven weeks' siege, with an army of 175,000 men. For this act he was tried +by court-martial in 1871, found guilty of treason, and condemned to death. +The sentence was commuted to twenty years' seclusion in the Isle of St. +Marguerite, from which he escaped in 1874, and retired to Spain. He +published _Episodes de la Guerre de 1870_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Brugere, +_L'Affaire Bazaine_; Comte d'Herisson, _La Legende de Metz_. + +BAZAR', or BAZAAR', in the East an exchange, market-place, or place where +goods are exposed for sale, usually consisting of small shops or stalls in +a narrow street or series of streets. These bazar-streets are frequently +shaded by a light material laid from roof to roof, and sometimes are arched +over. Marts for the sale of miscellaneous articles, chiefly fancy goods, +are now to be found in most European cities, bearing the name of _bazars_. +The term bazar is popularly applied to a sale of miscellaneous articles, +mostly of fancy work, and contributed gratuitously, in furtherance of some +charitable or other purpose. + +BAZAR'JIK, now officially called Dobritsh (q.v.). + +BAZIGARS', a tribe of Indians dispersed throughout the whole of Hindustan +mostly in wandering tribes. They are divided into seven castes; their chief +occupation is that of jugglers, acrobats, and tumblers, in which both males +and females are equally skilful. They present many features analogous to +the gipsies of Europe, and like these each clan has its king. + +BAZIN, Rene, French novelist, born 1853. For some time he was professor of +law in the Catholic University of Angers. His literary reputation was +established by _Une Tache d'Encre_. His other novels include _La Terre qui +meurt_, _De Toute son Ame_, _Les Oberle_, _Les Noellet_, _Davidee Birot_, +all of which have been translated into English by Dr. A. S. Rappoport. He +has also written _Questions litteraires et sociales_, &c. Bazin was elected +a member of the Academie Francaise in 1903. + +BAZOCHE (b[.a]-zosh'), or BASOCHE (a corruption of _Basilica_), a +brotherhood formed by the clerks of the Parliament of Paris at the time it +ceased to be the grand council of the French king. They had a king, +chancellor, and other dignitaries; and certain privileges were granted them +by Philip the Fair early in the fourteenth century, as also by subsequent +monarchs. They had an annual festival, having as a principal feature +dramatic performances in which satirical allusions were freely made to +passing events. These farces or satires were frequently interdicted, but +they had a considerable influence on the French drama. The Bazoche took an +active part in the French Revolution, but the order was suppressed by the +decree of 13th Feb., 1791. + +BAZZI (b[.a]t's[=e]). See _Sodoma_. + +BDELLIUM (del'i-um), an aromatic gum resin brought chiefly from Africa and +India, in pieces of different sizes and figures, externally of a dark +reddish brown, internally clear, and not unlike glue. To the taste it is +slightly bitterish and pungent; its odour is agreeable. It is used as a +perfume and a medicine, being a weak deobstruent. Indian bdellium is the +produce of _Balsamodendron Roxburghii_; African of _B. africanum_; Egyptian +bdellium is obtained from the doum palm; and Sicilian is produced by +_Daucus gummifer_, a species of the genus to which the carrot belongs. The +bdellium mentioned in _Gen._ ii, 12, was apparently a precious stone, +perhaps a pearl. See _Myrrh_. + +BEACHES, RAISED, a term applied to those long, terraced, level pieces of +land, consisting of sand and gravel, and containing marine shells, now, it +may be, a considerable distance above and away from the sea, but bearing +sufficient evidences of having been at one time sea-beaches. In Scotland +such a terrace has been traced extensively along the coasts at about 25 +feet above the present sea-level. + +BEACHY HEAD, a promontory in the south of England, on the coast of Sussex, +rising 575 feet above sea-level, with a revolving light, visible in clear +weather from a distance of 28 miles. A naval battle took place here, 30th +June, 1690, in which a French fleet under Tourville defeated an English and +Dutch combined fleet under Lord Torrington. + +BEACON (b[=e]'kon), an object visible at some distance, and serving to +notify the presence of danger; commonly applied to a fire-signal set on a +height to spread the news of hostile invasion or other great event; and +also applied to a mark or object of some kind placed conspicuously on a +coast or over a rock or shoal at sea for the guidance of vessels, often an +iron structure of considerable height. + +BEACONSFIELD (b[=e]'konz-f[=e]ld), a village of Buckinghamshire, the parish +church of which contains the remains of Edmund Burke, whose seat was in the +neighbourhood; while a marble monument to the poet Waller, who owned the +manor, is in the churchyard. It gave the title of earl to the English +statesman and novelist Benjamin Disraeli. Pop. (1921), 3642. + +BEACONSFIELD, formerly known as Du Toit's Pan, a town of Cape Province +about a mile to the east of Kimberley, of which it forms a suburb. Pop. +20,364. + +BEACONSFIELD, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of, an eminent English statesman and +novelist, of Jewish extraction; eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli, author of +the _Curiosities of Literature_; born in London in 1804, died there in +1881, buried at Hughenden. He attended for a time a private school, and was +first destined for the law, but showing a decided taste for literature he +was allowed to follow his inclination. In 1826 he published _Vivian Grey_, +his first novel; and subsequently travelled for some time, visiting Italy, +Greece, Turkey, and Syria, and gaining experiences which were afterwards +reproduced in his books. His travels and impressions are embodied in a +volume of letters addressed to his sister and his father. In 1831 another +novel, _The Young Duke_, came from his pen. It was followed at short +intervals by _Contarini Fleming_, _Alroy_, _Henrietta Temple_, _Venetia_, +_The Revolutionary Epic_ (a poem), &c. In 1832, and on two subsequent +occasions, he appeared as candidate for the representation of High Wycombe, +with a programme which included vote by ballot and triennial parliaments, +but was unsuccessful. His political opinions gradually changed: in 1835 he +unsuccessfully contested Taunton as a Tory. In 1837 he gained an entrance +to the House of Commons, being elected for Maidstone. His first speech in +the House was treated with ridicule; but he finished with the prophetic +declaration that the time would come when they would hear him. During his +first years in Parliament he was a supporter of Peel; but when Peel pledged +himself to abolish the corn-laws, Disraeli became the leader of the +protectionists. About this time he became a leader of what was known as the +'Young England' party, the most prominent characteristic of which was a +sort of sentimental advocacy of feudalism. This spirit showed itself in his +two novels of _Coningsby_ and _Sybil_, published respectively in 1844 and +1845. Having acquired the manor of Hughenden, in Buckinghamshire, he was in +1847 elected for this county, and he retained his seat till raised to the +peerage nearly thirty years later. His first appointment to office was in +1852, when he became Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Derby. The +following year, however, the ministry was defeated. He remained out of +office till 1858, when he again became Chancellor of the Exchequer, and +brought in a Reform Bill which wrecked the Government. During the time the +Palmerston Government was in office Disraeli led the opposition in the +Lower House with conspicuous ability and courage. In 1866 the Liberals +resigned, and Derby and Disraeli came into power, the latter being again +Chancellor of the Exchequer. They immediately brought in, and carried, +after a violent and bitter struggle, a Reform Bill on the basis of +household suffrage. In 1868 he became Premier on the resignation of Lord +Derby, but his tenure of office was short. In 1874 he again became Prime +Minister with a strong Conservative majority, and he remained in power for +six years. This period was marked by his elevation to the peerage in 1876 +as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by the prominent part he took in regard to the +Eastern question and the conclusion of the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. In +1880 Parliament was rather suddenly dissolved, and, the new Parliament +showing an overwhelming Liberal majority, he resigned office, though he +still retained the leadership of his party. Within a few months of his +death the publication of a novel called _Endymion_ (his last, _Lothair_, +had been published ten years before) showed that his intellect was still +vigorous. Among others of his writings, besides those already mentioned, +are: _A Vindication of the English Constitution_ (1834); _Alarcos, a +Tragedy_ (1839); and _Lord George Bentinck, a Political Biography_ +(1852).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Selected Speeches of the Earl of Beaconsfield_ +(edited by T. E. Kebbel); T. Martin, _Memorials of Lord Beaconsfield_; the +article _Disraeli_, by T. E. Kebbel, in _Dictionary of National Biography_; +Sir William Fraser, _Disraeli and his Day_; Sichel, _Disraeli_; the best +work, however, is W. F. Monypenny's _Life of Disraeli, Earl of +Beaconsfield_ (continued by G. E. Buckle). + +BEAD (b[=e]d), originally a prayer; then a small perforated ball of gold, +pearl, amber, glass, or the like, to be strung on a thread, and used in a +rosary by Roman Catholics in numbering their prayers, one bead being passed +at the end of each ejaculation or short prayer; finally any such small +ornamental body. The use of beads among pagans is of greater antiquity than +their Christian use, but there is no evidence to show that the latter is +derived from the former. Glass beads are now the most common sort; they +form a considerable item in the African trade.--In architecture and joinery +the bead is a small round moulding. It is of frequent occurrence in +architecture, particularly in the classical styles, and is used in +picture-frames and other objects carved in wood.--_St. Cuthbert's Beads_, +the popular name of the detached and perforated joints of encrinites. + +BEADLE (b[=e]'dl), an officer in a university, whose chief business is to +walk with a mace in a public procession: also, a parish officer whose +business is to punish petty offenders, and a church officer (chiefly, +although not exclusively, in Scotland) with various subordinate duties, as +waiting on the clergyman, keeping order in church, attending meetings of +vestry or session, &c. The primary meaning of the word (from O.E. _beodan_, +to offer, announce) appears to be 'herald', one who announces or proclaims +something. + +BEAD-SNAKE (_Elaps fulvus_), a beautiful snake of North America, inhabiting +cultivated grounds, especially plantations of the sweet-potato, and +burrowing in the ground. It is finely marked with yellow, carmine, and +black. Though it possesses poison-fangs it never seems to use them. + +BEAGLE (b[=e]'gl), a small hound, resembling a foxhound or harrier, and +used to hunt rabbits and hares, being often kept in packs. The beagle is +smaller than the harrier, compactly built, smooth-haired, and with +pendulous ears. The smallest of them are little larger than the lap-dog. + +BEALE, Lionel Smith, English physician and biologist, born in 1828, died in +1906. He was educated at King's College School and King's College, London, +and was a professor in the medical department of the latter institution for +forty-three years, finally holding the chair of the principles and practice +of medicine. His numerous published works treat of medical, anatomical, +physiological, and biological subjects; the microscope; various questions +of morality, &c. They include _How to Work with the Microscope_, _The +Structure of the Tissues_, _Protoplasm_, _Disease Germs_, _Life Theories +and Religious Thought_, _The Mystery of Life_, _Bioplasm_, _On Slight +Ailments_, _Religio Medici_, _Religio Scientiae_, _Religio Vitae_, &c. + +BEAM, a long, straight, and strong piece of wood, iron, or steel, +especially when holding an important place in some structure, and serving +for support or consolidation; often equivalent to _girder_. In a balance it +is the part from the ends of which the scales are suspended. In a loom it +is a cylindrical piece of wood on which weavers wind the warp before +weaving; also, the cylinder on which the cloth is rolled as it is woven. In +a ship, one of the strong transverse pieces stretching across from one side +to the other to support the decks and retain the sides at their proper +distance: hence a ship is said to be 'on her beam ends' when lying over on +her side. For calculations relating to beams, see Morley's _Strength of +Materials_ and _Theory of Structures_. + +BEAM TREE (_Pyrus aria_), a tree of the same genus as the apple, +mountain-ash, and service tree found throughout Britain, having berries +that are edible when quite mellow, and yielding a hard and fine-grained +wood. + +BEAN, a name given to several kinds of leguminous seeds and the plants +producing them, probably originally belonging to Asia. They belong to +several genera, particularly to Vicia, garden and field bean; Phase[)o]lus, +French or kidney bean; and Dolichos, tropical bean. The common bean (_Vicia +Faba_) is cultivated both in fields and gardens as food for man and beast. +Beans were believed by some of the ancients to contain the souls of their +ancestors, and Pythagoras would not eat beans for this reason. One of the +bean family still retains the name of the Pythagorean bean. Beans were +introduced by the Moors into Spain, whence they came to France and later to +England. It is possible, however, that they were brought to Britain by the +Romans. They are now largely imported from Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and the +Netherlands. There are many varieties, as the Mazagan, the Windsor, the +long-pod, &c., in gardens, and the horse or tick bean in fields. The soil +that best suits is a good strong clay. The seed of the Windsor is fully an +inch in diameter; the horse bean is much less, often not much more than +half an inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Beans are +very nutritious, containing nearly 50 per cent of digestible carbohydrate +and 25 per cent of nitrogenous matter. The bean is an annual, from 2 to 4 +feet high. The flowers are beautiful and fragrant. The _kidney bean_, +_French bean_, or _haricot_ is the _Phase[)o]lus vulg[=a]ris_, a well-known +culinary vegetable. There are two principal varieties, annual dwarfs and +runners. The beans cultivated in America and largely used as articles of +food belong to the genus Phase[)o]lus. The _scarlet-runner bean_ +(_Phase[)o]lus multiflorus_), a native of Mexico, is cultivated on account +of its long rough pods and its scarlet flowers. + +BEAN-GOOSE (_Anser seg[)e]tum_), a species of wild goose, a migratory bird +which arrives in Britain in autumn and retires to the north in the end of +April, though some few remain to breed. Being rather less in size than the +common wild goose, it is sometimes called the _small grey goose_. + +BEAN-KING, the person chosen king in Twelfth Night festivities in virtue of +having got the piece of cake containing the bean buried in the cake for +this purpose. + +[Illustration: Brown or Black Bear (_Ursus arctos_)] + +[Illustration: The Polar or White Bear (_Ursus mar[)i]timus_)] + +BEAR, the name of several large plantigrade carnivorous mammals of the +genus Ursus. The teeth are forty-two in number, as in the dog, but there is +no carnassial or sectorial tooth, and the molars have a more tubercular +character than in other carnivores. The eyes have a nictitating membrane, +the nose is prominent and mobile, and the tail very short. The true bears +are about ten in number, natives chiefly of Europe, Asia, and N. America. +They generally lie dormant in their den during the winter months. The brown +or black bear of Europe is the _Ursus arctos_. It is a native of almost all +the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and was at one time common in the +British Islands. It feeds on fruits, roots, honey, ants, and, in case of +need, on mammals. It sometimes reaches the length of 7 feet, the largest +specimens being found farthest to the north. It lives solitarily. The +American black bear is the _U. americ[=a]nus_, with black shining fur, and +rarely above 5 feet in length. It is a great climber, is less dangerous +than the brown bear, and is hunted for its fur and flesh. It is very +amusing in captivity. The grizzly bear (_U. ferox_ or _horribilis_) is an +inhabitant of the Rocky Mountains; it is a ferocious animal, sometimes 9 +feet in length, and has a bulky and unwieldy form, but is nevertheless +capable of great rapidity of motion. The extinct cave-bear (_U. spelaeus_) +seems to have been closely akin to the grizzly. The Siberian bear (_U. +coll[=a]ris_) is perhaps a variety of the brown bear. The polar or white +bear (_U. marit[)i]mus_) is an animal possessed of great strength and +fierceness. It lives in the polar regions, frequents the sea, feeds on +fish, seals, &c., and usually is 7 to 8 feet in length. The Malayan or +coco-nut palm bear (_U. malay[=a]nus_) inhabits Cochin-China, Nepaul, the +Sunda Islands, &c., lives exclusively on vegetable food, and is an expert +climber. It is called also sun-bear and bruang. The Indian black bear or +sloth-bear of India and Ceylon (_U. labi[=a]tus_) is reputed to be a fierce +and dangerous animal. + +BEAR, or BERE, a species of barley (_Hord[)e]um hexastichum_), having six +rows in the ear, cultivated in Scotland and the north of England. + +[Illustration: The Constellation of the Great Bear. The two stars on the +right are the Pointers] + +BEAR, GREAT and LITTLE, the popular names of two constellations in the +northern hemisphere. The Great Bear (_Ursa Major_) is situated near the +pole. It is remarkable for its well-known seven stars, by two of which, +called the Pointers, the pole-star is always readily found. These seven +stars are popularly called the _Wagon_, _Charles's Wain_, or the _Plough_. +The Little Bear (_Ursa Minor_) is the constellation which contains the +pole-star. This constellation has seven stars placed together in a manner +resembling those in the Great Bear. + +BEAR-BAITING, the sport of baiting bears with dogs, formerly one of the +established amusements, not only of the common people, but of the nobility +and even royalty itself. The places where bears were publicly baited were +called bear-gardens. Butler gives a description of bear-baiting in his +_Hudibras_. Bear-baiting was prohibited by Act of Parliament in 1835. + +BEARBERRY (_Arctostaphylos uva-ursi_), an evergreen shrub of the heath +family growing on the barren moors of Scotland, Northern Europe, Siberia, +and N. America. The leaves, under the name of _uva ursi_, are used in +medicine as an astringent and tonic. + +BEARD, the hair round the chin, on the cheeks, and the upper lip, which is +a distinction of the male sex and of manhood. It differs from the hair on +the head by its greater hardness and its form. Some nations have hardly +any, others a great profusion. The latter generally consider it as a great +ornament; the former pluck it out; as, for instance, the American Indians. +The beard has often been considered as a mark of the sage and the priest. +Moses forbade the Jews to shave their beards. With the ancient Germans the +cutting off another's beard was a high offence. Even now the beard is +regarded as a mark of great dignity among many nations in the East, as the +Turks. Alexander the Great introduced shaving among the Greeks, by ordering +his soldiers to wear no beards; among the Romans it was introduced in 296 +B.C. The custom of shaving came into use in modern times during the reigns +of Louis XIII and XIV of France, both of whom ascended the throne without a +beard. Till then fashion sanctioned divers forms of moustaches and beards. +In the reign of Henry VIII of England, the authorities of Lincoln's Inn +prohibited wearers of beards from sitting at the great table unless they +paid double commons. Taxation of beards was introduced in the reign of +Elizabeth, beards of above a fortnight's growth being subject to a yearly +tax of 3s. 4d. This impost was copied by Peter the Great in Russia. It is +only in comparatively recent times that beards and moustaches have again +become common.--Cf. Philippe, _Histoire philosophique, politique, et +religieuse de la barbe_. + +BEARD-MOSS (_Usnea barb[=a]ta_), a lichen of grey colour, forming a shaggy +coat on many forest trees. + +BEARDSLEY, Aubrey Vincent, artist in black and white, born 1872, died 1898; +took up art as a profession at the age of nineteen, and executed a large +number of drawings for books and periodicals, showing great technical +skill, originality, and disregard of conventionality, with sometimes a +tendency towards the repulsive or morbid. Consumption had marked him as its +victim from the first. Collections of his drawings were published under the +titles _A Book of Fifty Drawings_, _The Early Work of Aubrey Beardsley_, +_The Late Work of Aubrey Beardsley_, &c. _Under the Hill_, with his letters +and poems, was published in 1904. Cf. G. Derry, _An Aubrey Beardsley +Scrap-book_. + +BEARER SECURITIES. See _Stock Exchange_. + +BEARING, the direction or point of the compass in which an object is seen, +or the situation of one object in regard to another, with reference to the +points of the compass. Thus, if from a certain situation an object is seen +in the direction of north-east, the _bearing_ of the object is said to be +N.E. from the situation.--_To take bearings_, to ascertain on what point of +the compass objects lie. + +BEAR LAKE, GREAT, an extensive sheet of fresh water in the North-West +Territory of Canada, between about 65deg and 67deg 32' N. lat.; and under +the 120th degree of W. long.; of irregular shape; area about 14,000 sq. +miles. The water is very clear and the lake abounds in fish.--_Bear Lake +River_, the outlet at the S.W. extremity of Great Bear Lake, runs S.W. for +70 miles and joins the Mackenzie River. + +BEARN (b[=a]-[.a]r), one of the provinces into which France was formerly +divided, now chiefly included in the department of Lower Pyrenees. Pau is +the chief town (pop. 35,000). There is a peculiar and well-marked +dialect--the Bearnese--spoken in this district, which has much more +affinity with Spanish than with French. + +BEAR-PIT, a deep, open pit with perpendicular walls, built in a zoological +garden for keeping bears, and having in the centre a pole on which they may +exercise their climbing powers. + +BEAR RIVER, a river of the United States, 400 miles long; rises in the +north of Utah, and flows northward into Idaho; turns abruptly southward, +re-enters Utah, and empties into Great Salt Lake. + +BEARS AND BULLS. See _Stock Exchange_. + +BEAR'S-GREASE, the fat of bears, esteemed as of great efficacy in +nourishing and promoting the growth of hair. The unguents sold under this +name, however, are in a great measure made of hog's lard or veal fat, or a +mixture of both, scented and slightly coloured. + +BEAS, river of India. See _Bias_. + +BEAT, in acoustics and music, the beating or pulsation resulting from the +joint vibrations of two sounds of the same strength, and all but in unison. +Also a short shake or transient grace-note struck immediately before the +note it is intended to ornament. The word is also used for the movement of +the hand or baton, by which the rhythm of a piece of music is indicated, +and by which a conductor ensures perfect agreement in tempo and accent on +the part of the orchestra or chorus. + +BEATH (b[=e]th), a populous parish of Fifeshire, Scotland, containing the +towns of Cowdenbeath, Kelty, and Hill of Beath. Pop. 24,350, (Cowdenbeath +having 7908). + +BEATIFICATION, in the Roman Catholic Church, an act by which the Pope +declares a person beatified or blessed after his death. It is the first +step to canonization, that is, the raising one to the honour and dignity of +a saint. No person can be beatified till fifty years after his or her +death. All certificates or attestations of virtues and miracles, the +necessary qualifications for saintship, are examined by the Congregation of +Rites. This examination often continues for several years; after which his +Holiness decrees the beatification, and the corpse and relics of the future +saint are exposed to the veneration of all good Christians. The present +custom dates from a Bull of Urban VIII in 1634, although local veneration +may be traced back to the earliest Christian ages.--In the Orthodox Eastern +Church beatification is not distinguished from canonization. + +BEATING THE BOUNDS, the periodical survey or perambulation by which the +boundaries of parishes in England are preserved. It was the custom in some +places that the clergyman of the parish, with the parochial officers and +the boys of the parish school, should march to the boundaries, where the +boys were struck with willow rods. A similar ceremony in Scotland was +called _riding the marches_. + +BEA'TON, David, Archbishop of St. Andrews, and cardinal, born 1494. Pope +Paul III raised him to the rank of cardinal in Dec., 1538. On the death of +his uncle, Archbishop James Beaton, he succeeded him in the see of St. +Andrews in 1539. After the accession of Mary he became Chancellor of +Scotland, and distinguished himself by his zeal in persecuting members of +the Reformed party, among the rest the famous Protestant preacher George +Wishart, whose sufferings at the stake he viewed from his window with +apparent exultation. At length a conspiracy was formed against him, and he +was assassinated at his own castle of St. Andrews, on the 29th May, 1546. +His private character was marked by pride, cruelty, and licentiousness. + +BEATRICE PORTINARI (b[=a]-[.a]-tr[=e]'ch[=a] por-t[=e]-nae'r[=e]), the +"glorious lady" of Dante, born about 1266, died 1290; the daughter of a +wealthy citizen of Florence, and wife of Simone de Bardi. She was but eight +years of age, and Dante nine, when he met her first at the house of her +father. He altogether saw her only once or twice, and she probably knew +little of him. The story of his love is recounted in the _Vita Nuova_, +which was mostly written after her death. + +BEATTIE (b[=e]'ti), James, a Scottish poet and philosophical writer, born +at Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire, in 1735, died at Aberdeen 1803. He +studied at Marischal College, Aberdeen, for four years, and received the +M.A. degree. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster at Fordoun, a few miles +from his native place; from whence he obtained a mastership in the Grammar +School of Aberdeen, and ultimately was installed professor of moral +philosophy and logic in Marischal College. In 1760 he published a volume of +poems, which he subsequently endeavoured to buy up, considering them +unworthy of him. In 1765 he published a poem, _The Judgment of Paris_, and +in 1770 his celebrated _Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth_, +attacking Helvetius and Hume and advocating what was afterwards called the +doctrine of Common Sense, for which the University of Oxford conferred on +him the degree of D.C.L., and George III honoured him, when on a visit to +London, with a private conference and a pension. He next published in 1771 +the first book of his poem _The Minstrel_, and in 1774 the second; this is +the only work by which he is now remembered. In 1776 he published +dissertations on _Poetry and Music_, _Laughter and Ludicrous Composition_, +&c.; in 1783 _Dissertations, Moral and Critical_; in 1786 _Evidences of the +Christian Religion_; and in 1790-3 _Elements of Moral Science_. His closing +years were darkened by the death of his two sons.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Margaret +Forbes, _Beattie and His Friends_; A. Mackie, _James Beattie, the Minstrel: +Some Unpublished Letters_. + +BEATTIE, William, M.D., Scottish physician, poet, and miscellaneous writer, +born in 1793, died at London 1875. He was author of the standard _Life of +Thomas Campbell_, whose intimate friend he was; published several poems, +including _John Huss_, _The Heliotrope_, and _Polynesia_; wrote a series of +descriptive and historical works, beautifully illustrated by his friend and +fellow-traveller, W. H. Bartlett, on Switzerland, Scotland, &c. He had a +very extensive and lucrative medical practice. + +BEATTY, Admiral of the Fleet, Earl, born in 1871. He entered the navy in +1884, became Commander in 1898, Rear-Admiral in 1910, and Vice-Admiral in +1915. He served in the Sudan from 1896 to 1897, and in China in 1900. In +1912 he was Naval Secretary to the First Lord of the Admiralty, and from +1912 to 1916 commanded the First Battle Cruiser Squadron. He distinguished +himself in the battle of Jutland in 1916, and until 1919, when he succeeded +Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss (now Lord Wester Wemyss) as First Sea Lord, he +was in command of the Grand Fleet. When the entire German High Seas Fleet +left port on 31st May, 1916, and steamed up the west coast of Denmark, it +was quickly sighted by the British scouts, so that the main British fleet +immediately steamed out from its base to engage the enemy. The British +Battle Cruiser Squadron, under the command of Earl Beatty (then Sir David) +was nearer the scene than the main battle fleet under Sir John Jellicoe +(Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa since 1918). The admiral sighted the enemy +fleet north-west of the Horn Reef, and about 3.30 in the afternoon the +ships engaged. The Jutland battle lasted only a few hours. At the end of +Nov., 1916, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe was made First Sea Lord of the +Admiralty, and Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty took over the supreme command +of the Grand Fleet. + +He is a D.S.O., an O.M., a G.C.B., a G.C.V.O., and a Grand Officer of the +French Legion of Honour. He was knighted in 1914, and received a grant of +L100,000 in Aug., 1919, when he was created an earl. He was elected Lord +Rector of Edinburgh University in 1917. + +BEAUCAIRE (b[=o]-k[=a]r), a small commercial city of Southern France, +department Gard, on the Rhone opposite Tarascon, with which it communicates +by a fine suspension-bridge. It is chiefly famous for its great fair +(founded in 1217), held yearly from the 21st to the 28th July. Pop. 8488. + +BEAUCHAMP (b[=o]-shaen), Alphonse de, French historian and publicist, born +at Mon[)a]co 1767, died at Paris 1832. Under the Directory he had the +surveillance of the press, a position which supplied him with materials for +his _History of La Vendee_. He contributed to the _Moniteur_ and the +_Gazette de France_. Among his chief works are the _History of the Conquest +of Peru_, the _History of Brazil_, and the _Life of Louis XVIII_. The +_Memoires de Fouche_ is also with good reason ascribed to him. + +BEAUFORT, (b[=o]'fort), Henry, cardinal, natural son of John of Gaunt and +half-brother of Henry IV, King of England, born 1377, died 1447; was made +Bishop of Lincoln, whence he was translated to Winchester. He repeatedly +filled the office of Lord Chancellor, and took part in all the most +important political movements of his times. + +BEAUFORT SCALE. See _Wind Scale_; _Navigation_. + +BEAUFORT WEST, a town of Cape Province, capital of the division of that +name, 339 miles by railway north-east of Cape Town, well built and well +supplied with water, though in a district with a small rainfall, and +chiefly yielding wool. It is a popular health resort. Pop. 4530. + +BEAUGENCY (b[=o]-zh[.a][n.]-s[=e]), an ancient town, France, department +Loiret, on the Loire, of some historical interest. General Chanzy was +defeated there by the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg, 7th-8th Dec., 1870. Pop. +3532. + +BEAUHARNAIS (b[=o]-[.a]r-n[=a]), Alexandre, Viscount, was born in 1760 in +Martinique. He married Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie, who was afterwards +the wife of Napoleon. At the breaking out of the French Revolution he was +chosen a member of the National Assembly, of which he was for some time +president. In 1792 he was general of the army of the Rhine. He was falsely +accused of having promoted the surrender of Mainz, and was sentenced to +death 23rd July, 1794. + +BEAUHARNAIS, Eugene de, Duke of Leuchtenberg, Prince of Eichstaedt, and +Viceroy of Italy during the reign of Napoleon, was born 1781, died at +Munich 1824. He was the son of Alexandre Beauharnais and Josephine, +afterwards wife of Napoleon and Empress of France. After his father's death +he joined Hoche in La Vendee, and subsequently studied for a time in Paris. +He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt in 1798, rose rapidly in the army, was +appointed Viceroy of Italy in 1805, and married a daughter of the King of +Bavaria in 1806. He administered the government of Italy with great +prudence and moderation, and was much beloved by his subjects. In the +Russian campaign he commanded the third _corps d'armee_, and greatly +distinguished himself. To him and to Ney France was mainly indebted for the +preservation of the remains of her army during the retreat from Moscow. +After the battle of Luetzen of 2nd May, 1813, where, by surrounding the +right wing of the enemy, he decided the fate of the day, he went to Italy, +which he defended against the Austrians until the deposition of Napoleon. +After the fall of Napoleon he concluded an armistice, by which he delivered +Lombardy and all Upper Italy to the Austrians. He then went immediately to +Paris, and thence to his father-in-law at Munich, where he afterwards +resided.--His sister, Hortense Eugenie, Queen of Holland, was born in 1783, +died in 1837. She became Queen of Holland by marrying Louis Bonaparte, and +after Louis's abdication of the throne she lived apart from him. She wrote +several excellent songs, and composed some deservedly popular airs, among +others the well-known _Partant pour la Syrie_. Napoleon III was her third +and youngest son. + +BEAULY (b[=u]'li), a small seaport of Scotland, Inverness-shire, near the +mouth of the River Beauly, which enters the Beauly Firth, a sea loch +branching off from Inverness Firth, with interesting ruins of an old +priory. Pop. 882. + +BEAUMARCHAIS (b[=o]-maer-sh[=a]), Pierre Augustin Caron de, a French wit +and dramatist, was born at Paris in 1732, died 1799. He was the son of a +watchmaker named Caron, whose trade he practised for a time. He early gave +striking proofs of his mechanical and also of his musical talents; attained +proficiency as a player on the guitar and harp, and was appointed +harp-master to the daughters of Louis XV. By a rich marriage (after which +he added 'de Beaumarchais' to his name) he laid the foundation of the +immense wealth which he afterwards accumulated by his speculations, and +which was also increased by a second marriage. In the meantime he occupied +himself with literature, and published two dramas--_Eugenie_ in 1767 and +_Les Deux Amis_ in 1770. He first really distinguished himself by his +_Memoires_ (Paris, 1774), or statements in connection with a lawsuit, which +by their wit, satire, and liveliness entertained all France. The _Barber of +Seville_ (1775) and the _Marriage of Figaro_ (1784) have given him a +permanent reputation. His last work was _Mes Six Epoques_, in which he +relates the dangers to which he was exposed in the revolution. He lost +about a million livres by his edition of the works of Voltaire (1785), and +still more at the end of 1792 by his attempt to provide the French army +with 60,000 muskets. He was a singular instance of versatility of talent, +being at once an artist, politician, projector, merchant, and +dramatist.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. de Lomenie, _Beaumarchais et son temps_ +(English translation by H. S. Edwards); Gudin de la Brenellerie, _Histoire +de Beaumarchais_. + +BEAUMARIS (b[=o]-ma'ris), a seaport town, North Wales, Isle of Anglesey, on +the Menai Strait. It is a favourite watering-place, and contains the +remains of a castle built by Edward I about 1295. Pop. (1921), 1839. + +BEAUMONT, a city of the United States, in Eastern Texas, in a region rich +in cotton, timber, and petroleum, and an important railway centre. Pop. +28,851. + +BEAUMONT (b[=o]'mont), Francis, and FLETCHER, John, two eminent English +dramatic writers, contemporaries of Shakespeare, and the most famous of +literary partners. The former, son of a common-pleas judge, was born at +Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, in 1584, died in 1616, and was buried in +Westminster Abbey. At the age of sixteen he published a translation, in +verse, of Ovid's _Fable of Salmacis and Hermaphroditus_, and before +nineteen became the friend of Ben Jonson. With Fletcher also he was early +on terms of friendship. He married Ursula, daughter of Henry Isley of +Sundridge, in Kent, by whom he left two daughters.--_John Fletcher_ was +born at Rye, Sussex, in 1579. His father was successively Dean of +Peterborough, Bishop of Bristol, Worcester, and London. _The Woman Hater_, +produced in 1606-7, is the earliest work known to exist in which he had a +hand. It does not appear that he was ever married. He died in London of the +plague, Aug., 1625, and was buried at St. Saviour's, Southwark. The +friendship of Beaumont and Fletcher, like their literary partnership, was +singularly close; they lived in the same house, and are said to have even +had their clothes in common. The works that pass under their names consist +of over fifty plays, a masque, and some minor poems. It is believed that +all the minor poems except one were written by Beaumont. After the death of +Beaumont, Fletcher continued to write plays alone or with other dramatists. +It is now difficult, if not indeed impossible, to determine with certainty +the respective shares of the two poets in the plays passing under their +names. According to the testimony of some of their contemporaries, Beaumont +possessed the deeper and more thoughtful genius, Fletcher the gayer and +more idyllic. _Four Plays in One_, _Wit at Several Weapons_, _Thierry and +Theodoret_, _Maid's Tragedy_, _Philaster_, _King and no King_, _Knight of +the Burning Pestle_, _Cupid's Revenge_, _Little French Lawyer_, _Scornful +Lady_, _Coxcomb_, and _Laws of Candy_ have been assigned to Beaumont and +Fletcher conjointly. To Beaumont alone--_The Masque of the Inner Temple and +Gray's Inn_. To Fletcher alone--_The Faithful Shepherdess_, _Woman Hater_, +_Loyal Subject_, _Mad Lover_, _Valentinian_, _Double Marriage_, _Humorous +Lieutenant_, _Island Princess_, _Pilgrim_, _Wild-goose Chase_, _Spanish +Curate_, _Beggar's Bush_, _Rule a Wife and Have a Wife_, _Fair Maid of the +Inn_, &c. To Fletcher and Rowley--_Queen of Corinth_, _Maid of the Mill_, +and _Bloody Brother_. To Fletcher and Massinger--_False One_ and _Very +Woman_. To Fletcher and Shirley--_Noble Gentleman_, _Night-walker_, and +_Love's Pilgrimage_. To Fletcher and Shakespeare--_Two Noble +Kinsmen_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. C. Macaulay, _Francis Beaumont, a Critical +Study_; Sir A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_ (vol. ii). + +BEAUMONT, Sir George, born of an ancient family in Leicestershire in 1753, +died 1827. He possessed considerable skill as a landscape-painter, but was +noted more especially as a munificent patron of the arts. The establishment +of the National Gallery was mainly owing to his exertions. He was a friend +of Wordsworth, who dedicated to him the 1815 edition of his Poems. + +BEAUMONT, Sir John, born 1582, died 1627, brother of Francis Beaumont the +dramatist; was author of _Bosworth Field_, an historical poem, and various +sacred and other poems. A poem in eight books, called _The Crown of +Thorns_, has been lost. + +BEAUMONT, Joseph, D.D., born 1615, died 1699; descended from an old +Leicestershire family. In 1663 he became master of Peterhouse, Cambridge. +He wrote _Psyche, or Love's Mystery_, a poem once very popular, and an +attack on Henry More's _Mystery of Godliness_, for which he received the +thanks of the university. + +BEAUMONT, William, M.D., an American surgeon, born 1785, died 1853. His +experiments on digestion with the Canadian St. Martin, who lived for years +after receiving a gunshot wound in the stomach which left an aperture of +about two inches in diameter, were of great importance to physiological +science. + +BEAUMONT-HAMEL, village of France, department Somme, the scene of fierce +fighting in 1918. See _Somme, Battles of the_. + +BEAUNE (b[=o]n), a town, France, department Cote d'Or, 23 miles S.S.W. of +Dijon, well built, with handsome church, public library, museum, &c., and a +trade in the fine Burgundy and other wines of the district. Pop. 13,409. + +BEAUNE (b[=o]n), Florimond, a distinguished mathematician and friend of +Descartes, born at Blois 1601, died at the same place 1652. He may be +regarded as the originator of the integral calculus. + +BEAUREGARD (b[=o]'r[.e]-g[.a]rd), Pierre Gustavus Toutant, a general of the +Confederate troops in the American Civil War, born in 1818 near New +Orleans. He studied at the military academy, West Point, and left it as +artillery lieutenant in 1838. He served in the Mexican War, and on the +outbreak of the Civil War joined the Confederates. He commanded at the +bombardment of Fort Sumter, gained the battle of Bull Run, lost that of +Shiloh, assisted in the defence of Charleston, and aided Lee in that of +Richmond. He was the author of _Principles and Maxims of the Art of War_ +(1863). He died in 1893. + +BEAUSOBRE (b[=o]-s[=o]-br), Isaac, born in 1659 at Niort, in France, died +at Berlin 1738. In 1683 he became Protestant minister of +Chatillon-sur-Indre, but was compelled by persecution to go into exile in +1685. In 1694 he became minister to French Protestants at Berlin. He +enjoyed much of the favour both of Frederick William I and of the Crown +Prince, afterwards Frederick the Great, and died in 1738. His most +remarkable work is the _Histoire Critique de Manichee et du Manicheisme_ +(1734). + +BEAUVAIS (b[=o]-v[=a]; ancient, _Bellovacum_), a town, France, capital of +the department of Oise, at the confluence of the Avelon with the Therain, +43 miles north of Paris, poorly built, but with some fine edifices, the +choir of the uncompleted cathedral being one of the finest specimens of +Gothic architecture in France. In 1472 Beauvais resisted an army of 80,000 +Burgundians under Charles the Bold. On this occasion the women particularly +distinguished themselves, and one of them, Jeanne Laine, called La +Hachette, seeing a soldier planting a standard on the wall, seized it and +hurled him to the ground. The banner is preserved in the town hall, and an +annual procession of young girls commemorates the deed. Manufactures: +tapestry and carpets, trimmings, woollen cloth, cottons, &c. Pop. 20,250. + +[Illustration: Beavers (_Castor fiber_)] + +BEAVER, the largest rodent quadruped now existing in the northern +hemisphere, about 2 feet in length exclusive of the tail, genus Castor (_C. +fiber_), is now found in considerable numbers only in North America, living +in colonies, but occurring solitary in Central Europe and Asia. It has +short ears, a blunt nose, small fore-feet, large webbed hind-feet, with a +flat ovate tail covered with scales on its upper surface. It is valued for +its fur, which used to be largely employed in the manufacture of hats, but +for which silk is now for the most part substituted, and for an odoriferous +secretion named castor, at one time in high repute, and still largely used +in some parts of the world as an antispasmodic medicine. The food of the +beaver consists of the bark of trees, leaves, roots, and berries. Their +favourite haunts are rivers and lakes which are bordered by forests. In +winter they live in houses, which are 3 to 4 feet high, are built on the +water's edge, and, being substantial structures with the entrance under +water, afford them protection from wolves and other wild animals. These +dwellings are called beaver 'lodges', and accommodate a single family. They +also live in burrows. They can gnaw through large trees with their strong +teeth, this being done partly to obtain food, partly to get materials for +houses or dam-building. When they find a stream not sufficiently deep for +their purpose, they throw across it a dam constructed with great ingenuity +of wood, stones, and mud. Beavers were fairly numerous in Britain in very +early times, at least in Scotland and Wales. Their existence has been +recorded in Wales till the thirteenth century, and in Scotland to a later +date, but they are now extinct in Britain. A colony was some years ago +introduced into the Island of Bute, but they died out again.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: +Harting, _British Animals Extinct within Historic Times_; E. A. Mills, _In +Beaver World_; A. A. R. Dugmore, _The Romance of the Beaver_. + +BEAVER (from Fr. _baviere_, a child's bib, from _bave_, saliva), the +movable face-guard of a helmet, so fitted on as to be raised and lowered at +pleasure. + +BEAVER FALLS, a town of the United States, Pennsylvania, on Beaver River, +30 miles north-west of Pittsburg, in the coal and natural-gas region. Pop. +12,191. + +BEAVER-RAT (_Hydromys chrysogaster_), a Tasmanian rodent quadruped, +inhabiting the banks both of salt and fresh waters. They are admirable +swimmers and divers, and exceedingly shy. + +BEBEE'RU. See _Greenheart_. + +BEBEL (b[=a]'bl), Ferdinand August, German Socialist, born in 1840, died in +1913. He became a master turner in Leipzig, was elected to the Reichstag or +Diet of the new German Empire in 1871, in which he was prominent until his +death. He opposed the leadership of Prussia in Germany and the +establishment of the empire, and showed himself favourable to the Paris +Commune and the International. Found guilty of treasonable practices, he +was condemned to two years' imprisonment in a fortress in 1872, with six +months' ordinary imprisonment for insulting the Kaiser. His influence kept +on increasing as leader of the Social Democrats in Germany and in the +German Parliament, where he spoke strongly against militarism and the +emperor's naval policy. His works include _Die Frau und der Socialismus_ +(Woman and Socialism), in which he went so far as to attack marriage as an +institution; _Die Socialdemokratic und das allgemeine wahlrecht_; _Fuer +Volkswehr gegen Militarismus_; _Aus meinem Leben_; &c. + +BEC, a celebrated abbey of France, in Normandy, near Brionne, founded in +the eleventh century, now represented only by some ruins. Lanfranc and +Anselm were both connected with this abbey. + +BECCAFI'CO, a European bird (_Sylvia hortensis_), the garden-warbler. These +birds are much esteemed as dainties in the autumn, when they have fattened +on figs and grapes. + +BECCAFU'MI, Domen'ico, Italian painter, born near Sienna in the latter half +of the fifteenth century, enriched the churches of Sienna with many noble +frescoes and other paintings. He drew and coloured well, and possessed +strong inventive powers. He died at Sienna in 1551, and was buried in its +cathedral. + +BECCARIA (bek-[.a]-r[=e]'[.a]), Cesare Bonesana, Marchese di, Italian +economist and writer on penal laws, born 1738, died 1794. He is principally +known from his treatise, _On Crimes and Punishments_, which was speedily +translated into various languages, and to which many of the reforms in the +penal codes of the principal European nations are traceable. He became +professor of political economy at Milan, where he died. + +BECCARIA (bek-[.a]-r[=e]'[.a]), Giovanni Battista, an Italian natural +philosopher, born 1716, died 1781; was appointed professor of experimental +physics at Turin, 1748; author of a treatise on _Natural and Artificial +Electricity_, _Letters on Electricity_, &c. He contributed several articles +to the _Transactions of the Royal Society of London_, and was commissioned +in 1759 to measure an arc of the meridian in the neighbourhood of Turin. + +BECCLES (bek'lz), a municipal borough in Suffolk, England, 33 miles N.N.E. +from Ipswich, on the right bank of the Waveney; has a fine church of the +fourteenth century, and a good trade coastwise. Pop. (1921), 7077. + +BECELAERE, town of Belgium, province of West Flanders. It was the scene of +fighting in the third battle of Ypres (1917), and in the battle of Flanders +(1918). + +BECERRA (be-ther'[.a]), Gaspar, Spanish painter and sculptor, born 1520, +died 1570. He studied under Michel Angelo at Rome, and is credited with the +chief share in the establishment of the fine arts in Spain. + +BECHE (b[=a]sh), Sir Henry de Ia, an English geologist, born 1796, died +1855. He founded the geological survey of Great Britain, which was soon +undertaken by the Government, De la Beche being appointed director-general. +He also founded the Jermyn Street Museum of Economic or Practical Geology, +and the School of Mines. His principal works are: _Geology of Jamaica_, +_Classification of European Rocks_, _Geological Manual_, _Researches in +Theoretical Geology_, _Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset_, &c. + +BECHE-DE-MER (b[=a]sh-d[=e]-m[=a]r). See _Trepang_. + +BECHER (be_h_'er), Johann Joachim, German chemist, born in 1625 or 1635, +died in London 1682. He became a professor at Mainz; was elected a member +of the Imperial Council at Vienna, 1660, but fell into disgrace and +subsequently resided in various parts of Germany, Holland, Italy, Sweden, +and Great Britain. His chief work, _Physica Subterranea_, containing many +of the fanciful theories of the alchemists, was published in 1669, and +enlarged in 1681. Among his other works are _Laboratorium portabile_ and +_Alphabetum minerale_. + +BECHSTEIN (be_h_'st[=i]n), Johann Matthaeus, German naturalist, born in +1757, died in 1822. He wrote a popular _Natural History of Germany_, and +various works on forestry, in which subject his labours were highly +valuable. In Britain he is best known by a treatise on cage birds. + +BECHUANAS, or BETCHUANAS (bech-wan'az), a widely-spread race of people +inhabiting the central region of South Africa north of Cape Province. They +belong to the great Kaffir stem, and are divided into tribal sections. They +live chiefly by husbandry and cattle-rearing, and they work with some skill +in iron, copper, ivory, and skins. They were led to seek British protection +owing to the encroachments of the Boers. The southern portion of their +territory was first placed under British protection in 1885, and +subsequently the whole Bechuana country up to the Zambezi was annexed. In +1895 the southern portion (then a Crown colony) was united to the Cape +Colony; the remainder is still a protectorate partly under native chiefs. +The head-quarters of the British administration are at Mafeking in the Cape +Province. Bechuanaland Protectorate comprises the territory lying between +the Molopo River on the south and the Zambezi on the north, and extending +from the Transvaal Province and Matabeleland on the east to South-West +Africa; area, 275,000 sq. miles; pop. 125,350, of whom about 1700 are +Europeans. It is generally flat or slightly undulating, and is essentially +a grass country, the grasses being nutritious and standing drought well. +Surface water is scarce, but there is underground water, besides swampy +lakes such as Ngami. Some parts are wooded and well watered. Gold, coal, +and copper have been found. There is railway connection both with south and +north.--Cf. G. W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_. + +BECK CASE, THE, a celebrated case of mistaken identity, which involved a +grave miscarriage of justice. Adolf Beck, a Swede, had been sentenced in +1890 to seven years' penal servitude for a series of mean frauds committed +against some women, and in 1904 he was again convicted and sentenced for a +similar offence. Soon after his second trial a Jew named John Smith, who +had been convicted of fraudulency in 1877, was arrested for similar frauds +committed while Beck was in custody. The resemblance between the two men +was remarkable, and it was eventually discovered that Beck was entirely +innocent. He received two King's pardons, and the sum of L5000 from the +Home Office as compensation. A commission which considered the case drew +attention in its report to the carelessness of the police in identifying +Beck with Smith, though the latter was a Jew; and stated that further legal +training was desirable for the subordinate officials in the Home Office. +Beck died in poverty in 1909. Cf. J. Kempster, _Perversion of Justice as +exhibited in the Beck Case_. + +BECKENHAM, a suburban locality on the south of London, in West Kent, now +forming an urban district, lying south of Sydenham. Pop. 33,350. + +BECK'ER, Wilhelm Adolf, German archaeologist, born at Dresden 1796, died at +Meissen 1846. In 1828 he became a teacher at Meissen, in 1837 was appointed +extraordinary professor of classical archaeology at Leipzig, and in 1842 +ordinary professor. Best-known works: _Gallus, or Roman Scenes of the Time +of Augustus_; and _Charicles, or Illustrations of the Life of the Ancient +Greeks_, which wonderfully reproduce the social life of old Rome and +Greece. + +BECK'ET, Thomas (the form A Becket is also common), Archbishop of +Canterbury, born in London 1117 or 1119, assassinated in Canterbury +Cathedral, 29th Dec., 1170. He was educated at Oxford and Paris, and was +sent, by the favour of Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, to study civil +law at Bologna in Italy, and on his return made Archdeacon of Canterbury +and Provost of Beverley. In 1158 Henry II appointed him High Chancellor and +preceptor to his son, Prince Henry--the first instance after the Conquest +of a high office being filled by a native Englishman. At this period he was +a complete courtier, conforming in every respect to the humour of the king. +He was, in fact, the king's prime companion, held splendid levees, and +courted popular applause. On the death of Theobald, 1162, he was +consecrated archbishop, when he affected an extraordinary austerity of +character, and appeared as a zealous champion of the Church against the +aggressions of the king, whose policy was to have the clergy in +subordination to the civil power. Becket was forced to assent to the +Constitutions of Clarendon, but a series of bitter conflicts with the king +followed, ending in Becket's flight to France, when he appealed to the +Pope, by whom he was supported. After much negotiation a sort of +reconciliation took place in 1170, and Becket returned to England, resumed +his office, and renewed his defiance of the royal authority. A rash hint +from the king induced four barons, Reginald Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy, +Hugh de Morville, and Richard Breto, to go to Canterbury and murder the +archbishop while at vespers in the cathedral. He was canonized in 1172 by +Pope Alexander III, and the splendid shrine erected at Canterbury for his +remains was, for three centuries, a favourite place of +pilgrimage.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. Robertson and J. B. Sheppard, _Materials +for the History of Archbishop Becket_ (Rolls Series); Canon Morris, _Life +and Martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket_; Lhuillier, _Saint Thomas de +Cantorbery_; Abbott, _St. Thomas of Canterbury, His Death and His +Miracles_. + +BECKETT, Gilbert Abbot A. See _A Beckett_. + +BECK'FORD, William, an English writer famous in his time for his immense +wealth and his eccentricities. He was born at Fonthill, his father's estate +in Wiltshire, in 1759. In 1770 the death of his father left him in the +possession of L1,000,000 of money, and an income of L100,000 a year. He +travelled much, and for some time lived in Portugal. He expended an +enormous sum in building and rebuilding Fonthill Abbey, near Salisbury, +which he filled with rare and expensive works of art. Here he lived in +seclusion for twenty years. In 1822 the abbey and greater part of its +contents were sold, and he retired to Bath, where, with a much-diminished +fortune, but one amply sufficient, he lived till 1844. His literary fame +rests upon his Eastern tale _The History of the Caliph Vathek_, which he +wrote in French, and a translation of which by the Rev. Samuel Henley +appeared at London in 1786. The tale is still much read, and was highly +commended by Lord Byron. He had two daughters, one of whom became Duchess +of Hamilton, and brought his valuable library to this family.--_William +Beckford_, his father, a London merchant and West Indian proprietor, was +famous for a spirited speech made to George III when Lord Mayor of +London.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cyrus Redding, _Memoir_; R. Garnett, _Vathek_ (with +a critical essay); Melville, _The Life and Letters of William Beckford of +Fonthill_. + +BECKMANN, Johann, German writer on the industrial arts and agriculture, +born 1739, died 1811. He was for a short time professor of physics and +natural history at Petrograd, and afterwards for almost forty-five years +professor of philosophy and economy in Goettingen. His _History of +Inventions_ is well known in the English translation of it. This work +entitled the author to be regarded as the founder of scientific technology. + +BECKX (beks), Pierre Jean, general of the order of Jesuits, born near +Louvain, Belgium, 1795, died 1887. The success of the Jesuits, especially +in non-Catholic countries, was greatly due to his tact and energy. + +BECQUEREL (bek-rel), Antoine Cesar, French physicist, born 1788, died 1878. +He served as an officer of engineers, and retired in 1815, after which he +devoted himself to the study of electricity, especially electro-chemistry. +In 1837 he was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London. He +refuted the 'theory of contact' by which Volta explained the action of his +pile or battery. Becquerel may be considered one of the creators of +electro-chemistry.--His son, Alexandre Edmond (1820-91), was associated +with him in much of his work. He was the author of a work _La Lumiere, ses +causes et ses effets_ (1867-8). + +BECQUEREL RAYS (bek-rel), the rays given out by radium and other +'radioactive' substances, so named from their discoverer, the French +physicist, Henri Becquerel (born 1852, died 1908), son of Alexandre Edmond +Becquerel. They were first detected in 1896, as proceeding from uranium +salts; and it is only by uranium, thorium, radium, and one or two other +elements that they are emitted, these bodies giving them out spontaneously +and without any apparent loss of radioactive power or change of any kind. +The Becquerel rays are invisible, and only known by their effects, which +are of various kinds: thus, like the Roentgen rays, they blacken a +photographic plate, even after passing through glass or other intervening +substances; they cause a number of different substances to give out a +fluorescent light, and they render air a conductor of electricity. Like the +Roentgen rays, they act strongly on the human skin. They consist of a +mixture of [alpha]-, [beta]-, and [gamma]-rays. See _Radio-activity_; +_Radium_. + +BECSE (bech'e), OLD, a town of Hungary, 48 miles S. of Szegedin, on the +right bank of the Theiss. Pop. 19,000.--NEW BECSE, a market-town on the +left bank of the Theiss, 5 miles E. of Old Becse. Pop. 7725, or, with the +immediately adjoining village of Franyova, about 15,000. Both towns carry +on an extensive trade in grain. + +BECSKEREK (bech'ke-rek), two towns of South Hungary.--_Great Becskerek_, +now in Yugo-Slavia, is on the Bega, 45 miles N. of Belgrade, with which it +communicates by the Bega Canal. Trade in cattle and agricultural produce. +Pop. 26,407.--_Little Becskerek_, now belonging to Roumania, is 11 miles by +railway from Temesvar. Pop. 3660. + +BED, BEDSTEAD, an article of furniture to sleep or rest on. The term _bed_ +properly is applied to a large flat bag filled with feathers, down, wool, +or other soft material, and also to a mattress supported on spiral springs +or form of elastic chains or wirework which is raised from the ground on a +bedstead. The term, however, sometimes includes the bedstead or frame for +supporting the bed. The forms of beds are necessarily very various--every +period and country having its own form of bed. Air-beds and water-beds are +much used by invalids. + +BED, in geology, a layer or stratum, usually a stratum of considerable +thickness. + +BEDA. See _Bede_. + +BEDARIEUX (b[=a]-daer-i-_eu_), a thriving town, Southern France, department +Herault, situated on the Orb. Pop. 6186. + +BED-BUG. See _Bug_. + +BED-CHAMBER, LORDS OF THE, officers of the royal household of Britain under +the Groom of the Stole. They are twelve in number, and wait a week each in +turn. In the case of a queen regnant these posts are occupied by ladies, +called _Ladies of the Bed-chamber_. + +BEDDOES (bed'[=o]z), Thomas, physician and author, born 1760; educated at +Oxford, London, and Edinburgh. After taking his doctor's degree, and +visiting Paris, he was appointed professor of chemistry at Oxford. There he +published some excellent chemical treatises, and essays upon such subjects +as the calculus, sea-scurvy, consumption, catarrh, and fever. His expressed +sympathy with the French revolutionists led to his retirement from his +professorship in 1792, soon after which he published his _Observations on +the Nature of Demonstrative Evidence_, and the exceedingly popular _History +of Isaac Jenkins_. In 1794 he married a sister of Maria Edgeworth; and in +1798, with the pecuniary aid of Wedgwood, opened a pneumatic institution +for curing phthisical and other diseases by inhalation of gases. It +speedily became an ordinary hospital, but was noteworthy as connected with +the discovery of the properties of nitrous oxide, and as having been +superintended by the young Humphry Davy. Beddoes' essays _On Consumption_ +(1779) and _On Fever_ (1807), and his _Hygeia_ (3 vols., 1807) had a high +contemporary repute. He died in 1808. + +BEDDOES, Thomas Lovell, poet, son of above, born 1803, died 1849; published +_The Bride's Tragedy_ while a student at Oxford, studied medicine, and +lived long abroad. His work was largely fragmentary, but his posthumous +_Death's Jest-book, or The Fool's Tragedy_ (1850), received the high praise +of such judges as Landor and Browning. His _Poems_, with memoir, appeared +in 1851. + +BEDE, BEDA, or BAEDA, known as the Venerable, English historian and +theologian, born in 672 or 673 in the neighbourhood of Monkwearmouth, +County Durham; educated at St. Peter's Monastery, Wearmouth; took deacon's +orders in his nineteenth year at St. Paul's Monastery, Jarrow, and was +ordained priest at thirty by John of Beverley, Bishop of Hexham. His life +was spent in studious seclusion, the chief events in it being the +production of homilies, hymns, lives of saints, commentaries, and works in +history, chronology, grammar, &c. He was the most learned Englishman of his +day, and in some sense the father of English history, his most important +work being his _Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_ (or _Ecclesiastical +History of England_), afterwards translated by King Alfred into +Anglo-Saxon. Besides his familiarity with Latin, he knew Greek and had some +acquaintance with Hebrew. Most of his writings were on scriptural and +ecclesiastical subjects, but he also wrote on chronology, physical science, +grammar, &c., and had considerable ability in the writing of Latin verse. +He died in 735, an interesting record of his closing days being preserved +in a letter by his pupil Cuthbert. His body was after a lapse of time +removed from Jarrow church to Durham, but of the shrine which formerly +enclosed them only the Latin inscription remains, ending with the +verse--'Hac sunt in fossa Bedae venerabilis ossa'. On 13th Nov., 1899, Leo +XIII decreed that the feast of the Venerable Bede should be celebrated in +the Church on 27th May. An edition of the whole works of Bede (12 vols.), +with an English translation, was prepared by Dr. Giles +(1843-4).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gehle. _De Bedae Venerabilis Vita et Scriptis_; +Browne, _The Venerable Bede_; C. Plummer's introduction to his edition of +the _Historia Ecclesiastica_. + +BEDEGUAR, or BEDEGAR (bed'e-gaer), a spongy excrescence or gall, sometimes +termed sweet-brier sponge, found on various species of roses, and produced +by several insects as receptacles for their eggs, especially by the _Cynips +rosae_, It was once thought to be a diuretic and vermifuge. + +BEDELL', William, a celebrated Irish bishop, born in Essex in 1570. In 1604 +he went to Venice as chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton, and remained eight +years. After holding the living of Horingsheath from 1615-27, he became +Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1629 Bishop of Kilmore and +Ardagh, though he resigned the latter of the united sees in 1630. He set +himself to reform abuses and promote the spread of Protestantism, procured +the translation of the Old Testament into Irish, and by his tact and wisdom +conciliated the adherents of both creeds. He underwent a brief imprisonment +on the breaking out of the rebellion in 1641, and died in the year +following. His biography was written by Bishop Burnet. + +BE'DER WARE. See _Bidery_. + +BED'FORD, a municipal and, until 1918, a parliamentary borough, England, +county town of Bedfordshire, on the Ouse. The chief buildings are the law +courts, a range of public schools, a large infirmary, county jail, &c., and +the churches. The town is rich in charities and educational institutions, +the most prominent being the Bedford Charity, embracing grammar and other +schools, and richly endowed. There is an extensive manufactory of +agricultural implements; lace is also made, and there is a good trade. John +Bunyan was born at Elstow, a village near the town, and it was at Bedford +that he lived, preached, and was imprisoned. Bedford gives its name to a +parliamentary division of the county. Pop. 40,247.--_Bedfordshire_ or +_Beds_, the county, is bounded by Northampton, Bucks, Herts, Cambridge, and +Huntingdon; area, 302,942 acres, of which 260,000 are under tillage or in +permanent pasture. Chalk hills, forming a portion of the Chilterns, cross +it on the south; north of this is a belt of sand; the soil of the vale of +Bedford, consisting mostly of clay and loam, is very fertile; and the +meadows on the Ouse, Ivel, and other streams furnish rich pasturage. +Two-thirds of the soil is under tillage. Besides the usual cereal and other +crops, culinary vegetables are extensively cultivated for the London +market. Principal manufactures: agricultural implements, and straw-plait +for hats, which is made up principally at Dunstable and Luton. The county +returns three members to Parliament (divisions: Bedford, Luton, Midlands). +Pop. (1921), 206,478. + +BEDFORD, John, Duke of, one of the younger sons of Henry IV, King of +England; famous as a statesman and a warrior. He defeated the French fleet +in 1416, commanded an expedition to Scotland in 1417, and was lieutenant of +England during the absence of Henry V in France. On the king's death he +became Regent of France, and for several years his policy was as successful +as it was able and vigorous, the victory of Verneuil in 1424 attesting his +generalship. The greatest stain on his memory is his execution of the Maid +of Orleans (Joan of Arc) in 1431. He died in 1435 at Rouen, and was buried +in the cathedral of that city. + +BEDFORD LEVEL, a large tract of marshy land in England, of about 400,000 +acres total area, comprising 63,000 in Norfolk, 30,000 in Suffolk, 50,000 +in Huntingdon, the Peterborough fen in Northampton, the Holland district in +Lincolnshire, and most of the Isle of Ely in Cambridge. It derives its name +from Francis, Earl of Bedford, who in 1634 made an agreement with Charles I +for the drainage of the Level, in consideration of receiving 95,000 acres +of the reclaimed land. A great part of the Level is under cultivation, and +produces grain, flax, and cole-seed; the remainder yields a winter harvest +of wild-fowl for the London market. See _Fenland_. + +BEDFORDSHIRE REGIMENT, THE, raised in 1688 on the approach of the Prince of +Orange, suffered severely at Blenheim, and distinguished itself in a marked +manner at the siege of Lille. In 1797 it went to Scotland and there +recruited 1000 'parish boys' under sixteen years old, who later made +excellent soldiers. The regiment shared in the Chitral and South African +(1900-2) campaigns; on going to the front in 1914, sustained heavy losses +at Givenchy, and distinguished itself at Ypres and the Aisne. + +BEDIVERE, the last knight of the Round Table (q.v.). See _Morte d'Arthur_. + +BED'LAM, a corruption of Bethlehem (Hospital), the name of a religious +house in London, converted, after the general suppression by Henry VIII, +into a hospital for lunatics. The original Bedlam stood in Bishopsgate +Street; its modern successor in St. George's Fields was opened in 1815, +having been built on the site of the notorious tavern called 'The Dog and +the Duck'. The lunatics were at one time treated as little better than wild +beasts, and hence Bedlam came to be typical of any scene of wild confusion. +The average number of patients is about 300. + +BED'LINGTON, a town and urban district of England, in Northumberland, near +the mouth of the Blyth, and not far from the seaport of Blyth, with +collieries, ironworks, &c. Pop. 25,440. + +BEDLINGTON TERRIER, an English Dog, deriving its name from Bedlington, in +Northumberland, having first become well known as a favourite among the +miners of that place. It is a dog of moderate size, head rather long, with +a light, silky tuft on top, ears hanging close to the cheeks, legs +moderately long and strong, tail tapering to the point, which is almost +bare; colour, dark blue, blue and tan, liver, liver and tan, sandy, or +sandy and tan; courageous, intelligent, and generally useful. + +BEDLIS. See _Betlis_. + +_Printed and bound in Great Britain_ + + * * * * * + + +Corrections made to printed original. + +Article Barthelmy-Saint-Hilaire. "Buddhism, Mohammed and Mohammedanism": +'Mohammedansim' in original. + +Article Baryta. "barium carbonate or witherite (BaCO_3)": 'BaCo_3' in +original. + +Article Bass. "from its voracity sea-wolf": 'it voracity' in original. + +Article Batoum. "in July, 1886, the Russian Government ...": 'Goverment' in +original. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 +Part 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENEYC. 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